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4882193

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Willard

Benjamin Willard

Benjamin Willard, Jr. (19 March 1743 Grafton, Massachusetts – 18 September 1803 Baltimore, Maryland), was an American clockmaker. Biography Benjamin Willard the third eldest of twelve born to the marriage of Benjamin Willard (1716–1775) and Sarah Brooks (1717–1775). He was the first of the Willard family to enter the business of clockmaking, a craft which he began around 1765. He operated a workshop at his family home in Grafton, but by December 1771, lived in Roxbury, Massachusetts. Benjamin Willard, Jr., died in Baltimore, Maryland, September 18, 1803. Legacy Although not as famous as his younger brother, Simon, Benjamin nonetheless was a prominent and well-known clockmaker in his day. A number of Benjamin Willard clocks survive today and are considered collectible. The Willard home and workshop in Grafton are preserved and operate as a museum. Family Benjamin Willard, Jr. – the eldest of four clockmaker brothers – flourished in central Massachusetts during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The other clockmaker brothers were: Simon (1753–1823) Ephraim (1755–1832) Aaron(1757–1844) Benjamin Willard was a 2nd great-grandson (5th generation descendant) of Simon Willard (1605–1676), a Massachusetts colonist. Bibliography Notes References linked to notes ; . ; (book); (Chapter 6). ; . <li> <li> <li> <li> <li> External links Willard House and Clock Museum 1743 births 1803 deaths American clockmakers Benjamin

4598663

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete%27s%20Brewing%20Company

Pete's Brewing Company

Pete's Brewing Company was founded by homebrewer Pete Slosberg and Mark Bronder in 1986. Its major product line was Pete's Wicked Ale, an American Brown Ale that is 5.3% alcohol by volume. The company was acquired by the Gambrinus Company in 1998, a company that owns the Spoetzl Brewery in Texas, the Bridgeport Brewery in Oregon and the Trumer Brauerei in Berkeley. In 2004, Pete's Brewing Company was number 42 in America for sales by volume. Brand discontinuation Pete's Wicked Ales's brand owner, The Gambrinus Company, discontinued the Pete's Wicked Ale brand in 2011, sending letters to their distributors citing "rapidly declining sales volumes". See also List of defunct breweries in the United States References American beer brands Beer brewing companies based in Texas Defunct brewery companies of the United States

4432637

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADjate%20Bien

Fíjate Bien

Fíjate Bien (Spanish for Pay Attention) is the debut studio album recorded by Colombian singer-songwriter Juanes, It was released by Surco Records on October 17, 2000 (see 2000 in music). The album was produced by Gustavo Santaolalla, who is known for his contributions to Latin rock tracks. All the songs on the album were written by Juanes himself. The strings were arranged, orchestrated and conducted by David Campbell, who has also worked on several other albums by Juanes. The album received six Latin Grammy Award nominations in 2001 including Album of the Year, Record of the Year and Song of the Year, Best Short Form Music Video for Fijate Bien; Best Rock Solo Vocal Album and Best New Artist winning the later two. The album was certified Disco de Platino by the RIAA on June 23, 2003, for shipping 100,000 copies. Track listing "Ahí le Va" (There It Goes) – 3:27 "Para Ser Eterno" (To Be Eternal) – 5:04 "Volcán" (Volcano) – 3:33 "Podemos Hacernos Daño" (We Could Hurt Each Other) – 3:46 "Destino" (Destiny) – 3:33 "Nada" (Nothing) – 3:53 "Fíjate Bien" (Focus) – 4:55 "Vulnerable" (Vulnerable) – 4:27 "Soñador" (Dreamer) – 3:25 "Ficcion" (Fiction) – 4:14 "¿Para Qué?" (What For?) – 3:35 "Me da Igual" (I Don't Mind) – 4:12 Videoclips "Podemos Hacernos Daño" "Nada" "Fíjate Bien" Bonus tracks edition "De Madrugada" (In the Dawn) – 3:50 "Sin Rencores" (Without Resentment) – 3:03 "Solo" (Alone) – 4:56 "Raza" (Race) – 3:15 "La Decision" (The Decision) – 5:33 "La Tierra" (The Land) – 3:48 Chart performance Certifications and sales References 2000 albums Juanes albums Universal Music Latino albums Spanish-language albums Latin Grammy Award for Best Rock Solo Vocal Album Albums produced by Gustavo Santaolalla el:Fijate bien

4638929

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Movement%20Writing%20Alphabet

International Movement Writing Alphabet

The International Movement Writing Alphabet (IMWA) is a set of symbols that can be used to describe and record movement. Its creator, Valerie Sutton, also invented MovementWriting, a writing system which employs IMWA. It in turn has several application areas within which it is specialised. Application areas Sign language transcription Sutton SignWriting is optimised for sign languages and has the most development so far. Dance notation DanceWriting is a form of dance notation. Mimestry notation MimeWriting is for classic mimestry. Kinesiology SportsWriting is for the kinesiology of ice skating and gymnastics. Identification numbers The IMWA has more than 27,000 elements that are represented by unique identification numbers. Each identification number specifies six attributes——as dash-separated values. The symbol is specified with a three-digit value whereas all other attributes use a two-digit value (e.g., 01-01-001-01-01-01). There are eight categories: hand, movement, face, head, upper body, full body, space, and punctuation. There are 40 groups. The are based on the 40 groups. History The IMWA was originally designed for describing sign language and consequently was named Sutton's Sign Symbol Sequence (SSS) by its inventor, Valerie Sutton. The original symbol set, SSS-95, was limited in size due to memory constraints in personal computers at the time. The SSS-99 symbol set expanded the number of symbols, and the SSS-2002 set was the first to use the current identification numbering system. The final version, SSS-2004, was renamed International Movement Writing Alphabet (SSS-IMWA) to reflect its usefulness in applications beyond sign language. External links MovementWriting IMWA Design Documents IMWA Keyboard Design writing systems constructed scripts

4953782

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Delhi

History of Delhi

Delhi has been an important political centre of India as the capital of several empires. The recorded history of Delhi begins with the 8th century Tomar Rajputs kingdom. It is considered to be a city built, destroyed and rebuilt several times, as outsiders who successfully invaded the Indian subcontinent would ransack the existing capital city in Delhi, and those who came to conquer and stay would be so impressed by the city's strategic location as to make it their capital and rebuild it in their own way. From Ancient to medieval era, Delhi was ruled by the powerful Rajput dynasties of Tomaras ,Chauhans,Gautamas. The Delhi Sultanate is the name given for a series of five successive dynasties, which remained as a dominant power of Indian subcontinent with Delhi as their capital. During Sultanate period, the city became a center for culture. The Delhi Sultanate came to an end in 1526, when Babur defeated the forces of the last Lodi sultan, Ibrahim Lodi at the first Battle of Panipat, and formed the Mughal Empire. The Mughals ruled the area for three centuries. During the 16th century, the city declined as the Mughal capital was shifted. The fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan built the walled city of Shahjahanabad within Delhi, and its landmarks, the Red Fort and Jama Masjid. His reign would be considered the zenith of the empire. After the death of his successor Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire was plagued by a series of revolts. They lost major portions to the Marathas, Sikhs and many governors of erstwhile Mughal provinces like Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad. Delhi was sacked and looted by Nader Shah. The Jats captured many important towns of Mughal heartland south of Delhi. The Marathas captured Delhi in the battle of Delhi in 1757 and continued to control it until 1803 when they were defeated by the British during the second Anglo-Maratha War. In 1803, Delhi was captured by the British East India Company. During Company Rule in India, the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II was reduced to merely a figurehead. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 sought to end company rule and declared Bahadur Shah II the Emperor of India. However, the British soon recaptured Delhi and their other territories, ending the short-lived rebellion. This also marked the beginning of direct British Rule in India. In 1911, the capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta to New Delhi, the last inner city of Delhi designed by Edwin Lutyens. After India's Independence from the British, New Delhi became the capital of the newly formed Republic of India. Pre historic period There was Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in Red fort area which began around c.2000 BCE according to carbon dating. Around c.1200 BCE the region was inhabited by people of Painted Grey Ware culture which corresponds to Vedic Period. Significant prehistoric sites in Delhi include Anangpur (in the Badarpur region), as well as Harappan excavations near Narela and Nand Nagari. In mythology A long-standing tradition associates Delhi with Indraprastha and identifies the legendary city with the village Indarpat, which survived until the early 20th century within the Purana Qila. There is no tangible archeological evidence, however, which links the excavated 'painted greyware' at Purana Qila with the Bharata Khanda site.The legendary ancient city of Indraprastha is mentioned in the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE. During the Mauryan period, Indraprastha was known as Indapatta in Buddhist literature. The location of Indraprastha is uncertain but Purana Qila in present-day New Delhi is frequently cited. Medieval period Tomara Rajputs Anangpal Tomar founded Delhi in 1052. A VS 1383 inscription in Delhi Museum confirms the founding of Delhi by the Tomars. He established the Tomar Dynasty of Delhi in the early 8th century and built his capital at the Anangpur village in Haryana. The Anangpur Dam was built during his reign; the Surajkund during the reign of his son Surajpal. Chauhan Rajputs The Rajput Chahamana (Chauhan) kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora. The Chauhan king Prithviraj III was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori in the Second Battle of Tarain, solidifying Muslim presence in northern India and shattering Rajput power in the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Late Medieval period (13th-16th centuries CE) Delhi Sultanate From 1206, Delhi became the capital of the Delhi Sultanate under the Slave Dynasty. The first Sultan of Delhi, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, was a former slave who rose through the ranks to become a general, a governor and then Sultan of Delhi. Qutb-ud-din started the construction of the Qutub Minar, a recognisable symbol of Delhi, to commemorate his victory but died before its completion. In the Qutb complex he also constructed the Quwwat-al-Islam (might of Islam), which is the earliest extant mosque in India. He was said to have destroyed twenty-seven Jain temples initially housed in the Qutb complex and pillaged exquisitely carved pillars and building material from their debris for this mosque, many of which can still be seen. After the end of the Slave dynasty, a succession of Turkic Central Asian and Afghan dynasties, the Khalji dynasty, the Tughluq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty and the Lodi dynasty held power in the late medieval period and built a sequence of forts and townships in Delhi. Timur In 1398, Timur Lang invaded India on the pretext that the Muslim sultans of Delhi were too tolerant of their Hindu subjects. After defeating the armies of Nasiruddin Mahmud of Tughlaq dynasty, on 15 December 1398, Timur entered Delhi on 18 December 1398, and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, and over 100,000 war prisoners were killed as well. Defeat of the Lodi sultans In 1526, following the First Battle of Panipat, Zahiruddin Babur, the former ruler of Fergana, defeated the last Afghan Lodi sultan and founded the Mughal dynasty which ruled from Delhi, Agra and Lahore. Mughal Rule The early modern period in Indian history is marked with the rise of the Mughal Empire between the 16th and 18th centuries. After the fall of the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals ruled from Agra, Sikri and Lahore, but the city once became the capital in 1648 during the rule of Shah Jahan, and remained the capital until the fall of the empire. During this time, Delhi became a center for culture, and poets such as Ghalib, Dard, Dagh and Zauq lived in the city and sought patronage of the emperor. The Mughals also built several monuments in the city including Humayun's Tomb, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid. Babur and Humayun (1526–1556) The first Mughal Emperors Babur (1526-1530) and Humayun (1530-1540, restored 1556-57) ruled from Agra, unlike the preceding Delhi Sultans. In the mid-16th century there was an interruption in the Mughal rule of India as Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and forced him to flee to Persia. Sher Shah Suri built the sixth city of Delhi, as well as the old fort known as Purana Qila, even though this city was settled since the ancient era. After Sher Shah Suri's death in 1545, his son Islam Shah took the reins of north India from Delhi. Islam Shah ruled from Delhi. Then Humayun was briefly restored; but meanwhile in 1553 the Hindu Hemu became the Prime Minister and Chief of Army of Adil Shah. Hemu fought and won 22 battles in all against rebels and (twice) against the Mughal Akbar's army in Agra and Delhi, without losing any. After defeating Akbar's army on 7 October 1556 at Tughlaqabad fort area in Battle of Delhi, Hemu acceded to Delhi throne and established Hindu Raj in North India for a brief period, taking the title 'Vikramaditya' at his coronation in Purana Quila, Delhi. Hemu was defeated at the second battle of Panipat by Mughal forces led by Akbar's regent Bairam Khan, thus reinstating Mughal rule in the region. Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707) The third and greatest Mughal emperor, Akbar (1556-1605), continued to rule from Agra, resulting in a decline in the fortunes of Delhi. In the mid-17th century, the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1628–1658) built the city that sometimes bears his name Shahjahanabad, the seventh city of Delhi that is now commonly known as the old city or old Delhi. This city contains a number of significant architectural features, including the Red Fort (Lal Qila) and the Jama Masjid. The city served as the capital of the later Mughal Empire from 1638 onward, when Shah Jahan transferred the capital back from Agra. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) crowned himself as emperor in Delhi in 1658 at the Shalimar garden ('Aizzabad-Bagh) with a second coronation in 1659. After 1680, the Mughal Empire's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire rose to prominence. Decline of Mughals The Mughal Empire suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas, Jats, Afghans and Sikhs. In 1737, Bajirao I marched towards Delhi with a huge army. The Marathas defeated the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi. The Maratha forces sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals. In 1739, the Mughal Empire lost the huge Battle of Karnal in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but military superior Persian army led by Nader Shah during his invasion after which he completely sacked and looted Delhi, the Mughal capital, followed by massacre for 2 days, killing over 30,000 civilians and carrying away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne, the Daria-i-Noor, and Koh-i-Noor. Nader eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury. Maratha Rule Maratha Protectorate A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protector of the Mughal throne at Delhi. In 1753 Jat ruler Suraj Mal attacked Delhi. He defeated Nawab of Delhi Ghazi-ud-din (second) and captured Delhi in the Capture of Delhi. Jats sacked Delhi from 9 May to 4 June. Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded North India for the fourth time in early 1757. He entered Delhi in January 1757 and kept the Mughal emperor under arrest. In August 1757, the Marathas once again attacked Delhi, decisively defeating Najib-ud-Daula and his Rohilla Afghan army in the Battle of Delhi (1757). Later, Ahmad Shah Durrani conquered Delhi in 1761, after the Third Battle of Panipat in which the Marathas were decisively defeated. Later, a treaty was made between the Marathas and Afghans that the Marathas would have all the lands east of the Sutlej river. Thus, the Marathas established full control over the city. Under the leadership of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Baghel Singh, Delhi was briefly conquered by the Sikh Empire in early 1783 in the Battle of Delhi (1783). Decline of the Marathas In 1803, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi (1803), ending the Maratha rule over the city. As a result, Delhi came under the control of British East India Company, and became a part of the North-Western Provinces. The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II remained a mere figurehead. British Rule Revolt of 1857 The Indian Rebellion of 1857 sought to end Company Rule in India. On 11 May, the mutineers reached and captured Delhi, and declared Bahadur Shah Zafar II the Emperor of India, and the Emperor held his first court in many years. However, the British returned and laid siege to Delhi on 8 June 1857. On 21 September, Delhi finally fell into the hands of British troops. The city received significant damage during the battle. Afterwards, the last titular Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II was captured and exiled to Rangoon. Delhi passed into the direct control of British Government in 1857 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the remaining Mughal territories were annexed as a part of British India. British Raj Calcutta was the capital of British India till 1911 but in 1911 at the Delhi Durbar of 1911, held at the Coronation Park, King George V announced the shifting of the capital to Delhi. New Delhi designed by the British architect Edwin Lutyens was inaugurated in 1931 after its construction was delayed due to World War I. New Delhi was officially declared as the seat of the Government of India after independence in 1947. Post-Independence (1947–present) During the partition of India, around five lakh Hindu and Sikh refugees, mainly from West Punjab fled to Delhi, while around three lakh Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan. Ethnic Punjabis are believed to account for at least 40% of Delhi's total population and are predominantly Hindi-speaking Punjabi Hindus. Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues (), contributing more to the rise of Delhi's population than the birth rate, which is declining. The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 created the Union Territory of Delhi from its predecessor, the Chief Commissioner's Province of Delhi. The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The Act gave Delhi its own legislative assembly along Civil lines, though with limited powers. After 1967 relations between Hindus and Muslims deteriorated to the level that there was a significant uptick in the number of riots and other disruption of civil life. One of the most significant was the 1973 riot in Bao Hindu Rao area, which resulted in the injury of 18 police officers and financial losses estimated to be around 500,000 Rupees, according to police sources. Another significant riot happened on 5 May 1974 in the Sadar Bazar area between Hindus and Muslims in which 11 people were killed and 92 were injured. This riot was the worst in Delhi since independence. The Centre for the Study of Developing Societies carried out a survey in nearby areas that showed significant division between Hindus and Muslims who saw each other negatively. In 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (273-236 BCE) was discovered near Sriniwaspuri. Two sandstone pillars inscribed with the edicts of Ashoka were brought to by Firuz Shah Tughluq in the 14th century already exist in Delhi. See also Agrasen ki Baoli Gates of Delhi Mehrauli Archaeological Park Notes References Bibliography External links Delhi (1938), a documentary by BFI archives Land and Acquisition Act of 1894, under which the new city of Delhi was acquired (archived 25 October 2014) The agreement of construction of new city of Delhi with original signatures of Herbert Baker and Edwin Luteyns (archived 25 October 2014) New Delhi cy:Hen Ddelhi

4358875

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance%20of%20Independent%20Social%20Democrats

