Court Opinion

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                      (Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2021       1                     
                                        Syllabus                                    
                          NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is
                         being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.
                         The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been
                         prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader.
                         See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.
                      SUPREME   COURT  OF THE  UNITED  STATES                       
                                        Syllabus                                    
                        KENNEDY  v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DISTRICT                       
                      CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR          
                                    THE NINTH CIRCUIT                               
                         No. 21–418. Argued April 25, 2022—Decided June 27, 2022    
                      Petitioner Joseph Kennedy lost his job as a high school football coach in
                       the Bremerton School District after he knelt at midfield after games to
                       offer a quiet personal prayer. Mr. Kennedy sued in federal court, al-
                       leging that the District’s actions violated the First Amendment’s Free
                       Speech and Free Exercise Clauses. He also moved for a preliminary
                       injunction requiring the District to reinstate him. The District Court
                       denied that motion, and the Ninth Circuit affirmed. After the parties
                       engaged in discovery, they filed cross-motions for summary judgment.
                       The District Court found that the “ ‘sole reason’ ” for the District’s de-
                       cision to suspend Mr. Kennedy was its perceived “risk of constitutional
                       liability” under the Establishment Clause for his “religious conduct”
                       after three games in October 2015. 443 F. Supp. 3d 1223, 1231. The
                       District Court granted summary judgment to the District and the
                       Ninth Circuit affirmed. The Ninth Circuit denied a petition to rehear
                       the case en banc over the dissents of 11 judges. 4 F. 4th 910, 911.
                       Several dissenters argued that the panel applied a flawed understand-
                       ing of the Establishment Clause reflected in Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403
                       U. S. 602, and that this Court has abandoned Lemon’s “ahistorical,
                       atextual” approach to discerning Establishment Clause violations. 4
                       F. 4th, at 911, and n. 3.                                    
                      Held: The Free Exercise and Free Speech Clauses of the First Amend-
                       ment protect an individual engaging in a personal religious observance
                       from government reprisal; the Constitution neither mandates nor per-
                       mits the government to suppress such religious expression. Pp. 11–32.
                        (a) Mr. Kennedy contends that the District’s conduct violated both
                       the Free Exercise and Free Speech Clauses of the First Amendment.
                       Where the Free Exercise Clause protects religious exercises, the Free
                       Speech Clause provides overlapping protection for expressive religious
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      2      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                        Syllabus                                    
                       activities. See, e.g., Widmar v. Vincent, 454 U. S. 263, 269, n. 6. A
                       plaintiff must demonstrate an infringement of his rights under the
                       Free Exercise and Free Speech Clauses. If the plaintiff carries his or
                       her burden, the defendant must show that its actions were nonetheless
                       justified and appropriately tailored. Pp. 11–30.             
                         (1) Mr. Kennedy discharged his burden under the Free Exercise
                       Clause. The Court’s precedents permit a plaintiff to demonstrate a
                       free exercise violation multiple ways, including by showing that a gov-
                       ernment entity has burdened his sincere religious practice pursuant to
                       a policy that is not “neutral” or “generally applicable.” Employment
                       Div., Dept. of Human Resources of Ore. v. Smith, 494 U. S. 872, 879–
                       881. Failing either the neutrality or general applicability test is suffi-
                       cient to trigger strict scrutiny, under which the government must
                       demonstrate its course was justified by a compelling state interest and
                       was narrowly tailored in pursuit of that interest. See, e.g., Church of
                       Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U. S. 520, 546.      
                        Here, no one questions that Mr. Kennedy seeks to engage in a sin-
                       cerely motivated religious exercise involving giving “thanks through
                       prayer” briefly “on the playing field” at the conclusion of each game he
                       coaches. App. 168, 171. The contested exercise here does not involve
                       leading prayers with the team; the District disciplined Mr. Kennedy
                       only for his decision to persist in praying quietly without his students
                       after three games in October 2015. In forbidding Mr. Kennedy’s brief
                       prayer, the District’s challenged policies were neither neutral nor gen-
                       erally applicable. By its own admission, the District sought to restrict
                       Mr. Kennedy’s actions at least in part because of their religious char-
                       acter. Prohibiting a religious practice was thus the District’s unques-
                       tioned “object.” The District explained that it could not allow an on-
                       duty employee to engage in religious conduct even though it allowed
                       other on-duty employees to engage in personal secular conduct. The
                       District’s performance evaluation after the 2015 football season also
                       advised against rehiring Mr. Kennedy on the ground that he failed to
                       supervise student-athletes after games, but any sort of postgame su-
                       pervisory requirement was not applied in an evenhanded way.  
                       Pp. 12–14. The District thus conceded that its policies were neither
                       neutral nor generally applicable.                            
                         (2) Mr. Kennedy also discharged his burden under the Free  
                       Speech Clause. The First Amendment’s protections extend to “teach-
                       ers and students,” neither of whom “shed their constitutional rights to
                       freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.” Tinker v.
                       Des Moines Independent Community School Dist., 393 U. S. 503, 506.
                       But teachers and coaches are also government employees paid in part
                       to speak on the government’s behalf and to convey its intended mes-
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 3                  
                                        Syllabus                                    
                       sages. To account for the complexity associated with the interplay be-
                       tween free speech rights and government employment, this Court’s de-
                       cisions in Pickering v. Board of Ed. of Township High School Dist. 205,
                       Will Cty., 391 U. S. 563, and Garcetti v. Ceballos, 547 U. S. 410, and
                       related cases suggest proceeding in two steps. The first step involves
                       a threshold inquiry into the nature of the speech at issue. When an
                       employee “speaks as a citizen addressing a matter of public concern,”
                       the Court’s cases indicate that the First Amendment may be impli-
                       cated and courts should proceed to a second step. Id., at 423. At this
                       step, courts should engage in “a delicate balancing of the competing
                       interests surrounding the speech and its consequences.” Ibid. At the
                       first step of the Pickering–Garcetti inquiry, the parties’ disagreement
                       centers on one question: Did Mr. Kennedy offer his prayers in his ca-
                       pacity as a private citizen, or did they amount to government speech
                       attributable to the District?                                
                        When Mr. Kennedy uttered the three prayers that resulted in his
                       suspension, he was not engaged in speech “ordinarily within the scope”
                       of his duties as a coach. Lane v. Franks, 573 U. S. 228, 240. He did
                       not speak pursuant to government policy and was not seeking to con-
                       vey a government-created message. He was not instructing players,
                       discussing strategy, encouraging better on-field performance, or en-
                       gaged in any other speech the District paid him to produce as a coach.
                       Simply put: Mr. Kennedy’s prayers did not “ow[e their] existence” to
                       Mr. Kennedy’s responsibilities as a public employee. Garcetti, 547
                       U. S., at 421. The timing and circumstances of Mr. Kennedy’s pray-
                       ers—during the postgame period when coaches were free to attend
                       briefly to personal matters and students were engaged in other activi-
                       ties—confirms that Mr. Kennedy did not offer his prayers while acting
                       within the scope of his duties as a coach. It is not dispositive that
                       Coach Kennedy served as a role model and remained on duty after
                       games. To hold otherwise is to posit an “excessively broad job descrip-
                       tio[n]” by treating everything teachers and coaches say in the work-
                       place as government speech subject to government control. Garcetti,
                       547 U. S., at 424. That Mr. Kennedy used available time to pray does
                       not transform his speech into government speech. Acknowledging that
                       Mr. Kennedy’s prayers represented his own private speech means he
                       has carried his threshold burden. Under the Pickering–Garcetti frame-
                       work, a second step remains where the government may seek to prove
                       that its interests as employer outweigh even an employee’s private
                       speech on a matter of public concern. See Lane, 573 U. S., at 242.
