PATENT ABSTRACT
A substantially pure  Candida  host cell for the production of a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, a α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof, is provided. The  Candida  host cell is characterized by a first genetic modification class and a second genetic modification class. The first genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that disrupt the peroxisomal β-oxidation pathway. The second genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that collectively or individually disrupt at least one gene selected from the group consisting of a CYP52A type cytochrome P450, a fatty alcohol oxidase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase.

PATENT DESCRIPTION
[0001]    This invention was made with government support under grant number DAAD19-03-1-0091, W911QY-04-C-0082 and NBCH1070004 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to Richard A. Gross. The United States Government has certain rights in this invention. 
     
    
     SEQUENCE LISTING 
       [0002]    This application includes a Sequence Listing submitted as filename Sequence_Listing — 888651 — 999018.TXT, of size 292,000 bytes, created May 6, 2009. The Sequence Listing is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. 
       1. FIELD 
       [0003]    Methods for biological production of α,ω-hydroxyacids and diacids using genetically modified strains of the yeast  Candida  are provided. Also provided are methods for the genetic modification of the yeast  Candida.  Also provided are biological methods for the conversion of α,ω-hydroxyacids and diacids to oligomers and polymers. 
       2. BACKGROUND 
       [0004]    The primary source of hydroxyfatty acids is castor oil that contains ˜90% ricinoleic acid (12-hydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid, 18:1 (OH)). Its hydroxyl functional group is highly valued since it provides a site for facile chemical derivatization. Unfortunately, castor plant surfaces harbor allergenic compounds that harm workers harvesting these plants. An additional concern is residual ricin, a toxic byproduct from castor oil production. Ricinoleic acid is used in high-volume products that include coatings, surfactants, polymers and cosmetics. Competitive chemical routes to ricinoleic analogs require multiple steps, use harsh chemical reagents, and generally lack selectivity. Furthermore, there is a need for a broadened spectrum of agro-based hydroxyl fatty acids that are more reactive primary substituents. 
         [0005]    Unlike rinoleic acid, the ω-hydroxyfatty acids produced by the novel method described herein can be derived from a wide range of oil sources while also providing hydroxyl functional groups. Furthermore, ω-hydroxyfatty acids have primary instead of secondary hydroxyl groups which increase their reactivity for esterification and urethane synthesis. As such, they can replace ricinoleic acid and hydrostearic acid in certain applications requiring higher performance. 
         [0006]    Owing to their unique attributes of new functional ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids, they can be used in a wide variety of applications including as monomers to prepare next generation polyethylene-like polyhydroxyalkanoates, surfactants, emulsifiers, cosmetic ingredients and lubricants. They also can serve as precursors for vinyl monomers used in a wide-variety of carbon back bone polymers. Direct polymerization of ω-hydroxy fatty acids via condensation polymerization gives next generation polyethylene-like polyhydroxyalkanoates that can be used for a variety of commodity plastic applications. Alternatively, the polymers can be designed for use as novel bioresorbable medical materials. Functional groups along polymers provide sites to bind or chemically link bioactive moieties to regulate the biological properties of these materials. Another use of functional polyesters is in industrial coating formulations, components in drug delivery vehicles and scaffolds that support cell growth during tissue engineering and other regenerative medicine strategies. 
       2.1 Polymer Properties 
       [0007]    Aliphatic polyesters are a group of biodegradable polymers that may be synthesized from readily renewable building blocks such as lactic acid and fatty acid-derived materials. Such polyesters can be synthesized via polycondensation reactions between aliphatic dicarboxylic acids with diols, transesterification of diesters with diols, polymerization of hydroxy acids, and ring-opening polymerization of lactones. Resulting products can be used in industrial and biomedical applications such as for controlled release drug carriers, implants and surgical sutures. Moreover, polyesters with functional groups along chains or in pendant groups are attracting increased interest since these groups can be used to regulate polymeric material properties. Furthermore, functional polymers can be post-modified to attach biologically active groups that allow the preparation of biomaterials for use in drug delivery system and as scaffold materials for tissue engineering. Polymers from ricinoleic acid have proved highly valuable for controlled drug delivery system. However, high purity ricinoleic acid is extremely expensive due to difficulties in its purification from the natural mixture. 
       2.2 Polymerization Reactions 
       [0008]    Both chemical and enzymatic approaches have been explored to synthesize polyesters from diol/diacid and hydroxyacid monomers. Chemical synthetic methods often require harsh reaction conditions and metal catalysts that are difficult to remove subsequent to polymerization. Introduction of functional groups along chains or in pendant groups is difficult to accomplish by chemical methods due to the lack of selectivity of chemical catalysts and associated harsh reaction conditions. Typically, to incorporate functional groups in chains or pendant groups using a chemical catalyst, protection-deprotection steps are required. In other words, prior to polymerization, functional groups are protected and after polymerization a deprotection step is performed to liberate functional groups. Such methods required by chemical polymerization catalysts are tedious, costly, and produce undesirable by-products. 
         [0009]    Compared to chemical synthesis, enzyme-catalyzed polymerizations can be performed under mild reaction conditions, using proteins that are metal-free and that have high enantio- and regioselectivities. Regioselectivity of enzyme-catalysts circumvents the need for protection of functional groups and allows the preparation of polymers from multifunctional monomers with control of branching. 
         [0010]    In recent years it has been shown that lipase-catalyzed condensation polymerizations may be performed using non-activated diacids and diols. Resulting products were obtained in high yield and with useful molecular weights. Mahapatro et al., 2004, Macromolecules 37, 35-40, describes catalysis of condensation polymerizations between adipic acid and 1,8-octanediol using immobilized Lipase B from  Candida antarctica  (CALB) as the catalyst. Furthermore, effects of substrates and solvents on lipase-catalyzed condensation polymerizations of diacids and diols have been documented. See Olsson, et al., 2003, Biomacromolecules 4: 544-551. These publications demonstrate the feasibility of lipase-catalyzed polymerizations between diacids and diols. 
         [0011]    Lipase-catalyzed polymerization of monomers containing functional groups including alkenes and epoxy groups to prepare polyesters has also been disclosed. Warwel et al. report the polymerization through transesterification reactions of long-chain unsaturated or epoxidized α,ω-dicarboxylic acid diesters (C18, C20 and C26 α,ω-dicarboxylic acid methyl esters) with diols using Novozym 435 as catalyst. See Warwel, 1995, et al. J. Mol. Catal. B: Enzymatic. 1, 29-35, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. The α,ω-dicarboxylic acid methyl esters were synthesized by metathetical dimerization of 9-decenoic, 10-undecenioc and 13-tetradecenioc acid methyl esters, and polycondensation with 1,4-butanediol in diphenyl ether yielded the polyesters with molecular weight (M w ) of 7800-9900 g mol −1 . Uyama et al. report polymerization of epoxidized fatty acids (in side-chain) with divinyl sebacate and glycerol to prepare epoxide-containing polyesters in good yields. See Uyama, et al., 2003, Biomacromolecules 4, 211-215, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Cis-9,10-epoxy-18-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid, isolated from suberin in the outer bark of birch, was used as a monomer to synthesize an epoxy-functionalized polyester by Novozym 435 catalysis (Biomacromolecules 8, 757-760 (2007)). Thus, prior work describes the preparation of functional polyesters using Novozym 435 catalysis. However, in each instance, monomer synthesis was performed either by (i) a chemical method that lacks selectivity, gives undesirable by-products and/or uses a toxic catalyst or (ii) an inefficient extraction of the monomer from a plant source. 
       2.3 Production of Monomers Prior to Polymerization 
       [0012]    Currently, α,ω-dicarboxylic acids are almost exclusively produced by chemical conversion processes. However, the chemical processes for production of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids from non-renewable petrochemical feedstocks usually produces numerous unwanted byproducts, requires extensive purification and gives low yields (Picataggio et al., 1992, Bio/Technology 10, 894-898). Moreover, α,ω-dicarboxylic acids with carbon chain lengths greater than 13 are not readily available by chemical synthesis. While several chemical routes to synthesize long-chain α,ω-dicarboxylic acids are available, their synthesis is difficult, costly and requires toxic reagents. Furthermore, most methods result in mixtures containing shorter chain lengths. Furthermore, other than four-carbon α,ω-unsaturated diacids (e.g. maleic acid and fumaric acid), longer chain unsaturated α,ω-dicarboxylic acids or those with other functional groups are currently unavailable since chemical oxidation cleaves unsaturated bonds or modifies them resulting in cis-trans isomerization and other by-products. 
         [0013]    Many microorganisms have the ability to produce α,ω-dicarboxylic acids when cultured in n-alkanes and fatty acids, including  Candida tropicalis, Candida cloacae, Cryptococcus neoforman  and  Corynebacterium  sp. (Shiio et al., 1971, Agr. Biol. Chem. 35, 2033-2042; Hill et al., 1986, Appl. Microbiol. Biotech. 24: 168-174; and Broadway et al., 1993, J. Gen. Microbiol. 139, 1337-1344).  Candida tropicalis  and similar yeasts are known to produce α,ω-dicarboxylic acids with carbon lengths from C12 to C22 via an ω-oxidation pathway. The terminal methyl group of n-alkanes or fatty acids is first hydroxylated by a membrane-bound enzyme complex consisting of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and associated NADPH cytochrome reductase that is the rate-limiting step in the ω-oxidation pathway. Two additional enzymes, the fatty alcohol oxidase and fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase, further oxidize the alcohol to create ω-aldehyde acid and then the corresponding α,ω-dicarboxylic acid (Eschenfeldt et al., 2003, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 5992-5999). However, there is also a β-oxidation pathway for fatty acid oxidation that exists within  Candida tropicalis.  Both fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids in wild type  Candida tropicalis  are efficiently degraded after activation to the corresponding acyl-CoA ester through the β-oxidation pathway, leading to carbon-chain length shortening, which results in the low yields of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids and numerous by-products. 
         [0014]    Mutants of  C. tropicalis  in which the β-oxidation of fatty acids is impaired may be used to improve the production of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids (Uemura et al., 1988, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 64, 1254-1257; and Yi et al., 1989, Appl. Microbiol. Biotech. 30, 327-331). Recently, genetically modified strains of the yeast  Candida tropicalis  have been developed to increase the production of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. An engineered  Candida tropicalis  (Strain H5343, ATCC No. 20962) with the POX4 and POX5 genes that code for enzymes in the first step of fatty acid β-oxidation disrupted was generated so that it can prevent the strain from metabolizing fatty acids, which directs the metabolic flux toward ω-oxidation and results in the accumulation of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids (FIG. 3). See U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,466 and Picataggio et al., 1992, Bio/Technology 10: 894-898, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Furthermore, by introduction of multiple copies of cytochrome P450 and reductase genes into  C. tropicalis  in which the β-oxidation pathway is blocked, the  C. tropicalis  strain AR40 was generated with increased ω-hydroxylase activity and higher specific productivity of diacids from long-chain fatty acids. See, Picataggio et al., 1992, Bio/Technology 10: 894-898 (1992); and U.S. Pat. No. 5,620,878, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Although the mutants or genetically modified  C. tropicalis  strains have been used for the biotransformation of saturated fatty acids (C12-C18) and unsaturated fatty acids with one or two double bonds to their corresponding diacids, the range of substrates needs to be expanded to produce more valuable diacids that are currently unavailable commercially, especially for those with internal functional groups that can be used for the potential application in biomaterials. The production of dicarboxylic acids by fermentation of saturated or unsaturated n-alkanes, n-alkenes, fatty acids or their esters with carbon number of 12 to 18 using a strain of the species  C. tropicalis  or other special microorganisms has been disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,975,234; 4,339,536; 4,474,882; 5,254,466; and 5,620,878. However, all of the known processes for the preparation of dicarboxylic acids by means of yeast only give straight-chain saturated or unsaturated (containing one double bond) dicarboxylic acids with carbon number of 12 to 18. Furthermore, the resulting dicarboxylic acids are not readily purified and used for polymer synthesis. Thus, no process is known for the preparation of ricinoleic acid analogs containing internal functionality that may consist of double bonds, triple bonds, epoxide, secondary hydroxyl, Si—O—Si and other moieties, in which the functional groups are transferred into the resulting dicarboxylic acids without change, especially in large scale, and also no processes are known for the preparation of an ω-hydroxy fatty acids with double bond and secondary hydroxyl group. 
         [0015]    In some instances it may be advantageous to polymerize long-chain ω-hydroxy fatty acids. These cannot be prepared using any described strain of  Candida  because the ω-hydroxy fatty acid is oxidized to form an α,ω-dicarboxylic acid. Furthermore, neither the general classes nor the specific sequences of the  Candida  enzymes responsible for the oxidation from ω-hydroxy fatty acids to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids have been identified. There is therefore a need in the art for methods to produce ω-hydroxy fatty acids from fatty acids by fermentation. 
       3. SUMMARY 
       [0016]    Biological methods for the production of aliphatic polyesters are disclosed. 
         [0017]    One aspect of the disclosed subject matter are methods for the preparation of a new family of ricinoleic acid analogs (e.g., functional long-chain ω-hydroxy fatty acids, α,ω-dicarboxylic acids or mixtures of these two products) in high yield. The methods involve a biocatalytic step in which fatty acids are transformed to their ω-hydroxy, ω-carboxy, or a mixture of both ω-hydroxy and ω-carboxy ricinoleic analogs. Similar to ricinoleic acid, the analogs prepared herein have two functionalities that can be converted via reactions with carboxylic acids or hydroxyl bearing molecules to ester moieties. Furthermore, the ricinoleic analogs prepared herein have an internal functionality that may consist of a double bond, triple bond, epoxide, Si—O—Si and other moieties. In other words, the preparation of a family of ricinoleic analogs that are defined as having one or more internal functional groups (double bond, triple bond, epoxide, Si—O—Si, conjugated diene, conjugated triene) and two other functionalities that can be used to synthesize oligoesters, polyol-polyesters, surfactants or polyesters are provided. Whereas ricinoleic acid has 12-hydroxyl and α-carboxyl groups, ricinoleic analogs described herein have either α-/ω-carboxyl groups, α-carboxyl/ω-hydroxyl groups, or consist of a mixture of these products. 
         [0018]    Synthesis of the ricinoleic acid analogs is accomplished using a whole-cell biocatalyst (e.g.,  Candida  species including  Candida tropicalis ) for conversions of readily renewable fatty acid substrates. These functional building blocks comprise ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids with carbon chain lengths from C14 to C22 that contain one or more additional functional groups along fatty acid chains that can be selected from the following: alkenes, alkynes, conjugated alkenes, conjugated alkynes, ether, silicone, epoxy, quaternary ammonium salt, secondary amine, imine, and other moieties including —S— and —P(X)—. These products may be used without further processing, as monomers for oligomer, prepolymer and polymer synthesis, and building blocks for surfactants and emulsifiers. Polymerizations of these monomers may be carried out by chemical or enzymatic methods. Preferably ricinoleic acid building blocks are further modified or converted to oligomers or polymers via enzymatic polymerizations using a lipase catalyst. The lipase catalyst catalyzes ester bond hydrolysis thereby catalyzing homo- and copolymerizations of these monomers under reverse equilibrium conditions. This results in a new family of oligomers and polymers with functional groups for post-modification. Furthermore, high molecular weight polymers can be formed that are biodegradable in the environment or used as bioresorbable materials for medical applications. Also disclosed are methods for polymerizing these monomers. 
         [0019]    One embodiment provides a substantially pure  Candida  host cell for the production of a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, an α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof. The  Candida  host cell is characterized by a first genetic modification class and a second genetic modification class. The first genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that disrupt the β-oxidation pathway in the substantially pure  Candida  host cell. The second genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that collectively or individually disrupt at least one gene in the substantially pure  Candida  host cell selected from the group consisting of a CYP52A type cytochrome P450, a fatty alcohol oxidase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase. 
         [0020]    Another embodiment provides a method for producing an α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, a α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof in a  Candida  host cell. The method comprises (A) making one or more first genetic modifications in a first genetic modification class to the  Candida  host cell. The method further comprises (B) making one or more second genetic modifications in a second genetic modification class to the  Candida  host cell, where steps (A) and (B) collectively form a genetically modified  Candida  host cell. The method further comprises (C) producing a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, a α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof, by fermenting the genetically modified  Candida  host cell in a culture medium comprising a nitrogen source, an organic substrate having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, and a cosubstrate. Here, the first genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that disrupt the β-oxidation pathway of the  Candida  host cell. Also, the second genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that collectively or individually disrupt at least one gene selected from the group consisting of a CYP52A type cytochrome P450, a fatty alcohol oxidase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase in the  Candida  host cell. 
         [0021]    Another embodiment provides a substantially pure  Candida  host cell for the production of a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, an α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof, where the  Candida  host cell is characterized by a first genetic modification class and a second genetic modification class. The first genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that disrupt the β-oxidation pathway. The second genetic modification class comprises one or more genetic modifications that collectively or individually add to the host cell genome at least one gene selected from the group consisting of a desaturase, a lipase, a fatty alcohol oxidase, an alcohol dehydrogenase, a glycosyl transferase or a cytochrome P450 that is not identical to a naturally occurring counterpart gene in the  Candida  host cell; or a desaturase, a lipase, a fatty alcohol oxidase, an alcohol dehydrogenase, a glycosyl transferase or a cytochrome P450 that is expressed under control of a promoter other than the promoter that controls expression of the naturally occurring counterpart gene in the  Candida  host cell. 
         [0022]    In some embodiments, first genetic modification class comprises disruption of a gene that has at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to  Candida tropicalis  PXP-4 (SEQ ID NO: 134) or at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity  Candida tropicalis  PXP-5 (SEQ ID NO: 135) in the  Candida  host cell. 
         [0023]    In some embodiments the second genetic modification class comprises disruption of at least one CYP52A type cytochrome P450 selected from the group consisting of CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A12, and CYP52A12B. 
         [0024]    In some embodiments the second genetic modification class comprises disruption of CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A12, and CYP52A12B. 
         [0025]    In one embodiment, processes are disclosed for the preparation of ricinoleic acid analogs with high productivity by fermentation utilizing a strain of  Candida,  subsequent purification of ricinoleic acid analogs, and conversion to oligomers and polymers for a variety of applications. 
       3.1 Production of Monomers 
       [0026]    Disclosed are biosynthetic routes that convert (oxidize) fatty acids to their corresponding α,ω-dicarboxylic acids, α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxyl fatty acids, or a mixture of these products. This is accomplished by culturing fatty acid substrates with a yeast, preferably a strain of  Candida  and more preferably a strain of  Candida tropicalis.  The yeast converts fatty acids to long-chain ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids, and mixtures thereof. Methods by which yeast strains may be engineered by the addition or removal of genes to modify the oxidation products formed are disclosed. Fermentations are conducted in liquid media containing fatty acids as substrates. Biological conversion methods for these compounds use readily renewable resources such as fatty acids as starting materials rather than non-renewable petrochemicals, and give the target ricinoleic acid analogs with relatively higher selectivity and fewer by-products. For example, ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids can be produced from inexpensive long-chain fatty acids, which are readily available from renewable agricultural and forest products such as soybean oil, corn oil and tallow. Moreover, a wide range of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids and α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxyl fatty acids with different carbon length can be prepared because the biocatalyst accepts a wide range of fatty acid substrates. Products described herein produced by the biocatalytic methods described herein are new and not commercially available since chemical methods are impractical to prepare the compounds and biocatalytic methods to these products were previously unknown. Furthermore, biosynthesis to new ricinoleic acid analogs is conducted under mild reaction conditions and functional groups presented by fatty acid substrates remain intact during the biotransformation. 
       3.2 Polymerization of Monomers 
       [0027]    One aspect describes the conversion of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids and α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxyl fatty acids into a new family of aliphatic functional polyesters. These polyesters are biodegradable, which means they can be converted through biological processes into carbon dioxide, methane, water, lignocellulosic substances and other natural products. They also can function as bioresorbable materials for medical applications. Polymerizations of these monomers is performed by lipase-catalysis. The resulting copolyesters can have variable contents of alkyne, alkene, epoxides and hydroxyl functionalities. The new ricinoleic acid analogs may be copolymerized with a wide array of other monomers such as lactones such as dioxanone and ε-caprolactone, those with silicone segments, polyols such as glycerol and sorbitol, polyethylene glycol, cyclic monomers or linear segments bearing anhydride or carbonate linkages and much more. 
         [0028]    One aspect disclosed herein provides the combination of a method in which (i) ricinoleic analogs are synthesized by an oxidative biotransformation catalyzed by a yeast belonging to the genus  Candida  followed by (ii) enzyme-catalyzed homo- or copolymerization of ricinoleic acids using an enzyme that in nature functions for ester hydrolysis but is used under reverse equilibrium conditions to prepare polyesters. Enzyme-catalyzed homo- and copolymerizations allow control of branching when using monomers with 3 or more reactive groups. Furthermore, enzyme-catalysis allows the synthesis of carbonate, ester, amide and anhydride linkages between monomers. Moreover, mild conditions during enzyme-catalysis allows functional groups along monomers such as alkynes, alkenes, conjugated alkynes, conjugated alkenes, epoxides, hydroxyl, silicone and more to remain intact during polymer synthesis. 
         [0029]    A schematic representation showing the production of hydroxy fatty acid monomers and dicarboxylic acid monomers using whole cell biotransformation by  Candida,  followed by polymerization catalyzed by lipase is shown in  FIG. 1 . 
     
    
     
       4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         [0030]      FIG. 1  shows the overall scheme of one embodiment in which aliphatic fatty acids are converted to α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxyl fatty acids or to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids by whole cell biotransformation using cells of  Candida  species. These are then enzymatically polymerized, either to form homopolymers or copolymers with other monomers. 
           [0031]      FIG. 2  shows two pathways for metabolism of fatty acids, ω-oxidation and β-oxidation, both of which exist in  Candida  species of yeast including  Candida tropicalis.  The names of classes of compounds are shown, arrows indicate transformations from one compound to another, and the names of classes of enzymes that perform these conversions are indicated by underlined names adjacent to the arrows. 
           [0032]      FIG. 3  shows two pathways for metabolism of fatty acids, ω-oxidation and β-oxidation, both of which exist in  Candida  species of yeast including  Candida tropicalis.  The names of classes of compounds are shown, arrows indicate transformations from one compound to another, and the names of classes of enzymes that perform these conversions are indicated by underlined names adjacent to the arrows. By inactivating the genes encoding acyl coA oxidase (pox4 and pox5), the β-oxidation pathway is blocked (indicated by broken arrows), so that fatty acids are not used as substrates for growth. This genetic modification allows  Candida  species of yeast including  Candida tropicalis  to be used as a biocatalyst for the production of α,ω-diacids. See, for example, Picataggio et al., 1991, Mol Cell Biol 11, 4333-4339; and Picataggio et al., 1992, Biotechnology 10, 894-898. The β-oxidation pathway may be disrupted by any genetic modification or treatment of the host cells with a chemical for example an inhibitor that substantially reduces or eliminates the activity of one or more enzymes in the β-oxidation pathway, including the hydratase, dehydrogenase or thiolase enzymes, and thereby reduces the flux through that pathway and thus the utilization of fatty acids as growth substrates. 
           [0033]      FIG. 4  shows a schematic representation of a DNA “genomic targeting” construct for deleting sequences from the genome of yeasts. The general structure is that the construct has two targeting sequences that are homologous to the sequences of two regions of the target yeast chromosome. Between these targeting sequences are two sites recognized by a site-specific recombinase (indicated as “recombinase site”). Between the two site specific recombinase sites are sequence elements, one of which encodes a selective marker and the other of which (optionally) encodes the site-specific recombinase that recognizes the recombinase sites. In one embodiment the sequences of the DNA construct between the targeting sequences is the “SAT1 flipper”, a DNA construct for inserting and deleting sequences into the chromosome of  Candida.  See, for example, Reuss et al., 2004, Gene 341, 119-127. In the “SAT1 flipper”, the recombinase is the flp recombinase from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  (Vetter et al., 1983, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80, 7284-7288.) (FLP) and the flanking sequences recognized by the recombinase are recognition sites for the flp recombinase (FRT). The selective marker is the gene encoding resistance to the Nourseothricin resistance marker from transposon Tn1825 (Tietze et al., 1988, J. Basic Microbiol 28, 129-136). The DNA sequence of the SAT1-flipper is given as SEQ ID NO: 1. The genomic targeting sequence can be propagated in bacteria, for example  E coli,  in which case the complete plasmid will also contain sequences required for propagation in bacteria, comprising a bacterial origin of replication and a bacterial selective marker such as a gene conferring antibiotic resistance. The targeting construct can be released from this plasmid in a linear form by digestion with one or more restriction enzymes with recognition sites that flank the targeting sequences. 
           [0034]      FIG. 5  shows a schematic representation of the homologous recombination between a “genomic targeting” construct of the form shown in  FIG. 4 , with the DNA contained in a yeast genome (either in the chromosome or in the mitochondrial DNA). The targeting construct (A) contains two regions of sequence homology to the genomic sequence (B); the corresponding sequences in the genomic sequence flank the DNA region to be replaced. Introduction of the targeting construct into the host cell is followed by homologous recombination catalyzed by host cell enzymes. The result is an integrant of the targeting construct into the genomic DNA (C) and the excised DNA (D) which will generally be lost from the cell. 
           [0035]      FIG. 6  shows a schematic representation of excision of the targeting construct from the yeast genome that occurs when expression of the recombinase in the targeting construct is induced in the integrant (A) shown in  FIG. 5 . Induction of the site-specific recombinase causes recombination between the two recombinase recognition sites. The result is the excision of the sequences between the two recombinase sites (C) leaving a single recombinase site in the genomic DNA (B). 
           [0036]      FIG. 7  shows a schematic representation of a DNA “genomic targeting” construct for inserting sequences into the genome of yeasts. The general structure is that the construct has two targeting sequences that are homologous to the sequences of two regions of the target yeast chromosome. Between these targeting sequences are two sites recognized by a site-specific recombinase (indicated as “recombinase site”). Between the two site specific recombinase sites are sequence elements, one of which encodes a selective marker and the other of which (optionally) encodes the site-specific recombinase that recognizes the recombinase sites. Insertion of additional sequences between one of the targeting sequences and its closest recombinase recognition site will result in those sequences being inserted into the chromosome after excision of the targeting construct (“Insertion sequences”). The genomic targeting sequence can be propagated in bacteria, for example  E coli,  in which case the complete plasmid will also contain sequences required for propagation in bacteria, comprising a bacterial origin of replication and a bacterial selective marker such as a gene conferring antibiotic resistance. The targeting construct can be released from this plasmid in a linear form by digestion with one or more restriction enzymes with recognition sites that flank the targeting sequences. 
           [0037]      FIG. 8  shows a schematic representation of the homologous recombination between a “genomic targeting” construct of the form shown in  FIG. 7 , with the DNA contained in a yeast genome (either in the chromosome or in the mitochondrial DNA). The targeting construct (A) contains two regions of sequence homology to the genomic sequence (B); the corresponding sequences in the genomic sequence flank the DNA region to be replaced. Introduction of the targeting construct into the host cell is followed by homologous recombination catalyzed by host cell enzymes. The result is an integrant of the targeting construct into the genomic DNA (C) and the excised DNA (D) which will generally be lost from the cell. 
           [0038]      FIG. 9  shows a schematic representation of excision of the targeting construct from the yeast genome that occurs when expression of the recombinase in the targeting construct is induced in the integrant (A) shown in  FIG. 8 . Induction of the site-specific recombinase causes recombination between the two recombinase recognition sites. The result is the excision of the sequences between the two recombinase sites (C) leaving a single recombinase site together with the additional sequences that were included between the targeting sequences and the recombinase site (see  FIG. 7 ) in the genomic DNA (B). 
           [0039]      FIG. 10  shows a schematic representation of three stages in generation of a targeted deletion in a yeast genome (either in the chromosome or in the mitochondrial DNA), and the results of a PCR test to distinguish between the three stages. (A) PCR primers (thick arrows) are designed to flank the targeted region. (B) Insertion of a genomic targeting construct into the genome inserts two recombinase sites, a recombinase gene and a selection marker between the two target sequences. This changes the size of the DNA segment between the two PCR primers; in the case shown the size is increased. (C) Induction of the recombinase results in excision of the recombinase encoding gene, the selective marker and one of the recombinase sites. This again changes the size of the DNA segment between the two PCR primers. (D) PCR amplification from yeast genomic DNA unmodified (gel lanes marked A), with integrated genomic targeting vector (gel lanes marked B) or after excision of the genomic targeting vector (gel lanes marked C). 
           [0040]      FIG. 11  shows a schematic representation of a DNA “genomic targeting” construct for inserting or deleting sequences in the genome of yeasts. The general structure is that the construct has two targeting sequences that are homologous to the sequences of two regions of the target yeast chromosome. Between these targeting sequences is a sequence that encodes a selective marker. 
           [0041]      FIG. 12  shows two pathways for metabolism of fatty acids, ω-oxidation and β-oxidation, both of which exist in  Candida  species of yeast including  Candida tropicalis.  The names of classes of compounds are shown, arrows indicate transformations from one compound to another, and the names of classes of enzymes that perform these conversions are indicated by underlined names adjacent to the arrows. By inactivating the  Candida tropicalis  genes pox4 and pox5 (or their functional homologs in other  Candida  species), the β-oxidation pathway is blocked (indicated by broken arrows), so that fatty acids are not used as substrates for growth. Furthermore, inactivation of CYP52A type cytochrome P450 enzymes, as illustrated in the Figure, prevents the ω-oxidation of these fatty acids. These enzymes may also be responsible for some or all of the transformations involved in oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. See Eschenfeldt, et al., 2003, Appli. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 5992-5999, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. 
           [0042]      FIG. 13  shows the levels of ω-hydroxy myristate and the over-oxidized C14 diacid produced by  Candida tropicalis  strains DP1 (ura3A/ura3B pox5A::ura3A/pox5B::ura3A pox4A::ura3A/pox4B::URA3A) and DP174 (ura3A/ura3B pox5A::ura3A/pox5B::ura3A pox4A::ura3A/pox4B::URA3A ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14). Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 16 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 30 g/l glucose. After 16 hours 0.5 ml of culture was added to 4.5 ml fresh media F plus 60 g/l glucose in a 125 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 12 hours before addition of substrate. After addition of substrates growth was continued at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Parts A and B: the substrate methyl myristate was then added to a final concentration of 10 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8. The culture was pH controlled by adding 2 mol/l NaOH every 12 hours and glucose was fed as a cosubstrate by adding 400 g/l glucose every 8 hours. Samples were taken at the times indicated, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy myristate and of the C14 diacid produced by oxidation of the ω-hydroxy myristate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). The diacid was quantified relative to a known standard. No such standard was available for the ω-hydroxy myristate, so it was quantified by measuring the area under the peak in the MS chromatogram. Parts C and D: the substrates methyl myristate, sodium myristate or myristic acid were added to a final concentration of 10 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8. The culture was pH controlled by adding 2 mol/l NaOH every 12 hours and glucose was fed as a cosubstrate by adding 400 g/l glucose every 8 hours. Samples were taken after 48 hours, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy myristate and of the C14 diacid produced by oxidation of the ω-hydroxy myristate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
           [0043]      FIG. 14  shows two pathways for metabolism of fatty acids, ω-oxidation and β-oxidation, both of which exist in  Candida  species of yeast including  Candida tropicalis.  The names of classes of compounds are shown, arrows indicate transformations from one compound to another, and the names of classes of enzymes that perform these conversions are indicated by underlined names adjacent to the arrows. By inactivating the  Candida tropicalis  genes pox4 and pox5 (or their functional homologs in other  Candida  species), the β-oxidation pathway is blocked (indicated by broken arrows), so that fatty acids are not used as substrates for growth. Furthermore, inactivation of CYP52A type cytochrome P450 enzymes prevents the ω-oxidation of fatty acids. Several enzymes including, but not limited to CYP52A type P450s, are responsible for transformations involved in oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. If other enzymes involved in oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids are present in the strain, then the strain will convert ω-hydroxy fatty acids fed in the media to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. If other enzymes involved in oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids have been eliminated from the strain, then the strain will convert ω-hydroxy fatty acids fed in the media to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. 
           [0044]      FIG. 15  shows the levels of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids produced by  Candida tropicalis  strains DP186, DP258 and DP259 (see Table 3 for genotypes). Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 16 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 16 hours 0.5 ml of culture was added to 4.5 ml fresh media F plus 20 g/l glycerol in a 125 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 12 hours before addition of substrate. After addition of substrates growth was continued at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Part A: the substrate ω-hydroxy laurate was then added to a final concentration of 5 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8. Samples were taken after 24 hours, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-dicarboxy laurate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). Part B: the substrate ω-hydroxy palmitate was then added to a final concentration of 5 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8. Samples were taken after 24 hours, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-dicarboxy laurate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
           [0045]      FIG. 16  shows the levels of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids produced by  Candida tropicalis  strains DP186, DP283 and DP284 (see Table 3 for genotypes). Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 16 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 16 hours 0.5 ml of culture was added to 4.5 ml fresh media F plus 20 g/l glycerol in a 125 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 12 hours before addition of substrate. After addition of substrates growth was continued at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Part A: the substrate ω-hydroxy laurate was then added to a final concentration of 5 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8. Samples were taken after 24 hours, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-dicarboxy laurate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). Part B: the substrate ω-hydroxy palmitate was then added to a final concentration of 5 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8. Samples were taken after 24 hours, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-dicarboxy laurate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
           [0046]      FIG. 17  shows a phylogenetic tree with five  Candida tropicalis  alcohol dehydrogenase sequences (A10, B11, B2, A4 and B4) and two alcohol dehydrogenases from  Candida albicans  (Ca_ADH1A and Ca_ADH2A). 
           [0047]      FIG. 18  shows a schematic design for selecting two sets of nested targeting sequences for the deletion of two alleles of a gene whose sequences are very similar, for example the alcohol dehydrogenase genes. The construct for the first allele uses ˜200 base pair at the 5′ end and ˜200 base pair at the 3′ end as targeting sequences (5′-ADH Out and 3′-ADH Out). The construct for the second allele uses two sections of ˜200 base pair between the first two targeting sequences (5′-ADH In and 3′-ADH In). These sequences are eliminated by the first targeting construct from the first allele of the gene and will thus serve as a targeting sequence for the second allele of the gene. 
           [0048]      FIG. 19  shows the levels of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids produced by  Candida tropicalis  strains DP1, DP283 and DP415 (see Table 3 for genotypes). Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 18 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 18 hours the preculture was diluted in fresh media to A 600 =1.0. This culture was shaken until the A 600  reached between 5.0 and 6.0. Biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding 5 ml culture to a 125 ml flask together with 50 mg of ω-hydroxy lauric acid, and pH adjusted to ˜7.5 with 2M NaOH. Part A: cell growth was followed by measuring the A 600  every 2 hours. Part B: formation of diacid; every 2 hours a sample of the cell culture was taken, acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-dicarboxy laurate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
           [0049]      FIG. 20  shows the levels of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids produced by  Candida tropicalis  strains DP1, DP390, DP415, DP417, DP421, DP423, DP434 and DP436 (see Table 3 for genotypes). Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 18 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 18 hours the preculture was diluted in fresh media to A 600 =1.0. This culture was shaken until the A 600  reached between 5.0 and 6.0. Biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding 5 ml culture to a 125 ml flask together with 50 mg of ω-hydroxy lauric acid, and pH adjusted to ˜7.5 with 2M NaOH. Formation of diacid was measured at the indicated intervals by taking a sample of the cell culture and acidifying to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-dicarboxy laurate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
           [0050]      FIG. 21  shows a schematic representation of a DNA “genomic insertion” construct for inserting sequences to be expressed into the genome of yeasts. The general structure is that the construct has a gene for expression which is preceded by a promoter that is active in the yeast (Promoter 1). Promoter 1 comprises a linearization position which may be a site recognized by a restriction enzyme which cleaves the genomic insertion construct once to linearize it, or an annealing site for PCR primers to amplify a linear molecule from the construct. Three positions (A, B and C) are marked in Promoter 1 for reference in  FIG. 22  when the construct is linearized. The gene for expression is optionally followed by a transcription terminator (Transcription terminator 1). The genomic insertion construct also comprises a selectable marker. The selectable marker is preferably one that is active in both bacterial and yeast hosts. To achieve this, the selectable marker may be preceded by a yeast promoter (promoter 2) and a bacterial promoter, and optionally it may be followed by a transcription terminator (transcription terminator 2). The genomic insertion construct also comprises a bacterial origin of replication. 
           [0051]      FIG. 22  shows a schematic representation of the integration of a DNA “genomic insertion” construct into the DNA of a yeast genome. Part A shows an integration construct of the structure shown in  FIG. 22 , with parts marked. The construct is linearized, for example by digesting with an enzyme that recognizes a unique restriction site within promoter 1, or by PCR amplification, or by any other method, so that a portion of promoter 1 is at one end of the linearized construct (5′ part), and the remainder at the other end (3′ end). Three positions (A, B and C) are marked in Promoter 1, these refer to the positions in  FIG. 21 . Part B shows the intact Promoter 1 in the yeast genome, followed by the gene that is normally transcribed from Promoter 1 (genomic gene expressed from promoter 1). Three positions (A, B and C) are also marked in the genomic copy of Promoter 1. Part C shows the genome after integration of the construct. The construct integrates at position B in Promoter 1, the site at which the construct was linearized. This results in a duplication of promoter 1 in the genome, with one copy of the promoter driving transcription of the introduced gene for expression and the other copy driving the transcription of the genomic gene expressed from promoter 1. 
           [0052]      FIG. 23  shows a specific embodiment of the DNA “genomic insertion” construct shown in  FIG. 21 . The general structure is that the construct has a gene for expression which is preceded by a promoter that is active in the yeast (the  Candida tropicalis  isocitrate lyase promoter). The isocitrate lyase promoter comprises a unique BsiWI site whereby the construct may be cleaved by endocunclease BsiWI once to linearize it. The gene for expression is followed by a transcription terminator (isocitrate lyase transcription terminator). The genomic insertion construct also comprises a selectable marker conferring resistance to the antibiotic zeocin. This selectable marker is active in both bacterial and yeast hosts and preceded by a yeast promoter (the TEF1 promoter) and a Bacterial promoter (the EM7 promoter), and followed by a transcription terminator (the CYC1 transcription terminator 2). The genomic insertion construct also comprises a bacterial origin of replication (the pUC origin of replication. 
           [0053]      FIG. 24  shows the levels of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids and ω-hydroxy fatty acids produced by  Candida tropicalis  strains DP1, DP201 and DP428 (see Table 3 for genotypes). Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 18 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glucose plus 5 g/l ethanol. After 18 hours 3 ml of preculture was added to 27 ml fresh media F plus 20 g/l glucose plus 5 g/l ethanol in a 500 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 20 hours before addition of substrate. Biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding 40 g/l of methyl myristate, the pH was adjusted to ˜7.8 with 2M NaOH. The culture was pH controlled by adding 2 mol/l NaOH every 12 hours, glycerol was fed as cosubstrate by adding 500 g/l glycerol and ethanol was fed as a inducer by adding 50% ethanol every 12 hours. Samples were taken at the times indicated, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy myristate and α,ω-dicarboxymyristate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
           [0054]      FIG. 25  shows the levels of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids and ω-hydroxy fatty acids produced by  Candida tropicalis  strains DP428 and DP522 (see Table 3 for genotypes). Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. in a DASGIP parallel fermentor containing 200 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 30 g/l glucose. The pH was maintained at 6.0 by automatic addition of 6 M NaOH or 2 M H 2 SO 4  solution. Dissolved oxygen was kept at 70% by agitation and O 2 -cascade control mode. After 6 hour growth, ethanol was fed into the cell culture to 5 g/l. After 12 h growth, biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding (A) 20 g/l of methyl myristate, (B) 20 g/l oleic acid or (C) 10 g/l linoleic acid. During the conversion phase, 80% glycerol was fed as co-substrate for conversion of methyl myristate and 500 g/l glucose was fed as co-substrate for conversion of oleic acid and linoleic acid by dissolved oxygen-stat control mode (the high limit of dissolved oxygen was 75% and low limit of dissolved oxygen was 70%, which means glycerol feeding was initiated when dissolved oxygen is higher than 75% and stopped when dissolved oxygen was lower than 70%). Every 12 hour, ethanol was added into cell culture to 2 g/l, and fatty acid substrate was added to 20 g/l until the total substrate concentration added was (A) 60 g/l of methyl myristate, (B) 60 g/l oleic acid or (C) 30 g/l linoleic acid. Formation of products was measured at the indicated intervals by taking samples and acidifying to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl; products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
           [0055]      FIG. 26  shows the levels of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids and ω-hydroxy fatty acids produced by  Candida tropicalis  strain DP428 (see Table 3 for genotype) in two separate fermentor runs.  C. tropicalis  DP428 was taken from a glycerol stock or fresh agar plate and inoculated into 500 ml shake flask containing 30 mL of YPD medium (20 g/l glucose, 20 g/l peptone and 10 g/l yeast extract) and shaken at 30° C., 250 rpm for 20 hours. Cells were collected by centrifugation and re-suspended in FM3 medium for inoculation. (FM3 medium is 30 g/l glucose, 7 g/l ammonium sulfate, 5.1 g/l potassium phosphate, monobasic, 0.5 g/l magnesium sulfate, 0.1 g/l calcium chloride, 0.06 g/l citric acid, 0.023 g/l ferric chloride, 0.0002 g/l biotin and 1 ml/l of a trace elements solution. The trace elements solution contains 0.9 g/l boric acid, 0.07 g/l cupric sulfate, 0.18 g/l potassium iodide, 0.36 g/l ferric chloride, 0.72 g/l manganese sulfate, 0.36 g/l sodium molybdate, 0.72 g/l zinc sulfate.) Conversion was performed by inoculating 15 ml of preculture into 135 ml FM3 medium, methyl myristate was added to 20 g/l and the temperature was kept at 30° C. The pH was maintained at 6.0 by automatic addition of 6 M NaOH or 2 M H 2 SO 4  solution. Dissolved oxygen was kept at 70% by agitation and O 2 -cascade control mode. After six hour growth, ethanol was fed into the cell culture to 5 g/l. During the conversion phase, 80% glycerol was fed as co-substrate by dissolved oxygen-stat control mode (the high limit of dissolved oxygen was 75% and low limit of dissolved oxygen was 70%, which means glycerol feeding was initiated when dissolved oxygen is higher than 75% and stopped when dissolved oxygen was lower than 70%). Every 12 hour, ethanol was added into cell culture to 2 g/l, and methyl myristate was added to 40 g/l until the total methyl myristate added was 140 g/l (e.g. the initial 20 g/l plus 3 subsequent 40 g/l additions). Formation of products was measured at the indicated intervals by taking samples and acidifying to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl; products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy myristate and α,ω-dicarboxymyristate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
       
