Court Opinion

ID: 9616932
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-22 04:50:48.304343+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:05:57.362234
License: Public Domain

BIRD, C. J.
I respectfully dissent.
Today, this court sends to his death an impoverished, illiterate and possibly retarded 19-year-old black youth by affirming a judgment that this court would not hesitate to reverse if any other offense were involved. I respectfully submit that it is unconscionable to affirm a conviction on a record that indicates the following:
(1) State-appointed counsel made no attempt to independently investigate the prosecution’s evidence except to read the police reports.
(2) No investigation of the incident or appellant’s involvement was conducted by counsel.
(3) An unexplained and unreasonable delay occurred in obtaining an expert to assist counsel in determining whether appellant had a defense based on his mental condition.
(4) No action whatsoever was taken to discover all the evidence and information known to the state and ensure it would be revealed prior to trial.
(5) Counsel was ignorant of important aspects of the law of criminal procedure.
(6) Counsel completely failed to present any evidence at the penalty phase, which was equivalent to consenting to the entry of a death sentence.
(7) Appellant’s counsel was less than forthright in responding to claims of his incompetence at the guilt and penalty phases.
The majority dismiss counsel’s failings as nonprejudicial. I cannot agree. Counsel’s ineptness in preparing for and handling the guilt and penalty phases of this trial was so egregious as to amount to a denial of due process. A young man’s life will be taken by the state as a direct result of these errors.
*340I
Counsel for an individual accused of a crime has a “duty to conduct careful factual and legal investigations and inquiries with a view to developing matters of defense in order that he may make informed decisions on his client’s behalf. ...” (In re Saunders (1970) 2 Cal.3d 1033, 1041 [88 Cal.Rptr. 633, 472 P.2d 921].) Performance of this duty requires prompt investigation and necessitates that counsel “explore all avenues leading to facts relevant to guilt and degree of guilt....” (ABA Standards, Defense Function (Approved Draft 1971) std. 4.1.)
This duty “exists regardless of the accused’s admissions or statements to the lawyer of facts constituting guilt or his stated desire to plead guilty.” {Ibid.) As the American Bar Association has observed, “[t]he relationship of effective investigation by the lawyer to competent representation at trial is patent, for without adequate investigation he is not in a position to make the best use of such mechanisms as cross-examination or impeachment of adverse witnesses at trial or to conduct plea discussions effectively. He needs to know as much as possible about the character and background of witnesses to take advantage of impeachment .... The effectiveness of his advocacy is not to be measured solely by what the lawyer does in the trial; without careful preparation he cannot fulfill his role. Failure to make adequate pretrial investigation and preparation may be grounds for finding ineffective assistance of counsel.” {Id., com. to std. 4.1.)
The duty to conduct “substantial factual inquiry”1 applies to all criminal cases, but performance of this duty would seem to be of even greater importance in cases where the client’s life is at stake. Yet, the record in the present case establishes that counsel’s preparation for the guilt phase of the trial was virtually nonexistent. What preparations he did make were either grossly inadequate, extremely tardy or both.
Twenty-nine witnesses testified for the prosecution at the guilt phase of appellant’s trial. Although defense counsel had been appointed more than a year before their testimony began, he did not interview or investigate a single one of these witnesses during that time. Nor did he employ an investigator to carry out such tasks.2 His entire effort at *341“witness” interviewing consisted of three one-hour sessions with two of appellant’s aunts—neither of whom apparently had any information pertinent to the guilt phase—and one of the three interviews was devoted merely to obtaining “clothes for defendant.” Neither of these two persons testified at trial. Thus, in the course of a full year’s “preparation” for the trial of a capital case, defense counsel spent at most two hours interviewing nonwitnesses about the prosecution’s case.3
Counsel was also extremely lax in investigating the possibility that his client might have had a diminished capacity defense pertinent to one or both of the homicides. A psychiatric examination of a person accused of a crime should be performed as soon as possible after the events at issue in order that the results accurately reflect the capacity of the individual at the time of the offense. However, trial counsel in the present case waited until the first trial date—more than four months after his appointment, and over seven months after the second homicide—to request that a psychiatrist be appointed to examine his client.4
Trial counsel in this capital case did not file a formal motion for discovery. He did not even take the simple steps necessary to activate the superior court’s informal discovery policy.5 Instead of pursuing this *342minimal course of action, trial counsel relied solely on the good graces of the prosecutor assigned to try the case. While the prosecutor generally provided defense counsel with access to everything in his files, problems arose with respect to discoverable materials not in his files, pertaining to the testimony of the two county jail inmates, Mark Mickles and Ronald McFarland.
Mickles had been interviewed by police officers several months before trial, but the officers did not prepare a police report concerning this interview nor did they turn over their notes to the prosecutor. Consequently, defense counsel was not even aware of Mickles’ existence as a potential witness until the commencement of the trial. As to the witness McFarland, trial counsel was aware of his testimony prior to trial but discovered during trial that McFarland’s statement to the police had been tape recorded. When counsel asked for the tape, the prosecution discovered that it had been lost.
Counsel objected to the testimony of Mickles and McFarland on the basis that the prosecution failed to provide complete discovery. However, as the majority opinion recognizes, counsel never made “a proper request” for discovery. (Ante, at p. 308.) Therefore, counsel’s objections were based merely upon an asserted violation of the “spirit” or “theory” of discovery and were properly overruled by the trial court.6
In addition to these casual efforts to learn all the facts pertaining to the guilt phase of the trial, defense counsel demonstrated poor preparation on issues of law. Prior to trial, counsel brought a motion to suppress appellant’s confession to the police. Counsel called this a motion under Penal Code section 1538.5. The theory underlying the motion was the allegedly involuntary nature of the confession. Counsel apparently was ignorant of the fact that a section 1538.5 motion does not lie to suppress a statement on that basis. (See People v. Superior *343Court (Zolnay) (1975) 15 Cal.3d 729, 733-736 [125 Cal.Rptr. 798, 542 P.2d 1390].) It is permissible to bring such a pretrial motion pursuant to Evidence Code section 402, but the ruling on a section 402 motion, unlike a ruling on a section 1538.5 motion, is not binding on the trial court. (See Saidi-Tabatabai v. Superior Court (1967) 253 Cal.App.2d 257 [61 Cal.Rptr. 510].)
Thus, counsel’s pretrial motion regarding the voluntariness of the confession should have been renewed before the trial judge and outside the presence of the jury. However, counsel’s first feeble efforts to renew the motion were not made until the following events had occurred before the jury: (1) the prosecutor discussed the confession in his opening statement; (2) the officer, who had taken appellant’s confession, testified that appellant had made a tape-recorded statement in which he first denied guilt but then said he “would tell us the truth”; (3) the tape recordings were identified by the officer; (4) copies of the transcript of the statement were distributed to all of the jurors; (5) the first tape began to be played; and (6) defense counsel requested that the tape be played at a louder volume. Not until this point did defense counsel speak up and ask to approach the bench. He said he was “not making any objection [but was] just asking for a point of information.” He said he “just wantfed] to cover [his] bases.” He asked the judge “if it is proper to re-raise that motion [relating to the admissibility of the confession] in front of this Court....” The judge correctly informed counsel it was indeed proper to raise the issue again. The jurors were told not to “read ahead” in the tape transcript, and a hearing was held outside the presence of the jury on the admissibility of the statement. By this time, of course, the jurors were fully aware of the fact of appellant’s confession. No matter how the trial court subsequently ruled as to admissibility, the jury could not have been expected to forget it. A more inept handling of a legal motion by an attorney would be difficult to imagine.