                       Pp. 15–19.                                                   
                         (3) Whether one views the case through the lens of the Free Exer-
                       cise or Free Speech Clause, at this point the burden shifts to the Dis-
                       trict. Under the Free Exercise Clause, a government entity normally
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      4      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                        Syllabus                                    
                       must satisfy at least “strict scrutiny,” showing that its restrictions on
                       the plaintiff’s protected rights serve a compelling interest and are nar-
                       rowly tailored to that end. See Lukumi, 508 U. S., at 533. A similar
                       standard generally obtains under the Free Speech Clause. See Reed
                       v. Town of Gilbert, 576 U. S. 155, 171. The District asks the Court to
                       apply to Mr. Kennedy’s claims the more lenient second-step Pickering–
                       Garcetti test, or alternatively, intermediate scrutiny. The Court con-
                       cludes, however, that the District cannot sustain its burden under any
                       standard. Pp. 19–30.                                         
                           i. The District, like the Ninth Circuit below, insists Mr. Ken-
                       nedy’s rights to religious exercise and free speech must yield to the
                       District’s interest in avoiding an Establishment Clause violation under
                       Lemon and its progeny. The Lemon approach called for an examina-
                       tion of a law’s purposes, effects, and potential for entanglement with
                       religion. Lemon, 403 U. S., at 612–613. In time, that approach also
                       came to involve estimations about whether a “reasonable observer”
                       would consider the government’s challenged action an “endorsement”
                       of religion. See, e.g., County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties
                       Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 U. S. 573, 593. But—given the
                       apparent “shortcomings” associated with Lemon’s “ambitiou[s],” ab-
                       stract, and ahistorical approach to the Establishment Clause—this
                       Court long ago abandoned Lemon and its endorsement test offshoot.
                       American Legion v. American Humanist Assn., 588 U. S. ___, ___ (plu-
                       rality opinion).                                             
                        In place of Lemon and the endorsement test, this Court has in-
                       structed that the Establishment Clause must be interpreted by “‘ref-
                       erence to historical practices and understandings.’ ” Town of Greece v.
                       Galloway, 572 U. S. 565, 576. A natural reading of the First Amend-
                       ment suggests that the Clauses have “complementary” purposes, not
                       warring ones where one Clause is always sure to prevail over the oth-
                       ers. Everson v. Board of Ed. of Ewing, 330 U. S. 1, 13, 15. An analysis
                       focused on original meaning and history, this Court has stressed, has
                       long represented the rule rather than some “ ‘exception’ ” within the
                       “Court’s Establishment Clause jurisprudence.” Town of Greece, at 575.
                       The District and the Ninth Circuit erred by failing to heed this guid-
                       ance. Pp. 19–30.                                             
                           ii. The District next attempts to justify its suppression of Mr.
                       Kennedy’s religious activity by arguing that doing otherwise would co-
                       erce students to pray. The Ninth Circuit did not adopt this theory in
                       proceedings below and evidence of coercion in this record is absent.
                       The District suggests that any visible religious conduct by a teacher or
                       coach should be deemed—without more and as a matter of law—im-
                       permissibly coercive on students. A rule that the only acceptable gov-
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 5                  
                                        Syllabus                                    
                       ernment role models for students are those who eschew any visible re-
                       ligious expression would undermine a long constitutional tradition in
                       which learning how to tolerate diverse expressive activities has always
                       been “part of learning how to live in a pluralistic society.” Lee v. Wes-
                       iman, 505 U. S. 577, 590. No historically sound understanding of the
                       Establishment Clause begins to “mak[e] it necessary for government
                       to be hostile to religion” in this way. Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U. S. 306,
                       314. Pp. 24–30.                                              
                           iii.There is no conflict between the constitutional commands of
                       the First Amendment in this case. There is only the “mere shadow” of
                       a conflict, a false choice premised on a misconstruction of the Estab-
                       lishment Clause. School Dist. of Abington Township v. Schempp, 374
                       U. S. 203, 308 (Goldberg, J., concurring). A government entity’s con-
                       cerns about phantom constitutional violations do not justify actual vi-
                       olations of an individual’s First Amendment rights. Pp. 30–31.
                        (c)Respect for religious expressions is indispensable to life in a free
                       and diverse Republic. Here, a government entity sought to punish an
                       individual for engaging in a personal religious observance, based on a
                       mistaken view that it has a duty to suppress religious observances
                       even as it allows comparable secular speech. The Constitution neither
                       mandates nor tolerates that kind of discrimination. Mr. Kennedy is
                       entitled to summary judgment on his religious exercise and free speech
                       claims. Pp. 31–32.                                           
                      991 F. 3d 1004, reversed.                                     
                       GORSUCH, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which ROBERTS,
                      C. J., and THOMAS, ALITO, and BARRETT, JJ., joined, and in which KA-
                      VANAUGH, J., joined, except as to Part III–B. THOMAS, J., and ALITO, J.,
                      filed concurring opinions. SOTOMAYOR, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in
                      which BREYER and KAGAN, JJ., joined.                          
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 1                  
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                         NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the
                         preliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested to
                         notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Wash-
                         ington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in order that
                         corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press.
                      SUPREME   COURT  OF THE  UNITED  STATES                       
                                       _________________                            
                                       No. 21–418                                   
                                       _________________                            
                            JOSEPH A. KENNEDY, PETITIONER v.                        
                             BREMERTON  SCHOOL DISTRICT                             
                      ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF           
                               APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT                        
                                      [June 27, 2022]                               
                       JUSTICE GORSUCH delivered the opinion of the Court.          
                       Joseph Kennedy lost his job as a high school football        
                      coach because he knelt at midfield after games to offer a     
                      quiet prayer of thanks. Mr. Kennedy prayed during a pe-       
                      riod when school employees were free to speak with a          
                      friend, call for a reservation at a restaurant, check email,  
                      or attend to other personal matters. He offered his prayers   
                      quietly while his students were otherwise occupied. Still,    
                      the Bremerton School District disciplined him anyway. It      
                      did so because it thought anything less could lead a reason-  
                      able observer to conclude (mistakenly) that it endorsed Mr.   
                      Kennedy’s religious beliefs. That reasoning was misguided.    
                      Both the Free Exercise and Free Speech Clauses of the First   
                      Amendment protect expressions like Mr. Kennedy’s. Nor         
                      does a proper understanding of the Amendment’s Estab-         
                      lishment Clause require the government to single out pri-     
                      vate religious speech for special disfavor. The Constitution  
                      and the best of our traditions counsel mutual respect and     
                      tolerance, not censorship and suppression, for religious and  
                      nonreligious views alike.                                     