    
    
     5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0056]    It is to be understood that what is disclosed herein is not limited to the particular methodology, devices, solutions or apparatuses described, as such methods, devices, solutions or apparatuses can, of course, vary. 
       5.1 Definitions 
       [0057]    Use of the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a polynucleotide” includes a plurality of polynucleotides, reference to “a substrate” includes a plurality of such substrates, reference to “a variant” includes a plurality of variants, and the like. Terms such as “connected,” “attached,” “linked,” and “conjugated” are used interchangeably herein and encompass direct as well as indirect connection, attachment, linkage or conjugation unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Where a range of values is recited, it is to be understood that each intervening integer value, and each fraction thereof, between the recited upper and lower limits of that range is also specifically disclosed, along with each subrange between such values. The upper and lower limits of any range can independently be included in or excluded from the range, and each range where either, neither or both limits are included is also encompassed in the disclosed embodiments. Where a value being discussed has inherent limits, for example where a component can be present at a concentration of from 0 to 100%, or where the pH of an aqueous solution can range from 1 to 14, those inherent limits are specifically disclosed. Where a value is explicitly recited, it is to be understood that values which are about the same quantity or amount as the recited value are also encompassed. Where a combination is disclosed, each subcombination of the elements of that combination is also specifically disclosed and is within the scope of the disclosed embodiments. Conversely, where different elements or groups of elements are individually disclosed, combinations thereof are also disclosed. Where any embodiment is disclosed as having a plurality of alternatives, examples of that embodiment in which each alternative is excluded singly or in any combination with the other alternatives are also hereby disclosed; more than one element of a disclosed embodiment can have such exclusions, and all combinations of elements having such exclusions are hereby disclosed. 
         [0058]    Unless defined otherwise herein, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. Singleton, et al.,  Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology,  2nd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York (1994), and Hale &amp; Marham,  The Harper Collins Dictionary of Biology,  Harper Perennial, N.Y., 1991, provide one of ordinary skill in the art with a general dictionary of many of the terms used herein. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the disclosed embodiments, the preferred methods and materials are described. Unless otherwise indicated, nucleic acids are written left to right in 5′ to 3′ orientation; amino acid sequences are written left to right in amino to carboxy orientation, respectively. The terms defined immediately below are more fully defined by reference to the specification as a whole. 
         [0059]    As used, herein, computation of percent identity takes full weight of any insertions in two sequences for which percent identity is computed. To compute percent identity between two sequences, they are aligned and any necessary insertions in either sequence being compared are then made in accordance with sequence alignment algorithms known in the art. Then, the percent identity is computed, where each insertion in either sequence necessary to make the optimal alignment between the two sequences is counted as a mismatch. 
         [0060]    The terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” “nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid molecule” and “gene” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, and may comprise ribonucleotides, deoxyribonucleotides, analogs thereof, or mixtures thereof. This term refers only to the primary structure of the molecule. Thus, the term includes triple-, double- and single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (“DNA”), as well as triple-, double- and single-stranded ribonucleic acid (“RNA”). It also includes modified, for example by alkylation, and/or by capping, and unmodified forms of the polynucleotide. More particularly, the terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” “nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid molecule” include polydeoxyribonucleotides (containing 2-deoxy-D-ribose), polyribonucleotides (containing D-ribose), including tRNA, rRNA, hRNA, siRNA and mRNA, whether spliced or unspliced, any other type of polynucleotide which is an N- or C-glycoside of a purine or pyrimidine base, and other polymers containing nonnucleotidic backbones, for example, polyamide (e.g., peptide nucleic acids (“PNAs”)) and polymorpholino (commercially available from the Anti-Virals, Inc., Corvallis, Oreg., as Neugene) polymers, and other synthetic sequence-specific nucleic acid polymers providing that the polymers contain nucleobases in a configuration which allows for base pairing and base stacking, such as is found in DNA and RNA. There is no intended distinction in length between the terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” “nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid molecule,” and these terms are used interchangeably herein. These terms refer only to the primary structure of the molecule. Thus, these terms include, for example, 3′-deoxy-2′, 5′-DNA, oligodeoxyribonucleotide N3′ P5′ phosphoramidates, 2′-O-alkyl-substituted RNA, double- and single-stranded DNA, as well as double- and single-stranded RNA, and hybrids thereof including for example hybrids between DNA and RNA or between PNAs and DNA or RNA, and also include known types of modifications, for example, labels, alkylation, “caps,” substitution of one or more of the nucleotides with an analog, internucleotide modifications such as, for example, those with uncharged linkages (e.g., methyl phosphonates, phosphotriesters, phosphoramidates, carbamates, etc.), with negatively charged linkages (e.g., phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, etc.), and with positively charged linkages (e.g., aminoalkylphosphoramidates, aminoalkylphosphotriesters), those containing pendant moieties, such as, for example, proteins (including enzymes (e.g. nucleases), toxins, antibodies, signal peptides, poly-L-lysine, etc.), those with intercalators (e.g., acridine, psoralen, etc.), those containing chelates (of, e.g., metals, radioactive metals, boron, oxidative metals, etc.), those containing alkylators, those with modified linkages (e.g., alpha anomeric nucleic acids, etc.), as well as unmodified forms of the polynucleotide or oligonucleotide. 
         [0061]    Where the polynucleotides are to be used to express encoded proteins, nucleotides that can perform that function or which can be modified (e.g., reverse transcribed) to perform that function are used. Where the polynucleotides are to be used in a scheme that requires that a complementary strand be formed to a given polynucleotide, nucleotides are used which permit such formation. 
         [0062]    It will be appreciated that, as used herein, the terms “nucleoside” and “nucleotide” will include those moieties which contain not only the known purine and pyrimidine bases, but also other heterocyclic bases which have been modified. Such modifications include methylated purines or pyrimidines, acylated purines or pyrimidines, or other heterocycles. Modified nucleosides or nucleotides can also include modifications on the sugar moiety, e.g., where one or more of the hydroxyl groups are replaced with halogen, aliphatic groups, or is functionalized as ethers, amines, or the like. 
         [0063]    Standard A-T and G-C base pairs form under conditions which allow the formation of hydrogen bonds between the N3-H and C4-oxy of thymidine and the NI and C6-NH 2 , respectively, of adenosine and between the C2-oxy, N3 and C4-NH 2 , of cytidine and the C2-NH 2 , N′—H and C6-oxy, respectively, of guanosine. Thus, for example, guanosine (2-amino-6-oxy-9-β-D-ribofuranosyl-purine) may be modified to form isoguanosine (2-oxy-6-amino-9-β-D-ribofuranosyl-purine). Such modification results in a nucleoside base which will no longer effectively form a standard base pair with cytosine. However, modification of cytosine (1-β-D-ribofuranosyl-2-oxy-4-amino-pyrimidine) to form isocytosine (1-β-D-ribofuranosyl-2-amino-4-oxy-pyrimidine-) results in a modified nucleotide which will not effectively base pair with guanosine but will form a base pair with isoguanosine (U.S. Pat. No. 5,681,702 to Collins et al., which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety). Isocytosine is available from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, Mo.); isocytidine may be prepared by the method described by Switzer et al. (1993) Biochemistry 32:10489-10496 and references cited therein; 2′-deoxy-5-methyl-isocytidine may be prepared by the method of Tor et al., 1993, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 115:4461-4467 and references cited therein; and isoguanine nucleotides may be prepared using the method described by Switzer et al., 1993, supra, and Mantsch et al., 1993, Biochem. 14:5593-5601, or by the method described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,780,610 to Collins et al., each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Other nonnatural base pairs may be synthesized by the method described in Piccirilli et al., 1990, Nature 343:33-37, hereby incorporated by reference in it entirety, for the synthesis of 2,6-diaminopyrimidine and its complement (1-methylpyrazolo-[4,3]pyrimidine-5,7-(4H,6H)-dione. Other such modified nucleotidic units which form unique base pairs are known, such as those described in Leach et al., 1992, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114, 3675-3683 and Switzer et al., supra. 
         [0064]    The phrase “DNA sequence” refers to a contiguous nucleic acid sequence. The sequence can be either single stranded or double stranded, DNA or RNA, but double stranded DNA sequences are preferable. The sequence can be an oligonucleotide of 6 to 20 nucleotides in length to a full length genomic sequence of thousands or hundreds of thousands of base pairs. DNA sequences are written from 5′ to 3′ unless otherwise indicated. 
         [0065]    The term “protein” refers to contiguous “amino acids” or amino acid “residues.” Typically, proteins have a function. However, for purposes of this disclosure, proteins also encompass polypeptides and smaller contiguous amino acid sequences that do not have a functional activity. The functional proteins of this disclosure include, but are not limited to, esterases, dehydrogenases, hydrolases, oxidoreductases, transferases, lyases, ligases, receptors, receptor ligands, cytokines, antibodies, immunomodulatory molecules, signaling molecules, fluorescent proteins and proteins with insecticidal or biocidal activities. Useful general classes of enzymes include, but are not limited to, proteases, cellulases, lipases, hemicellulases, laccases, amylases, glucoamylases, esterases, lactases, polygalacturonases, galactosidases, ligninases, oxidases, peroxidases, glucose isomerases, nitrilases, hydroxylases, polymerases and depolymerases. In addition to enzymes, the encoded proteins which can be used in this disclosure include, but are not limited to, transcription factors, antibodies, receptors, growth factors (any of the PDGFs, EGFs, FGFs, SCF, HGF, TGFs, TNFs, insulin, IGFs, LIFs, oncostatins, and CSFs), immunomodulators, peptide hormones, cytokines, integrins, interleukins, adhesion molecules, thrombomodulatory molecules, protease inhibitors, angiostatins, defensins, cluster of differentiation antigens, interferons, chemokines, antigens including those from infectious viruses and organisms, oncogene products, thrombopoietin, erythropoietin, tissue plasminogen activator, and any other biologically active protein which is desired for use in a clinical, diagnostic or veterinary setting. All of these proteins are well defined in the literature and are so defined herein. Also included are deletion mutants of such proteins, individual domains of such proteins, fusion proteins made from such proteins, and mixtures of such proteins; particularly useful are those which have increased half-lives and/or increased activity. 
         [0066]    “Polypeptide” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein and include a molecular chain of amino acids linked through peptide bonds. The terms do not refer to a specific length of the product. Thus, “peptides,” “oligopeptides,” and “proteins” are included within the definition of polypeptide. The terms include polypeptides containing in co- and/or post-translational modifications of the polypeptide made in vivo or in vitro, for example, glycosylations, acetylations, phosphorylations, PEGylations and sulphations. In addition, protein fragments, analogs (including amino acids not encoded by the genetic code, e.g. homocysteine, ornithine, p-acetylphenylalanine, D-amino acids, and creatine), natural or artificial mutants or variants or combinations thereof, fusion proteins, derivatized residues (e.g. alkylation of amine groups, acetylations or esterifications of carboxyl groups) and the like are included within the meaning of polypeptide. 
         [0067]    “Amino acids” or “amino acid residues” may be referred to herein by either their commonly known three letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. Nucleotides, likewise, may be referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes. 
         [0068]    The term “expression system” refers to any in vivo or in vitro biological system that is used to produce one or more protein encoded by a polynucleotide. 
         [0069]    The term “translation” refers to the process by which a polypeptide is synthesized by a ribosome ‘reading’ the sequence of a polynucleotide. 
         [0070]    In some embodiments, the term “disrupt” means to reduce or diminish the expression of a gene in a host cell organism. 
         [0071]    In some embodiments, the term “disrupt” means to reduce or diminish a function of a protein encoded by a gene in a host cell organism. This function may be, for example, an enzymatic activity of the protein, a specific enzymatic activity of the protein, a protein-protein interaction that the protein undergoes in a host cell organism, or a protein-nucleic acid interaction that the protein undergoes in a host cell organism. 
         [0072]    In some embodiments, the term “disrupt” means to eliminate the expression of a gene in a host cell organism. 
         [0073]    In some embodiments, the term “disrupt” means to eliminate the function of a protein encoded by a gene in a host cell organism. This function may be, for example, an enzymatic activity of the protein, a specific enzymatic activity of the protein, a protein-protein interaction that the protein undergoes in a host cell organism, or a protein-nucleic acid interaction that the protein undergoes in a host cell organism. 
         [0074]    In some embodiments, the term “disrupt” means to cause a protein encoded by a gene in a host cell organism to have a modified activity spectrum (e.g., reduced enzymatic activity) relative to wild-type activity spectrum of the protein. 
         [0075]    In some embodiments, disruption is caused by mutating a gene in a host cell organism that encodes a protein. For example, a point mutation, an insertion mutation, a deletion mutation, or any combination of such mutations, can be used to disrupt the gene. In some embodiments, this mutation causes the protein encoded by the gene to express poorly or not at all in the host cell organism. In some embodiments, this mutation causes the gene to no longer be present in the host cell organism. In some embodiments, this mutation causes the gene to no longer encode a functional protein in the host cell organism. The mutation to the gene may be in the portion of the gene that encodes a protein product (exon), it may be in any of the regulatory sequences (e.g., promoter, enhancer, etc.) that regulate the expression of the gene, or it may arise in an intron. 
         [0076]    In some embodiments, the disruption (e.g., mutation) of a gene causes the protein encoded by the gene to have a mutation that diminishes a function of the protein relative to the function of the wild type counterpart of the mutated protein. 
         [0077]    As used, herein, the wild type counterpart of a mutated protein is the unmutated protein, occurring in wild type host cell organism, which corresponds to the mutated protein. For example, if the mutated protein is a protein encoded by mutated  Candida tropicalis  POX 5, the wild type counterpart of the mutated protein is the gene product from naturally occurring  Candida tropicalis  POX 5 that is not mutated. 
         [0078]    As used herein, the wild type counterpart of a mutated gene is the unmutated gene occurring in wild type host cell organism, which corresponds to the mutated gene. For example, if the mutated gene is  Candida tropicalis  POX 5 containing a point mutation, the wild type counterpart is  Candida tropicalis  POX 5 without the point mutation. 
         [0079]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the gene is not capable of expressing protein in the host cell organism. 
         [0080]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the disrupted gene expresses protein in a first host cell organism that contains the disrupted gene in amounts that are 20% or less than the amounts of protein expressed by the wild type counterpart of the gene in a second host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene, when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., same temperature, same media, etc.). 
         [0081]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the disrupted gene expresses protein in a first host cell organism that contains the disrupted gene in amounts that are 30% or less than the amounts of protein expressed by the wild type counterpart of the gene in a second host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene, when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., same temperature, same media, etc.). 
         [0082]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the disrupted gene expresses protein in a first host cell organism that contains the disrupted gene in amounts that are 40% or less than the amounts of protein expressed by the wild type counterpart of the gene in a second host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene, when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., same temperature, same media, etc.). 
         [0083]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the disrupted gene expresses protein in a first host cell organism that contains the disrupted gene in amounts that are 50% or less than the amounts of protein expressed by the wild type counterpart of the gene in a second host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene, when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., same temperature, same media, etc.). 
         [0084]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the disrupted gene expresses protein in a first host cell organism that contains the disrupted gene in amounts that are 60% or less than the amounts of protein expressed by the wild type counterpart of the gene in a second host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene, when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., same temperature, same media, etc.). 
         [0085]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the disrupted gene expresses protein in a first host cell organism that contains the disrupted gene in amounts that are 70% or less than the amounts of protein expressed by the wild type counterpart of the gene in a second host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene, when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., same temperature, same media, etc.). 
         [0086]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the disrupted gene in a first host cell organism that has the disrupted gene are 20% or less than the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the gene in second wild type host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, media, etc.). 
         [0087]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the disrupted gene in a first host cell organism that has the disrupted gene are 30% or less than the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the gene in second wild type host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, media, etc.). 
         [0088]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the disrupted gene in a first host cell organism that has the disrupted gene are 40% or less than the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the gene in second wild type host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, media, etc.). 
         [0089]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the disrupted gene in a first host cell organism that has the disrupted gene are 50% or less than the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the gene in second wild type host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, media, etc.). 
         [0090]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the disrupted gene in a first host cell organism that has the disrupted gene are 60% or less than the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the gene in second wild type host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, media, etc.). 
         [0091]    In some embodiments, a gene is deemed to be disrupted when the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the disrupted gene in a first host cell organism that has the disrupted gene are 70% or less than the abundance of mRNA transcripts that encode the gene in second wild type host cell organism that does not contain the disrupted gene when the first host cell organism and the second host cell organism are under the same environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, media, etc.). 
         [0092]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has an enzymatic activity that is 20% or less than the activity of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0093]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has an enzymatic activity that is 30% or less than the activity of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0094]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has an enzymatic activity that is 40% or less than the activity of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0095]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has an enzymatic activity that is 50% or less than the activity of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0096]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has an enzymatic activity that is 60% or less than the activity of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0097]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has an enzymatic activity that is 70% or less than the activity of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0098]    In some embodiments enzymatic activity is defined as moles of substrate converted per unit time=rate×reaction volume. Enzymatic activity is a measure of the quantity of active enzyme present and is thus dependent on conditions, which are to be specified. The SI unit for enzyme activity is the katal, 1 katal=1 mol s-1. In some embodiments enzymatic activity is expressed as an enzyme unit (EU)=1 μmol/min, where 1 U corresponds to 16.67 nanokatals. See Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB) (1979), “Units of Enzyme Activity,” Eur. J. Biochem. 97: 319-320, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. 
         [0099]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when a sample of the disrupted protein “disrupted sample” having a purity of 50% weight per weight (w/w) or weight per volume (w/v) or greater, a purity of 55% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 60% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 65% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 70% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 75% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 80% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 85% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 90% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 95% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 99% (w/w or w/v) or greater in the disrupted sample has a specific enzymatic activity that is 20% or less than the specific enzymatic activity of a sample of the wild type counterpart of the protein “wild type sample” in which the purity of the wild type counterpart of the protein in the wild type sample is the same as or greater than the purity of the disrupted protein in the disrupted protein sample, wherein disrupted protein sample and the sample wild type sample are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0100]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when a sample of the disrupted protein “disrupted sample” having a purity of 50% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 55% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 60% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 65% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 70% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 75% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 80% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 85% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 90% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 95% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 99% (w/w or w/v) or greater in the disrupted sample has a specific enzymatic activity that is 30% or less than the specific enzymatic activity of a sample of the wild type counterpart of the protein “wild type sample” in which the purity of the wild type counterpart of the protein in the wild type sample is the same as or greater than the purity of the disrupted protein in the disrupted protein sample, wherein disrupted protein sample and the sample wild type sample are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0101]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when a sample of the disrupted protein “disrupted sample” having a purity of 50% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 55% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 60% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 65% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 70% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 75% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 80% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 85% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 90% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 95% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 99% (w/w or w/v) or greater in the disrupted sample has a specific enzymatic activity that is 40% or less than the specific enzymatic activity of a sample of the wild type counterpart of the protein “wild type sample” in which the purity of the wild type counterpart of the protein in the wild type sample is the same as or greater than the purity of the disrupted protein in the disrupted protein sample, wherein disrupted protein sample and the sample wild type sample are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0102]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when a sample of the disrupted protein “disrupted sample” having a purity of 50% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 55% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 60% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 65% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 70% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 75% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 80% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 85% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 90% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 95% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 99% (w/w or w/v) or greater in the disrupted sample has a specific enzymatic activity that is 50% or less than the specific enzymatic activity of a sample of the wild type counterpart of the protein “wild type sample” in which the purity of the wild type counterpart of the protein in the wild type sample is the same as or greater than the purity of the disrupted protein in the disrupted protein sample, wherein disrupted protein sample and the sample wild type sample are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0103]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when a sample of the disrupted protein “disrupted sample” having a purity of 50% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 55% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 60% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 65% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 70% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 75% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 80% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 85% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 90% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 95% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 99% (w/w or w/v) or greater in the disrupted sample has a specific enzymatic activity that is 60% or less than the specific enzymatic activity of a sample of the wild type counterpart of the protein “wild type sample” in which the purity of the wild type counterpart of the protein in the wild type sample is the same as or greater than the purity of the disrupted protein in the disrupted protein sample, wherein disrupted protein sample and the sample wild type sample are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0104]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when a sample of the disrupted protein “disrupted sample” having a purity of 50% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 55% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 60% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 65% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 70% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 75% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 80% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 85% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 90% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 95% (w/w or w/v) or greater, a purity of 99% (w/w or w/v) or greater in the disrupted sample has a specific enzymatic activity that is 70% or less than the specific enzymatic activity of a sample of the wild type counterpart of the protein “wild type sample” in which the purity of the wild type counterpart of the protein in the wild type sample is the same as or greater than the purity of the disrupted protein in the disrupted protein sample, wherein disrupted protein sample and the sample wild type sample are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0105]    In some embodiments, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic specific activity is measured by an assay that measures the consumption of substrate or the production of product over time such as those disclosed in Schnell et al., 2006, Comptes Rendus Biologies 329, 51-61, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. 
         [0106]    In some embodiments, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic specific activity is measured by an initial rate experiment. In such an assay, the protein (enzyme) is mixed with a large excess of the substrate, the enzyme-substrate intermediate builds up in a fast initial transient. Then the reaction achieves a steady-state kinetics in which enzyme substrate intermediates remains approximately constant over time and the reaction rate changes relatively slowly. Rates are measured for a short period after the attainment of the quasi-steady state, typically by monitoring the accumulation of product with time. Because the measurements are carried out for a very short period and because of the large excess of substrate, the approximation free substrate is approximately equal to the initial substrate can be made. The initial rate experiment is relatively free from complications such as back-reaction and enzyme degradation. 
         [0107]    In some embodiments, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic specific activity is measured by progress curve experiments. In such experiments, the kinetic parameters are determined from expressions for the species concentrations as a function of time. The concentration of the substrate or product is recorded in time after the initial fast transient and for a sufficiently long period to allow the reaction to approach equilibrium. 
         [0108]    In some embodiments, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic specific activity is measured by transient kinetics experiments. In such experiments, reaction behaviour is tracked during the initial fast transient as the intermediate reaches the steady-state kinetics period. 
         [0109]    In some embodiments, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic specific activity is measured by relaxation experiments. In these experiments, an equilibrium mixture of enzyme, substrate and product is perturbed, for instance by a temperature, pressure or pH jump, and the return to equilibrium is monitored. The analysis of these experiments requires consideration of the fully reversible reaction. 
         [0110]    In some embodiments, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic specific activity is measured by continuous assays, where the assay gives a continuous reading of activity, or discontinuous assays, where samples are taken, the reaction stopped and then the concentration of substrates/products determined. 
         [0111]    In some embodiments, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic specific activity is measured by a fluorometric assay (e.g., Bergmeyer, 1974, “Methods of Enzymatic Analysis”, Vol. 4, Academic Press, New York, N.Y., pp. 2066-2072), a calorimetric assay (e.g., Todd and Gomez, 2001, Anal Biochem. 296, 179-187), a chemiluminescent assay, a light scattering assay, a radiometric assay, or a chromatrographic assay (e.g., Churchwella et al., 2005, Journal of Chromatography B 825, 134-143). 
         [0112]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has a function whose performance is 20% or less than the function of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0113]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has a function whose performance is 30% or less than the function of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0114]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has a function whose performance is 40% or less than the function of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0115]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has a function whose performance is 50% or less than the function of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0116]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has a function whose performance is 60% or less than the function of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0117]    In some embodiments, a protein is deemed to be disrupted when the protein has a function whose performance is 70% or less than the function of the wild type counterpart of the protein when the disrupted protein and the wild type counterpart of the protein are under the same conditions (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, concentration of substrate, salt concentration, etc.). 
         [0118]    In some embodiments, a protein is disrupted by a genetic modification. In some embodiments, a protein is disrupted by exposure of a host cell to a chemical (e.g., an inhibitor that substantially reduces or eliminates the activity of the enzyme). In some embodiments, this compound satisfies the Lipinski&#39;s Rule of Five: (i) not more than five hydrogen bond donors (e.g., OH and NH groups), (ii) not more than ten hydrogen bond acceptors (e.g. N and O), (iii) a molecular weight under 500 Daltons, and (iv) a LogP under 5. The “Rule of Five” is so called because three of the four criteria involve the number five. See, Lipinski, 1997, Adv. Drug Del. Rev. 23, 3, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
         [0119]    As used, herein, computation of percent identity takes full weight of any insertions in two sequences for which percent identity is computed. To compute percent identity between two sequences, they are aligned and any necessary insertions in either sequence being compared are then made in accordance with sequence alignment algorithms known in the art. Then, the percent identity is computed, where each insertion in either sequence necessary to make the optimal alignment between the two sequences is counted as a mismatch. Unless explicitly indicated otherwise, the percent identity of two sequences is the percent identity across the entire length of each of the sequences being compared, with gaps insertions processed as specified in this paragraph. 
       5.2 Production of Long-Chain ω-Hydroxy Fatty Acids and α,ω-Dicarboxylic Acids 
       [0120]    Whole-cell biocatalysts currently used to oxidize long chain fatty acids include  Candida tropicalis, Candida cloacae, Cryptococcus neoforman  and  Corynebacterium  sp. One preferred microorganisms is  Candida tropicalis  ATCC20962 in which the β-oxidation pathway is blocked by disrupting POX 4 and POX 5 genes which respectively encode the acyl-coenzyme A oxidases PXP-4 (SEQ ID NO: 134) and PXP-5 (SEQ ID NO: 135). This prevents metabolism of the fatty acid by the yeast (compare  FIGS. 2 and 3 ). The fatty acids or alkynes used have 14 to 22 carbon atoms, can be natural materials obtained from plants or synthesized from natural fatty acids, such as lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2), α-linolenic acid (ω3, C18:3) ricinoleic acid (12-hydroxy-9-cis-octadecenoic acid, 12-OH-C18:1), erucic acid (C22:1), epoxy stearic acid. Examples of other substrates that can be used in biotransformations to produce α,ω-dicarboxylic acid and ω-hydroxyacid compounds are 7-tetradecyne and 8-hexadecyne. Disclosed herein, naturally derived fatty acids, chemically or enzymatically modified fatty acids, n-alkane, n-alkene, n-alkyne and/or fatty alcohols that have a carbon chain length from 12 to 22 are used as carbon sources for the yeast-catalyzed biotransformation. For example,  Candida tropicalis  ATCC20962 can be used as a catalyst under aerobic conditions in liquid medium to produce ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids.  Candida tropicalis  ATCC20962 is initially cultivated in liquid medium containing inorganic salts, nitrogen source and carbon source. The carbon source for initial cultivations can be saccharide such as sucrose, glucose, sorbitol, etc., and other carbohydrates such as glycerol, acetate and ethanol. Then, the substrate such as naturally derived fatty acids, chemically or enzymatically modified fatty acids, n-alkane, n-alkene, n-alkyne and fatty alcohol for oxidation of terminal methyl or hydroxyl moieties is added into the culture. The pH is adjusted to 7.5-8.0 and fermentations are conducted under aerobic conditions with agitation in a shaker incubator, fermentor or other suitable bioreactor. 
         [0121]    For example, the fermentation process may be divided into two phases: a growth phase and a transformation phase in which ω-oxidation of the substrate is performed. The seeds inoculated from fresh agar plate or glycerol stock are firstly cultivated in a pre-culture medium for 16-20 hours, at 30° C. and pH 6.5 in a shaker. Subsequently, this culture is used to inoculate the conversion medium with co-substrates. The growth phase of the culture is performed for 10-12 hours to generate high cell density cultures at pH 6.5 and 30° C. The transformation phase is begun with addition of the fatty acid or other substrate for the bio-oxidation. The medium pH is adjusted to 7.5-8.0 by addition of a base solution. Co-substrates are fed during the transformation phase to provide energy for cell growth. By use of this method, the terminal methyl group of fatty acids, synthetically derived substrates, n-alkanes, n-alkenes, n-alkynes and/or fatty alcohols that have a carbon chain length from 12 to 22 are converted to a hydroxyl or carboxyl group. Examples of ricinoleic analogs formed via the methods disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid, 1,22-cis-9-docosenedioic acid, 1,18-cis-9,12-octadecadienedioic acid, 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid, 12,18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid, cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanedioic acid, 7-tetradecynedioic acid and 8-hexadecynedioic acid. In some embodiments, productivity values of these products, using a standard fermentation process, is about 0.1˜0.5 g/l/h, and product concentrations are from 10˜30 g/l. 
         [0122]    The ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids in fermentation broth can be extracted and purified as follows. The liquid culture medium containing these products is acidified with concentrated hydrochloric acid to pH about 1.0˜4.0 and extracted into diethyl ether. Solvent in ether extract is evaporated under vacuum with a rotary evaporator. Resulting product mixtures can be further purified by silica gel column chromatography using silica gel. Chromatographic separations can generally be conducted using an eluent that consists of a two-solvent system. Solvents pairs can be selected so that one is of low polarity (e.g. n-hexane) while the other is of higher polarity (e.g. diethyl ether). Fractions containing impurities and products can be eluted separately by adjusting the ratio of strong-to-weak solvent. Alternatively, resulting products mixture can be purified by liquid chromatography methods with various column types including those that are reverse-phase. Chromatographic separations can be conducted using a mixed solvent that consists of various contents of methanol, water, formic acid and acetonitrile. Fractions containing impurities and products can be eluted separately depending on their polarity. Alternatively, ricinoleic acid analogs that have two carboxylic acids or have sufficient polarity to dissolve in alkaline medium can be extracted and precipitated from fermentation broths by a method such as the following. An alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide is added to the fermentation broth and the pH of the solution is adjusted to 11˜13 to dissolve dicarboxylic acids formed. Then, diatomaceous earth in an amount of 2-8% by weight is added to the fermentation broth to selectively absorb lower polarity components of the mixture such as unreacted hydrocarbons and monocarboxylic acids. Subsequently, the fermentation broth is filtered under pressure by using a filter press and the cake formed after this filtration is washed with two to three times with water. The obtained filtrate is then acidified to pH at 4.0 or below by addition of an acid such as sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid to precipitate dicarboxylic acid products. The precipitated dicarboxylic acids can then be further purified by recrystallization using an organic solvent. Generally such an organic solvent would be of low polarity (e.g. n-hexane). Purified ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids can be identified as set forth in the following non-limiting example. Sample is esterified with BF 3  in methanol (10%, w/w) at 70° C. for 20 minutes followed by silylation of methyl esters with HMDS/TMCS/Pyridine at 70° C. for 10 minutes. Analysis of derivatized products is performed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Structures of products are confirmed by  1 H- and  13 C-NMR. Quantification of product formation during biotransformations is performed by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) using purified products as standards. 
       5.3 Polymerization of Long-Chain ω-Hydroxy Fatty Acids and α,ω-Dicarboxylic Acids 
       [0123]    Another aspect provides the subsequent polymerization of ω-oxidized products from the biotransformation. For example, by first synthesizing a family of novel ricinoleic acid analogs by a yeast-catalyzed biotransformation and then using these products as monomers for polymerizations, a novel family of functional polyesters can be prepared. 
         [0124]    In one example, polymerizations were performed using an immobilized enzyme catalyst. One example of an immobilized enzyme catalyst that can be used is immobilized  Candida antartica  Lipase B (CALB). Novozym 435 is an example of immobilized  Candida antartica  Lipase B (CALB) where the immobilization support consists of macroporous polymethylmethacrylate beads. Examples of novel functional polyesters prepared include polymers with repeat units containing double bonds, triple bonds, hydroxyl and epoxide moieties. This was accomplished by homopolymerization of 12,18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid as well as by copolymerization of α,ω-dicarboxylic acids that include 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid, 1,22-cis-9-docosenedioic acid, 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid, cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanedioic acid and 7-tetradecynedioic acid with diols such as 1,8-octanediol, 1,3-propanediol and glycerol. 
         [0125]    In the example, polymerizations were performed in a parallel synthesizer in bulk as well as in diphenyl ether, or in round bottom flasks in toluene at 70 to 90° C. Equal molar ratios of diacids and diols were transferred into reactor tubes in a parallel synthesizer or round bottom flasks and 10%-by-wt Novozym 435 was added. For solution polymerizations minimal volumes of diphenyl ether or toluene was added to decrease diffusion constraints that would otherwise limit molecular weights formed and the rate at which polymerizations occur. For homopolymerizations of ω-hydroxy fatty acids, only ω-hydroxy fatty acid is added. Although copolymerizations of ω-hydroxy fatty acid monomers can also be performed with other hydroxyl fatty acids and/or with diacids and diols as long as care is taken to retain equimolar stoichiometry of reactive acid and hydroxyl groups. Vacuum is applied to remove water formed. Reactions were terminated by addition of cooled chloroform and the enzyme-catalyst was removed by filtration. Alternatively, products can be separated from the catalyst by filtration without addition of solvents as long as the product has sufficiently low viscosity. Also, the catalyst can be deactivated by another method such as denaturation by heating the product. Catalyst can also be left within the product after the catalyst is deactivated. If product fractionation is desired to increase molecular weight or to isolate components of the product then precipitation can be performed. Preferably the product is used without fractionation. To precipitate polymeric products the resulting chloroform solution was slowly added with stirring to methanol. The precipitated polymer is washed with methanol three times and then dried using vacuum evaporator at 50° C. 
       5.4 Novel Polymers 
       [0126]    Properties of resulting polyesters were analyzed by the following methods. The molecular weight averages and polydispersity of functional polyesters were determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Structures were analyzed by  1 H-NMR and  13 C-NMR. The thermal properties were determined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Exemplary novel functional polyesters were synthesized. In all cases in these examples, functional groups of ricinoleic acid analogs such as alkene, alkyne, and epoxide moieties remained intact during enzyme-catalyzed polymer synthesis due to the mild reaction conditions used. Polymers with M w  values ranging from 20,000 to 80,000 with polydispersities (M w /M n ) of between 2.0 and 3.1 were prepared. 
       5.5 Genetic Modifications of  Candida    
       [0127]      Candida  species including  Candida tropicalis  contains two pathways for the metabolism of fatty acids: ω-oxidation and β-oxidation. These pathways are shown schematically in  FIG. 2 , together with some classes of enzymes capable of catalyzing the chemical conversions in each pathway. In order for  Candida  to be used to transform fatty acids into useful compounds such as diacids and hydroxyl fatty acids, it is advantageous to eliminate metabolic pathways that can divert either the substrates or products of the desired pathway. For example it is desirable to prevent  Candida  from metabolizing fatty acids through the β-oxidation pathway, so that more fatty acids are available for conversion to α,ω-diacids and ω-hydroxy fatty acids by the ω-oxidation pathway. This can be accomplished by deleting the acyl coenzyme A oxidase genes, as shown in  FIG. 3  (Picataggio et al., 1991, Mol Cell Biol 11, 4333-4339; Picataggio et al., 1992, Biotechnology 10, 894-898). 
         [0128]      Candida tropicalis  strains lacking both alleles of each of two acyl coenzyme A oxidase isozymes, encoded by the pox4 and pox5 genes, are efficient biocatalysts for the production of α,ω-diacids (Picataggio et al., 1991, Mol Cell Biol: 11, 4333-4339; Picataggio et al., 1992, Biotechnology 10, 894-898). However for the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids, additional enzymes must be eliminated to prevent the oxidation of the ω-hydroxyl group to a carboxyl group. 
         [0129]    To prevent the oxidation of the ω-hydroxyl group to a carboxyl group, in some embodiments it is particularly advantageous to eliminate or inactivate one or more genes encoding a cytochrome P450. 
         [0130]    To prevent the oxidation of the ω-hydroxyl group to a carboxyl group, in some embodiments it is particularly advantageous to eliminate or inactivate one or more genes encoding a fatty alcohol dehydrogenase. 