Alliance of Independent Social Democrats

The Alliance of Independent Social Democrats (; abbr. СНСД or SNSD) is a Serb political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Founded in 1996, it is the governing party in Republika Srpska, with its leader, Milorad Dodik, serving as the current president of Republika Srpska. The party's vice-president, Željka Cvijanović, is the current member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while SNSD member Radovan Višković is the current prime minister of Republika Srpska. The creation of the SNSD can be traced back to the Independent Members of Parliament Group, which eventually grew to become the Party of Independent Social Democrats. During this time, the party served as the only opposition to the dominance of the ultra-nationalist Serb Democratic Party (SDS), which was led by Radovan Karadžić for the majority of the 1990s. The SNSD was seen as a moderate and non-extremist alternative to the SDS, with many of its members, including Milorad Dodik, being part of the former non-nationalist and multi-ethnic Union of Reform Forces of Yugoslavia. The SNSD's first real electoral success was recorded in 2006, where it won 41 of the 83 seats in the National Assembly of Republika Srpska, attracting 44.95% of the popular vote. Since then, the party has gradually abandoned its reformist ideology for a more aggressive advocacy of Serbian nationalism, threatening the secession of Republika Srpska from the rest of Bosnia and Herzegovina numerous times. This has also led to the party being expelled from the Socialist International in 2012 for continuing to "espouse a nationalist and extremist" line. History 1991–1996 The party grew out of the Independent Members of Parliament Caucus (IMPC), known as "the club", of the National Assembly of Republika Srpska (NSRS) in 1996. The club was in opposition to the Serb Democratic Party (SDS) during the Bosnian War (1992–96). The IMPC was established from the caucus of ethnic Serb members of the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina elected in 1990 from the election list of the Union of Reform Forces. The Serb members of the Parliament of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, the majority of the Serb Democratic Party (SDS), including the members of the IMPC, established the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 24 October 1991 (later renamed National Assembly of the Republika Srpska), following the majority of the parliament (mostly Croats and Bosniaks) approved the "Memorandum on Sovereignty" on 15 October 1991. In 1992, the Bosnian parliament held an independence referendum which led to the declaration of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The absolute majority of the newly founded NSRS was from the SDS. The IMPC was the only parliamentary opposition from the founding of the National Assembly through the first post-war elections in September 1996. The Party of Independent Social Democrats (SNSD) participated in the elections in the "Union for Peace and Progress" coalition along with the Socialist Party of RS (SPRS) and a minor party. The club and later party (SNSD) was chaired by Milorad Dodik. 1997–2004 By the time of the next local elections in 1997, about twenty municipal committees had been formed, and it ran independently in 24 municipalities of the Republic of Srpska, mainly in Krajina and Posavina. In 1997, there was a split in the Serb Democratic Party, in which Biljana Plavšić, the president of Repubika Srpska left the party following internal clashes. The People’s Assembly of Republika Srpska was dissolved and parliamentary elections were held simultaneously with local elections. The Party of Independent Social Democrats received twice as much support compared to the previous elections just a year earlier. The then western-backed Plavšić nominated Dodik for Prime Minister and he was elected in the January 1998 elections, largely being seen as a moderate. In the party's early years it was active in the "Sloga" (freedom) coalition with Plavšić's Serb National Alliance and the Socialist Party, whose leader at the time was Živko Radišić. In 1998 another parliamentary election was held. In the elections for the People’s Assembly of Republika Srpska, the Party of Independent Social Democrats won 6 parliamentary seats. 1999 was marked by difficulties in the region, including the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia and internal strife with the blockade of the work of the Government by the People’s Assembly, a vote of no-confidence and the removal of Nikola Poplašen from the post of President of Republika Srpska by the High Representative Carlos Westendorp. Meanwhile the government led by Dodik received significant support from international institutions. In December 1999, the Social Liberal Party of Republika Srpska merged into the SNSD, and after local elections in 2000 Nikola Špirić's Democratic Socialist Party (DSP) merged into it in 2001. The SNSD then changed its name to the "Alliance of Independent Social Democrats", keeping its old abbreviation. DSP was a splinter party of the SPRS. At the Unifying Congress in May 2002, it elected Milorad Dodik as president of the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats, with Nebojša Radmanović as president of the Executive Committee. Vinko Đuragić's New Workers' Party also joined the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats. In August 2002, the New Labour Party of Republika Srpska merged into the SNSD. In the elections held on 5 October 2002, the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats won the largest number of parliamentary seats since its creation, receiving 19 seats in the People’s Assembly of Republika Srpska, 3 deputies in the Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 1 deputy in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Alliance of Independent Social Democrats received 7 seats in the Council of Peoples of Republika Srpska and 3 seats in the Council of Peoples of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Moderate political parties were offered a partnership to form a new government, but the Party of Democratic Progress decided to remain in the pact with the nationalist parties, so the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats accepted the role of the strongest opposition party, not only in the Republic of Srpska, but throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina. In this period, the party launched a campaign to collect signatures, with the goal of abolishing conscription into the army and demilitarization of the country. In the 2004 elections, with around 125,000 votes, the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats became the strongest party in Republika Srpska and the second in terms of votes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 17 mayor positions were won, 15 of which were in Republika Srpska, and 2 in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The number of council seats, compared to the previous local elections four years earlier was much higher, and they were won in all candidate municipalities in Republika Srpska, and in 9 municipalities in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the establishment of municipal assemblies, the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats has 22 municipal presidents, and a larger number of deputy mayors and vice presidents of municipal assemblies. The end of 2004 was marked by the resignation of the republican government headed by Dragan Mikerević. After an unsuccessful two-year mandate, the Government resigns, and the political parties of the Republic of Srpska reach an Agreement on coordinated political action, with the aim of defining the strategic relationship towards the constitutional arrangement and upcoming reforms: police and defense. 2006–present: Breakthrough and rule At the beginning of 2006, the previous prime minister of Republic of Srpska, Pero Bukejlović, resigned. Ten days after that, on 26 January 2006, the president of Republic of Srpska, Dragan Čavić, asked Milorad Dodik to form a new government, in which, according to the Constitution, there are 16 ministers: eight Serbs, five Bosniaks and three Croats. The Parliament of Republika Srpska supported the appointment of Dodik as Prime Minister on 28 February 2006. The Alliance of Independent Social Democrats achieved their breakthrough in the 2006 general elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Nebojša Radmanović was elected as the Serb member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats won 7 seats with 269,468 votes ahead of the Party of Democratic Action with 238,474 (9 seats) and the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina with 219,477 votes (8 seats). Milan Jelić became the President of Republika Srpska (271,022 votes, 48.87%). The party won 41 out of 83 parliamentary seats in the People’s Assembly of Republika Srpska, and Milorad Dodik, the president of the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats, became the representative for the composition of the new Republika Srpska government. In the House of Representatives of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats won 1 place with 12,564 votes (1.46%). The Alliance of Independent Social Democrats won 3 out of 25 seats in the Assembly of Canton 10 in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (3,654 votes, 11.99%). In the General Elections of 2010, the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats repeated their good result from 2006, and at all levels defeated the united opposition in the coalition Zajedno za Srpska (Serb Democratic Party-Party of Democratic Progress-Serb Radical Party of Republic of Srpska). The joint candidate of the "Alliance of Independent Social Democrats-Democratic People's Alliance-Socialist Party" coalition for the Serb member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Nebojša Radmanović, received 295,629 votes, i.e. 48.92% of the total number of valid votes. The most significant opponent, the candidate of the Zajedno za Srpska coalition, Mladen Ivanić, received 285,951 votes, or 47.31% of valid votes. A large number of invalid ballots, and a small difference between the two most important candidates, resulted in a complaint by Mladen Ivanić and his Party of Democratic Progress about irregularities during the counting of ballots. The Central Election Commission put an end to such doubts by recognizing the election results. Milorad Dodik, the candidate of the coalition "Alliance of Independent Social Democrats-Democratic People's Alliance-Socialist Party" for the president of Republika Srpska achieved a convincing victory, receiving the support of 50.52% of voters, i.e. 319,618 valid votes. In the elections for the People’s Assembly of the Republic of Srpska, the party won 38% of the valid votes cast (240,727 votes) and received 37 parliamentary mandates, which was enough for the party to preserve the parliamentary majority in the coalition with the Democratic People's Alliance and the Socialist Party. In the elections for the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the party in the Republic of Srpska won 43.30% of the votes, or 8 representatives. The 2014 general elections saw the SNSD enter the race with a coalition of smaller parties; the Democratic People's Alliance and the Socialist Party. The SNSD became the main ruling party of Republika Srpska for the third consecutive time, gaining 29 seats in the Assembly with Dodik re-elected. After the 2018 general elections, for the Serb member of the Presidency, Dodik received a record number of votes, i.e. 368,210 votes or 53.88%, while candidate Alliance for Victory Mladen Ivanić received 292,065 or 42.74%. In the People’s Assembly of Republika Srpska, SNSD remained the strongest political entity with 218,201 (31.87%) votes and 28 seats. Ideology Reflecting a trend in Eastern Europe for centre-left parties, it has been characterized as a social-democratic party with left-leaning views on fiscal issues, while having more conservative views on social issues. Since the late 2000s, the party has gradually abandoned its reformist ideology and confederalism for Russophilia and a more aggressive advocacy of Serbian nationalism and separatism, threatening a proposed secession of Republika Srpska from the rest of Bosnia and Herzegovina numerous times. This has also led to the party being expelled from the Socialist International in 2012 for continuing to "espouse a nationalist and extremist" line. List of presidents Electoral results Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina National Assembly of Republika Srpska Presidential elections Positions held Major positions held by Alliance of Independent Social Democrats members: Notes References Bibliography External links Official website Youth of SNSD Alliance of Independent Social Democrats Political parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina Russophilic parties Eastern Orthodox political parties Anti-globalization movement Eurosceptic parties Eurosceptic parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbian nationalism in Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbian nationalism

4595715

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20Japan-related%20articles%20%28B%29

Index of Japan-related articles (B)

This page lists Japan-related articles with romanized titles beginning with the letter B. For names of people, please list by surname (i.e., "Tarō Yamada" should be listed under "Y", not "T"). Please also ignore particles (e.g. "a", "an", "the") when listing articles (i.e., "A City with No People" should be listed under "City"). B B'z Ba Baby and Me Babymetal Babymetal (album) Baby, The Stars Shine Bright Badi (magazine) Badtz-maru Bahamut Lagoon Baka (fool) Bake-danuki Baku (spirit) Bakuryuuha Bakusho Mondai Balrog (video game character) Bandai Band-Maid Bangai-O Banjo-Kazooie Banjo-Tooie Bank of Japan Barazoku Burdock Baseball Stars Battle of Anegawa Battle Angel Alita Battle of Iwo Jima Battle of Khalkhin Gol Battle of Leyte Gulf Battle of Midway Battle of Mikatagahara Battle of Mimasetoge Battle of Nagakute Battle of Nagashino Battle of Okehazama Battle of Okinawa Battle of Peleliu Battle of Sekigahara Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of the Java Sea Battle of the Planets Battle of Shizugatake Battle of Tedorigawa Battle of the Eastern Solomons Battle of Tsushima Battle of Uchidehama Battle of Yalu River (1894) Battle of Yalu River (1904) Battle Royale Battles of Bunroku and Keicho Battles of Kawanakajima Batto-jutsu Be Bean jam Beatmania Beautiful Dreamer (film) Beautiful Life (Japanese TV series) BEE Japan Christopher Belton Bento Benzaiten Beppu, Ōita Berserk Betamax Bi The Big O Big the Cat Bingo Province Bibai Bisai Bisei, Okayama Bishōnen Bishōjo Bitchū Province Bitchu, Okayama Biwa, Shiga Bizen Province Bizen, Okayama Bl Black Cat (manga) Black Rain The Black Ships Black Thunder (chocolate bar) Blackjack (manga) Blazing Transfer Student Blood: The Last Vampire Blue (2001 film) Blue Gender Bo Bō BoA Bob Sapp Bodaiji Bōgu Bōjutsu Bokeh Bokken Bokkun Bombardment of Shimonoseki Bombing of Tokyo in World War II Bon Festival Bon Odori Bones (studio) Bonotsu, Kagoshima Bonsai Boogiepop series Boogiepop Phantom The Book of Five Rings The Boom Bōryokudan Boshin War Bōsōzoku Botchan Bow-Lingual Bowser (Nintendo) Bowser Jr. Boys Be Br Bra (dragonball) Branded to Kill Brand New Maid Brave Fencer Musashi Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Breath of Fire Bridgestone Bright Future Bright Noa Brown rice Jules Brunet Bs BS The Legend of Zelda BS Zelda no Densetsu Inishie no Sekiban Bu Bubble Bobble Bubblegum Crash Bubblegum Crisis Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040 Buddhahood Buddhism Buddhism in Japan Buddhist architecture in Japan Buddhist cuisine Buddhist temples in Japan Buddhist terms and concepts Budō Bujinkan Bukkake Bulma Bungo Province Bungotakada, Ōita Bunkyō, Tokyo Burakumin Bushido Bust-A-Move Bash! Bust-a-Move DS Bust-a-Move Millennium Bust-a-Move Pocket Bust-a-Move Universe Butsudan Butsuden Buyo Buzen Province Buzen, Fukuoka By Byōdō-in Byoyomi B

4355696

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xelha%20%28disambiguation%29

Xelha (disambiguation)

Xelha or Xel-Ha may refer to: Xelha, an archaeological site of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located on the eastern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico Xel-Ha Park, a commercial water theme park and ecotourism facility in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico Xelha, a character in the video game Baten Kaitos: Eternal Wings and the Lost Ocean

4907377

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Coast%20Highway%20station%20%28A%20Line%29

Pacific Coast Highway station (A Line)

Pacific Coast Highway station is an at grade light rail station on the A Line of the Los Angeles Metro Rail system. The station is located in the median of Long Beach Boulevard at its intersection with Pacific Coast Highway, after which the station is named, in Long Beach, California. North of this station, A Line trains enter an exclusive right-of-way (the historic route of the Pacific Electric Railway) which allows trains to reach higher speeds between stops. A J Line station with an identical name is located approximately west of this station. Service Station layout Hours and frequency Connections , the following connections are available: Long Beach Transit: , , , , , Los Angeles Metro Bus: References A Line (Los Angeles Metro) stations Transportation in Long Beach, California Railway stations in the United States opened in 1990 1990 establishments in California

4717651

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distant%20Lights%20%282003%20film%29

Distant Lights (2003 film)

Distant Lights is a 2003 German film directed by Hans-Christian Schmid. The film takes place on the Polish-German border at Słubice and Frankfurt (Oder). It features an ensemble cast, and the various threads illustrate the daily life between the two countries. Its original German title is Lichter, which means "Lights". Plot Unlike many ensemble films, the subplots of the film mostly do not interconnect with each other, and the film ends without a finale. Instead, the story threads illustrate life on the border between two countries; what appears to be poverty and desperation to some is a promised land for others, worth risking their lives to reach. The threads are: Kolya, a Ukrainian, has paid to be smuggled into Germany illegally; he finds he has been left on the Polish side of the border. When he is caught, a German interpreter agrees to smuggle him herself; he reaches Berlin. Ingo, a German mattress salesman, finds business in Frankfurt to be minimal and the people self-interested. He is humiliated and becomes desperate, but may have found love in Simone. Antoni, a Polish taxi driver, struggles to find the money to buy a communion dress for his daughter. By the time he is able to afford it, he is too late. (This subplot pays homage to Ken Loach's film Raining Stones and Mike Leigh's All or Nothing.) Philip, a young German architect, runs into his Polish former girlfriend Beata while working on a building project in Słubice. Neither the romance nor the project works out. Anna and Dimitri, a young Ukrainian couple, are swindled out of their money and try with Antoni's help to cross the river Oder, almost drowning in the attempt. Andreas, a young German orphan who smuggles cigarettes, attempts to take the money and run away with a girl from the children's home. Cast Reception The film won the FIPRESCI Prize at the 2003 Berlinale 2003 Findling Award 2002 Bundesfilmpreis in silver Best Direction, Best Script, 2003 Bavarian Film Prize References External links 2003 films 2000s German-language films 2000s Polish-language films Ukrainian-language films 2000s Russian-language films 2003 drama films German drama films Films about immigration Films directed by Hans-Christian Schmid Films set in Berlin Films shot in Poland 2003 multilingual films German multilingual films 2000s German films

4502370

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapta

Lapta

Lapta may refer to: Lapta (game), a Russian sport Lapta Türk Birliği S.K., a sports club in Lapithos, Cyprus Lapithos, a village in Cyprus

4257033

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy%20Nu%C3%B1ez

Tommy Nuñez

Tommy Núñéz is the founder of the Tommy Núñez foundation and a former NBA referee. He is the father of former NBA referee Tommy Núñez Jr. He was born on September 10, 1938, in Santa Maria, California, and is of Mexican American descent. In 1972 he was hired by the NBA and became the first Hispanic to referee in any major sport. After 30 years of reffing in the NBA, Tommy retired in 2002. Since retiring he puts all his time and energy into speaking to kids from coast to coast, organizing summer sports camps, youth programs or directing his National Hispanic Basketball tournament. External links Tommy Núñez Foundation (Official Site) National Basketball Association referees Living people 1938 births Sportspeople from Santa Maria, California American sportspeople of Mexican descent

4628228

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KLLZ-FM

KLLZ-FM

KLLZ-FM (99.1 FM, "Z99") is a radio station broadcasting from Bemidji, Minnesota (licensed to Walker, Minnesota), and airs a classic rock format. It has a wide coverage area across northern Minnesota, and enjoys a huge listening audience. KLLZ is owned by Hubbard Broadcasting, Inc. The Bemidji studios are located at 502 Beltrami Avenue, downtown Bemidji. The original transmitter site was along Highway 71, near Lake George. At the same time as the Hubbard sale, a new transmitter and antenna were installed at the existing KBHP transmitter site. Z99 is the official radio station of Moondance Jam, a four-day outdoor concert held in Walker, Minnesota every July. History The station signed on the air in May 1984 with the call sign KLLR-FM, licensed to Michael C. Steele. It was originally assigned the frequency 99.3 MHz, operating at maximum Class A station effective radiated power of 3 kW. In May 1988 Edward De La Hunt acquired the station. In March 1990, KLLR-FM was authorized to change to 99.1 MHz and increase power to 50 kW. In April 1991, KLLR-FM was acquired by Sioux Valley Broadcasting Co. In July 1991, the station's call sign was changed to KLLZ. In May 1994, the "-FM" suffix was added. In July 1994, KLLZ-FM was acquired by Ingstad Broadcasting, Inc. In April 1996, KLLZ-FM was acquired by Kommerstad Communications Co.,LLC., from Ingstad Communications, Inc., as part of a $4.1 million deal that also included stations in Brainerd, Wadena, and Staples, Minnesota On December 31, 2000, KLLZ-FM was acquired by Omni Broadcasting subsidiary BG Broadcasting, Inc. The purchase price was $560,000. Hubbard Broadcasting announced on November 13, 2014 that it would purchase the Omni Broadcasting stations, including KLLZ-FM. The sale was completed on February 27, 2015, at a purchase price of $8 million for the 16 stations and one translator. Programming Live programming begins at 6 am with Scott Williams. The show features sports reporting with Kevin Jackson and local news with Larissa Donovan. Scott was also the voice of Bemidji State Hockey on (Lakeland Public Television) KAWE channel 9, covering Beaver Football and Basketball for the campus television station KBSU channel 17, and is a co-host of "High Noon" on KBUN AM 1450. References External links Z99 Website Radio stations in Minnesota Classic rock radio stations in the United States Radio stations established in 1984 Hubbard Broadcasting 1984 establishments in Minnesota

4590772

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godolphin%20and%20Latymer%20School

Godolphin and Latymer School

The Godolphin and Latymer School is a private day school for girls in Hammersmith, West London. The school motto is an ancient Cornish phrase, Francha Leale Toge, which translates as "free and loyal art thou". The school crest includes a double-headed white eagle, Godolphin in Cornish signifies a white eagle. The Good Schools Guide called the school a "Very strong academic school with a friendly atmosphere, an outstanding head and a broad range of extra-curricular activities." History A private Act of Parliament in 1697 modified the wills of Sir William Godolphin (1634–96) in favour of his nephew Francis and niece Elizabeth and devoting £1,520 to charity. In 1703 this fund was used to purchase land west of St James's, Piccadilly, for education and other charitable purposes and, independently, in 1707 Elizabeth founded the Godolphin School, Salisbury, from her own resources. In 1856 the Godolphin School for boys was opened in Great Church Lane, Hammersmith. In 1862 The school relocated to the current Iffley Road site. Though initially successful, it closed in 1900. In 1905 it reopened as an independent day school for girls, associated with the Latymer Foundation and taking the name of the Godolphin and Latymer School. From 1906 onwards it received grants from the London County Council and the Local Education Authority for equipment, library books and buildings. In 1939 the whole school was evacuated from London with no forward planning for where the school would stay. In 1951 the school became a state Voluntary aided school under the Education Act 1944, and ceased to charge fees to pupils. After the abolition of the scheme, the school chose to revert to full independent status in 1977 rather than join the state system and turn comprehensive and resumed the charging of fees to pupils. The Godolphin and Latymer School celebrated its centenary in May 2005 with a service at St Paul's Cathedral. In the same year the nearby church of St John the Evangelist, designed by William Butterfield and built in the late 1850s, was closed and acquired by the School on a 125-year lease. It has been converted into the Bishop Arts Centre, named after Dame Joyce Bishop, who was headmistress between 1935 and 1963. Houses The house system has six houses: Bassi – Laura Bassi – the first woman to earn a professorship in physics at a university, Bologna, 1732. Lovelace – Ada Lovelace – an English mathematician and the first to publish a computer program in 1843. Maathai – Wangari Maathai – an internationally renowned Kenyan environmental political activist and Nobel laureate. Naidu – Sarojini Naidu – an Indian independence activist and poet. Quinn-Brown – Hallie Quinn Brown – an African-American educator, writer and activist. Sheppard – Kate Sheppard – the most prominent member of the women's suffrage movement in New Zealand. Notable alumnae The poet and Nobel Laureate W. B. Yeats was a pupil on the current Iffley Road site, attending the Godolphin School between 1877 and 1881. Notable former pupils of the girls' school, known as Old Dolphins, include: Sarah Alexander, actress Julia Barfield, architect Kate Beckinsale, actress and model Hattie Jacques, actress Carrie Johnson, Communications and PR advisor and wife of former Prime Minister Boris Johnson Julia King, Baroness Brown of Cambridge Nigella Lawson, food writer, journalist and broadcaster Davina McCall, actress and television presenter Candida Moss, writer and academic Lucy Punch, English actress Jemma Redgrave, actor Annunziata Rees-Mogg, journalist and politician Hayaatun Sillem, CEO of the Royal Academy of Engineering Francesca Stavrakopoulou, writer and academic Winifred Watkins, biochemist Catherine Webb, author Zoe Williams, newspaper columnist Sophie Ellis-Bextor, singer See also Sir William Godolphin Edward Latymer Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums (twinned school) Latymer Upper School Godolphin School, Salisbury References External links Godolphin and Latymer School website Profile at the Independent Schools Council website Profile at the Good Schools Guide Educational institutions established in 1861 Private girls' schools in London Educational charities based in the United Kingdom Private schools in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham Member schools of the Girls' Schools Association International Baccalaureate schools in England 1861 establishments in England