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      2      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                                          I                                         
                                          A                                         
                       Joseph Kennedy began working as a football coach at          
                      Bremerton High School in 2008 after nearly two decades of     
                      service in the Marine Corps. App. 167. Like many other        
                      football players and coaches across the country, Mr. Ken-     
                      nedy made it a practice to give “thanks through prayer on     
                      the playing field” at the conclusion of each game. Id., at    
                      168, 171. In his prayers, Mr. Kennedy sought to express       
                      gratitude for “what the players had accomplished and for      
                      the opportunity to be part of their lives through the game    
                      of football.” Id., at 168. Mr. Kennedy offered his prayers    
                      after the players and coaches had shaken hands, by taking     
                      a knee at the 50-yard line and praying “quiet[ly]” for “ap-   
                      proximately 30 seconds.” Id., at 168–169.                     
                       Initially, Mr. Kennedy prayed on his own. See ibid. But      
                      over time, some players asked whether they could pray         
                      alongside him. 991 F. 3d 1004, 1010 (CA9 2021); App. 169.     
                      Mr. Kennedy responded by saying, “‘This is a free country.    
                      You can do what you want.’” Ibid. The number of players       
                      who joined Mr. Kennedy eventually grew to include most of     
                      the team, at least after some games. Sometimes team mem-      
                      bers invited opposing players to join. Other times Mr. Ken-   
                      nedy still prayed alone. See ibid. Eventually, Mr. Kennedy    
                      began incorporating short motivational speeches with his      
                      prayer when others were present. See id., at 170. Sepa-       
                      rately, the team at times engaged in pregame or postgame      
                      prayers in the locker room. It seems this practice was a      
                      “school tradition” that predated Mr. Kennedy’s tenure.        
                      Ibid. Mr. Kennedy explained that he “never told any stu-      
                      dent that it was important they participate in any religious  
                      activity.” Ibid. In particular, he “never pressured or en-    
                      couraged any student to join” his postgame midfield pray-     
                      ers. Ibid.                                                    
                       For over seven years, no one complained to the Bremer-       
                      ton School District (District) about these practices. See id.,
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 3                  
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      at 63–64. It seems the District’s superintendent first        
                      learned of them only in September 2015, after an employee     
                      from another school commented positively on the school’s      
                      practices to Bremerton’s principal. See id., at 109, 229. At  
                      that point, the District reacted quickly. On September 17,    
                      the superintendent sent Mr. Kennedy a letter. In it, the      
                      superintendent identified “two problematic practices” in      
                      which Mr. Kennedy had engaged. App. 40. First, Mr. Ken-       
                      nedy had provided “inspirational talk[s]” that included       
                      “overtly religious references” likely constituting “prayer”   
                      with the students “at midfield following the completion of    
                      . . . game[s].” Ibid. Second, he had led “students and coach- 
                      ing staff in a prayer” in the locker-room tradition that “pre-
                      dated [his] involvement with the program.” Id., at 41.        
                       The District explained that it sought to establish “clear    
                      parameters” “going forward.” Ibid. It instructed Mr. Ken-     
                      nedy to avoid any motivational “talks with students” that     
                      “include[d] religious expression, including prayer,” and to   
                      avoid “suggest[ing], encourag[ing] (or discourag[ing]), or su-
                      pervis[ing]” any prayers of students, which students re-      
                      mained free to “engage in.” Id., at 44. The District also     
                      explained that any religious activity on Mr. Kennedy’s part   
                      must be “nondemonstrative (i.e., not outwardly discernible    
                      as religious activity)” if “students are also engaged in reli-
                      gious conduct” in order to “avoid the perception of endorse-  
                      ment.” Id., at 45. In offering these directives, the District 
                      appealed to what it called a “direct tension between” the     
                      “Establishment Clause” and “a school employee’s [right to]    
                      free[ly] exercise” his religion. Id., at 43. To resolve that  
                      “tension,” the District explained, an employee’s free exer-   
                      cise rights “must yield so far as necessary to avoid school   
                      endorsement of religious activities.” Ibid.                   
                       After receiving the District’s September 17 letter, Mr.      
                      Kennedy ended the tradition, predating him, of offering       
                      locker-room prayers. Id., at 40–41, 77, 170–172. He also      
                      ended his practice of incorporating religious references or   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      4      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      prayer into his postgame motivational talks to his team on    
                      the field. See ibid. Mr. Kennedy further felt pressured to    
                      abandon his practice of saying his own quiet, on-field post-  
                      game prayer. See id., at 172. Driving home after a game,      
                      however, Mr. Kennedy felt upset that he had “broken [his]     
                      commitment to God” by not offering his own prayer, so he      
                      turned his car around and returned to the field. Ibid. By     
                      that point, everyone had left the stadium, and he walked to   
                      the 50-yard line and knelt to say a brief prayer of thanks.   
                      See ibid.                                                     
                       On October 14, through counsel, Mr. Kennedy sent a let-      
                      ter to school officials informing them that, because of his   
                      “sincerely-held religious beliefs,” he felt “compelled” to offer
                      a “post-game personal prayer” of thanks at midfield. Id., at  
                      62–63, 172. He asked the District to allow him to continue    
                      that “private religious expression” alone. Id., at 62. Con-   
                      sistent with the District’s policy, see id., at 48, Mr. Kennedy
                      explained that he “neither requests, encourages, nor dis-     
                      courages students from participating in” these prayers, id.,  
                      at 64. Mr. Kennedy emphasized that he sought only the         
                      opportunity to “wai[t] until the game is over and the players 
                      have left the field and then wal[k] to mid-field to say a     
                      short, private, personal prayer.” Id., at 69. He “told every- 
                      body” that it would be acceptable to him to pray “when the    
                      kids went away from [him].” Id., at 292. He later clarified   
                      that this meant he was even willing to say his “prayer while  
                      the players were walking to the locker room” or “bus,” and    
                      then catch up with his team. Id., at 280–282; see also id.,   
                      at 59. However, Mr. Kennedy objected to the logical impli-    
                      cation of the District’s September 17 letter, which he under- 
                      stood as banning him “from bowing his head” in the vicinity   
                      of students, and as requiring him to “flee the scene if stu-  
                      dents voluntarily [came] to the same area” where he was       
                      praying. Id., at 70. After all, District policy prohibited him
                      from “discourag[ing]” independent student decisions to        
                      pray. Id., at 44.                                             
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 5                  
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                       On October 16, shortly before the game that day, the Dis-    
                      trict responded with another letter. See id., at 76. The Dis- 
                      trict acknowledged that Mr. Kennedy “ha[d] complied” with     
                      the “directives” in its September 17 letter. Id., at 77. Yet  
                      instead of accommodating Mr. Kennedy’s request to offer a     
                      brief prayer on the field while students were busy with       
                      other activities—whether heading to the locker room,          
                      boarding the bus, or perhaps singing the school fight song—   
                      the District issued an ultimatum. It forbade Mr. Kennedy      
                      from engaging in “any overt actions” that could “appea[r] to  
                      a reasonable observer to endorse . . . prayer . . . while he is
                      on duty as a District-paid coach.” Id., at 81. The District   
                      did so because it judged that anything less would lead it to  
                      violate the Establishment Clause. Ibid.                       