         [0131]    To prevent the oxidation of the ω-hydroxyl group to a carboxyl group, in some embodiments it is particularly advantageous to eliminate or inactivate one or more genes encoding an alcohol dehydrogenase. 
         [0132]    In one embodiment yeast genes can be inactivated by deleting regions from the yeast genome that encode a part of the yeast gene that encodes the protein product (the open reading frame) so that the full-length protein can no longer be made by the cell. In another embodiment yeast genes can be inactivated by inserting additional DNA sequences into the part of the yeast gene that encodes the protein product so that the protein that is made by the cell contains changes that prevent it from functioning correctly. In another embodiment yeast genes are inactivated by inserting or deleting sequences from control regions of the gene, so that the expression of the gene is no longer correctly controlled; for example additions or deletions to the promoter can be used to prevent transcription of the gene, additions or deletions to the polyadenylation signal can be used to affect the stability of the mRNA, additions or deletions to introns or intron splicing signals can be used to prevent correct splicing or nuclear export of the processed mRNA. 
         [0133]    For the production of oxidized compounds in yeast including ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-hydroxy fatty acids, it may also be advantageous to add certain new genes into the yeast cell. For example to facilitate the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids from fatty acids with different chain lengths or degrees or positions of unsaturation, the enzymes that are naturally present in the yeast are often inadequate; they may oxidise the fatty acid to the ω-hydroxy fatty acid too slowly, they may only oxidise a subset of the fatty acids in a mixture to their corresponding ω-hydroxy fatty acids, they may oxidise the fatty acid in the wrong position or they may oxidise the ω-hydroxy fatty acid itself to a diacid. Advantageous enzymes could thus be those that oxidise a fatty acid to its corresponding ω-hydroxy fatty acid more rapidly, those that accept as substrates a wider range of fatty acids and those that do not over-oxidise ω-hydroxy fatty acids to diacids. 
         [0134]    To achieve novel phenotypes in  Candida  species, including the ability to perform biotransformations such as novel chemical conversions, or increased rates of conversion of one or more substrates to one or more products, or increased specificity of conversion of one or more substrates to one or more products, or increased tolerance of a compound by the yeast, or increased uptake of a compound by the yeast, it may be advantageous to incorporate a gene encoding a polypeptide into the genome of the yeast. 
         [0135]    Preferred sites of integration include positions within the genome where the gene would be under control of a promoter that transcribes high levels of an endogenous protein, or under control of a promoter that leads to regulated transcription for example in response to changes in the concentrations of one or more compound in the cellular or extracellular environment. Examples of preferred sites of integration include sites in the genome that are under control of the promoter for an isocitrate lyase gene, sites in the genome that are under control of the promoter for a cytochrome P450 gene, sites in the genome that are under control of the promoter for a fatty alcohol oxidase gene and sites in the genome that are under control of the promoter for an alcohol dehydrogenase gene to obtain high levels of expression of a polypetidepolypeptide or expression of a polypeptide under specific circumstances. 
         [0136]    To achieve such novel phenotypes in  Candida  species, it may be advantageous to modify the activity of a polypeptide by altering its sequence, and to test the effect of the polypeptide with altered sequence within the yeast. Polypeptides of particular interest for conferring the ability to synthesize novel hydroxyfatty acids include cytochrome P450s and their reductases, glycosyl transferases and desaturases. A preferred method for testing the effect of sequence changes in a polypeptide within yeast is to introduce a plurality of genes of known sequence, each encoding a unique modified polypeptide, into the same genomic location in a plurality of strains. 
         [0137]    Some embodiments described herein make use of a selective marker. A selective marker can be a gene that produces a selective advantage for the cells under certain conditions such as a gene encoding a product that confers resistance to an antibiotic or other compound that normally inhibits the growth of the host cell. 
         [0138]    A selective marker can be a reporter, such as, for example, any nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable gene product. The gene product may be an untranslated RNA product such as mRNA or antisense RNA. Such untranslated RNA may be detected by techniques known in the art, such as PCR, Northern or Southern blots. The selective marker may encode a polypeptide, such as a protein or peptide. A polypeptide may be detected immunologically or by means of its biological activity. The selective marker may be any known in the art. The selective marker need not be a natural gene. Useful selective markers may be the same as certain natural genes, but may differ from them either in terms of non-coding sequences (for example one or more naturally occurring introns may be absent) or in terms of coding sequences. One example of such a detectable gene product is one that causes the yeast to adopt a unique characteristic color associated with the detectable gene product. For example, if the targeting construct contains a selective marker that is a gene that directs the cell to synthesize a fluorescent protein, then all of the colonies that contain the fluorescent protein are carrying the targeting construct and are therefore likely to be integrants. Thus the cells that will be selected for further analysis are those that contain the fluorescent protein. 
         [0139]    The selective marker may encode a protein that allows the yeast cell to be selected by, for example, a nutritional requirement. For example, the selective marker may be the ura4 gene that encodes orotidine-5′-phosphate decarboxylase. The ura4 gene encodes an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of uracil and offers both positive and negative selection. Only cells expressing ura4 are able to grow in the absence of uracil, where the appropriate yeast strain is used. Cells expressing ura4 die in the presence of 5-fluoro-orotic acid (FOA) as the ura4 gene product converts FOA into a toxic product. Cells not expressing ura4 can be maintained by adding uracil to the medium. The sensitivity of the selection process can be adjusted by using medium containing 6-azauracil, a competitive inhibitor of the ura4 gene product. The his3 gene, which encodes imidazoleglycerol-phosphate dehydratase, is also suitable for use as a selective marker that allows nutritional selection. Only cells expressing his3 are able to grow in the absence of histidine, where the appropriate yeast strain is used. 
         [0140]    The selective marker may encode for a protein that allows the yeast to be used in a chromogenic assay. For example, the selective marker may be the lacZ gene from  Escherichia coli.  This encodes the β-galactosidase enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis of β-galactoside sugars such as lactose. The enzymatic activity of the enzyme may be assayed with various specialized substrates, for example X-gal (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoyl-β-D-galactoside) or o-nitrophenyl-β-D-galactopyranoside, which allow selective marker enzyme activity to be assayed using a spectrophotometer, fluorometer or a luminometer. 
         [0141]    In some embodiments, the selective marker comprises a gene that encodes green fluorescent protein (GFP), which is known in the art. 
         [0142]    In some embodiments, the selective marker encodes a protein that is capable of inducing the cell, or an extract of a cell, to produce light. For example, the selective marker encodes luciferase in some embodiments. The use of luciferase is known in the art. They are usually derived from firefly ( Photinous pyralis ) or sea pansy ( Renilla reniformis ). The luciferase enzyme catalyses a reaction using D-luciferin and ATP in the presence of oxygen and Mg 2+  resulting in light emission. The luciferase reaction is quantitated using a luminometer that measures light output. The assay may also include coenzyme A in the reaction that provides a longer, sustained light reaction with greater sensitivity. An alternative form of enzyme that allows the production of light and which can serve as a selective marker is aequorin, which is known in the art. 
         [0143]    In some embodiments the selective marker encodes β-lactamase. This selective marker has certain advantages over, for example, lacZ. There is no background activity in mammalian cells or yeast cells, it is compact (29 kDa), it functions as a monomer (in comparison with lacZ which is a tetramer), and has good enzyme activity. This may use CCF2/AM, a FRET-based membrane permeable, intracellularly trapped fluorescent substrate. CCF2/AM has a 7-hydroxycoumarin linked to a fluorescein by a cephalosporin core. In the intact molecules, excitation of the coumarin results in efficient FRET to the fluorescein, resulting in green fluorescent cleavage of the CCF2 by β-lactamase results in spatial separation of the two dyes, disrupting FRET and causing cells to change from green to blue when viewed using a fluorescent microscope. The retention of the cleaved product allows the blue colour to develop over time, giving a low detection limit of, for example, 50 enzyme molecules per cell. This results in the selective maker being able to be assayed with high sensitivity. It also allows the ability to confirm results by visual inspection of the cells or the samples. 
         [0144]    In some embodiments, the selective marker comprises any of the aforementioned genes under the control of a promoter. In some embodiments, the selective marker comprises any of the aforementioned genes under the control of a promoter as well as one or more additional regulatory elements, such as upstream activating sequences (UAS), termination sequences and/or secretory sequences known in the art. The secretory sequences may be used to ensure that the product of the reporter gene is secreted out of the yeast cell. 
       5.5.1 Methods for Deletion of Sequences from the  Candida  Genome 
       [0145]    Many yeasts recombine DNA in regions of sequence homology. A linear DNA molecule that is introduced into a yeast cell can recombine homologously with the chromosomal DNA if its ends share sufficient sequence identity with chromosomal sequences. Since the sequences of the ends of the DNA molecule are the primary determinant of where in the yeast chromosome the homologous recombination event occurs, it is possible to construct a DNA molecule that encodes one or more functional genes, and to target that molecule to integrate at a specific location in the yeast chromosome. In this way, yeast genes in the chromosome or mitochondria may be disrupted, by interrupting the gene sequence with other sequences. 
         [0146]    In one embodiment, a DNA construct comprises two sequences with homology to two sequences in the target yeast genome (“targeting sequences”), separated by a selective marker, as shown in  FIG. 11 . The two target sequences within the yeast genome are preferably located on the same molecule of DNA (e.g. the same nuclear or mitochondrial chromosome), and are preferably less than 1,000,000 base pairs apart, more preferably they are less than 100,000 base pairs apart, and more preferably they are less than 10,000 base pairs apart. Cells containing a genomic integration of the targeting construct can be identified using the selective marker. 
         [0147]    A schematic representation of one form of a DNA molecule for yeast genomic integration (a “genomic targeting construct”) is shown in  FIG. 4 . In this embodiment the genomic targeting construct has two targeting sequences that are homologous to the sequences of two regions of the target yeast genome. In some embodiments these sequences are each at least 100 base pairs in length, or between 100 and 300 base pairs in length. The targeting sequences are preferably 100% identical to sequences in the host genome or between 95% and 100% identical to sequences in the host genome. Between these targeting sequences are two sites recognized by a site-specific recombinase such as the natural or modified versions of cre or flp or PhiC31 recombinases or serine recombinases such as those from bacteriophage R4 or bacteriophage TP901-1. Between the two site specific recombinase recognition sites are functional sequence elements which may include sequences that encode a site-specific recombinase that recognizes the recombinase sites and which may also encode a selective marker as illustrated in  FIG. 4 . In one embodiment this DNA construct incorporates the “SAT1 flipper”, a DNA construct for inserting and deleting sequences into the chromosome of  Candida  (Reuss et al., 2004, Gene 341, 119-27.). In the “SAT1 flipper” the recombinase is the flp recombinase from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  (Vetter et al., 1983, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA: 80, 7284-7288) (FLP) and the flanking sequences recognized by the recombinase are recognition sites for the flp recombinase (FRT). The selective marker is the gene encoding resistance to the Nourseothricin resistance marker from transposon Tn1825, J. Basic Microbiol 28, 129-136). The entire construct can then be targeted to the  Candida  chromosome by adding flanking sequences with homology to a gene in the  Candida  chromosome. The DNA sequence of the SAT1-flipper is SEQ ID NO: 1. 
         [0148]    Yeast preferentially recombines linear DNA. It is therefore advantageous to prepare the targeting construct as a linear molecule prior to transforming it into the yeast target. In some embodiments it is desirable to prepare and propagate the targeting construct as plasmid DNA in a bacterial host such as  E. coli.  For propagation in a bacterial host it is generally preferred that plasmid DNA be circular. It is thus sometimes necessary to convert the targeting construct from a circular molecule to a linear molecule. Furthermore for propagation of the targeting construct in a bacterial host, additional sequence elements may be necessary, so a targeting construct may, in addition to the elements shown in  FIGS. 4 and 7 , comprise an origin of replication and a bacterial selectable marker. It may therefore be advantageous to place restriction sites in the targeting construct to cleave between the elements of the targeting construct shown in  FIGS. 4 and 7  and the elements not shown but required for propagation in a bacterial host. Cleavage with restriction enzymes that recognize these sites will linearize the DNA and leave the targeting sequences at the ends of the molecule, favoring homologous recombination with the target host genome. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that there are alternative ways to obtain linear DNA, for example by amplifying the desired segment of DNA by PCR. It is also possible to prepare the DNA directly and transform it into the target yeast strain without propagating as a plasmid in a bacterial host. 
         [0149]    Introduction of the linearized targeting construct into a yeast host cell such as a  Candida  host cell is followed by homologous recombination catalyzed by host cell enzymes. This event is represented schematically in  FIG. 5 . Homologous recombination occurs between each of the two targeting sequences in the genomic targeting construct and the homologous sites in the yeast genome. The result is an integration of the targeting construct into the genomic DNA. Cells containing a genomic integration of the targeting construct can be identified using the selective marker. 
         [0150]    Cells containing a genomic integration of the targeting construct can optionally be tested to ensure that the integration has occurred at the desired site within the genome. In one embodiment, such testing is performed by amplification of a section of the genomic DNA by the polymerase chain reaction. Integration of the targeting construct into the yeast genome will replace genomic sequences with targeting construct sequences. This replacement may be detected by a difference in size of amplicon using oligonucleotide primers that anneal to sequences outside the targeted sequence. This is illustrated in  FIG. 10 . One of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that there are many alternative ways to design oligonucleotides to produce diagnostic amplicons using the polymerase chain reaction. For example one oligonucleotide that anneals inside the targeted region and one oligonucleotide that anneals outside but close to the targeted region can be used to produce an amplicon from the natural genomic sequence but will not produce an amplicon if the targeting construct has eliminated the targeted genomic sequence. Conversely one oligonucleotide that anneals inside the targeting construct and one oligonucleotide that anneals outside but close to the targeted region outside will not produce an amplicon from the natural genomic sequence but will produce an amplicon if the targeting construct has integrated at the targeted genomic location. In general oligonucleotide pairs for producing diagnostic amplicons should be oriented with their 3′ ends towards each other and the sites in the genome where the two oligonucleotides anneal should be separated by between 100 and 10,000 bases, more preferably by between 150 and 5,000 bases and more preferably by between 200 and 2,000 bases. In some instances it may not be possible to distinguish between two possible genotypes based on the size of the amplicons produced by PCR from genomic DNA. In these cases an additional test is possible, for example digestion of the amplicon with one or more restriction enzymes and analysis of the sizes may enable the two possible genotypes to be distinguished, or sequencing of the amplicon may enable the two possible genotypes to be distinguished. 
         [0151]    The same selectable marker may be used for the disruption of more than one genomic target. This can be achieved by removing the selectable marker from the yeast genome after each disruption. In one embodiment, this is achieved when the selectable marker separates two sites that are recognized by a recombinase. When the recombinase is present and active, it effects a recombination reaction between the two sites, excising the sequences between them. In the targeting construct shown in  FIG. 6  this is done by induction of the gene encoding the recombinase present in the targeting construct. Expression of the recombinase causes a recombination event between the two recombinase recognition sites of the targeting construct, as shown schematically in  FIG. 6 . The result is that the sequences between the two recombinase sites are excised from the genome. In other embodiments it is possible to integrate a recombinase into a second site in the host genome instead of having it present in the targeting construct. 
         [0152]    Cells from which a genomic integration of the targeting construct has been excised can optionally be tested to ensure that the excision has occurred by testing cells from individual colonies to determine whether they still carry the selective marker. In some embodiments, such testing is performed by amplification of a section of the genomic DNA by the polymerase chain reaction. Excision of part of the targeting construct from the yeast genome may be detected by a difference in size of amplicon using oligonucleotide primers that anneal to sequences outside the targeted sequence. This is illustrated in  FIG. 10 . One of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that there are many alternative ways to design oligonucleotides to produce diagnostic amplicons using the polymerase chain reaction. For example one oligonucleotide that anneals inside the targeting construct (example.g. within the selective marker) and one oligonucleotide that anneals outside but close to the targeted region can be used to produce an amplicon from the integrated targeting construct but will not produce an amplicon if the targeting construct has been excised. In general oligonucleotide pairs for producing diagnostic amplicons should be oriented with their 3′ ends towards each other and the sites in the genome where the two oligonucleotides anneal should be separated by between 100 and 10,000 bases, more preferably by between 150 and 5,000 bases and more preferably by between 200 and 2,000 bases. In some instances it may not be possible to distinguish between two possible genotypes based on the size of the amplicons produced by PCR from genomic DNA. In these cases an additional test is possible, for example digestion of the amplicon with one or more restriction enzymes and analysis of the sizes may enable the two possible genotypes to be distinguished, or sequencing of the amplicon may enable the two possible genotypes to be distinguished. 
         [0153]    In some embodiments it may be advantageous to delete sequences whose deletion will result in the inactivation of a cytochrome P450; in some embodiments it may be advantageous to delete sequences whose deletion will result in the inactivation of a fatty alcohol oxidase; in some embodiments it may be advantageous to delete sequences whose deletion will result in the inactivation of an alcohol dehydrogenase. 
       5.5.2 Methods for Addition of Sequences to the  Candida  Genome 
       [0154]    In some embodiments, new DNA sequences can be inserted into the yeast genome at a specific location using variations of the targeting construct. Because many yeasts recombine DNA in regions of sequence homology, a linear DNA molecule that is introduced into a yeast cell can recombine homologously with the chromosomal DNA if its ends share sufficient sequence identity with chromosomal sequences. It is thus possible to insert a DNA sequence into the yeast genome at a specific location by flanking that sequence with sequences homologous to sequences within the yeast genome that surround the desired genomic insertion site. Such replacements are quite rare, generally occurring less than 1 time in 1,000 yeast cells, so it is often advantageous to use a selective marker to indicate when new DNA sequences have been incorporated into the yeast genome. A selective marker can be used in conjunction with a sequence to be integrated into the yeast genome by modifying the strategy described for deleting sequences form the yeast genome. 
         [0155]    If a targeting construct comprises additional sequences between one of the targeting sequences and the proximal recombinase site, those sequences will be retained in the genome following integration and excision of the targeting construct. An example of such a construct is shown in  FIG. 7 , with the additional sequences indicated as “insertion sequences”. Integration of the targeting construct for insertion into the yeast genome is shown schematically in  FIG. 8 . Homologous recombination occurs between each of the two targeting sequences in the genomic targeting construct and the homologous sites in the yeast genome. The result is an integration of the targeting construct into the genomic DNA. Cells containing a genomic integration of the targeting construct can be identified using the selective marker. 
         [0156]    Cells containing a genomic integration of the targeting construct can optionally be tested to ensure that the integration has occurred at the desired site within the genome. In one embodiment, such testing may be performed by amplification of a section of the genomic DNA by the polymerase chain reaction, for example as illustrated in  FIG. 10 . One of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that there are many alternative ways to design oligonucleotides to produce diagnostic amplicons using the polymerase chain reaction. 
         [0157]    The selectable marker and other sequences from the targeting construct can be removed from the yeast genome using a recombinase-based strategy: the recombinase effects a recombination reaction between the two recombinase sites, excising the sequences between them. In the targeting construct shown in  FIG. 7  this is done by induction of the gene encoding the recombinase present in the targeting construct. Expression of the recombinase causes a recombination event between the two recombinase recognition sites of the targeting construct, as shown schematically in  FIG. 9 . The result is that the sequences between the two recombinase sites are excised from the genome, leaving the insertion sequences integrated into the yeast genome. 
         [0158]    Cells to which a genomic integration has been introduced can optionally be tested to ensure that the addition has occurred correctly by polymerase chain reaction amplification of DNA from the yeast genome. These amplicons may then be tested to measure their size (for example by agarose gel electrophoresis), or their sequence may be determined to ensure that precisely the desired changes have been effected. 
         [0159]    In some embodiments, it may be advantageous to insert sequences into a site in the genome that is known to be transcriptionally active. For example inserting a sequence encoding a polypeptide into a genomic site where transcription is regulated by a promoter that expresses high levels of mRNA can produce high levels of mRNA encoding the polypeptide. In some embodiments this can be done by replacing a polypeptide encoding sequence in the genome with a sequence encoding a different polypeptide, for example using the genomic targeting constructs of the form shown in  FIG. 7 . 
         [0160]    In some embodiments, the insertion of a sequence encoding a polypeptide into a genomic site where transcription is regulated by a promoter that expresses high levels of mRNA is accomplished by adding a polypeptide encoding sequence into the genome at a position where a part of the genomic sequence is duplicated so that the gene that was originally present in the genome remains. In some embodiments this can be effected using a DNA construct comprising a promoter sequence found in the yeast genome positioned such that transcription initiated by the promoter produces RNA that can subsequently encode the polypeptide. Such a construct also comprises a selectable marker that will function in the yeast and optionally a selectable marker that will function in a bacterial host. These may optionally be the same selectable marker. An example of such a construct is shown in  FIG. 21 . Integration of this construct into the yeast genome is shown schematically in  FIG. 22 . 
         [0161]    In some embodiments, a sequence encoding a polypeptide is inserted under control of the promoter for an isocitrate lyase gene or the promoter for a cytochrome P450 gene including the promoter of CYP52A12 or the promoter of CYP52A13 or the promoter of CYP52A14 or the promoter of CYP52A17 or the promoter of CYP52A18 or the promoter for a fatty alcohol oxidase gene including the promoter of FAO1 or the promoter of FAO1B or the promoter of FAO2A or the promoter of FAO2B, or the promoter for an alcohol dehydrogenase gene including the promoter of ADH-A4 or the promoter of ADH-A4B or the promoter of ADH-B4 or the promoter of ADH-B4B or the promoter of ADH-A10 or the promoter of ADH-B11 or the promoter of ADH-A10B or the promoter of ADH-B11B to obtain high levels of expression of a polypeptide. 
       5.5.3 Other Microorganisms of Interest for the Production of Oxidized Fatty Acids 
       [0162]    Homology-based recombination occurs in the Saccharomycetacaeae Family (which is in the Saccharomycotina Subphylum); Saccharomycetacaeae include the Genera  Ascobotryozyma, Candida, Citeromyces, Debaryomyces, Dekkera  ( Brettanomyces ),  Eremothecium, Issatchenkia, Kazachstania, Kluyveromyces, Kodamaea, Kregervanrija, Kuraishia, Lachancea, Lodderomyces, Nakaseomyces, Pachysolen, Pichia  ( Hansenula ),  Saccharomyces, Saturnispora, Tetrapisispora, Torulaspora, Vanderwaltozyma, Williopsis, Zygosaccharomyces.  The deletion and insertion methods described here are therefore expected to work in these Genera. 
         [0163]    Within the Subphylum Saccharomycotina is a monophyletic clade containing organisms that translate CTG as serine instead of leucine (Fitzpatrick et al., 2006,  BMC Evolutionary Biology  6, 99) including the species  Candida lusitaniae, Candida guilliermondii  and  Debaryomyces hansenii,  and the second group containing  Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis  and  Lodderomyces elongisporus.  Of particular interest are modifications of the activities of cytochrome P450s, fatty alcohol oxidases and alcohol dehydrogenases to modulate the host&#39;s production of oxidized molecules by yeasts in this clade. 
         [0164]    Yeast species of particular interest and industrial relevance within this clade include, but are not limited to  Candida aaseri, Candida abiesophila, Candida africana, Candida aglyptinia, Candida agrestis, Candida akabanensis, Candida alai, Candida albicans, Candida alimentaria, Candida amapae, Candida ambrosiae, Candida amphixiae, Candida anatomiae, Candida ancudensis, Candida anglica, Candida anneliseae, Candida antarctica, Candida antillancae, Candida anutae, Candida apicola, Candida apis, Candida arabinofermentans, Candida arcana, Candida ascalaphidarum, Candida asparagi, Candida atakaporum, Candida atbi, Candida athensensis, Candida atlantica, Candida atmosphaerica, Candida auringiensis, Candida auris, Candida aurita, Candida austromarina, Candida azyma, Candida azymoides, Candida barrocoloradensis, Candida batistae, Candida beechii, Candida bentonensis, Candida bertae, Candida berthetii, Candida bituminiphila, Candida blankii, Candida blattae, Candida blattariae, Candida bohiensis, Candida boidinii, Candida bokatorum, Candida boleticola, Candida bolitotheri, Candida bombi, Candida bombiphila, Candida bondarzewiae, Candida bracarensis, Candida bribrorum, Candida bromeliacearum, Candida buenavistaensis, Candida buinensis, Candida butyri, Candida californica, Candida canberraensis, Candida cariosilignicola, Candida carpophila, Candida caryicola, Candida caseinolytica, Candida castrensis, Candida catenulata, Candida cellae, Candida cellulolytica, Candida cerambycidarum, Candida chauliodes, Candida chickasaworum, Candida chilensis, Candida choctaworum, Candida chodatii, Candida chrysomelidarum, Candida cidri, Candida cloacae, Candida coipomoensis, Candida conglobata, Candida corydali, Candida cylindracea, Candida davenportii, Candida davisiana, Candida deformans, Candida dendrica, Candida dendronema, Candida derodonti, Candida diddensiae, Candida digboiensis, Candida diospyri, Candida diversa, Candida dosseyi, Candida drimydis, Candida drosophilae, Candida dubliniensis, Candida easanensis, Candida edaphicus, Candida edax, Candida elateridarum, Candida emberorum, Candida endomychidarum, Candida entomophila, Candida ergastensis, Candida ernobii, Candida etchellsii, Candida ethanolica, Candida famata, Candida fennica, Candida fermenticarens, Candida flocculosa, Candida floricola, Candida floris, Candida flosculorum, Candida fluviatilis, Candida fragi, Candida freyschussii, Candida friedrichii, Candida frijolesensis, Candida fructus, Candida fukazawae, Candida fungicola, Candida galacta, Candida galis, Candida galli, Candida gatunensis, Candida gelsemii, Candida geochares, Candida germanica, Candida ghanaensis, Candida gigantensis, Candida glaebosa, Candida glucosophila, Candida glycerinogenes, Candida gorgasii, Candida gotoi, Candida gropengiesseri, Candida guaymorum, Candida haemulonii, Candida halonitratophila, Candida halophila, Candida hasegawae, Candida hawaiiana, Candida heliconiae, Candida hispaniensis, Candida homilentoma, Candida humicola, Candida humilis, Candida hungarica, Candida hyderabadensis, Candida incommunis, Candida inconspicua, Candida insectalens, Candida insectamans, Candida insectorum, Candida intermedia, Candida ipomoeae, Candida ishiwadae, Candida jaroonii, Candida jeffriesii, Candida kanchanaburiensis, Candida karawaiewii, Candida kashinagacola, Candida kazuoi, Candida khmerensis, Candida kipukae, Candida kofuensis, Candida krabiensis, Candida kruisii, Candida kunorum, Candida labiduridarum, Candida lactis - condensi, Candida lassenensis, Candida laureliae, Candida leandrae, Candida lessepsii, Candida lignicola, Candida litsaeae, Candida litseae, Candida llanquihuensis, Candida lycoperdinae, Candida lyxosophila, Candida magnifica, Candida magnoliae, Candida maltosa, Candida mannitofaciens, Candida maris, Candida maritima, Candida maxii, Candida melibiosica, Candida membranifaciens, Candida mesenterica, Candida metapsilosis, Candida methanolophaga, Candida methanolovescens, Candida methanosorbosa, Candida methylica, Candida michaelii, Candida mogii, Candida montana, Candida multigemmis, Candida mycetangii, Candida naeodendra, Candida nakhonratchasimensis, Candida nanaspora, Candida natalensis, Candida neerlandica, Candida nemodendra, Candida nitrativorans, Candida nitratophila, Candida nivariensis, Candida nodaensis, Candida norvegica, Candida novakii, Candida odintsovae, Candida oleophila, Candida ontarioensis, Candida ooitensis, Candida orba, Candida oregonensis, Candida orthopsilosis, Candida ortonii, Candida ovalis, Candida pallodes, Candida palmioleophila, Candida paludigena, Candida panamensis, Candida panamericana, Candida parapsilosis, Candida pararugosa, Candida pattaniensis, Candida peltata, Candida peoriaensis, Candida petrohuensis, Candida phangngensis, Candida picachoensis, Candida piceae, Candida picinguabensis, Candida pignaliae, Candida pimensis, Candida pini, Candida plutei, Candida pomicola, Candida ponderosae, Candida populi, Candida powellii, Candida prunicola, Candida pseudoglaebosa, Candida pseudohaemulonii, Candida pseudointermedia, Candida pseudolambica, Candida pseudorhagii, Candida pseudovanderkliftii, Candida psychrophila, Candida pyralidae, Candida qinlingensis, Candida quercitrusa, Candida quercuum, Candida railenensis, Candida ralunensis, Candida rancensis, Candida restingae, Candida rhagii, Candida riodocensis, Candida rugopelliculosa, Candida rugosa, Candida sagamina, Candida saitoana, Candida sake, Candida salmanticensis, Candida santamariae, Candida santjacobensis, Candida saopaulonensis, Candida savonica, Candida schatavii, Candida sequanensis, Candida sergipensis, Candida shehatae, Candida silvae, Candida silvanorum, Candida silvatica, Candida silvicola, Candida silvicultrix, Candida sinolaborantium, Candida sithepensis, Candida smithsonii, Candida sojae, Candida solani, Candida songkhlaensis, Candida sonorensis, Candida sophiae - reginae, Candida sorbophila, Candida sorbosivorans, Candida sorboxylosa, Candida spandovensis, Candida steatolytica, Candida stellata, Candida stellimalicola, Candida stri, Candida subhashii, Candida succiphila, Candida suecica, Candida suzukii, Candida takamatsuzukensis, Candida taliae, Candida tammaniensis, Candida tanzawaensis, Candida tartarivorans, Candida temnochilae, Candida tenuis, Candida tepae, Candida terraborum, Candida tetrigidarum, Candida thaimueangensis, Candida thermophila, Candida tilneyi, Candida tolerans, Candida torresii, Candida tritomae, Candida tropicalis, Candida trypodendroni, Candida tsuchiyae, Candida tumulicola, Candida ubatubensis, Candida ulmi, Candida vaccinii, Candida valdiviana, Candida vanderkliftii, Candida vanderwaltii, Candida vartiovaarae, Candida versatilis, Candida vini, Candida viswanathii, Candida wickerhamii, Candida wounanorum, Candida wyomingensis, Candida xylopsoci, Candida yuchorum, Candida zemplinina,  and  Candida zeylanoides.    
       5.6 Engineering of Additional Enzymes into  Candida  to further Diversify Structures of Products Formed 
       [0165]    Different fatty acids are hydroxylated at different rates by different cytochrome P450s. To achieve efficient hydroxylation of a desired fatty acid feedstock, one strategy is to express P450 enzymes within  Candida  that are active for ω-hydroxylation of a wide range of highly abundant fatty acid feedstocks. Of particular interest are P450 enzymes that catalyze ω-hydroxylation of lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2), and α-linolenic acid (ω3, C18:3). Examples of P450 enzymes with known ω-hydroxylation activity on different fatty acids that may be cloned into  Candida  are the following: CYP94A1 from  Vicia sativa  (Tijet et al., 1988, Biochemistry Journal 332, 583-589); CYP 94A5 from  Nicotiana tabacum  (Le Bouquin et al., 2001, Eur J Biochem 268, 3083-3090); CYP78A1 from  Zea mays  (Larkin, 1994, Plant Mol Biol 25, 343-353); CYP 86A1 (Benveniste et al., 1998, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 243, 688-693) and CYP86A8 (Wellesen et al., 2001, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98, 9694-9699) from  Arabidopsis thaliana;  CYP 92B1 from  Petunia hybrida  (Petkova-Andonova et al., 2002, Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 66, 1819-1828); CYP102A1 (BM-3) mutant F87 from  Bacillus megaterium  (Oliver et al., 1997, Biochemistry 36, 1567-1572); and CYP 4 family from mammal and insect (Hardwick, 2008, Biochem Pharmacol 75, 2263-2275). 
         [0166]    A second strategy to obtain efficient hydroxylation (or further oxidation of the hydroxy group to an aldehyde or dicarboxylic acid) of a modified fatty acid is to perform the hydroxylation first and then to expose the hydroxylated fatty acid or aldehyde or dicarboxylic acid to an additional enzyme. 
         [0167]    For example incorporating one or more desaturase enzymes into engineered  Candida  would allow the introduction of double bonds into ω-hydroxyl fatty acids or aldehydes or dicarboxylic acids at desired positions. Examples of desaturases with known specificity that may be cloned into  Candida  are the following: Δ 4  desaturase from rat liver microsomes (Savile et al., 2001, J Am Chem Soc 123, 4382-4385), Δ 5  desaturase from  Bacillus subtilis  (Fauconnot and Buist, 2001, Bioorg Med Chem Lett 11, 2879-2881), Δ 6  desaturase from  Tetrahymena thermophila  (Fauconnot and Buist, 2001, J Org Chem 66, 1210-1215), Δ 9  desaturase from  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  (Buist and Behrouzian, 1996, J Am Chem Soc 118, 6295-6296); Δ 11  desaturase from  Spodoptera littoralis  (Pinilla et al., 1999, Biochemistry 38, 15272-15277), Δ 12  desaturase from  Arabidopsis thaliana  (Buist and Behrouzian, 1998, J Am Chem Soc 120, 871-876); Δ 15  desaturase from  Caenorhabditis elegans  (Meesapyodsuk et al., 2000, Biochemistry 39, 11948-11954). Many other desaturases are known in the literature that can also be expressed in engineered  Candida  strains including  Candida tropicalis  strains to introduce unsaturation at specific sites of fatty acid substrates prior to ω-hydroxylation or to catalyze carbon-carbon double bond formation after ω-hydroxylation of fatty acids. 
         [0168]    Expression in engineered  Candida  strains of P450 enzymes that are known in the literature to introduce additional internal hydroxylation at specific sites of fatty acids or ω-hydroxyfatty acids can be used to produce internally oxidized fatty acids or ω-hydroxyfatty acids or aldehydes or dicarboxylic acids. Examples of P450 enzymes with known in-chain hydroxylation activity on different fatty acids that may be cloned into  Candida  are the following: CYP81B1 from  Helianthus tuberosus  with ω-1 to ω-5 hydroxylation (Cabello-Hurtado et al, 1998, J Biol Chem 273, 7260-7267); CYP790C1 from  Helianthus tuberosus  with ω-1 and ω-2 hydroxylation (Kandel et al., 2005, J Biol Chem 280, 35881-35889); CYP726A1 from  Euphorbia lagscae  with epoxidation on fatty acid unsaturation (Cahoon et al., 2002, Plant Physiol 128, 615-624); CYP152B1 from  Sphingomonas paucimobilis  with α-hydroxylation (Matsunaga et al., 2000, Biomed Life Sci 35, 365-371); CYP2E1 and 4A1 from human liver with ω-1 hydroxylation (Adas et al., 1999, J Lip Res 40, 1990-1997); P450 BSβ  from  Bacillus substilis  with α- and β-hydroxylation (Lee et al., 2003, J Biol Chem 278, 9761-9767); and CYP102A1 (BM-3) from  Bacillus megaterium  with ω-1, ω-2 and ω-3 hydroxylation (Shirane et al., 1993, Biochemistry 32, 13732-13741). 
         [0169]    In addition to naturally occurring enzymes, modified enzymes may be added into the host genome. For example enzymes may be altered by incorporating systematically varied sets of amino acid changes, with the resulting changes in phenotypes measured and used to identify sequence changes conferring improved function. See, for example, United States Patent Publications Nos. 20060136184 and 20080050357; Liao et al., 2007, BMC Biotechnol 7, 16; Ehren et al., 2008, Protein Eng Des Sel 21, 699-707 and Heinzelman et al., 2009, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106, 5610-5615. Using these methods, modified versions of cytochrome P450s may be obtained with improved ability to oxidise fatty acids of different lengths (for example C6, C7, C8, C9, C10, C11, C12, C13, C14, C15, C16, C17, C18, C19, C20, C21, C22, C23, C24) or different degrees of saturation (for example fatty acids with one carbon-carbon double bond, fatty acids with two carbon-carbon double bonds and fatty acids with three carbon-carbon double bonds) or with unsaturated fatty acids where the unsaturated bond is at different positions relative to the carboxyl group and the ω-position, to hydroxy fatty acids or to dicarboxylic fatty acids. Further, using these methods modified versions of fatty alcohol oxidases or alcohol dehydrogenases may be obtained with improved ability to oxidise hydroxy-fatty acids of different lengths (for example C6, C7, C8, C9, C10, C11, C12, C13, C14, C15, C16, C17, C18, C19, C20, C21, C22, C23, C24) or different degrees of saturation (for example fatty acids with one carbon-carbon double bond, fatty acids with two carbon-carbon double bonds and fatty acids with three carbon-carbon double bonds) or with unsaturated fatty acids where the unsaturated bond is at different positions relative to the carboxyl group and the ω-position. A gene that has been modified by these methods may be made more useful in the genome of the host by amplification, that is by genetic manipulations causing the presence of more than one copy of the gene within the host cell genome and frequently resulting in higher activity of the gene. Expression of one or more additional enzymes may also be used to functionalize the oxidized fatty acid, either the hydroxyl group or more highly oxidized groups such as aldehydes or carboxylic acids 
         [0170]    Another family of enzymes that can be expressed in the newly engineered  Candida  strains is glycosyltransferases. A prominent example of a glycosyltransferase for this purpose is glycosyltransferase I which is responsible for glycosidically coupling glucose (position C1′) to the hydroxyl group of fatty acids in the metabolic pathway towards sophorolipid synthesis. See Van Bogaert et al., 2007, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 76, 23-34. Other glycosyl transferases can also be added that further extend the glycosidically bound glucose so that di-, tri- or even longer chain carbohydrate moities are linked to the hydroxyl group of w-hydroxylfatty acids. Resulting products can be used as surfactants. Also, glycosyltransferases with different specificity can be introduced to  Candida  strains including  Candida tropicalis  to allow the glycosidation of w-hydroxylfatty acids to occur with a range of sugar structures. For example, glycosidation can be carried out to transfer galactose or rhamnose specifically to hydroxylfatty acids creating new biobased unsymmetrical bola-amphiphiles. 
       5.6.1 Chemical Modifications of ω-Hydroxylfatty Acids 
       [0171]    Mono- or oligoglycosides can be conjugated to the ω-hydroxyl moiety of ω-hydroxylfatty acids via enzymatic or chemical methods. The result will be biobased unsymmetrical bola-amphiphiles that can be used as surfactants. Typical industrial methods make use of the Fischer synthesis. In such a process the carbohydrate source can be either a polymeric form of glucose such as starch or glucose syrup with low dextrose equivalent (DE), or monomeric glucose. It is well known to those skilled in the art that depending on the type of carbohydrate used, all manufacturing processes for the Fischer synthesis for conjugation of carbohydrates to hydroxyl moieties derived from fatty acids are carried out by either a direct synthesis. See Hill, W. Wuest, J. Wollmann, M. Biermann, H. Rossmaier, R. Eskuchen, A. Bruns, G. Hellmann, K. H. Ott, W. Winkle, K. Wollmann (Henkel KGaA), DE-B 3833780, EP-B 0437460, 1988 (Chem. Abstr. 1990, 113, 99889) of by the transacetalization process (M. Biermann, K. Hill, W. Wuest, R. Eskuchen, J. Wollmann, A. Bruns, G. Hellmann, K. H. Ott, W. Winkle, K. Wollmann (Henkel KGaA), DE-B 3723826, EP-B 301298, 1987 (Chem. Abstr. 1989, 110, 195187)). 
         [0172]    Ethoxylation of hydroxyfatty acids resulting from the present invention can be performed to form a family of biobased unsymmetrical bola-amphiphiles. Many methods are known to those skilled in the art to perform ethoxylation reactions. In one example, ethoxylation can be performed by adding to hydroxylfatty acids a desired quantity of ethylene oxide, using HBF 4  as catalyst and carrying out reactions in a high-pressure stainless steel Parr reactor at 35 to 45° C. See Ionescu et al., 2007,  J Polym Environ  15, 237-243. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0000]    Various esters of hydroxyfatty acids described herein can be prepared by methods that are well known to those skilled in the art. For example, ester formation can be catalyzed by a lipase using an excess of an alcohol such as ethanol, propanol, and butanol. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0000]    Hydroxyfatty acid amides can be synthesized from hydroxyl fatty acids or their esters by reactions with a wide range of primary and secondary amines, hydroxylamine, and amino acids following methods known to those skilled in the art. Representative examples of fatty acid derivatives include, but are not limited to, stearamide (Hofmann, 1882, Chem. Ber. 15, 977), isobutyl alkanamides (Kim et al., 2007, Org. Lett. 9, 1157), laurohydroxamic acid (Inoue and Hansaburo, 1940, J. Agr. Chem. Soc. Japan 16, 504), and hydroxyethyl tallowate (Feairheller et al., 1994, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 71, 863). 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0173]    In another example, hydroxyl groups of ω-hydroxylfatty acids described herein can be acrylated or maleinized following methods known to those skilled in the art. A representative method for these chemical transformations is described by Khot et al., 2001, J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 82, 703-723. The products of such reactions can be used to prepare composite materials with glass fibers as well as natural flax and hemp fibres. Alternatively, these products can be copolymerized with a variety of vinyl monomers such as styrene and methylmethacrylate. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0000]    Terminal alkenoic acids can be synthesized from w-hydroxylfatty acids by dehydration. A representative method for this transformation yields linoleic acid from ricinoleic acid is described in Villeneuve et al., 2005, M. J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. 82, 261. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0000]    Unsaturated hydroxylfatty acids synthesized by the recombinant  Candida  strains described herein can be further modified as follows. Maleic anhydride in an ene reaction can be used to introduce a maleate residue by following literature methods (Eren et al., 2003, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 90, 197-202). The resulting maleinized hydroxylfatty acids are AB 2  monomers that can be polymerized by condensation methods to obtain soft, flexible solids or viscous oily polymers. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0000]    Several methods are well known to those skilled in the art for oxidative conversions of carbon-carbon double bonds. For example, ozonolysis can be used to convert unsaturated hydroxyl fatty acids to a mixture of diacids and ω-hydroxylalkanoic acids where the chain length of these products will be dependent on the position of the double bond 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0174]    Metathesis is an alternative approach to convert double bonds present in ω-hydroxyl unsaturated fatty acid derivatives to polymerizable monomers (Warwel et al., 200, Ind. Crops Prod. 20, 301-309). For example, metathetical ethenolysis of hydroxylfatty acids will result in a mixture of heterobifunctional compounds containing both terminal double bond and carboxyl moieties or double bond and carboxylic acid groups. For additional possibilities for chemical conversions of unsaturated groups within hydroxylfatty acids, review articles are available. See, for example, Mol, 2004, Top. Catal. 27, 97-104. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
         [0000]    Epoxidation of unsaturated hydroxylfatty acid double bonds can be achieved by reaction with, e.g., molecular oxygen, hydrogen peroxide as well as by chemo-enzymatic reactions. See, for example, Biermann et al., 2000, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 39, 2206-2224. Epoxidized hydroxyfatty acids or esters can be converted to carbonated derivatives that contain five membered ring cyclic carbonates by reaction with carbon dioxide in the presence of tetrabutylammonium bromide as catalyst at 110° C. in high yield. Resulting cyclic carbonates can be reacted with di- or tri-primary amines to give corresponding nonisocyanate urethane bonds. See, for example, Tamami et al., 2004, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 92, 883-891. 
         [0000]    
       
