PATENT ABSTRACT
A valve prosthesis which is especially useful in the case of aortic stenosis and capable of resisting the powerful recoil force and to stand the forceful balloon inflation performed to deploy the valve and to embed it in the aortic annulus, comprises a collapsible valvular structure and an expandable frame on which said valvular structure is mounted. The valvular structure is composed of physiologically compatible valvular tissue that is sufficiently supple and resistant to allow the valvular structure to be deformed from a closed state to an opened state. The valvular tissue forms a continuous surface and is provided with strut members that create stiffened zones which induce the valvular structure to follow a patterned movement in its expansion to its opened state and in its turning back to its closed state.

PATENT DESCRIPTION
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS  
       [0001]     This application is a continuation-in-part of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/139,741, filed May 2, 2002, which is a continuation of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/795,803, filed Feb. 28, 2001, now abandoned, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/345,824, filed Jun. 30, 1999, now abandoned, which is a National Phase filing of PCT patent application No. PCT/EP 97/07337, filed Dec. 31, 1997 and designating the United States, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION  
       [0002]     The present invention relates to a valve prosthesis for implantation in body channels, more particularly but not only to, cardiac valve prosthesis to be implanted by a transcutaneous catheterization technique.  
         [0003]     The valve prosthesis can be also applied to other body channels provided with native valves, such as veins or in organs (liver, intestine, urethra . . . . ).  
         [0004]     The present invention also relates to a method for implanting a valve prosthesis, such as the valve according to the present invention.  
         [0005]     Implantable valves, which will be indifferently designated hereafter as “IV”, “valve prosthesis” or “prosthetic valve”, permits the reparation of a valvular defect by a less invasive technique in place of the usual surgical valve implantation which, in the case of valvular heart diseases, requires thoracotomy and extracorporeal circulation. A particular use for the IV concerns patients who cannot be operated on because of an associated disease or because of very old age or also patients who could be operated on but only at a very high risk.  
         [0006]     Although the IV of the present invention and the process for implanting said IV can be used in various heart valve diseases, the following description will first concern the aortic orifice in aortic stenosis, more particularly in its degenerative form in elderly patients.  
         [0007]     Aortic stenosis is a disease of the aortic valve in the left ventricle of the heart. The aortic valvular orifice is normally capable of opening during systole up to 4 to 6 cm 2 , therefore allowing free ejection of the ventricular blood volume into the aorta. This aortic valvular orifice can become tightly stenosed, and therefore the blood cannot anymore be freely ejected from the left ventricle. In fact, only a reduced amount of blood can be ejected by the left ventricle which has to markedly increase the intra-cavitary pressure to force the stenosed aortic orifice. In such aortic diseases, the patients can have syncope, chest pain, and mainly difficulty in breathing. The evolution of such a disease is disastrous when symptoms of cardiac failure appear, since 50% of the patients die in the year following the first symptoms of the disease.  
         [0008]     The only commonly available treatment is the replacement of the stenosed aortic valve by a prosthetic valve via surgery: this treatment moreover providing excellent results. If surgery is impossible to perform, i.e., if the patient is deemed inoperable or operable only at a too high surgical risk, an alternative possibility is to dilate the valve with a balloon catheter to enlarge the aortic orifice. Unfortunately, a good result is obtained only in about half of the cases and there is a high restenosis rate, i.e., about 80% after one year.  
         [0009]     Aortic stenosis is a very common disease in people above seventy years old and occurs more and more frequently as the subject gets older. As evidenced, the present tendency of the general evolution of the population is becoming older and older. Also, it can be evaluated, as a crude estimation, that about 30 to 50% of the subjects who are older than 80 years and have a tight aortic stenosis, either cannot be operated on for aortic valve replacement with a reasonable surgical risk or even cannot be considered at all for surgery.  
         [0010]     It can be estimated that, about 30 to 40 persons out of a million per year, could benefit from an implantable aortic valve positioned by a catheterization technique. Until now, the implantation of a valve prosthesis for the treatment of aortic stenosis is considered unrealistic to perform since it is deemed difficult to superpose an implantable valve on the distorted stenosed native valve without excising the latter.  
         [0011]     From 1985, the technique of aortic valvuloplasty with a balloon catheter has been introduced for the treatment of subjects in whom surgery cannot be performed at all or which could be performed only with a prohibitive surgical risk. Despite the considerable deformation of the stenosed aortic valve, commonly with marked calcification, it is often possible to enlarge significantly the aortic orifice by balloon inflation, a procedure which is considered as low risk.  
         [0012]     However, this technique has been abandoned by most physicians because of the very high restenosis rate which occurs in about 80% of the patients within 10 to 12 months. Indeed, immediately after deflation of the balloon, a strong recoil phenomenon often produces a loss of half or even two thirds of the opening area obtained by the inflated balloon. For instance, inflation of a 20 mm diameter balloon in a stenosed aortic orifice of 0.5 cm 2  area gives, when forcefully and fully inflated, an opening area equal to the cross sectional area of the maximally inflated balloon, i.e., about 3 cm 2 . However, measurements performed a few minutes after deflation and removal of the balloon have only an area around 1 cm 2  to 1.2 cm 2 . This is due to the considerable recoil of the fibrous tissue of the diseased valve. The drawback in this procedure has also been clearly shown on fresh post mortem specimens.  
         [0013]     However, it is important to note that whereas the natural normal aortic valve is able to open with an orifice of about 5 to 6 cm 2  and to accommodate a blood flow of more than 15 liter/minute during heavy exercise for instance, an opening area of about 1.5 to 2 cm 2  can accept a 6 to 8 liter/minute blood flow without a significant pressure gradient. Such a flow corresponds to the cardiac output of the elderly subject with limited physical activity.  
         [0014]     Therefore, an IV would not have to produce a large opening of the aortic orifice since an opening about 2 cm 2  would be sufficient in most subjects, in particular in elderly subjects, whose cardiac output probably does not reach more than 6 to 8 liter/minute during normal physical activity. For instance, the surgically implanted mechanical valves have an opening area which is far from the natural valve opening that ranges from 2 to 2.5 cm 2 , mainly because of the room taken by the large circular structure supporting the valvular part of the device.  
         [0015]     The prior art describes examples of cardiac valves prosthesis that are aimed at being implanted without surgical intervention by way of catheterization. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,552 describes a collapsible valve able to be introduced in the body in a compressed presentation and expanded in the right position by balloon inflation.  
         [0016]     Such valves, with a semi-lunar leaflet design, tend to imitate the natural valve. However, this type of design is inherently fragile, and such structures are not strong enough to be used in the case of aortic stenosis because of the strong recoil that will distort this weak structure and because they would not be able to resist the balloon inflation performed to position the implantable valve. Furthermore, this valvular structure is attached to a metallic frame of thin wires that will not be able to be tightly secured against the valve annulus. The metallic frame of this implantable valve is made of thin wires like in stents, which are implanted in vessels after balloon dilatation. Such a light stent structure is too weak to allow the implantable valve to be forcefully embedded into the aortic annulus. Moreover, there is a high risk of massive regurgitation (during the diastolic phase) through the spaces between the frame wires which is another prohibitive risk that would make this implantable valve impossible to use in clinical practice.  
         [0017]     Furthermore, an important point in view of the development of the IV is that it is possible to maximally inflate a balloon placed inside the compressed implantable valve to expand it and insert it in the stenosed aortic valve up to about 20 to 23 mm in diameter. At the time of maximum balloon inflation, the balloon is absolutely stiff and cylindrical without any waist. At that moment, the implantable valve is squeezed and crushed between the strong aortic annulus and the rigid balloon with the risk of causing irreversible damage to the valvular structure of the implantable valve.  
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION  
       [0018]     The invention is aimed to overcome these drawbacks and to implant an IV which will remain reliable for years.  
         [0019]     A particular aim of the present invention is to provide an IV, especially aimed at being used in case of aortic stenosis, which structure is capable of resisting the powerful recoil force and to stand the forceful balloon inflation performed to deploy the IV and to embed it in the aortic annulus.  
         [0020]     Another aim of the present invention is to provide an efficient prosthesic valve which can be implanted by a catheterization technique, in particular in a stenosed aortic orifice, taking advantage of the strong structure made of the distorted stenosed valve and of the large opening area produced by preliminary balloon inflation, performed as an initial step of the procedure.  
         [0021]     A further aim of the present invention is to provide an implantable valve which would not produce any risk of fluid regurgitation.  
         [0022]     A further aim of the present invention is to provide a valve prosthesis implantation technique using a two-balloon catheter and a two-frame device.  
         [0023]     These aims are achieved according to the present invention which provides a valve prosthesis of the type mentioned in the introductory part and wherein said valve prosthesis comprises a collapsible continuous structure with guiding means providing stiffness and a frame to which said structure is fastened, said frame being strong enough to resist the recoil phenomenon of the fibrous tissue of the diseased valve.  
         [0024]     The IV, which is strongly embedded, enables the implantable valve to be maintained in the right position without any risk of further displacement, which would be a catastrophic event.  
         [0025]     More precisely, this valvular structure comprises a valvular tissue compatible with the human body and blood, which is supple and resistant to allow said valvular structure to pass from a closed state to an open state to allow a body fluid, more particularly the blood, exerting pressure on said valvular structure, to flow. The valvular tissue forms a continuous surface and is provided with guiding means formed or incorporated within, creating stiffened zones which induce the valvular structure to follow a patterned movement from its open position to its closed state and vice-versa, providing therefore a structure sufficiently rigid to prevent diversion, in particular into the left ventricle and thus preventing any regurgitation of blood into the left ventricle in case of aortic implantation.  