The obvious inadequacy of trial counsel was fully established by his failures (1) to investigate the facts and the law and (2) to file any discovery motion. These cumulative omissions would have been inexcusable even in a trial for petty theft. Unfortunately, there is yet another deficiency in counsel’s representation. The affidavit filed in this court by trial counsel graphically illustrates a lack of candor with either this court or the trial court.
*344At trial, counsel objected to the testimony of Ronald McFarland because it violated the “spirit” of discovery. He told the trial court that he did not “find out” about McFarland until the prosecutor’s opening statement. When the prosecutor responded that defense counsel had been given the police reports on McFarland several months earlier, counsel answered he had ignored these reports because McFarland’s name was not on the prosecutor’s witness list.
In his affidavit before this court, counsel now claims that “in fact I had adequate and full discovery from the prosecutor relative to Mr. McFarland.” He contends he made a tactical decision not to send an investigator out to interview McFarland because such a course of conduct “would not have been of any benefit.” However, it is difficult to reconcile this aspect of counsel’s affidavit with his statements and behavior at trial. Ten days after trial began, counsel asked for the appointment of an investigator to interview McFarland. This request came so late that even though it was promptly granted, the investigator was unable to contact McFarland until after McFarland had completed his direct testimony.7 The inability to interview McFarland—far from being of no concern, as is now asserted—required counsel to inform the trial court he was “not prepared to adequately cross-examine Mr. McFarland.”8 As a consequence of counsel’s admission, the trial judge delayed cross-examination to a later date.
Despite this abysmal performance by trial counsel, the majority uphold appellant’s convictions. In so doing, they ignore that “[t]he right to have the assistance of counsel is too fundamental and absolute to allow courts to indulge in nice calculations as to the amount of prejudice arising from its denial.” (Glasser v. United States (1942) 315 U.S. 60, 76 [86 L.Ed. 680, 702, 62 S.Ct. 457].)
*345In Chapman v. California (1967) 386 U.S. 18 [17 L.Ed.2d 705, 87 S.Ct. 824, 24 A.L.R.3d 1065], the Supreme Court noted that denial of the right to counsel was not among those “constitutional errors which in the setting of a particular case are so unimportant and insignificant that they may, consistent with the Federal Constitution, be deemed harmless, not requiring the automatic reversal of the conviction.” (Id., at p. 22 [17 L.Ed.2d at p. 709].) On the contrary, the court reiterated its position that the right to counsel is “so basic to a fair trial that [its] infraction can never be treated as harmless error. ...” (Id., at p. 23 and fn. 8 [17 L.Ed.2d at p. 710].) “That, indeed, was the whole point of Gideon v. Wainwright [1963] 372 U.S. 335, overruling Betts v. Brady [1942] 316 U.S. 455.” (Id., at p. 43 [17 L.Ed.2d at p. 721] (conc. opn. of Stewart, J.).) Gideon recognized that a trial without counsel is inherently unfair, even though “defendants faced with overwhelming evidence of guilt might never be able to demonstrate prejudice from the absence of counsel.” (Cooper v. Fitzharris (9th Cir. 1978) 586 F.2d 1325, 1335, fn. omitted (conc, and dis. opn. of Hufstedler, J.).) See also Comment, Defects in Ineffective Assistance Standards Used by State Courts (1979) 50 Colo. L.Rev. 389, 390-391.)
It is clear that “the right to counsel is the right to the effective assistance of counsel.” (McMann v. Richardson (1970) 397 U.S. 759, 771, fn. 14 [25 L.Ed.2d 763, 773, 90 S.Ct. 1441], citations omitted.) “‘After all, the purpose of Gideon was not merely to supply criminal defendants with warm bodies, but rather to guarantee reasonably competent representation.’” (Cooper v. Fitzharris, supra, 586 F.2d at p. 1338, fn. 11 (conc, and dis. opn. of Hufstedler, J.).) The Supreme Court’s decisions have generally reversed criminal convictions for denials of effective assistance, even though counsel may have been physically present throughout the trial, and even though prejudice could not be shown. (Herring v. New York (1975) 422 U.S. 853 [45 L.Ed.2d 593, 95 S.Ct. 2550]; Geders v. United States (1976) 425 U.S. 80 [47 L.Ed.2d 592, 96 S.Ct. 1330]; Holloway v. Arkansas (1978) 435 U.S. 475 [55 L.Ed.2d 426, 98 S.Ct. 1173].)
These cases support the principle that the harmless error rule should not be used as a cure-all to affirm a conviction where there has been a denial of the right to effective assistance of counsel. That right is “more than a right to be free from prejudicial trial errors. The right to competent counsel is also based on considerations of procedural fairness that apply regardless of the strength of the case against an accused.” *346(Cooper v. Fitzharris, supra, 586 F.2d at p. 1335, fn. omitted (conc, and dis. opn. of Hufstedler, J.).)
This court has acknowledged that “[i]f in the trial of a serious charge an appointed attorney or even a chosen one grossly neglects the preparation of the case the effect is to deny the defendant the right to counsel.” (In re Rose (1965) 62 Cal.2d 384, 386, [42 Cal.Rptr. 236, 398 P.2d 428] citation omitted.)
Reversal is required despite an absence of demonstrated prejudice because “the evil lies in what the attorney does not do, and is either not readily apparent on the record, or occurs at a time when no record is made.” (Cooper v. Fitzharris, supra, 586 F.2d at p. 1332.) In such situations, a rule requiring a showing of prejudice “would not be susceptible of intelligent, even-handed application” and would require “unguided speculation.” (Holloway v. Arkansas, supra, 435 U.S. at pp. 490-491 [55 L.Ed.2d at p. 438].)
Consistent with this precedent and its rationale, many courts have required a showing of prejudice when the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel is based on errors and omissions at trial.9 (Cooper v. Fitzharris, supra, 586 F.2d 1325; United States ex rel. Green v. Rundle (3d Cir. 1970) 434 F.2d 1112; United States v. DeCoster (D.C. Cir. 1973) 487 F.2d 1197; Moore v. United States (3d Cir. 1970) 432 F.2d 730.) Even these courts have recognized the need for a different rule when prejudice cannot be determined from the record. For example, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals has said: “In many instances ineffective assistance of counsel may have had so pervasive an effect on the process of guilt determination that it is impossible to determine accurately the presence or absence of prejudice.... In such instances a finding of departure from the standard of normal competence requires without more, a new trial.” (United States ex rel. Green v. Rundle, supra, 434 F.2d at p. 1115.)
*347Since counsel failed to investigate the facts and the law in this case, the ineffectiveness of his representation by definition cannot appear on the trial record. As Chief Judge Bazelon has recognized, “proof of prejudice may well be absent from the record precisely because counsel has been ineffective. For example, when counsel fails to conduct an investigation, the record may not indicate which witnesses he could have called, or defenses he could have raised.” (United States v. DeCoster, supra, 487 F.2d at p. 1204, fn. omitted.)10 Even an evidentiary hearing to establish “why counsel acted or failed to act in the manner challenged”11 can accomplish no more than raise speculation as to what evidence or witnesses might have been uncovered by prompt investigation, what defenses might have been available had the accused been promptly examined by a psychiatrist, or what other evidence favorable to the defense might have been revealed by interviews and investigations of the prosecution’s witnesses.