                 
         
             
             
         
       
     
       6. BIOTRANSFORMATION EXAMPLES 
       [0175]    The following examples are set forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete description of how to practice, make and use exemplary embodiments of the disclosed methods, and are not intended to limit the scope of what is regarded as the invention. 
       6.1 General Biotransformation Procedure in Shake-Flask 
       [0176]      C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 from fresh agar plate or glycerol stock was precultured in 30 ml YPD medium consisting of (g 1 −1 ): yeast extract, 10; peptone, 10; glucose, 20 and shaken at 250 rpm, 30° for 20 hours in 500 ml flask. After 16 hours of cultivation at 250 rpm, 30° C., preculture was inoculated at 10% (v/v) to 30 ml conversion medium consisting of (g 1 −1 ): peptone, 3; yeast extract, 6; yeast nitrogen base, 6.7; acetic acid, 3; K 2 HPO 4 , 7.2; KH 2 PO 4  9.3; glucose/glycerol, 20 in 500 ml flask and shaked at 250 rpm. The initial concentration of substrate was about 10-20 g 1 −1 . pH was adjusted to 7.5 by addition of 2 mol 1-1 NaOH solution after 12 hour culture. During biotransformation, concentrated co-substrate (glucose/glycerol/sodium acetate/ethanol) was fed (1-2.5% per day) and pH was maintained at 7.5˜8.0 by addition of NaOH solution. Samples were taken on a daily basis to determine levels of product by LC-MS. 
       6.2 General Biotransformation Procedure in Fermentor 
       [0177]    Fermentation was carried out in 3-1 Bioflo3000 fermentor (New Brunswick Scientific Co., USA) in fed-batch culture. The conversion medium mentioned above was used except for addition of 0.05% antifoam 204 (Sigma) and 0.5% substrate. The seed culture from fresh agar plate or glycerol stock was prepared in 50 ml of conversion medium for 20 hours at 30° C., 250 rpm prior to inoculation into the fermentor vessel. Following inoculation, the culture was maintained at pH 6.3 and grown at 300, 900 rpm with aeration rate of 1.5 vvm. After 12 hour fermentations (growth phase), biotransformation phase was started with feeding of substrate (2 ml 1 −1 ). Concentrated glucose (500 g 1 −1 ) as co-substrate was fed continuously at the rate of 1.2 g 1-1 h-1. During the biotransformation phase, pH was maintained at 7.6 automatically by addition of 4 mol 1 −1  NaOH solution. Antifoam (Antifoam 204) was also added to the fermentor as necessary. Samples were taken on a daily basis to determine levels of product by LC-MS. 
       6.3 General Extraction and Purification Procedure of Biotransformation Products 
       [0178]    The fermentation broth was acidified to pH 1.0 with HCl and extracted twice with diethyl ether. To avoid the epoxy ring-opening during acidification, the fermentation broth with products containing epoxy groups was slowly acidified to pH 3.0 with 5 N HCl. Solvent was evaporated under vacuum with a rotary evaporator. The residual obtained was separated by silica gel column chromatography using silica gel 60. The fractions containing impurities, un-reacted mono fatty acids and products were gradually eluted with a mixture of n-hexane/diethyl ether that their ratio ranges from 90:30 to 10:90. The fractions containing same compound were collected together and the solvents were evaporated under vacuum with a rotary evaporator. 
       6.4 Synthesis of cis-9,10-Epoxy-1,18-Octadecanoic Acid by Lipase-Mediated Epoxidation of Oleic Acid 
       [0179]    Cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanoic acid was synthesized from oleic acid by the chemo-enzymatic method. The reaction was performed in 50-ml bottom flask containing 0.5 molar oleic acid in 20 milliliters toluene and 300 mg immobilized  C. antarctica  lipase (Novozym 435). Hydrogen peroxide (30%, w/w) was added stepwise at the rate of 0.5 ml every one hour during the first 4 hours. The reaction mixtures were stirred at 600 rpm and reaction temperature was maintained at 50° C. After an 8 hour reaction, the reaction was terminated and Novozym 435 was removed from solvent by filter. Cis-9,10-epoxy-1, 18-octadecanoic acid was obtained by removing toluene under vacuum with a rotary evaporator. 
       6.5 General Procedure for Polymer Synthesis Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0180]    Reaction was carried out in a parallel synthesizer (Advantage™ 2050, Argonaut) in bulk or in diphenyl ether. Purified functional diacids (1.0 mmol) and 1,8-octanediol or 1,3-propanediol (1.0 mmol) were transferred into reactor tubes in the parallel synthesizer and 10%-by-wt Novozym 435 was added. For homopolymerizaiton, only ω-hydroxy fatty acid (2.0 mmol) was added. Vacuum (2.0 psi) was applied after 2 hours. To follow the progress of polymerizations aliquots were withdrawn at 2, 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 hours. Reactions were terminated by addition of cooled chloroform and Novozym 435 was removed by filtration. The filtrates were directly analyzed by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) to determine molecular weight averages and polydispersity. The final product mixtures without precipitation were directly analyzed by  1 H-NMR. 
         [0181]    The reaction was also carried out in toluene in 250 ml round bottom flask. Purified functional diacids (20 mmol) and 1,8-octanediol or 1,3-propanediol (20 mmol) were transferred into flask with 100 ml toluene and 10%-by-wt Novozym 435 was added. Vacuum (2.0 psi) was applied after 2 hours. Reactions were terminated by addition of cooled chloroform and Novozym 435 was removed by filtration. The filtrates were directly analyzed by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) to determine molecular weight averages and polydispersity. The product mixture at the final time point was dissolved in chloroform and then filtered to remove the catalyst. The resulting chloroform solution was slowly added with stirring to methanol to precipitate polymeric product. The precipitated polymer was washed with methanol three times and then dried using vacuum evaporator at 50° C. for the analysis of  1 H-NMR and thermal properties. 
       6.6 Production of 1,18-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid from Oleic Acid by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 in Shake-Flask 
       [0182]    The biotransformation of oleic acid was carried out in 500 ml flask according to the culture condition described in Example 6.1. Glucose was used as co-substrate and initial concentration was 20 g/l. After a 12 hour culture, 20 g/l of oleic acid was added into the culture and pH was adjusted to about 7.5. After a 48 hour biotransformation, oleic acid was largely transformed to the corresponding 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid which reached 18 g/l. The productivity of the unsaturated diacid was about 0.38 g/l/h. The double bond remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.7 Production of 1,18-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid from Oleic Acid by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 in Fermentor 
       [0183]    Fermentation was carried out in 3 liter fermentor according to the fermentation conditions described in Example 6.2. The culture was grown at 30° C., and pH 6.3 with aeration at a rate of 2 liters/minute for 12 hours. Conversion was initiated by feeding of oleic acid at the rate of 2 ml/hour. pH was maintained at 7.6 with automatically addition of 4 mol/liter NaOH. Glucose solution was fed at the rate of 1.2 gram/liter/hour. After a 60 hour biotransformation, the concentration of 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid reached to 31 gram/liter with the productivity of 0.52 gram/liter/hour. The double bond remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.8 Production of 1,22-cis-9-Docosenedioic Acid from Erucic Acid by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 
       [0184]    The biotransformation of erucic acid was carried out in 500 ml flask according to the culture condition described in Example 6.1. Glucose or glycerol was used as co-substrate and initial concentration was 20 gram/liter. After a 12 hour culture, 20 gram/liter of erucic acid was added into the culture and pH was adjusted to about 7.5. After a 72 hour biotransformation, the concentration of 1,22-cis-9-docosenedioic acid reached to 15 gram/liter with the productivity of 0.21 gram/liter/hour. The double bond remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.9 Production of 1,18-cis-9,12-Octadecadienedioic Acid from Linoleic Acid by Biotransformation with  C. Tropicalis  ATCC20962 
       [0185]    The biotransformation of linoleic acid was carried out in 500 ml flask according to the culture condition described in Example 6.1. Glucose was used as co-substrate and initial concentration was 20 gram/liter. After a 12 hour culture, 20 gram/liter of linoleic acid was added into the culture and pH was adjusted to about 7.5. After a 24 hour biotransformation, the concentration of 1,18-cis-9,12-octadecadienedioic acid reached to 7 gram/liter. Thereafter, increase in the fermentation time resulted in decreased diacid concentration. The double bonds remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.10 Production of 12,18-Dihydroxy-cis-9-Octadecenoic Acid and 7-Hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid from Ricinoleic Acid by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 in Shaker-Flask 
       [0186]    Biotransformation of ricinoleic acid was carried out in 500 ml flask according to the culture condition described in Example 6.1. Mixtures of 12,18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid and 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid were obtained with retention of the secondary hydroxyl group at the 12-position. The ratio of 12,18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid to 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid was significantly affected by the culture conditions. The conversion rate of ricinoleic acid was greater with increased aeration of cultures that was achieved by using higher shake-flask agitation rates. Cultures performed with relatively higher agitation (250 rpm) rapidly convert 12,18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid that accumulates in flasks to 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid. After 72 hours, the concentration of 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid reached to 9 g/l. By decreasing the agitation rate in flasks, the ratio of ω-hydroxy to diacid increased. At 150 rpm shaker speed, the molar ratio of these products is 1:1 with a total conversion from ricinoleic acid of 75 mol %. By using glycerol as co-substrate, &gt;90% conversion of ricinoleic acid to 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid was achieved. In contrast, using ethanol as a co-substrate resulted in lower conversion of ricinoleic acid but the major product formed was 12,18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid that reached to about 5 g/l. The ratio of ω-hydroxy to diacid was also increased by increasing the initial concentration of ricinoleic acid in culture medium. 
       6.11 Production of 12,18-Dihydroxy-cis-9-Octadecenoic Acid and 7-Hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid from Ricinoleic Acid by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 in Fermentor 
       [0187]    Fermentation was carried out in 3 l fermentor according to the fermentation condition described in Example 6.2. The culture was grown at 30° C., and pH 6.3 for 12 hours. The dissolved oxygen was controlled at 30% and 60%, respectively. At high DO (60%), all ricinoleic acid was converted to 7-hydroxy-1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid and the concentration was about 12 g/l after a 72 hour conversion. A mixture of 12, 18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid (4.7 g/l) and 7-hydroxy-1, 18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid (4.9 g/l) was obtained at lower DO (30%). The secondary hydroxyl group remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.12 Production of cis-9,10-Epoxy-1,18-Octadecanedioic Acid from cis-9,10-Epoxy-1,18-Octadecanoic Acid by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis    
       [0188]    ATCC20962 in Shaker-Flask 
         [0189]    Cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanoic acid was synthesized from oleic acid using chemo-enzymatic method according to the procedure described in Example 6.4. Biotransformation of cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanoic acid was carried out in 500 ml flask according to the culture condition described in Example 6.1. Glucose was used as co-substrate and initial concentration was 20 gram/liter. After a 12 hour culture, 20 gram/liter of cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanoic acid was added into the culture and pH was adjusted to about 7.5. After a 72 hour biotransformation, the concentration of cis-9, 10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanedioic acid reached to 19.1 gram/liter with the productivity of 0.27 gram/liter/hour. The epoxy group remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.13 Production of 7-Tetradecynedioic Acid from 7-Tetradecyne  by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 in Shaker-Flask Experiment 
       [0190]    Biotransformation of 7-tetradecyne was carried out in 500 ml flasks according to the culture condition described in Example 6.1. Glucose was used as co-substrate and initial concentration was 20 gram/liter. After a 12 hour culture, 20 gram/liter of 7-tetradecyne was added into the culture and pH was adjusted to about 7.5. After a 96 hour biotransformation, the concentration of 7-tetradecynedioic acid reached to 11 gram/liter with the productivity of 0.12 gram/liter/hour. The triple bond remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.14 Production of 8-Hexadecynedioic Acid from 8-Hexadecyne by Biotransformation with  C. tropicalis  ATCC20962 in Shaker-Flask 
       [0191]    Biotransformation of 8-hexadecyne was carried out in 500 ml flask according to the culture condition described in Example 6.1. Glucose was used as co-substrate and initial concentration was 10 gram/liter. After a 12 hour culture, 20 gram/liter of 8-hexadecyne was added into the culture and pH was adjusted to about 7.5. After a 96 hour biotransformation, the concentration of 8-hexadecynedioic acid reached to 6.5 gram/liter with the productivity of 0.07 gram/liter/hour. The triple bond remained untouched during biotransformation. 
       6.15 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Double Bonds from 1, 18-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid and 1,8-Octanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0192]    Copolymerization of 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid (ω-carboxyoleic acid, ω-HOOC—OA) with 1,8-octanediol (OD) was carried out in both diphenyl ether and in bulk catalyzed by N435 described in Example 6.5. The reaction temperature was 90° C. The copolymers were successfully synthesized. Molecular weights (Mw) of poly (ω-HOOC—OA-co-OD) were 57,000 (PDI=2.02) at 36 hours and 44,000 (PDI=2.61) at 48 hours in diphenyl ether and in bulk, respectively.  1 H-NMR results showed double bonds were untouched during polymerization. 
         [0193]    Copolymerization of 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid (ω-carboxyoleic acid, ω-HOOC—OA) with 1,8-octanediol (OD) was also carried out in toluene in round bottom flask catalyzed by N435 described in Example 6.5. The reaction temperature was 90° C. Molecular weight (Mw) and PDI of poly(ω-HOOC—OA-co-OD) were 94,000 and 2.05, respectively. 
       6.16 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Double Bonds from 1, 18-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid and 1,3-Propanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0194]    Copolymerization of 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid (ω-carboxyoleic acid, ω-HOOC—OA) with 1,3-propanediol (PD) was carried out in both diphenyl ether and in bulk catalyzed by N435 described in Example 6.5. The reaction temperature was 90° C. The copolymers were successfully synthesized. Molecular weights (Mw) of poly(ω-HOOC—OA-co-PD) were 53,000 (PDI=2.32) at 36 hours and 26,000 (PDI=1.75) at 48 hours in diphenyl ether and in bulk, respectively.  1 H-NMR results showed double bonds were untouched during polymerization. 
       6.17 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Double Bonds from 1, 18-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid and Glycerol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0195]    Copolymerization of 1,18-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid (ω-carboxyoleic acid, ω-HOOC—OA) with glycerol (GL) was carried out in diphenyl ether described in Example 6.5. After a 36 hour reaction, molecular weight (Mw) of the copolymer, poly(ω-HOOC—OA-co-GL) reached to 29,000 with PDI of 2.17. Double bonds remained untouched during polymerization. 
       6.18 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Double Bonds from 1, 22-cis-9-Docosenedioic Acid and 1,8-Octanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0196]    Copolymerization of 1,22-cis-9-docosenedioic acid (ω-carboxyerucic acid, ω-HOOC-EA) with 1,8-octanediol (OD) was carried out in both diphenyl ether and in bulk catalyzed by N435 described in Example 6.5. The reaction temperature was 90° C. The copolymers were successfully synthesized. Molecular weights (Mw) of poly(ω-HOOC-EA-co-OD) were 32,000 (PDI=1.95) and 29,000 (PDI=2.14) after 36 hour in diphenyl ether and in bulk, respectively. The double bonds were untouched during polymerization. 
       6.19 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Double Bonds and Hydroxyl Groups from 7-Hydroxy-cis-9-Octadecenedioic Acid and 1,8-Octanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0197]    Copolymerization of 7-hydroxy-cis-9-octadecenedioic acid (ω-carboxyricinoleic acid, ω-HOOC—RA) and 1,8-octanediol was catalyzed by N435 described in Example 6.5. Copolymer molecular weights for polymerizations in diphenyl ether and in-bulk were 40,000 and 28,000 with PDI (Mw/Mn) of 2.00 and 2.22, respectively.  13 C-NMR analysis of copolymers showed about 7% of polymerization was happed in secondary hydroxyl groups. 
       6.20 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Double Bonds and Hydroxyl Groups from 12,18-Dihydroxy-cis-9-Octadecenoic Acid Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0198]    Homopolymerization of 12,18-dihydroxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid (ω-hydroxy ricinoleic acid, ω-HO-RA) was catalyzed by N435 in diphenyl ether described in Example 6.5. The molecular weight increased gradually throughout the 48 hour reaction and reached Mw 67,000 and PDI (Mw/Mn) of 2.30.  13 C-NMR analysis of the polymer showed that the polymerization was both in primary hydroxyl group (864%) and in secondary hydroxyl group (14%). 
       6.21 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Epoxy Groups from cis-9,10-Epoxy-1,18-Octadecanedioic Acid and 1,8-Octanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0199]    N435-catalyzed copolymerization of cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanedioic acid with 1,8-octanediol (OD) to prepare epoxy-functionalized polyesters were conducted both in-bulk and in diphenyl ether described in Example 6.5. The copolymer was successfully synthesized. For N435-catalyzed polymerizations in diphenyl ether, the highest molecular weights (Mw) of poly(ω-HOOC-Epoxy SA-co-OD) were 26,000 with PDI of 2.90. Mw decreased after 36 hour reactions. By performing polymerizations in-bulk, poly(ω-HOOC-Epoxy SA-co-OD) was prepared with Mw and PDI values of 39,000 and 3.10, respectively.  1 H-NMR results showed epoxy group were untouched during the polymerization. 
       6.22 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Epoxy Groups from cis-9,10-Epoxy-1,18-Octadecanedioic Acid and 1,3-Propanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0200]    N435-catalyzed copolymerization of cis-9,10-epoxy-1,18-octadecanedioic acid with 1,3-propanediol (PD) to prepare epoxy-functionalized polyesters was conducted in diphenyl ether described in Example 6.5. The highest molecular weights (Mw) of poly(ω-HOOC-Epoxy SA-co-PD) was 73,000 with PDI of 2.99 after a 24 hour reaction.  1 H-NMR results showed the epoxy groups were untouched during the polymerization. 
       6.23 Synthesis of Polyesters Containing Triple Bonds from 7-Tetradecynedioic  Acid and 1,8-Octanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0201]    Copolymerization of 7-tetradecynedioic acid and 1,8-octanediol was catalyzed by N435 in diphenyl ether described in Example 6.5. The molecular weights (Mw) and PDI values of the resulting polyester were 62,000 and 2.15 after 36 hour reaction, respectively.  1 H-NMR results showed the triple bond remained untouched during the polymerization. 
       6.24 Synthesis of Polyesters from 1,18-Octadecanedioic Acid and 1,8-Octanediol Catalyzed by Novozym 435 
       [0202]    Copolymerization of 1,18-octadecanedioic acid (ω-carboxystearic acid, ω-HOOC—SA) with 1,8-octanediol (OD) was carried out in toluene in round bottom flask catalyzed by N435 described in Example 6.5. The reaction temperature was 90° C. After 48 hour reaction, the molecular weight and PDI of Poly(ω-HOOC—SA-co-OD) were 76,000 and 2.00, respectively. The resulting saturated polyester was used for the comparison of thermal properties to the polyesters with functional groups. 
       6.25 Thermal Properties of the Polyesters with Functional Groups 
       [0203]    The thermal properties of synthesized polyesters with functional groups were analyzed by thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The details are showed in Table 1. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 1 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Thermal properties of polyesters with functional groups 
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 M w / 
                 T d   
                   
               
               
                 Polyester 
                 M w   
                 M n   
                 (° C.) a   
                 T m  (° C.) b   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 Poly(ω-HOOC-OA-co-OD) 
                 44,000 
                 2.61 
                 388 
                 23/36 
               
               
                 Poly(ω-HOOC-EA-co-OD) 
                 29,000 
                 2.14 
                 385 
                 35/40 
               
               
                 Poly(ω-HOOC-RA-co-OD) 
                 28,000 
                 2.22 
                 364 
                 −0.3/21   
               
               
                 Poly(ω-HOOC-Epoxy SA-co-OD) 
                 39,000 
                 3.10 
                 381 
                 33 
               
               
                 Poly(ω-HOOC-SA-co-OD) 
                 76,000 
                 2.00 
                 360 
                 77/88 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   a Data from TGA in nitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of 10° min −1  from 25° to 700°. 
               