         [0026]     Moreover, the guided structure of the IV of the invention allows the tissue of this structure to open and close with the same patterned movement while occupying as little space as possible in the closed state of the valve. Therefore, owing to these guiding means, the valvular structure withstands the unceasing movements under blood pressure changes during the heart beats.  
         [0027]     More preferably, the valvular structure has a substantially truncated hyperboloidal shape in its expanded position, with a larger base and a growing closer neck, ending in a smaller extremity forming the upper part of the valvular structure. The valvular structure has a curvature at its surface that is concave towards the aortic wall. Such a shape produces a strong and efficient structure in view of the systolo-diastolic movement of the valvular tissue. Such a valvular structure with its simple and regular shape also lowers the risk of being damaged by forceful balloon inflation at the time of IV deployment.  
         [0028]     A trunco-hyperboloidal shape with a small diameter at the upper extremity facilitates the closure of the valve at the beginning of diastole in initiating the starting of the reverse movement of the valvular tissue towards its base. Another advantage of this truncated hyperboloidal shape is that the upper extremity of the valvular structure, because of its smaller diameter, remains at a distance from the coronary ostia during systole as well as during diastole, thus offering an additional security to ensure not to impede at all the passage of blood from the aorta to the coronary ostia.  
         [0029]     As another advantageous embodiment of the invention, the guiding means of the valvular structure are inclined strips from the base to the upper extremity of the valvular structure with regard to the central axis of the valvular structure. This inclination initiates and imparts a general helicoidal movement of the valvular structure around said central axis at the time of closure or opening of said structure, such a movement enabling to help initiate and finalize the closure of the valvular structure. In particular, this movement improves the collapse of the valvular structure towards its base at the time of diastole and during the reversal of flow at the very beginning of diastole. During diastole, the valvular structure thus fails down, folding on itself and collapses on its base, therefore closing the aortic orifice. The strips can be pleats, strengthening struts or thickened zones.  
         [0030]     In other embodiments, said guiding means are rectilinear strips from the base to the upper extremity of the valvular structure. In this case, the guiding means can comprise pleats, struts or thickened zones. In a particular embodiment, the stiffened zones then created can be advantageously two main portions, trapezoidal in shape, formed symmetrically one to each other with regard to the central axis of the valvular structure, and two less rigid portions separating said two main portions to lead to a tight closeness in shape of a closed slot at the time of closure of the upper extremities of the main portions of the valvular structure. The thickened zones can be extended up to form the stiffened zones.  
         [0031]     More particularly, each of said main slightly rigid portions occupy approximately one third of the circumference of the valvular structure when this latter is in its open position. The slightly rigid portions maintain the valvular structure closed during diastole by firmly applying themselves on each other. The closure of the valvular structure at the time of diastole thus does not have any tendency to collapse too much towards the aortic annulus.  
         [0032]     Preferably, the guiding means are a number of pleats formed within the tissue by folding, or formed by recesses or grooves made in the tissue. The shape of the pleats is adapted to achieve a global shape of the desired type for said position.  
         [0033]     Alternatively, the guiding means are made of strengthening struts, preferably at least three, incorporated in the tissue in combination or not with said pleats.  
         [0034]     The guiding means and, in particular, the strengthening struts, help to prevent the valvular tissue from collapsing back too much and to reverse inside the left ventricle through the base of the frame, preventing the risk of blood regurgitation.  
         [0035]     In a preferred prosthetic valve of the invention, said valvular tissue is made of synthetic biocompatible material such as TEFLON® or DACRON®, polyethylene, polyamide. In various other preferred embodiments, the valve leaflets may be made of biological material, such as, for example, without limitation, from another human heart, a cow (bovine pericardium), a pig (porcine valve), a horse (equine pericardium) and the like. These materials are commonly used in cardiac surgery and are quite resistant, particularly to folding movements due to the increasing systolo-diastolic movements of the valvular tissue and particularly at the junction with the frame of the implantable valve.  
         [0036]     The valvular structure is fastened along a substantial portion of an expandable frame, by sewing, by molding, by mechanical coupling, by friction fit, or by gluing to exhibit a tightness sufficiently hermetical to prevent any regurgitation of said body fluid between the frame and the valvular structure.  
         [0037]     Preferably, an internal cover is coupled or is integral to the valvular structure and placed between said valvular structure and the internal wall of the frame to prevent any passage of the body fluid through said frame. Therefore, there is no regurgitation of blood as it would be the case if there were any space between the valvular structure fastened on the frame and the zone of application of the frame on the aortic annulus. The internal cover makes a sort of “sleeve” at least below the fastening of the valvular structure covering the internal surface of the frame and thus prevents any regurgitation of blood through the frame.  
         [0038]     In the present invention, the frame is a substantially cylindrical structure capable of maintaining said body channel open in its expanded state and supporting said collapsible valvular structure.  
         [0039]     In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the frame is made of a material which is distinguishable from biological tissue to be easily visible by non invasive imaging techniques.  
         [0040]     Preferably, said frame is a stainless metal structure or a foldable plastic material, made of intercrossing, preferably with rounded and smooth linear bars. This frame is strong enough to resist the recoil phenomenon of the fibrous tissue of the diseased valve. The size of the bars and their number are determined to give both the maximal rigidity when said frame is expanded and the smallest volume when the frame is compressed.  
         [0041]     More preferably, the frame has projecting curved extremities and presents a concave shape. This is aimed at reinforcing the embedding and the locking of the implantable valve in the distorted aortic orifice.  
         [0042]     In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the IV is made in two parts, a first reinforced frame coupled with a second frame which is made of thinner bars than said first frame and which is embedded inside the first frame. This second frame to which the valvular structure is fastened as described above, is preferably less bulky than the first frame to occupy as little space as possible and to be easily expanded using low pressure balloon inflation. In a variation of this embodiment, the second frame may be configured to be self-expanding such that the second frame expands within the first frame after being ejected from a sheath.  
         [0043]     The present invention also relates to a double balloon catheter to separately position the first frame in the dilated stenosed aortic valve and place the second frame that comprises the valvular structure. This catheter comprises two balloons fixed on a catheter shaft and separated by few centimeters.  
         [0044]     The first balloon is of the type sufficiently strong to avoid bursting even at a very high pressure inflation and is aimed at carrying, in its deflated state, a strong frame aimed at scaffolding the previously dilated stenosed aortic valve. The second balloon is aimed at carrying the second frame with the valvular structure.  
         [0045]     An advantage of this double balloon catheter is that each balloon has an external diameter which is smaller than known balloons since each element to be expanded is smaller.  
         [0046]     Moreover, such a double balloon catheter allows to enlarge the choice for making an efficient valvular structure enabling to overcome the following two contradictory conditions: 
        1) having a soft and mobile valvular structure capable of opening and closing freely in the blood stream, without risk of being damaged by balloon inflation; and     2) needing a very strong structure able to resist the recoil force of the stenosed valve and capable of resisting, without any damage, a strong pressure inflation of the expanding balloon.        
 
         [0049]     Furthermore, the shaft of said double balloon catheter comprises two lumens for successive and separate inflation of each balloon. Of note, an additional lumen capable of allowing a rapid inflation takes additional room in the shaft.  
         [0050]     The invention also relates to a method of using a two-balloon catheter with a first frame and second frame to which a valve prosthesis of the type previously described is fastened.  
         [0051]     In another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the IV is made in two parts, a first frame configured to dilate a stenotic valve and a second frame on which the valvular structure is coupled. The first frame is preferably balloon expandable and is configured to substantially resist recoil forces of the native leaflets. The second frame is preferably smaller in diameter for deployment within the first frame. In this embodiment, the second frame is self-expanding such that the second frame radially expands within the first frame after being ejected from a sheath or otherwise released from a constriction mechanism. The second self-expanding frame may be shaped to securely seat itself within the first frame, thereby resisting migration.  
         [0052]     The invention also relates to a method of delivering a first, balloon expandable frame to dilate the native valve and a second, self-expanding frame to provide a valvular structure, wherein the second, self-expanding frame is expanded within or adjacent to the first frame.  