In addition to violating the Sixth Amendment, the lack of adequate pretrial factual investigation and the failings of counsel at the guilt phase trial also amounted to a denial of due process and fundamental fairness in the context of this capital trial. The United States Supreme Court has long made distinctions between the standards of fairness that apply to capital cases as opposed to other criminal cases. (Powell v. Alabama (1932) 287 U.S. 45, 71-72 [77 L.Ed. 158, 172, 53 S.Ct. 55, 84 A.L.R. 527]; Reid v. Covert (1957) 354 U.S. 1, 45-46, 77 [1 L.Ed. 2d 1148, 1179, 1196-1197, 77 S.Ct. 1222] (separate cone. opns. of Frankfurter and Harlan, JJ.).) More recently, the high court has explicitly stated that due process scrutiny is stricter in death penalty cases. (Woodson v. North Carolina (1976) 428 U.S. 280, 305 [49 L.Ed.2d 944, 961-962, 96 S.Ct. 2978] (opn. of Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.).)
The high court set forth the reasons why a higher standard is required in cases which involve the death penalty. “From the point of view of the defendant, [the death penalty] is different in both its severity and its finality. From the point of view of society, the action of the sovereign in taking the life of one of its citizens also differs dramatically *348from any other legitimate state action.” (Gardner v. Florida (1977) 430 U.S. 349, 357-358 [51 L.Ed.2d 393, 402, 97 S.Ct. 1197].)12
“The assistance of counsel is often a requisite to the very existence of a fair trial.” (Argersinger v. Hamlin (1972) 407 U.S. 25, 31 [32 L.Ed. 2d 530, 535, 92 S.Ct. 2006]; see also Powell v. Alabama, supra, 287 U.S. at pp. 68-69 [77 L.Ed. at p. 170].) Indeed, the Sixth Amendment right to counsel was considered an “‘immutable principle of justice,’” and was one of the first specific guarantees contained in the Bill of Rights which was applied to the states through the due process clause. (Powell v. Alabama, supra, 287 U.S. at p. 71 [77 L.Ed. at p. 172], quoting Holden v. Hardy (1898) 169 U.S. 366, 389 [42 L.Ed. 780, 790, 18 S.Ct. 383].)
The question in this case is whether the state may execute a person when his state-appointed attorney failed to properly investigate his case. In a determination of this question, the court must weigh society’s interest in the appearance of fairness in the administration of the death penalty. As the Supreme Court has pointed out, “[i]t is of vital importance to the defendant and to the community that any decision to impose the death sentence be, and appear to be, based on reason rather than caprice or emotion.” (Gardner v. Florida, supra, 430 U.S. at p. 358 [51 L.Ed.2d at p. 402].)
There is indeed an element of caprice in the judgment of death under review. Appellant suffered the random misfortune of the appointment of a state-appointed attorney who failed to independently investigate his case and who lacked knowledge of basic criminal procedure. A ruling such as that being rendered by the majority that this lamentable representation satisfies the highest standard of procedural fairness can only lend credence to the charge that the death penalty is arbitrarily and discriminatorily inflicted upon the poor, who are unable to retain competent counsel.13
*349In this case, counsel was either unable or unwilling to investigate his client’s cause. “Ultimately, we can never know what would have happened had competent representation been provided, for even seemingly hopeless cases may take unexpected turns in the hands of effective counsel.” (Cooper v. Fitzharris, supra, 586 F.2d at p. 1339 (conc, and dis. opn. of Hufstedler, J.).) How can the court divine what might have happened if counsel had conducted a prompt inquiry into his client’s mental status or a thorough investigation of the prosecution’s witnesses or careful legal research into matters of discovery and procedure? Under these circumstances, this court should not indulge in “nice calculations”14 or “unguided speculation.”15 Rather, it should reverse the judgment entered below since appellant did not receive the effective assistance of counsel at either the guilt or penalty phase16 of his trial.
II
Next, the constitutional validity of the old 1977 death penalty law must be addressed. The procedures set forth in the old 1977 death penalty legislation17 differ only superficially from those contained in the pre-1972 death penalty statutes. The pre-1972 laws were declared unconstitutional because they failed to give adequate guidance to judges and juries as to which persons, convicted of capital crimes, should live and which should die. Despite the fact that these statutes are similar, the majority in their opinion curiously find the 1977 legislation constitutional. (See People v. Murphy (1972) 8 Cal.3d 349, 352, fn. 2 [105 Cal.Rptr. 138, 503 P.2d 594]; see also, People v. Frierson (1979) 25 Cal.3d 142, 176 [158 Cal.Rptr. 281, 599 P.2d 587] (lead opn. of Richardson, J.).)
The majority err in two important respects. First, they rely on an analysis articulated by only three justices of this court in People v. Frierson, supra, 25 Cal.3d at pages 172-188. Second, the majority ignore the fact that the United States Supreme Court intended its recent *350decisions on capital punishment to be more than mere exercises in semantics. A death penalty statute is required by the federal Constitution to provide the judge or jury with “specific and detailed guidance.”18 The 1977 legislation does not meet this important requirement.
The relevant constitutional history begins in 1972 when the United States Supreme Court issued its decision in Furman v. Georgia (1972) 408 U.S. 238 [33 L.Ed.2d 346, 92 S.Ct. 2726]. There, the high court held unconstitutional a Georgia statute that gave the sentencing judge or jury complete and unguided discretion as to whether the death penalty should be imposed. Central to this holding was the court’s conviction that the lack of sentencing standards “create[d] a substantial risk that the punishment [of death] will be inflicted in an arbitrary and capricious manner.” (See Godfrey v. Georgia (1980) 446 U.S. 420, 427 [64 L.Ed.2d 398, 406, 100 S.Ct. 1759, 1764].)
Furman left unresolved two major questions. Can a sentencing judge or jury constitutionally be given any discretion in determining whether to impose a death sentence? If some discretion were permissible, how much guidance does the Constitution require in order to avoid the pitfalls identified in Furman? These questions were addressed in five companion cases handed down on July 2, 1976.19 Not only was discretion allowed, it was constitutionally required, at least for the overwhelming majority of crimes.20 (Woodson, supra, 428 U.S. 280; Roberts (Stanislaus) supra, 428 U.S. 325.)
*351However, it is an understatement to observe that Gregg et al. gave few clear cut answers to the second of the issues left open in Furman. The relevant decisions since Gregg have not provided the guidance necessary to resolve this question. Nevertheless, certain general themes do emerge. If a state wishes to authorize a death sentence as punishment for murder, “it has a constitutional responsibility to tailor and apply its law in a manner that avoids the arbitrary and capricious infliction of the death penalty.” (Godfrey, supra, 446 U.S. at p. 428 [64 L.Ed.2d at p. 406, 100 S.Ct. at p. 1764].) It must reserve the death sentence for the most extreme of cases. (Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 187 [49 L.Ed. 2d at pp. 882-883] (opn. of Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.).) Even within this population of extreme offenders, there must be provided a “meaningful basis” for distinguishing the cases in which death should be imposed from those in which it should not. (Lockett v. Ohio (1978) 438 U.S. 586, 601 [57 L.Ed.2d 973, 987, 98 S.Ct. 2954] (plur. opn. of Burger, C.J.).) Such a “basis” makes it more certain that the decisions of the sentencing judges and juries will be rational and consistent throughout a state. (Ibid.) The court also found a constitutional need to ensure the “reliability [of] the determination that death is the appropriate punishment in a specific case.” (Woodson, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 305 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 961], fn. omitted (opn. of Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.).)
To effectuate these constitutional goals, the Supreme Court indicated that safeguards are necessary at both the trial and appellate court levels. The state “must channel the sentencer’s discretion by ‘clear and objective standards’ that provide ‘specific and detailed guidance,’ and that ‘make rationally reviewable the process for imposing a sentence of death.’” (Godfrey, supra, 446 U.S. at p. 428 [64 L.Ed.2d at p. 406, 100 S.Ct. at pp. 1764-1765], fns. omitted; see also Woodson, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 303 [49 L.Ed.2d at pp. 960-961].)