               
                   b Data from DSC based on the second heating run at 10° min −1 . 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       7. GENETIC MODIFICATION EXAMPLES 
       [0204]    The following examples are set forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a description of how to practice, make and use various disclosed exemplary embodiments, and are not intended to limit the scope of what is regarded as the invention. 
         [0205]    The strains shown in Table 2 and further described in this section were constructed by the synthesis and cloning of DNA and its subsequent transformation into the appropriate  C. tropicalis  strain. Table 2 summarizes the DNA sequences synthesized and used in these examples. Table 3 summarizes the  C. tropicalis  strains constructed in these examples. Section 7.1 describes the methods used for transformation of  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 2 
               
               
                   
               
               
                   
                 SEQ 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 ID 
                   
                 SOURCE/ 
               
               
                 NAME 
                 NO: 
                 GI No. 
                 CONSTRUCTION 
                 APPLICATION 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 SAT1 Flipper 
                 1 
                 50059745 
                 Joachim Morschhauser 
                 Source of the SAT1 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 Flipper 
               
               
                 CYP52A17 
                 2 
                 29469874 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A17_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A17_Δ 
                 3 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 CYP52A17::SAT1 
               
               
                 CYP52A17::SAT1 
                 4 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into 
                 CYP52A17 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A17_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A13 
                 5 
                 29469864 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A13_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A13_Δ 
                 6 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 CYP52A13::SAT1 
               
               
                 CYP52A13::SAT1 
                 7 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into 
                 CYP52A13 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A13_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A18 
                 8 
                 29469876 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A18_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A18_Δ 
                 9 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 CYP52A18::SAT1 
               
               
                 CYP52A18::SAT1 
                 11 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into 
                 CYP52A18 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A18_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A14 
                 13 
                 29469866 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A14_Δ_Gene#1179 
               
               
                 CYP52A14_Δ 
                 14 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 CYP52A14::SAT1 
               
               
                 CYP52A14::SAT1 
                 15 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into 
                 CYP52A14 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A14_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO1 
                 16 
                 44194456 
                   
                 Used to design FAO1_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO1_Δ 
                 17 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 FAO1::SAT1 
               
               
                 FAO1::SAT1 
                 18 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete FAO1 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into FAO1_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO1B 
                 19 
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 FAO1B_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO1B_Δ 
                 20 
                 Not 
                 Assembly PCR. 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 Product not cloned. 
                 FAO1B::SAT1 
               
               
                 FAO1B::SAT1 
                 21 
                 Not 
                 Ligation of SAT1 
                 Used to delete FAO1B 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper to assembly 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 PCR product of 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 FAO1B_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO2A 
                 22 
                 44194479 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 FAO2A_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO2A_Δ 
                 23 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 FAO2A::SAT1 
               
               
                 FAO2A::SAT1 
                 24 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete FAO2A 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into FAO2A_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO2B 
                 25 
                 44194514 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 FAO2B_Δ 
               
               
                 FAO2B_Δ 
                 26 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 FAO2B::SAT1 
               
               
                 FAO2B::SAT1 
                 27 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete FAO2B 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into FAO2B_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A12 
                 28 
                 29469862 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A12_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A12_Δ 
                 29 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 CYP52A12::SAT1 
               
               
                 CYP52A12::SAT1 
                 30 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into 
                 CYP52A12 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A12_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A12B 
                   
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 CYP52A12B_Δ 
               
               
                 CYP52A12B_Δ 
                 31 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 CYP52A12B::SAT1 
               
               
                 CYP52A12B::SAT1 
                 32 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into 
                 CYP52A12B 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 CYP52A12B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A4 
                 39 
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A4_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A4_Δ 
                 44 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A4::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-A4::SAT1 
                 45 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH-A4 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH-A4_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A4B 
                   
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A4B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A4B_Δ 
                 46 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A4B::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-A4B::SAT1 
                 47 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH- 
                 A4B 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 A4B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B4 
                 42 
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B4_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B4_Δ 
                 48 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B4::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-B4::SAT1 
                 49 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH-B4 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH-B4_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B4B 
                   
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B4B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B4B_Δ 
                 50 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B4B::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-B4B::SAT1 
                 51 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH- 
                 B4B 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 B4B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A10 
                 40 
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A10_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A10_Δ 
                 52 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A10::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-A10::SAT1 
                 53 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH-A10 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 A10_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B11 
                 43 
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B11_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B11_Δ 
                 54 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B11::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-B11::SAT1 
                 55 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH-B11 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 B11_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A10B 
                 56 
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A10B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-A10B_Δ 
                 57 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 A10B::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-A10B::SAT1 
                 58 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH- 
                 A10B 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 A10B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B11B 
                 59 
                 Not 
                   
                 Used to design ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B11B_Δ 
               
               
                 ADH-B11B_Δ 
                 60 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used to construct ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 B11B::SAT1 
               
               
                 ADH-B11B::SAT1 
                 61 
                 Not 
                 Subcloning of SAT1 
                 Used to delete ADH- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 flipper into ADH- 
                 B11B 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 B11B_Δ 
               
               
                 ICL promoter 
                 62 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used as a component of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 genomic integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 70, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO: 74, etc.) 
               
               
                 ICL terminator 
                 63 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used as a component of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 genomic integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 70, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO: 74, etc.) 
               
               
                 TEF1 promoter 
                 64 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used as a component of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 genomic integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 70, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO: 74, etc.) 
               
               
                 EM7 promoter 
                 65 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used as a component of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 genomic integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 70, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO: 74, etc.) 
               
               
                 ZeoR 
                 66 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis of gene 
                 Used as a component of 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 optimized for Candida 
                 genomic integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 70, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO: 74, etc.) 
               
               
                 CYC1 transcription 
                 67 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used as a component of 
               
               
                 terminator 
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 genomic integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 70, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO: 74, etc.) 
               
               
                 pUC origin of 
                 68 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Used as a component of 
               
               
                 replication 
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 genomic integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 70, 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 71, SEQ ID 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 NO: 74, etc.) 
               
               
                 CYP52A17 
                 69 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Cloned into genomic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 express (e.g. SEQ ID No: 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 70) 
               
               
                 pXICL::CYP52A17 
                 70 
                 Not 
                 CYP52A17 cloned into 
                 Used to express 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 genomic integration 
                 CYP52A17 in  Candida   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 vector 
                   tropicalis  under control 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 of the isocitrate lyase 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 promoter 
               
               
                 CYP52A13 
                 71 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Cloned into genomic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 express(e.g. SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 71) 
               
               
                 pXICL::CYP52A13 
                 72 
                 Not 
                 CYP52A13 cloned into 
                 Used to express 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 genomic integration 
                 CYP52A13 in  Candida   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 vector 
                   tropicalis  under control 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 of the isocitrate lyase 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 promoter 
               
               
                 CYP52A12 
                 73 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Cloned into genomic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 express(e.g. SEQ ID NO: 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 74) 
               
               
                 pXICL::CYP52A12 
                 74 
                 Not 
                 CYP52A12 cloned into 
                 Used to express 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 genomic integration 
                 CYP52A12 in  Candida   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 vector 
                   tropicalis  under control 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 of the isocitrate lyase 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 promoter 
               
               
                 mCherry 
                 75 
                 Not 
                 Gene synthesis 
                 Cloned into genomic 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                   
                 integration and 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 expression constructs to 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 express mCherry (e.g. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 SEQ ID NO: 76) 
               
               
                 pXICL::mCherry 
                 76 
                 Not 
                 mCherry cloned into 
                 Used to express mCherry 
               
               
                   
                   
                 applicable 
                 genomic integration 
                 in  Candida tropicalis   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 vector 
                 under control of the 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   
                 isocitrate lyase promoter 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 3 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 STRAIN 
                   
                   
               
               
                 NAME 
                 GENOTYPE 
                 DESCRIPTION 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 DP1 
                 ura3A/ura3B 
                 American Type Culture 
               
               
                   
                 pox5::ura3A/pox5::ura3A 
                 Collection (ATCC 20962) 
               
               
                   
                 pox4A::ura3A/pox4B::UPA3A 
               
               
                 DP65 
                 DP1 CYP52A17::SAT1 
                 Electroporation of DP1 with 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CYP52A17::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 4) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                   
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into CYP52A17 
               
               
                 DP78 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17 
                 Growth of DP65 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                   
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from CYP52A17 
               
               
                 DP107 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17 
                 Electroporation of DP78 with 
               
               
                   
                 CYP52A13::SAT1 
                 CYP52A13::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 7) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                   
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into CYP52A13 
               
               
                 DP113 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17 ΔCYPS2A13 
                 Growth of DP107 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                   
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from CYP52A13 
               
               
                 DP140 
                 DP1 
                 Electroporation of DP113 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A17/CYP52A18::SAT1 
                 CYP52A18::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 11) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                   
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into CYP52A18 
               
               
                 DP142 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP140 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from CYP52A18 
               
               
                 DP170 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP142 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/CYP52A14::SAT1 
                 CYP52A14::SAT1(SEQ ID NO: 15) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                   
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into CYP52A14 
               
               
                 DP174 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP170 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from CYP52A14 
               
               
                 DP182 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP174 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 FAO1::SAT1(SEQ ID NO: 18) and 
               
               
                   
                 FAO1::SAT1 
                 selection for nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 insertion into FAO1 
               
               
                 DP186 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP182 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFCAO1 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from FAO1 
               
               
                 DP201 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP186 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 pXICL::CYP52A17 (SEQ ID NO: 70) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1 pXICL::CYP52A17 
                 and selection for zeocin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 insertion into the isocitrate 
               
               
                   
                   
                 lyase gene 
               
               
                 DP238 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP186 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 FAO1B::SAT1(SEQ ID NO: 21) and 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/FAO1B::SAT1 
                 selection for nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 insertion into FAO1B 
               
               
                 DP240 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP238 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from FAO1B 
               
               
                 DP255 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP240 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 FAO2A::SAT1(SEQ ID NO: 21) and 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 selection for nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 FAO2A::SAT1 
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 insertion into FAO2A 
               
               
                 DP256 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP255 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B ΔFAO2A 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                   
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from FAO2A 
               
               
                 DP258 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP256 with 
               
               
                 DP259 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 FAO2B::SAT1(SEQ ID NO: 27) and 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 selection for nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/FAO2B::SAT1 
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 insertion into FAO2B 
               
               
                 DP261 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP259 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from FAO2B 
               
               
                 DP268 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP261 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 CYP52A12::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 30) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 CYP52A12::SAT1 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into CYP52A12 
               
               
                 DP272 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP268 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B ΔCYP52A12 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from CYP52A12 
               
               
                 DP282 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP272 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 CYP52A12B::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 32) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/CYP52A12B::SAT1 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                   
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into CYP52A12B 
               
               
                 DP283 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP282 with maltose 
               
               
                 DP284 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                   
                 from CYP52A12B 
               
               
                 DP387 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP283 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-A4::SAT1(SEQ ID NO: 45) and 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 selection for nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ADH-A4::SAT1 
                 insertion into ADH-A4 
               
               
                 DP388 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP387 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4 
                 from ADH-A4 
               
               
                 DP389 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP388 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-A4B::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 47) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                 AADH-A4/ADH-A4B::SAT1 
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                   
                 into ADH-A4B 
               
               
                 DP390 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP389 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B 
                 from ADH-A4B 
               
               
                 DP397 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP390 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-B4::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 49) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ADH- 
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                 B4::SAT1 
                 into ADH-B4 
               
               
                 DP398 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP397 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH-B4 
                 from ADH-B4 
               
               
                 DP409 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP398 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-B4B::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 49) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ADH-B4B::SAT1 
                 into ADH-B4B 
               
               
                 DP411 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP409 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 from ADH-B4B 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B 
               
               
                 DP415 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP411 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-A10::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 53) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ADH-A10::SAT1 
                 into ADH-A10 
               
               
                 DP416 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP415 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 from ADH-A10 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH-A10 
               
               
                 DP417 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP416 with 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-B11::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 55) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH-A10 
                 into ADH-B11 
               
               
                   
                 ADH-B11::SAT1 
               
               
                 DP421 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP417 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 from ADH-B11 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH-A10 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-B11 
               
               
                 DP423 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP421 with 
               
               
                 DP424 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-A10B::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 58) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH- 
                 into ADH-A10B 
               
               
                   
                 A10/ADH-A10B::SAT1 ΔADH- 
               
               
                   
                 B11 
               
               
                 DP427 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP421 with 
               
               
                 DP428 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 pXICL::CYP52A17 (SEQ ID NO: 70) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for zeocin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 insertion into the isocitrate 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH-A10 
                 lyase gene 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-B11 pXICL::CYP52A17 
               
               
                 DP431 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP424 with maltose 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 from ADH-A10B 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH- 
               
               
                   
                 A10/ΔADH-A10B ΔADH-B11 
               
               
                 DP433 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP431 with 
               
               
                 DP434 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 ADH-B11B::SAT1 (SEQ ID NO: 61) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 nourseothricin resistance 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 followed by PCR screens for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 targeting construct insertion 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH- 
                 into ADH-B11B 
               
               
                   
                 A10/ΔADH-A10B ΔADH- 
               
               
                   
                 B11/ADHB11B::SAT1 
               
               
                 DP436 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Growth of DP433 with maltose 
               
               
                 DP437 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 followed by agar plate screen 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 for loss of nourseothricin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance and PCR screen for 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 excision of targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 from ADH-B11B 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH- 
               
               
                   
                 A10/ΔADH-A10B ΔADH- 
               
               
                   
                 B11/ΔADHB11B 
               
               
                 DP522 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP421 with 
               
               
                 DP523 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 pXICL::CYP52A13 (SEQ ID NO: 72) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for zeocin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 insertion into the isocitrate 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH-A10 
                 lyase gene 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-B11 pXICL::CYP52A13 
               
               
                 DP526 
                 DP1 ΔCYP52A17/ΔCYP52A18 
                 Electroporation of DP421 with 
               
               
                 DP527 
                 ΔCYP52A13/ΔCYP52A14 
                 pXICL::CYP52A12 (SEQ ID NO: 74) 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO1/ΔFAO1B 
                 and selection for zeocin 
               
               
                   
                 ΔFAO2A/ΔFAO2B 
                 resistance followed by PCR 
               
               
                   
                 ΔCYP52A12/ΔCYP52A12B 
                 screens for targeting construct 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-A4/ΔADH-A4B ΔADH- 
                 insertion into the isocitrate 
               
               
                   
                 B4/ΔADH-B4B ΔADH-A10 
                 lyase gene 
               
               
                   
                 ΔADH-B11 pXICL::CYP52A12 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
       7.1 General Protocols for Transformation of  Candida    
       [0206]    The protocols described in this section have been performed using  Candida tropicalis.  However it is expected that they will work in the Saccharomycetacaeae Family in general and the  Candida  genus in particular without undue experimentation since the methods rely upon homologous recombination which is found throughout this Family. 
       7.1.1 Preparation of DNA Targeting Constructs Prior to Integration into  Candida tropicalis    
       [0207]    A linear segment of DNA of the form shown schematically in either  FIG. 4  or  FIG. 7  was prepared by digesting between 2.5 and 5 μg of the plasmid containing the targeting construct with flanking restriction enzymes, in the examples below the restriction enzyme BsmBI from New England Biolabs was used according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions. The digest was purified using Qiagen&#39;s PCR purification kit, eluted in 75 μl of Qiagen&#39;s EB buffer (elution buffer) and transformed into  C. tropicalis  by electroporation. 
       7.1.2 Preparation of Electrocompetent  Candida tropicalis    
       [0208]    The desired  C. tropicalis  strain was densely streaked from a culture stored at −80° C. in growth media (YPD) containing 10% glycerol, onto 2-3 100 mm YPD Agar plates and incubated overnight at 30° C. The next morning 10 ml YPD broth was spread onto the surface of the YPD agar plates and the yeast cells were scraped from the plates with the aid of a sterile glass spreader. Cells (of the same strain) from the 2-3 plates were combined in a 50 ml conical tube, and the A 600  of a 1:20 dilution determined. Sufficient cells to prepare 50 ml of YPD containing yeast cells at an A 600  of 0.2 were placed in each of two 50 ml conical tubes and pelleted in a centrifuge for 5 min at 400×g. The cells in each tube were suspended in 10 ml of TE/Li mix (100 mM LiCl, 10 mM Tris-Cl, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.4). Both tubes were incubated in a shaking incubator for 1 hour at 30° C. and 125 rpm, then 250 μl of 1M DTT was added to each 10 ml cell suspension and incubation continued for a further 30 min at 30° C. and 125 rpm. 
         [0209]    The cells were then washed twice in water and once in sorbitol. Sterile, ice-cold purified water (40 ml) was added to each of the cell suspensions which were then centrifuged for 5 min at 400×g at 4° C. and the supernatant decanted off. The cells in each tube were resuspended in 50 ml of sterile, ice-cold purified water, centrifuged for 5 min at 400×g at 4° C., the supernatant decanted off supernatant. The cells in each tube were then resuspended in 25 ml of ice cold 1 M Sorbitol (prepared with purified water) and centrifuged for 5 min at 400×g. The supernatant was decanted from each tube and cells resuspended in the small residual volume of Sorbitol solution (the volume of each suspension was approximately 200 μl). The cell suspensions from both tubes were then pooled, this provided enough cells for 4-8 electroporations. In a 1.5 ml eppendorf tube on ice, 60 μl of cells were mixed with 60 μl (˜2.5 μg) of BsmBI digested vector DNA containing the genomic targeting construct. A No DNA Control was prepared for every transformation by mixing cells with Qiagen EB (elution buffer) instead of DNA. The cell-DNA mixtures were mixed with a vortexer and transferred to an ice-cold Bio-Rad 0.2 cm electrode gap Gene Pulser cuvette. The cells were then electroporated at 1.8 kV using a Bio-Rad  E. coli  Pulser, 1 ml of 1M D-Sorbitol was added and the electroporated cells were transferred to a 14 ml culture tube and 1 ml of 2× YPD broth was added. Cells were then rolled on a Rollerdrum for 1 hour at 37° C. before spreading 100 ul on 100 mm diameter plates containing YPD Agar+200 μg/ml nourseothricin. Plates were incubated for 2-4 days at 30° C. Large colonies (8-16) were individually streaked onto a YPD Agar plate to purify. A single colony from each streak was patched to a YPD agar stock plate and incubated overnight at 30° C. 
       7.1.3 Genomic DNA Preparation and PCR Test for Integration of Genomic Targeting Constructs at the Desired Location in  Candida tropicalis    
       [0210]    Between 5 and 30 nourseothricin-resistant isolates were each inoculated into 2 ml of YP Broth and rolled overnight at 30° C. on a Rollerdrum. Genomic DNA from a 0.5 ml sample of each culture was isolated using Zymo Research&#39;s YeaStar genomic DNA isolation kit according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions, eluting the DNA in 120 μl of TE, pH 8.0. 
         [0211]    For PCR tests, 2.5 μl of the resulting gDNA was used in a 50 ul PCR amplification reaction. As a control for each analysis, genomic DNA was prepared from the parental strain that was transformed with the targeting construct. Oligonucleotide primers for PCR analysis were chosen to lie within the targeting construct and/or in the genomic sequence surrounding the desired integration location, as shown for example in  FIG. 10 . The size of amplicons was used to determine which strain(s) possessed the desired genomic structure. PCR primer sequences and diagnostic amplicon sizes are described for many of the targeting constructs in Section 7. 
         [0212]    PCR reaction mixes were prepared containing 5 μl of 10× NEB Standard Taq Buffer, 2.5 μl of dNTP mix (6 mM of each of dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), 2.5 μl of oligonucleotide primer 1 (10 mM), 2.5 μl of oligonucleotide primer 2 (10 mM), 1 μl of NEB Taq DNA polymerase (5U of enzyme), 2.5 μl of  Candida  gDNA and water to 50 μl. PCR reactions were subjected to the following temperatures for the times indicated to amplify the target DNA:
   Step 1: 1.5 min @ 95° C.   Step 2: 30 sec @ 95° C.   Step 3: 30 sec @ 48° C. (or ˜5° C. lower than the calculated Tm for the primers as appropriate)   Step 4: 1 min @ 72° C. (or 1 minute per 1 kb for predicted amplicon size)   Step 5: Go to step 2 a further 29 times   Step 6: 2 min @ 72° C.   Step 7: Hold @ 4° C.   Step 8: End   The amplicon sizes were determined by running 5-10 μl of the completed PCR reaction on a 1% Agarose-TBE gel.   
 
       7.1.4 Selection and Screen for Isolates having Excised Targeting Constructs from the Genome of  Candida tropicalis    
       [0222]    Strains carrying a genomic targeting construct to be excised were inoculated from a YPD agar stock plate into 2 ml YP (YPD without dextrose) broth+2% maltose in a 14 ml culture tube. The culture tubes were rolled for ˜48 hours at 30° C. on a rollerdrum. Growth with maltose induced production of Flp recombinase in the host strain from the integrated targeting construct. The Flp recombinase then acted at Frt sites located near the ends of the targeting construct (between the targeting sequences) to excise the sequences between the Frt sites, including the genes encoding Flp recombinase and conferring nourseothricin resistance. The culture was then diluted in serial 10-fold dilutions from 10-fold to 10,000-fold. Aliquots (100 μl) of 100, 1,000 and 10,000-fold dilutions were spread onto YPD agar plates. 
         [0223]    Putative excisants were identified by replica-plating colonies on the YPD agar plates from the dilution series (the most useful plates for this purpose were those with 50-500 colonies) to a YPD agar+200 ug/ml nourseothricin plates and then to a YPD agar plate. Putative excisants were identified as colonies that grow on YPD agar, but not YPD agar+200 ug/ml nourseothricin following overnight incubation at room temperature. Putative excisants were streaked for single colonies to a YPD agar plate and incubated overnight at 30 C. A single isolate of each of the putative excisants is patched to a YPD agar stock plate and incubated overnight at 30° C. 
         [0224]    Putative excisants were inoculated from the stock plate to 2 ml of YPD broth in a 14 ml culture tube and rolled overnight at 30° C. on a Rollerdrum. Genomic DNA was prepared from 0.5 ml of the overnight culture using the YeaStar Genomic DNA Isolation Kit from Zymo Research and eluted in 120 ul of TE, pH 8.0. Excision of the targeting construct was tested by PCR as described in 7.1.3. 
       7.2 Deletion of Cytochrome P450 Genes from  Candida    
       [0225]    The CYP52A type P450s are responsible for ω-hydroxylation of fatty acids in several  Candida  species. See, for example, Craft et al., 2003, Appl Environ Microbiol: 69, 5983-5991; Eschenfeldt et al., 2003, Appl Environ Microbiol 69, 5992-5999; and Ohkuma et al., 1991, DNA Cell Biol 10, 271-82; Zimmer et al., 1995, DNA Cell Biol 14, 619-628; and Zimmer et al., 1996, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 224, 784-789. They have also been implicated in the further oxidation of these ω-hydroxy fatty acids to α,ω-diacids. See Eschenfeldt et al., 2003, Appli. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 5992-5999, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. In some embodiments it is desirable to engineer one or more CYP52A type P450s in a strain of  Candida  in order to modify the activity or specificity of the P450 enzyme. In some such embodiments it is advantageous to eliminate the activities of one or more CYP52A type P450 enzymes endogenous to the strain. Reasons to delete endogenous P450 enzymes include more accurate determination of the activity and specificity of a P450 enzyme that is being engineered and elimination of P450 enzymes whose activities may interfere with synthesis of the desired product. Strains lacking one or more of their natural CYP52A P450s are within the scope of the disclosed technology. For example in order to obtain a strain of  Candida  species of yeast including  Candida tropicalis  for the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids, one method is to reduce or eliminate CYP52A type P450s and other enzyme activities within the cell that oxidise ω-hydroxy fatty acids to α,ω-diacids. It is then possible to re-introduce one CYP52A type P450 or other enzyme that performs the ω-hydroxylation of fatty acids, and to engineer it so that its ω-hydroxylation activity is increased relative to its oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids to α,ω-diacids, thereby favoring the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids over α,ω-diacids. 
       7.2.1 Deletion of CYP52A17 
       [0226]    The sequence of a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 in  Candida tropicalis,  CYP52A17 is given as SEQ ID NO: 2. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the CYP52A17 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 3. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 3 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0227]    A targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A17 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the CYP52A17 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 3) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A17 is given as SEQ ID NO: 4. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of CYP52A17 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 4 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 4 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0228]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP65 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 4 into the genome of strain DP1 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for CYP52A17.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP78 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP65, thereby deleting the gene encoding CYP52A17. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 4, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                            17-IN-L3:               TGGCGGAAGTGCATGTGACACAACG   (SEQ ID NO: 77)               17-IN-R2:       GTGGTTGGTTTGTCTGAGTGGAGAG   (SEQ ID NO: 78)               SAT1-R:       TGGTACTGGTTCTCGGGAGCACAGG   (SEQ ID NO: 79)               SAT1-F:       CGCTAGACAAATTCTTCCAAAAATTTTAGA   (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP65 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 4), PCR with primers 17-IN-L3 and SAT1-R produces a 959 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and 17-IN-R2 produces a 922 base pair amplicon. PCR with primers 17-IN-L3 and 17-IN-R2 from a strain carrying a wild type copy of CYP52A17 produces a 2,372 bae pair amplicon. For strain DP78, with a deleted copy of CYP52A17, PCR with primers 17-IN-L3 and 17-IN-R2 produces a 1,478 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.2.2 Deletion of CYP52A13 
       [0229]    The sequence of a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 in  Candida tropicalis,  CYP52A13 is given as SEQ ID NO: 5. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the CYP52A13 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 6. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 6 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0230]    A targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A13 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the CYP52A13 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 6) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A13 is given as SEQ ID NO: 7. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pair of the genomic sequence of CYP52A13 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 7 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 7 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0231]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP107 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 7 into the genome of strain DP65 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for CYP52A13.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP113 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP107, thereby deleting the gene encoding CYP52A13. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 7, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                            13-IN-L2:               CATGTGGCCGCTGAATGTGGGGGCA   (SEQ ID NO: 81)               13-IN-R2:       GCCATTTTGTTTTTTTTTACCCCTCTAACA   (SEQ ID NO: 82)               SAT1-R:           (SEQ ID NO: 79)               SAT1-F:           (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP107 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 7), PCR with primers 13-IN-L2 and SAT1-R produces an 874 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and 13-IN-R2 produces an 879 base pair amplicon. PCR with primers 13-IN-L2 and 13-IN-R2 from a strain with wild type CYP52A13 produces a 2,259 base pair amplicon. For strain DP113 with a deleted version of CYP52A13 PCR with primers 13-IN-L2 and 13-IN-R2 produces a 1,350 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.2.3 Deletion of CYP52A18 
       [0232]    The sequence of a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 in  Candida tropicalis,  CYP52A18 is given as SEQ ID NO: 8. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the CYP52A18 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 9. The CYP52A18 pre-targeting construct also contains a polylinker sequence (SEQ ID NO: 10) between the 5′ targeting sequence and the NotI site. This polylinker sequence was placed to allow the insertion of sequences into the targeting construct to allow it to function as an insertion targeting construct of the form shown schematically in  FIG. 7 . Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 9 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. A targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A18 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the CYP52A18 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 9) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A18 is given as SEQ ID NO: 11. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of CYP52A18 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 11 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 11 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0233]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP140 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 11 into the genome of strain DP113 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for CYP52A18.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP142 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP140, thereby deleting the gene encoding CYP52A18. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 11, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                            18-IN-L2:               GGAAGTGCATGTGACACAATACCCT   (SEQ ID NO: 83)               18-IN-R2:       GGTGGTTTGTCTGAGTGAGAACGTTTAATT   (SEQ ID NO: 84)               SAT1-R:           (SEQ ID NO: 79)               SAT1-F:           (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP140 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 11), PCR with primers 18-IN-L2 and SAT1-R produces a 676 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and 18-IN-R2 produces a 605 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild type version of CYP52A18 with primers 18-IN-L2 and 18-IN-R2 produces a 2,328 base pair amplicon. For strain DP142 with a deleted version of CYP52A18, PCR with primers 18-IN-L2 and 18-IN-R2 produces an 878 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.2.3 Deletion of CYP52A14 
       [0234]    The sequence of a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 in  Candida tropicalis,  CYP52A14 is given as SEQ ID NO: 13. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the CYP52A14 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 14. The CYP52A14 pre-targeting construct also contains a polylinker sequence (SEQ ID NO: 10) between the 5′ targeting sequence and the NotI site. This polylinker sequence was placed to allow the insertion of sequences into the targeting construct to allow it to function as an insertion targeting construct of the form shown schematically in  FIG. 7 . Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 14 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0235]    A targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A14 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the CYP52A14 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 14) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A14 is given as SEQ ID NO: 15. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of CYP52A14 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 15 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 15 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0236]    Candida tropicalis strain DP170 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 15 into the genome of strain DP142 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for CYP52A14.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP174 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP170, thereby deleting the gene encoding CYP52A14. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 15, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 14-IN-L2: 
                   
                   
               
               
                 GACGTAGCCGATGAATGTGGGGTGC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 85) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 14-IN-R2: 
               
               
                 TGCCATTTATTTTTTATTACCCCTCTAAAT 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 86) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SAT1-R: 
               
               
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 79) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SAT1-F: 
               