     
    
     BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS  
       [0053]     The invention will now be explained and other advantages and features will appear with reference to the accompanying schematical drawings wherein:  
         [0054]      FIGS. 1   a,    1   b  and  1   c  illustrate, in section views, respectively, the normal aortic valve in systole, in diastole and a stenosed aortic valve;  
         [0055]      FIGS. 2   a  and  2   b  illustrate two examples of a metallic frame which are combined to a valvular structure according to the present invention;  
         [0056]      FIGS. 3   a  and  3   b  illustrate a frame according to the invention in its expanded position with an opening out of the extremities, respectively, with a cylindrical and a concave shape;  
         [0057]      FIGS. 4   a  and  4   b  illustrate an IV of the invention respectively in its compressed position and in its expanded position in an open position as in systole;  
         [0058]      FIGS. 5   a  and  5   b  illustrate respectively an IV of the invention in its closed position and a sectional view according to the central axis of such a valvular structure which is closed as in diastole;  
         [0059]      FIGS. 6   a  to  6   d  illustrate a sectional view according to the central axis of an IV according to the present invention and showing the internal cover and the external cover of the valvular structure overlapping partially or non overlapping the frame bars;  
         [0060]      FIG. 7  illustrates the frontal zig-zag fastening line of the valvular tissue on the frame;  
         [0061]      FIGS. 8   a  and  8   b  illustrate, respectively, a perspective view of a valvular structure and an internal cover made all of one piece and a perspective view of the corresponding frame into which they will be inserted and fastened;  
         [0062]      FIGS. 9   a  and  9   b  illustrate inclined strengthening struts, an example of a valvular structure according to the invention, respectively in the open position and in the closed position;  
         [0063]      FIGS. 10   a  and  10   b  illustrate an example of a valvular structure comprising pleats, respectively in the open and in the closed position;  
         [0064]      FIGS. 11   a  and  11   b  illustrate a valvular structure comprising two trapezoidal slightly rigid portions, respectively in the open and in the closed position;  
         [0065]      FIGS. 11   c  to  11   e  illustrate a valvular structure comprising a rectangular stiffened zone, respectively in the open, intermediate and closed position;  
         [0066]      FIGS. 12   a  and  12   b  illustrate, respectively, a perspective and cross sectional views of an implantable valve in its compressed presentation squeezed on a balloon catheter;  
         [0067]      FIGS. 13   a  to  13   l  illustrate views of the successive procedure steps for the IV implantation in a stenosed aortic orifice;  
         [0068]      FIG. 14  illustrates an implantable valve made in two parts in its compressed presentation squeezed on a two-balloon catheter with a reinforced frame on a first balloon and with the implantable valve on the second balloon;  
         [0069]      FIGS. 15   a  to  15   f  illustrate the successive steps of the implantation of the implantation valve in two parts with a two-balloon catheter; and  
         [0070]      FIGS. 16   a  to  16   d  illustrate a stenosed prosthetic aortic valve before and after, respectfully, implantation of an implantable valve according to another aspect of the present invention. 
     
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0071]     In the diastole and systole illustrations of section views of  FIGS. 1   a  and  1   b,  the arrows A indicates the general direction of the blood flow. The semi-lunar leaflets  1  and  2  of a native aortic valve (with only two out of three shown here) are thin, supple and move easily from the completely open position (systole) to the closed position (diastole). The leaflets originate from an aortic annulus  2   a.    
         [0072]     The leaflets  1 ′ and  2 ′ of a stenosed valve as illustrated in  FIG. 1   c,  are thickened, distorted, calcified and more or less fused, leaving only a small hole or a narrow slit  3 , which makes the ejection of blood from the left ventricle cavity  4  into the aorta  5  difficult and limited.  FIGS. 1   a  to  1   c  show also the coronary artery ostium  6   a  and  6   b  and  FIG. 1 a  shows, in particular, the mitral valve  7  of the left ventricle cavity  4 .  
         [0073]     An implantable valve according to the invention essentially comprises a supple valvular structure supported by a strong frame. The positioning of the implantable valve is an important point since the expanded frame has to be positioned exactly at the level of the native valvular leaflets  1 ,  2  of the native valve, the structures of which are pushed aside by the inflated balloon.  
         [0074]     Ideally, the implantable valve is positioned with the fastening line of the valvular structure on the frame exactly on the remains of the crushed stenosed valve to prevent any regurgitation of blood. In practice, it is difficult to position the implantable valve within less than 2 or 3 mm. However, any risk of regurgitation of blood is eliminated with the presence of an internal cover, as will be described below.  
         [0075]     The upper limit of the frame should be placed below the opening of the coronary arteries, i.e., the coronary ostia  6 , or at their level so that the frame does not impede free blood flow in the coronary arteries. This point is a delicate part of positioning an IV since the distance between the superior limit of the leaflets of the natural valve and the coronary ostia  6  is only about 5 to 6 mm. However, the ostia are located in the Valsalva sinus  8  which constitutes a hollow that are located a little out of the way. This helps to prevent from impeding the coronary blood flow by the IV.  
         [0076]     At the time of implantation, the operator evaluates the exact positioning of the coronary ostia by looking at the image produced by a sub-valvular angiogram with contrast injection performed before the implantation procedure. This image will be fixed in the same projection on a satellite TV screen and will permit the evaluation of the level of the origin of the right and left coronary arteries. Possibly, in case the ostia are not clearly seen by sub-valvular angiography, a thin guide wire, as those used in coronary angioplasty, is positioned in each of the coronary arteries to serve as a marker of the coronary ostia.  
         [0077]     The lower part of the frame of the IV preferably extends by 2 or 3 mm inside the left ventricle  4 , below the aortic annulus  2   a.  However, this part of the frame should not reach the insertion of the septal leaflet of the mitral valve  7 , so that it does not interfere with its movements, particularly during diastole.  
         [0078]      FIGS. 2   a  and  2   b  show respectively an example of a cylindrical frame or stent  10  comprising intercrossing linear bars  11 , with two intersections I by bar  11 , the bars  11  being soldered or provided from a folded wire to constitute the frame, with for instance a 20 mm, 15 mm or 12 mm height, and an example with only one intersection of bars  11 . Preferably, such a frame is expandable from a size of about 4 to 5 millimeters to a size of about 20 to 25 mm in diameter, or even to about 30-35 mm (or more) in particular cases, for instance for the mitral valve. Moreover, said frame, in its fully expanded state, has a height of approximately between 10 and 15 mm, and in its fully compressed frame, a height of approximately 20 mm. The number and the size of the bars are adapted to be sufficiently strong and rigid when the frame is fully open in the aortic orifice to resist the strong recoil force exerted by the distorted stenosed aortic orifice after deflation of the balloon used in the catheterization technique which has been previously maximally inflated to enlarge the stenosed valve orifice.  
         [0079]     The frame may have several configurations according to the number of bars  11  and intersections. This number, as well as the size and the strength of the bars  11 , are calculated taking into account all the requirements described, i.e., a small size in its compressed form, its capacity to be enlarged up to at least 20 mm in diameter and being strong when positioned in the aortic orifice to be able to be forcefully embedded in the remains of the diseased aortic valve and to resist the recoil force of the aortic annulus. The diameter of the bars is chosen, for instance, in the range of 0.1-0.6 mm.  
         [0080]     A frame particularly advantageous presents, when deployed in its expanded state, an opening out  12  at both extremities as shown in  FIGS. 3   a  and  3   b,  the frame having a linear profile ( FIG. 3   a ) or a concave shape profile ( FIG. 3   b ). This is aimed at reinforcing the embedding of the IV in the aortic orifice. However, the free extremities of the openings  12  are rounded and very smooth to avoid any traumatism of the aorta or of the myocardium.  
         [0081]     The structure of a preferred frame used in the present invention both maintains the aortic orifice fully open once dilated and produces a support for the valvular structure. The frame is also foldable. When folded by compression, the diameter of said frame is about 4 to 5 millimeters, in view of its transcutaneous introduction in the femoral artery through an arterial sheath of 14 to 16 F (F means French, a unit usually used in cardiology field) i.e., about 4.5 to 5.1 mm. Also, as described below, when positioned in the aortic orifice, the frame is able to expand under the force of an inflated balloon up to a size of 20 to 23 mm in diameter.  
         [0082]     The frame is preferably a metallic frame, preferably made of steel. It constitutes a frame with a grate type design able to support the valvular structure and to behave as a strong scaffold for the open stenosed aortic orifice. In alternative embodiments, the frame may be provided with anchoring members of the type known in the art, such as hooks or barbs, to further enhance fixation of the frame at the treatment site. In one variation, the anchoring members may be configured to be pushed radially outward (e.g., by the balloon) during expansion of the implantable valve, thereby causing the anchoring members to penetrate the native tissue.  
         [0083]     When the frame is fully expanded, its intercrossing bars push against the remains of the native stenosed valve that has been crushed aside against the aortic annulus by the inflated balloon. This produces a penetration and embeds the bars within the remains of the stenosed valve, in particular owing to a concave profile of the frame provided with an opening out, as illustrated in  FIG. 3   b.  This embedding of the frame on the aortic annulus, or more precisely on the remains of the crushed distorted aortic valve, will be determinant for the strong fixation of the IV in the right position, without any risk of displacement. Alternatively, if a frame having a concave profile is provided with sufficient height, the central portion of the frame may be deployed along the aortic annulus while the upper and lower portions (having larger diameters) extend into the Valsalva sinus and left ventricle, respectively, thereby conforming to the shape of the aortic annulus and resisting migration without substantial penetration of the stenosed valve. In one variation, a concave shaped balloon may be used to assist in the deployment of a frame having a concave profile.  
         [0084]     Moreover, the fact that the valve leaflets in degenerative aortic stenosis are grossly distorted and calcified, sometimes leaving only a small hole or a small slit in the middle of the orifice, has to be considered an advantage for the implantation of the valve and for its stable positioning without risk of later mobilization. The fibrous and calcified structure of the distorted valve provides a strong base for the frame of the IV and the powerful recoil phenomenon that results from elasticity of the tissues contribute to the fixation of the metallic frame.  
         [0085]     The height of the fully expanded frame of the illustrated frames  10  is preferably between 10 and 15 mm. Indeed, since the passage from the compressed state to the expanded state results in a shortening of the metallic structure, the structure in its compressed form is a little longer, i.e., preferably about 20 mm length. This does not constitute a drawback for its transcutaneous introduction and its positioning in the aortic orifice.  