                                          B                                         
                       After receiving this letter, Mr. Kennedy offered a brief     
                      prayer following the October 16 game. See id., at 90. When    
                      he bowed his head at midfield after the game, “most           
                      [Bremerton] players were . . . engaged in the traditional     
                      singing of the school fight song to the audience.” Ibid.      
                      Though Mr. Kennedy was alone when he began to pray,           
                      players from the other team and members of the community      
                      joined him before he finished his prayer. See id., at 82, 297.
                       This event spurred media coverage of Mr. Kennedy’s di-       
                      lemma and a public response from the District. The District   
                      placed robocalls to parents to inform them that public ac-    
                      cess to the field is forbidden; it posted signs and made an-  
                      nouncements at games saying the same thing; and it had        
                      the Bremerton Police secure the field in future games. Id.,   
                      at 100–101, 354–355. Subsequently, the District superin-      
                      tendent explained in an October 20 email to the leader of a   
                      state association of school administrators that “the coach    
                      moved on from leading prayer with kids, to taking a silent    
                      prayer at the 50 yard line.” Id., at 83. The official with    
                      whom the superintendent corresponded acknowledged that        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      6      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      the “use of a silent prayer changes the equation a bit.” Ibid.
                      On October 21, the superintendent further observed to a       
                      state official that “[t]he issue is quickly changing as it has
                      shifted from leading prayer with student athletes, to a       
                      coaches [sic] right to conduct” his own prayer “on the 50     
                      yard line.” Id., at 88.                                       
                       On October 23, shortly before that evening’s game, the       
                      District wrote Mr. Kennedy again. It expressed “apprecia-     
                      tion” for his “efforts to comply” with the District’s directives,
                      including avoiding “on-the-job prayer with players in         
                      the . . . football program, both in the locker room prior to  
                      games as well as on the field immediately following games.”   
                      Id., at 90. The letter also admitted that, during Mr. Ken-    
                      nedy’s recent October 16 postgame prayer, his students        
                      were otherwise engaged and not praying with him, and that     
                      his prayer was “fleeting.” Id., at 90, 93. Still, the District
                      explained that a “reasonable observer” could think govern-    
                      ment endorsement of religion had occurred when a “District    
                      employee, on the field only by virtue of his employment with  
                      the District, still on duty” engaged in “overtly religious con-
                      duct.” Id., at 91, 93. The District thus made clear that the  
                      only option it would offer Mr. Kennedy was to allow him to    
                      pray after a game in a “private location” behind closed doors 
                      and “not observable to students or the public.” Id., at 93–   
                      94.                                                           
                       After the October 23 game ended, Mr. Kennedy knelt at        
                      the 50-yard line, where “no one joined him,” and bowed his    
                      head for a “brief, quiet prayer.” 991 F. 3d, at 1019; App.    
                      173, 236–239. The superintendent informed the District’s      
                      board that this prayer “moved closer to what we want,” but    
                      nevertheless remained “unconstitutional.” Id., at 96. After   
                      the final relevant football game on October 26, Mr. Kennedy   
                      again knelt alone to offer a brief prayer as the players en-  
                      gaged in postgame traditions. 443 F. Supp. 3d 1223, 1231      
                      (WD Wash. 2020); App. to Pet. for Cert. 182. While he was     
                      praying, other adults gathered around him on the field. See   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 7                  
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      443 F. Supp. 3d, at 1231; App. 97. Later, Mr. Kennedy re-     
                      joined his players for a postgame talk, after they had fin-   
                      ished singing the school fight song. 443 F. Supp. 3d, at      
                      1231; App. 103.                                               
                                          C                                         
                       Shortly after the October 26 game, the District placed Mr.   
                      Kennedy on paid administrative leave and prohibited him       
                      from “participat[ing], in any capacity, in . . . football pro-
                      gram activities.” Ibid. In a letter explaining the reasons    
                      for this disciplinary action, the superintendent criticized   
                      Mr. Kennedy for engaging in “public and demonstrative re-     
                      ligious conduct while still on duty as an assistant coach” by 
                      offering a prayer following the games on October 16, 23, and  
                      26. Id., at 102. The letter did not allege that Mr. Kennedy   
                      performed these prayers with students, and it acknowl-        
                      edged that his prayers took place while students were en-     
                      gaged in unrelated postgame activities. Id., at 103. Addi-    
                      tionally, the letter faulted Mr. Kennedy for not being        
                      willing to pray behind closed doors. Id., at 102.             
                       In an October 28 Q&A document provided to the public,        
                      the District admitted that it possessed “no evidence that     
                      students have been directly coerced to pray with Kennedy.”    
                      Id., at 105. The Q&A also acknowledged that Mr. Kennedy       
                      “ha[d] complied” with the District’s instruction to refrain   
                      from his “prior practices of leading players in a pre-game    
                      prayer in the locker room or leading players in a post-game   
                      prayer immediately following games.” Ibid. But the Q&A        
                      asserted that the District could not allow Mr. Kennedy to     
                      “engage in a public religious display.” Id., at 105, 107, 110.
                      Otherwise, the District would “violat[e] the . . . Establish- 
                      ment Clause” because “reasonable . . . students and at-       
                      tendees” might perceive the “district [as] endors[ing] . . . re-
                      ligion.” Id., at 105.                                         
                       While Mr. Kennedy received “uniformly positive evalua-       
                      tions” every other year of his coaching career, after the 2015
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      8      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      season ended in November, the District gave him a poor        
                      performance evaluation. Kennedy v. Bremerton School           
                      Dist., 869 F. 3d 813, 820 (CA9 2017). The evaluation ad-      
                      vised against rehiring Mr. Kennedy on the grounds that he     
                      “‘failed to follow district policy’” regarding religious expres-
                      sion and “‘failed to supervise student-athletes after         
                      games.’” Ibid. Mr. Kennedy did not return for the next        
                      season. Ibid.                                                 
                                          II                                        
                                          A                                         
                       After these events, Mr. Kennedy sued in federal court, al-   
                      leging that the District’s actions violated the First Amend-  
                      ment’s Free Speech and Free Exercise Clauses. App. 145,       
                      160–164. He also moved for a preliminary injunction re-       
                      quiring the District to reinstate him. The District Court     
                      denied that motion, concluding that a “reasonable ob-         
                      server . . . would have seen him as . . . leading an orches-  
                      trated session of faith.” App. to Pet. for Cert. 303. Indeed, 
                      if the District had not suspended him, the court agreed, it   
                      might have violated the Constitution’s Establishment          
                      Clause. See id., at 302–303. On appeal, the Ninth Circuit     
                      affirmed. Kennedy, 869 F. 3d, at 831.                         
                       Following the Ninth Circuit’s ruling, Mr. Kennedy sought     
                      certiorari in this Court. The Court denied the petition. But  
                      JUSTICE ALITO, joined by three other Members of the Court,    
                      issued a statement stressing that “denial of certiorari does  
                      not signify that the Court necessarily agrees with the deci-  
                      sion . . . below.” Kennedy v. Bremerton School Dist., 586     
                      U. S. ___, ___ (2019) (slip op., at 1). JUSTICE ALITO ex-     
                      pressed concerns with the lower courts’ decisions, including  
                      the possibility that, under their reasoning, teachers might   
                      be “ordered not to engage in any ‘demonstrative’ conduct of   
                      a religious nature” within view of students, even to the      
                      point of being forbidden from “folding their hands or bowing  
                      their heads in prayer” before lunch. Id., at ___              
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 9                  
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      (slip op., at 4).                                             
                                          B                                         
                       After the case returned to the District Court, the parties   
                      engaged in discovery and eventually brought cross-motions     
                      for summary judgment. At the end of that process, the Dis-    
                      trict Court found that the “‘sole reason’” for the District’s 
                      decision to suspend Mr. Kennedy was its perceived “risk of    
                      constitutional liability” under the Establishment Clause for  
                      his “religious conduct” after the October 16, 23, and 26      
                      games. 443 F. Supp. 3d, at 1231.                              