Controlling the Discretion of the Sentencing Authority at the Trial Level

The Supreme Court has indicated that once an individual has been convicted of a capital offense, there must be “an informed, focused, guided, and objective inquiry into the question whether he should be sentenced to death.” (Proffitt, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 259 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 927].) At this proceeding, the sentencing authority is to be both “ap*352prised of the information relevant to the imposition of sentence and provided with standards to guide its use of the information.” (Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 195 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 887], italics added; see also, id., at p. 192 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 885].)
California’s 1977 law does permit the introduction of relevant evidence, but it fails to provide (1) standards by which the sentencing authority can evaluate that evidence, (2) safeguards to ensure that the judge or jury does in fact focus on the important or permissible sentencing considerations, (3) a mechanism to ensure that any decision imposing a sentence of death is reliable, and (4) a procedure to enable a reviewing court to meaningfully evaluate a sentencer’s decision to take a person’s life. Whatever may válidly be said as to the lack of clarity of the United States Supreme Court in this area (see, e.g., Frierson, supra, 25 Cal.3d at pp. 190-195 (cone. opn. of Mosk, J.)), it is a highly questionable assertion that the high court would uphold this legislative scheme with all its shortcomings.
Preeminent among the shortcomings of the 1977 legislation is its complete failure to provide meaningful standards. The sentencing authority is directed by former section 190.3 to consider “the aggravating and mitigating circumstances referred to in this section. ...” However, the section explicitly allows consideration of any circumstance which the sentencing authority deems to be extenuating. (See former § 190.3, subd. (j).) The statute fails to inform the sentencing authority whether its consideration of aggravating circumstances is similarly open-ended.21
Standing alone, this imprecision might not be sufficient to invalidate the 1977 procedures, since former section 190.3 does direct the sentencing authority to consider at least the particular “factors” set forth in subdivisions (a) through (j). The United States Supreme Court has suggested that the constitutional requirement of sentencing guidelines may *353be satisfied if the sentencing authority is given “guidance” regarding those factors which “the State, representing organized society, deems particularly relevant to the sentencing decision.” (Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 192 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 885], italics added (opn. of Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.).) The thrust of this language in Gregg appears to be to ensure that the state inform the sentencing authority of the primary penological purposes it seeks to advance through its use of capital punishment so that consistency of decision is possible. (See McGautha v. California (1971) 402 U.S. 183, 280-287 [28 L.Ed.2d 711, 768-773, 91 S.Ct. 1454] (dis. opn. of Brennan, J.).)
Since the 1977 legislation fails to inform the sentencing authority as to which of the enumerated factors are aggravating circumstances and which are mitigating, the requirements of Gregg are not satisfied. If the state intends to advance some penological goal by directing the attention of the sentencing authority to certain specified factors, how can the judge or jury know what that policy is? As a direct result, death penalty verdicts will be random and sporadic rather than consistent. Different conclusions will be reached by different judges or juries as to whether a specified factor is aggravating or mitigating.
For example, former section 190.3 lists as one of the enumerated factors “[w]hether or not at the time of the offense the capacity of the defendant to appreciate the criminality of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of law was impaired as a result of mental disease or the effects of intoxication.” (Subd. (g).) Some sentencing authorities, who find the evidence supports this factor, may come to the conclusion that this is a mitigating circumstance. Others, considering the tenor of our times, may consider this a factor favoring execution. The point is that neither sentencing authority can determine whether its version is correct. As a result, identically situated defendants will be sentenced differently. The Legislature, in directing the attention of the sentencing authority to these factors but omitting to indicate whether their presence or absence is a mitigating or aggravating circumstance, set up a statutory scheme that ensures inequality of treatment.
Significantly, none of the death penalty statutes upheld in Gregg et al. had the flaw which is part of the 1977 legislation. The Georgia statute directed the sentencing authority’s attention to ten factors it deemed to be “aggravating”;22 the Florida law enumerated eight “aggravating” *354and seven “mitigating” circumstances;23 and in Texas the jury was informed that “yes” answers to each of the three statutory penalty questions would result in a death sentence.24
There is another important flaw. The statutes in Georgia, Florida, and Texas all required the sentencing authority to find at the penalty trial that at least one of the statutorily enumerated aggravating factors was present to justify a decision that a particular defendant should be executed. Also, findings by the sentencing authority had to be in written form.25 Unfortunately, the California statute "has neither of these provisions.
These interrelated provisions serve to ensure that the sentencing authority’s discretion has in fact operated within statutory limits. They focus the sentencing authority’s attention on the “particularly relevant”26 sentencing factors. These provisions ensure that persons will not be sentenced to die unless the important penological goals of the state will be advanced. The risk that a death sentence will be imposed for a trivial or impermissible reason is lessened. To this extent, these provisions promote consistency of decision-making. Finally, the requirement that the findings be in writing enables meaningful judicial review of a decision imposing a death sentence.
*355In People v. Frierson, supra, 25 Cal.3d 142, three justices of this court found no merit in an attack on these procedural defects. Two reasons were tendered in support of their conclusion. First, the justices relied on former section 190.4, subdivision (e), which provides for an automatic application for modification of a verdict whenever a jury has returned a death sentence. (25 Cal.3d at p. 179 (opn. of Richardson, J.).) In ruling on the motion, the trial court must review the evidence, consider the aggravating and mitigating circumstances, make its own independent determination as to the weight of the evidence supporting the jury’s findings and verdict, and state on the record the reasons for its findings. The three justices in Frierson concluded that the proceedings on such a new trial motion were “roughly comparable” {ibid.) to those in the Florida death penalty scheme, which was upheld in Proffitt.
The analogy to the Florida statutes is just plain wrong. In Florida, the jury determination of penalty was advisory only; the final decision as to punishment was given to the trial judge. In California, the situation is quite different. As Justice Mosk has noted, “under our statute the authority with primary responsibility for fixing the penalty is the jury.” (Frierson, supra, 25 Cal.3d at p. 193, fn. 7 (conc. opn.).) The jury’s role is not that of advisor. If there were any doubt as to this fact, “section 190.3 declares no less than three times that in the penalty phase the trier of fact shall ‘determine’ the punishment to be inflicted.” {Ibid.) Further, the trial judge has no power to overturn a jury verdict of life imprisonment. In short, the jury is the sentencing authority under the 1977 law. The United States Supreme Court’s cases “make clear that it is the sentencer’s discretion that must be channeled and guided by clear, objective, and specific standards.” (Godfrey, supra, 446 U.S. at p. 437 [64 L.Ed.2d at p. 411, 100 S.Ct. at p. 1769], original italics (conc. opn. of Marshall, J.).)27
The second basis on which the Frierson plurality sought to overcome these objections was to point out that at the guilt phase of a capital trial the jury must return a verdict of “true” on at least one allegation of special circumstances before the penalty phase may commence. (25 Cal.3d at p. 179.) Since the existence of a special circumstance is one of *356the factors specifically enumerated in former section 190.3 and since the jury’s verdict on that allegation at the guilt phase is signed by the jury foreperson, any constitutional need for specific findings in writing was met.
However, the duty of the sentencing authority to return a verdict at the guilt phase does not serve as a check against arbitrary and capricious decision-making at the penalty phase. A jury which has found a special circumstance allegation to be true is still fully entitled to return a verdict of life imprisonment. The fact that a jury has returned a verdict of “true” at the guilt phase does not in any way imply that the existence of the special circumstance is one of this jury’s reasons for sentencing this particular defendant to die. Indeed, the finding of truth of the special circumstance is made at a time when the jury is specifically instructed not to consider punishment in arriving at its verdict. (Former CALJIC No. 17.43 (3d ed. 1970).)
The trial level procedures provided by the 1977 death penalty legislation contain another defect; i.e., there are inadequate procedures to ensure the “greater degree of reliability” that is constitutionally required when the death sentence is imposed. (Lockett, supra, 438 U.S. at p. 604 [57 L.Ed.2d at p. 989] (plur. opn. of Burger, C.J.).) Of course, it is not possible to eliminate all mistaken sentences of death—there “is always in litigation a margin of error, representing error in factfinding. ...” (Speiser v. Randall (1958) 357 U.S. 513, 525 [2 L.Ed.2d 1460, 1472, 78 S.Ct. 1332].)
Nevertheless, in an analogous context, the Supreme Court has recognized that mistakes in decision-making can and constitutionally must be reduced by imposing upon the government a strong burden of proof. Thus, “[w]here one party has at stake an interest of transcending value—as a criminal defendant his liberty—this margin of error is reduced as to him by the process of placing on the other party the burden of producing a sufficiency of proof in the first instance, and of persuading the factfinder at the conclusion of the trial of his guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.” (Id., at pp. 525-526 [2 L.Ed.2d at p. 1472].)
Just as the risks of an erroneous deprivation of liberty justify placing a heavy burden of proof on the government, so must the risks of an erroneous deprivation of life require the government to establish convincingly both the appropriateness of the ultimate sanction and the existence of the aggravating circumstances upon which that sanction is *357based. Death is, after all, “profoundly different from all other penalties” and “[w]hen the choice is between life and death, [the] risk [that the death penalty will be improperly applied in a particular case] is unacceptable and incompatible with the commands of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments.” (Lockett, supra, 438 U.S. at p. 605 [57 L.Ed.2d at p. 990] (plur. opn. of Burger, C. J.).) Far from imposing a substantial burden of proof upon the government at the penalty phase, the 1977 California statutes impose no burden at all. How can legislative silence be deemed an adequate response to the constitutional “interest in reliability”? (Gardner v. Florida, supra, 430 U.S. at p. 359 [51 L.Ed.2d at p. 403] (plur. opn. of Stevens, J.).)28
Another safeguard which would enhance the reliability of any death verdict would be a requirement that the sentencing jury be unanimous as to each aggravating circumstance which the jury deems sufficient to impose a sentence of death. The 1977 law contains no such provision. Indeed, it does not even require a majority of the jurors to agree upon the existence of such a factor. Certainly, the constitutional requirement of reliability is not met by a law which allows a death sentence to be imposed for the combined reasons of all jurors, none of which could garner a majority vote.
If the death penalty is to be imposed, it must be done under a system which ensures fair and consistent results at the trial court level. Since the old 1977 California statute fails to meet those essential requirements, a judgment of death based upon it cannot stand.