         [0086]     As mentioned above, the frame is strong enough to be able to oppose the powerful recoil force of the distended valve and of the aortic annulus  2   a.  Preferably it does not possess any flexible properties. When the frame has reached its maximal expanded shape under the push of a forcefully inflated balloon, it remains substantially without any decrease in size and without any change of shape. The size of the bars that are the basic elements of the frame is calculated in such a way to provide a substantial rigidity when the frame is fully expanded. The size of the bars and their number are calculated to give both maximal rigidity when expanded and the smallest volume when the metallic frame is its compressed position.  
         [0087]     At the time of making the IV, the frame is expanded by dilatation to its broadest dimension, i.e., between 20 mm and 25 mm in diameter, so as to be able to fasten the valvular structure on the inside side of its surface. This fastening is performed using the techniques in current use for the making of products such as other prosthetic heart valves or multipolars catheters etc. Afterwards, it is compressed in its minimal size, i.e., 4 or 5 mm, in diameter in view of its introduction in the femoral artery. At time of the IV positioning, the frame is expanded again by balloon inflation to its maximal size in the aortic orifice.  
         [0088]     If the frame is built in an expanded position, it will be compressed, after fastening the valvular structure, by exerting a circular force on its periphery and/or on its total height until obtaining the smallest compressed position. If the frame is built in its compressed position, it will be first dilated, for instance, by inflation of a balloon and then compressed again as described above. By manufacturing the frame in the expanded condition and fastening the valvular structure to the expanded frame, it is only necessary for the frame to be expanded once (i.e., during deployment at treatment site). This method of manufacture advantageously reduces fatigue and improves the durability of the IV.  
         [0089]     To help localizing the IV, the frame being the only visible component of the valve, the shaft of the balloon catheter on which will be mounted the IV before introduction in the body (see below) possesses preferentially metallic reference marks easily seen on fluoroscopy. One mark will be at level of the upper border of the frame and the other at the level of the lower border. The IV, when mounted on the catheter shaft and crimped on it, is exactly positioned taking into account these reference marks on the shaft.  
         [0090]     Accordingly, the frame is visible during fluoroscopy when introduced in the patient&#39;s body. When the frame is positioned at the level of the aortic annulus, the upper border of the frame is placed below the coronary ostia. Furthermore, the implanting process during which the balloon inflation completely obstructs the aortic orifice, as seen below, is performed within a very short time, i.e., around 10 to 15 seconds. This also explains why the frame is clearly and easily seen, without spending time to localize it. More particularly, its upper and lower borders are clearly delineated.  
         [0091]      FIGS. 4   a  and  4   b  show an example of a preferred IV  13  of the present invention, respectively in its compressed position, in view of its introduction and positioning in the aortic orifice, and in its expanded and opened (systole) position.  FIGS. 5   a  and  5   b  show the expanded position of this example closed in diastole, respectively in perspective and in a crossed section view along the central axis XX of the valve prosthesis.  
         [0092]     The valvular structure  14  is compressed inside the frame  10  when this is in its compressed position ( FIG. 4   a ), i.e., it fits into a 4 to 5 mm diameter space. On the other hand, the valvular structure can expand ( FIG. 4   b ) and follow the frame expansion produced by the inflated balloon. It will have to be able to reach the size of the inside of the fully deployed frame.  
         [0093]     The illustrated IV  13  is made of a combination of two main parts: 
        1) the expandable but substantially rigid structure made of the frame  10 , a metallic frame in the example; and     2) a soft and mobile tissue constituting the valvular structure  14  exhibiting a continuous surface truncated between a base  15  and an upper extremity  16 ; the tissue is fastened to the bars  11  of the frame at its base  16  and is able to open in systole and to close in diastole at its extremity  16 , as the blood flows in a pulsatile way from the left ventricle towards the aorta.        
 
         [0096]     The tissue has rectilinear struts  17  incorporated in it in plane including the central axis XX, in order to strengthen it, in particular, in its closed state with a minimal occupation of the space, and to induce a patterned movement between its open and closed state. Other examples of strengthening struts are described below. They are formed from thicker zones of the tissue or from strips of stiffening material incorporated in the tissue; they can also be glued or soldered on the valvular tissue.  
         [0097]     These strengthening struts help to prevent the valvular tissue from collapsing back too much and to evert inside the left ventricle through the base of the frame. These reinforcements of the valvular tissue help maintain the folded tissue above the level of the orifice during diastole, prevent too much folding back and risk of inversion of the valvular structure inside the left ventricle. By also preventing too much folding, a decrease of the risk of thrombi formation can also be expected by reducing the number of folds.  
         [0098]     The truncated shape forming a continuous surface enables to obtain a strong structure and is more efficient for the systolo-diastolic movements of the valvular tissue during heart beats. The truncoidal shape facilitates the closure of the valve structure at the beginning of diastole in facilitating the start of the reverse movement of the valvular tissue towards its base at the time of diastole, i.e., at the time of flow reversal at the very beginning of diastole. During diastole, the valvular structure  14  thus fails down, folding on itself, thereby collapsing on its base, and therefore closing the aortic orifice. In fact, the valvular structure has preferably, as illustrated, an hyperboloid shape, with a curvature on its surface concave towards the aortic wall that will contribute to initiating its closure.  
         [0099]     Moreover, the basis of the truncated hyperboloid is fixed on the lower part of a frame and the smallest extremity of the truncated hyperboloid is free in the blood stream, during the respected closing and opening phasis.  
         [0100]     An important advantage of this hyperboloidal shape is that the upper extremity  16  of the valvular structure  14  can remain at a distance from the coronary ostia during systole as well as during diastole, because of its smaller diameter, thus offering an additional security to make certain that the passage of blood from aorta to the coronary ostia is not impeded.  
         [0101]     The base  15  of the truncated tissue is attached on the frame  10  along a line of coupling  18  disposed between the inferior fourth and the third fourth of the frame in the example. The upper extremity  16 , with the smaller diameter, overpasses the upper part of the frame by a few millimeters; 6 to 8 mm, for instance. This gives the valvular structure a total height of about 12 to 15 mm.  
         [0102]     The upper extremity  16  of the truncated tissue, i.e., the smaller diameter of the hyperboloidal structure  14 , is about 17 to 18 mm in diameter (producing a 2.3 to 2.5 cm 2  area opening) for a 20 mm diameter base of the truncated structure, or 19 to 20 mm in diameter (producing a 2.8 or a 3 cm 2  area opening) for a 23 mm diameter base. An opening area around 2 cm 2  or slightly above, gives satisfactory results, particularly in elderly patients who would not reasonably need to exert high cardiac output.  
         [0103]     For instance, in the present example, the line of fastening of the base of the truncated tissue on the frame will have to expand from a 12.5 mm perimeter (for a 4 mm external diameter of the compressed IV) to a 63 mm perimeter ( for a 20 mm external diameter of the expanded IV ), or to a 72 mm perimeter (for a 23 mm external diameter, in case a 23 mm balloon is used).  
         [0104]     Another advantage of this truncated continuous shape is that it is stronger and has less risk of being destroyed or distorted by the forceful balloon inflation at the time of IV deployment. Also, if the truncated hyperboloidal shape is marked, for instance, with a 16 or 17 mm diameter of the upper extremity as compared to a 20 mm diameter of the base (or 18 to 20 mm for 23 mm), the smaller upper part is compliant during balloon inflation in order to enable the balloon to expand cylindrically to its maximal mm diameter (or 23 mm). This is made possible by using a material with some elastic or compliant properties.  
         [0105]     The valvular structure of the invention, as shown in the illustrated example, includes advantageously a third part, i.e., the internal cover  19  to be fixed on the internal wall of the frame  10 . This internal cover prevents any passage of blood through the spaces between the bars  11  of the frame in case the implantable valve would be positioned with the fastening line of the valvular structure on the frame not exactly on the remains of the dilated aortic valve, i.e., either above or below. It also strengthens the fastening of the valvular structure  14  to the frame  10 .  
         [0106]     In the different sectional views of the different examples of IV according to the invention, as illustrated at  FIGS. 6   a  to  6   c,  the internal cover  19  covers the totality of the internal side of the frame  10  ( FIG. 6   a ), only the lower part of the frame  10  ( FIG. 6   b ), or it can additionally cover partially 3 to 5 mm as shown in the passage of blood from aorta to the coronary ostia  FIG. 6   c,  the upper part defined above the coupling line  18  of the valvular structure.  
         [0107]     For instance, such an extension of the internal cover  19  above the fastening line  18  of the valvular structure will give another security to avoid any risk of regurgitation through the spaces between the bars  11  in case the IV would be positioned too low with respect to the border of the native aortic valve.  
         [0108]     The internal cover can also be molded to the valvular structure or casted to it which therefore constitutes an integral structure. The valvular structure and the internal cover are therefore strongly locked together with minimum risk of detachment of the valvular structure which is unceasingly in motion during systole and diastole. In that case, only the internal cover has to be fastened on the internal surface of the frame which renders the making of the IV easier and makes the complete device stronger and more resistant. In particular, the junction of the mobile part of the valvular structure and the fixed part being molded as one piece is stronger and capable to face the increasing movements during the systolo-diastolic displacements without any risk of detachment.  
