Court Opinion

ID: 9468890
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 02:26:04.90527+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:41:06.017493
License: Public Domain

THOMAS A. CLARK, Circuit Judge,
dissenting:
I dissent. The majority has focused upon fourth amendment concerns. I fear, however, that a significant fifth amendment question has been dismissed in passing.
I would hold that from the moment that Markonni stopped Berry’s progress toward the taxicab a custodial interrogation was underway. The detention of Berry and Zabish was custodial according to the factors enunciated in United States v. Jonas, 639 F.2d 200, 203 (5th Cir. 1981) 1:
In determining whether an interrogation occurred in a custodial context, thus requiring a Miranda warning, this court employs a four factor test: (1) whether probable cause to arrest had arisen; (2) whether the officer intended to hold the defendant; (3) whether the defendant believed that his freedom was significantly restricted; and (4) whether the investigation had focused on the defendant.
*608639 F.2d at 203.2 Testimony of Agent Mar-konni implies that he considered Berry to be in custody from the moment he was stopped.3 Further, Berry could not have reasonably felt that he was free to leave.4 Additionally, in the instant case Berry was the focus of an investigation. These factors, taken together, establish that Berry was in custody from the moment he was approached by Markonni.
There is no question that Berry was being interrogated. The recent Supreme Court decision in Rhode Island v. Innis, 446 U.S. 291, 301-02, 100 S.Ct. 1682, 1690, 64 L.Ed.2d 297 (1980), defines interrogation for fifth amendment purposes. The Court states, “a practice that police should know is reasonably likely to evoke an incriminating response from a suspect thus amounts to an interrogation.”5 Given the massive number of similar situations Agent Markonni has been involved in, surely it cannot be maintained that Markonni did not intend and expect to evoke an incriminatory response from Berry. Thus, under Innis, Berry was under interrogation.
Since Berry was undergoing a custodial interrogation, Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966), should apply to the instant case. Thus, I would hold that since Miranda-type warnings were not given to Berry, evidence obtained by Markonni after the initial stop should be suppressed.6
*609Additionally, the initial stop of Berry by Markonni constituted a seizure, which triggers fourth amendment protections. Unlike the majority, I find the instant situation to be demonstrably close to that in Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 99 S.Ct. 1391, 59 L.Ed.2d 660 (1979). In Prouse, a Delaware state police officer randomly pulled a vehicle over to the side of the road. This involved a show of authority (perhaps a siren and flashing lights) and may have caused substantial anxiety. It also involved an interference with the individual’s movement. The Supreme Court suppressed evidence obtained from the stop, as the stop was not based upon reasonable suspicion.
In the instant case, all of these factors are present. Thus, I do not accept the proposition advanced by the majority that the show of authority, the anxiety caused, the interference with the individual’s movement, and the time lost during stop is somehow less in an airport stop than in Prouse.7 In the present ease, since reasonable suspicion did not exist, Berry was “randomly” stopped. Markonni identified himself and showed his badge, thus there was a show of authority. Indeed, the instant cause presents a much greater potential to arouse fear in an individual than the Prouse situation. If being pulled over by a policeman to the side of the road “may create substantial anxiety,”8 I daresay that being stopped at an airport by a Drug Enforcement Administration agent creates greater anxiety. Further, the loss of time involved in an airport stop may well be more onerous upon an individual than time lost during a Prouse-type stop. Since I believe that Prouse should control the instant ease, I would suppress the evidence that resulted from the seizure because it was not supported by reasonable suspicion.
Lastly, I disagree with the majority’s holding that the taint of the illegal arrest9 was sufficiently attenuated to allow the drugs discovered in the search to be admitted against Berry and Zabish. It justifies its position on the basis that Berry and Zabish consented to the search. As the majority opinion correctly points out, in order to eliminate any taint from an involuntary seizure or arrest, there must be proof both that the consent was voluntary and that it was not the product of an illegal detention. Neither prong of this test is met satisfactorily in the instant case.
The consent was the result of the illegal detention. I find recent Supreme Court cases to be controlling. Dunaway v. New York, 442 U.S. 200, 99 S.Ct. 2248, 60 L.Ed.2d 824 (1979) and Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590, 95 S.Ct. 2254, 45 L.Ed.2d 416 (1975), dealt with similar issues.10 Although consent was given by Berry and Zabish after Markonni had advised them of their right to refuse, this is not dispositive. Dunaway indicates that the temporal proximity of an illegal arrest and a confession, the presence of intervening circumstances, and the purpose and flagrancy of police misconduct are factors that should be taken into account by the courts to determine whether the consent was tainted by the illegal detention. Applying these factors to the instant case, I cannot accept the majority’s result. Berry and Zabish consented to be searched a few *610minutes after their illegal detention commenced.11 The only intervening circumstances were Markonni’s warning that they were free to refuse consent and to contact' an attorney and the fact that they were-allowed to consult with one another (in Markonni’s presence) for a few seconds. It should be noted in this regard that in Duna-way, the giving of Miranda warnings and his consent to the interrogation failed to attenuate the taint of an illegal arrest. Further, the arrest of Berry and Zabish without probable cause and Markonni’s pattern of disregard towards the rights of detainees constituted police misconduct.12 Thus, I believe that the majority has wrongly held that the consent was not the product of an illegal arrest.
Further, the consent was not voluntarily given. A substantial factor in the tendering of the consent was the implicit threat of prosecution for the Georgia misdemeanor if consent was not forthcoming. Indeed, the appellants dispute that they ever gave their consent. Under these circumstances, I doubt that the consent was voluntary.
Since I believe that the consent was involuntarily given and the result of an illegal arrest, I would suppress the drugs found during the searches of Berry and Zabish as fruits of the poisonous tree. Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 83 S.Ct. 407, 9 L.Ed.2d 441 (1963).
I believe that the majority has erroneously dealt with the fifth and fourth amendment issues involved in the instant case. Therefore, I dissent.