*358
Proportionality Review on Appeal

California’s 1977 death penalty legislation has another serious flaw since there are inadequate safeguards for appellate review of a judge or jury’s decision to impose death. The United States Supreme Court has struck down death penalty statutes which fail to provide for “meaningful appellate review.” (Roberts (Stanislaus), supra, 428 U.S. at p. 335 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 983].) To be adequate, legislation must set up a method by which a “full review of the factual basis” for the sentencing authority’s decision29 can be made by “a court which, because of its statewide jurisdiction, can assure consistency, fairness, and rationality in the evenhanded operation of the state law.”30
The California Legislature failed to provide for such “proportionality review” in enacting the 1977 legislation. An examination of the background and legislative history of this legislation establishes conclusively that the omission was intentional and that the Legislature intended to exclude proportionality review from this state’s capital punishment law.
Two developments prior to the Legislature’s consideration of the 1977 law are relevant. First, this court had consistently and repeatedly held that it had “no power to review the exercise of the jury’s or trial court’s discretion” which fixed the penalty for capital murder. (People v. Odle (1951) 37 Cal.2d 52, 55 [230 P.2d 345]; see also, In re Anderson (1968) 69 Cal.2d 613, 623 [73 Cal.Rptr. 21, 447 P.2d 117] and cases cited therein.) Although this court was “importuned on many occasions to exercise such a power[,] [u]niformly, the request [was] rejected.” (People v. Howk (1961) 56 Cal.2d 687, 699 [16 Cal.Rptr. 370, 365 P.2d 426].)
In December of 1976, this state’s then-existing mandatory death penalty laws were held unconstitutional because they violated the principles of Gregg et al. (Rockwell v. Superior Court (1976) 18 Cal.3d 420 [134 Cal.Rptr. 650, 556 P.2d 1101].)31 Those laws did not have a provision which included proportionality review. In striking down that legislation, this court specifically held that “[decisions as to. ..what extent a jury determination [imposing a death sentence] is reviewable by. . .the re*359viewing court, and the scope of responsibility to be given this court to safeguard against arbitrary imposition of the death penalty are matters of legislative concern.” {Id., at p. 445, italics added.) The court went further and declined to read such requirements into the death penalty statute because that would “invade the legislative province.... ” {Ibid.)
Soon after Rockwell was filed, several bills were introduced in the Legislature to reinstate the death penalty. One of these bills, Senate Bill No. 155 (1977-1978 Reg. Sess.), was eventually enacted into law, creating the death penalty provisions now under consideration.
Early in the Legislature’s consideration of these bills, a special hearing was called to consider expert testimony on the question of what procedural provisions would be mandated in order to pass a constitutional death penalty law. (See Constitutional Issues Relative to the Death Penalty, Special Hearing, Assem. Com. on Crim. Justice (Jan. 24, 1977).) An “outstanding group of experts” was called to testify. (See remarks of Hon. Kenneth L. Maddy, id., at p. 1.) The legislators were repeatedly told at the hearing that “the absence of Supreme Court proportionality [review] in a statute. . .is enough to make it unconstitutional.” {Id., at p. 13.)
As originally introduced, Senate Bill No. 155 did not include any statutory provision for proportionality review. Analyses of the bill in both the Senate and the Assembly noted this omission and queried, “Wouldn’t the risk of unconstitutionality be unduly high in a statute like S.B. 155 without statewide proportionality review?” (See Bill Analysis of Sen. Bill No. 155 (as amended Mar. 24, 1977) by Assem. Com. on Crim. Justice, at p. 7; see also Bill Analysis of Sen. Bill No. 155 (as amended Feb. 17, 1977) by Sen. Com. on Judiciary, at pp. 6-8.)
On May 16, 1977, an amendment was proposed that would have added proportionality review to Senate Bill No. 155. The amendment read: “In any appeal taken pursuant to subdivision (b) of Section 1239, the Supreme Court shall also consider the punishment to determine whether the sentence was imposed for any arbitrary factor and whether the sentence of death is excessive or disproportionate to the penalty imposed in similar cases, considering the crime, the circumstances surrounding its commission, and the defendant. The Supreme Court is authorized to make any rules regarding the keeping of the records or any other matter necessary to fulfill the responsibility under this subdivision.” (2 Assem. J. (1977-1978 Reg. Sess.) p. 3352.)
*360The proposed amendment to Senate Bill No. 155 was rejected by a vote of 44 to 30, and the bill was quickly enacted into law with no provision for proportionality review.
In light of all of these developments, the conclusion appears unavoidable that the Legislature has not empowered this court to conduct proportionality review. As one well known authority has stated, “Generally the rejection of an amendment [to a bill that is subsequently enacted] indicates that the legislature does not intend the bill to include the provisions embodied in the rejected amendment.” (2A Sutherland, Statutory Construction (4th ed. 1973) § 48.18, p. 224, fn. omitted.)32 This rule of construction has been followed in California for many years. (See, e.g., Madrid v. Justice Court (1975) 52 Cal.App.3d 819, 825 [125 Cal.Rptr. 348]; Rich v. State Board of Optometry (1965) 235 Cal.App.2d 591, 607 [45 Cal.Rptr. 512]; see also California Mfrs. Assn. v. Public Utilities Com. (1979) 24 Cal.3d 836, 846 [157 Cal.Rptr. 676, 598 P.2d 836].)
Nevertheless, the three justices who addressed this issue in Frierson decided to “‘read into’ the 1977 law” the requisite provisions for proportionality review, since those justices were “unable to discern” a clear legislative intent to reject such review. (Frierson, supra, 25 Cal.3d at p. 183 (lead opn. of Richardson, J.).) This conclusion can be reached only by ignoring legislative history and violating long established rules of statutory construction. (Sutherland, op. cit. supra.) When the Legislature rejected the amendment to insert proportionality review into Senate Bill No. 155, it knew (1) that this court had for years held it had no power to review a sentencing authority’s exercise of discretion which imposed a death sentence; (2) that only five months prior to the vote on the proposed amendment, this court had held that proportionality review was a matter of purely “legislative concern” and that for this court to read such a provision into a death penalty legislation would be to “invade the legislative province... ”33; and (3) that constitutional experts and the legislators’ own staffs had informed them of the probable need for such a provision in the bill itself for the legislation to be constitutional. In light of these circumstances, it is inconceivable that anyone could conclude that when the Legislature rejected the proportionality *361review amendment, it was not rejecting the concept of proportionality review.34
In Rockwell, supra, 18 Cal. 3d 420, this court expressed other reasons which militated against our inserting proportionality review into legislation that did not provide for it. The court would not only have to “attempt to devise the necessary procedures and criteria” but it would “be in the position of having to pass objectively on the constitutionality of procedures of [its] own design.” (Id. at p. 445.)
The fears underlying these considerations are borne out by the narrow scope of the proportionality review suggested by the lead opinion in Frierson. Even if this court could properly defy the Legislature’s wishes concerning proportionality review, the kind of review which the three Frierson justices vowed to undertake is inadequate under federal constitutional standards.
Quoting from In re Lynch (1972) 8 Cal.3d 410, 424 [105 Cal.Rptr. 217, 503 P.2d 921]—a case predating Gregg et al. and relying solely on the California Constitution—the three justices in Frierson defined proportionality review as an obligation to “determine whether the penalty ‘is so disproportionate to the crime for which it is inflicted that it shocks the conscience and offends fundamental notions of human dignity.’” (25 Cal.3d at p. 183, emphasis added in Frierson.) This test of proportionality is too narrow. It focuses on the proportionality between the punishment and the crime without attempting to “determine whether it is proportional to other sentences imposed for similar crimes.” (Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 203 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 891] (opn. of Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.).)35