         [0109]     The presence of the internal cover makes an additional layer of plastic material that occupies the inside of the frame and increases the final size of the IV. Therefore, in the case in which the internal cover is limited to the inferior part of the frame (that is, below the fastening line of the valvular structure), it does not occupy any additional space inside the frame. Here also, it is more convenient and safer to make the valvular structure and this limited internal cover in one piece.  
         [0110]     In other aspects, to prevent any regurgitation of blood from the aorta towards the left ventricle during diastole, the base of the valvular structure is preferably positioned exactly at the level of the aortic annulus against the remains of distorted stenosed valve pushed apart by the inflated balloon. Therefore, there is no possibility of blood passage through the spaces between the metallic frame bars  11  below the attachment of the valvular structure.  
         [0111]     However, to avoid any risk of leaks, the part of the frame below the fastening of the valvular structure (about 3 to 5 mm) is preferably covered by an internal cover which is preferably made with the same tissue as the valvular structure. Thus, there would be no regurgitation of blood which is a possibility when there is any space between the valvular structure fastened on the metallic frame and the line of application of the frame on the aortic annulus. The internal cover makes a sort of “sleeve” below the fastening of the valvular structure on the internal surface of the frame, covering the spaces between the frame bars of the frame at this level, thus preventing any regurgitation of blood through these spaces.  
         [0112]     The internal cover can also have another function, i.e., it can be used to fasten the valvular structure inside the frame, as described below.  
         [0113]     At  FIG. 6   d,  the internal cover  19  is extended at its lower end  19 ′ to an external cover  19 ′ which is rolled up to be applied on the external wall of the stent  10 . The internal and external cover are molded, glued or soldered to the bars of the stent  10 .  
         [0114]     The coupling process of the valvular structure on the frame is of importance since it has to be very strong without any risk of detachment of the valvular structure from the frame during millions of heart beats with pulsatile blood flow alternatively opening and closing the valvular structure.  
         [0115]     The valvular structure of the invention folds to a very small size inside the frame in the compressed position of the valve and is expandable up to 20 to 23 mm diameter. Also, the valvular structure can resist the strong force exerted by the maximally inflated balloon that will powerfully squeeze it against the bars of the frame or against the internal cover, this one being squeezed directly against the bars of the frame. The junction zone is also particularly subjected to very strong pressure exerted by the inflated balloon. Furthermore, this junction zone must not tear or break off during expansion of the balloon. At this time, each part of the junction zone is squeezed against the bars but nonetheless follows the expansion of the frame.  
         [0116]     As shown in  FIG. 7 , the junction zone is, for example, a fastening line  20  which follows the design of a “zig-zag” line drawn by the intercrossing bars  11  of the frame on the internal cover  19 .  
         [0117]     The fastening of the valvular structure to the frame can be made by sewing the internal and/or the external cover to the bars. To prevent any leakage of blood, stitches are preferably numerous and very close to each other, either as separated stitches or as a continuous suture line. Also, the stitches are made directly around the bars  11 . Furthermore, since the valvular structure is expanded together with the metallic frame, the stitches, if made as a continuous suture line, are also able to expand at the same time.  
         [0118]     The fastening process can also be made by molding the base of the valvular structure on the frame. At this level, the bars  11  are imbedded in the coupling line of the valvular structure  14 . This mold way also concerns the internal cover  19 , when it goes below the coupling line  14  on the frame over few millimeters, for example, 2 to 4 mm. As mentioned above, this is intended in order to prevent any regurgitation of blood just below the lower part of the valvular structure  14  in case the frame  10  would not be exactly positioned on the aortic annulus but at few millimeters away.  
         [0119]     The fastening process can further be made by gluing or soldering the valvular structure on the bars with sufficiently powerful biocompatible glues. The same remark can be made concerning the internal cover of the frame below the coupling line of the valvular structure.  
         [0120]     Also, this allows the coupling line to follow the frame changes from the compressed position to its expanded one.  
         [0121]     The fastening process can also be made by mechanically coupling the valvular structure to the frame. For example, the valvular structure may be attached using rivets, pins, screws or any other fastener suited for this purpose. In one variation, the mechanical coupling mechanism may be configured to be releasable for removing the valvular structure from the frame after deployment. This variation may be particularly advantageous for replacing a stenotic, worn or fatigued valvular structure, as will be described in more detail below.  
         [0122]     The valvular structure can also be fastened on the internal cover previously fixed at the total length of the internal surface of the metallic frame. The internal cover constitutes therefore a surface on which any type of valvular structure be more easily sewed, molded or glued. Because it is a structure with a large surface and is not involved in the movements of the valvular tissue during systole and diastole, the internal cover is more easily fastened to the internal surface of the frame.  
         [0123]     In the particular embodiment shown in  FIGS. 8   a  and  8   b,  the internal cover  19  is fastened, after introduction (indicated by the arrow B), at the upper and lower extremities of the frame  10  on the upper and lower zig-zag lines of the intercrossing bars  11 . In fact, the fastening of the internal cover  19  on the zig-zag lines made by the intercrossing bars  11  of the frame allows an easier passage of blood from the aorta above the IV towards the coronary ostia. Indeed, the blood can find more space to flow into the coronary ostia by passing through the lowest point of each triangular space made by two intercrossing bars  11 , as indicated by the arrows A 1  (see also  FIG. 1   b ).  
         [0124]     The fastening of the internal cover  19  on the extremities can be reinforced by various points of attachment on various parts of the internal surface of the frame  10 . The internal cover  19  can be fastened by sewing, molding or gluing the bars  11  onto the frame.  
         [0125]     Fastening the valvular tissue (and the cover tissue below) on the inside of the frame, requires work on the frame in its expanded position to have access to the inside of this cylindric frame. In a preferred embodiment the frame is expanded a first time for fastening the valvular tissue on its bars, then compressed back to a smaller size to be able to be introduced via arterial introducer and finally expanded again by the balloon inflation.  
         [0126]     Since it is aimed at being positioned in the heart after having been introduced by a catheterization technique by a transcutaneous route in a peripheral artery, mainly the femoral artery, the IV should preferably have the smallest possible external diameter. Ideally, it should be able to be introduced in the femoral artery through a 14 F (4.5 mm) size arterial introducer which is the size of the arterial introducer commonly used to perform an aortic dilatation. However, a 16 F (5.1 mm) or even a 18 F (5.7 mm) introducer would also be acceptable.  
         [0127]     Above this size, the introduction of the IV in the femoral artery should probably be done by a surgical technique. This is still quite acceptable since the surgical procedure would be a very light procedure which could be done by a surgeon with a simple local anaesthesia. It has to be recalled that this technique is used to position big metallic frames, about 24 F in size (7.64 mm in diameter), in the abdominal aorta for the treatment of aneurysms of the abdominal aorta. In that situation, this necessitates surgical repair of the artery after withdrawal of the sheath (M. D. Dake, New Engl.J.Med. 1994;331:1729-34).  
         [0128]     Ideally, an IV should be able to last several tenths of life years without defect, like the mechanical prosthetic valves which are currently implanted by the surgeons. Nevertheless, an implantable valve that would last at least ten years without risk of deterioration would be effective for the treatment of elderly patients.  
         [0129]     A valvular structure according to the invention is made of a supple and reinforced tissue which has a thickness to be thin enough to occupy as less as possible space in the compressed form of the valve, is pliable, and also strong enough to stand the unceasing movements under the blood pressure changes during heart beats. The valvular structure is capable of moving from its closed position to its open position under the action of the force exerted by the movements of the blood during systole and diastole, without having any significant resistance to blood displacements.  
         [0130]     The material used for the tissue, which exhibits the above mentioned requirements, may be TEFLON® or DACRON®, which are quite resistant to folding movements, at least when they are used to repair cardiac defects such as inter-atrial or interventricular defects or when they are used to repair a valve such as the mitral valve which is subjected to high pressure changes and movements during heart beats. Also, a main point is the increasing systolo-diastolic movements of the valvular tissue, particularly at its junction with the rigid part of the IV, and it is therefore necessary to find the most possible resistant material tissue.  
         [0131]     As mentioned previously, the valvular structure can also possibly be made with biological tissue such as the pericardium (e.g., bovine or equine), or with porcine leaflets, which are commonly used in bioprosthetic surgically implanted valves.  
         [0132]     Moreover, the valvular prosthesis of the present invention does not induce any significant thrombosis phenomenon during its stay in the blood flow and is biologically neutral.  
         [0133]     To prevent the risk of thrombus formation and of emboli caused by clots, a substance with anti-thrombic properties could be used, such as heparine, ticlopidine, phosphorylcholine, etc., either as a coating material or it can be incorporated into the material used for the implantable valve, in particular, for the valvular structure and/or for the internal cover.  
         [0134]     The valvular structure of the invention can have several types of designs and shapes. Besides the example illustrated in  FIGS. 4 and 5 , examples of strengthened valvular structures according to the invention are shown in FIGS.  9  to  11 , respectively in the closed ( FIGS. 9   a,    10   a,    11   a ) and in the open state ( FIGS. 9   b,    10   b,    11   b ) to form a prosthetic valve according to the present invention. In those figures, the frame line is simplified to clarify the drawings.  