4331913

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Gujarat

History of Gujarat

The history of Gujarat began with Stone Age settlements followed by Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlements like Indus Valley civilisation. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centers in the Nanda, Maurya, Satavahana and Gupta empires as well as during the Western Kshatrapas period. After the fall of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu-Buddhist state. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sindh sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. The Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ruled Gujarat after from the 8th to 10th centuries. While the region also came under the control of the Rashtrakuta Empire. In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Greater Iran. During the 10th century, the native Chaulukya dynasty came to power. From 1297 to 1300, Alauddin Khalji, the Turkic Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's sacking of Delhi at the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence and established the Gujarat Sultanate; his son, Sultan Ahmad Shah I (ruled 1411 to 1442), restructured Ahmedabad as the capital. In the early 16th century the Rana Sanga invasion of Gujarat weakened the Sultanate's power as he annexed northern Gujarat and appointed his vassal to rule there, however after his death, the Sultan of Gujarat recovered the kingdom and even sacked Chittor Fort in 1535. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar conquered and annexed it to the Mughal Empire as a province. Surat had become the prominent and main port of India during Mughal rule. Later in the 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire who dominated the politics of India. The British East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Gaekwads of Baroda, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat were ruled directly by British officials. Mahatma Gandhi, considered India's "father of the nation", was a Gujarati who led the Indian Independence Movement against British colonial rule. Gujarat was formed by splitting Bombay state in 1960 on linguistic lines. From 1960 to 1995, the Indian National Congress retained power in the Gujarat Legislative Assembly while other political parties ruled for incomplete terms in the 1970s and 1990. The Bharatiya Janata Party has been in power since 1998. Early history (before 4000 BCE) The cultural history of Gujarat begins from the Middle Pleistocene. The lands of Gujarat has been continuously inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic (c. 200,000 BP) period. Several sites of Stone Age are discovered in riverbeds of Sabarmati, Mahi river and lower Narmada rivers of Gujarat. The Middle Paleolithic sites are found from Kutch, Jamnagar, Panchmahals, Hiran valley in Saurashtra and Vapi and Lavacha of Valsad district. The Upper Paleolithic period sites from Visadi, Panchmahals, Bhamaria, Kantali, Palanpur and Vavri are also explored. The Middle (c.45,000–25,000 BP) and Late Palaeolithic artifacts include hand-axes, cleavers, chopping tools, borers, points, and scrapers. The sites in Kutch and Bhadar riverbeds in Saurashtra has also yielded Stone Age tools. Bhandarpur near Orsang valley is rich in Palaeolithic tools. Some of other such sites are Hirpura, Derol, Kapadvanj, Langhnaj and Shamlaji. More than 700 sites are located in Gujarat which indicate Mesolithic/Microlithic using communities dated to 7000 BC to 2000 BCE divided in Pre-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic period. Some Mesolithic sites include Langhnaj, Kanewal, Tarsang, Dhansura, Loteshwar, Santhli, Datrana, Moti Pipli and Ambakut. The people of the Mesolithic period were nomadic hunter-gathers with some managing the herds of sheep-goat and cattle. Neolithic tools are found at Langhnaj in north Gujarat. Chalcolithic to Bronze Age (4000–1300 BCE) Total 755 chalcolithic settlements are discovered in Gujarat belonging to various traditions and cultures which ranged from 3700 BCE to 900 BCE. Total 59 of these sites are excavated while others are studied from artifacts. These traditions are closely associated with Harappan civilization and difference between them is identified by difference in ceramics and findings of microliths. These traditions and cultures include Anarta Tradition (c. 3950–1900 BCE), Padri Ware (3600–2000 BCE), Pre-Prabhas Assemblage (3200–2600 BCE), Pre Urban Harappan Sindh Type Pottery (Burial Pottery) (3000–2600 BCE), Black and Red Ware (3950–900 BCE), Reserved Slip Ware (3950–1900 BCE), Micaceous Red Ware (2600–1600 BCE). Prabhas Assemblage (2200–1700 BCE) and Lustrous Red Ware (1900–1300 BCE) are some late material cultures. The few sites associated with Malwa Ware and Jorwe Ware are also found. Gujarat has a large number of archaeological sites associated with the Indus Valley civilization. A total of 561 Classical Harappan (2600–1900 BCE) and Sorath Harappan (2600–1700 BCE) sites are reported in Gujarat. The sites in Kutch, namely, Surkotada, Desalpur, Pabumath and Dholavira are some major sites of Urban period. The sites of the post-Urban period include Lothal B, Rangpur IIC and III, Rojdi C, Kuntasi, Vagad I B, Surkotada 1C, Dholavira VI &VII. It has been noted that in Gujarat, urban cities quickly expanded rather than the slow evolution of urbanism in the northwest. During the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation, there was a migration of people from Sindh to Gujarat forming the Rangpur culture. Iron Age (1500–200 BCE) The post-Harappan culture continued at several sites. Pastoralism was also widespread and served as trade-links between the sites. There is no mention of Gujarat in Vedic literature. Bharuch was the major port town of Iron Age. Early Historic The Early Historic material culture of Gujarat include the presence of Northern Black Polished Ware, continued dominance of Black-and-Red Ware, slow introduction and later domination of Red Polished Ware, occurrence of Roman Amphorae, Rang Mahal Ware (100–300), introduction of glass and lead, followed by gradual conquest of iron, an agriculture-based economy, shell industry, development of script, rise of the urban settlements, brick structural remains, monumental buildings, international trade and development of Jainism, Buddhism, and Vaishnavism. The excavated sites of the Early Historic period include Dhatva, Jokha, Kamrej, Karvan, Bharuch, Nagal, Timbarva, Akota from South Gujarat; Nagara from central Gujarat; Vadnagar, Shamlaji, Devnimori from north Gujarat and Amreli, Vallabhi, Prabhas Patan, Padri and Dwarka from Saurashtra.Bharuch was the major port town of Iron Age. Mauryas Candragupta Maurya's rule over present-day Gujarat is attested to by the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman. Under his rule, the provincial governor Puṣyagupta, a Vaiśya, started the construction of the Sudarśana lake by damming the Suvarṇasikatā and Palāśinī rivers which flowed from Mount Ūrjayat (modern Mount Girnār). The dam was completed under the reign of Aśoka by the Yavana king Tuṣāspha. What is now Gujarat comprised two provinces, Ānarta (northern mainland Gujarat and northern Kathiawar), and Surāṣṭra (southern Kathiawar). According to the Pettavattu and Paramatthadīpanī, a ruler of Suraṭṭha, Piṅgala became a king in 283 BCE. He was converted to "Natthika diṭṭhi" (a nihilistic doctrine) by his general, Nandaka, and attempted to convert the emperor Aśoka, but was himself converted to Buddhism. According to Kauṭilya, the Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas of Surāṣṭra belong to various Śreṇīs "corporations or guilds". The Śreṇīs were devoted to the "possession of arms" or "agriculture, cattle-rearing, and trade" respectively. Indo-Greeks There was a Greek trading presence at the port of Barugaza (Bharuch), but historians are uncertain whether the Indo-Greek Kingdom ruled over Gujarat. Indo-scythians For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century CE, Saka rulers played a prominent part in Gujarat's history. Weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the Ruler Rudradaman I (100 CE) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to Aparanta region which bordered Punjab. In Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps and conquered some parts of Gujarat in the 2nd century CE. Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE – 1297 CE) Guptas and Maitrakas The Gupta Emperor Samudragupta defeated the Indo-Scythian rulers in battle and had then admit their submission to him. Samudragupta's successor, Chandragupta II, finally conquered the Western Satraps and occupied Gujarat. Chandragupta II assumed the title of "Vikramaditya", in celebration of his victory over the Western Satraps. During the Gupta reign, villagers and peasants were put into forced labour by the Gupta army and officials. During the reign of Skandagupta, Cakrapālita was the governor of Surāṣṭra. Towards the middle of the 5th century the Gupta empire started to decline. Senapati Bhatarka, the Maitraka general of the Guptas, took advantage of the situation and in 470 CE he set up what came to be known as the Maitraka state. He shifted his capital from Girinagar to Valabhipur, near Bhavnagar, on Saurashtra's east coast. Maitrakas of Vallabhi became very powerful and their rule prevailed over large parts of Gujarat and even over adjoining Malwa. Maitrakas set up a university which came to be known far and wide for its scholastic pursuits and was compared with the famous Nalanda university. It was during the rule of Dhruvasena Maitrak that Chinese philosopher-traveler Xuanzang visited in 640 CE. Gurjara-Pratihara Empire In the early 8th century some parts of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Chalukya dynasty. In the early 8th century the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate established an Empire which stretched from Spain in the west to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. The Arab rulers tried to expand their Empire in the 8th century and invaded Gujarat but the Arab invaders were defeated by the Chalukya general Pulakeshin. After this victory the Arab invaders were driven out of Gujarat. Pulakeshin received the title Avanijanashraya (refuge of the people of the earth) by Vikramaditya II for the protection of Gujarat. In the late 8th century the Kannauj Triangle period started. The 3 major Indian dynasties the northwest Indian Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty and the east Indian Pala Empire dominated India from the 8th to 10th century. During this period the northern part of Gujarat was ruled by the north Indian Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty and the southern part of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Southern Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta dynasty until it was captured by the south Indian ruler Tailapa II of the Western Chalukya Empire. Chaulukya Kingdom The Chaulukya dynasty ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. After 1243, the Chaulukyas lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan. Karna of the Vaghela dynasty was the last Hindu ruler of Gujarat. He was defeated and overthrown by the superior forces of Alauddin Khalji from Delhi in 1297. With his defeat Gujarat not only became part of the Delhi Sultanate but the Rajput hold over Gujarat lost forever. Delhi Sultanate (1297–1407) Before 1300, Muslims had little presence in Gujarat. The occasional was mainly either as sea-farers or traders coming from Arabian Sea. They were allowed to establish two small settlements in Cambay (now Khambhat) and Bharuch. Gujarat finally fell under Delhi Sultanate following repeated expeditions under Alauddin Khalji around the end of the 13th century. He ended the rule of Vaghela dynasty under Karna II and established Muslim rule in Gujarat. Soon the Tughluq dynasty came to power in Delhi whose emperor carried out expeditions to quell rebellion in Gujarat and established their firm control over the region by the end of the 14th century. Gujarat Sultanate (1407–1535) Following Timur's invasion of Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate weakened considerably so the last Tughluq governor Zafar Khan declared himself independent in 1407 and formally established Gujarat Sultanate. The next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I founded the new capital Ahmedabad in 1411. The prosperity of the sultanate reached its zenith during the rule of Mahmud Begada. He subdued most of the Rajput chieftains and built navy off the coast of Diu. In 1509, the Portuguese wrested Diu from Gujarat sultanate following the Battle of Diu (1509). In 1520 Rana Sanga of Mewar invaded Gujarat with his powerful Rajput confederacy of 52,000 Rajputs supported by his three vassals. Rao Ganga Rathore of Marwar too joined him with Garrison of 8,000 Rajputs, other allies of Rana were Rawal Udai Singh of Vagad and Rao Viram deva of Merta. He defeated the Muslim army of Nizam khan and chased them as far as Ahmedabad. Sanga call off his invasion 20 miles before reaching the capital city of Ahmedabad. He plundered the royal treasuries of Gujarat. Sanga successfully annexed Northern Gujarat and appointed one of his vassals to rule there. Mughal emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535 and thereafter Bahadur Shah was killed by the Portuguese while making a deal in 1537. The decline of the Sultanate started with the assassination of Sikandar Shah in 1526. The end of the sultanate came in 1573, when Akbar annexed Gujarat in his empire. The last ruler Muzaffar Shah III was taken prisoner to Agra. In 1583, he escaped from the prison and with the help of the nobles succeeded to regain the throne for a short period before being defeated by Akbar's general Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana. Mughal Era (1535–1756) Akbar (1542–1605) set out on his first campaign of Gujarat from Fatehpur Sikri on 2 July 1572 arriving in Ahmedabad on 20 November 1572. He then reorganized the government of Ahmedabad under the charge of his foster brother Mirza Aziz Koka, the Khan-i-Azam and quelled the rebellion led by the Mirzas by laying siege to the castle of Surat. Akbar then embarked on a second campaign of Gujarat on 23 August 1573 to assist Mirza Aziz Koka against a rebellion from the combined forces of Muhammad Husain Mirza and Ikhtiyar-ul-Mulk. Following Akbar's second campaign, Gujarat was organized into a province (subah) of the Mughal Empire governed by viceroys (subahdars or nazims) responsible for the executive and military branches as well as treasurers (diwans) responsible for the financial branch. Gujarati ports with significant trade and financial importance now came into the possession of the Mughal Empire and were organized as special districts directly under the authority of the Delhi government. Under Jahangir (1605–1627) and following the advent of the British East India Company, Surat gained importance as a center of oceanic trade between India and Europe; a factory was established there in 1612. The nobles of the former Sultanate and the Hindu chiefs that rebelled and protested were subdued by the viceroys and officers of the Mughal Empire. Under Shah Jahan (1627–1658), Ahmedabad saw an exodus resulting from officials extracting money from citizens—both the rich and the poor—without the royal permission. Viceroys under Shah Jahan saw to expansion efforts south, taking up of arms against the incursions from the Koli and Kathi tribes, and the implementation of a hardline stance on collection of tribute from the Rajput chiefs of Saurashtra. The reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was characterized by incidents of drawn-out conflict and religious disputes. As a viceroy, he had previously converted the Chintamani Jain temple at Saraspur into a mosque. His rule included enforcement of Islamic laws, discriminatory laws and taxes against Hindu merchants, and a capitation tax on all non-Muslims. Aurangzeb's viceroys retaliated against the Khachars and other Kathi tribes, destroyed the Temple of the Sun while attacking and storming the fort of Than, razed the Temple at Vadnagar, and engaged in a drawn out conflict with the Rathores of Marwar. During the next three emperors (1707–1719) who had brief reigns, the nobles became more powerful due to instability in the Delhi. The royals of Marwar were appointed viceroys frequently. During the reign of the emperor Muhammad Shah, the struggle between the Mughal and Maratha nobles were heightened with frequent battles and incursions. Maratha Era (1718–1819) When the cracks had started to develop in the edifice of the Mughal empire in the mid-17th century, the Marathas were consolidating their power in the west, Chhatrapati Shivaji, the great Maratha ruler, attacked Surat twice first in 1664 and again in 1672. These attacks marked the entry of the Marathas into Gujarat. Later, in the 17th century and early 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire. Most notably, from 1705 to 1716, Senapati Khanderao Dabhade led the Maratha Empire forces in Baroda. Pilaji Gaekwad, first ruler of Gaekwad dynasty, established the control over Baroda and other parts of Gujarat. Starting with Bajirao I in the 1720s, the Peshwas based in Pune established their sovereignty over Gujarat including Saurashtra. After the death of Bajirao I, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao removed the control the Dabhades and Kadam Bande from Gujarat. Balaji Bajirao collected taxes through Damaji Gaekwad. Damaji established the sway of Gaekwad over Gujarat and made Vadodara his capital. The Marathas continued to grow their hold and the frequent change of viceroys did not reverse the trend. The competing houses of Marathas, Gaikwars and Peshwas engaged between themselves which slow down their progress for a while. They later made peace between themselves. During the reign of the next emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748–1754), there was nominal control over the nobles who acted on their own. There were frequent fights between themselves and with Marathas. Ahmedabad, the capital of province, fell to the Marathas in 1752. It was regained by noble Momin Khan for a short time but again lost to the Marathas in 1756 after a long siege. Finding opportunity, the British captured Surat in 1759. After a setback at Panipat in 1761, the Marathas strengthened their hold on Gujarat, especially during the reign of Madhavrao. Maratha control of Gujarat slowly waned in the 1780s and 1790s due to rivalries between different ruling Maratha houses as well within the Peshwa family. The British East India Company fully exploited this situation to expand its control of Gujarat and other Maratha territories. The company also embarked upon its policy of Subsidiary Alliance. With this policy they established their paramountcy over one indigenous state after another. Anandrao Gaekwad joined the Alliance in 1802 and surrendered Surat and adjoining territories to the company. In the garb of helping the Marathas, the British helped themselves, and gradually the Marathas' power came to an end, in 1819 in Gujarat. Gaekwad and other big and small rulers accepted the British Paramountcy. Early trade with Europeans In the 1600s, the Dutch, French, English and Portuguese all established bases along the western coast of the region. Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, and after the Battle of Diu and Treaty of Bassein, acquired several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu as well as Dadra and Nagar Haveli. These enclaves were administered by Portuguese India under a single union territory for over 450 years, only to be later incorporated into the Republic of India on 19 December 1961 by military conquest. The English East India Company established a factory in Surat in 1614, following the commercial treaty made with Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay after the English received it from Portugal in 1668 as part of the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal. The state was an early point of contact with the west, and the first English commercial outpost in India was in Gujarat.17th-century French explorer François Pyrard de Laval, who is remembered for his 10-year sojourn in South Asia, bears witness accounts that the Gujaratis were always prepared to learn workmanship from the Portuguese, also in turn imparting skills to the Portuguese: British Era (1819–1947 CE) The East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1802–1803. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwad Maharajas of Vadodara, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira (Kheda), Panchmahal and Surat, were governed directly by British officials. In 1812, an epidemic outbreak killed and wiped out half the population of Gujarat. Indian Independence Movement See Also: Freedom fighters from Gujarat The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. It was also the site of the most popular revolts, including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha. Post-Independence (1947 CE – present) 1947–1960 After Indian independence and the Partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Mahagujarat Movement led by Indulal Yagnik demanded splitting of Bombay state on linguistic lines. On 1 May 1960, Bombay state bifurcated into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad. Kutch was hit by the earthquake in 1956 which destroyed major parts of Anjar town. Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar were refugee settlements established for the resettlement of Sindhi Hindu refugees arriving from Pakistan after partition. 1960–1973 Members of legislative assembly were elected from 132 constituencies of newly formed Gujarat state. Indian National Congress (INC) won the majority and Jivraj Narayan Mehta became the first chief minister of Gujarat. He served until 1963. Balwantrai Mehta succeed him. During Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Mehta flew on aircraft to inspect Kutch border between India and Pakistan. The aircraft was shot down by Pakistan Air Force. Mehta was killed in the crash. Hitendra Kanaiyalal Desai succeeded him and won assembly elections. In 1969, Indian National Congress split into Congress (O) headed by Morarji Desai and Congress (I) headed by Indira Gandhi. At the same time, the Hindu nationalist organization Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had established itself deeply in Gujarat around this period. The riots broke out across Gujarat in September to October 1969, resulting in large number of casualties and damage to properties. Desai resigned in 1971 due to split of INC and President's rule was imposed in Gujarat. Later Ghanshyam Oza became chief minister when Indira Gandhi led Congress (I) won majority in parliament after 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. Chimanbhai Patel opposed Oza and became chief minister in 1972. The capital of Gujarat moved from Ahmedabad to Gandhinagar in 1971 but legislative assembly building was completed in 1982. 1974–2000 Navnirman Andolan, the "Navnirman movement" started in December 1973 due to price rise and corruption in public life. People demanded resignation of Chief Minister Patel. Due to pressure of protests, Indira Gandhi asked Patel to step down. He resigned on 9 February 1974 and President's rule imposed. The governor suspended the state assembly and President's rule was imposed. Opposition parties led stepped in with demand for dissolution of state assembly. Congress had 140 out of 167 MLAs in state assembly. 15 Congress (O) and three Jan Sangh MLAs also resigned. By March, protesters had got 95 of 167 to resign. Morarji Desai, leader of Congress (O), went on an indefinite fast in March and the assembly was dissolved bringing end to agitation. No fresh election held until Morarji Desai went on indefinite hunger strike in April 1975. The fresh elections were held in June 1975. Chimanbhai Patel formed new party named Kisan Mazdoor Lok Paksh and contested on his own. Congress lost elections which won only 75 seats. Coalition of Congress (O), Jan Sangh, PSP and Lok Dal known as Janata Morcha won 88 seats and Babubhai J. Patel became Chief Minister. Indira Gandhi imposed the emergency in 1975. Janata Morcha government lasted nine months and president's rule imposed in March 1976 following failure of passage of budget in assembly to opposition of coalition partners. Later Congress won elections in December 1976 and Madhav Singh Solanki became Chief Minister. A year later Madhav Singh Solanki resigned and again Babubhai Patel led Janata Party formed the government. He shifted his cabinet to Morbi for six months during 1979 Machchhu dam failure disaster which resulted in large casualties. Janata Morcha government was dismissed and president's rule was imposed in 1980 even though it had majority. Later Madhav Singh Solanki led INC won the election in 1980 and formed the government which completed five years in office. Amarsinh Chaudhary succeeded him in 1985 and headed government till 1989. Solanki again became chief minister until INC lost in 1990 election following Mandal commission protests. Chimanbhai Patel came back to power in March 1990 as the head of a Janata Dal -Bharatiya Janata Party coalition government. Coalition broke just few months after in October 1990 but Chimanbhai Patel managed to retain majority with support of 34 INC legislatures. Later Patel joined the INC and continued till his death in February 1994. Chhabildas Mehta succeeded him and continued till March 1995. In 1994 plague endemic broke out in Surat resulting in 52 deaths. Following the rise of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) at centre, Keshubhai Patel led BJP won in 1995 assembly election. Keshubhai Patel became the chief minister of Gujarat in March but resigned eight months later as his colleague Shankersinh Vaghela revolted against him. BJP was split as Rashtriya Janata Party was formed by Vaghela who became the Chief Minister by support of INC. Assembly was dissolved in 1998 as INC withdrew its support. BJP returned to power led by Patel in 1998 assembly elections and he became the chief minister again. In 1998, a severe tropical cyclone hit Kandla port and Saurashtra and Kutch regions. 2000–present Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on 26 January 2001 which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives, injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40 million of the population. Patel resigned as chief minister in October 2001 due to his failing health. Allegations of abuse of power, corruption and poor administration; as well as a loss of BJP seats in by-elections and mismanagement of relief works during the aftermath of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake; prompted the BJP's national leadership to seek a new candidate for the office of chief minister. He was replaced by Narendra Modi. The Gujarat Riots of 2002, was a three-day period of inter-communal violence in Gujarat between the Hindus and Muslims, characterized by mass murder, loot, rape, and destruction of property, affecting thousands of people, mostly Muslims. Though officially classified as a communalist riot, the events of 2002 have been described as a pogrom by many scholars. Scholars studying the 2002 riots state that they were premeditated and constituted a form of ethnic cleansing, and that the state government and law enforcement were complicit in the violence that occurred. However, Special Investigation Team (SIT) appointed by the Supreme Court of India, rejected claims that the state government had not done enough to prevent the riots. In September 2002, there was a terrorist attack on Akshardham temple complex at Gandhinagar. Modi led BJP won December 2002 election with majority. In 2005 and 2006, Gujarat was affected by floods. In July 2008, a series of 21 bomb blasts hit Ahmedabad, within a span of 70 minutes. 56 people were killed and over 200 people were injured in the attack. 2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak resulted in 49 deaths. In July 2009, more than 130 people died in hooch tragedy. In 2006, Gujarat became the first state in India to electrify all villages of the state. Narendra Modi led BJP retained power in 2007 and 2012 assembly elections. Anandiben Patel became the first women Chief Minister of Gujarat on 22 May 2014 as Modi left the position following win in 2014 Indian general election. He was sworn in as the second Prime Minister of Gujarati origin after Morarji Desai in May 2014. Heavy rain in June and July 2015 resulted in widespread flooding in Saurashtra and north Gujarat resulting in more than 150 deaths. The wild life of Gir Forest National Park and adjoining area was also affected. Starting July 2015, the people of Patidar community carried out demonstrations across the state seeking Other Backward Class status which turned violent on 25 August and 19 September 2015 for brief period. The agitation continued and again turned violent in April 2016. In late 2016, Dalits protested across Gujarat in response to an assault on Dalit men in Una. Following heavy rain in July 2017, the state, especially north Gujarat, was affected by the severe flood resulting in more than 200 deaths. In October 2018, a rape incident had triggered the attacks on the Hindi-speaking migrants in Gujarat leading to exodus. In 2019, Vadodara was flooded while there was a fire in a commercial complex at Surat causing death of 22 children. During COVID-19 pandemic, more than 1,00,000 cases and 3100 deaths were reported in Gujarat between March and September 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gujarats coronavirus caseload crosses one lakh mark|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/gujarats-coronavirus-caseload-crosses-one-lakh-mark/1928877|access-date=2020-09-04|website=outlookindia.com}}</ref> In 2020, the industrial explosions at Dahej and Ahmedabad resulted in five and twelve deaths respectively. The Narendra Modi Stadium of Motera became the world's largest stadium following the renovation in 2021. Notes References Bibliography Further reading Edalji Dosabhai. A History of Gujarat (1986) 379 pp. full text online free Padmanābha, ., & Bhatnagar, V. S. (1991). Kanhadade Prabandha: India's greatest patriotic saga of medieval times : Padmanābha's epic account of Kānhaḍade. New Delhi: Voice of India. Yazdani, Kaveh. India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.'' (Leiden: Brill, 2017. 669 pp. online review