                       The court found that reason persuasive too. Rejecting        
                      Mr. Kennedy’s free speech claim, the court concluded that     
                      because Mr. Kennedy “was hired precisely to occupy” an “in-   
                      fluential role for student athletes,” any speech he uttered   
                      was offered in his capacity as a government employee and      
                      unprotected by the First Amendment. Id., at 1237. Alter-      
                      natively, even if Mr. Kennedy’s speech qualified as private   
                      speech, the District Court reasoned, the District properly    
                      suppressed it. Had it done otherwise, the District would      
                      have invited “an Establishment Clause violation.” Ibid.       
                      Turning to Mr. Kennedy’s free exercise claim, the District    
                      Court held that, even if the District’s policies restricting his
                      religious exercise were not neutral toward religion or gen-   
                      erally applicable, the District had a compelling interest in  
                      prohibiting his postgame prayers, because, once more, had     
                      it “allow[ed]” them it “would have violated the Establish-    
                      ment Clause.” Id., at 1240.                                   
                                          C                                         
                       The Ninth Circuit affirmed. It agreed with the District      
                      Court that Mr. Kennedy’s speech qualified as government       
                      rather than private speech because “his expression on the     
                      field—a location that he only had access to because of his    
                      employment—during a time when he was generally tasked         
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      10     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      with communicating with students, was speech as a govern-     
                      ment employee.” 991 F. 3d, at 1015. Like the District         
                      Court, the Ninth Circuit further reasoned that, “even if we   
                      were to assume . . . that Kennedy spoke as a private citi-    
                      zen,” the District had an “adequate justification” for its ac-
                      tions. Id., at 1016. According to the court, “Kennedy’s on-   
                      field religious activity,” coupled with what the court called 
                      “his pugilistic efforts to generate publicity in order to gain
                      approval of those on-field religious activities,” were enough 
                      to lead an “objective observer” to conclude that the District 
                      “endorsed Kennedy’s religious activity by not stopping the    
                      practice.” Id., at 1017–1018. And that, the court held,       
                      would amount to a violation of the Establishment Clause.      
                      Ibid.                                                         
                       The Court of Appeals rejected Mr. Kennedy’s free exercise    
                      claim for similar reasons. The District “concede[d]” that its 
                      policy that led to Mr. Kennedy’s suspension was not “neu-     
                      tral and generally applicable” and instead “restrict[ed] Ken- 
                      nedy’s religious conduct because the conduct [was] reli-      
                      gious.” Id., at 1020. Still, the court ruled, the District “had
                      a compelling state interest to avoid violating the Establish- 
                      ment Clause,” and its suspension was narrowly tailored to     
                      vindicate that interest. Id., at 1020–1021.                   
                       Later, the Ninth Circuit denied a petition to rehear the     
                      case en banc over the dissents of 11 judges. 4 F. 4th 910,    
                      911 (2021). Among other things, the dissenters argued that    
                      the panel erred by holding that a failure to discipline Mr.   
                      Kennedy would have led the District to violate the Estab-     
                      lishment Clause. Several dissenters noted that the panel’s    
                      analysis rested on Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U. S. 602           
                      (1971), and its progeny for the proposition that the Estab-   
                      lishment Clause is implicated whenever a hypothetical rea-    
                      sonable observer could conclude the government endorses       
                      religion. 4 F. 4th, at 945–947 (opinion of R. Nelson, J.).    
                      These dissenters argued that this Court has long since        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 11                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      abandoned that “ahistorical, atextual” approach to discern-   
                      ing “Establishment Clause violations”; they observed that     
                      other courts around the country have followed suit by re-     
                      nouncing it too; and they contended that the panel should     
                      have likewise “recognized Lemon’s demise and wisely left it   
                      dead.” Ibid., and n. 3. We granted certiorari. 595 U. S. ___  
                      (2022).                                                       
                                         III                                        
                       Now before us, Mr. Kennedy renews his argument that          
                      the District’s conduct violated both the Free Exercise and    
                      Free Speech Clauses of the First Amendment. These             
                      Clauses work in tandem. Where the Free Exercise Clause        
                      protects religious exercises, whether communicative or not,   
                      the Free Speech Clause provides overlapping protection for    
                      expressive religious activities. See, e.g., Widmar v. Vincent,
                      454 U. S. 263, 269, n. 6 (1981); Rosenberger v. Rector and    
                      Visitors of Univ. of Va., 515 U. S. 819, 841 (1995). That the 
                      First Amendment doubly protects religious speech is no ac-    
                      cident. It is a natural outgrowth of the framers’ distrust of 
                      government attempts to regulate religion and suppress dis-    
                      sent. See, e.g., A Memorial and Remonstrance Against Re-      
                      ligious Assessments, in Selected Writings of James Madi-      
                      son 21, 25 (R. Ketcham ed. 2006). “[I]n Anglo–American        
                      history, . . . government suppression of speech has so com-   
                      monly been directed precisely at religious speech that a      
                      free-speech clause without religion would be Hamlet with-     
                      out the prince.” Capitol Square Review and Advisory Bd. v.    
                      Pinette, 515 U. S. 753, 760 (1995).                           
                       Under this Court’s precedents, a plaintiff bears certain     
                      burdens to demonstrate an infringement of his rights under    
                      the Free Exercise and Free Speech Clauses. If the plaintiff   
                      carries these burdens, the focus then shifts to the defendant 
                      to show that its actions were nonetheless justified and tai-  
                      lored consistent with the demands of our case law. See, e.g., 
                      Fulton v. Philadelphia, 593 U. S. ___, ___–___, ___ (2021)    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      12     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      (slip op., at 4–5, 13); Reed v. Town of Gilbert, 576 U. S. 155,
                      171 (2015); Garcetti v. Ceballos, 547 U. S. 410, 418 (2006);  
                      Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U. S.       
                      520, 546 (1993); Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U. S. 398, 403       
                      (1963). We begin by examining whether Mr. Kennedy has         
                      discharged his burdens, first under the Free Exercise         
                      Clause, then under the Free Speech Clause.                    
                                          A                                         
                       The Free Exercise Clause provides that “Congress shall       
                      make no law . . . prohibiting the free exercise” of religion. 
                      Amdt. 1. This Court has held the Clause applicable to the     
                      States under the terms of the Fourteenth Amendment.           
                      Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U. S. 296, 303 (1940). The       
                      Clause protects not only the right to harbor religious beliefs
                      inwardly and secretly. It does perhaps its most important     
                      work by protecting the ability of those who hold religious    
                      beliefs of all kinds to live out their faiths in daily life   
                      through “the performance of (or abstention from) physical     
                      acts.” Employment Div., Dept. of Human Resources of Ore.      
                      v. Smith, 494 U. S. 872, 877 (1990).                          