         [0135]     To help initiate and finalize the closure of the valvular structure, four strengthening struts  14   a  are slightly inclined from the base to the upper part as compared to the central axis XX of the structure, as shown in  FIGS. 9   a  and  9   b.  Accordingly, a patterned movement of the valvular structure, during the closing and the opening phases, is initiated. This patterned movement is, in the present case, an helicoidal-type one, as suggested in  FIGS. 9   b  and  10   b  by the circular arrow  21 .  
         [0136]      FIGS. 10   a  and  10   b  illustrate another embodiment to help the closing of the valvular structure and which also involves an helicoidal movement. Represented by lines  22 , inclined pleats are formed in the tissue to impart such a movement. As illustrated, these lines have an inclination from the base to the upper part of the valvular structure tissue  14 . Pleats are formed by folding the tissue or by alternating thinner and thicker portions. The width and the number of those pleats are variable, and depend particularly on the type of material used. According to another example, these pleats  22  are combined with the above described inclined strengthening struts.  
         [0137]     These reinforcing pleats and/or struts, rectilinear or inclined, have the advantage to impart a reproducible movement and, accordingly, to avoid the valvular structure from closing to a nonstructurized collapse on the frame base.  
         [0138]     Another shape of the valvular structure comprises two portions: one portion being flexible but with some rigidity, having a rectangular shape, occupying about one third of the circumference of the valvular structure, and the other portion being more supple, flexible and foldable occupying the rest of the circumference at its base as well as at its upper, free border. According to  FIG. 11   c,  this valve is opened, during the ejection of blood, i.e., during systol. In  FIG. 1   d,  a front view of the valve is closed, during an intermediate diastole, and in  FIG. 1   e  the same closed valve during diastole is shown from a side view. The semi-rigid part  24 ′ moves little during systole and during diastole. The foldable part  23 ′ moves away from the rigid part during systole to let the blood flow through the orifice thus made. This orifice, due to the diameter of the upper part which is the same as that of the open stent, is large, generally as large as that of the open stent. At the time of diastole, due to the reverse of pressure, the foldable part moves back towards the semi-rigid part and presses on it, and thus closes the orifice and prevents any regurgitation of blood.  
         [0139]     The advantage of such a valve design is to allow a large opening of the upper part of the valvular structure, not only to permit more blood flow at time of systole after the valve has been implanted, but also at the very time of implantation, when the balloon is maximally inflated to expand the valve to imbed it in the valvular annulus. The diameter of the upper part of the valvular structure could be the same size as the balloon, so that there would be no distension of the valvular part of the valve at the time of implantation, and therefore no risk of deterioration of the valvular structure by the inflated balloon.  
         [0140]     The foldable part of the valve could be reinforced by strengthening struts to prevent an eversion of the valve towards the left ventricle during diastole.  
         [0141]     Another shape of the valvular structure, as illustrated in  FIGS. 11   a  and  11   b  comprise four portions, alternatively a main portion  23  and a more narrow portion  24 . The main and the narrow portions are facing each other. Each portion has an isosceles trapezoidal shape. The main portions  23  are flexible but with some slight rigidity and the more narrow portions  24  are compliant, more supple and foldable. In this type of design, the two slightly rigid main portions  23  maintain the valvular structure closed during diastole by firmly applying on each other in their upper extremities, thus forming a slot-like closure  25 . This particular embodiment needs less foldable tissue than in the previous embodiments and the closure of the valvular structure at the time of early diastole does not have any tendency to collapse towards the aortic annulus.  
         [0142]     Another design for the valvular structure is a combination of a cylindrical shape followed by a truncated shape.  
         [0143]     This type of valvular structure is longer that the hyperboloidal type, for instance, 25 or 30 mm long, therefore exceeding out of the upper part of the metallic frame, by 10 to 20 mm. The cylindrical part corresponds to the 10 metallic frame and remains inside it. The truncated conic shape is the upper part of the valvular structure, totally exceeding out of the upper extremity of the metallic frame. An advantage of such a design is that the balloon can be inflated only in the cylindrical part of the valvular structure, therefore without risk of stretching the truncated conical part of the upper diameter which is smaller than that of the inflated balloon.  
         [0144]     When the upper extremity of the cylindrical part has the same size as the lower extremity, there is no difference during balloon inflation in the degree of force exerted by the balloon on the lower and on the upper extremity of the valvular structure. Preferably, rectilinear reinforcing struts are used in this embodiment, to strengthen the valve structure and aid in its shutting without collapsing and inverting inside the left ventricle through the aortic annulus under the force of the diastolic pressure.  
         [0145]     Two different processes for implanting a valve according to the present invention are shown respectively in  FIGS. 13   a  to  13   l  with a unique balloon catheter, as illustrated in  FIGS. 12   a  and  12   b  and in  FIGS. 15   a  to  15   f,  with a two-balloon catheter, as illustrated in  FIG. 14 .  
         [0146]     The IV positioning in the aortic orifice and its expansion can be performed with the help of a unique substantially cylindrical balloon catheter  26  in the so-called unique-balloon catheterization technique.  
         [0147]     Preparing for its introduction by transcutaneous route in the femoral artery, the IV  13  is, as illustrated in the perspective view of  FIG. 10   a  in a compressed form crimpled on the balloon catheter  26 . A central sectional view of the mounted IV  13  on the complete balloon catheter  26  is shown in  FIG. 12   b.    
         [0148]     The shaft  27   f  of the balloon dilatation catheter  26  is as small as possible, i.e., a 7F (2.2 mm) or a 6 F (1.9 mm) size. The balloon  26  is mounted on the shaft  27  between two rings R. Moreover, the shaft  27  comprises a lumen  28  ( FIG. 12   b ) as large as possible for inflation of the balloon  26  with diluted contrast to allow simple and fast inflation and deflation. It has also another lumen  29  able to accept a stiff guide wire  30 , for example 0.036 to 0.038 inches (0.97 mm), to help position the implantable valve with precision.  
         [0149]     The balloon  26  has, for example, a 3 to 4 cm length in its cylindrical part and the smallest possible size when completely deflated so that it will be able to be placed inside the folded valve having an outside diameter which ranges between about 4 and 5 mm. Therefore, the folded balloon preferably has at the most a section diameter of about 2.5 to 3 mm.  
         [0150]     The balloon is therefore made of a very thin plastic material. It is inflated with saline containing a small amount of contrast dye in such a way to remain very fluid and visible when using X-ray.  
         [0151]     However, the balloon  26  has to be sufficiently strong to resist the high pressure that it has to withstand to be capable of expanding the folded valvular structure  14  and the compressed frame in the stenosed aortic orifice considering that, although pre-dilated, the aortic orifice still exerts a quite strong resistance to expansion because of the recoil phenomenon.  
         [0152]     This procedure is shown in  FIGS. 13   a  to  13   e.    
         [0153]     In contrast to the technique used when performing the usual aortic dilatation (without valve implantation), i.e., inflating the balloon maximally markedly above the nominal pressure, if possible, up to the bursting point (which occurs always with a longitudinal tear, without deleterious consequence, and with the advantage of both exerting a maximal dilating force and restoring blood ejection instantaneously), the balloon inflated for expansion of an implantable valve should not burst in any case. Indeed, bursting of the balloon would involve a risk of incomplete valve expansion and wrong positioning. Therefore, the balloon should be very resistant to a very high pressure inflation. Furthermore, the balloon is inflated only up to the nominal pressure indicated by the maker and the pressure is controlled during inflation by using a manometer. Such relatively low pressure should be sufficient since prior to positioning the IV, an efficacious dilatation of the stenosed aortic valve according to the usual technique with a maximally inflated balloon for example 20 mm or 25 mm in size in such a way to soften the distorted valvular tissue and facilitate the enlargement of the opening of the valve at time of IV implantation is performed.  
         [0154]     The implantation of the aortic valve  20  can be made in two steps, as described as follows.  
         [0155]     The first step, as shown in  FIGS. 13   a  to  13   f,  consists of introducing the shaft  27  and balloon catheter  26  along the guide wire previously positioned in the ventricle  4  ( FIGS. 13   a - 13   b ). The dilatation of the stenosed aortic valve  1 ′,  2 ′ using a regular balloon catheter, according to the commonly performed procedure, i.e., with the guide wire  30  introduced in the ventricle  4  ( FIG. 13   a ) and with maximal inflation of the balloon  26  ( FIGS. 13   c  to  13   d ) up to the bursting point. Dilatation is performed at least with a balloon having about 20 mm diameter, but it can be performed with a balloon having about 23 mm diameter so as to increase maximally the aortic orifice opening before implantation of the valve although the implantable valve is about 20 mm in diameter. This preliminary dilatation of the aortic orifice helps in limiting the force required to inflate the balloon used to expand the implantable valve and position it in the aortic orifice, and also in limiting the recoil of the aortic valve that occurs immediately after balloon deflation. The balloon is deflated ( FIG. 13   a ) and pulled back on the wire guide  30  left inside the ventricle.  
         [0156]     Owing to the marked recoil of the stenosed valve and also of the strong aortic annulus, the 20 mm diameter valve is forcefully maintained against the valvular remains at the level of the aortic annulus. Preliminary dilatation has another advantage in that it permits an easier expansion of the IV, having a lower pressure balloon inflation which helps prevent damage of the valvular structure of the IV. This also facilitates the accurate positioning of the prosthetic valve.  