4161538

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places%20listings%20in%20Shiawassee%20County%2C%20Michigan

National Register of Historic Places listings in Shiawassee County, Michigan

The following is a list of Registered Historic Places in Shiawassee County, Michigan. |} See also List of Michigan State Historic Sites in Shiawassee County, Michigan List of National Historic Landmarks in Michigan National Register of Historic Places listings in Michigan Listings in neighboring counties: Clinton, Genesee, Gratiot, Ingham, Livingston, Saginaw References Shiawassee County Shiawassee County, Michigan

4336688

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceca%20%28singer%29

Ceca (singer)

Svetlana Ražnatović ( Veličković; ; ; born 14 June 1973), better known by her stage name Ceca (, ), is a Serbian singer, convicted criminal and the second wife of the alleged war criminal Arkan. Born in Prokuplje and raised in Žitorađa, she made her recording debut in 1988 and has to date released sixteen studio albums. Ceca has been dubbed the "Serbian Mother" (Srpska majka). With sales of around 7 million records, she is recognized as one of the commercially most successful Serbian artists of all time. Her 2013 solo concert, held during her Poziv Tour in Ušće, Belgrade was reportedly attended by 150,000 people, making it one of the highest-attended concerts in the world. In 2023, Ražnatović also became the youngest recipient of the Life Achievement Award at the Serbian Folk Music Assembly. Between 1995 and 2000, Ceca was married to Željko Ražnatović 'Arkan', with whom she has two children. In 2011, Ražnatović was convicted of embezzlement and illegal firearm possession; she was fined with 1,5 million euros and to a one year in house arrest. Life and career Veličković was born on 14 June 1973 in Prokuplje and raised in the nearby village of Žitorađa. She graduated from the high school of agriculture, studying pig farming. Veličković pursued a professional career in music as a child after she had been discovered by Serbian accordion instrumentalist and songwriter Mirko Kodić, who took her to Belgrade where she made her recording debut. Ceca rose to prominence by competing at the Ilidža Folk Music Festival with the song "Cvetak zanovetak", receiving the first award for a debut performance. Her first studio album of the same title was released in 1988 under PGP-RTB. In the following years, Ceca released three more records in succession: Ludo srce (1989), Pustite me da ga vidim (1990) and Babaroga (1991). In 1993, Ceca released her fifth album, Kukavica, through JV Komerc, on which she began collaborating with the songwriting duo Marina Tucaković and Milan Radulović. The record saw great commercial success, whilst the title track has become one of her signature hits. Following the album's release, Ražnatović held her first solo concert at the Tašmajdan Center in Belgrade. Kukavica was followed by the albums Ja još spavam u tvojoj majici (1994) and Fatalna ljubav (1995), which included stand-out hits like: "Volela sam te", "Nije monotoija", "Idi dok si mlad", "Tražio si sve" and "Beograd". To promote Fatalna ljubav Ceca had a live show at Hala Pionir. In 1996, Ražnatović released Emotivna luda under Komuna. Same year she starred as Koštana in the film adaptation of the Borisav Stanković's novel Impure Blood. However, her scenes were eventually excluded from the movie due to poor critical reception. The scenes were later included to the television series Tajne nečiste krvi, which broadcast in the beginning of 2012. Ceca renewed her collaboration with PGP-RTS to release Maskarada in 1997. Her tenth studio album, Ceca 2000, was subsequently released in December 1999. These two records produced popular songs like "Maskarada", "Nevaljala" and "Crveno". Following the death of her husband in 2000, Ceca took a break from music. She returned to the scene in 2001 with the album Decenija, released under Grand Production. It saw commercial success, becoming her highest-selling album to date. To promote Decenija she embarked on a European tour, which ended with the concert at the Marakana Stadium in Belgrade on June 15, 2002, where she performed to 70.000 people. The album was followed by Gore od ljubavi and Idealno loša in May 2004 and June 2006, respectively. On 17 June 2006, Ceca held a solo live show in Ušće, Belgrade. In June 2011, she released Ljubav živi under Miligram Music, which was sold in 150,000 copies. After she had served her detention for financial fraud and illegal firearm possession between 2011 and 2012, Ceca released her fifteenth studio album, Poziv, through City Records in June 2013. It spawned hit-songs like "Da raskinem sa njom", "Ime i prezime" and "Turbolentno". The album was sold in over 100,000 units. Poziv was promoted with another concert in Ušće Park on the Vidovdan 2013. According to Ceca's management Ušće 2 attracted 150,000 people, making it one of the highest-attended concerts by a solo artist in the world. Same year, Ražnatović also performed at the New Year's Eve concert in front of the House of the National Assembly in Belgrade. In June 2016, she independently released Autogram under Ceca Music. It featured popular songs like the title track, "Trepni" and "Metar odavde". Autogram circulated in 150,000 copies. She has served as a judge on the televised singing competitions Pinkove Zvezde (2014–2016) and Zvezde Granda (2021–present). In October 2022, Ceca's reality television show, titled Ceca Show: Ceca i deca, also began airing on Blic TV. Personal life Marriage and motherhood While performing for Serbian soldiers at a military camp in Erdut during the Yugoslav wars in 1993, Ceca was introduced by singer Oliver Mandić to war criminal, paramilitary commander and politician, Željko "Arkan" Ražnatović. They got married on 19 February 1995. Their wedding, which was broadcast internationally, was portrayed as the "Serbian fairytale" by the local media. The wedding video was later also released on a VHS tape. The couple has two children, Veljko Ražnatović (born 1996) and Anastasija (born 1998). Arkan was assassinated on 15 January 2000. Legal issues Following the assassination of Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić in March 2003, Ražnatović was arrested under suspicion of harboring the leaders of the Zemun Clan in her house, and subsequently spent 121 days in commitment. Due to lack of evidence she was ultimately released of the charge, however, the investigation raised suspicion of Ceca's illegal firearm possession as well as of embezzlement from transfers of her husband's football club, FK Obilić, between 2000 and 2003. After eight years of investigation, in March 2011, a criminal charge was filled against Ražnatović by Serbian state prosecutors under suspicion of illegal appropriation of 4 million Deutsche Marks and over 3 million US dollars from FK Obilić player transfers, as well as for illegal possession of 11 machine guns. Ceca, who took over the club after Arkan's murder, had argued that the deals were maintained by her late husband, and that the guns also belonged to him. In June 2011, Ražnatović, who had pleaded guilty, was charged for embezzlement and illegal firearm possession, and sentenced with 1,5 million euros in fine and to a year in house arrest. In February the following year, she finished serving her detention, which was eventually reduced to eight months. Moreover, due to her past legal issues, Ražnatović is officially banned from entering Croatia, being proclaimed persona non grata. Politics Ceca was involved in politics by serving as the honorary president of the Party of Serbian Unity before Arkan was assassinated. Since her husband's passing, Ražnatović has maintained ties with Serbian politicians Ivica Dačić, who was also born in Žitorađa, and Dragan Marković, who was Arkan's former business associate. Ražnatović has publicly endorsed Aleksandar Vučić since the 2017 Serbian presidential election. In January 2019, Ceca, alongside President Vučić, representatives of the Serbian Government and Patriarch Irinej, was at the official welcoming party for Vladimir Putin at the plateau of Church of Saint Sava. Ražnatović has also maintained close ties with Bosnian Serb politician Milorad Dodik and has publicly endorsed him and his party SNSD. In June 2021, according to the reports of Insajder, Ceca was flown in from Belgrade by the Government-owned helicopter to Dodik's hometown of Laktaši in Republika Srpska to attend a private wedding party. In July 2021, CNN's affiliate in the Southeastern Europe, N1, aired an episode about Ceca as a part of the documentary series Junaci doba zlog (Heroes of the Evil Age), which discussed her involvement in politics throughout the years. Before its premiere, Ražnatović threatened the creators with legal consequences in order to "protect her own reputation and work", unless they fulfil her request to not air the episode. The documentary episode was briefly taken off YouTube on the behalf of Ceca Music for copyright infringement. Discography Studio albums Cvetak zanovetak (1988) Ludo srce (1989) Pustite me da ga vidim (1990) Babaroga (1991) Šta je to u tvojim venama (1993) Ja još spavam u tvojoj majici (1994) Fatalna ljubav (1995) Emotivna luda (1996) Maskarada (1997) Ceca 2000 (1999) Decenija (2001) Gore od ljubavi (2004) Idealno loša (2006) Ljubav živi (2011) Poziv (2013) Autogram (2016) Filmography Television performances Tajna nečiste krvi (2012); as Koštana Pinkove Zvezde (2014-2016); as a judge Zvezde Granda (2021-present); as a judge and mentor Ceca Show: Ceca & Deca (2022-present) Tours Šta je to u tvojim venama Tour (1993) Ceca Tour '94 (1994) Fatalna ljubav Tour (1995) Decenija Tour (2002) Ceca Tour '05 (2005) Grom Tour (2006-10) Ljubav živi World Tour (2012-13) Poziv Tour (2013-16) Autogram Tour (2016-20) The best of Ceca Tour (2021) References External links Official website (partial archive) "Arkan & Me", The Observer interview dated 4 January 2004 1973 births Living people People from Žitorađa 20th-century Serbian women singers 21st-century Serbian women singers Serbian turbo-folk singers Serbian folk-pop singers