                       Under this Court’s precedents, a plaintiff may carry the     
                      burden of proving a free exercise violation in various ways,  
                      including by showing that a government entity has bur-        
                      dened his sincere religious practice pursuant to a policy     
                      that is not “neutral” or “generally applicable.” Id., at 879– 
                      881. Should a plaintiff make a showing like that, this Court  
                      will find a First Amendment violation unless the govern-      
                      ment can satisfy “strict scrutiny” by demonstrating its       
                      course was justified by a compelling state interest and was   
                      narrowly tailored in pursuit of that interest. Lukumi, 508    
                      U. S., at 546.1                                               
                      ——————                                                        
                       1A plaintiff may also prove a free exercise violation by showing that
                      “official expressions of hostility” to religion accompany laws or policies
                      burdening religious exercise; in cases like that we have “set aside” such
                      policies without further inquiry. Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Colorado
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 13                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                       That Mr. Kennedy has discharged his burdens is effec-        
                      tively undisputed. No one questions that he seeks to engage   
                      in a sincerely motivated religious exercise. The exercise in  
                      question involves, as Mr. Kennedy has put it, giving          
                      “thanks through prayer” briefly and by himself “on the play-  
                      ing field” at the conclusion of each game he coaches. App.    
                      168, 171. Mr. Kennedy has indicated repeatedly that he is     
                      willing to “wai[t] until the game is over and the players     
                      have left the field” to “wal[k] to mid-field to say [his] short,
                      private, personal prayer.” Id., at 69; see also id., at 280,  
                      282. The contested exercise before us does not involve lead-  
                      ing prayers with the team or before any other captive audi-   
                      ence. Mr. Kennedy’s “religious beliefs do not require [him]   
                      to lead any prayer . . . involving students.” Id., at 170. At 
                      the District’s request, he voluntarily discontinued the       
                      school tradition of locker-room prayers and his postgame      
                      religious talks to students. The District disciplined him     
                      only for his decision to persist in praying quietly without   
                      his players after three games in October 2015. See Parts I–   
                      B and I–C, supra.                                             
                       Nor does anyone question that, in forbidding Mr. Ken-        
                      nedy’s brief prayer, the District failed to act pursuant to a 
                      neutral and generally applicable rule. A government policy    
                      will not qualify as neutral if it is “specifically directed at . . .
                      religious practice.” Smith, 494 U. S., at 878. A policy can   
                      fail this test if it “discriminate[s] on its face,” or if a religious
                      exercise is otherwise its “object.” Lukumi, 508 U. S., at 533;
                      see also Smith, 494 U. S., at 878. A government policy will   
                      fail the general applicability requirement if it “prohibits re-
                      ——————                                                        
                      Civil Rights Comm’n, 584 U. S. ___, ___ (2018) (slip op., at 18). To resolve
                      today’s case, however, we have no need to consult that test. Likewise,
                      while the test we do apply today has been the subject of some criticism,
                      see, e.g., Fulton v. Philadelphia, 593 U. S. ___, ___ (2021) (slip op., at 5),
                      we have no need to engage with that debate today because no party has
                      asked us to do so.                                            
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      14     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      ligious conduct while permitting secular conduct that un-     
                      dermines the government’s asserted interests in a similar     
                      way,” or if it provides “a mechanism for individualized ex-   
                      emptions.” Fulton, 593 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 6). Failing
                      either the neutrality or general applicability test is suffi- 
                      cient to trigger strict scrutiny. See Lukumi, 508 U. S., at   
                      546.                                                          
                       In this case, the District’s challenged policies were nei-   
                      ther neutral nor generally applicable. By its own admis-      
                      sion, the District sought to restrict Mr. Kennedy’s actions   
                      at least in part because of their religious character. As it  
                      put it in its September 17 letter, the District prohibited    
                      “any overt actions on Mr. Kennedy’s part, appearing to a      
                      reasonable observer to endorse even voluntary, student-in-    
                      itiated prayer.” App. 81. The District further explained      
                      that it could not allow “an employee, while still on duty, to 
                      engage in religious conduct.” Id., at 106 (emphasis added).   
                      Prohibiting a religious practice was thus the District’s un-  
                      questioned “object.” The District candidly acknowledged as    
                      much below, conceding that its policies were “not neutral”    
                      toward religion. 991 F. 3d, at 1020.                          
                       The District’s challenged policies also fail the general ap- 
                      plicability test. The District’s performance evaluation after 
                      the 2015 football season advised against rehiring Mr. Ken-    
                      nedy on the ground that he “failed to supervise student-      
                      athletes after games.” App. 114. But, in fact, this was a     
                      bespoke requirement specifically addressed to Mr. Ken-        
                      nedy’s religious exercise. The District permitted other       
                      members of the coaching staff to forgo supervising students   
                      briefly after the game to do things like visit with friends or
                      take personal phone calls. App. 205; see also Part I–B, su-   
                      pra. Thus, any sort of postgame supervisory requirement       
                      was not applied in an evenhanded, across-the-board way.       
                      Again recognizing as much, the District conceded before the   
                      Ninth Circuit that its challenged directives were not “gen-   
                      erally applicable.” 991 F. 3d, at 1020.                       
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 15                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                                          B                                         
                       When it comes to Mr. Kennedy’s free speech claim, our        
                      precedents remind us that the First Amendment’s protec-       
                      tions extend to “teachers and students,” neither of whom      
                      “shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or ex- 
                      pression at the schoolhouse gate.” Tinker v. Des Moines In-   
                      dependent Community School Dist., 393 U. S. 503, 506          
                      (1969); see also Lane v. Franks, 573 U. S. 228, 231 (2014).   
                      Of course, none of this means the speech rights of public     
                      school employees are so boundless that they may deliver       
                      any message to anyone anytime they wish. In addition to       
                      being private citizens, teachers and coaches are also gov-    
                      ernment employees paid in part to speak on the govern-        
                      ment’s behalf and convey its intended messages.               
                       To account for the complexity associated with the inter-     
                      play between free speech rights and government employ-        
                      ment, this Court’s decisions in Pickering v. Board of Ed. of  
                      Township High School Dist. 205, Will Cty., 391 U. S. 563      
                      (1968), Garcetti, 547 U. S. 410, and related cases suggest    
                      proceeding in two steps. The first step involves a threshold  
                      inquiry into the nature of the speech at issue. If a public   
                      employee speaks “pursuant to [his or her] official duties,”   
                      this Court has said the Free Speech Clause generally will     
                      not shield the individual from an employer’s control and      
                      discipline because that kind of speech is—for constitutional  
                      purposes at least—the government’s own speech. Id., at        
                      421.                                                          
                       At the same time and at the other end of the spectrum,       
                      when an employee “speaks as a citizen addressing a matter     
                      of public concern,” our cases indicate that the First Amend-  
                      ment may be implicated and courts should proceed to a sec-    
                      ond step. Id., at 423. At this second step, our cases suggest 
                      that courts should attempt to engage in “a delicate balanc-   
                      ing of the competing interests surrounding the speech and     
                      its consequences.” Ibid. Among other things, courts at this   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      16     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      second step have sometimes considered whether an em-          
                      ployee’s speech interests are outweighed by “‘the interest of 
                      the State, as an employer, in promoting the efficiency of the 
                      public services it performs through its employees.’” Id., at  
                      417 (quoting Pickering, 391 U. S., at 568).                   