         [0157]     The second step corresponds to the implantation of the valve  13  is shown in  FIGS. 13   g  to  13   l.  The positioning of the IV needs to be precise at a near 2 or 3 mm, since the coronary ostia  6  has to remain absolutely free of any obstruction by the valve  13  ( FIGS. 13   k  and  13   l ). As mentioned above, this is, for example, performed with the help of the image of the sub-valvular angiogram in the same projection fixed on an adjacent TV screen. The expansion and the positioning of the valve prosthesis  13  is performed within a few seconds (15 to 20 among at most) since during the maximal balloon inflation (which has to be maintained only a very few seconds,  3 ,  4 ,) the aortic orifice is obstructed by the inflated balloon  31  and the cardiac output is zero ( FIG. 13   h ). As for the pre-dilatation act itself, the balloon  26  is immediately deflated within less than  5  or  6  seconds ( FIG. 13   j ) and, as soon as the deflation has clearly begun, the closing and opening states of the IV are active whereas the balloon is pulled back briskly in the aorta ( FIGS. 13   j  to  13   l ). In case the IV is not maximally expanded by the first inflation, it is possible to replace the balloon inside the IV and to reinflate it so as to reinforce the expansion of the IV. In one variation to the second step, the valve  13  may be expanded to a diameter greater than the aortic annulus, thereby compressing the native leaflets and/or stretching the aortic annulus during deployment. This variation enhances the fixation of the valve within the annulus. Over-expansion of the valve also decreases residual gaps between the annulus and the outer wall of the valve, thereby reducing or eliminating undesirable leakage around the perimeter of the valve. Still further, over-expansion advantageously allows for the use of a valve with a larger flow area.  
         [0158]     The IV  13  can also be used in aortic regurgitation. This concerns more often younger patients rather than those with aortic stenosis. The contraindication to surgical valve replacement is often not due to the old age of the patients, but stems mainly from particular cases where the general status of the patient is too weak to allow surgery, or because of associated pathological conditions. Apart from the fact that there is no need for a preliminary dilatation, the procedure of the valve implantation remains approximately the same. The balloon inflation inside the IV is chosen accordingly, taking also into account the fact that it is necessary to overdilate the aortic annulus to obtain a recoil phenomenon of the annulus after balloon deflation to help maintain the IV in position without any risk of displacement.  
         [0159]     However, the size of the expanded implantable valve is around 25 to 30 mm in diameter, or even bigger, because the aortic annulus is usually enlarged. A preliminary measurement of the annulus will have to be performed on the sub-valvular angiography and by echocardiography to determine the optimal size to choose.  
         [0160]     The IV can be used in the mitral position, mainly in case of mitral regurgitation, but also in case of mitral stenosis. Here again, the IV  20  is only described when used only in cases of contraindication to surgical valve repair or replacement. The procedure is based on the same general principles though the route for the valve positioning is different, using the transseptal route, like the commonly performed mitral dilatation procedure in mitral stenosis. The IV size is quite larger than for the aortic localization (about 30 to 35 mm in diameter when expanded or clearly above in case of a large mitral annulus, a frequent occurrence in mitral insufficiency), to be capable of occupying the mitral area. A preliminary measurement of the mitral annulus is performed to determine the optimal implantable valve size to choose. Since the introduction of the IV is performed through a venous route, almost always through the femoral vein which is quite large and distensable, the bigger the size of the IV in its compressed position is not a drawback even if the diameter size is about 6 or 7 mm. Moreover, the problem of protection of the coronary ostia as encountered in the aortic position does not exist here which therefore makes the procedure easier to be performed.  
         [0161]     Finally, the IV can be used to replace the tricuspid valve in patients with a tricuspid insufficiency. This procedure is simple to perform since the positioning of the IV is made by the venous route, using the shortest way to place in the right position at the level of the tricuspid orifice practically without any danger from clot migration during the procedure. A large implantable valve is used, with a diameter of about 40 mm or even larger because the tricuspid annulus is often markedly dilated in tricuspid insufficiency. Here also, as in the mitral position, the compressed IV and the catheter used can be without inconvenience, quite larger than that for the aortic position because of the venous route used.  
         [0162]     Furthermore, it has to be noted that the IV can be used also as a first step in the treatment of patients who have contraindication to surgery, when they are examined for the first time, but who could improve later on after correction of the initial hemodynamic failure. The IV procedure can be used as a bridge towards surgery for patients in a weak general condition which are expected to improve within the following weeks or months after the IV procedure in such a way that they can be treated by open heart surgery later on. In the same vein, the IV procedure can be used as a bridge towards surgical valve replacement or repair in patients with a profoundly altered cardiac function that can improve secondarily owing to the hemodynamic improvement resulting from the correction of the initial valvular disease by the IV implantation.  
         [0163]     Another technique for implantation of an aortic valve by transcutaneous catheterization uses a two-balloon catheter.  
         [0164]     An example of this technique using the two parts IV with a two-balloon catheter  40  is shown in  FIG. 14 .  
         [0165]     Two-balloons  26  and  26 ′ are fixed on a unique catheter shaft  27 , said balloons being separated by a few millimeters. The two balloons are preferably short, i.e., about 2 to 2.5 cm long in their cylindrical part. The first balloon  26  to be used, carries a first frame  10  aimed at scaffolding the stenosed aortic orifice after initial dilatation. This first balloon  26  is positioned on the aorta side, above the second balloon  26 ′ which is positioned on the left ventricle side. The second balloon  26 ′ carries the expandable valve  13  which is of the type described above made of a second frame  10 ′ and a valvular structure  14  attached to said frame  10 ′. The difference is that the second frame does not need to be as strong as the first frame and is easier to expand with low balloon pressure inflation which does not risk damaging the valvular structure  14 .  
         [0166]     This enlarges the choice for making a valvular structure without having to face two contradictory conditions: 
        having a soft and mobile valvular structure  14  capable of opening and closing freely in the blood stream without risk of being damaged by a balloon inflation; and     needing a reinforced frame strong enough to be capable of resisting without any damage, a strong pressure inflation of the expanding balloon.        
 
         [0169]     The shaft  27  of this successive two-balloon catheter  40  comprises two lumens for successive and separate inflation of each balloon. Indeed, an additional lumen capable of allowing a fast inflation occupies space in the shaft and therefore an enlargement of the shaft is necessary. However, this enlargement of the shaft stops at the level of the first balloon  26  since, further to said first balloon, only one lumen is necessary to inflate the second balloon  2 C, at the level of the IV which is the biggest part of the device.  
         [0170]     Another advantage of this two part IV with a two-balloon catheter is that each set of implantable valve and balloon has a smaller external diameter since each element to be expanded, considered separately, is smaller than in combination. This allows obtaining more easily a final device with an external diameter 14F.  
         [0171]     The first balloon is sufficiently strong to avoid bursting even at a very high pressure inflation. This first balloon is mounted in the frame in its deflated position, prior to its introduction by the strong frame which is aimed to scaffold the dilated stenosed aortic valve. The size and shape of said frame is comparable to what has been described previously but said frame is calculated (in particular the material, the number and diameter of its bars are chosen by the person skilled in the art) to make sure that it will resist the recoil of the dilated valve and that it will be securely embedded in the remains of the native aortic valve.  
         [0172]     The second balloon does not need to be as strong as the first one and, therefore, can be thinner, occupying less space and being easier to expand with a lower pressure for balloon inflation. This second balloon  26 ′ is mounted in the valve itself which, as in the preceding description, comprises a frame to support the valvular structure and said valvular structure.  
         [0173]     Also, the second frame  10 ′ does not need to be as strong as the first one. This frame can be slightly shorter, 10 mm instead of 12 mm, and its bars can be thinner. This frame can have an external surface which is a bit rough to allow better fixation on the first frame when expanded. The bars may also have some hooks to fasten to the first frame.  
         [0174]     The valvular structure is attached on said second frame and expanded by relatively low pressure in the second balloon called hereafter the IV balloon. It does not need to be as strong as in the preceding case (IV in one part and unique balloon catheter technique) and, therefore, it occupies less space and has less risk to be damaged at the time of expansion.  
         [0175]     This technique is shown in  FIGS. 15   a  to  15   f.    
         [0176]     One of the problems relevant to the IV implantation procedure as described above, with the IV in one part, is the expansion at the same time by the same balloon inflation of both the frame and the valvular structure. Indeed, the frame is a solid element and the valvular structure is a relative weak one that could be damaged when squeezed by the inflated balloon.  
         [0177]     Therefore, the valve implantation can be performed in two immediately successive steps. The first step ( FIGS. 15   a - 15   b ) corresponds to the expansion and the positioning of the first frame with the first balloon  26  wherein inflation is performed at a high pressure. The second step ( FIGS. 15   d - 15   e ) corresponds to the expansion and the positioning of the valvular structure  14  inside the frame  10 ′ using the second balloon  2 C. This second step follows the first one within a few seconds because, in the time interval between the two steps, there is a total aortic regurgitation towards the left ventricle which is an hemodynamic condition that cannot be maintained for more than a few heart beats, i.e., a few seconds, without inducing a massive pulmonary edema and a drop to zero of the cardiac output.  
         [0178]     In another embodiment, the balloon catheter may be provided with one or more perfusion lumens such that some blood may be allowed to flow through the aortic annulus during expansion of the balloons. In this embodiment, entry and exit ports may be provided along the catheter at locations proximal and distal to the balloons.  
         [0179]     In another embodiment, the first frame to be introduced comprises the valvular structure and the second frame being stronger than the first one to scaffold the previously dilated stenosed aortic valve.  