. See also Alberti v. Estelle, 524 F.2d 1265 (5th Cir. 1975).

. In the instant case, point one of the above analysis is inapplicable as it is clear probable cause did not exist.

. The following exchange occurred during the testimony of Agent Markonni:
Q ... How many people — of those people that were stopped, which we know is a number that we don’t have, but are you aware of how many were, in fact, searched that were stopped?
A A good percentage — a very, very good percentage of the people that were stopped were searched.
Q Approximately what percent?
A I don’t know. I’d say probably eighty percent or better.. ..
See Supp. Record, vol. 2 at 59. Markonni indicated that only about half of the people he searches consent to the search. As to the other half, they are searched pursuant to an arrest. Id. at 60.

. I cannot accept the proposition that Berry, who had his progress towards the taxicab stopped by Markonni, could have possibly felt that he was free to leave. I would hold that when an individual is approached by a police officer under similar circumstances he does not feel that he may walk away. In accord with this position: W. LaFave, Searches and Seizures 50 (1978); United States v. Collis, 528 F.Supp. 1023, 30 Crim.L.Rep. 2328 (E.D.Mich.1981); Illinois Migrant Council v. Pilliod, 398 F.Supp. 882 (N.D.Ill.1975).

. 446 U.S. at 301-02, 100 S.Ct. at 1690.

. I realize that, at first blush, this may appear to place a burden on Markonni’s commendable efforts in suppressing the drug trade. However, I would suggest a simple solution to avoid the custodial interrogation problem. A Drug Enforcement Administration agent could simply preface any questions to an individual with a comment that the individual need not speak with him. If, however, the agent did not want to offer the detainee such an option, Miranda warnings should be required. Support for this proposition may be found in Am.L.Inst., Model Code of Pre-Arraignment Procedure § 110.2(5) (1975), reprinted in C. Whitebread, Constitutional Criminal Procedure 159 (1978):
(5) Questioning of Suspects.
(a) Warnings. If a law enforcement officer stops any person who he suspects or has reasonable cause to suspect may have committed a crime, the officer shall warn such person as promptly as is reasonable under the circumstances, and in any case before engaging in any sustained questioning
(i) that such person is not obliged to say anything, and anything he says may be used in evidence against him,
(ii) that within twenty minutes he will be released unless he is arrested. [,]
[(iii) that if he is arrested he will be taken to a police station where he may promptly communicate by telephone with counsel, relatives or friends, and
(iv) that he will not be questioned unless he wishes, and that if he wishes to consult a lawyer or have a lawyer present during questioning, he will not be questioned at this time, and that after being taken to the stationhouse a lawyer will be furnished him prior to questioning if he is unable to obtain one.]
(b) Limitations on Questioning. No law enforcement officer shall question a person detained pursuant to the authority in this Section who he suspects or has reasonable cause to suspect may have committed a crime, if such person has indicated in any manner that he does not wish to be questioned, or that he wishes to consult counsel before submitting to any questioning.
*609I believe the above guidelines represent a proper balance between the rights of individuals and the needs of law enforcement.

. Further, as I have indicated above, I do not believe that a reasonable man would feel free to leave when approached by a Drug Enforcement Administration agent at an airport.

. 440 U.S. at 657, 99 S.Ct. at 1398.

. Since the majority did not reach the issue of whether the violation of the Georgia statute gave Markonni probable cause to arrest the pair, I will also treat the consent issue without reference to that possibility.

. Dunaway is particularly applicable to the case at bar. There, the Rochester police picked up an individual even though they lacked enough evidence to obtain an arrest warrant. He was not told that he was under arrest, but would have been physically restrained if he had attempted to flee. He was taken to the police station and given Miranda warnings. Eventually, he made incriminatory statements which implicated him in a murder. The Supreme Court suppressed the evidence flowing from the illegal detention.

. Contrast this with the situation in Brown where the Supreme Court indicated that “less than two hours” might not be enough time to attenuate the taint (422 U.S. at 603-04, 95 S.Ct. at 2261-62), and that in Dunaway where a statement made “within an hour” of Duna-way’s arrival at the station did hot attenuate the taint (442 U.S. at 203, 99 S.Ct. at 2251).

. See note 3 supra.