                       Both sides ask us to employ at least certain aspects of this 
                      Pickering–Garcetti framework to resolve Mr. Kennedy’s         
                      free speech claim. They share additional common ground        
                      too. They agree that Mr. Kennedy’s speech implicates a        
                      matter of public concern. See App. to Pet. for Cert. 183;     
                      Brief for Respondent 44. They also appear to accept, at       
                      least for argument’s sake, that Mr. Kennedy’s speech does     
                      not raise questions of academic freedom that may or may       
                      not involve “additional” First Amendment “interests” be-      
                      yond those captured by this framework. Garcetti, 547 U. S.,   
                      at 425; see also Keyishian v. Board of Regents of Univ. of    
                      State of N. Y., 385 U. S. 589, 603 (1967); Brief for Petitioner
                      26, n. 2. At the first step of the Pickering–Garcetti inquiry,
                      the parties’ disagreement thus turns out to center on one     
                      question alone: Did Mr. Kennedy offer his prayers in his      
                      capacity as a private citizen, or did they amount to govern-  
                      ment speech attributable to the District?                     
                       Our cases offer some helpful guidance for resolving this     
                      question. In Garcetti, the Court concluded that a prosecu-    
                      tor’s internal memorandum to a supervisor was made “pur-      
                      suant to [his] official duties,” and thus ineligible for First
                      Amendment protection. 547 U. S., at 421. In reaching this     
                      conclusion, the Court relied on the fact that the prosecutor’s
                      speech “fulfill[ed] a responsibility to advise his supervisor 
                      about how best to proceed with a pending case.” Ibid. In      
                      other words, the prosecutor’s memorandum was govern-          
                      ment speech because it was speech the government “itself      
                      ha[d] commissioned or created” and speech the employee        
                      was expected to deliver in the course of carrying out his job.
                      Id., at 422.                                                  
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 17                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                       By contrast, in Lane a public employer sought to termi-      
                      nate an employee after he testified at a criminal trial about 
                      matters involving his government employment. 573 U. S.,       
                      at 233. The Court held that the employee’s speech was pro-    
                      tected by the First Amendment. Id., at 231. In doing so,      
                      the Court held that the fact the speech touched on matters    
                      related to public employment was not enough to render it      
                      government speech. Id., at 239–240. Instead, the Court        
                      explained, the “critical question . . . is whether the speech 
                      at issue is itself ordinarily within the scope of an employee’s
                      duties.” Id., at 240. It is an inquiry this Court has said    
                      should be undertaken “practical[ly],” rather than with a      
                      blinkered focus on the terms of some formal and capacious     
                      written job description. Garcetti, 547 U. S., at 424. To pro- 
                      ceed otherwise would be to allow public employers to use      
                      “excessively broad job descriptions” to subvert the Consti-   
                      tution’s protections. Ibid.                                   
                       Applying these lessons here, it seems clear to us that Mr.   
                      Kennedy has demonstrated that his speech was private          
                      speech, not government speech. When Mr. Kennedy ut-           
                      tered the three prayers that resulted in his suspension, he   
                      was not engaged in speech “ordinarily within the scope” of    
                      his duties as a coach. Lane, 573 U. S., at 240. He did not    
                      speak pursuant to government policy. He was not seeking       
                      to convey a government-created message. He was not in-        
                      structing players, discussing strategy, encouraging better    
                      on-field performance, or engaged in any other speech the      
                      District paid him to produce as a coach. See Part I–B, su-    
                      pra. Simply put: Mr. Kennedy’s prayers did not “ow[e          
                      their] existence” to Mr. Kennedy’s responsibilities as a pub- 
                      lic employee. Garcetti, 547 U. S., at 421.                    
                       The timing and circumstances of Mr. Kennedy’s prayers        
                      confirm the point. During the postgame period when these      
                      prayers occurred, coaches were free to attend briefly to per- 
                      sonal matters—everything from checking sports scores on       
                      their phones to greeting friends and family in the stands.    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      18     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      App. 205; see Part I–B, supra. We find it unlikely that Mr.   
                      Kennedy was fulfilling a responsibility imposed by his em-    
                      ployment by praying during a period in which the District     
                      has acknowledged that its coaching staff was free to engage   
                      in all manner of private speech. That Mr. Kennedy offered     
                      his prayers when students were engaged in other activities    
                      like singing the school fight song further suggests that      
                      those prayers were not delivered as an address to the team,   
                      but instead in his capacity as a private citizen. Nor is it   
                      dispositive that Mr. Kennedy’s prayers took place “within     
                      the office” environment—here, on the field of play. Garcetti, 
                      547 U. S., at 421. Instead, what matters is whether Mr.       
                      Kennedy offered his prayers while acting within the scope     
                      of his duties as a coach. And taken together, both the sub-   
                      stance of Mr. Kennedy’s speech and the circumstances sur-     
                      rounding it point to the conclusion that he did not.          
                       In reaching its contrary conclusion, the Ninth Circuit       
                      stressed that, as a coach, Mr. Kennedy served as a role       
                      model “clothed with the mantle of one who imparts             
                      knowledge and wisdom.” 991 F. 3d, at 1015. The court em-      
                      phasized that Mr. Kennedy remained on duty after games.       
                      Id., at 1016. Before us, the District presses the same argu-  
                      ments. See Brief for Respondent 24. And no doubt they         
                      have a point. Teachers and coaches often serve as vital role  
                      models. But this argument commits the error of positing       
                      an “excessively broad job descriptio[n]” by treating every-   
                      thing teachers and coaches say in the workplace as govern-    
                      ment speech subject to government control. Garcetti, 547      
                      U. S., at 424. On this understanding, a school could fire a   
                      Muslim teacher for wearing a headscarf in the classroom or    
                      prohibit a Christian aide from praying quietly over her       
                      lunch in the cafeteria. Likewise, this argument ignores the   
                      District Court’s conclusion (and the District’s concession)   
                      that Mr. Kennedy’s actual job description left time for a pri-
                      vate moment after the game to call home, check a text, so-    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 19                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      cialize, or engage in any manner of secular activities. Oth-  
                      ers working for the District were free to engage briefly in   
                      personal speech and activity. App. 205; see Part I–B, supra.  
                      That Mr. Kennedy chose to use the same time to pray does      
                      not transform his speech into government speech. To hold      
                      differently would be to treat religious expression as second- 
                      class speech and eviscerate this Court’s repeated promise     
                      that teachers do not “shed their constitutional rights to     
                      freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.”     
                      Tinker, 393 U. S., at 506.                                    