         [0180]     The advantage of this two step procedure would be to allow expansion and positioning of the frame part  10 ′ of the expandable valve  13  using strong pressure inflation of the balloon  26 ′ without the risk of damaging the valvular structure  14  which, for its own expansion, would need only light pressure inflation.  
         [0181]     The method is schematically detailed in  FIGS. 15   a  to  15   f.  A previous dilatation of the stenosed aortic valve is performed as an initial step of the procedure to prepare the distorted valve to facilitate the following steps: 
        1/ positioning the double balloon catheter  40  with the first balloon  26  with the frame at the level of the aortic annulus  2   a,  the second IV balloon  26 ′ being inside the left ventricle beyond the aortic annulus  2   a  ( FIG. 15   a );     2/ compression of the stenosed aortic valve  1 ′,  2 ′ with the first balloon  26  having a 20 mm, preferably with a 23 mm diameter, the balloon being inflated maximally up to the bursting point, to prepare the IV insertion ( FIG. 15   b ). Inflation lasts a few seconds (preferably 10 seconds at most) with powerful pressure being used to expand the frame and forcefully embed said frame in the remains of the dilated valve;     3/ an immediate speedy deflation of said first balloon  26  follows ( FIG. 15   c ); as soon as the balloon  26  is beginning to clearly deflate, the first frame  10  remaining attached to the stenosed valve  1 ′,  2 ′, the catheter is withdrawn to position the IV balloon  26 ′ inside the previously expanded frame  26  ( FIG. 15   c  in which the frame  10 ′ is partially drawn for clarity purpose); and     4/ immediately after being well positioned, the IV balloon  26 ′ is promptly inflated, to expand the IV  13  ( FIG. 15   c ); and/when the IV  13  is blocked inside the first frame  10 , the IV balloon  26 ′ is deflated ( FIG. 18   f ).        
 
         [0186]     Finally, the whole device has to be withdrawn to allow homeostasis of the femoral artery puncture hole.  
         [0187]     The total duration of the successive steps, particularly the time during which the balloons are inflated, and the time during which the frame is expanded whereas the valve has not yet been positioned and expanded, is about 20 to 30 seconds. This is feasible if the balloons are inflated and deflated within very a few seconds, 6 to 8, for instance. This is permitted if the lumen of the shaft can be sufficiently large, taking into account the inescapable small diameter size of the shaft. This can also be facilitated by a device producing instantaneously a strong inflation or deflation pressure.  
         [0188]     In a variation of the two part frame embodiment described above, the second frame may be configured to self-expand at the treatment site. In this embodiment, the first frame is expanded using a balloon, as generally shown in  FIGS. 15   a  through  15   c.  The first frame provides a scaffold to hold open the stenosed native valve. The second frame, having the valvular structure attached thereto, is advanced to a location adjacent to the first frame and is allowed to self-expand, preferably within the first frame. In this embodiment, the second frame is preferably made of a shape memory material configured to be collapsed and delivered within a lumen of a sheath. An inner catheter may be used to grip the second frame such that relative movement between the sheath and inner catheter results in the ejection of the second frame from the sheath. In this embodiment, it will be appreciated that a double balloon catheter is not necessary. In one variation, a tether may be attached to the second frame such that the second frame can be withdrawn into the sheath in the event that the initial deployment is not satisfactory. Examples of self-expanding implantable valves and associated delivery methods suitable for use with the present invention can be found in Applicant&#39;s co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/390,951, filed Mar. 18, 2003, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.  
         [0189]     In another embodiment, somewhat analogous to the procedures shown in  FIGS. 13   a  to  13   l  and  15   a  to  15   f,  a new prosthetic valve may be implanted within a previously implanted prosthetic valve. For purposes of illustration,  FIG. 16   a  illustrates a first prosthetic valve  50  that has been implanted within a stenotic aortic valve  56 . In this example, the first prosthetic valve was implanted within the native aortic valve  56  after the native leaflets  64 ,  68  had become thickened, distorted and/or calcified. The first prosthetic valve generally comprises a frame portion  52  and a valvular structure  54 .  FIG. 16   a  illustrates the valvular structure  54  in the fully open (i.e., dilated) condition. Additional details regarding the structure of the first prosthetic valve  50  can be found in Applicant&#39;s U.S. Pat. No. 6,893,460, which issued on May 17, 2005 and which is incorporated by reference herein.  FIG. 16   a  further illustrates coronary ostia  58  and a guidewire  62  extending through the first prosthetic valve  50 , the distal end of the guidewire  62  located in left ventrical  66 .  
         [0190]     A second prosthetic valve  70  is configured to be implanted within the first prosthetic valve  50  through the use of either of the procedures described above with respect to  FIGS. 13   a  to  13   l  and  15   a  to  15   f.  It is contemplated that other endovascular or surgical procedures may be used as well. The result would resemble the configuration shown in  FIG. 16   b,  wherein the second prosthetic valve  70  has been implanted within the first, previously implanted prosthetic valve  50 . The second prosthetic valve  70  is preferably formed with a frame portion having a smaller expanded diameter, such as about 20 mm, as compared with the frame portion  52  of the first prosthetic valve  50 . Accordingly, the second prosthetic valve  70  can be fully expanded within the first prosthetic valve  50 . This procedure advantageously provides a method for replacing the function of a prosthetic valve that has calcified or has otherwise diminished in functionality due to wear or fatigue. If the first prosthetic valve has become calcified or hardened such that it has become stenotic, a balloon may be used to dilate the first prosthetic valve before implantation of the second prosthetic valve. Otherwise, it may not be necessary to dilate the first prosthetic valve before delivering the second valve.  
         [0191]      FIGS. 16   c  and  16   d  are top cross-sectional views that further illustrate the placement of the second prosthetic valve  70  within the first prosthetic valve  50 . More particularly,  FIG. 16   c  is a top cross-sectional view of the first prosthetic valve  50  implanted within a native valve  56  having leaflets  64 ,  68  as described above with respect to  FIG. 16   a.  It can be seen that the first prosthetic valve has a substantially cylindrical configuration wherein the frame portion  52  supports the valvular structure  54 . The valvular structure  54  is shown in the fully open (i.e., dilated) position with the guidewire  62  extending therethrough.  FIG. 16   d  provides a top cross-sectional view of the second prosthetic valve  70  placed within the first prosthetic valve  50 , as described above with respect to  FIG. 16   b.  It can be seen that, after expansion, the frame portion  72  of the second prosthetic valve  70  engages and holds open the valvular structure  54  of the first prosthetic valve  50  for replacing the function thereof. The valvular structure  74  of the second prosthetic valve  70  is illustrated in a substantially closed position with the guidewire extending therethrough. After the second prosthetic valve is implanted within the first prosthetic valve, the balloon catheter and guidewire  62  are removed. Although the second prosthetic valve is generally described above as being balloon expandable, in an alternative embodiment, the second prosthetic valve may be a self-expanding valve configured to be delivered within a sheath.  
         [0192]     In a variation of the method described immediately above, the valvular structure of the original prosthetic valve may be removed before deployment of the new prosthetic valve. In one embodiment, the valvular structure is releasably coupled to the frame, such as via a releasable mechanical coupling, thereby facilitating removal. In this embodiment, the new valvular structure may be attached to the frame via a variety of known attachment mechanisms, such as, for example, crimping, locking or threadable engagement.  
         [0193]     With reference again to  FIGS. 14 and 15   a  to  15   f,  in another alternative method of replacing an existing prosthetic valve, the second frame  10 ′ and the valvular structure  14  of expandable valve  13  may be collapsed and removed from the first frame  10  as a unit. This may be achieved using a tool capable of providing an inward radial force for collapsing the frame. A new prosthetic valve similar to expandable valve  13  may then be deployed within the first frame  10  in general accordance with the steps shown in  FIGS. 15   d  through  15   f.  Alternatively, if the second frame is a self-expanding frame, the second frame and valvular structure may be withdrawn into a sheath and a new self-expanding valve may be deployed within the first frame  10 .  
         [0194]     For purposes of illustration, various preferred embodiments of the above devices and methods have been described wherein a prosthetic valve is advanced percutaneously through the aorta in a retrograde direction for implantation at the site of a native aortic valve. However, a variety of alternative procedures are also contemplated wherein an expandable member is used to dilate a stenotic native valve and an expandable prosthetic valve is percutaneously delivered to the treatment site and expanded to contact the native leaflets for replacing the valve function of the stenotic native valve. In one example, the expandable prosthetic valve may be advanced in an antegrade direction, such as by using a transseptal route. Furthermore, it will be appreciated that the general principles of the procedures shown in  FIGS. 13   a  to  13   l  and  15   a  to  15   f  may be applied in alternative minimally invasive approaches, such as, for example, by passing the prosthetic valve through a small incision in the chest wall. In preferred embodiments, an aortic valve is treated by delivering an expandable member (e.g., dilatation balloon) and a prosthetic valve via a transapical approach. Still further, the principles of the procedures shown in  FIGS. 13   a  to  13   l  and  15   a  to  15   f  may be applied in a surgical approach wherein direct access to the heart valve is provided.  
         [0195]     The preceding specific embodiments are illustrative of the practice of the invention. It is to be understood, however, that other expedients known to those skilled in the art or disclosed herein, may be employed without departing from the spirit of the invention of the scope of the appended claims.