Court Opinion

ID: 9559477
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-21 17:30:02.802733+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:11:11.636847
License: Public Domain

BOOCHEVER, Chief Justice,
concurring.
I believe that the issue presented in this case has been resolved by the United States Supreme Court in See v. City of Seattle, 387 U.S. 541, 87 S.Ct. 1737, 18 L.Ed.2d 943 (1967), and I concur in the opinion based on the requirements of the Supremacy Clause *153of the United States Constitution.1 Although I would decide the case differently if it had come to us as a matter of first impression, I do not believe it is within our power to permit inspections without a warrant.
In See, the Court held that the fourth amendment bars the prosecution of a property owner who has refused to permit a warrantless fire safety code enforcement inspection of a commercial warehouse. It concluded that:
administrative entry, without consent, upon the portions of commercial premises which are not open to the public may only be compelled through prosecution or physical force within the framework of the warrant procedure. 387 U.S. at 545, 87 S.Ct. at 1740, 18 L.Ed.2d at 947.
No suitable distinction between inspection of commercial business establishments under the OSHA statute and that of the Seattle fire safety ordinance has been suggested to justify a departure from the holding of See.
See addressed only the question of an entry and inspection without the consent of the property owner. The Seattle Fire Code provided for criminal penalties for refusal to permit a warrantless inspection. No criminal sanctions are applicable to a refusal to permit an OSHA inspection and, upon such refusal, the Department of Labor may not enter without an appropriate order from the superior court. See AS 18.60.-083(b), 8 AAC 61.030. Nevertheless, it appears that the employer may be subject to a civil penalty of up to $10,000.00 under AS 18.60.095(a). Assuming the applicability of the civil sanctions, I see little real distinction between the minimal criminal penalties involved in See and what might amount to a heavy fine.
The continued validity of See was called into question by the court in Brennan v. Buckeye Industries, Inc., 374 F.Supp. 1350, 1355 (S.D. Ga. 1974). Relying in part on United States v. Biswell, 406 U.S. 311, 92 S.Ct. 1593, 32 L.Ed.2d 87 (1972), and Colonnade Catering Corp. v. United States, 397 U.S. 72, 90 S.Ct. 774, 25 L.Ed.2d 60 (1970), the district court seemed to conclude that warrantless entry was not constitutionally impermissible if the regulatory inspection furthered a federal interest. Unlike the District Court in Georgia, I do not read Biswell and Colonnade Catering as essentially overruling See in the area of general health and safety inspections. Both cases involved inspection of businesses that were specially licensed by the government, and they are therefore distinguishable from situations where legislative interest and concern is of a more generalized nature.
If this were a question of first impression, however, I would construe our Alaska Constitutional right of privacy2 and prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures3 in line with our decisions in Ravin v. State, 537 P.2d 494 (Alaska 1975), and Nathanson v. State, 554 P.2d 456 (Alaska 1976). In my concurring opinion in Ravin, I stated:
The right to privacy ... is not monolithic. . . . [T]he importance of the right may properly be related to the place where it is exercised, for example, at the home or in the market place. Other considerations would be the nature of relationships involved (marital, doctor-patient, attorney-client, etc.), the particular activity in question and the individual’s interest in it.

With reference to laws challenged as invading the Alaskan right of privacy, I would apply a single flexible test dependent first upon the importance of the right involved. Based on the nature of that right, a greater or lesser burden would be placed on the state to show the relationship of the intrusion to a legitimate governmental interest, (footnote omitted) 537 P.2d at 515.
*154In Ravin, we considered the right of privacy in the home to be of sufficient importance to override legislation prohibiting personal use and possession of marijuana. Similarly, I would hold that the right to privacy in a residence would prevail against the right to inspect under the OSHA law and, for this reason, would require a warrant.4
In contrast, I perceive a less compelling privacy interest in factories or commercial premises. Such commercial premises are routinely occupied and used by many other persons than the owners. Aside from work involving trade secrets, there is little that takes place in the premises that involves a significant privacy interest. Balanced against the privacy interests of the commercial property owner is the state’s interest in preventing abuses of health and safety procedures and ensuring that all citizens have a safe place to work. The history of working conditions and safety requirements in our country has been one of slow progress. Each improvement — limitation of hours and increasing wages, elimination of child labor, the right to unionize and workers’ compensation — has been met with strenuous and often violent opposition. Particularly against the background of this history, state efforts at protecting the health and safety of workers should be given great deference. It seems to me that the minimal rights of privacy involved here are adequately protected by the OSHA statute and regulation. Therefore, I would conclude that an OSHA inspection of commercial premises does not constitute an unreasonable search within the meaning of the United States and Alaska Constitutions and that a warrant is not required.
The Supreme Court in Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 87 S.Ct. 1727, 18 L.Ed.2d 930 (1967), advanced a number of reasons for requiring a warrant for safety code enforcement inspections. These concerns, however, are either met by our statute or appear to be inapplicable to the instant situation. The Court stated:
Under the present system, when the inspector demands entry, the occupant has no way of knowing whether enforcement of the municipal code involved requires inspection of his premises, no way of knowing the lawful limits of the inspector’s power to search, and no way of knowing whether the inspector himself is acting under proper authorization. 387 U.S. at 532, 87 S.Ct. at 1732, 18 L.Ed.2d at 937.
Owners of commercial premises are chargeable with knowledge of the statutes. Therefore, they should be aware that the OSHA law requires inspection of the premises. They also should be aware of the permissible limits of the inspection, as these are carefully set forth in the statute. The problem of unauthorized entry seems minimal. The inspector is required to present appropriate credentials and criminal penalties are provided for unauthorized notice of inspection.5 If inspections are attempted in a manner which harasses the owner, he need merely refuse entrance to his premises and require a court order. He would thus have an opportunity to air his contentions regarding improper inspection.
This case, however, is not for our independent resolution. Unless the Supreme Court should decide to modify its decision in See, I feel compelled to concur in the decision requiring a warrant.

. United States Constitution, art. VI.

. Alaska Constitution, art. I, sec. 22.

.Alaska Constitution, art. I, sec. 14.

. The United States Supreme Court has also recognized a paramount right of privacy with reference to activities within the home and values associated with the home. See Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 89 S.Ct. 1243, 22 L.Ed.2d 542 (1969); Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, 85 S.Ct. 1678, 14 L.Ed.2d 510 (1965).

. AS 18.60.085.