4741

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonne

Bayonne

Bayonne (; ; ; ) is a city in Southwestern France near the Spanish border. It is a commune and one of two subprefectures in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Bayonne is located at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers in the northern part of the cultural region of the Basque Country. It is the seat of the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque which roughly encompasses the western half of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, including the coastal city of Biarritz. This area also constitutes the southern part of Gascony, where the Aquitaine Basin joins the beginning of the Pre-Pyrenees. Together with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, as well as several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 273,137 inhabitants at the 2018 census; 51,411 residents lived in the commune of Bayonne proper. It is also a part of Basque Eurocity Bayonne-San Sebastián. The site on the left bank of the Nive and the Adour was probably occupied before ancient times; a fortified enclosure was attested in the 1st century at the time when the Tarbelli occupied the territory. Archaeological studies have confirmed the presence of a Roman castrum, a stronghold in Novempopulania at the end of the 4th century, before the city was populated by the Vascones. In 1023, Bayonne was the capital of Labourd. In the 12th century, it extended to the confluence and beyond of the Nive River. At that time the first bridge was built over the Adour. The city came under the domination of the English in 1152 through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine: it became militarily and, above all, commercially important thanks to maritime trade. In 1177, Richard the Lion Heart of England took control of it, separating it from the Viscount of Labourd. In 1451, the city was taken by the Crown of France after the Hundred Years' War. The loss of trade with the English was followed by the river gradually filling with silt and becoming impassable to ships. As the city developed to the north, its position was weakened compared to earlier times. The district of Saint-Esprit developed initially from settlement by Sephardic Jewish refugees fleeing the Spanish expulsions dictated by the Alhambra Decree. This community brought skill in chocolate making, and Bayonne gained a reputation for chocolate. The course of the Adour was changed in 1578 by dredging under the direction of Louis de Foix, and the river returned to its former mouth. Bayonne flourished after regaining the maritime trade that it had lost for more than a hundred years. In the 17th century the city was fortified by Vauban, whose works were followed as models of defense for 100 years. In 1814, Bayonne and its surroundings were the scene of fighting between the Napoleonic troops and the Spanish-Anglo-Portuguese coalition led by the Duke of Wellington. It was the last time the city was under siege. In 1951, the Lacq gas field was discovered in the region; its extracted sulphur and associated oil are shipped from the port of Bayonne. During the second half of the 20th century, many housing estates were built, forming new districts on the periphery. The city developed to form a conurbation with Anglet and Biarritz: this agglomeration became the heart of a vast Basque-Landes urban area. In 2014, Bayonne was a commune with more than 45,000 inhabitants, the heart of the urban area of Bayonne and of the Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour. This includes Anglet and Biarritz. It is an important part of the Basque Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity and it plays the role of economic capital of the Adour basin. Modern industry—metallurgy and chemicals—have been established to take advantage of procurement opportunities and sea shipments through the harbour. Business services today represent the largest source of employment. Bayonne is also a cultural capital, a city with strong Basque and Gascon influences, and a rich historical past. Its heritage is expressed in its architecture, the diversity of collections in museums, its gastronomic specialties, and traditional events such as the noted Fêtes de Bayonne. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Bayonnais or Bayonnaises. Toponymy Etymology While the modern Basque spelling is Baiona and the same in Gascon Occitan, "the name Bayonne poses a number of problems both historical and linguistic which have still not been clarified". There are different interpretations of its meaning. The termination -onne in Bayonne can come from many in hydronyms -onne or toponyms derived from that. In certain cases the element -onne follows an Indo-European theme: *ud-r/n (Greek húdōr giving hydro, Gothic watt meaning "water") hence *udnā meaning "water" giving unna then onno in the glossary of Vienne. Unna therefore would refer to the Adour. This toponymic type evoking a river traversing a locality is common. The appellative unna seems to be found in the name of the Garonne (Garunna 1st century; Garonna 4th century). However it is possible to see a pre-Celtic suffix -ona in the name of the Charente (Karantona in 875) or the Charentonne (Carentona in 1050). It could also be an augmentative Gascon from the original Latin radical Baia- with the suffix -ona in the sense of "vast expanse of water" or a name derived from the Basque bai meaning "river" and ona meaning "good", hence "good river". The proposal by Eugene Goyheneche repeated by Manex Goyhenetche and supported by Jean-Baptiste Orpustan is bai una, "the place of the river" or bai ona "hill by the river"—Ibai means "river" in Basque and muinoa means "hill". "It has perhaps been lost from sight that many urban place names in France, from north to south, came from the element Bay- or Bayon- such as: Bayons, Bayonville, Bayonvillers and pose the unusual problem of whether they are Basque or Gascon" adds Pierre Hourmat. However, the most ancient form of Bayonne: Baiona, clearly indicates a feminine or a theme of -a whereas this is not the case for Béon or Bayon. In addition, the Bayon- in Bayonville or Bayonvillers in northern France is clearly the personal Germanic name Baio. Old attestations The names of the Basque province of Labourd and the locality of Bayonne have been attested from an early period with the place name Bayonne appearing in the Latin form Lapurdum after a period during which the two names could in turn designate a Viscounty or Bishopric. Labourd and Bayonne were synonymous and used interchangeably until the 12th century before being differentiated: Labord for the province and Bayonne for the city. The attribution of Bayonne as Civitas Boatium, a place mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary and by Paul Raymond in his 1863 dictionary, has been abandoned. The city of the Boïates may possibly be La Teste-de-Buch but is certainly not Bayonne. The following table details the origins of Labord, Bayonne, and other names in the commune. Sources: Raymond: Topographic Dictionary of the Department of Basses-Pyrenees, 1863, on the page numbers indicated in the table. Goyheneche: according to the Notitia Dignitatum Imperii dating from 340 to 420 Guiart: Guillaume Guiart, around 1864 Lhande: Basque-French Dictionary by Pierre Lhande, 1926. Cassini 1750: 1750 Cassini Map Cassini 1790: 1790 Cassini Map Origins: Chapter: Titles of the Chapter of Bayonne Cartulary: Cartulary of Bayonne or Livre d'Or (Book of Gold) Camara: Chapters of the Camara de Comptos. History Prehistory In the absence of accurate objective data there is some credence to the probable existence of a fishing village on the site in a period prior to ancient times. Numerous traces of human occupation have been found in the Bayonne region from the Middle Paleolithic especially in the discoveries at Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, a neighbouring locality. On the other hand, the presence of a mound about high has been detected in the current Cathedral Quarter overlooking the Nive which formed a natural protection and a usable port on the left bank of the Nive. At the time the mound was surrounded north and west by the Adour swamps. At its foot lies the famous "Bayonne Sea"—the junction of the two rivers—which may have been about wide between Saint-Esprit and the Grand Bayonne and totally covered the current location of Bourg-Neuf (in the district of Petit Bayonne). To the south the last bend of the Nive widens near the Saint-Léon hills. Despite this, the narrowing of the Adour valley allows easier crossing than anywhere else along the entire length of the estuary. In conclusion, the strategic importance of this height was so obvious it must be presumed that it has always been inhabited. Ancient times The oldest documented human occupation site is located on a hill overlooking the Nive and its confluence with the Adour. In the 1st century AD, during the Roman occupation, Bayonne already seems to have been of some importance since the Romans surrounded the city with a wall to keep out the Tarbelli, Aquitani, or the proto-Basque who then occupied a territory that extended south of modern-day Landes, to the modern French Basque country, the Chalosse, the valleys of the Adour, the mountain streams of Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and to the Gave d'Oloron. The archaeological discoveries of October and November 1995 provided a shred of evidence to support this projection. In the four layers of sub-soil along the foundation of the Gothic cathedral (in the "apse of the cathedral" area) a 2-metre depth was found of old objects from the end of the 1st century—in particular sigillated Gallic ceramics from Montans imitating Italian styles, thin-walled bowls, and fragments of amphorae. In the "southern sector" near the cloister door there were objects from the second half of the 1st century as well as coins from the first half of the 3rd century. A very high probability of human presence, not solely military, seems to provisionally confirm the occupation of the site at least around the third century. A Roman castrum dating to the end of the 4th century has been proven as a fortified place of Novempopulania. Named Lapurdum, the name became the name of the province of Labourd. According to Eugene Goyheneche the name Baiona designated the city, the port, and the cathedral while that of Lapurdum was only a territorial designation. This Roman settlement was strategic as it allowed the monitoring of the trans-Pyrenean roads and of local people rebellious to the Roman power. The construction covered 6 to 10 hectares according to several authors. Middle Ages The geographical location of the locality at the crossroads of a river system oriented from east to west and the road network connecting Europe to the Iberian Peninsula from north to south predisposed the site to the double role of fortress and port. The city, after being Roman, alternated between the Vascones and the English for three centuries from the 12th to the 15th century. The Romans left the city in the 4th century and the Basques, who had always been present, dominated the former Novempopulania province between the Garonne, the Ocean, and the Pyrénées. Novempopulania was renamed Vasconia and then Gascony after a Germanic deformation (resulting from the Visigoth and Frankish invasions). Basquisation of the plains region was too weak against the advance of romanization. From the mixture between the Basque and Latin language Gascon was created. Documentation on Bayonne for the period from the High Middle Ages are virtually nonexistent. with the exception of two Norman intrusions: one questionable in 844 and a second attested in 892. When Labourd was created in 1023 Bayonne was the capital and the Viscount resided there. The history of Bayonne proper started in 1056 when Raymond II the Younger, Bishop of Bazas, had the mission to build the Church of Bayonne The construction was under the authority of Raymond III of Martres, Bishop of Bayonne from 1122 to 1125, combined with Viscount Bertrand for the Romanesque cathedral, the rear of which can still be seen today, and the first wooden bridge across the Adour extending the Mayou bridge over the Nive, which inaugurated the heyday of Bayonne. From 1120 new districts were created under population pressure. The development of areas between the old Roman city of Grand Bayonne and the Nive also developed during this period, then between the Nive and the Adour at the place that became Petit Bayonne. A Dominican Order Convent was located there in 1225 then that of the Cordeliers in 1247. Construction of and modifications to the defences of the city also developed to protect the new districts. In 1130, the King of Aragon Alfonso the Battler besieged the city without success. Bayonne came under English rule when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. This alliance gave Bayonne many commercial privileges. The Bayonnaises became carriers of Bordeaux wines and other south-western products like resin, ham, and woad to England. Bayonne was then an important military base. In 1177, King Richard separated the Viscounty of Labourd whose capital then became Ustaritz. Like many cities at the time, in 1215 Bayonne obtained the award of a municipal charter and was emancipated from feudal powers. The official publication in 1273 of a Coutume unique to the city, remained in force for five centuries until the separation of Bayonne from Labourd. Bayonnaise industry at that time was dominated by shipbuilding: wood (oak, beech, chestnut from the Pyrenees, and pine from Landes) being overabundant. There was also maritime activity in providing crews for whaling, commercial marine or, and it was often so at a time when it was easy to turn any merchant ship into a warship, the English Royal Navy. Renaissance and modern times Jean de Dunois – a former companion at arms of Joan of Arc—captured the city on 20 August 1451 and annexed it to the Crown "without making too many victims", but at the cost of a war indemnity of 40,000 gold Écus payable in a year,—thanks to the opportunism of the bishop who claimed to have seen "a large white cross surmounted by a crown which turns into a fleur-de-lis in the sky" to dissuade Bayonne from fighting against the royal troops. The city continued to be fortified by the kings of France to protect it from danger from the Spanish border. In 1454, Charles VII created a separate judicial district: the Seneschal of Lannes a "single subdivision of Guyenne during the English period" which had jurisdiction over a wide area including Bayonne, Dax and Saint-Sever and which exercised civil justice, criminal jurisdiction within the competence of the district councilors. Over time, the "Seneschal of the Sword" which was at Dax lost any role other than protocol and Bayonne, along with Dax and Saint-Sever, became the de facto seat of a separate Seneschal under the authority of a "lieutenant-general of the Seneschal". In May 1462 King Louis XI authorized the holding of two annual fairs by letters patent after signing the Treaty of Bayonne after which it was confirmed by the coutoumes of the inhabitants in July 1472 following the death of Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, the king's brother. At the time the Spanish Inquisition raged in the Iberian Peninsula Spanish and Portuguese Jews fled Spain and also later, Portugal, then settled in Southern France, including in Saint-Esprit (Pyrénées-Atlantiques), a northern district of Bayonne located along the northern bank of the Adour river. They brought with them chocolate and the recipe for its preparation. In 1750, the Jewish population in Saint-Esprit (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) is estimated to have reached about 3,500 people. The golden age of the city ended in the 15th century with the loss of trade with England and the silting of the port of Bayonne created by the movement of the course of the Adour to the north. At the beginning of the 16th century Labourd suffered the emergence of the plague. Its path can be tracked by reading the Registers. In July 1515 the city of Bayonne was "prohibited to welcome people from plague-stricken places" and on 21 October, "we inhibit and prohibit all peasants and residents of this city [...] to go Parish Bidart [...] because of the contagion of the plague". On 11 April 1518 the plague raged in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and the city of Bayonne "inhibited and prohibited for all peasants and city inhabitants and other foreigners to maintain relationships at the location and Parish of Saint-Jean-de-Luz where people have died of the plague". On 11 November 1518 plague was present in Bayonne to the point that in 1519 the city council moved to the district of Brindos (Berindos at the time) in Anglet. In 1523, Marshal Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec resisted the Spaniards under Philibert of Chalon in the service of Charles V and lifted the siege of Bayonne. It was at Château-Vieux that the ransom demand for the release of Francis I, taken prisoner after his defeat at the Battle of Pavia, was gathered. The meeting in 1565 between Catherine de Medici and the envoy of Philip II: the Duke of Alba, is known as the Interview of Bayonne. At the time that Catholics and Protestants tore each other apart in parts of the kingdom of France, Bayonne seemed relatively untouched by these troubles. An iron fist from the city leaders did not appear to be unknown. In fact they never hesitated to use violence and criminal sanctions for keeping order in the name of the "public good". Two brothers, Saubat and Johannes Sorhaindo who were both lieutenants of the mayor of Bayonne in the second half of the 16th century, perfectly embody this period. They often wavered between Catholicism and Protestantism but always wanted to ensure the unity and prestige of the city. In the 16th century the king's engineers, under the direction of Louis de Foix, were dispatched to rearrange the course of the Adour by creating an estuary to maintain the river bed. The river discharged in the right place to the Ocean on 28 October 1578. The port of Bayonne then attained a greater level of activity. Fishing for cod and whale ensured the wealth of fishermen and shipowners. From 1611 to 1612 the college Principal of Bayonne was a man of 26 years old with a future: Cornelius Jansen known as Jansénius, the future Bishop of Ypres. Bayonne became the birthplace of Jansenism, an austere science which strongly disrupted the monarchy of Louis XIV. During the sporadic conflicts that troubled the French countryside from the mid 17th century, Bayonne peasants were short of powder and projectiles. They attached the long hunting knives in the barrels of their muskets and that way they fashioned makeshift spears later called bayonets. In that same century, Vauban was charged by Louis XIV to fortify the city. He added a citadel built on a hill overlooking the district of San Espirit Cap deou do Punt. French Revolution and Empire Activity in Bayonne peaked in the 18th century. The Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1726. Trade with Spain, the Netherlands, the Antilles, the cod fishery off the shores of Newfoundland, and construction sites maintained a high level of activity in the port. In 1792, the district of Saint-Esprit (that revolutionaries renamed Port-de-la-Montagne) located on the right bank of the Adour, was separated from the city and renamed Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It was reunited with Bayonne on 1 June 1857. For 65 years the autonomous commune was part of the department of Landes. In 1808, at the Château of Marracq the act of abdication of the Spanish king Charles IV in favour of Napoleon was signed under the "friendly pressure" of the Emperor. In the process the Bayonne Statute was initialed as the first Spanish constitution. Also in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the Duchy of Warsaw the Convention of Bayonne to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia. The debt, amounting to more than 43 million francs in gold, was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs. However, although the duchy made its payments in installments to France over a four-year period, Prussia was unable to pay it (due to a very large indemnity it owed to France resulting from Treaties of Tilsit), causing the Polish economy to suffer heavily. Trade was the wealth of the city in the 18th century but suffered greatly in the 19th century, severely sanctioned by conflict with Spain, its historic trading partner in the region. The Siege of Bayonne marked the end of the period with the surrender of the Napoleonic troops of Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult who were defeated by the coalition led by Wellington on 5 May 1814. 19th and 20th Centuries In 1854, the railway arrived from Paris bringing many tourists eager to enjoy the beaches of Biarritz. Bayonne turned instead to the steel industry with the forges of the Adour. The Port took on an industrial look but its slow decline seemed inexorable in the 19th century. The discovery of the Lacq gas field restored a certain dynamism. The Treaty of Bayonne was concluded on 2 December 1856. It overcame the disputes in fixing the Franco-Spanish border in the area extending from the mouth of the Bidassoa to the border between Navarre and Aragon.The city built three light railway lines to connect to Biarritz at the beginning of the 20th century. The most direct line, that of the Tramway Bayonne-Lycée–Biarritz was operated from 1888 to 1948. In addition a line further north served Anglet, operated by the Chemin de fer Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz company from 1877 to 1953. Finally a line following the Adour to its mouth and to the Atlantic Ocean by the bar in Anglet, was operated by VFDM réseau basque from 1919 to 1948. On the morning of 23 December 1933, sub-prefect Anthelme received Gustave Tissier, the director of the Crédit Municipal de Bayonne. He responded well, with some astonishment, to his persistent interview. It did not surprise him to see the man unpacking what became the scam of the century. "Tissier, director of the Crédit Municipal, was arrested and imprisoned under suspicion of forgery and misappropriation of public funds. He had issued thousands of false bonds in the name of Crédit Municipal [...]" This was the beginning of the Stavisky Affair which, together with other scandals and political crises, led to the Paris riots of 6 February 1934. The World Wars The 249th Infantry Regiment, created from the 49th Infantry Regiment, was engaged in operations in the First World War, including action at Chemin des Dames, especially on the plateau of Craonne. 700 Bayonnaises perished in the conflict. A centre for engagement of foreign volunteers was established in August 1914 in Bayonne. Many nationalities were represented, particularly the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Czechs, and the Poles. During the Second World War, Bayonne was occupied by the 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf from 27 June 1940 to 23 August 1944. On 5 April 1942 the Allies made a landing attempt in Bayonne but after a barge penetrated the Adour with great difficulty, the operation was canceled. On 21 August 1944, after blowing up twenty ships in port, German troops withdrew. On the 22nd a final convoy of five vehicles passed through the city. It transported Gestapo Customs agents and some elements of the Feldgendarmerie. One or more Germans opened fire with machine guns killing three people. On the 23rd there was an informal and immediate installation of a "special municipal delegation" by the young deputy prefect Guy Lamassoure representing the Provisional Government of the French Republic which had been established in Algiers since 27 June. Policy and administration List of mayors under the Ancien Régime The Gramont family provided captains and governors in Bayonne from 1472 to 1789 as well as mayors, a post which became hereditary from 28 January 1590 by concession of Henry IV to Antoine II of Gramont. From the 15th century they resided in the Château Neuf then in the Château-Vieux from the end of the 16th century: Roger de Gramont, (1444–1519), Lord of Gramont, Baron of Haux, Seneschal of Guyenne, hereditary mayor of Bayonne. He was an advisor and chamberlain of Louis XI in 1472 and then Charles VIII in 1483. He was Ambassador for Louis XII in Rome in 1502. He became governor of Bayonne and its castles on 26 February 1487. He died of the plague in 1519. Jean II de Gramont, Lord of Gramont, mayor and captain of Bayonne from 18 March 1523. On 15 September 1523, as a lieutenant in the company of Marshal Lautrec, he rescued Bayonne from the siege by the forces of Charles V under the command of the Prince of Orange. He died during the wars in Italy; Antoine I of Gramont, born in 1526, he was appointed at the age of nine years (1535) as mayor and captain of Bayonne. In 1571, he charged Louis de Foix with the changes to the mouth of the Adour along the fortifications of the city; Antoine II de Gramont (1572–1644), Count of Gramont, Guiche and Toulonjon, Viscount then Count of Louvigny, ruler of Bidache, Viscount of Aster, lord then baron of Lescun. He was a Duke de Brevet in 1643, but unverified by Parliament. On 28 January 1590 Henry IV granted him and his descendants the perpetual office of Mayor of Bayonne. He then became the Viceroy of Navarre. In 1595, Antoine II de Gramont charged Jean Errard (1599) then Louis de Millet (1612) to strengthen the defenses of the city; Antoine III of Gramont-Touloujon (1604–1678), Count and then, in 1648, Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche, Toulonjon, and Louvigny, Viscount of Astern, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, and lord of Lesparre, peer of France in 1648, Marshal of France in 1641. As Ambassador of Louis XIV, in 1660 he sought the hand of the Infanta Maria Theresa. The king gave him power of attorney to represent him in the marriage which was celebrated in Madrid. It was he who welcomed Louis XIV, Anne of Austria, Mazarin, and the rest of the Court to Bayonne. He died on 12 July 1678 at the Château-Vieux; Antoine Charles IV of Gramont (1641–1720), Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche and Louvigny, Viscount of Aster, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, Lord of Lesparre, peer of France, Viceroy of Navarre. In 1689, he continued the fortification works undertaken by Vauban in Bayonne, where he remained from 1706 to 1712. He supported Philip V during the War of the Spanish Succession, using Bayonne to supply his troops, weapons, reinforcements and subsidies. In retaliation, the opponents of Philip V organized two attacks in 1707: one at Château-Vieux leaving Antoine IV unharmed. Modern times List of Successive Mayors Mayors from 1941 Cantons of Bayonne As per the Decree of 22 December 1789 Bayonne was part of two cantons: Bayonne-North-east, which includes part of Bayonne commune plus Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, Lahonce, Mouguerre, and Urcuit; and Bayonne Northwest which consisted of the rest of Bayonne commune plus Anglet, Arcangues, and Bassussarry. In a first revision of cantons in 1973 three cantons were created from the same total; geographic area: Bayonne North, Bayonne East, and Bayonne West. A further reconfiguration in 1982 focused primarily on Bayonne and, apart from Bayonne North Canton, which also includes Boucau, the cantons of Bayonne East and Bayonne West did not change. Starting from the 2015 French departmental elections which took place on 22 and 29 March, a new division took effect following the decree of 25 February 2014 Once again three cantons centred on Bayonne are defined: Bayonne-1—with part of Anglet; Bayonne-2—which includes Boucau; and Bayonne-3 now define the cantonal territorial division of the area. Judicial and administrative proceedings Bayonne is the seat of many courts for the region. It falls under the jurisdiction of the Tribunal d'instance (District court) of Bayonne, the Tribunal de grande instance (High Court) of Bayonne, the Cour d'appel (Court of Appeal) of Pau, the Tribunal pour enfants (Juvenile court) of Bayonne, the Conseil de prud'hommes (Labour Court) of Bayonne, the Tribunal de commerce (Commercial Court) of Bayonne, the Tribunal administratif (Administrative tribunal) of Pau, and the Cour administrative d'appel (Administrative Court of Appeal) of Bordeaux. The commune has a police station, a Departmental Gendarmerie, an Autonomous Territorial Brigade of the district gendarmerie, squadron 24/2 of Mobile Gendarmerie and a Tax collection office. Intercommunality The commune is part of twelve inter-communal structures of which eleven are based in the commune: the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque; the transport association of Côte basque-Adour Agglomeration (STACBA); the intercommunal association for the management of the Txakurrak centre; the