*362This deficiency is compounded by the articulation of a wholly subjective standard for finding a death sentence disproportionate: the sentence must “shock the conscience” in light of the crime. Such a standard leaves the appellate court without adequate guidance for determining the proportionality of a particular death sentence. Moreover, the standard appears to be virtually unreachable, since former section 190.2 permits a death sentence only for very serious crimes—first degree murders committed under “special circumstances.” It is difficult to believe that in reviewing death sentences imposed on persons convicted of such crimes, a majority of this court will find the sentence so excessive as to shock their conscience or offend their sense of human dignity. Realistically, the kind of “proportionality review” described by the lead opinion in Frierson is at best an empty ritual.
Clearly, proportionality review was not meant to be an entirely subjective or perfunctory exercise. Rather, it was designed to provide a significant check on the arbitrariness of judges and juries by assuring consistency throughout the state in the infliction of death sentences. Under the view suggested in Frierson, proportionality review does not include this essential comparative function.
It also bears noting that this court is not presently equipped to perform meaningful proportionality review. While this court can monitor those cases in which a death sentence is imposed, it cannot account for cases in which a sentencing authority returns a verdict of life imprisonment. Thus, every automatic appeal reviewed for “proportionality” of sentence can only be compared to other cases wherein death has been imposed. No matter how frequently life sentences may be returned at the trial level for similar crimes and similar offenders, all death sentences will appear to this appellate court to be consistent.
*363Finally, even if this court could properly limit its proportionality review to the record in the individual appeal being decided, the review would be meaningless. The sentencing authority in California is under no obligation to put on the record any of its reasons for imposing the death penalty. Further, it may impose death on the basis of factors not specifically enumerated in former section 190.3. As a result, this court has no way of determining whether any given death sentence was in fact arbitrary or based on caprice. The entire scheme for proportionality review set up by the lead opinion in Frierson is mere illusion.
In Frierson, supra, the lead opinion acknowledged this court’s “constitutionally derived responsibility to assess the proportionality of a particular punishment....” (25 Cal. 3d at p. 183.) Today, this court’s majority opinion states that “we stand fully prepared to afford whatever kind of proportionality review may be held constitutionally mandated by the high court.” (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 317.) Despite these statements of high resolve, the majority have not undertaken such review as to the present case.
Perhaps the reason for this omission is that such a review is impossible under this statute because there is no way of knowing why this jury sentenced this young man to die. There is no way of knowing what aggravating circumstances the jurors actually relied on in their decision to impose death. There is no way of knowing which circumstances the jury believed were aggravating and which they deemed mitigating. There is no way of knowing which of the 10 enumerated factors in former section 190.3 were found to be true. There is no way of knowing whether all the jurors agreed on the existence of the same aggravating circumstance(s) or whether only a few agreed on any particular one. There is no way of knowing whether the jury found each aggravating circumstance relied on to have been established by a scintilla of evidence, a preponderance of evidence, clear and convincing evidence, or by proof beyond a reasonable doubt. And there is no way of knowing whether this jury’s decision was consistent with those of other juries under like circumstances. In short, this court knows nothing more about the actual reasons why this jury chose to condemn appellant to death than it would have known under the invalid pre-Furman law.
This court, in order to uphold the constitutionality of a defective death penalty statute, has set up an illusory scheme that resembles the work of a prestidigitator more than that of a court of law.
*364III
Over the years, much has been written about the death penalty. People differ philosophically as to its efficacy as a deterrent to crime. Indeed, there are few issues that generate so much heat while shedding so little light. Perhaps no issue is so emotionally charged. Unfortunately, the political atmosphere this issue creates is more conducive to sensationalism and exploitation than it is to understanding. Thus, in the past some politicians have not been above attempting to advance their careers by playing on the strong feelings this issue engenders.36
Against that emotional backdrop, this court must play a very different role. Our job is to carefully and precisely review the record and apply constitutional principles of law so that a fair and just result is reached in each and every case in which a judgment of death has been pronounced. The people of this state placed that responsibility on this court when they enacted the provision presently found in article VI, section 11 of the California Constitution.
To properly discharge our responsibility, two difficult tasks must be undertaken. First, this court must rigorously review the record below for error. If substantive error is present, this court must not hesitate to reverse. That is our job, and we are duty-bound to perform it. Second, this court must measure the adequacy of California’s statutes by federal constitutional standards regarding the death penalty, as articulated in the decisions of the United States Supreme Court. Those decisions have set forth rules to ensure that when a state imposes the death penalty, it is done consistently with fair procedure. Regardless of whether they personally favor the death penalty or not, I am certain the citizens of this state would not want this court to uphold the imposition of that penalty if our statute did not meet the essential requirements that the United States Supreme Court has posited.
*365The justices of this court all take an oath of office to follow the law. Although we may disagree on various issues before us, our views are reached conscientiously and consistently with the rigorous demands of our oaths. Nowhere is our exercise of conscientious judgment more critical than in those cases in which the ultimate sanction of death has been imposed.
It is precisely for these reasons that I think it imperative that this court strip away the emotional overlay surrounding this issue and objectively and fairly review the record of this trial and the applicable law. Having done so, I am convinced that this conviction cannot stand.
The failure of the Legislature to write a death penalty statute that sets forth clear guidelines that assure relative equality of treatment; the failure of the Legislature to give the sentencing authority meaningful standards to follow in exercising its discretion; the failure of the Legislature to provide procedures that ensure that the judge or jury focuses on the important and permissible sentencing considerations; the failure of the Legislature to set out a mechanism that would ensure that a reliable determination has been made that death is the proper sentence in a particular case; and the failure of the Legislature to give this court the means or the power to engage in meaningful review of a sentence of death, make it impossible to uphold the 1977 death penalty statute.
These failures of the Legislature are only compounded by the failure of the state-appointed trial attorney to effectively represent his client. Consequently, the judgment entered below should be reversed.
Tobriner, J., concurred
Appellant’s petition for a rehearing was denied December 10, 1980. Bird, C. J., Tobriner, J., and Mosk, J., were of the opinion that the petition should be granted.