               
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 80) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0237]    For strain DP170 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 15), PCR with primers 14-IN-L2 and SAT1-R produces a 664 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and 14-IN-R2 produces a 609 base pair amplicon. For a strain with a wild type version of CYP52A14, PCR with primers 14-IN-L2 and 14-IN-R2 produces a 2,234 base pair amplicon. For strain DP174 with a deleted version of CYP52A14, PCR with primers 14-IN-L2 and 14-IN-R2 produces an 870 base pair amplicon. 
       7.3 Deletion of Fatty Alcohol Oxidase Genes from  Candida    
       [0238]    As described in Section 8.2, at least one enzyme capable of oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids is present in  Candida tropicalis  in addition to the cytochrome P450 genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17 and CYP52A18. For the production of incompletely oxidized compounds including ω-hydroxy fatty acids, it is advantageous to reduce or eliminate the further oxidation of incompletely oxidized compounds such as ω-hydroxy fatty acids. Under one aspect, this can be achieved by deleting the genes encoding the oxidizing enzymes from the  Candida tropicalis  genome. Candidate genes for this activity include fatty alcohol oxidase and dehydrogenases as shown in  FIG. 14 . One class of enzymes known to oxidize hydroxy fatty acids are the fatty alcohol oxidases. 
       7.3.1 Deletion of FAO1 
       [0239]    The sequence of a gene encoding a fatty alcohol oxidase in  Candida tropicalis,  FAO1 is given as SEQ ID NO: 16. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the FAO1 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 17. The FAO1 pre-targeting construct also contains a polylinker sequence (SEQ ID NO: 10) between the 5′ targeting sequence and the NotI site. This polylinker sequence was placed to allow the insertion of sequences into the targeting construct to allow it to function as an insertion targeting construct of the form shown schematically in  FIG. 7 . Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 17 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0240]    A targeting construct for deletion of FAO1 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the FAO1 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 17) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of FAO1 is given as SEQ ID NO: 18. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of FAO1 at the 5′ end and 220 base pairs of the genomic sequence of FAO1 at the 3′ end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 18 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 18 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0241]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP182 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 18 into the genome of strain DP174 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for FAO1.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP186 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP182, thereby deleting the gene encoding FAO1. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 18, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    FAO1-IN-L:                   ATTGGCGTCGTGGCATTGGCGGCTC   (SEQ ID NO: 87)                       FAO1-IN-R:           TGGGCGGAATCAAGTGGCTT   (SEQ ID NO: 88)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP182 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 18), PCR with primers FAO1-IN-L and SAT1-R produces a 624 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and FAO1-IN-R produces a 478 base pair amplicon. For a strain with a wild type copy of FAO1, PCR with primers FAO1-IN-L and FAO1-IN-R produces a 2,709 base pair amplicon. For strain DP186 with a deleted copy of FAO1, PCR with primers FAO1-IN-L and FAO1-IN-R produces a 699 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.3.2 Deletion of FAO1B 
       [0242]    No sequence had been reported for a second allele for FAO1 (FAO1B) at the time of this work. To identify the allele (BAO1B) we used PCR amplification primers and sequencing primers designed to anneal to the known sequenced allele of FAO1. The primers used were: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 FAO1_F1; 
                 CGTCGACACCCTTATGTTAT 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 89) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_F2; 
                 CGTTGACTCCTATCAAGGACA 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 90) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_R1; 
                 GGTCTTCTCTTCCTGGATAATG 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 91) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_F3; 
                 CCAGCAGTTGTTTGTTCTTG 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 92) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_R2; 
                 AATCCTGTGCTTTGTCGTAGGC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 93) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_F4; 
                 TCCTTAACAAGAAGGGCATCG 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 94) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_R3; 
                 TTCTTGAATCCGGAGTTGAC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 95) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_F5; 
                 TCTTAGTCGTGATACCACCA 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 96) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_R4; 
                 CTAAGGATTCTCTTGGCACC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 97) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 FAO1_R5; 
                 GTGACCATAGGATTAGCACC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 98) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0243]    Genomic DNA was prepared from strains DP1 (which has FAO1) and DP186 (which is deleted for FAO1) as described in section 7.1.3. The FAO genes were amplified from genomic DNA by PCR using oligonucleotide primers FAO1_F1 and FAO1_R5. Genomic DNA from both strains yielded an amplicon of approximately 2 kilobases. Both amplicons were directly sequenced using the ten oligonucleotide primers listed above. The amplicon from DP1 gave sequence where there were occasionally two bases that appeared to be equally represented. The amplicon from DP186 had no such ambiguous bases but its sequence was slightly different (˜95% identical) from the reported sequence of FAO1. We concluded that the sequence corresponded to a second allele of FAO1, which we refer to as FAO1B. The sequence of FAO1B is given as SEQ ID NO: 19. 
         [0244]    This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the FAO1B pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 20. 
         [0245]    A targeting construct for deletion of FAO1 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the FAO1B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 20) that had also been digested with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. the FAO1B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 20) was not cloned or propagated in a bacterial host, so digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI produced two fragments which were then ligated with the digested SAT-1 flipper to produce a targeting construct for deletion of FAO1B, given as SEQ ID NO: 21. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of FAO1B at the 5′ end and 220 base pairs of the genomic sequence of FAO1B at the 3′ end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. 
         [0246]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP238 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 21 into the genome of strain DP186 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for FAO1B.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP240 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP238, thereby deleting the gene encoding FAO1B. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 21, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were, FAO1_F1 (SEQ ID NO: 89), FAO1_R5 (SEQ ID NO: 98), SAT1-R (SEQ ID NO: 79), SAT1-F (SEQ ID NO: 80). 
         [0247]    For strain DP182 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 18), PCR with primers FAO1_F1 and SAT1-R produces a 558 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and FAO1_R5 produces a 557 base pair amplicon. For a strain with a wild type copy of FAO1B, PCR with primers FAO1_F1 and FAO1_R5 produces a 2,007 base pair amplicon. For strain DP186, with a deleted copy of FAO1B, PCR with primers FAO1_F1 and FAO1_R5 produces a 711 base pair amplicon. 
       7.3.3 Deletion of FAO2A 
       [0248]    The sequence of a gene encoding a fatty alcohol oxidase in  Candida tropicalis,  FAO2A is given as SEQ ID NO: 22. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the FAO2A pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 23. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 23 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0249]    A targeting construct for deletion of FAO2A from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the FAO2A pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 23) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of FAO2A is given as SEQ ID NO: 24. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pair of the genomic sequence of FAO2A at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the structural gene to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 24 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 24 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0250]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP255 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 24 into the genome of strain DP240 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for FAO2A.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP256 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP255, thereby deleting most of the coding portion of the gene encoding FAO2A. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 24, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                            FAO2A-IN-L:               CTTTTCTGATTCTTGATTTTCCCTTTTCAT   (SEQ ID NO: 99)               FAO2A-IN-R:       ATACATCTAGTATATAAGTGTCGTATTTCC   (SEQ ID NO: 100)               SAT1-R:           (SEQ ID NO: 79)               SAT1-F:           (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP255 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 24), PCR with primers FAO2A-IN-L and SAT1-R produces a 581 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and FAO2A-IN-R produces a 569 base pair amplicon. For a strain with a wild type copy of FAO2A, PCR with primers FAO2A-IN-L and FAO2A-IN-R produces a 2,199 base pair amplicon. For strain DP186 with a deleted copy of FAO2A, PCR with primers FAO2A-IN-L and FAO2A-IN-R produces a 747 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.3.4 Deletion of FAO2B 
       [0251]    The sequence of a gene encoding a fatty alcohol oxidase in  Candida tropicalis,  FAO2B is given as SEQ ID NO: 25. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the FAO2B pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 26. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 26 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0252]    A targeting construct for deletion of FAO2B from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the FAO2B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 26) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of FAO2B is given as SEQ ID NO: 27. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of FAO2B at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the structural gene to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 27 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 27 also includes a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0253]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP259 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 27 into the genome of strain DP256 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for FAO2BA.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP261 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP259, thereby deleting most of the coding region of the gene encoding FAO2B. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 27, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                            FAO2B-IN-L:               TGCTTTTCTGATTCTTGATCATCCCCTTAG   (SEQ ID NO: 101)               FAO2B-IN-R:       ATACATCTAGTATATAAGTGTCGTATTTCT   (SEQ ID NO: 102)               SAT1-R:           (SEQ ID NO: 79)               SAT1-F:           (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP259 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 27), PCR with primers FAO2B-IN-L and SAT1-R produces a 551 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and FAO2B-IN-R produces a 571 base pair amplicon. For a strain with a wild type copy of FAO2B, PCR with primers FAO2B-IN-L and FAO2B-IN-R produces a 2,198 base pair amplicon. For strain DP186 with a deleted copy of FAO2B, PCR with primers FAO2B-IN-L and FAO2B-IN-R produces a 719 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.4 Deletion Cytochrome P450 Genes from  Candida    
       [0254]    As described in Section 8.3, at least one enzyme capable of oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids is present in  Candida tropicalis  in addition to the cytochrome P450 genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17 and CYP52A18 and fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A and FAO2B. For the production of incompletely oxidized compounds including ω-hydroxy fatty acids, it is advantageous to reduce or eliminate the further oxidation of incompletely oxidized compounds such as ω-hydroxy fatty acids. 
         [0255]    Under one aspect, this can be achieved by deleting the genes encoding the oxidizing enzymes from the  Candida tropicalis  genome. The CYP52A type P450s are responsible for ω-hydroxylation of fatty acids in several  Candida  species. See, for example, Craft et al., 2003, Appl Environ Microbiol 69, 5983-5991; Eschenfeldt et al., 2003, Appl Environ Microbiol 69, 5992-5999; Ohkuma et al., 1991, DNA Cell Biol 10, 271-282; Zimmer et al., 1995, DNA Cell Biol 14, 619-28; and Zimmer et al., 1996, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 224, 784-789. They have also been implicated in the further oxidation of these ω-hydroxy fatty acids to α,ω-diacids. See Eschenfeldt et al., 2003, Appli. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 5992-5999, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Another CYP52A type P450 whose expression is induced by fatty acids is CYP52A12. 
       7.4.1 Deletion of CYP52A12 
       [0256]    The sequence of a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 in  Candida tropicalis,  CYP52A12 is given as SEQ ID NO: 28. This sequence was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and a XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the CYP52A12 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 29. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 29 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0257]    A targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A12 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the CYP52A12 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 29) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A12 is given as SEQ ID NO: 30. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of CYP52A12 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 30 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 30 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0258]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP268 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 30 into the genome of strain DP261 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for CYP52A12.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP272 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP268, thereby deleting the gene encoding CYP52A12. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 30, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    12-IN-L:                   CGCCAGTCTTTCCTGATTGGGCAAG   (SEQ ID NO: 103)                       12-IN-R2:           GGACGTTGTCGAGTAGAGGGATGTG   (SEQ ID NO: 104)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP268 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 30), PCR with primers 12-IN-L and SAT1-R produces a 596 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and 12-IN-R2 produces a 650 base pair amplicon. For a strain with a wild type copy of CYP52A12, PCR with primers 12-IN-L and 12-IN-R2 produces a 2,348 base pair amplicon. For strain DP272 with a deleted copy of CYP52A12, PCR with primers 12-IN-L and 12-IN-R2 produces a 843 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.4.2 Deletion of CYP52A12B 
       [0259]    No sequence had been reported for a second allele for CYP52A12 at the time of this work. We reasoned that in a diploid organisms a second allele existed (CYP52A17 and CYP52A18 are an allelic pair and CYP52A13 and CYP52A14 are an allelic pair). To delete the second allele we synthesized a deletion construct based on the CYP52A12 sequence (SEQ ID NO: 28), but designed it so that the targeting sequences were homologous to regions of the CYP52A12 gene that are missing because they have been deleted in strain DP272. First we constructed a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from near the 5′ and 3′ ends of the structural gene, but internal to the two sequences used in the design of the targeting construct for the deletion of CYP52A12. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and a XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the CYP52A12B pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 31. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 31 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0260]    A targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A12B from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the CYP52A12B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 31) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of CYP52A12B is given as SEQ ID NO: 32. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 300 base pairs of the genomic sequence of CYP52A12 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 32 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E. coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 32 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0261]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP282 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 32 into the genome of strain DP272 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for CYP52A12B.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP284 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP282, thereby deleting a portion of the coding region of the gene encoding CYP52A12B. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 32, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                        12-F1:   CTGTACTTCCGTACTTGACC   (SEQ ID NO: 105)                           12-R1:   GAGACCTGGATCAGATGAGA   (SEQ ID NO: 106)                           SAT1-R:   (SEQ ID NO: 79)                           SAT1-F:   (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
Oligonucleotides 12-F1 and 12-R1 are designed to anneal to a part of the genome that is missing in strains with deletions in CYP52A12. In such strains they will thus only be able to anneal to and amplify from the second allele CYP52A12B. For strain DP282 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 32), PCR with primers 12-F1 and SAT1-R produces a 978 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and 12-R1 produces a 947 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild type copy of CYP52A12B with primers 12-F1 and 12-R1 produces a 1,478 base pair amplicon. For strain DP272 with a deleted copy of CYP52A12B, PCR with primers 12-F1 and 12-R1 produces a 505 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.5 Deletion of Alcohol Dehydrogenase Genes from  Candida    
       [0262]    As described in Section 8.4, at least one enzyme capable of oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids is present in  Candida tropicalis  in addition to the cytochrome P450 genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B and the fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A and FAO2B. For the production of incompletely oxidized compounds including ω-hydroxy fatty acids, it is advantageous to reduce or eliminate the further oxidation of incompletely oxidized compounds such as ω-hydroxy fatty acids. Under one aspect, this can be achieved by deleting the genes encoding the oxidizing enzymes from the  Candida tropicalis  genome. One class of enzymes known to oxidize alcohols is alcohol dehydrogenases. 
       7.5.1 Identification of  Candida tropicalis  Alcohol Dehydrogenases 
       [0263]    The sequences of four alcohol dehydrogenase genes were obtained from the  Candida  Geneome Database in the Department of Genetics at the School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, Calif. The sequences of these genes are given as SEQ ID NO: 33, SEQ ID NO: 34, SEQ ID NO: 35 and SEQ ID NO: 36. These sequences were aligned and two degenerate oligonucleotide primers were designed, whose sequences are given as SEQ ID NO: 37 and SEQ ID NO: 38. These two primers were used to PCR amplify from genomic DNA from  Candida tropicalis  strain DP1. The resulting amplicon of ˜1,000 base pairs was cloned and 96 independent transformants were picked, plasmid prepared and sequenced using two primers with annealing sites located in the vector reading into the cloning site and two primers designed to anneal to highly conserved sequences within the  Candida albicans  alcohol dehydrogenase sequences: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 ADH-F: 
                 GTTTACAAAGCCTTAAAGACT 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 107) 
                   
               
               
                   
               
               
                 ADH-R: 
                 TTGAACGGCCAAAGAACCTAA. 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 108) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0264]    Five different sequences were obtained by sequencing the 96 independent clones, called Ct_ADH-A4, Ct_ADH-A10, Ct_ADH-B2, Ct_ADH-B4 and Ct_ADH-B11. These sequences are provided as SEQ ID NO: 39, SEQ ID NO: 40, SEQ ID NO: 41, SEQ ID NO: 42 and SEQ ID NO: 43 respectively. In silico translation of Ct_ADH-B2 (SEQ ID NO: 41) yielded an amino acid sequence with multiple in-frame stop codons, so it is almost certainly a pseudogene and does not encode a functional protein. The other four sequences all encode protein sequences without stop codons. The sequence relationships of these protein sequences are shown in a phylogenetic tree in  FIG. 17 . Ct_ADH-A4, encoded by SEQ ID NO: 39, is most homologous to  Candida albicans  ADH1A and Ct_ADH-B4, encoded by SEQ ID NO: 42, is most homologous to  Candida albicans  ADH2A. 
         [0265]    The four coding sequences were sufficiently dissimilar for us to conclude that they were not allelic pairs, but rather represented four different genes, each of which probably had its own allelic partner in the genome. Each of the coding sequences was thus used to design two targeting constructs, similarly to the strategy described for CYP52A12B in Section 7.4.2. The construct for the first allele of each ADH gene used ˜200 base pairs at the 5′ end and ˜200 base pairs at the 3′ end as targeting sequences (5′-ADH Out and 3′-ADH Out in  FIG. 18 ). The construct for the second allele used two sections of ˜200 base pairs between the first two targeting sequences (5′-ADH In and 3′-ADH in  FIG. 18 ). These sequences will be eliminated by the first targeting construct from the first allele of the gene and will thus serve as a targeting sequence for the second allele of the gene. As described below, this strategy succeeded with two ADH allelic pairs: those for ADH-A4 and ADH-B4. However at the first attempt it was not successful for deletion of the second allele of ADH-A10 or ADH-B11, so the second allele of these genes were isolated, sequenced and those sequences were used to delete the second alleles of ADH-A10 or ADH-B11. 
       7.5.2 Deletion of ADH-A4 
       [0266]    Sequence SEQ ID NO: 39 was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the ADH-A4 structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-A4 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 44. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 44 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0267]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A4 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-A4 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 44) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A4 is given as SEQ ID NO: 45. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 base pairs of the genomic sequence of ADH-A4 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 44 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 44 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0268]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP387 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 45 into the genome of strain DP283 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-A4.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP388 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP387, thereby deleting the gene encoding ADH-A4. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 45, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    A4-OUT-F:                   GAATTAGAATACAAAGATATCCCAGTG   (SEQ ID NO: 109)                       A4-OUT-R:           CATCAACTTGAAGACCTGTGGCAAT   (SEQ ID NO: 110)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP387 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 45), PCR with primers A4-OUT-F and SAT1-R produces a 464 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and A4-OUT-R produces a 464 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild type copy of ADH-A4 with primers A4-OUT-F and A4-OUT-R produces a 948 base pair amplicon. For strain DP388 with a deleted copy of ADH-A4, PCR with primers A4-OUT-F and A4-OUT-R produces a 525 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.5.3 Deletion of ADH-A4B 
       [0269]    No sequence was identified for a second allele for ADH-A4 in the initial set of 96 sequences but we reasoned that in a diploid organism, a second allele existed. To delete the second allele (ADH-A4B) we synthesized a deletion construct based on the ADH-A4 sequence (SEQ ID NO: 39), but designed it so that the targeting sequences were homologous to regions of the ADH-A4 gene that are missing because they have been deleted in strain DP388. First we constructed a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences internal to the two sequences used in the design of the targeting construct for the deletion of ADH-A4. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-A4B pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 46. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 46 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0270]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A4B from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-A4B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 46) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A4B is given as SEQ ID NO: 47. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 base pairs of the genomic sequence of ADH-A4B at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 47 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 47 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0271]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP389 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 47 into the genome of strain DP388 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-A4B.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP390 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP389, thereby deleting a portion of the coding region of the gene encoding ADH-A4B. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 47, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    A4-IN-F:                   GAACGGTTCCTGTATGTCCTGTGAGTT   (SEQ ID NO: 111)                       A4-IN-R:           CGGATTGGTCAATGGCTTTTTCGGAA   (SEQ ID NO: 112)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
Oligonucleotides A4-IN-F and A4-IN-R are designed to anneal to a part of the genome that is missing in strains with deletions in ADH-A4. In such strains they will thus only be able to anneal to and amplify from the second allele ADH-A4B. For strain DP389 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 47), PCR with primers A4-IN-F and SAT1-R produces a 462 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and A4-IN-R produces a 462 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild-type copy of ADH-A4B with primers A4-IN-F and A4-IN-R produces a 488 base pair amplicon. For strain DP390 with a deleted copy of ADH-A4B, PCR with primers A4-IN-F and A4-IN-R produces a 521 base pair amplicon. The amplicons with primers A4-IN-F and A4-IN-R could not distinguish between a strain carrying a wild-type or a deleted copy of ADH-A4B, but digestion of the amplicon with either NotI or XhoI will cleave the amplicon derived from the deleted copy of the gene but not from the wild type, thereby distinguishing between them.
 
       7.5.4 Deletion of ADH-B4 
       [0272]    Sequence SEQ ID NO: 42 was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the ADH-B4 structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-B4 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 48. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 48 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0273]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B4 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-B4 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 48) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B4 is given as SEQ ID NO: 49. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 bp of the genomic sequence of ADH-B4 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 49 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 49 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0274]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP397 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 49 into the genome of strain DP390 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-B4.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP398 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP397, thereby deleting the gene encoding ADH-B4. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 49, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    B4-OUT-F:                   AAATTAGAATACAAGGACATCCCAGTT   (SEQ ID NO: 113)                       B4-OUT-R:           CATCAACTTGTAGACTTCTGGCAAT   (SEQ ID NO: 114)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP397 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 49), PCR with primers B4-OUT-F and SAT1-R produces a 464 bp amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and B4-OUT-R produces a 464 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild type copy of ADH-B4 with primers B4-OUT-F and B4-OUT-R produces a 948 base pair amplicon. For strain DP398 with a deleted copy of ADH-B4, PCR with primers B4-OUT-F and B4-OUT-R produces a 525 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.5.5 Deletion of ADH-B4B 
       [0275]    No sequence was identified for a second allele for ADH-B4 in the initial set of 96 sequences but we reasoned that in a diploid organisms a second allele existed. To delete the second allele (ADH-B4B) we synthesized a deletion construct based on the ADH-B4 sequence (SEQ ID NO: 42), but designed it so that the targeting sequences were homologous to regions of the ADH-B4 gene that are missing because they have been deleted in strain DP398. First we constructed a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences internal to the two sequences used in the design of the targeting construct for the deletion of ADH-B4. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-B4B pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 50. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 50 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0276]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B4B from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-B4B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 50) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B4B is given as SEQ ID NO: 51. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 bp of the genomic sequence of ADH-B4B at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 51 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 51 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0277]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP409 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 51 into the genome of strain DP398 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-B4B.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP411 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP409, thereby deleting a portion of the coding region of the gene encoding ADH-B4B. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 51, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    B4-IN-F:                   GAACGGTTCCTGTATGAACTGTGAGTA   (SEQ ID NO: 115)                       B4-IN-R:           CAGATTGGTTGATGGCCTTTTCGGAG   (SEQ ID NO: 116)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
Oligonucleotides B4-IN-F and B4-IN-R are designed to anneal to a part of the genome that is missing in strains with deletions in ADH-B4. In such strains they will thus only be able to anneal to and amplify from the second allele ADH-B4B. For strain DP409 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 51), PCR with primers B4-IN-F and SAT1-R produces a 462 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and B4-IN-R produces a 462 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild-type copy of ADH-B4B with primers B4-IN-F and B4-IN-R produces a 488 base pair amplicon. For strain DP411 with a deleted copy of ADH-B4B, PCR with primers B4-IN-F and B4-IN-R produces a 521 base pair amplicon. The amplicons with primers B4-IN-F and B4-IN-R could not distinguish between a strain carrying a wild-type or a deleted copy of ADH-B4B, but digestion of the amplicon with either NotI or XhoI will cleave the amplicon derived from the deleted copy of the gene but not from the wild type, thereby distinguishing between them.
 
       7.5.6 Deletion of ADH-A10 
       [0278]    Sequence SEQ ID NO: 40 was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the ADH-A10 structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-A10 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 52. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 52 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0279]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A10 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-A10 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 52) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A10 is given as SEQ ID NO: 53. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 bp of the genomic sequence of ADH-A10 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 53 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 53 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0280]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP415 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 53 into the genome of strain DP411 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-A10.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP416 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP415, thereby deleting the gene encoding ADH-A10. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 53, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                   
                 A10-OUT-F: 
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 AAGTTAGAATACAAAGACGTGCCGGTC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 117) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 A10-OUT-R: 
               
               
                   
                 CATCAAGTCAAAAATCTCTGGCACT 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 118) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 SAT1-R: 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 147) 
               
               
                   
                   
               
               
                   
                 SAT1-F: 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (SEQ ID NO: 80) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0281]    For strain DP415 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 49), PCR with primers A10-OUT-F and SAT1-R produces a 464 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and A10-OUT-R produces a 464 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild type copy of ADH-A10 with primers A10-OUT-F and A10-OUT-R produces a 948 base pair amplicon. For strain DP416 with a deleted copy of ADH-A10, PCR with primers A10-OUT-F and A10-OUT-R produces a 525 base pair amplicon. 
       7.5.6 Deletion of ADH-B11 
       [0282]    Sequence SEQ ID NO: 43 was used to design a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the ADH-B11 structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-B11 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 54. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 54 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0283]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B11 from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-B11 pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 54) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B11 is given as SEQ ID NO: 55. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 base pair of the genomic sequence of ADH-B11 at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 55 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 53 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0284]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP417 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 55 into the genome of strain DP416 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-B11.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP421 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP417, thereby deleting the gene encoding ADH-B11. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 55 and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    B11-OUT-F:                   CCATTGCAATACACCGATATCCCAGTT   (SEQ ID NO: 119)                       B11-OUT-R:           CAACAATTTGAAAATCTCTGGCAAT   (SEQ ID NO: 120)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP417 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 49), PCR with primers B11-OUT-F and SAT1-R produces a 464 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and B11-OUT-R produces a 464 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild type copy of ADH-B11 with primers B11-OUT-F and B11-OUT-R produces a 948 base pair amplicon. For strain DP421 with a deleted copy of ADH-B11, PCR with primers B11-OUT-F and B11-OUT-R produces a 525 base pair amplicon.
 
       7.5.7 Deletion of ADH-A10B 
       [0285]    No sequence was identified for a second allele for ADH-A10 in the initial set of 96 sequences but we reasoned that in a diploid organism a second allele existed. At our first attempt we were unable to delete the second allele (ADH-A10B) using the strategy described for ADH-A4B and ADH-B4B. We used the primers A10-IN-F and A10-IN-R 
         [0000]                                    A10-IN-F:                   GAATGGTTCGTGTATGAACTGTGAGTT   (SEQ ID NO: 121)                       A10-IN-R:           CCGACTGGTTGATTGCCTTTTCGGAC   (SEQ ID NO: 122)            
to amplify an ˜500 base pair amplicon from genomic DNA from strain DP415 which has the SAT1-flipper inserted into the first ADH-A10 allele, preventing it from amplifying with these primers. The amplicon was cloned and sequenced, the sequence is given as SEQ ID NO: 56.
 
         [0286]    We constructed a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences based on SEQ ID NO: 56. A single mutation was introduced into the sequence obtained as SEQ ID NO: 56: a G at position 433 was mutated to a C to destroy an unwanted BsmBI site. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-A10B pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 57. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 57 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0287]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A10B from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-A10B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 57) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-A10B is given as SEQ ID NO: 58. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 base pairs of the genomic sequence of ADH-A10B at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; and between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 58 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 58 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0288]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP424 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 58 into the genome of strain DP421 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-A10B.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP431 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP424, thereby deleting a portion of the coding region of the gene encoding ADH-A10B. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 58, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were A10-IN-F (SEQ ID NO: 121), A10-IN-R (SEQ ID NO: 122), SAT1-R (SEQ ID NO: 79), and SAT1-F (SEQ ID NO: 80). 
         [0289]    Oligonucleotides A10-IN-F and A10-IN-R are designed to anneal to a part of the genome that is missing in strains with deletions in ADH-A10. In such strains they will thus only be able to anneal to and amplify from the second allele ADH-A10B. For strain DP424 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 58), PCR with primers A10-IN-F and SAT1-R produces a 462 base pair amplicon; PCR with primers SAT1-F and A10-IN-R produces a 462 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild-type copy of ADH-A10B with primers A10-IN-F and A10-IN-R produces a 488 base pair amplicon. For strain DP431 with a deleted copy of ADH-A10B, PCR with primers A10-IN-F and A10-IN-R produces a 521 base pair amplicon. The amplicons with primers A10-IN-F and A10-IN-R could not distinguish between a strain carrying a wild-type or a deleted copy of ADH-A10B, but digestion of the amplicon with either NotI or XhoI will cleave the amplicon derived from the deleted copy of the gene but not from the wild type, thereby distinguishing between them. 
       7.5.8 Deletion of ADH-B11B 
       [0290]    No sequence was identified for a second allele for ADH-B11 in the initial set of 96 sequences but we reasoned that in a diploid organism a second allele existed. At our first attempt we were unable to delete the second allele (ADH-B11B) using the strategy described for ADH-A4B and ADH-B4B. We used the primers B11-OUT-F and B11-OUT-R: 
         [0000]                                    B11-OUT-F                   GAATGGTTCGTGTATGAACTGTGAGTT   (SEQ ID NO: 121)                       B11-OUT-R           CCGACTGGTTGATTGCCTTTTCGGAC   (SEQ ID NO: 122)            
to amplify an ˜950 base pair amplicon from genomic DNA from strain DP417 which has the SAT1-flipper inserted into the first ADH-B11 allele, preventing it from amplifying with these primers. The amplicon was cloned and sequenced. The sequence is given as SEQ ID NO: 59.
 
         [0291]    We constructed a “pre-targeting” construct comprising two targeting sequences based on SEQ ID NO: 59. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 base pair stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences were flanked by two BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the ADH-B11B pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 60. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 60 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The sequence was synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0292]    A targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B11B from the  Candida tropicalis  genome was prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating it into the ADH-B11B pre-targeting construct (SEQ ID NO: 60) from which the 20 base pair stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting targeting construct for deletion of ADH-B11B is given as SEQ ID NO: 61. This sequence is a specific example of the construct shown generically in  FIG. 4 : it has nearly 200 base pair of the genomic sequence of ADH-B11B at each end to serve as a targeting sequence; between the targeting sequences are two frt sites that are recognized by the flp recombinase; between the two frt sites are sequences encoding the flp recombinase and a protein conferring resistance to the antibiotic nourseothricin. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 61 but also present in the targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E coli.  The targeting sequences shown in SEQ ID NO: 61 also include a BsmBI restriction site at each end of the construct, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized and optionally separated from the bacterial antibiotic resistance marker and origin of replication prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.    
         [0293]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP433 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 61 into the genome of strain DP431 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for ADH-B11B.  Candida tropicalis  strain DP437 was prepared by excision of the targeting construct from the genome of strain DP433, thereby deleting a portion of the coding region of the gene encoding ADH-B11B. Integration and deletion of targeting sequence SEQ ID NO: 61, and analysis of integrants and excisants were performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    B11-OUT-F:                       (SEQ ID NO: 119)                       B11-IN-R:           CAGACTGGTTGATGGCTTTTTCAGAA   (SEQ ID NO: 123)                       SAT1-R:               (SEQ ID NO: 79)                       SAT1-F:               (SEQ ID NO: 80)            
For strain DP433 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 61), PCR with primers B11-OUT-F and SAT1-R produces a 692 base pair amplicon. PCR from a strain with a wild-type copy of ADH-B11B with primers B11-OUT-F and B11-IN-R produces a 718 base pair amplicon. For strain DP437 with a deleted copy of ADH-B11B, PCR with primers B11-OUT-F and B11-IN-R produces a 751 base pair amplicon. The amplicons with primers B11-OUT-F and B11-IN-R could not distinguish between a strain carrying a wild-type or a deleted copy of ADH-B11B, but digestion of the amplicon with either NotI or XhoI will cleave the amplicon derived from the deleted copy of the gene but not from the wild type, thereby distinguishing between them.
 