intercommunal association for the support of Basque culture; the Bil Ta Garbi joint association; the joint association for maritime Nive; the joint association for the Basque Museum and the History of Bayonne; the joint association for the development and monitoring of SCOT in the agglomeration of Bayonne and south Landes; the Kosta Garbia joint association; the joint association for the development of the European freight centre of Bayonne-Mouguerre-Lahonce; the joint association for operating the regional Maurice Ravel Conservatory. the Energy association of Pyrénées-Atlantiques; The city of Bayonne is part of the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque which also includes Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Hendaye and Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The statutory powers of the structure extend to economic development—including higher education and research—housing and urban planning, public transport—through Transdev—alternative and the collection and recovery waste collection and management of rain and coastal waters, the sustainable development, interregional cooperation and finally 106. In addition Bayonne is part of the Basque Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity which is a European economic interest grouping (EEIG) established in 1993 based in San Sebastián. Twin towns – Sister cities Bayonne has twinning associations with: Geography Bayonne is located in the south-west of France on the western border between Basque Country and Gascony. It developed at the confluence of the Adour and tributary on the left bank, the Nive, 6 km from the Atlantic coast. The commune was part of the Basque province of Labourd. Geology and relief Bayonne occupies a territory characterized by a flat relief to the west and to the north towards the Landes forest, tending to slightly raise towards the south and east. The city has developed at the confluence of the Adour and Nive from the ocean. The meeting point of the two rivers coincides with a narrowing of the Adour valley. Above this the alluvial plain extends for nearly towards both Tercis-les-Bains and Peyrehorade, and is characterized by swampy meadows called barthes. These were are influenced by floods and high tides. Downstream from this point, the river has shaped a large, wide bed in the sand dunes, creating a significant bottleneck at the confluence. The occupation of the hill that dominates this narrowing of the valley developed through a gradual spread across the lowlands. Occupants built embankments and the aggradation from flood soil. The Nive has played a leading role in the development of the Bayonne river system in recent geological time by the formation of alluvial terraces; these form the sub-soil of Bayonne beneath the surface accumulations of silt and aeolian sands. The drainage network of the western Pre-Pyrenees evolved mostly from the Quaternary, from south-east to northwest, oriented east–west. The Adour was captured by the gaves and this system, together with the Nive, led to the emergence of a new alignment of the lower Adour and the Adour-Nive confluence. This capture has been dated to the early Quaternary (80,000 years ago). Before this capture, the Nive had deposited pebbles from the Mindel glaciation of medium to large sizes; this slowed erosion of the hills causing the bottleneck at Bayonne. After the deposit of the lowest alluvial terrace ( high at Grand Bayonne), the course of the Adour became fixed in its lower reaches. Subsequent to these deposits, there was a rise in sea level in the Holocene period (from 15,000 to 5000 years ago). This explains the invasion of the lower valleys with fine sand, peat, and mud with a thickness of more than below the current bed of the Adour and the Nive in Bayonne. These same deposits are spread across the barthes. In the late Quaternary, the current topographic physiognomy was formed—i.e. a set of hills overlooking a swampy lowland. The promontory of Bassussarry–Marracq ultimately extended to the Labourdin foothills. The Grand Bayonne hill is an example. Similarly, on the right bank of the Nive, the heights of Château-Neuf (Mocoron Hill) met the latest advance of the plateau of Saint-Pierre-d'Irube (height ). On the right bank of the Adour, the heights of Castelnau (today the citadel), with an altitude of , and Fort (today Saint-Esprit), with an altitude of , rise above the Barthes of the Adour, the Nive, Bourgneuf, Saint-Frédéric, Sainte-Croix, Aritxague, and Pontots. The area of the commune is and its altitude varies between . Hydrography The city developed along the river Adour. The river is part of the Natura 2000 network from its source at Bagnères-de-Bigorre to its exit to the Atlantic Ocean after Bayonne, between Tarnos (Landes) for the right bank and Anglet (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) for the left bank. Apart from the Nive, which joins the left bank of the Adour after of a sometimes tumultuous course, two tributaries join the Adour in Bayonne commune: the Ruisseau de Portou and the Ruisseau du Moulin Esbouc. Tributaries of the Nive are the Ruisseau de Hillans and the Ruisseau d'Urdaintz which both rise in the commune. Climate The nearest weather station is that of Biarritz-Anglet. The climate of Bayonne is relatively similar to that of its neighbour Biarritz, described below, with fairly heavy rainfall; the oceanic climate is due to the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean. The average winter temperature is around 8 °C and is around 20 °C in summer. The lowest temperature recorded was −12.7 °C on 16 January 1985 and the highest 40.6 °C on 4 August 2003 in the 2003 European heat wave. Rains on the Basque coast are rarely persistent except during winter storms. They often take the form of intense thunderstorms of short duration. Transport Road Bayonne is located at the intersection of the A63 autoroute (Bordeaux-Spain) and the D1 extension of the A64 autoroute (towards Toulouse). The city is served by three interchanges—two of them on the A63: exit (Bayonne Nord) serves the northern districts of Bayonne but also allows quick access to the centre while exit (Bayonne Sud) provides access to the south and also serves Anglet. The third exit is the D1 / A64 via the Mousserolles interchange (exit Bayonne Mousserolles) which links the district of the same name and also serves the neighbouring communes of Mouguerre and Saint-Pierre-d'Irube. Bayonne was traversed by Route nationale 10 connecting Paris to Hendaye but this is now downgraded to a departmental road D810. Route nationale 117, linking Bayonne to Toulouse has been downgraded to departmental road D817. Bridges There are several bridges over both the Nive and the Adour linking the various districts. Coming from upstream on the Adour there is the A63 bridge, then the Saint-Frédéric bridge which carries the D 810, then the railway bridge that replaced the old Eiffel iron bridge, the Saint-Esprit bridge, and finally the Grenet bridge. The Saint-Esprit bridge connects the Saint-Esprit district to the Amiral-Bergeret dock just upstream of the confluence with the river Nive. In 1845, the old bridge, originally made of wood, was rebuilt in masonry with seven arches supporting a deck wide. It was then called the Nemours Bridge in honour of Louis of Orleans, sixth Duke of Nemours, who laid the first stone. The bridge was finally called Saint-Esprit. Until 1868 the bridge had a moving span near the left bank. It was expanded in 1912 to facilitate the movement of horse-drawn carriages and motor vehicles. On the Nive coming from upstream to downstream there is the A63 bridge then the Pont Blanc (White bridge) railway bridge, and then D810 bridge, the Génie bridge (or Pont Millitaire), the Pannecau bridge, the Marengo bridge leading to the covered markets, and the Mayou Bridge. The Pannecau bridge was long named Bertaco bridge and was rebuilt in masonry under Napoleon III. According to François Lafitte Houssat, "[...] a municipal ordinance of 1327 provided for the imprisonment of any quarrellsome woman of bad character in an iron cage dropped into the waters of the Nive River from the bridge. The practice lasted until 1780 [...]" This punishment bore the evocative name of cubainhade. Cycling network The commune is traversed by the Vélodyssée. Bicycle paths are located along the left bank of the Adour, a large part of the left bank of the Nive, and along various axes of the city where there are some bicycle lanes. The city offers free bicycles on loan. Public transport Urban network Most of the lines of the Chronoplus bus network operated by the Transdev agglomeration of Bayonne link Bayonne to other communes in the urban transport perimeter: Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube and Tarnos The Bayonne free shuttle Bayonne serves the city centre (Grand and Petit Bayonne) by connecting several parking stations; other free shuttles perform other short trips within the commune. Interurban networks Bayonne is connected to many cities in the western half of the department such as Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Saint-Palais by the Pyrenees-Atlantiques long-distance coach network of Transport 64 managed by the General Council. Since the network restructuring in the summer of 2013, the lines converge on Bayonne. Bayonne is also served by services from the Landes departmental network, XL'R. Rail transport The Gare de Bayonne is located in the Saint-Esprit district and is an important station on the Bordeaux-Irun railway. It is also the terminus of lines leading from Toulouse to Bayonne and from Bayonne to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. It is served by TGV, Intercités, Intercités de nuit, and TER Nouvelle-Aquitaine trains (to Hendaye, Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, Dax, Bordeaux, Pau, and Tarbes). Air transport Bayonne is served by the Biarritz – Anglet – Bayonne Airport (IATA code: BIQ • ICAO code: LFBZ), located on the communal territories of Anglet and Biarritz. The airport was returned to service in 1954 after repair of damage from bombing during the Second World War. Demographics In 2017, the commune had 51,228 inhabitants. Education Bayonne commune is attached to the Academy of Bordeaux. It has an information and guidance center (CIO). As of 14 December 2015, Bayonne had 10 kindergartens, 22 elementary or primary schools (12 public and 10 private primary schools including two ikastolas). 2 public colleges (Albert Camus and Marracq colleges), 5 private colleges (La Salle Saint-Bernard, Saint Joseph, Saint-Amand, Notre-Dame and Largenté) which meet the criteria of the first cycle of second degree studies. For the second cycle Bayonne has 3 public high schools (René-Cassin school (general education), the Louis de Foix school (general, technological and vocational education), and the Paul Bert vocational school), 4 private high schools (Saint-Louis Villa Pia (general education), Largenté, Bernat Etxepare (general and technological), and Le Guichot vocational school). There are also the Maurice Ravel Conservatory of Music, Dance, and Dramatic Art and the art school of the urban community of Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz. Culture Cultural festivities and events For 550 years every holy Thursday, Friday and Saturday the Foire au Jambon (Ham festival) is held to mark the beginning of the season. An annual summer festival has been held in the commune since 1932 for five days organized around parades, bulls races, fireworks, and music in the Basque and Gascon tradition. These festivals have become the most important festive events in France in terms of attendance. Bayonne has the oldest French bullfighting tradition. A bylaw regulating the encierro is dated 1283: cows, oxen and bulls are released each year in the streets of Petit Bayonne during the summer festivals. The current arena, opened in 1893, is the largest in South-west France with more than 10,000 seats. A dozen bullfights are held each year, attracting the biggest names in bullfighting. Throughout summer several novilladas also take place. The city is a member of the Union of French bullfighting cities. Health Bayonne is the focus of much of the hospital services for the agglomeration of Bayonne and the southern Landes. In this area all inhabitants are less than 35 km from a hospital offering medical, obstetrical, surgical, or psychiatric care. The hospitals for all the Basque Coast are mainly established in Bayonne (the main site of Saint-Léon and Cam-de-Prats) and also in Saint-Jean-de-Luz which has several clinics. Sports Rowing, a popular sport for a long time on the Nive and the Adour near Bayonne. There are two clubs: the Nautical Society of Bayonne (SNB) (established in 1875) and Aviron Bayonnais—established in 1904 by former members of the SNB and which later became a sports club. Basketball. Denek Bat Bayonne Urcuit is a basketball club with a male section competing in NM1 (3rd national level of the French league). The club is based in the city of Urcuit but plays in the Lauga Sports Palace in Bayonne. Football. Aviron Bayonnais FC play their home games at Didier Deschamps Stadium in Championnat National 3 (the 5th French division) since the 2013–2014 season after a year in CFA and three consecutive years in the . Didier Deschamps started his career at Aviron Bayonnais FC. The stadium, formerly called the Grand Basque, is now named after him. There are also three other football clubs in Bayonne: the Crusaders of Saint Andrew playing in the higher regional division, the Portuguese stars of Bayonne (first district division), and the Bayonne association on the right bank of the river (3rd district division). Omnisports. Aviron Bayonnais, created in 1904, includes many sports sections and a large number of members. The pro rugby and football club are the most famous sections of the club. The Bayonne Olympic Club, created in 1972, is located in the district of Hauts de Sainte-Croix. The club offers a wide range of sports including pelote, gymnastics, combat sports, and a pool section. The club had nearly 400 members in 2007. Basque Pelota Bayonne is an important place for Basque pelota. The French Federation of Basque Pelota is headquartered at Trinquet moderne near the Bullring. Many titles were won by pelota players from the city. The World Championships took place in Bayonne in 1978 in association with Biarritz. Rugby appeared in Basque Country at the end of the 19th century with the arrival in 1897 at Bayonne High School of a 20-year-old person from Landes who converts his comrades to football-rugby which he had discovered in Bordeaux. Practicing in the fields near the Spanish Gate, they communicated their enthusiasm to other colleges in Bayonne and Biarritz leading to the creation of the Biarritz Sporting Club and Biarritz Stadium which merged in 1913 to become Biarritz Olympique. Bayonne has two rugby clubs: The Bayonne Athletic Association (ASB) plays in Fédérale 3 while the Aviron Bayonnais rugby pro in the 2014–2015 season played in Top 14, where they have played without interruption since the 2004–2005 season. Aviron Bayonnais has won three league titles in France (1913, 1934 and 1943). It was the first club from a small town to become champion of France. Its stadium is the Stade Jean Dauger. There is also a women's team in the ASB, playing in the National Division 1B. This team won the 2014 Armelle Auclair challenge. Religion Christian worship Bayonne is in the Diocese of Bayonne, Lescar and Oloron, with a suffragan bishop since 2002 under the Archdiocese of Bordeaux. Monseigneur Marc Aillet has been the bishop of this diocese since 15 October 2008. The diocese is located in Bayonne in the Place Monseigneur-Vansteenberghe. Besides Bayonne Cathedral in Grand Bayonne, Bayonne has Saint-Esprit, Saint Andrew (Rue des Lisses), Arènes (Avenue of the Czech Legion), Saint-Étienne, and Saint-Amand (Avenue Marechal Soult) churches. The Carmel of Bayonne, located in the Marracq district, has had a community of Carmelite nuns since 1858. The Way of Baztan (also ruta del Baztan or camino Baztanés) is a way on the pilgrimage of Camino de Santiago which crosses the Pyrenees further west by the lowest pass (by the Col de Belate, 847 m). It is the ancient road used by pilgrims descending to Bayonne then either along the coast on the Way of Soulac or because they landed there from England, for example, to join the French Way as soon as possible in Pamplona. The Way of Bayonne joins the French Way further downstream at Burgos. The Protestant church is located at the corner of Rue Albert-I st and Rue du Temple. A gospel church is located in the Saint-Esprit districtit where there is also a church belonging to the Gypsy Evangelical Church of the Protestant Federation of France. Jewish worship The synagogue was built in 1837 in the Saint-Esprit district north of the town. The Jewish community of Bayonne is old—it consists of different groups of fugitives from Navarre and Portugal who established at Saint-Esprit-lès-Bayonne after the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496. In 1846, the Central Consistory moved to Saint-Esprit which was integrated with Bayonne in 1857. Economy Population and income tax In 2011, the median household income tax was €22,605, placing Bayonne 28,406th place among the 31,886 communes with more than 49 households in metropolitan France. In 2011, 47.8% of households were not taxable. Employment In 2011, the population aged from 15 to 64 years was 29,007 persons of which 70.8% were employable, 60.3% in employment and 10.5% unemployed. While there were 30,012 jobs in the employment area, against 29,220 in 2006, and the number of employed workers residing in the employment area was 17,667, the indicator of job concentration is 169.9% which means that the employment area offers nearly two jobs to for every available worker. Businesses and shops Bayonne is the economic capital of the agglomeration of Bayonne and southern Landes. The table below details the number of companies located in Bayonne according to their industry: The table below shows employees by business establishments in terms of numbers: The following comments apply to the two previous tables: the bulk of economic activity is provided by companies in the tertiary sector; Agriculture is almost non-existent Note 54; less than 5% of the activity is from the industrial sector which remains focused on establishments of less than 50 employees, as also are construction-related activities; public administration, education, health and social services are activities of over 20% of establishments, confirming the importance of Bayonne as an administrative centre. In 2013, 549 new establishments were created in Bayonne including 406 Sole proprietorships. Workshops and Industry Bayonne has few such industries, as indicated in the previous tables. There is Plastitube specializing in plastic packaging (190 employees). The Izarra liqueur company set up a distillery in 1912 at Quai Amiral-Bergeret and has long symbolized the economic wealth of Bayonne. Industrial activities are concentrated in the neighbouring communes of Boucau, Tarnos (Turbomeca), Mouguerre, and Anglet. Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and Bayonne ham, a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby Espelette. Izarra, the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally. It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of mayonnaise, supposedly a corruption of Bayonnaise, the French adjective describing the city's people and produce. Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis. Bayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of makilas, traditional Basque walking-sticks. The Fabrique Alza just outside the city is known for its palas, bats used in pelota, the traditional Basque sport. Service activities The active tertiary sector includes some large retail chains such as those detailed by geographer Roger Brunet: BUT (240 staff), Carrefour (150 staff), E.Leclerc (150 staff), Leroy Merlin (130 staff), and Galeries Lafayette (120 employees). Banks, cleaning companies (Onet, 170 employees), and security (Brink's, 100 employees) are also major employers in the commune, as is urban transport which employs nearly 200 staff. Five health clinics, providing a total of more than 500 beds, each employ 120 to 170 staff. The port of Bayonne The port of Bayonne is located at the mouth of the Adour, downstream of the city. It also occupies part of communes of Anglet and Boucau in Pyrenees-Atlantiques and Tarnos in Landes. It benefits greatly from the natural gas field of Lacq to which it is connected by pipeline. This is the ninth largest French port for trade with an annual traffic of about 4.2 million tonnes of which 2.8 is export. It is also the largest French port for export of maize. It is the property of the Aquitaine region who manage and control the site. Metallurgical products movement are more than one million tons per year and maize exports to Spain vary between 800,000 and 1 million tons. The port also receives refined oil products from the TotalEnergies oil refinery at Donges (800,000 tons per year). Fertilizers are a traffic of 500,000 tons per year and sulphur from Lacq, albeit in sharp decline, is 400,000 tons. The port also receives Ford and General Motors vehicles from Spain and Portugal and wood both tropical and from Landes. Tourism services Due to its proximity to the ocean and the foothills of the Pyrenees as well as its historic heritage, Bayonne has developed important activities related to tourism. On 31 December 2012 there were 15 hotels in the city offering more than 800 rooms to visitors, but there were no camp sites. The tourist infrastructure in the surrounding urban area of Bayonne complements the local supply with around 5800 rooms spread over nearly 200 hotels and 86 campsites offering over 14,000 beds. Sights The Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne with five bridges between the two, both quarters still being backed by Vauban's walls. The houses lining the Nive are examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green. The much wider Adour is to the north. The Pont Saint-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier Saint-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located. Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the cathedral and Hôtel de Ville. The Cathédrale Sainte-Marie is an imposing, elegant Gothic building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets. It was constructed in the 12th and 13th centuries. The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower. The cathedral is noted for its charming cloisters. There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution. Nearby is the Château Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English Black Prince. The Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country. It opened in 1922 but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment. It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and pelota, handicrafts and Basque history and way of life. The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter Léon Bonnat. The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by Edgar Degas, El Greco, Sandro Botticelli, and Francisco Goya, among others. At the back of Petit Bayonne is the Château Neuf, among the ramparts. Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly arrived French in 1460 to control the city. The walls nearby have been opened to visitors. They are important for plant life now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive. The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway. The Saint-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by Louis XI to care for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela. It is home to a wooden Flight into Egypt sculpture. Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's 1680 Citadelle. The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by Queen Victoria and other British dignitaries when staying in Biarritz. The distillery of the famous local liqueur Izarra is located on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors. Notable people 1200s Edmund Crouchback or Edmond Plantagenet, Earl of Lancaster, born in 1245 at London and died in 1296 at Bayonne, was an English prince. Second surviving son of King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence, he was the 1st Earl of Lancaster and the founder of the House of Lancaster 1500s Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, (1581–1643), theologian, who introduced Jansenism into France 1700s Guillaume du Tillot (1711–1774), politician Marguerite Brunet, called Mademoiselle Montansier, born in 1730 at Bayonne and died in 1820 at Paris, was an actress and director of theatre. The house where she was born still exists in Rue des Faures, at Bayonne; Dominique Joseph Garat (1749–1833), writer and politician François Cabarrus (1752–1810), French adventurer and Spanish financier Armand Joseph Dubernad (1741–1799), financial trader, consul general of the Holy Roman Empire Bertrand Pelletier (1761–1797), chemist and pharmacologist Jacques Laffitte (1767–1844), banker and politician 1800s Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), classical-liberal author and political economist Hélène Feillet (1812–1889), painter and lithographer, images of the Basque Country Charles Lavigerie born at Bayonne in 1825 and died in 1892 at Algiers (Algérie), was a 19th-century Cardinal. He was the founder of the Society of Missionaries of Africa which is better known under the name White Fathers Achille Zo (1826–1901), painter Léon Bonnat (1833–1922), painter Ramón Altarriba y Villanueva (1841–1906), Spanish Carlist politician Leandro Ramón Garrido (1868–1909), English–Spanish painter born in Bayonne, France. René Cassin (1887–1976), lawyer and judge; recipient of the 1968 Nobel Peace Prize François Duhourcau (1883–1851), writer and historian 1900s Loleh Bellon (1925–1999), actress and playwright Michel Camdessus (born 1933), managing director of the International Monetary Fund from 1997 to 2000 Maurice André (1933–2012), virtuoso classical trumpet player Didier Deschamps (born 1968), World-Cup-winning footballer, manager of the France national team since 2012. Sylvain Luc (born 1965), jazz guitarist Anthony Dupuis (born 1973), professional tennis player Xavier de le Rue (born 1979), a snowboarder Imanol Harinordoquy (born 1980), French international rugby union player Éva Bisséni (born 1981), judoka Stéphane Ruffier (born 1986) a France national football team goalkeeper Xavier Ouellet (born 1993), ice hockey player for the Laval Rocket Aymeric Laporte (born 1994), footballer. Raised in the city. Jessika Ponchet (born 1996), tennis player In popular culture In Wyndham Lewis's novel The Wild Body (1927) the protagonist, Ker-Orr, in the first story, "A Soldier of Humour", takes the train from Paris and stays in Bayonne before going to Spain. In Ernest Hemingway's novel The Sun Also Rises, three of the characters visit Bayonne en route to Pamplona, Spain. In Kim Stanley Robinson's novel The Years of Rice and Salt (2002), Bayonne is the first city recolonized by the Muslims after the total depopulation of Europe by the Black Death. Named "Baraka", its earliest colonizers were later driven out by rivals from Al-Andalus and flee to the Loire Valley, where they found the city of Nsara. In Trevanian's novel Shibumi, Hannah has been called as "a whore from Bayonne" by elderly Basque women in a village of the Northern Basque Country. The seventh track of Joe Bonamassa's album Dust Bowl is entitled The Last Matador of Bayonne. In the summer of 2008, Manu Chao's live album Baionarena was recorded in the Arena of Bayonne. The album Life is Elsewhere, by English band Little Comets, features a song titled Bayonne., The eighth track of La Nef's album La Traverse Miraculeuse is entitled Le Navire de Bayonne. Notes and references Notes References Insee Dossier 2013 relative to the commune, National Database Bibliographic sources Leon H. Histoire des Juifs de Bayonne, Paris, Armand Durlacher, 1893. in-4 : xvj, 436 pp. ; illustré de 4 planches hors-texte. Pierre Dubourg-Noves Bayonne, Ouest-France, 1986, . Noted "DN" in the text. Eugène Goyheneche, Basque Country: Soule, Labourd, Lower-Navarre, Société nouvelle d’éditions régionales et de diffusion, Pau, 1979, BnF FRBNF34647711 . Noted "EG" in the text. Pierre Hourmat, History of Bayonne from its origins to the French Revolution of 1789, Société des Sciences Lettres & Arts de Bayonne, 1986 . Noted "PH" in the text. Pierre Hourmat Visiting Bayonne, Sud Ouest, 1989 . Noted "PiH" in the text. Bayonne of the Nive and Adour, François Lafitte Houssat, Alan Sutton, Joué-lès-Tours, 2001, . Noted as "FL" in the text. The Bayonne Official website. Noted as "M" in the text. External links City council website Communes of Pyrénées-Atlantiques Subprefectures in France Labourd Port cities and towns on the French Atlantic coast Vauban fortifications in France Cities in Nouvelle-Aquitaine