In re Saunders, supra, 2 Cal.3d at page 1048.

Whlle appellant was indigent and could not a fiord to hire an investigator on his own. Penal Code section 987.9 would have authorized the trial court to appoint and *341pay for an investigator to assist in the defense of his case. Trial counsel did not avail himself of the benefits of this section.

The majority’s assertion that the record now before this court fails to disclose “the precise extent of counsel’s own pretrial investigative efforts” is not accurate. (See maj. opn., ante, at p. 288.) Petitioner backs up his claim of his counsel’s failure to investigate by reference to a document filed by trial counsel in the superior court. Counsel listed, under penalty of perjury, the time he spent “in preparation, reading transcript, interviewing witnesses, legal research, interviewing client, or other.” This declaration is so detailed that it even reveals a one-hour “interview” with appellant’s aunt to obtain clothes for trial and a one-hour telephone call with appellant’s father after the trial. Simply by virtue of the details counsel included in the declaration, it is not likely that counsel omitted some investigative efforts he made that pertained to issues at the trial.
Trial counsel was fully aware of the multifaceted attack on his competency. He has responded in an affidavit to those factual matters which he deemed to be inaccurate. He has never contended that the declaration he filed below failed to accurately reflect his investigative efforts as to both phases of appellant’s trial. The “precise extent of counsel’s own pretrial investigative efforts” is fully established by the record now before this court.

Counse's delay cannot be attributed to extensive preparation for other aspects of appellant’s ease. During fhe period he represented appellant prior to the appointment of a psychiatrist, counsel devoted an average of less than two hours per week of out-of-court time to this case.

This enlightened local policy would have required counsel merely to serve a written request for discovery on the district attorney’s office at least 25 days before trial. Once served, the request becomes binding on the prosecution unless the prosecutor follows *342the delineated procedures regarding noncompliance. Under the superior court policy, the request “shall be deemed a continuing one.” It obligates both the district attorney’s office and the investigating police agencies to permit discovery by the accused of “all of the information and/or evidence” in the possession of or known to those departments. The policy allows the imposition of sanctions if the state does not properly comply with the informal discovery request.

At one point, the majority state that defense counsel’s arrangement with the prosecutor regarding discovery was “approved by the trial court.” {Ante, at p. 291.) This quoted portion of the statement is incorrect as a factual matter. Rather, as the majority recognize elsewhere, the prosecution was under no legal duty to furnish discovery in this case because of “the absence of a proper request therefor.” {Ante, at p. 308.)

The investigator appointed by the court had previously investigated more than 75 murder cases and 15 death penalty cases. He stated in an affidavit that “it has been my experience over the years that in cases as serious as murder,... attorneys bring me into the case immediately following the preliminary hearing, and sometimes even before the preliminary examination. ...”

As a sanction against the prosecution’s violation of the “spirit” of discovery, trial counsel moved that McFarland be precluded from testifying and stated that he relied on the district attorney’s witness list. He said that the list contained “some 32 witnesses to investigate and follow up” and that “those were the witnesses. . . I checked in preparing this case.”
In light of what this court now knows about counsel’s investigative efforts, this assertion to the trial court appears disingenuous at best.

This view is consistent with People v. Pope (1979) 23 Cal.3d 412 [152 Cal.Rptr. 732, 590 P.2d 859]. Pope established principles to govern claims of the ineffective assistance of counsel in cases where those claims are based on specific errors or omissions of counsel and the impact of these errors can be readily ascertained. Such principles are inapplicable when the denial of effective assistance of counsel “renders impossible a meaningful assessment of prejudice on the record." (People v. Coffey (1967) 67 Cal.2d 204, 219 [60 Cal.Rptr. 457, 430 P.2d 15], fn. omitted, original italics; see also Ewing v. Williams (9th Cir. 1979) 596 F.2d 391, 397-399 (dis. opn. of Ely, J.).)

Poinling out the importance of such investigation, the Third Circuit has recognized that such errors would not be visible in a trial record. “The exercise of the utmost skill during the trial is not enough if counsel has neglected the necessary investigation and preparation of the case or failed to interview essential witnesses or to arrange for their attendance. Such omissions, of course, will rarely be visible on the surface of the trial . . .." (Moore v. United States, supra, 432 F.2d at p. 739.)

People v. Pope, supra, 23 Cal.3d at page 426.

WhiIe Woodson and Gardner were concerned with procedural fairness in the penalty phase of capital trials, the high court recently ruled that; “ [t] he same reasoning must apply to rules that diminish the reliability of the guilt determination.” (Beck v. Alabama (1980) 447 U.S. 625, 638, [65 L.Ed.2d 392, 403, 100 S.Ct. 2382, 2389-2390].)

The substance of this complaint was found to be true of pre-1967 death penalty administration by the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice: “The death sentence is disproportionately imposed and carried out on the poor, the Negro, and the members of unpopular groups.” (The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (1967) p. 143.)

Glasser v. United States, supra, 315 U.S. at page 76 [86 L.Ed. at page 702].

Holloway v. Arkansas, supra, 435 U.S. at page 491 [55 L.Ed.2d at page 438].

I agree with Justice Mosk’s analysis that appellant did not receive the effective assistance of counsel at the penalty phase of his trial.

Former Penal Code section 190 et seq., Statutes 1977, chapter 316, repealed by initiative measure (Prop. 7) on November 7, 1978. See Penal Code section 190 et seq. as enacted by Proposition 7.
All subsequent references in this opinion to code sections shall be to the California Penal Code, unless otherwise stated.

Proffitt v. Florida (1976) 428 U.S. 242, 253 [49 L.Ed.2d 913, 923, 96 S.Ct. 2960].

Gregg v. Georgia (1976) 428 U.S. 153 [49 L.Ed.2d 859, 96 S.Ct. 2909]; Proffitt v. Florida, supra, 428 U.S. 242; Jurek v. Texas (1976) 428 U.S. 262 [49 L.Ed.2d 929, 96 S.Ct. 2950]; Woodson v. North Carolina, supra, 428 U.S. 280; Roberts (Stanislaus) v. Louisiana (1976) 428 U.S. 325 [49 L.Ed.2d 974, 96 S.Ct. 3001]. Hereinafter, these cases will jointly be referred to as Gregg et al.
No single opinion in any of the live cases garnered the signatures of a majority of the court. However, the disposition of each of the cases varied according to the votes of three justices—Stewart, Powell, and Stevens, JJ.—who delivered a joint lead opinion in each case. Those lead opinions have since been deemed the “prevailing opinion[s]” and have been viewed as “the Court’s decisions.’’ (See, e.g., Godfrey, supra, 446 U.S. at p. 423 [64 L.Ed.2d at p. 403, 100 S.Ct. at p. 1762]; Coker v. Georgia (1977) 433 U.S. 584, 591-592 [53 L.Ed.2d 982, 989, 97 S.Ct. 2861].)

The possibility was left open that a mandatory death penalty statute might be upheld if “limited to an extremely narrow category of homicide, such as murder by a prisoner serving a life sentence, defined in large part in terms of the character or record of the offender.” (Woodson, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 287, fn. 7, and p. 292, fn. 25 [49 L.Ed.2d at pp. 950-951, 953-954]; Roberts (Stanislaus), supra, 428 U.S. at p. 334, fn. 9 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 982]; Roberts (Harry) v. Louisiana (1977) 431 U.S. 633, 637, fn. 5 [52 L.Ed.2d 637, 642, 97 S.Ct. 1993].)
However, at least two courts that have subsequently considered this issue have struck *351down mandatory death penalty laws. (Graham v. Superior Court (1979) 98 Cal.App.3d 880 [160 Cal.Rptr. 10]; State v. Cline (1979) — R.I. — [397 A.2d 1309].)