       7.6 Insertion of P450 Genes into the Genome of  Candida    
       [0294]    To achieve novel phenotypes of  Candida  species of yeast (e.g.,  Candida tropicalis ), including (i) biotransformations of compounds by  Candida tropicalis,  (ii) chemical conversions not previously obtained, (iii) increased rates of conversion of one or more substrates to one or more products, (iv) increased specificity of conversion of one or more substrates to one or more products, (v) increased tolerance of a compound by the yeast, and/or (vi) increased uptake of a compound by the yeast, a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 polypeptide is incorporated into the genome of the yeast. Expression of the cytochrome P450 in the yeast then allows the phenotype of the yeast to be modified. 
         [0295]    Cytochrome P450s are of particular utility in the hydroxylation of fatty acids. Different cytochrome P450s are known to have different substrate and regiospecificities and different specific activities. It is therefore useful in some embodiments to incorporate a gene encoding a cytochrome P450 into the genome of yeast in which endogenous cytochrome P450s have been disrupted. The exact P450 to be used will depend upon the substrate and the position on the substrate to be hydroxylated. A list of P450 enzymes that have utility in the hydroxylation of substrates when expressed within a yeast cell are given in Table 4. It will be appreciated that as new yeast P450 enzymes are discovered, such cytochrome P450s could be introduced into the yeast disclosed herein in order to achieve new substrate regiospecificities. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 4 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 First Database 
                   
                   
                   
               
               
                 Accession 
                 Second Database 
               
               
                 Number 
                 Accession Number 
                 Name 
                 Species 
               
               
                   
               
             
             
               
                 gi 29469875 
                 gb AAO73958.1 
                 CYP52A17 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469877 
                 gb AAO73959.1 
                 CYP52A18 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 231889 
                 sp P30610.1 
                 CP52H_CANTR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A8) 
               
               
                 gi 3913326 
                 sp Q12586.1 
                 CP52I_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A9) 
               
               
                 gi 29469881 
                 gb AAO73961.1 
                 CYP52A20 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469879 
                 gb AAO73960.1 
                 CYP52A19 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 3913329 
                 sp Q12589.1 
                 CP52K_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A11) 
               
               
                 gi 3913328 
                 sp Q12588.1 
                 CP52J_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A10) 
               
               
                 gi 68492087 
                 ref XP_710174.1 
                 P450 drug resistance protein 
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 3395458 
                 emb CAA75058.1 
                 alk8 
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 68474594 
                 ref XP_718670.1 
                 CaO19.7513 
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469865 
                 gb AAO73953.1 
                 CYP52A13 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 149239010 
                 ref XP_001525381.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A11 
                 
                   Lodderomyces 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   elongisporus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469867 
                 gb AAO73954.1 
                 CYP52A14 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 7548332 
                 gb AAA34353.2 
                 cytochrome P-450-alk2 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 732622 
                 emb CAA39366.1 
                 n-alkane inducible 
                 
                   Candida maltosa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 231886 
                 sp P30607.1 
                 CP52B_CANTR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A2) 
               
               
                 gi 68474592 
                 ref XP_718669.1 
                 CaO19.7512 
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 150864612 
                 ref XP_001383506.2 
                 n-alkane inducible 
                 
                   Pichia stipitis 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 231888 
                 sp P30609.1 
                 CP52G_CANTR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A7) 
               
               
                 gi 298217 
                 gb AAB24479.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monoxygenase alk4, P450 
               
               
                   
                   
                 alk4 = CYP52A7 gene 
               
               
                   
                   
                 product {alkane-inducible} 
               
               
                 gi 149246109 
                 ref XP_001527524.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A2 
                 
                   Lodderomyces 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   elongisporus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469869 
                 gb AAO73955.1 
                 CYP52A15 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 190319368 
                 gb AAD22536.2 
                 AF103948_1 cytochrome 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450 alkane hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 146419207 
                 ref XP_001485567.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A12 
                 
                   Pichia guilliermondii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469863 
                 gb AAO73952.1 
                 CYP52A12 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50423067 
                 ref XP_460112.1 
                 DEHA0E19635g 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469871 
                 gb AAO73956.1 
                 CYP52A16 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 199432969 
                 emb CAG88381.2 
                 DEHA2E18612p 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 170892 
                 gb AAA34354.1 
                 cytochrome P-450-alk1 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50423065 
                 ref XP_460111.1 
                 DEHA0E19613g 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 1169075 
                 sp P10615.3 
                 CP52A_CANTR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A1) 
               
               
                 gi 226487 
                 prf 1515252A 
                 cytochrome P450alk1 
               
               
                 gi 732623 
                 emb CAA39367.1 
                 n-alkane inducible 
                 
                   Candida maltosa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 146413358 
                 ref XP_001482650.1 
                 PGUG_05670 
                 
                   Pichia guilliermondii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 117182 
                 sp P16141.3 
                 CP52D_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A4) 
               
               
                 gi 2608 
                 emb CAA36197.1 
                 unnamed protein product 
                 
                   Candida maltosa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 231887 
                 sp P30608.1 
                 CP52F_CANTR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A6) 
               
               
                 gi 199432970 
                 emb CAG88382.2 
                 DEHA2E18634p 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 190349008 
                 gb EDK41572.2 
                 PGUG_05670 
                 
                   Pichia guilliermondii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 150864699 
                 ref XP_001383636.2 
                 Cytochrome P450 52A12 
                 
                   Pichia stipitis 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Alkane hydroxylase 1) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Alkane-inducible p450alk 
               
               
                   
                   
                 1) (DH-ALK2) 
               
               
                 gi 117181 
                 sp P16496.3 
                 CP52C_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A3) 
               
               
                 gi 199432968 
                 emb CAG88380.2 
                 DEHA2E18590p 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50423063 
                 ref XP_460110.1 
                 DEHA0E19591g 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 553118 
                 gb AAA34320.1 
                 alkane hydroxylating 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 117183 
                 sp P24458.1 
                 CP52E_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A5) 
               
               
                 gi 68475852 
                 ref XP_717999.1 
                 potential alkane 
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylating 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase P450 
               
               
                 gi 18203639 
                 sp Q9Y758.1 
                 CP52M_DEBHA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52A13) 
               
               
                 gi 146412241 
                 ref XP_001482092.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A13 
                 
                   Pichia guilliermondii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 126134585 
                 ref XP_001383817.1 
                 Cytochrome P450 52A13 
                 
                   Pichia stipitis 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Alkane hydroxylase 2) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Alkane-inducible p450alk2) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (DH-ALK2) 
               
               
                 gi 50418551 
                 ref XP_457792.1 
                 DEHA0C02981g 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 149236533 
                 ref XP_001524144.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A5 
                 
                   Lodderomyces 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   elongisporus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 150864746 
                 ref XP_001383710.2 
                 Cytochrome P450 52A6 
                 
                   Pichia stipitis 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (CYPLIIA6) (Alkane- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 inducible P450-ALK3) 
               
               
                 gi 149239404 
                 ref XP_001525578.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A3 
                 
                   Lodderomyces 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   elongisporus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50417817 
                 ref XP_457727.1 
                 DEHA0C01177g 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 199430432 
                 emb CAG85755.2 
                 DEHA2C01100p 
                 
                   Debaryomyces hansenii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 149239402 
                 ref XP_001525577.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A8 
                 
                   Lodderomyces 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   elongisporus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 29469873 
                 gb AAO73957.1 
                 CYP52D2 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 150866745 
                 ref XP_001386440.2 
                 Cytochrome P450 52A3 
                 
                   Pichia stipitis 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (CYPLIIA3) (Alkane- 
               
               
                   
                   
                 inducible P450-ALK1-A) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (P450-CM1) (CYP52A3-A) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P-450ALK) 
               
               
                 gi 190347603 
                 gb EDK39907.2 
                 PGUG_04005 
                 
                   Pichia guilliermondii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 146414612 
                 ref XP_001483276.1 
                 PGUG_04005 
                 
                   Pichia guilliermondii 
                 
               
               
                 gi 3913325 
                 sp Q12585.1 
                 CP52T_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52D1) 
               
               
                 gi 50553995 
                 ref XP_504406.1 
                 YALI0E25982p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 3298289 
                 dbj BAA31433.1 
                 ALK1 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50554897 
                 ref XP_504857.1 
                 YALI0F01320p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50545727 
                 ref XP_500402.1 
                 YALI0B01848p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50546066 
                 ref XP_500560.1 
                 YALI0B06248p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50547357 
                 ref XP_501148.1 
                 YALI0B20702p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50546771 
                 ref XP_500855.1 
                 YALI0B13816p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 50546773 
                 ref XP_500856.1 
                 YALI0B13838p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 70982077 
                 ref XP_746567.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 119487140 
                 ref XP_001262425.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 50545119 
                 ref XP_500097.1 
                 YALI0A15488p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115387741 
                 ref XP_001211376.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A12 
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145248800 
                 ref XP_001400739.1 
                 An14g01110 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 121714465 
                 ref XP_001274843.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus clavatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 50545471 
                 ref XP_500273.1 
                 YALI0A20130p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212541280 
                 ref XP_002150795.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 169783066 
                 ref XP_001825995.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 67541935 
                 ref XP_664735.1 
                 AN7131.2 
                 
                   Aspergillus nidulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 218716670 
                 gb EED16091.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 211584648 
                 emb CAP74173.1 
                 Pc14g00320 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 68475719 
                 ref XP_718066.1 
                 potential alkane 
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylating 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase P450 
               
               
                   
                   
                 fragment 
               
               
                 gi 231890 
                 sp P30611.1 
                 CP52N_CANTR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52B1) 
               
               
                 gi 50553800 
                 ref XP_504311.1 
                 YALI0E23474p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115391153 
                 ref XP_001213081.1 
                 ATEG_03903 
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 1169076 
                 sp P43083.1 
                 CP52V_CANAP 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52E1) 
               
               
                 gi 212537573 
                 ref XP_002148942.1 
                 cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 119480837 
                 ref XP_001260447.1 
                 cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 159129370 
                 gb EDP54484.1 
                 cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 71001214 
                 ref XP_755288.1 
                 cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 50548557 
                 ref XP_501748.1 
                 YALI0C12122p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 211592844 
                 emb CAP99212.1 
                 Pc22g19240 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 231891 
                 sp P30612.1 
                 CP52P_CANTR 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52C1) 
               
               
                 gi 3913327 
                 sp Q12587.1 
                 CP52Q_CANMA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52C2) 
               
               
                 gi 50548395 
                 ref XP_501667.1 
                 YALI0C10054p 
                 
                   Yarrowia lipolytica 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145248373 
                 ref XP_001396435.1 
                 An13g03000 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169783674 
                 ref XP_001826299.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169774249 
                 ref XP_001821592.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212536398 
                 ref XP_002148355.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 211590140 
                 emb CAP96310.1 
                 Pc21g14130 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 189200681 
                 ref XP_001936677.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A12 
                 
                   Pyrenophora tritici- 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   repentis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 121698992 
                 ref XP_001267871.1 
                 cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Aspergillus clavatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 154310961 
                 ref XP_001554811.1 
                 BC1G_06459 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119497443 
                 ref XP_001265480.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 67539774 
                 ref XP_663661.1 
                 AN6057.2 
                 
                   Aspergillus nidulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 3913324 
                 sp Q12573.1 
                 CP52W_CANAP 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 52E2) 
               
               
                 gi 159130401 
                 gb EDP55514.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 70990140 
                 ref XP_749919.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 212543867 
                 ref XP_002152088.1 
                 N-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
                 ATCC 18224 
               
               
                 gi 189204508 
                 ref XP_001938589.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A12 
                 
                   Pyrenophora tritici- 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   repentis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 67904794 
                 ref XP_682653.1 
                 AN9384.2 
                 
                   Aspergillus nidulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115401146 
                 ref XP_001216161.1 
                 ATEG_07540 
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169765686 
                 ref XP_001817314.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 156034334 
                 ref XP_001585586.1 
                 SS1G_13470 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115389132 
                 ref XP_001212071.1 
                 ATEG_02893 
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 149249004 
                 ref XP_001528842.1 
                 LELG_05768 
                 
                   Lodderomyces 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   elongisporus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119490743 
                 ref XP_001263094.1 
                 n-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 169598696 
                 ref XP_001792771.1 
                 SNOG_02153 
                 
                   Phaeosphaeria 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   nodorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145233653 
                 ref XP_001400199.1 
                 An02g10700 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 121703415 
                 ref XP_001269972.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus clavatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 145244813 
                 ref XP_001394678.1 
                 An11g07010 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115400535 
                 ref XP_001215856.1 
                 ATEG_06678 
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 156054264 
                 ref XP_001593058.1 
                 SS1G_05980 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145235009 
                 ref XP_001390153.1 
                 An03g02570 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 121714697 
                 ref XP_001274959.1 
                 n-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Aspergillus clavatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 115383936 
                 ref XP_001208515.1 
                 ATEG_01150 
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119188703 
                 ref XP_001244958.1 
                 CIMG_04399 
                 
                   Coccidioides immitis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154303347 
                 ref XP_001552081.1 
                 BC1G_09422 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 68469246 
                 ref XP_721410.1 
                 potential n-alkane inducible 
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 211588353 
                 emb CAP86458.1 
                 Pc20g11290 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 218719422 
                 gb EED18842.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 189196472 
                 ref XP_001934574.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A11 
                 
                   Pyrenophora tritici- 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   repentis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145228377 
                 ref XP_001388497.1 
                 An01g00510 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145243810 
                 ref XP_001394417.1 
                 An11g04220 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119467390 
                 ref XP_001257501.1 
                 n-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 218713692 
                 gb EED13116.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 156040904 
                 ref XP_001587438.1 
                 SS1G_11430 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 211588608 
                 emb CAP86724.1 
                 Pc20g13950 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 189210960 
                 ref XP_001941811.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A11 
                 
                   Pyrenophora tritici- 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   repentis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154300280 
                 ref XP_001550556.1 
                 BC1G_11329 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 39965179 
                 ref XP_365075.1 
                 MGG_09920 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 70984521 
                 ref XP_747767.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 164424932 
                 ref XP_958030.2 
                 NCU09115 
                 
                   Neurospora crassa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169785321 
                 ref XP_001827121.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 171687345 
                 ref XP_001908613.1 
                   
                 
                   Podospora anserina 
                 
               
               
                 gi 495225 
                 dbj BAA05145.1 
                 n-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Candida maltosa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 169778468 
                 ref XP_001823699.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 685237 
                 emb CAA35593.1 
                 cytochrome P-450-alk2 
                 
                   Candida tropicalis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115398792 
                 ref XP_001214985.1 
                 ATEG_05807 
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 156045685 
                 ref XP_001589398.1 
                 SS1G_10037 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 116181964 
                 ref XP_001220831.1 
                 CHGG_01610 
                 
                   Chaetomium globosum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212539338 
                 ref XP_002149824.1 
                 N-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 55823915 
                 gb AAV66104.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Fusarium heterosporum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169786131 
                 ref XP_001827526.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 67526919 
                 ref XP_661521.1 
                 AN3917.2 
                 
                   Aspergillus nidulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 57157397 
                 dbj BAD83681.1 
                 cytochrome P-450 
                 
                   Alternaria solani 
                 
               
               
                 gi 39954838 
                 ref XP_364111.1 
                 MGG_08956 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 46108804 
                 ref XP_381460.1 
                 FG01284.1 
                 
                   Gibberella zeae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 167962420 
                 dbj BAG09241.1 
                 n-alkane inducible 
                 
                   Candida maltosa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 119469615 
                 ref XP_001257962.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 70991773 
                 ref XP_750735.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 171679185 
                 ref XP_001904540.1 
                 unnamed protein product 
                 
                   Podospora anserina 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119488606 
                 ref XP_001262753.1 
                 n-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 218722969 
                 gb EED22387.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145243244 
                 ref XP_001394159.1 
                 An11g01550 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212533853 
                 ref XP_002147083.1 
                 N-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 218720976 
                 gb EED20395.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 145604320 
                 ref XP_362943.2 
                 MGG_08494 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154319876 
                 ref XP_001559255.1 
                 BC1G_02419 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154272319 
                 ref XP_001537012.1 
                 HCAG_08121 
                 
                   Ajellomyces capsulatus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 39976331 
                 ref XP_369556.1 
                 MGG_05908 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 116200125 
                 ref XP_001225874.1 
                 CHGG_08218 
                 
                   Chaetomium globosum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 218722681 
                 gb EED22099.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 145606889 
                 ref XP_361347.2 
                 MGG_03821 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 211592275 
                 emb CAP98620.1 
                 Pc22g13320 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 171688034 
                 ref XP_001908957.1 
                 unnamed protein product 
                 
                   Podospora anserina 
                 
               
               
                 gi 211587061 
                 emb CAP94723.1 
                 Pc18g04990 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169612986 
                 ref XP_001799910.1 
                 SNOG_09621 
                 
                   Phaeosphaeria 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   nodorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212539354 
                 ref XP_002149832.1 
                 N-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 212533239 
                 ref XP_002146776.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 41079162 
                 gb AAR99474.1 
                 alkane monooxygenase P- 
                   Graphium  sp. 
               
               
                   
                   
                 450 
               
               
                 gi 159122944 
                 gb EDP48064.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 67537376 
                 ref XP_662462.1 
                 AN4858.2 
                 
                   Aspergillus nidulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 39954738 
                 ref XP_364102.1 
                 MGG_08947 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 39968921 
                 ref XP_365851.1 
                 MGG_10071 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 70983886 
                 ref XP_747469.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 171691438 
                 ref XP_001910644.1 
                 unnamed protein product 
                 
                   Podospora anserina 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119193452 
                 ref XP_001247332.1 
                 CIMG_01103 
                 
                   Coccidioides immitis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 10303293 
                 emb CAC10088.1 
                 related to n-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Neurospora crassa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 169626152 
                 ref XP_001806478.1 
                 SNOG_16355 
                 
                   Phaeosphaeria 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   nodorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119191908 
                 ref XP_001246560.1 
                 CIMG_00331 
                 
                   Coccidioides immitis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154296077 
                 ref XP_001548471.1 
                 BC1G_12768 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 164429645 
                 ref XP_964653.2 
                 NCU02031 
                 
                   Neurospora crassa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 12311700 
                 emb CAC24473.1 
                   
                 
                   Candida albicans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154305169 
                 ref XP_001552987.1 
                 BC1G_08879 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 39978177 
                 ref XP_370476.1 
                 MGG_06973 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 70982576 
                 ref XP_746816.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 154319145 
                 ref XP_001558890.1 
                 BC1G_02524 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 46127885 
                 ref XP_388496.1 
                 FG08320.1 
                 
                   Gibberella zeae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 32330665 
                 gb AAP79879.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Phanerochaete 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase pc-3 
                 
                   chrysosporium 
                 
               
               
                 gi 116193605 
                 ref XP_001222615.1 
                 CHGG_06520 
                 
                   Chaetomium globosum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145241598 
                 ref XP_001393445.1 
                 An09g01270 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 149210127 
                 ref XP_001522438.1 
                 MGCH7_ch7g545 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 121699244 
                 ref XP_001267956.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus clavatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 156032429 
                 ref XP_001585052.1 
                 SS1G_13912 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 159122551 
                 gb EDP47672.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 145613078 
                 ref XP_001412594.1 
                 MGG_12496 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212531571 
                 ref XP_002145942.1 
                 N-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 145252862 
                 ref XP_001397944.1 
                 An16g06420 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169855683 
                 ref XP_001834508.1 
                 CC1G_02244 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212530338 
                 ref XP_002145326.1 
                 N-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P450 
               
               
                 gi 61657996 
                 gb AAX49400.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Phanerochaete 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase pc-2 
                 
                   chrysosporium 
                 
               
               
                 gi 170110164 
                 ref XP_001886288.1 
                 CYP63 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Laccaria bicolor 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase-like protein 
               
               
                 gi 146323950 
                 ref XP_748328.2 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Aspergillus fumigatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 oxidoreductase/alkane 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 156042346 
                 ref XP_001587730.1 
                 SS1G_10970 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 189196282 
                 ref XP_001934479.1 
                 cytochrome P450 71A23 
                 
                   Pyrenophora tritici- 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   repentis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 18369901 
                 gb AAL67906.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Phanerochaete 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase pc-2 
                 
                   chrysosporium 
                 
               
               
                 gi 218714942 
                 gb EED14365.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 170106497 
                 ref XP_001884460.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Laccaria bicolor 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169865534 
                 ref XP_001839366.1 
                 CC1G_08233 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169855669 
                 ref XP_001834501.1 
                 CC1G_02237 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 189197495 
                 ref XP_001935085.1 
                 cytochrome P450 52A1 
                 
                   Pyrenophora tritici- 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   repentis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 218713646 
                 gb EED13070.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 170106217 
                 ref XP_001884320.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Laccaria bicolor 
                 
               
               
                 gi 116197088 
                 ref XP_001224356.1 
                 CHGG_05142 
                 
                   Chaetomium globosum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 18369899 
                 gb AAL67905.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Phanerochaete 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase pc-1 
                 
                   chrysosporium 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154312290 
                 ref XP_001555473.1 
                 BC1G_06178 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 156064223 
                 ref XP_001598033.1 
                 SS1G_00119 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 156039263 
                 ref XP_001586739.1 
                 SS1G_11768 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 170105206 
                 ref XP_001883816.1 
                   
                 
                   Laccaria bicolor 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169613228 
                 ref XP_001800031.1 
                 SNOG_09744 
                 
                   Phaeosphaeria 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   nodorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169863123 
                 ref XP_001838184.1 
                 CC1G_12233 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 67902848 
                 ref XP_681680.1 
                 AN8411.2 
                 
                   Aspergillus nidulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 158392452 
                 emb CAO91865.1 
                 monooxygenase 
                 
                   Penicillium expansum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169857173 
                 ref XP_001835239.1 
                 CC1G_07782 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169781220 
                 ref XP_001825073.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus oryzae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 67540302 
                 ref XP_663925.1 
                 AN6321.2 
                 
                   Aspergillus nidulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145234553 
                 ref XP_001389925.1 
                 An03g00180 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 170106275 
                 ref XP_001884349.1 
                   
                 
                   Laccaria bicolor 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145610012 
                 ref XP_366716.2 
                 MGG_02792 
                 
                   Magnaporthe grisea 
                 
               
               
                 gi 119473653 
                 ref XP_001258702.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Neosartorya fischeri 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase 
               
               
                 gi 118026355 
                 emb CAL69S94.1 
                   
                 
                   Cordyceps bassiana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154309945 
                 ref XP_001554305.1 
                 BC1G_06893 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 211593324 
                 emb CAP99706.1 
                 Pc22g24180 
                 
                   Penicillium 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysogenum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 170111410 
                 ref XP_001886909.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Laccaria bicolor 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase CYP63 
               
               
                 gi 169864610 
                 ref XP_001838912.1 
                 CC1G_05465 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 145240007 
                 ref XP_001392650.1 
                 An08g05330 
                 
                   Aspergillus niger 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115433302 
                 ref XP_001216788.1 
                   
                 
                   Aspergillus terreus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 121701751 
                 ref XP_001269140.1 
                 Cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Aspergillus clavatus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 oxidoreductase 
               
               
                 gi 154289956 
                 ref XP_001545581.1 
                 BC1G_15919 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 212527006 
                 ref XP_002143660.1 
                 cytochrome P450 alkane 
                 
                   Penicillium marneffei 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 156054506 
                 ref XP_001593179.1 
                 SS1G_06101 
                 
                   Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 167962125 
                 dbj BAG09240.1 
                 n-alkane inducible 
                 
                   Candida maltosa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 169610561 
                 ref XP_001798699.1 
                 SNOG_08385 
                 
                   Phaeosphaeria 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   nodorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154322320 
                 ref XP_001560475.1 
                 BC1G_01307 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 171986596 
                 gb ACB59278.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Pseudozyma flocculosa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase 
               
               
                 gi 169850022 
                 ref XP_001831709.1 
                 CC1G_12229 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 84514171 
                 gb ABC59094.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Medicago truncatula 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase CYP704G9 
               
               
                 gi 157349259 
                 emb CAO24405.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 154322983 
                 ref XP_001560806.1 
                 BC1G_00834 
                 
                   Botryotinia fuckeliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 71726950 
                 gb AAZ39646.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                   Petunia  x  hybrida   
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase 
               
               
                 gi 2160323 
                 dbj BAA05146.1 
                 n-alkane-inducible 
                 
                   Candida maltosa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 cytochrome P-450 
               
               
                 gi 218717320 
                 gb EED16741.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Talaromyces stipitatus 
                 
               
               
                 gi 118485860 
                 gb ABK94777.1 
                   
                 
                   Populus trichocarpa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 71024781 
                 ref XP_762620.1 
                 UM06473.1 
                 
                   Ustilago maydis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 58265104 
                 ref XP_569708.1 
                   
                 
                   Cryptococcus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   neoformans  var. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   neoformans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169596949 
                 ref XP_001791898.1 
                 SNOG_01251 
                 
                   Phaeosphaeria 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   nodorum 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157355912 
                 emb CAO49769.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 134109309 
                 ref XP_776769.1 
                 CNBC2600 
                 
                   Cryptococcus 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                   neoformans  var. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   neoformans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157349262 
                 emb CAO24408.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 147765747 
                 emb CAN60189.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169864676 
                 ref XP_001838945.1 
                 CC1G_05498 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157352095 
                 emb CAO43102.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 147791153 
                 emb CAN63571.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 84514173 
                 gb ABC59095.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Medicago truncatula 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase CYP704G7 
               
               
                 gi 71024761 
                 ref XP_762610.1 
                 UM06463.1 
                 
                   Ustilago maydis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157355911 
                 emb CAO49768.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115451645 
                 ref NP_001049423.1 
                 Os03g0223100 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 22748335 
                 gb AAN05337.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 168059245 
                 ref XP_001781614.1 
                   
                 
                   Physcomitrella patens 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 subsp.  patens   
               
               
                 gi 15225499 
                 ref NP_182075.1 
                 CYP704A2 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 704, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 A, polypeptide 2) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 75319885 
                 sp Q50EK3.1 
                 C04C1_PINTA 
               
               
                   
                   
                 (Cytochrome P450 704C1) 
               
               
                 gi 167521978 
                 ref XP_001745327.1 
                   
                 
                   Monosiga brevicollis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 21536522 
                 gb AAM60854.1 
                 cytochrome P450-like 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 15242759 
                 ref NP_201150.1 
                 CYP94B1 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 94, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 B, polypeptide 1) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 168031659 
                 ref XP_001768338.1 
                   
                 
                   Physcomitrella patens 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 subsp.  patens   
               
               
                 gi 157339131 
                 emb CAO42482.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 30682301 
                 ref NP_196442.2 
                 cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 8346562 
                 emb CAB93726.1 
                 cytochrome P450-like 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 2344895 
                 gb AAC31835.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 30689861 
                 ref NP_850427.1 
                 CYP704A1 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 704, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 A, polypeptide 1) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 15221776 
                 ref NP_173862.1 
                 CYP86C1 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 86, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 C, polypeptide 1) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 147793015 
                 emb CAN77648.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157356646 
                 emb CAO62841.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 147844260 
                 emb CAN80040.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 215466577 
                 gb EEB96517.1 
                 MPER_04337 
                 
                   Moniliophthora 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   perniciosa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 15222515 
                 ref NP_176558.1 
                 CYP86A7 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 86, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 A, polypeptide 7) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 194697724 
                 gb ACF82946.1 
                   
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
               
               
                 gi 168021353 
                 ref XP_001763206.1 
                   
                 
                   Physcomitrella patens 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 subsp.  patens   
               
               
                 gi 115483036 
                 ref NP_001065111.1 
                 Os10g0525000 
                   Oryza sativa  ( japonica   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 cultivar-group) 
               
               
                 gi 157338660 
                 emb CAO42011.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 147836212 
                 emb CAN75428.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 5042165 
                 emb CAB44684.1 
                 cytochrome P450-like 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 79326551 
                 ref NP_001031814.1 
                 CYP96A10 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 96, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 A, polypeptide 10) heme 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding/iron ion binding/ 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase 
               
               
                 gi 26452145 
                 dbj BAC43161.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 110289450 
                 gb AAP54707.2 
                 Cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein, expressed 
               
               
                 gi 21593258 
                 gb AAM65207.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115483034 
                 ref NP_001065110.1 
                 Os10g0524700 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 118486379 
                 gb ABK95030.1 
                   
                 
                   Populus trichocarpa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 10442763 
                 gb AAG17470.1 
                 AF123610_9 cytochrome 
                 
                   Triticum aestivum 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450 
               
               
                 gi 125532704 
                 gb EAY79269.1 
                 OsI_34384 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 15237250 
                 ref NP_197710.1 
                 CYP86B1 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 86, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 B, polypeptide 1) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 125549414 
                 gb EAY95236.1 
                 OsI_17053 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 110289453 
                 gb AAP54710.2 
                 Cytochrome P450 family 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 protein 
               
               
                 gi 20146744 
                 gb AAM12480.1 
                 AC074232_7 cytochrome 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450-like protein 
               
               
                 gi 218184911 
                 gb EEC67338.1 
                 OsI_34388 
                 
                   Oryza sativa Indica 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Group 
               
               
                 gi 125549325 
                 gb EAY95147.1 
                 OsI_16965 
                 
                   Oryza sativa Indica 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 Group 
               
               
                 gi 198472816 
                 ref XP_002133118.1 
                 GA29000 
                 
                   Drosophila 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   pseudoobscura 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   pseudoobscura 
                 
               
               
                 gi 195574346 
                 ref XP_002105150.1 
                 GD21336 
                 
                   Drosophila simulans 
                 
               
               
                 gi 168024173 
                 ref XP_001764611.1 
                   
                 
                   Physcomitrella patens 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 subsp.  patens   
               
               
                 gi 115440549 
                 ref NP_001044554.1 
                 Os01g0804400 
                   Oryza sativa  ( japonica   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 cultivar-group) 
               
               
                 gi 15223657 
                 ref NP_176086.1 
                 CYP96A15/MAH1 (MID- 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 CHAIN ALKANE 
               
               
                   
                   
                 HYDROXYLASE 1) 
               
               
                   
                   
                 oxygen binding 
               
               
                 gi 125540131 
                 gb EAY86526.1 
                 OsI_07906 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115460030 
                 ref NP_001053615.1 
                 Os04g0573900 
                   Oryza sativa  ( japonica   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 cultivar-group) 
               
               
                 gi 157349258 
                 emb CAO24404.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157346575 
                 emb CAO16644.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 147835182 
                 emb CAN76753.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 195613956 
                 gb ACG28808.1 
                   
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
               
               
                 gi 194753285 
                 ref XP_001958947.1 
                 GF12635 
                 
                   Drosophila ananassae 
                 
               
               
                 gi 156546811 
                 ref XP_001606040.1 
                   
                 
                   Nasonia vitripennis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 125583181 
                 gb EAZ24112.1 
                 OsJ_007595 
                   Oryza sativa  ( japonica   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 cultivar-group) 
               
               
                 gi 15229477 
                 ref NP_189243.1 
                 CYP86C2 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 86, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 C, polypeptide 2) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 940446 
                 emb CAA62082.1 
                 cytochrome p450 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115447789 
                 ref NP_001047674.1 
                 Os02g0666500 
                   Oryza sativa  ( japonica   
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 cultivar-group) 
               
               
                 gi 15227788 
                 ref NP_179899.1 
                 CYP96A1 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 96, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 A, polypeptide 1) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 195503768 
                 ref XP_002098791.1 
                 GE23738 
                 
                   Drosophila yakuba 
                 
               
               
                 gi 147804860 
                 emb CAN66874.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 84514169 
                 gb ABC59093.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Medicago truncatula 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase CYP94C9 
               
               
                 gi 19698839 
                 gb AAL91155.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 15237768 
                 ref NP_200694.1 
                 CYP86A1 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 86, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 A, polypeptide 1) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 157353969 
                 emb CAO46510.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 169865676 
                 ref XP_001839436.1 
                 CC1G_06649 
                 
                   Coprinopsis cinerea 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   okayama 
                 
               
               
                 gi 85001697 
                 gb ABC68403.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Glycine max 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 monooxygenase CYP86A24 
               
               
                 gi 115466172 
                 ref NP_001056685.1 
                 Os06g0129900 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 195637782 
                 gb ACG38359.1 
                 cytochrome P450 86A2 
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
               
               
                 gi 194704220 
                 gb ACF86194.1 
                   
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
               
               
                 gi 71006408 
                 ref XP_757870.1 
                 UM01723.1 
                   Ustilago maydis  521 
               
               
                 gi 195161677 
                 ref XP_002021689.1 
                 GL26642 
                 
                   Drosophila persimilis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115459886 
                 ref NP_001053543.1 
                 Os04g0560100 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 194704096 
                 gb ACF86132.1 
                   
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
               
               
                 gi 147773635 
                 emb CAN67559.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 125575195 
                 gb EAZ16479.1 
                 OsJ_030688 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 115482616 
                 ref NP_001064901.1 
                 Os10g0486100 
                 
                   Oryza sativa 
                 
               
               
                 gi 71726942 
                 gb AAZ39642.1 
                 cytochrome P450 fatty acid 
                   Petunia  x  hybrida   
               
               
                   
                   
                 omega-hydroxylase 
               
               
                 gi 195626182 
                 gb ACG34921.1 
                 cytochrome P450 86A1 
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
               
               
                 gi 194907382 
                 ref XP_001981543.1 
                 GG11553 
                 
                   Drosophila erecta 
                 
               
               
                 gi 71006688 
                 ref XP_758010.1 
                 UM01863.1 
                 
                   Ustilago maydis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157346247 
                 emb CAO15944.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                 gi 116830948 
                 gb ABK28430.1 
                   
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                 gi 13641298 
                 gb AAK31592.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                   Brassica rapa  subsp. 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   pekinensis 
                 
               
               
                 gi 2258321 
                 gb AAB63277.1 
                 cytochrome P450 
                 
                   Phanerochaete 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                   
                 
                   chrysosporium 
                 
               
               
                 gi 15218671 
                 ref NP_174713.1 
                 CYP94D1 (cytochrome 
                 
                   Arabidopsis thaliana 
                 
               
               
                   
                   
                 P450, family 94, subfamily 
               
               
                   
                   
                 D, polypeptide 1) oxygen 
               
               
                   
                   
                 binding 
               
               
                 gi 195623910 
                 gb ACG33785.1 
                 cytochrome P450 86A1 
                 
                   Zea mays 
                 
               
               
                 gi 157337152 
                 emb CAO21498.1 
                   
                 
                   Vitis vinifera 
                 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0296]    In some embodiments, one or more genes encoding a P450 enzyme are integrated into a yeast strain, a species of  Candida,  or a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which genes or pathways that cause further oxidation of a fatty acid substrate (e.g., a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, an α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof) have been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, or one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, or one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases present in the strain of yeast will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, and one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. 
         [0297]    In some embodiments, a cytochrome P450 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B have been disrupted. 
         [0298]    In some embodiments, a cytochrome P450 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 have been disrupted. 
         [0299]    In some embodiments, a cytochrome P450 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted. 
         [0300]    In some embodiments, a cytochrome P450 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B, alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 and cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted, for example strain DP421, in which the β-oxidation pathway has also been disrupted. 
         [0301]    In some embodiments, a cytochrome P450 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0302]    In some embodiments, a cytochrome P450 is integrated into a strain of  Candida  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0303]    In some embodiments, one or more genes, two or more genes, or three or more genes listed in Table 4 are integrated into a yeast strain, a species of  Candida,  or a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which genes or pathways that cause further oxidation of a fatty acid substrate (e.g., a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, an α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof) have been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, or one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, or one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases present in the strain of yeast will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, and one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. 
         [0304]    In some embodiments, one or more genes, two or more genes, or three or more genes listed in Table 4 are integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B have been disrupted. 
         [0305]    In some embodiments, one or more genes, two or more genes, or three or more genes listed in Table 4 are integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 have been disrupted. 
         [0306]    In some embodiments, one or more genes, two or more genes, or three or more genes listed in Table 4 are integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted. 
         [0307]    In some embodiments, one or more genes, two or more genes, or three or more genes listed in Table 4 are integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B, alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 and cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted, for example strain DP421, in which the β-oxidation pathway has also been disrupted. 
         [0308]    In some embodiments, one or more genes, two or more genes, or three or more genes listed in Table 4 are integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0309]    In some embodiments, one or more genes, two or more genes, or three or more genes listed in Table 4 are integrated into a strain of  Candida  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0310]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a yeast strain, a species of  Candida,  or a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which genes or pathways that cause further oxidation of a fatty acid substrate (e.g., a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, an α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof) have been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, or one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, or one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases present in the strain of yeast will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, and one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. 
         [0311]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B have been disrupted. 
         [0312]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 have been disrupted. 
         [0313]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted. 
         [0314]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B, alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 and cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted, for example strain DP421, in which the β-oxidation pathway has also been disrupted. 
         [0315]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0316]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0317]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a yeast strain, a species of  Candida,  or a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which genes or pathways that cause further oxidation of a fatty acid substrate (e.g., a α-carboxyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, an α,ω-dicarboxylic fatty acid having a carbon chain length in the range from C6 to C22, or mixtures thereof) have been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, or one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, or one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases present in the strain of yeast will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. In some embodiments, this strain of yeast is one in which one or more disrupted cytochrome P450s, one or more disrupted alcohol oxidases, and one or more disrupted alcohol dehydrogenases will oxidize hydroxyl groups to aldehydes or acids more slowly than strains of yeast in which these genes have not been disrupted. 
         [0318]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B have been disrupted. 
         [0319]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 have been disrupted. 
         [0320]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted. 
         [0321]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which fatty alcohol oxidase genes FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2 and FAO2B, alcohol dehydrogenase genes ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 and cytochrome P450 genes CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B have been disrupted, for example strain DP421, in which the β-oxidation pathway has also been disrupted. 
         [0322]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida tropicalis  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0323]    In some embodiments, a gene having at least 40 percent sequence identity, at least 45 percent sequence identity, at least 50 percent sequence identity, at least 55 percent sequence identity, at least 60 percent sequence identity, at least 65 percent sequence identity, at least 70 percent sequence identity, at least 75 percent sequence identity, at least 80 percent sequence identity, at least 85 percent sequence identity, at least 90 percent sequence identity, or at least 95 percent sequence identity to a gene listed in Table 4 is integrated into a strain of  Candida  in which endogenous cyocrhrome P450s have been disrupted. 
         [0324]    In some embodiments, to achieve novel phenotypes of  Candida,  the activity of a polypeptide in the  Candida  is altered by altering its sequence. Then the effect of the polypeptide with altered sequence within the yeast is tested. One method for testing the effect of sequence changes in a polypeptide within yeast is to introduce a plurality of genes of known sequence, each encoding a unique modified polypeptide, into the same genomic location in a plurality of strains. 
         [0325]    The isocitrate lyase promoter from  Candida tropicalis  has been shown to be an inducible promoter in both  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  and  E. coli.  See, for example, Atomi et al., 1995, Arch Microbiol 163, 322-328; and Umemura et al., 1995, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 43, 489-492. When expressed in  S. cerivisiae,  the isocitrate lyase gene was found to be inducible by acetate, glycerol, lactate, ethanol, or oleate. Ethanol is interesting from the perspective that is a relatively cheap inducer and oleate for the fact that it is a potential substrate for the system for converting fatty acids to omega hydroxy fatty acids. Inducible expression of the  Candida tropicalis  ICL gene was found to be high in  S. cerivisiae  (as much as 30% of soluble protein), indicating that it may serve as a strong inducible promoter in  C. tropicalis.    
         [0326]    To insert genes under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter a genomic insertion construct of the form shown in  FIG. 21  was synthesized. The sequence used for the sequence of promoter 1 was that of the  Candida tropicalis  isocitrate lyase promoter, given as SEQ ID NO: 62. This promoter has a BsiWI site that can be used to linearize the construct for subsequent insertion into the  Candida tropicalis  genome. The sequence used for transcription terminator 1 was that of the  Candida tropicalis  isocitrate lyase terminator, given as SEQ ID NO: 63. The sequence used for Promoter 2 was the TEF1 promoter, given as SEQ ID NO: 64. The sequence used for the bacterial promoter was the EM7 promoter, given as SEQ ID NO: 65. The sequence used for the selectable marker was the zeocin resistance gene, a version optimized for expression in  Candida tropicalis  is given as SEQ ID NO: 66. The sequence use for Transcription terminator 2 was the CYC1 transcription terminator, given as SEQ ID NO: 67. The sequence used as the bacterial origin of replication was the pUC origin, given as SEQ ID NO: 68. A genomic integration vector with these components is represented graphically as  FIG. 23 . 
       7.6.1 Insertion of CYP52A17 Under Control of the Isocitrate Lyase Promoter 
       [0327]    A construct for expressing  Candida tropicalis  cytochrome P450 CYP52A17 under the control of the isocitrate lyase promoter was made by cloning the sequence of a gene encoding  Candida tropicalis  cytochrome P450 CYP52A17 (given as SEQ ID NO: 69) into a vector of the form shown in  FIG. 23 . The sequence of the complete vector is given as SEQ ID NO: 70. 
         [0328]    The vector was prepared as described in Section 7.1.1, except that the construct was linearized with BsiWI instead of BsmBI.  Candida tropicalis  strains were transformed with the construct as described in Section 7.1.2, except that 100 μg/ml of zeocin was used instead of 200 μg/ml nourseothricin as the selective antibiotic. Genomic DNA was prepared and tested for the presence of the integrated DNA as described in Section 7.1.3. 
         [0329]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP201 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 70 into the genome of strain DP186 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for isocitrate lyase. DP428 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 70 into the genome of strain DP421 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for isocitrate lyase. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                            ICL-IN-F1:               GGATCCGTCTGAAGAAATCAAGAACC   (SEQ ID NO: 124)               1758R2:       TGGTGTAGGCCAATAATTGCTTAATGATATACAA   (SEQ ID NO: 125)       AACTGGCACCACAA               1758F2:       GAGCAATTGTTGGAATATTGGTACGTTGTGGTGC   (SEQ ID NO: 126)       CAGTTTTGTATATCA               1758R34:       GAACTTAACAATAGCACCGTCTTGCAAACACATG   (SEQ ID NO: 127)       GTCAAGTTAGTTAA            
For strains DP201 and DP428 (integrants of SEQ ID NO: 70), PCR with primers ICL-IN-F1 and 1758R2 produces a 1609 base pair amplicon indicating that the construct has been integrated in the ICL promoter region; PCR with primers 1758F2 and 1758R34 produces a 1543 base pair amplicon indicating that CYP52A17 has been integrated. Neither primer pair produces an amplicon from the parental strains DP186 or DP421.
 