4231008

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oranges%20and%20Lemons%20%28disambiguation%29

Oranges and Lemons (disambiguation)

"Oranges and Lemons" is a nursery rhyme. Oranges and Lemons may also refer to: Oranges & Lemons (band), a Japanese pop band Oranges & Lemons (album), an album by XTC Oranges and Lemons (film), a 1923 film starring Stan Laurel Oranges and Lemons (1991 film), a 1991 British television film by Kay Adshead in the anthology series ScreenPlay "Oranges and Lemons", an episode of Teletubbies See also Orange and Lemons, a Filipino rock band

4517445

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20town

Urban town

An urban town is a proposed classification for towns in the state of Wisconsin, similar to the urban townships of Minnesota and Ohio. The concept, originally proposed in 2001, as AB501, limited the classification to towns with over 7,500 people. The proposal has gained support from such organizations as the Wisconsin Towns Association. The impetus that originally spawned the concept of urban towns was an effort to stem annexation of urbanized areas in unincorporated area by cities and villages across county lines. Obtaining "urban town" status effectively freezes the town's boundaries. While urban towns would have substantially greater zoning and regulatory rights than "rural towns", the status would not confer "incorporated" status on the municipality, freeing them from several responsibilities incumbent upon incorporated municipal governments, thus distinguishing them from the incorporated towns of Illinois. In the time since the idea was originally proposed, many of the towns that would have been affected have since incorporated, but 2004 population estimates indicate that a number of towns that would have been ineligible in 2001, now are. As of March 2007, the eligible include: Delafield (town), Wisconsin (Waukesha County) Genesee, Wisconsin (Waukesha County) Grand Chute, Wisconsin (Outagamie County) Grand Rapids, Wisconsin (Wood County) Greenville, Wisconsin (Outagamie County) Harrison, Calumet County, Wisconsin Lisbon, Waukesha County, Wisconsin Menasha (town), Wisconsin (Winnebago County) Merton (town), Wisconsin (Waukesha County) Norway, Wisconsin (Racine County) Oconomowoc (town), Wisconsin (Waukesha County) Rib Mountain, Wisconsin (Marathon County) Salem, Kenosha County, Wisconsin Somers, Wisconsin (Kenosha County) Springfield, Dane County, Wisconsin Waukesha (town), Wisconsin (Waukesha County) If current trends continue, over a dozen other towns will fit the population requirements by the 2010 census. Notes Urban Types of administrative division

4803690

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathryn%20Calder

Kathryn Calder

Kathryn Jane Calder (born June 17, 1982) is a Canadian indie rock musician, who performs as a solo artist, and is a member of the bands The New Pornographers and Frontperson. She is a former member of Immaculate Machine. Calder started with The New Pornographers by filling in for Neko Case for live performances and was made a permanent member in 2006. Biography Calder is the niece of fellow The New Pornographers member Carl Newman. Calder explained in a 2007 interview: "My mom was adopted as a baby and about ten years ago she found her birth family and Carl is in her birth family. At that time I was a teenager and playing in a band and didn't really know I had that family ... so that's how I met Carl." She was a member of Immaculate Machine from 2003 to 2011, releasing three albums and an EP with that band. Her first solo album, Are You My Mother?, was released on August 3, 2010 (Canada) and August 10, 2010 (United States), with a digital release date of June 28, 2010. The album was named after the children's book with the same name. It was recorded when Calder was caring for her sick mother, and the project was put on hold when her mother died of Lou Gehrig's disease. The New Pornographers' 2010 release Together is dedicated to the memory of Calder's mother. Calder released her second album, Bright and Vivid on October 25, 2011. Superchunk drummer Jon Wurster, Jesse Zubot and Ford Pier are some of the guests on the album. The album was named as a longlisted nominee for the 2012 Polaris Music Prize on June 14, 2012. In July 2012, Calder accepted an offer for a documentary about her life, called A Matter of Time. It was produced by the Yellow Bird Project and released in 2016. The movie touches on how she met Newman and her mother's death from ALS, as well as including some live performances from The New Pornographers, Immaculate Machine, and Kathryn herself as a solo artist. Calder donated her vocal talent to the end credits song from the film, A Dog Named Gucci, in the song One Voice, which also features the talents of Norah Jones, Aimee Mann, Susanna Hoffs, Lydia Loveless, Neko Case, and Brian May. It was produced by Dean Falcone, who also wrote the film's score. One Voice was released on Record Store Day, April 16, 2016, with profits from the sale of the single going to benefit animal charities. In 2018, Calder formed the band Frontperson alongside Mark Andrew Hamilton of the band Woodpigeon, releasing the album Frontrunner that year. Parade, the duo's second album as Frontperson, was released in April 2022. In 2019 Calder became the artist in residence for the City of Victoria. She is married to record producer Colin Stewart. Discography Solo Are You My Mother? (File Under: Music, 2010) Bright and Vivid (File Under: Music, 2011) Kathryn Calder (File Under: Music, 2015) The New Pornographers Twin Cinema (CA: Mint Records; US & EU: Matador Records, 2005) Challengers (CA: Last Gang Records; US & EU: Matador Records, 2007) Together (CA: Last Gang Records; US: Matador Records, 2010) Brill Bruisers (CA: Last Gang Records; US: Matador Records, 2014) Whiteout Conditions (CA: Dine Alone Records; US: Concord Records, 2017) In the Morse Code of Brake Lights (Concord Records, 2019) Continue as a Guest (Concord Records, 2023) Immaculate Machine Transporter (Independent, 2004) Ones and Zeros (Mint Records, 2005) Immaculate Machine's Fables (Mint Records, 2007) High on Jackson Hill (Mint Records, 2009) Frontperson Frontrunner (Oscar St. Records, 2018) Parade (Oscar St. Records, 2022) References External links 1982 births Living people 21st-century Canadian women singers Canadian indie pop musicians Canadian indie rock musicians Canadian rock keyboardists Canadian women rock singers Women keyboardists Musicians from Victoria, British Columbia The New Pornographers members Canadian indie folk musicians

4066436

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utako%20Wakamatsu

Utako Wakamatsu

is a Japanese former competitive figure skater. From 2002 to 2007, she skated with Jean-Sébastien Fecteau as a pair skater for Canada, winning the silver medal at the 2006 Four Continents Championships. Earlier in her career, she competed in single skating for Japan. Career Until 2002, Wakamatsu competed in single skating for Japan. She competed on the ISU Junior Grand Prix series, winning a bronze medal in 1999 in the Czech Republic, and at one senior Grand Prix event, the 2001 Skate America. She placed as high as fifth on the senior level at the Japan Championships. In April 2002, Wakamatsu teamed up with Jean-Sébastien Fecteau to compete in pair skating for Canada. In 2003, they won gold medals at the Finlandia Trophy and Nebelhorn Trophy and made their Grand Prix debut. In the 2004–05 season, Wakamatsu/Fecteau won silver at the 2005 Canadian Championships and were sent to the 2005 World Championships where they placed eighth. In the 2005–06 season, the pair won bronze at a Grand Prix event, the 2005 NHK Trophy. They also took bronze at the 2006 Canadian Championships and were sent to the 2006 Four Continents Championships where they won the silver medal. Wakamatsu announced her retirement from competitive skating on April 24, 2007. Personal life Wakamatsu studied social welfare at Tohoku Fukushi University in Sendai. Programs With Fecteau Single skating Competitive highlights Pairs career with Fecteau for Canada Singles career for Japan References External links Official site 1981 births Canadian female pair skaters Japanese female single skaters Living people Sportspeople from Aomori Prefecture Four Continents Figure Skating Championships medalists Competitors at the 2001 Winter Universiade

4410950

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnett%20Cobb

Arnett Cobb

Arnett Cleophus Cobb (August 10, 1918 – March 24, 1989) was an American tenor saxophonist, sometimes known as the "Wild Man of the Tenor Sax" because of his uninhibited stomping style. Cobb wrote the words and music for the jazz standard "Smooth Sailing" (1951), which Ella Fitzgerald recorded for Decca on her album Lullabies of Birdland. Biography Born in Houston, Texas, he was taught to play piano by his grandmother, and he went on to study violin before taking up tenor saxophone in the high school band. At the age of 15 he joined Louisiana bandleader Frank Davis's band, doing shows in Houston and throughout Louisiana during the summer. Cobb continued his musical career with the local bands of trumpeter Chester Boone, from 1934 to 1936, and Milt Larkin, from 1936 to 1942 (which included a period on the West Coast with Floyd Ray). Among his bandmates in the Larkin band were Illinois Jacquet, Eddie "Cleanhead" Vinson, Tom Archia, Cedric Haywood, and Wild Bill Davis. Having turned down an offer from Count Basie in 1939, Cobb replaced Jacquet in Lionel Hampton's band in 1942, staying with Hampton until 1947. Cobb's featured solo on Hampton's theme song "Flying Home No. 2" generated much excitement, his blasting style earning him the label "Wild Man of the Tenor Sax". Cobb then started his own seven-piece band, but suffered a serious illness in 1950, which necessitated spinal surgery. Although he re-formed the band on his recovery, in 1956 its success was again interrupted, this time by a car crash. This had long-term effects on his health, involving periods in the hospital, and making him permanently reliant on crutches. Nevertheless, Cobb worked as a soloist through the 1970s and 1980s in the U.S. and abroad. As late as 1988 he played with Jimmy Heath and Joe Henderson in Europe. He died in his native Houston, aged 70, in 1989. Discography 1943–47: The Wild Man of the Tenor Sax, 1943–1947 (EPM Musique) 1946–47: The Chronological Arnett Cobb, 1946–1947 (Classics) 1947: Arnett Blows for 1300 (Delmark) 1994 compilation of Apollo recordings 1959: Blow Arnett, Blow (Prestige) also released as Go Power!!! 1959: Smooth Sailing (Prestige) 1959: Party Time (Prestige) 1959: Very Saxy (Prestige) with Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis, Coleman Hawkins and Buddy Tate 1960: More Party Time (Prestige) 1960: Movin' Right Along (Prestige) 1960: Sizzlin' (Prestige) 1960: Ballads by Cobb (Moodsville) 1973: Again with Milt Buckner, with Milt Buckner, Clarence Brown and Michael Silva (Black & Blue) 1974: Arnett Cobb and Tiny Grimes Quintet, Live in Paris" (Esoldun - INA) 1974–76: The Wild Man from Texas (Black & Blue) 1978: Arnett Cobb Is Back (Progressive) 1978: Live at Sandy's! (Muse) 1980: Tenor Abrupt, at (The Definitive Black & Blue Sessions) with Guy Lafitte (Black & Blue) 1981: Funky Butt (Progressive) 1982: Arnett Cobb Live (in Holland) (Timeless) 1984: Keep on Pushin' (Bee Hive) 1987: Show Time, with Dizzy Gillespie and Jewel Brown (Fantasy) 1988: Tenor Tribute (in Germany), with Jimmy Heath and Joe Henderson (Soul Note) 1988: Tenor Tribute, Volume 2 (in Germany), with Jimmy Heath and Joe Henderson (Soul Note) With Ruth Brown Ruth Brown (Atlantic, 1957) Miss Rhythm (Atlantic, 1959) With Buddy TateLive at Sandy's (Muse, 1978 [1980]) With Eddie "Cleanhead" VinsonLive at Sandy's (Muse, 1978 [1981])Hold It Right There! (Muse, 1978 [1984]) With Roseanna Vitro Listen Here'' (Texas Rose, 1984) References External links "Houston's Own, Saxophonist Arnett Cobb", African American Registry. Arnett Cobbs Last Recorded Performance in Osnabrueck, Germany Ingrid Montgomery-Swinton, Go Red Go, Blow Arnett Blow: The life of Arnett Cobb. Ingrid Montgomery-Swinton, Lizette Cobb 1918 births 1989 deaths Bebop saxophonists Soul-jazz saxophonists Mainstream jazz saxophonists Musicians from Houston Texas blues musicians New York blues musicians Jazz-blues saxophonists Jump blues musicians African-American saxophonists American jazz tenor saxophonists American male saxophonists Prestige Records artists Muse Records artists Place of death missing Apollo Records artists 20th-century American saxophonists Jazz musicians from Texas 20th-century American male musicians American male jazz musicians Black & Blue Records artists HighNote Records artists Timeless Records artists 20th-century African-American musicians

4721193

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasina%20Tunnel

Plasina Tunnel

The Plasina Tunnel is located between Žuta Lokva and Ličko Lešće. It is located between Otočac and Perušić interchanges of the Croatian A1 motorway. Both tunnel tubes, long, were completed simultaneously. The northern portal of the tunnel is located at 532 m.a.s.l., while the southern one is at 547 m.a.s.l. Excavation of the tunnel had been completed by January 2004. In 2006, the tunnel was declared to be among the top three safest tunnels in Europe by EuroTAP. Traffic volume Traffic is regularly counted and reported by Hrvatske autoceste, operator of the motorway, and published by Hrvatske ceste. Substantial variations between annual (AADT) and summer (ASDT) traffic volumes are attributed to the fact that the motorway carries substantial tourist traffic to the Dalmatian Adriatic resorts. The traffic count is performed using analysis of toll ticket sales. See also A1 motorway Sveti Rok Tunnel Mala Kapela Tunnel Hrvatske autoceste References Road tunnels in Croatia Buildings and structures in Lika-Senj County Tunnels completed in 2004

4239690

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byun%20Chun-sa

Byun Chun-sa

Byun Chun-sa (Hangul: 변천사; born November 23, 1987, in Seoul) is a South Korean short track speed skater who won gold in the 3000m relay at the 2006 Winter Olympics. References External links 1987 births Living people South Korean female short track speed skaters Olympic short track speed skaters for South Korea Olympic gold medalists for South Korea Olympic medalists in short track speed skating Short track speed skaters at the 2006 Winter Olympics Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics Asian Games medalists in short track speed skating Asian Games silver medalists for South Korea Asian Games bronze medalists for South Korea Short track speed skaters at the 2007 Asian Winter Games Medalists at the 2007 Asian Winter Games Speed skaters from Seoul Korea National Sport University alumni South Korean Buddhists 21st-century South Korean women

4116632

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calala%2C%20New%20South%20Wales

Calala, New South Wales

Calala is a suburb of the Northern New South Wales city of Tamworth, administered by Tamworth Regional Council. In the 2016 census, Calala had a population of 3,927. The suburb is 4.5 km southeast of the CBD of Tamworth and is connected to the city by Calala Lane, which continues through the suburb to form its main street. Calala Lane often becomes flooded in times of heavy rain, usually isolating the residents from the rest of the city but generally only for several hours at a time. Further along Calala Lane past the residential area of Calala is Farrer Memorial Agricultural High School and the New South Wales Department of Agriculture plant research institute. Commercial area A commercial shopping complex opened in 2006 which now serves the residents of Calala. The complex contains an IGA supermarket, fish and chip takeaway shop, bottle shop, butcher, pharmacy and Northwest Health GP clinic. Following an extension to the complex in late 2017, a Domino's pizza outlet is also part of this shopping centre. Calala also contains a smaller shopping centre consisting of a bottle shop, a takeaway shop and a small hippie clothing and giftware store. Schools Carinya Christian School Farrer Memorial Agricultural High School, located just outside Calala History The name "Calala" originates from the local aboriginal name for this area on what is now known as the Peel River. Various anglicised spellings of this name have been used, including "Kalala", "Kilala", "Kallala, and "Callala". The first house in the Calala area, built for Charles Hall in 1834, was named "Killala". An historical marker has been constructed on the northwest outskirts of Calala to recognise this construction. References Suburbs of Tamworth, New South Wales

4112310

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20AFL%20draft

2001 AFL draft

The 2001 AFL draft consisted of a state draft, a body draft, a pre-season draft and a trade period. The AFL draft is the annual draft of players by Australian rules football teams that participate in the main competition of that sport, the Australian Football League (AFL). In 2001 there were 83 picks to be drafted between 16 teams in the national draft. The Fremantle Dockers originally received the first pick in the national draft after finishing on the bottom of the ladder in the 2001 AFL season but they traded it to Hawthorn for Trent Croad. The No.1 draft pick was Luke Hodge, who became the first No.1 draft pick in many seasons to play in a premiership side. The draft is known widely as the "superdraft" due to the recruitment of modern star players such as Luke Hodge, Luke Ball, Chris Judd, Jimmy Bartel, Nick Dal Santo, Steve Johnson, Sam Mitchell, Leigh Montagna, Gary Ablett, Brian Lake, Matthew Boyd, James Kelly, Dane Swan, Lewis Roberts-Thomson, Campbell Brown, and David Hale. All of the aforementioned players have played in at least one Grand Final; all but Dal Santo and Montagna have played in a premiership team; and Judd, Mitchell, and Hodge (three times) have captained their respective teams to victories in the 2006, 2008, 2013, 2014 and 2015 grand finals. Furthermore, Judd (2004, 2010), Bartel (2007), Ablett (2009, 2013), Swan (2011) and Mitchell (2012) have also won the Brownlow Medal, the award for the best and fairest player in a season, while Judd (2005), Johnson (2007), Hodge (2008 and 2014), Bartel (2011) and Lake (2013) have all won a Norm Smith Medal (awarded to the best player on-field in the AFL Grand Final). Trades In alphabetical order of new clubs 2001 national draft Notes 2002 rookie draft 2002 pre-season draft Honours Brownlow Medallists: Chris Judd: 2004 and 2010 Jimmy Bartel: 2007 Gary Ablett, Jr.: 2009 & 2013 Dane Swan: 2011 Sam Mitchell: 2012 Norm Smith Medallists: Chris Judd: 2005 Steve Johnson: 2007 Luke Hodge: 2008, 2014 Jimmy Bartel: 2011 Brian Lake 2013 Premierships: Lewis Roberts-Thomson: 2005, 2012 Adam Schneider: 2005 Chris Judd: 2006 Mark Seaby: 2006 Steven Armstrong: 2006 Ashley Hansen: 2006 Quinten Lynch: 2006 Jimmy Bartel: 2007, 2009 and 2011 Luke Hodge: 2008, 2013, 2014, 2015 Rick Ladson: 2008 Campbell Brown: 2008 James Kelly: 2007, 2009 and 2011 Gary Ablett, Jr.: 2007, 2009 Steve Johnson: 2007, 2009 and 2011 Dane Swan: 2010 Luke Ball: 2010 James Podsiadly, 2011 Martin Mattner: 2012 Sam Mitchell: 2008, 2013, 2014, 2015 Brian Lake: 2013, 2014, 2015 David Hale: 2013, 2014, 2015 Matthew Boyd: 2016 References AFL Draft Australian Football League draft