The second sentence of former section 190.3 allows the introduction into evidence of, inter alia, “evidence.. .as to any matter relevant to aggravation. ...” However, the fact that aggravation evidence is admissible does not mean that the sentencing authority may use the evidence in any manner it chooses. The Supreme Court has held that the sentencing authority must be “provided with standards to guide its use of the information.” (Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 195 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 887].) The language of former section 190.3 is problematical in this regard. Although the section instructs the sentencing authority to be guided by “the aggravating.. .circumstances referred to in this section,” it is unclear whether those aggravating circumstances are limited to the 10 “factors” listed in subdivisions (a) through (j) or whether “any matter relevant to aggravation” may be used as the basis for imposing a death sentence.
Neither today’s majority holding nor indeed the instructions given to appellant’s jury addressed this important ambiguity.

Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at pages 165-166, footnote 9 [49 L.Ed.2d at page 870].

Proffitt, supra, 428 U.S. at pages 248-249, footnote 6 [49 L.Ed.2d at page 921].

Jurek, supra, 428 U.S. at page 269 [49 L.Ed.2d at pages 936-937]; see Adams v. Texas (1980) 448 U.S. 38, 41, footnote 1, and page 46 [65 L.Ed.2d 581, 587, 590, 100 S.Ct. 2521, 2524, fn. 1, and pages 2526-2527],

The Georgia statute mandates that before a death sentence may be returned, the sentencing authority must find that at least one of ten statutorily enumerated aggravating factors exists and must “designate in writing... the aggravating circumstance or circumstances which it found beyond a reasonable doubt.” (Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 166 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 870], fn. 9.)
In Florida, the sentencing authority must ‘“set forth in writing its findings upon which the sentence of death is based as to the facts: (a) [t]hat sufficient [statutory] aggravating circumstances exist...and (b) [t]hat there are insufficient [statutory] mitigating circumstances... to outweigh the aggravating circumstances.’” (Proffitt, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 250 [49 L.Ed.2d at p. 921-922], brackets in original.)
Although structured somewhat differently, the Texas procedure also requires at the penalty phase special findings in regard to statutorily specified aggravating factors. The sentencing authority is required to answer certain questions concerning the deliberateness of the defendant’s actions, the probability of his future dangerousness, and the reasonableness of his response to any provocation by the deceased. (Jurek, supra, 428 U.S. at p. 269 [49 L.Ed.2d at pp. 936-937].) Only if the sentencing authority finds beyond a reasonable doubt against the defendant on all relevant factors shall a death sentence be imposed.

Gregg, supra, 428 U.S. at page 192 [49 L.Ed.2d at page 885] (opn. of Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.).

The procedures called for in the automatic new trial motion are merely those used “for reviewing any jury verdict on a motion for new trial based on insufficiency of the evidence.” (Frierson, supra, 25 Cal.3d at p. 193, fn. 7 (conc. opn. of Mosk, J.).) This would indicate only the fact that the judge found a basis in the record for upholding the jury’s decision, whatever the jury’s actual reasons.

It is true that the Florida death penalty scheme upheld in Proffitt did not require proof beyond a reasonable doubt either that the aggravating circumstances were true or that death was an appropriate punishment. However, in Florida, a judgment of death could not be returned unless the aggravating circumstances outweighed the mitigating circumstances. (It is interesting to note that one of the reasons given to the California voters in 1978 in favor of the passage of Proposition 7 was this particular difference between the 1977 statute and the Florida law. The proponents of Proposition 7 stated: “The opposition can’t understand why we included the aggravating vs. mitigating circumstances provision in Prop. 7. Well, [any] first-year law student could have told them this provision is required by the U. S. Supreme Court. The old law does not meet this requirement and might be declared unconstitutional, leaving us with no death penalty at all!” (Cal. Voters Pamp., Gen. Elec. (Nov. 7, 1978), rebuttal to argument against Prop. 7, p. 35.))
The Supreme Court has not yet directly considered the question of burden of proof, either in Proffitt or in any other recent capital punishment case. Indeed, in Lockett v. Ohio, the court seemed to suggest that the issue of who should “bear the risk of non-persuasion” was still open. (See 438 U.S. at p. 609, fn. 16 [57 L.Ed.2d at pp. 992-993].)
When the Supreme Court squarely addresses these issues, it should carefully consider and apply the teachings of Speiser v. Randall, supra, 357 U.S. 513, to a proceeding in which a decision is made as to whether a person should live or die.

Gardner, supra, 430 U.S. at page 362 [51 L.Ed.2d at page 404].

Proffitt, supra, 428 U.S. at pages 259-260 [49 L.Ed.2d at page 927] (opn. of Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.).

The mandatory death penalty laws had been enacted in 1973 in response to Furman.

There is an exception to this rule when “the bill in substance already includes those provisions” contained in the rejected amendment. (Ibid.) Obviously, no such exception is applicable to Senate Bill No. 155.

Rockwell, supra, 18 Cal.3d at page 445.

The three justices in Frierson pointed out that the United States Supreme Court has upheld or denied review of the death sentencing procedures in states where appellate courts have undertaken proportionality review in the absence of express authorization. (See cases cited at 25 Cal.3d at p. 182.) However, in none of the cited cases is there any indication that other state courts have adopted proportionality review in the face of a contrary legislative intent.

In the majority opinion, it is suggested that this writer has focused on only one portion of the Frierson discussion of proportionality review ignoring the “express reference” to the second and third prongs of the three-part Lynch test. (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 317.) With all due respect, I suggest that my colleagues carefully read their own previous opinion. In Frierson, the three-prong test of Lynch is set forth and then dismissed with this language—“not all of these tests of disproportionality may be appropriate in reviewing a sentence of death in a particular case....” (25 Cal.3d at p. 183.)
The reason why the lead opinion in Frierson hedged on the second and third prongs *362of the Lynch test is evident. In the second prong of the test, the court must compare a capital case with “more serious crimes.” The third test involves a comparison between the death sentence handed down in California and “punishments prescribed for the same offense in other jurisdictions....” {Ibid.) The problem here is that there are no “more serious crimes” than capital murder. Further, it is irrelevant to our proportionality review function to know what “punishments [are] prescribed for the same offense in other jurisdictions.” Even if the laws of other jurisdictions were relevant, it is impossible for this court to know how often such punishments are actually imposed in those jurisdictions.
Today’s attempt to buttress Frierson serves only to prove the inappropriateness of trying to apply Lynch to the question of the proportionality of a death sentence in a particular case.

One commentator on the California scene recently made the observation that there currently are groups who “seem to be cranking up a public opinion campaign to force the California Supreme Court to validate the death penalty.” He goes on to note that, “[w]hat the campaigners are saying, said simply, is this: [H] if you don’t let a couple of guys be knocked off in the gas chamber, we’re going to throw you out of office regardless of the law or your opinion of the law.’ [¶] That, I say, is a hell of a way to establish the rules for determination of whether a human being lives or dies.” (Flynn, Executing the Unsolvable, S. F. Examiner (May 14, 1980); see also Wilborn, Prosecutor Plans Recall Drive Over Ruling on Death Penalty, Santa Ana Register (June 11, 1980) pp. A1, A10; Rennert, 'No Executions Till Courts Change,' Sacramento Bee (Apr. 16, 1980) p. A4; State justice doesn’t foresee any deaths on Death Row, S. F. Examiner (Apr. 11, 1980) p. 8.)