       7.6.2 Insertion of CYP52A13 Under Control of the Isocitrate Lyase Promoter 
       [0330]    A construct for expressing  Candida tropicalis  cytochrome P450 CYP52A13 under the control of the isocitrate lyase promoter was made by cloning the sequence of a gene encoding  Candida tropicalis  cytochrome P450 CYP52A13 (given as SEQ ID NO: 71) into a vector of the form shown in  FIG. 23 . The sequence of the complete vector is given as SEQ ID NO: 72. 
         [0331]    The vector was prepared as described in Section 7.1.1, except that the construct was linearized with BsiWI instead of BsmBI.  Candida tropicalis  strains were transformed with the construct as described in Section 7.1.2, except that 100 μg/ml of zeocin was used instead of 200 μg/ml nourseothricin as the selective antibiotic. Genomic DNA was prepared and tested for the presence of the integrated DNA as described in Section 7.1.3. 
         [0332]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP522 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 72 into the genome of strain DP421 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for isocitrate lyase. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                            ICL-IN-F1:                   (SEQ ID NO: 124)               4082R2:       CGATTAAGGCCAATGGAACAATGACGTACCACTT   (SEQ ID NO: 128)       AGTAAAGTAGGTA               4082F2:       CATGACTGTTCACGACATTATTGCTACCTACTTT   (SEQ ID NO: 129)       ACTAAGTGGTACGTC               4082R34:       ACATTTCAATATTAGCACCGTCAAATAATGACAT   (SEQ ID NO: 130)       GGTCAAATGGGACA            
For strain DP522 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 72), PCR with primers ICL-IN-F1 and 4082R2 produces a 1600 base pair amplicon indicating that the construct has been integrated in the ICL promoter region; PCR with primers 4082F2 and 4082R34 produces a 1565 base pair amplicon indicating that CYP52A13 has been integrated. Neither primer pair produces an amplicon from the parental strain DP421.
 
       7.6.3 Insertion of CYP52A12 Under Control of the Isocitrate Lyase Promoter 
       [0333]    A construct for expressing  Candida tropicalis  cytochrome P450 CYP52A12 under the control of the isocitrate lyase promoter was made by cloning the sequence of a gene encoding  Candida tropicalis  cytochrome P450 CYP52A12 (given as SEQ ID NO: 73) into a vector of the form shown in  FIG. 23 . The sequence of the complete vector is given as SEQ ID NO: 74. 
         [0334]    The vector was prepared as described in Section 7.1.1, except that the construct was linearized with BsiWI instead of BsmBI.  Candida tropicalis  strains were transformed with the construct as described in Section 7.1.2, except that 100 μg/ml of zeocin was used instead of 200 μg/ml nourseothricin as the selective antibiotic. Genomic DNA was prepared and tested for the presence of the integrated DNA as described in Section 7.1.3. 
         [0335]      Candida tropicalis  strain DP526 was prepared by integration of the construct shown as SEQ ID NO: 74 into the genome of strain DP421 (Table 3) at the site of the genomic sequence of the gene for isocitrate lyase. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for analysis of strains were: 
         [0000]                                    ICL-IN-F1:                       (SEQ ID NO: 124)                       CYP52A12-R2:           ATCAATAATTTCCTGGGTTGCCAT   (SEQ ID NO: 131)                       CYP52A12-F1:           ATGGCAACCCAGGAAATTATTGAT   (SEQ ID NO: 132)                       CYP52A12-R1:           CTACATCTTGACAAAAACACCATCATT   (SEQ ID NO: 133)            
For strain DP526 (integration of SEQ ID NO: 74), PCR with primers ICL-IN-F1 and 4082R2 produces a 1554 base pair amplicon indicating that the construct has been integrated in the ICL promoter region; PCR with primers 4082F2 and 4082R34 produces a 1572 base pair amplicon indicating that CYP52A12 has been integrated. Neither primer pair produces an amplicon from the parental strain DP421.
 
       7.7 Deletion of POX Genes from  Candida tropicalis    
       [0336]    Picataggio et al., 1991, Mol Cell Biol 11, 4333-4339 describe a system for the sequential disruption of the  Candida tropicalis  chromosomal POX4 and POX5 genes, encoding distinct isozymes of the acyl coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) oxidase, which catalyze the first reaction in the β-oxidation pathway of fatty acids. An alternative method is to use the SAT-1 flipper. 
       7.7.1 Deletion of POX4 Alleles 
       [0337]    The sequence of a gene encoding an acyl-coenzyme A oxidase II (PXP-4) of  Candida tropicalis,  POX4, is given as SEQ ID NO: 136. This sequence was used to design two “pre-targeting” constructs. The first pre-targeting construct is comprised of two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences are separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences are flanked by BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the first POX4 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 137. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 137 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E. coli.  The first pre-targeting sequence can be synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0338]    The second pre-targeting construct is comprised of two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene that lie internal to the 5′ and 3′ targeting sequences of the first pre-targeting construct. The targeting sequences are separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences are flanked by BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the second POX4 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 138. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 138 but also present in the pre-targeting construct is a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E. coli.  The second pre-targeting sequence can synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0339]    Targeting sequences for deletion of the two POX4 alleles from the  Candida tropicalis  geneome can be prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating into the POX4 pre-targeting constructs (SEQ ID NO: 137 or SEQ ID NO: 138) from which the 20 bp stuffer has been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting first targeting construct for the deletion of the first allele of POX4 is given as SEQ ID NO: 139. The sequence of the resulting second targeting construct for the deletion of the second allele of POX4 is given is SEQ ID NO: 140. Because the POX4 targeting sequences of the second targeting construct lie internal to the targeting sequences of the first targeting construct, use of the first targeting construct to delete the first POX4 allele assures that use of the second targeting construct is specific for the second POX4 allele since the targeting sequences of the second targeting construct no longer exist in the first deleted allele. 
         [0340]    Analysis of integrants and excisants can be performed as described in Section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for the analysis of strains are: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 POX4-IN-L: 
                   
                   
               
               
                 ATGACTTTTACAAAGAAAAACGTTAGTGTATCAC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 141) 
               
               
                 AAG 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POX4-IN-R: 
               
               
                 TTACTTGGACAAGATAGCAGCGGTTTC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 142) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SAT1-R: 
               
               
                 TGGTACTGGTTCTCGGGAGCACAGG 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 79) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SAT1-F: 
               
               
                 CGCTAGACAAATTCTTCCAAAAATTTTAGA 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 80) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       7.7.2 Deletion of POX5 Alleles 
       [0341]    The sequence of a gene encoding an acyl-coenzyme A oxidase I (PXP-5) of  Candida tropicalis,  POX5, is given as SEQ ID NO: 143. This sequence was used to design two “pre-targeting” constructs. The first pre-targeting construct is comprised of two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and an XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences are flanked by BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the first POX5 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 144. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 144 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E. coli.  The first pre-targeting sequence can be synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0342]    The second pre-targeting construct is comprised of two targeting sequences from the 5′ and 3′ end of the structural gene that lie internal to the 5′ and 3′ targeting sequences of the first pre-targeting construct. The 5′ targeting sequence of the second pre-targeting construct is modified at position 248 (C248T) and 294 (G294A) to remove unwanted XhoI and BsmBI sites, respectively. The targeting sequences were separated by a sequence, given as SEQ ID NO: 12, comprising a NotI restriction site, a 20 bp stuffer fragment and a XhoI restriction site. The targeting sequences are flanked by BsmBI restriction sites, so that the final targeting construct can be linearized prior to transformation into  Candida tropicalis.  The sequence of the second POX5 pre-targeting construct is given as SEQ ID NO: 145. Not shown in SEQ ID NO: 145 but also present in the pre-targeting construct were a selective marker conferring resistance to kanamycin and a bacterial origin of replication, so that the pre-targeting construct can be grown and propagated in  E. coli.  The second pre-targeting sequence can be synthesized using standard DNA synthesis techniques well known in the art. 
         [0343]    Targeting sequences for deletion of the two POX5 alleles from the  Candida tropicalis  geneome were prepared by digesting the SAT-1 flipper (SEQ ID NO: 1) with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI, and ligating into both of the POX5 pre-targeting constructs (SEQ ID NO 144 or 145) from which the 20 bp stuffer had been removed by digestion with restriction enzymes NotI and XhoI. The sequence of the resulting first targeting construct for the deletion of the first allele of POX5 is given as SEQ ID NO: 146. The sequence of the resulting second targeting construct for the deletion of the second allele of POX5 is given is SEQ ID NO: 147. Because the POX5 targeting sequences of the second targeting construct lie internal to the targeting sequences of the first targeting construct, use of the first targeting construct to delete the first POX5 allele assures that use of the second targeting construct is specific for the second POX5 allele since the targeting sequences of the second targeting construct no longer exist in the first deleted allele. 
         [0344]    Analysis of integrants and excisants can be performed as described in section 7.1. Sequences of oligonucleotide primers for the analysis of strains are: 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 POX5-IN-L: 
                   
                   
               
               
                 ATGCCTACCGAACTTCAAAAAGAAAGAGAA 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 148) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 POX5-IN-R: 
               
               
                 TTAACTGGACAAGATTTCAGCAGCTTCTTC 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 149) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SAT1-R: 
               
               
                 TGGTACTGGTTCTCGGGAGCACAGG 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 79) 
               
               
                   
               
               
                 SAT1-F: 
               
               
                 CGCTAGACAAATTCTTCCAAAAATTTTAGA 
                 (SEQ ID NO: 80) 
               
             
          
         
       
     
       8. CONVERSION OF FATTY ACIDS USING MODIFIED STRAINS OF CANDIDA TROPICALIS 
     8.1 Analytical Methods 
     8.1.1 GC-MS for Identification of Fatty Acids, Omega-Hydroxyfatty Acids and Diacids 
       [0345]    Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis was performed at 70 eV with ThermoFinnigan TraceGC Ultra gas chromatograph coupled with Trace DSQ mass spectrometer. Products were esterified with BF 3  in methanol (10%, w/w) at 70° C. for 20 min, and further silylation of the methyl esters with HMDS/TMCS/Pyridine at 70° C. for 10 min when needed. The experiments were carried out with injector, ion source and interface temperature of 200° C., 250° C. and 280° C., respectively. Samples in hexane (1 μl) were injected in PTV split mode and run on a capillary column (Varian CP8944 VF-5MS, 0.25 mm×0.25 um×30 m). The oven temperature was programmed at 120° C. for one minute increasing to 260° C. at the rate of 20° C./minute, and then to 280° C. at the rate of 4.0° C./minute. 
       8.1.2 LC-MS for Measurement of Fatty Acids, Omega-Hydroxy Fatty Acids and Diacids 
       [0346]    The concentration of omega-hydroxy fatty acids and diacids during biotransformation was measured by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) with purified products as standards. The solvent delivery system was a Waters Alliance 2795 Separation Module (Milford, Mass., USA) coupled with a Waters 2996 photodiode array detector and Waters ZQ detector with an electron spray ionization mode. The separation was carried on a reversed-phase column with a dimension of 150×4.6 mm and particle size of 5 μm. The mobile phase used for separation contained 10% H 2 O, 5% acetonitrile, 5% Formic acid solution (1% in water) and 80% methanol. 
       8.1.3 NMR for Characterization of Omega-Hydroxyfatty Acids and Diacids 
       [0347]    Proton ( 1 H) and  13 C-NMR spectra were recorded on a Bruker DPX300 NMR spectrometer at 300 MHz. The chemical shifts (ppm) for  1 H-NMR were referenced relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS, 0.00 ppm) as the internal reference. 
       8.2 Oxidation of Fatty Acids by  Candida tropicalis  Strains Lacking Four CYP52A P450s 
       [0348]    We compared the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17 and CYP52A18 (DP174) constructed in Section 7.2 with the starting strain (DP1) for their abilities to oxidize fatty acids. To engineer P450s for optimal oxidation of fatty acids or other substrates it is advantageous to eliminate the endogenous P450s whose activities may mask the activities of the enzymes being engineered. We tested  Candida tropicalis  strains DP1 and DP174 (genotypes given in Table 3) to determine whether the deletion of the four CYP52 P450S had affected the ability of the yeast to oxidize fatty acids. 
         [0349]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 16 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 30 g/l glucose. After 16 hours 0.5 ml of culture was added to 4.5 ml fresh media F plus 60 g/l glucose in a 125 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 12 hours. Substrates were added and shaking was continued at 30° C. and 250 rpm. We then tested the conversion of C14 fatty acid substrates as shown in  FIG. 13 .  FIG. 13  parts A and B show that the starting strain DP1 converts methyl myristate to ω-hydroxy myristate and to the C14 diacid produced by oxidation of the ω-hydroxy myristate over a 48 hour time course, while the quadruple P450 deletion strain DP174 can effect almost no detectable conversion.  FIG. 13  parts C and D show that the starting strain DP1 converts methyl myristate and sodium myristate to ω-hydroxy myristate and to the C14 diacid produced by oxidation of the ω-hydroxy myristate after 48 hours, while the quadruple P450 deletion strain DP174 effects almost no detectable conversion of these substrates. 
         [0350]    These results confirm that at least one of the four  Candida tropicalis  cytochrome P450 genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17 and CYP52A18 is required for hydroxylation of fatty acids, consistent with the schematic representation of  Candida tropicalis  fatty acid metabolism pathways shown in  FIG. 12 . Further it shows that strain DP174 is an appropriate strain to use for testing of engineered cytochrome P450s, since it has essentially no ability to oxidize fatty acids without an added P450. 
       8.3 Oxidation of ω-Hydroxy Fatty Acids by  Candida tropicalis  Strains Lacking Four CYP52A P450s 
       [0351]    We compared the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17 and CYP52A18 (DP174) constructed in Section 7.2 with the starting strain (DP1) for their abilities to oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. To engineer a strain for the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids it is desirable to eliminate enzymes from the cell that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. It is possible to determine whether other enzymes involved in oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids are present in the strain by feeding it ω-hydroxy fatty acids in the media. If there are enzymes present that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids, then the strain will convert ω-hydroxy fatty acids fed in the media to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. 
         [0352]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 16 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 16 hours 0.5 ml of culture was added to 4.5 ml fresh media F plus 20 g/l glycerol in a 125 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 280 rpm for 12 hours. We then tested the conversion of C12 and C16 ω-hydroxy fatty acid substrates by adding these substrates to independent flasks at final concentrations of 5 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8 and shaking was continued at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Samples were taken at the times indicated, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-diacids in the media were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). The results are shown in Table 5. 
         [0000]    
       
         
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
               
               
               
               
             
           
               
                 TABLE 5 
               
             
             
               
                   
               
               
                 Oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids by  Candida tropicalis   
               
             
          
           
               
                   
                   
                 DIACID 
                   
               
               
                 Ω-HYDROXY FATTY 
                   
                 PRODUCED 
                 DIACID 
               
               
                 ACID SUBSTRATE 
                 REACTION 
                 BY 
                 PRODUCED 
               
               
                 CHAIN LENGTH 
                 TIME 
                 DP1 (G/L) 
                 BY DP174 (G/L) 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
           
               
                 C12 
                 60 hours 
                 5.6 
                 5.2 
               
               
                 C16 
                 60 hours 
                 1.4 
                 0.8 
               
               
                 C12 
                 24 hours 
                 5.4 
                 5 
               
               
                 C12 
                 48 hours 
                 6 
                 6.7 
               
               
                 C12 
                 72 hours 
                 6.2 
                 6.5 
               
               
                 C16 
                 24 hours 
                 2.3 
                 0.9 
               
               
                 C16 
                 48 hours 
                 2.4 
                 1.7 
               
               
                 C16 
                 72 hours 
                 2.8 
                 1.8 
               
               
                   
               
             
          
         
       
     
         [0353]    These results show that at least one enzyme capable of oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids is present in  Candida tropicalis  in addition to the cytochrome P450 genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17 and CYP52A18. 
       8.4 Oxidation of ω-Hydroxy Fatty Acids by  Candida tropicalis  Strains Lacking Four CYP52A P450s and Four Fatty Alcohol Oxidases 
       [0354]    We compared the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18 and FAO1 (DP186) constructed in Section 7.3 with the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A and FAO2B (DP258 and DP259) for their abilities to oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. To engineer a strain for the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids it is desirable to eliminate enzymes from the cell that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. It is possible to determine whether other enzymes involved in oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids are present in the strain by feeding it ω-hydroxy fatty acids in the media. If there are enzymes present that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids, then the strain will convert ω-hydroxy fatty acids fed in the media to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. 
         [0355]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 16 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 16 hours 0.5 ml of culture was added to 4.5 ml fresh media F plus 20 g/l glycerol in a 125 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 12 hours. We then tested the conversion of C12 and C16 ω-hydroxy fatty acid substrates by adding these substrates to independent flasks at final concentrations of 5 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8 and shaking was continued at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Samples were taken after 24 hours, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-diacids in the media were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). As shown in  FIG. 15  most of the hydroxy fatty acids are converted to diacid after 24 hours. These results show that at least one enzyme capable of oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids is present in  Candida tropicalis  in addition to the cytochrome P450 genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A and FAO2B. 
       8.5 Oxidation of ω-Hydroxy Fatty Acids by  Candida tropicalis  Strains Lacking Six CYP52A P450s and Four Fatty Alcohol Oxidases 
       [0356]    We compared the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18 and FAO1 (DP186) constructed in Section 7.2 with the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B (DP283 and DP284) for their abilities to oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. To engineer a strain for the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids it is desirable to eliminate enzymes from the cell that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. It is possible to determine whether other enzymes involved in oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids are present in the strain by feeding it ω-hydroxy fatty acids in the media. If there are enzymes present that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids, then the strain will convert ω-hydroxy fatty acids fed in the media to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. 
         [0357]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 16 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 16 hours 0.5 ml of culture was added to 4.5 ml fresh media F plus 20 g/l glycerol in a 125 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 12 hours. We then tested the conversion of C12 and C16 ω-hydroxy fatty acid substrates by adding these substrates to independent flasks at final concentrations of 5 g/l and the pH was adjusted to between 7.5 and 8 and shaking was continued at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Samples were taken after 24 hours, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-diacids in the media were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). As shown in  FIG. 16  most of the C12 hydroxy fatty acids and a substantial fraction of the C16 hydroxy fatty acids are converted to diacid after 24 hours. These results show that at least one enzyme capable of oxidizing ω-hydroxy fatty acids is present in  Candida tropicalis  in addition to the cytochrome P450 genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A and FAO2B. 
       8.6 Oxidation of ω-Hydroxy Fatty Acids by  Candida tropicalis  Strains Lacking Six CYP52A P450s, Four Fatty Alcohol Oxidases and Five Alcohol Dehydrogenases 
       [0358]    We compared the  Candida tropicalis  strain DP1 with the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12 and CYP52A12B (DP283) and the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B and ADH-A10 (DP415) for their abilities to oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. To engineer a strain for the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids it is desirable to eliminate enzymes from the cell that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. It is possible to determine whether other enzymes involved in oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids are present in the strain by feeding it ω-hydroxy fatty acids in the media. If there are enzymes present that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids, then the strain will convert ω-hydroxy fatty acids fed in the media to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. 
         [0359]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 18 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 18 hours the preculture was diluted in fresh media to A 600 =1.0. This culture was shaken until the A 600  reached between 5.0 and 6.0. Biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding 5 ml culture to a 125 ml flask together with 50 mg of ω-hydroxy lauric acid, and pH adjusted to ˜7.5 with 2M NaOH. Samples were taken at the times indicated, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-diacids in the media were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). As shown in  FIG. 19  Part A, the cell growth was almost identical for the 3 strains. Strain DP415 produced much less α,ω-dicarboxy laurate than the other two strains, however, as shown in  FIG. 19  part B. 
         [0360]    These results show that a significant reduction in the ability of  Candida tropicalis  to oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids can be reduced by deleting genes encoding CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B and ADH-A10. 
       8.7 Oxidation of ω-Hydroxy Fatty Acids by  Candida tropicalis  Strains Lacking Six CYP52A P450s, Four Fatty Alcohol Oxidases and Eight Alcohol Dehydrogenases 
       [0361]    We compared the  Candida tropicalis  strain DP1 with the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4 and ADH-A4B (DP390), the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B and ADH-A10 (DP415), the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 (DP417 and DP421), the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10, ADH-A10B and ADH-B11 (DP423), the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10, ADH-A10B, ADH-B11 and ADH-B11B (DP434 and DP436) for their abilities to oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. To engineer a strain for the production of ω-hydroxy fatty acids it is desirable to eliminate enzymes from the cell that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids. It is possible to determine whether other enzymes involved in oxidation of ω-hydroxy fatty acids are present in the strain by feeding it ω-hydroxy fatty acids in the media. If there are enzymes present that can oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids, then the strain will convert ω-hydroxy fatty acids fed in the media to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids. 
         [0362]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 18 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glycerol. After 18 hours the preculture was diluted in fresh media to A 600 =1.0. This culture was shaken until the A 600  reached between 5.0 and 6.0. Biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding 5 ml culture to a 125 ml flask together with 50 mg of ω-hydroxy lauric acid, and pH adjusted to ˜7.5 with 2M NaOH. Samples were taken at the times indicated, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of α,ω-diacids in the media were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). As shown in  FIG. 20 , a significant reduction in the ability of  Candida tropicalis  to oxidize ω-hydroxy fatty acids can be obtained by deleting genes encoding alcohol dehydrogenases in strains lacking some cytochrome P450s and fatty alcohol oxidases. 
       8.8 Oxidation of Methyl Myristate by  Candida tropicalis  Strains Lacking Six CYP52A P450s, Four Fatty Alcohol Oxidases and Six Alcohol Dehydrogenases with a Single CYP52A P450 Added Back Under Control of the ICL Promoter 
       [0363]    We compared the  Candida tropicalis  strain DP1 with the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18 and FAO1 and with CYP52A17 added back under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter (DP201) and with the  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 and with CYP52A17 added back under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter (DP428) for their abilities to oxidize methyl myristate. 
         [0364]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 18 hours in a 500 ml flask containing 30 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 20 g/l glucose plus 5 g/l ethanol. After 18 hours 3 ml of preculture was added to 27 ml fresh media F plus 20 g/l glucose plus 5 g/l ethanol in a 500 ml flask, and grown at 30° C. and 250 rpm for 20 hours before addition of substrate. Biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding 40 g/l of methyl myristate, the pH was adjusted to ˜7.8 with 2M NaOH. The culture was pH controlled by adding 2 mol/l NaOH every 12 hours, glycerol was fed as cosubstrate by adding 500 g/l glycerol and ethanol was fed as a inducer by adding 50% ethanol every 12 hours. Samples were taken at the times indicated, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy myristate and α,ω-dicarboxymyristate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). 
         [0365]    As shown in  FIG. 24 , strains DP1 and DP201 both produce significant levels of tetradecanedioic acid (the α,ω-diacid) and negligible levels of ω-hydroxy myristic acid. In contrast, under these conditions strain DP428 produces approximately five-fold less tetradecanedioic acid, while converting nearly 70% of the methyl myristate to ω-hydroxy myristic acid after 60 hours. This shows that elimination of one or more of the genes FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 prevents the over-oxidation of the fatty acid myristic acid by  Candida tropicalis,  and that the presence of CYP52A17 under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter in this strain background produces a strain that can convert methyl myristate to ω-hydroxy myristic acid, but that does not over-oxidize the product to tetradecanedioic acid. 
       8.9 Oxidation of Methyl Myristate by an Engineered  Candida tropicalis  Strain in a Fermentor 
       [0366]    We compared the production of ω-hydroxy myristic acid and α,ω-tetradecanoic acid by a  Candida tropicalis  strain lacking CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 and with CYP52A17 added back under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter (DP428). 
         [0367]      C. tropicalis  DP428 was taken from a glycerol stock or fresh agar plate and inoculated into 500 ml shake flask containing 30 mL of YPD medium (20 g/l glucose, 20 g/l peptone and 10 g/l yeast extract) and shaken at 30° C., 250 rpm for 20 h. Cells were collected by centrifugation and re-suspended in FM3 medium for inoculation. (FM3 medium is 30 g/l glucose, 7 g/l ammonium sulfate, 5.1 g/l potassium phosphate, monobasic, 0.5 g/l magnesium sulfate, 0.1 g/l calcium chloride, 0.06 g/l citric acid, 0.023 g/l ferric chloride, 0.0002 g/l biotin and 1 ml/l of a trace elements solution. The trace elements solution contains 0.9 g/l boric acid, 0.07 g/l cupric sulfate, 0.18 g/l potassium iodide, 0.36 g/l ferric chloride, 0.72 g/l manganese sulfate, 0.36 g/l sodium molybdate, 0.72 g/l zinc sulfate.) Conversion was performed by inoculating 15 ml of preculture into 135 ml FM3 medium, methyl myristate was added to 20 g/l and the temperature was kept at 30° C. The pH was maintained at 6.0 by automatic addition of 6 M NaOH or 2 M H 2 SO 4  solution. Dissolved oxygen was kept at 70% by agitation and O 2 -cascade control mode. After 6 hours growth, ethanol was fed into the cell culture to 5 g/l. During the conversion phase, 80% glycerol was fed as co-substrate by dissolved oxygen-stat control mode (the high limit of dissolved oxygen was 75% and low limit of dissolved oxygen was 70%, which means glycerol feeding was initiated when dissolved oxygen is higher than 75% and stopped when dissolved oxygen was lower than 70%). Every 12 hours, ethanol was added into cell culture to 2 g/l, and methyl myristate was added to 40 g/l until the total methyl myristate added was 140 g/l (i.e. the initial 20 g/l plus 3 subsequent 40 g/l additions). Formation of products was measured at the indicated intervals by taking samples and acidifying to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl; products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy myristate and α,ω-dicarboxymyristate were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy), as shown in  FIG. 26 . Under these conditions the strain produced a final concentration of 91.5 g/l ω-hydroxy myristic acid, with a productivity of 1.63 g/l/hr and a w/w ratio of ω-hydroxy myristic acid: tetradecanedioic acid of 20.3:1. This shows that elimination of one or more of the genes FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11 prevents the over-oxidation of the fatty acid myristic acid by  Candida tropicalis,  and that the presence of CYP52A17 under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter in this strain background produces a strain that can convert methyl myristate to ω-hydroxy myristic acid, but that does not over-oxidize the product to tetradecanedioic acid. 
       8.10 Oxidation of Methyl Myristate, Oleic Acid and Linoleic Acid by Engineered  Candida tropicalis  Strains 
       [0368]    We compared the fatty acid oxidizing activities of two  Candida tropicalis  strains which lack CYP52A13, CYP52A14, CYP52A17, CYP52A18, FAO1, FAO1B, FAO2A, FAO2B, CYP52A12, CYP52A12B, ADH-A4, ADH-A4B, ADH-B4, ADH-B4B, ADH-A10 and ADH-B11, one of which has CYP52A17 added back under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter (DP428) and one of which has CYP52A13 added back under control of the isocitrate lyase promoter (DP522). 
         [0369]    Cultures of the yeast strains were grown at 30° C. in a DASGIP parallel fermentor containing 200 ml of media F (media F is peptone 3 g/l, yeast extract 6 g/l, yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g/l, sodium acetate 3 g/l, K 2 HPO 4  7.2 g/l, KH 2 PO 4  9.3 g/l) plus 30 g/l glucose. The pH was maintained at 6.0 by automatic addition of 6 M NaOH or 2 M H 2 SO 4  solution. Dissolved oxygen was kept at 70% by agitation and O 2 -cascade control mode. After 6 hour growth, ethanol was fed into the cell culture to 5 g/l. After 12 h growth, biocatalytic conversion was initiated by adding methyl myristate acid to 60 g/l or oleic acid to 60 g/l or linoleic acid to 30 g/l. During the conversion phase, 80% glycerol was fed as co-substrate for conversion of methyl myristate and 500 g/l glucose was fed as co-substrate for conversion of oleic acid and linoleic acid by dissolved oxygen-stat control mode (the high limit of dissolved oxygen was 75% and low limit of dissolved oxygen was 70%, which means glycerol feeding was initiated when dissolved oxygen is higher than 75% and stopped when dissolved oxygen was lower than 70%). Every 12 hour, ethanol was added into cell culture to 2 g/l. Samples were taken at various times, cell culture was acidified to pH˜1.0 by addition of 6 N HCl, products were extracted from the cell culture by diethyl ether and the concentrations of ω-hydroxy fatty acids and α,ω-diacids in the media were measured by LC-MS (liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy). As shown in  FIG. 25 , strains DP428 and DP522 were both able to produce ω-hydroxy fatty acids from these substrates, as well as some α,ω-diacids.  FIG. 25  also shows that the different P450s had different preferences for the fatty acid substrates, and different propensities to oxidize the ω-hydroxy group. 
       9. DEPOSIT OF MICROORGANISMS 
       [0370]    A living cultures of strain DP421 has been deposited with American Type Culture Collection, 12301 Parklawn Drive, Rockville, Md. 20852, on May 4, 2009, under the Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the purposes of patent procedure. 
       10. EQUIVALENTS 
       [0371]    Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims. 
         [0372]    All publications, patents, patent applications, and databases mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference into the specification to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, patent application or database was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated herein by reference.