4596556

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20English%20words%20of%20Ukrainian%20origin

List of English words of Ukrainian origin

English words of Ukrainian origin are words in the English language that have been borrowed or derived from the Ukrainian language. Some of them may have entered English via Russian, Polish, or Yiddish, among others. They may have originated in another languages, but are used to describe notions related to Ukraine. Some are regionalisms, used in English-speaking places with a significant Ukrainian diaspora population, especially Canada, but all of these have entered the general English vocabulary. Some words such as knyaz are traced back to the times of Kievan Rus, and hence claimed both by Russians and Ukrainians, both claiming the Kievan Rus heritage. English words from Ukrainian Cuisine Borscht (Ukrainian: борщ borshch), beet soup, also used in the expression "cheap like borscht". Kasha (Ukrainian: ка́ша), a porridge. Paska (Ukrainian: па́ска, "Easter" = "paskha"). A rich Ukrainian dessert made with soft cheese, dried fruit, nuts, and spices, traditionally eaten at Easter. Syrniki, sometimes also sirniki (Ukrainian: си́рники syrnyky, from сир syr, originally soft white cheese in Slavic languages). Fried quark cheese pancakes, garnished with sour cream, jam, honey, or apple sauce. Ethnic Boyko or Boiko (Ukrainian: бо́йко), a distinctive group of Ukrainian highlanders or mountain-dwellers of the Carpathian highlands. Cossack (Ukrainian: коза́к kozak), a freedom-loving horseman of the steppes. Hutsul (Ukrainian: гуцу́л), an ethno-cultural group who for centuries have inhabited the Carpathian Mountains. Lemko (Ukrainian: ле́мко), a distinctive group of Ukrainian highlanders or mountain-dwellers of the Carpathian highlands. Rusyn (Ukrainian: руси́н), an ethnic group of Ukrainians. Old self-name of the Ukrainians Verkhovynian or Verkhovynets (Ukrainian: верховинець), a distinctive group of Ukrainian highlanders or mountain-dwellers of the Carpathian highlands. Politic Banderist (Ukrainian: банде́рівець), a member of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists or of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. Boyar (Ukrainian: singular боя́рин boiaryn, plural боя́ри boiary), a member of the highest rank of the feudal Russian, Bulgarian, Romanian, and Ukrainian aristocracy, second only to the ruling princes, from the 10th century through the 17th century. Many headed the civil and military administrations in their country. Rukh (Ukrainian: Рух; movement), a Ukrainian centre-right political party the People's Movement of Ukraine. Sich (Ukrainian: Січ), the administrative and military centre for Cossacks. Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian: Верхо́вна Ра́да), Ukraine's parliament, literally Supreme Council, formerly also translated as the Supreme Soviet. Other Gley (Ukrainian: глей) - a sticky clay soil or soil layer formed under the surface of some waterlogged soils. Ukrainian gleĭ clayey earth; akin to Old English clǣg clay. Hryvnia or sometimes hryvnya (Ukrainian: гри́вня), the national currency of Ukraine since 1996. Hucul or hutsul (Ukrainian: гуцульський кінь, гуцулик or гуцул), a pony or small horse breed originally from the Carpathian Mountains. Karbovanets (Ukrainian: карбо́ванець), Ukrainian currency in 1917-1920, 1942-1945 and in 1992-1996. Khorovod (Ukrainian: хорово́д), a Slavic art form consisting of a combination of a circle dance and chorus singing, similar to Chorea of ancient Greece. Kniaz (Ukrainian: князь knyaz', etymologically related to the English word king from Old English cyning, meaning "tribe", related the German König, and the Scandinavian konung, probably borrowed early from the Proto-Germanic Kuningaz, a form also borrowed by Finnish and Estonian "Kuningas"; the title and functions however of a Kniaz corresponded, though not exact, to more of a Prince or Duke), a title given to members of Ukrainian nobility that arose during the Rurik dynasty. Kurgan (Ukrainian: курга́н "tumulus"), a type of burial mound found in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Naftohaz or Naftogaz (Ukrainian: Нафтогаз), the national oil and gas company of Ukraine, literally "Oil and gas". Steppe (Ukrainian: степ) is one of the vast usually level and treeless tracts in southeastern Europe or Asia. The word is likely to come from French, where previously it had been taken from Polish, where it said to be originated from Ukrainian. Surzhyk (Ukrainian: су́ржик), a mixed (macaronic) sociolects of Ukrainian and Russian languages used in certain regions of Ukraine and adjacent lands. Tachanka (Ukrainian: тача́нка), a horse-drawn machine gun platform. References Katherine Barber, editor (2004). The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, second edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press. . Katherine Barber (2008). Only in Canada, You Say: A Treasury of Canadian Language. Toronto: Oxford University Press. . See also Canadian Ukrainian, a diaspora variation or dialect of Ukrainian List of words of Russian origin, many of which also appear in Ukrainian, or are closely related List of English words of Yiddish origin, some of which originate in Slavic languages, including Ukrainian Lists of English words of international origin Ukrainian Ukrainian loanwords

4069579

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving%20Rosenwater

Irving Rosenwater

Irving Rosenwater (11 September 1932 – 30 January 2006) was an English cricket researcher and author whose best-known work was Sir Donald Bradman - A Biography (1978). Born in the East End of London to Jewish parents of Polish origin, Rosenwater initially had two birth certificates. The first registered him as "Isidore", but his parents had second thoughts and promptly changed it. Rosenwater worked on several cricket publications including The Cricketer, where his first reports appeared in 1955; Wisden Cricketer's Almanack; The Cricket Society Journal, of which he was the co-founder; and Cricket Quarterly (1963–1970), on which he worked with its founder Rowland Bowen. In 1970, Rosenwater became the official cricket scorer for BBC TV, succeeding Roy Webber, but left in 1977 to join Kerry Packer's revolutionary World Series Cricket. Rosenwater was statistician for Channel Nine until the late 1980s. It is not exactly known when he left Nine. Wendy Wimbush took over from him and later Max Kruger who occupied the position until 2016. External links Obituary section - The Times 1932 births 2006 deaths Cricket historians and writers Cricket scorers British Jews Cricket statisticians

4622546

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devotional%20medal

Devotional medal

A devotional medal is a medal issued for religious devotion. History In the early church The use of amulets and talismans in pagan antiquity was widespread. The word amuletum itself occurs in Pliny, and many monuments show how objects of this kind were worn around the neck by all classes. Gregory the Great sent to Queen Theodelinda of the Lombards two phylacteria containing a relic of the True Cross and a sentence from the Gospels, which her son Adulovald was to wear around his neck. However, the practice of wearing encolpia (small pectoral crosses) lent itself to abuses when magical formulas began to be joined to Christian symbols, as was regularly the practice of the Gnostics. Some fathers of the fourth and later centuries protested against Gnostic phylacteries worn by Christians. A coin-like object found in catacombs bears on one side a depiction of the martyrdom of a saint, presumably St. Lawrence, who is being roasted upon a gridiron in the presence of the Roman magistrate. The Christian character of the scene is shown by the chi-rho chrisma, the alpha and omega, and the martyr's crown. On the reverse is depicted the tomb of St. Lawrence, while a figure stands in a reverent attitude before it holding aloft a candle. A second medal, which bears the name of Gaudentianus on the obverse and Urbicus on the reverse, depicts seemingly on one face the sacrifice of Abraham; on the other apparently a shrine or altar, above which three candles are burning, towards which a tall figure carrying a chalice in one hand is conducting a little child. The scene appears to represent the consecration to God of the child as an oblate by his father before the shrine of some martyr, a custom for which there is a good deal of early evidence. Other medals are much more simple, bearing only the Chi Rho with a name or perhaps a cross. Others impressed with more complicated devices can only be dated with difficulty or, as in the case particularly of some representations of the adoration of the Magi which seem to show strong traces of Byzantine influence, belong to a much later period. Some of the medals or medallions reputedly Christian are stamped upon one side only, and of this class is a bronze medallion of very artistic execution discovered in the cemetery of Domitilla and now preserved in the Vatican Library. It bears two portrait types of the heads of the Apostles SS. Peter and Paul, and is assigned by Giovanni Battista de Rossi to the second century. Other medallions with the (confronted) heads of the two apostles are also known. How far the use of such medals of devotion extended in the early Church is not clear. Medieval Medals Although it is probable that the traditions formed around these objects, which were equally familiar at Rome and at Constantinople, never entirely died out, still little evidence exists of the use of medals in the Middle Ages. No traces of such objects that survive are remarkable either for artistic skill or for the value of the metal. In the life of St. Genevieve, it is recounted that St. Germanus of Auxerre, having stopped at Nanterre while on his way to Britain, hung around her neck a perforated bronze coin marked with the sign of the cross, to remind her of having consecrated her virginity to God. The language seems to suggest that an ordinary coin was bored for the purpose. Many of the coins of the late empire were stamped with the chrisma or with the figure of the Saviour, and the ordinary currency may often have been used for similar pious purposes. In the course of the twelfth century, if not earlier, a very general practice grew up at well-known places of pilgrimage, of casting tokens in lead, and sometimes probably in other metals, which served the pilgrim as a souvenir and stimulus to devotion and at the same time attested the fact that he had duly reached his destination. These signacula (enseignes) known in English as "pilgrims' signs" often took a metallic form and were carried in a conspicuous way upon the hat or breast. Giraldus Cambrensis referring to a journey he made to Canterbury about the year 1180, ten years after the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, describes himself and his companions returning to London with the tokens of St. Thomas hanging round their necks. They are also mentioned in the allegorical poem Piers the Plowman. The privilege of casting and selling these pilgrim's signs was a very valuable one and became a regular source of income at most places of religious resort. The custom was firmly established in Rome itself, and Pope Innocent III, by a letter of 18 January 1200, grants to the canons of St. Peter's the monopoly of casting and selling those "signs of lead or pewter impressed with the image of the Apostles Peter and Paul with which those who visit their thresholds [limina] adorn themselves for the increase of their own devotion and in testimony of the journey which they have accomplished". The pope's language implies that this custom had existed for some time. In form and fashion these pilgrims' signs are various. From about the twelfth century the casting of these devotional objects continued until the close of the Middle Ages and even later, but in the sixteenth or seventeenth century they began to be replaced by medals properly so called in bronze or in silver, often with much greater pretensions to artistic execution. There was also the custom of casting coin-like tokens in connection with the Feast of Fools, the celebration of the Boy Bishop commonly on the feast of the Holy Innocents. The extant specimens belong mostly to the sixteenth century, but the practice must be much older. Though there is often a burlesque element introduced, the legends and devices shown by such pieces are nearly all religious. Better deserving of attention are the vast collection of jetons and méreaux which, beginning in the thirteenth century, continued to be produced all through the Middle Ages and lasted on in some places down to the French Revolution. They were produced as counters for use in calculation on a counting board, a lined board similar to an abacus. It soon became the fashion for every personage of distinction, especially those who had anything to do with finance, to have special jetons bearing his own device, and upon some of these considerable artistic skill was lavished. Somewhat similar to modern, non-circulation commemorative coins, these pieces served various purposes, and they were often used in the Middle Ages as a money substitute in games, similar to modern casino or poker chips. Upon nearly half the medieval jetons which survive, pious mottoes and designs are found. Often these jetons were given as presents or "pieces de plaisir" especially to persons of high consideration, and on such occasions they were often specially struck in gold or silver. One particular and very common use of jetons was to serve as vouchers for attendance at the cathedral offices and meetings of various kinds. In this case they often carried with them a title to certain rations or payments of money, the amount being sometimes stamped on the piece. The tokens thus used were known as jetons de présence or méreaux, and they were largely used, especially at a somewhat later date, to secure the due attendance of the canons at the cathedral offices, etc. However, in many cases the pious device they bore was as much or even more considered than the use to which they were put, and they seem to have discharged a function analogous to later scapulars and holy cards. One famous example is the "méreau d'estaing" bearing stamped upon it the name of Jesus, which were distributed around Paris about 1429. These jetons stamped with the name were probably connected with the work of St. Bernardine of Siena, who actively promoted the devotion to the Holy Name. Finally for the purpose of largess at royal coronations or for the Maundy money, pieces were often struck which perhaps are rather to be regarded as medals than actual money. Among the benediction forms of the Middle Ages there is no example found of a blessing for coins. Renaissance Medals properly so called, cast with a commemorative purpose, began, though there are only a few rare specimens, in the last years of the fourteenth century. One of the first certainly known medals was struck for Francesco Carrara (Novello) on the occasion of the capture of Padua in 1390. But practically, the vogue for this form of art was created by Pisanello (c. 1380–1451), the most important commemorative portrait medallist in the first half of the 15th century, and who can claim to have originated this genre. Though not religious in intent many of them possess a strong religious colouring. The beautiful reverse of Pisanello's medal of Malatesta Novello depicts the mail-clad warrior dismounting from his horse and kneeling before a crucifix. But it was long before this new art made its influence so widely felt as to bring metal representations of saints and shrines, of mysteries and miracles, together with emblems and devices of all kinds in a cheap form into the hands of the people. The gradual substitution of more artistic bronze and silver medals for the rude pilgrim's signs at such sanctuaries as Loreto or St. Peter's, did much to help the general acceptance of medals as objects of devotion. Again, the papal jubilee medals which certainly began as early as 1475, and which from the nature of the case were carried into all parts of the world, must have helped to make the idea familiar. At some time during the sixteenth century the practice was adopted, possibly following a usage long previously in vogue in the case of Agnus Dei (discs of wax impressed with the figure of a lamb and blessed at stated seasons by the Pope, which could be worn suspended round the neck) of giving a papal blessing to medals and even of enriching them with indulgences. During the revolt of Les Gueux in Flanders in 1566, One or some of these early Geuzen medals was coined with a political message and used by the Gueux faction as a badge. The Spaniards responded by striking a medal with the head of the Saviour and on the reverse the image of Our Lady of Hal; Pius V granted an indulgence to those who wore this medal in their hats. From this the custom of blessing and indulgencing medals is said to have rapidly expanded. Certain it is that Sixtus V attached indulgences to some ancient coins discovered in the foundations of the buildings at the Scala Santa, which coins he caused to be richly mounted and sent to persons of distinction. Encouraged further by the vogue of the jubilee and other papal medals, the use of these devotional objects spread to every part of the world. Austria and Boherma seem to have taken the lead in introducing the fashion into central Europe, and some exceptionally fine specimens were produced under the inspiration of the Italian artists whom the Emperor Maximilian invited to his court. Some of the religious medals cast by Antonio Abondio and his pupils at Vienna are of the highest order of excellence. But in the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries almost every considerable city in Catholic Europe came to have craftsmen of its own who followed the industry. Types Apart from the common run of pious medals, a number of various religious pieces were produced connected with places, confraternities, religious orders, saints, mysteries, miracles, devotions, &c., and other familiar types. Plague medals Struck and blessed as a protection against pestilence, these medals vary. Subjects include St. Sebastian and St. Roch, different shrines of the Blessed Virgin, and often a view of some particular city. Round them are commonly inscribed letters analogous to those depicted on the Saint Benedict Medal, for example +. z +. D. I. A. These and other series of letters stand for "Crux Christi salva, nos"; "Zelus domus Dei libera me"; "Crux Christi vincit et regnat per lignum crucis libera me Domine ab, hac peste Deus meus expelle pestem et libera me, etc. Medals commemorating miracles of the Eucharist There were a very large number of these struck for jubilees, centenaries, etc., in the different places where these miracles were believed to have happened, often adorned with very quaint devices. There is one for example, commemorative of the miracle at Seefeld, upon which the story is depicted of a nobleman who demanded to receive a large host at communion like the priest's. The priest complies, but as a punishment for the nobleman's presumption the ground opens and swallows him up. Private medals These form a very large class but particular specimens are often extremely scarce, for they were struck to commemorate events in the life of individuals, and were only distributed to friends. Baptisms, marriages, first communions, and deaths formed the principal occasions for striking these private medals. The baptismal or sponsor medals (pathen medaillen) are particularly interesting, and often contain precise details of the hour of birth from which the child's horoscope could be calculated. Medals commemorative of special legends Of this class the famous Cross of Saint Ulrich of Augsburg may serve as a specimen. A cross is supposed to have been brought by an angel to St. Ulrich that he might bear it in his hands in the great battle against the Magyars, A.D. 955. Freisenegger's monograph "Die Ulrichs-kreuze" (Augsburg, 1895) enumerates 180 types of this object of devotion sometimes in cross, sometimes in medal form, often associated with the medal of St. Benedict. Papal medals Although not precisely devotional in purpose, a very large number of Papal medals commemorate ecclesiastical events of various kinds, often the opening and closing of the Holy Door in the years of Jubilee. The series begins with the pontificate of Martin V in 1417, and continues to the present. Some types professing to commemorate the acts of earlier popes, e.g. the Jubilee of Boniface VIII, are reconstructions or fabrications of later date. Nearly all the most noteworthy actions of each pontificate for the last five hundred years have been commemorated by medals in this manner, and some of the most famous artists such as Benvenuto Cellini, Carsdosso, and others have designed them. The family of the Hamerani, papal medalists from 1605 to about 1807, supplied most of that vast series, and are celebrated for their work. Other semi-devotional medals Other types of medals have been struck by important religious associations, as for example by the Knights of Malta, by certain abbeys in commemoration of their abbots, or in connection with particular orders of knighthood. On some of these series of medals useful monographs have been written, as for example the work of Canon H. C. Schembri, on "The Coins and Medals of the Knights Of Malta" (London, 1908). The Agnus Deis seem to have been blessed by the popes with more or less solemnity from an early period. In the sixteenth century this practice was greatly developed. The custom grew up of the pontiff blessing rosaries, "grains" medals, enriching them with indulgences and sending them, through his privileged missionaries or envoys, to be distributed to Catholics in England. On these occasions a paper of instructions was often drawn up defining exactly the nature of these indulgences and the conditions on which they could be gained. The Apostolic Indulgences attached to medals, rosaries and similar objects by all priests duly authorized, are analogous to these. They are imparted by making a simple sign of the cross, but for certain other objects, e.g. the medal of St. Benedict, more special faculties are required, and an elaborate form of benediction is provided. In 1911 Pius X sanctioned the use of a blessed medal to be worn in place of the brown and other scapulars. Collections of devotional medals Steve Cribb's collection of over 10,000 devotional medals is now in the British Museum and the University Museum of Bergen collections. References Sources Franz, Kirchlichen Benedictionen im Mittelalter, II, 271-89 Le Canoniste Contemporain Mazerolle, Les Médailleurs Français, 1902–1904 the monographs by Pfeiffer and Ruland, "Pestilentia, in Nummis", Tübingen, 1882, and "Die deutschen Pestainulette", Leipzig, 1885 Catholic Saints Medals and Their Meanings Exonumia