                       Of course, acknowledging that Mr. Kennedy’s prayers          
                      represented his own private speech does not end the mat-      
                      ter. So far, we have recognized only that Mr. Kennedy has     
                      carried his threshold burden. Under the Pickering–Garcetti    
                      framework, a second step remains where the government         
                      may seek to prove that its interests as employer outweigh     
                      even an employee’s private speech on a matter of public con-  
                      cern. See Lane, 573 U. S., at 236, 242.2                      
                                         IV                                         
                       Whether one views the case through the lens of the Free      
                      Exercise or Free Speech Clause, at this point the burden      
                      shifts to the District. Under the Free Exercise Clause, a     
                      government entity normally must satisfy at least “strict      
                      scrutiny,” showing that its restrictions on the plaintiff ’s  
                      protected rights serve a compelling interest and are nar-     
                      rowly tailored to that end. See Lukumi, 508 U. S., at 533;    
                      n. 1, supra. A similar standard generally obtains under the   
                      Free Speech Clause. See Reed, 576 U. S., at 171. The Dis-     
                      trict, however, asks us to apply to Mr. Kennedy’s claims the  
                      ——————                                                        
                       2Because our analysis and the parties’ concessions lead to the conclu-
                      sion that Mr. Kennedy’s prayer constituted private speech on a matter of
                      public concern, we do not decide whether the Free Exercise Clause may
                      sometimes demand a different analysis at the first step of the Pickering–
                      Garcetti framework.                                           
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      20     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      more lenient second-step Pickering–Garcetti test, or alter-   
                      natively intermediate scrutiny. See Brief for Respondent      
                      44–48. Ultimately, however, it does not matter which          
                      standard we apply. The District cannot sustain its burden     
                      under any of them.3                                           
                                          A                                         
                       As we have seen, the District argues that its suspension     
                      of Mr. Kennedy was essential to avoid a violation of the Es-  
                      tablishment Clause. Id., at 35–42. On its account, Mr. Ken-   
                      nedy’s prayers might have been protected by the Free Ex-      
                      ercise and Free Speech Clauses. But his rights were in        
                      “direct tension” with the competing demands of the Estab-     
                      lishment Clause. App. 43. To resolve that clash, the Dis-     
                      trict reasoned, Mr. Kennedy’s rights had to “yield.” Ibid.    
                      The Ninth Circuit pursued this same line of thinking, in-     
                      sisting that the District’s interest in avoiding an Establish-
                      ment Clause violation “‘trump[ed]’” Mr. Kennedy’s rights      
                      to religious exercise and free speech. 991 F. 3d, at 1017; see
                      also id., at 1020–1021.                                       
                       But how could that be? It is true that this Court and oth-   
                      ers often refer to the “Establishment Clause,” the “Free Ex-  
                      ercise Clause,” and the “Free Speech Clause” as separate      
                      units. But the three Clauses appear in the same sentence      
                      of the same Amendment: “Congress shall make no law re-        
                      specting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the     
                      free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech.”   
                      Amdt. 1. A natural reading of that sentence would seem to     
                      suggest the Clauses have “complementary” purposes, not        
                      warring ones where one Clause is always sure to prevail       
                      ——————                                                        
                       3It seems, too, that it is only here where our disagreement with the
                      dissent begins in earnest. We do not understand our colleagues to con-
                      test that Mr. Kennedy has met his burdens under either the Free Exer-
                      cise or Free Speech Clause, but only to suggest the District has carried
                      its own burden “to establish that its policy prohibiting Kennedy’s public
                      prayers was the least restrictive means of furthering a compelling state
                      interest.” Post, at 22 (opinion of SOTOMAYOR, J.).            
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 21                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      over the others. See Everson v. Board of Ed. of Ewing, 330    
                      U. S. 1, 13, 15 (1947).                                       
                       The District arrived at a different understanding this       
                      way. It began with the premise that the Establishment         
                      Clause is offended whenever a “reasonable observer” could     
                      conclude that the government has “endorse[d]” religion.       
                      App. 81. The District then took the view that a “reasonable   
                      observer” could think it “endorsed Kennedy’s religious ac-    
                      tivity by not stopping the practice.” 991 F. 3d, at 1018; see 
                      also App. 80–81; Parts I and II, supra. On the District’s     
                      account, it did not matter whether the Free Exercise Clause   
                      protected Mr. Kennedy’s prayer. It did not matter if his ex-  
                      pression was private speech protected by the Free Speech      
                      Clause. It did not matter that the District never actually    
                      endorsed Mr. Kennedy’s prayer, no one complained that it      
                      had, and a strong public reaction only followed after the     
                      District sought to ban Mr. Kennedy’s prayer. Because a        
                      reasonable observer could (mistakenly) infer that by allow-   
                      ing the prayer the District endorsed Mr. Kennedy’s mes-       
                      sage, the District felt it had to act, even if that meant sup-
                      pressing otherwise protected First Amendment activities.      
                      In this way, the District effectively created its own “vise be-
                      tween the Establishment Clause on one side and the Free       
                      Speech and Free Exercise Clauses on the other,” placed it-    
                      self in the middle, and then chose its preferred way out of   
                      its self-imposed trap. See Pinette, 515 U. S., at 768 (plural-
                      ity opinion); Shurtleff v. Boston, 596 U. S. ___, ___–___     
                      (2022) (GORSUCH, J., concurring in judgment) (slip op., at    
                      4–5).                                                         
                       To defend its approach, the District relied on Lemon and     
                      its progeny. See App. 43–45. In upholding the District’s      
                      actions, the Ninth Circuit followed the same course. See      
                      Part II–C, supra. And, to be sure, in Lemon this Court at-    
                      tempted a “grand unified theory” for assessing Establish-     
                      ment Clause claims. American Legion v. American Human-        
                      ist Assn., 588 U. S. ___, ___ (2019) (plurality opinion) (slip
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      22     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      op., at 24). That approach called for an examination of a     
                      law’s purposes, effects, and potential for entanglement with  
                      religion. Lemon, 403 U. S., at 612–613. In time, the ap-      
                      proach also came to involve estimations about whether a       
                      “reasonable observer” would consider the government’s         
                      challenged action an “endorsement” of religion. See, e.g.,    
                      County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union,        
                      Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 U. S. 573, 593 (1989); id.,   
                      at 630 (O’Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in    
                      judgment); Shurtleff, 596 U. S., at ___ (opinion of GORSUCH,  
                      J.) (slip op., at 3).                                         
                       What the District and the Ninth Circuit overlooked, how-     
                      ever, is that the “shortcomings” associated with this “ambi-  
                      tiou[s],” abstract, and ahistorical approach to the Establish-
                      ment Clause became so “apparent” that this Court long ago     
                      abandoned Lemon and its endorsement test offshoot. Amer-      
                      ican Legion, 588 U. S., at ___–___ (plurality opinion) (slip  
                      op., at 12–13); see also Town of Greece v. Galloway, 572      
                      U. S. 565, 575–577 (2014). The Court has explained that       
                      these tests “invited chaos” in lower courts, led to “differing
                      results” in materially identical cases, and created a “mine-  
                      field” for legislators. Pinette, 515 U. S., at 768–769, n. 3  
                      (plurality opinion) (emphasis deleted). This Court has since  
                      made plain, too, that the Establishment Clause does not in-   
                      clude anything like a “modified heckler’s veto, in which . . .
                      religious activity can be proscribed” based on “‘percep-      
                      tions’” or “‘discomfort.’” Good News Club v. Milford Cen-     
                      tral School, 533 U. S. 98, 119 (2001) (emphasis deleted). An  
                      Establishment Clause violation does not automatically fol-    
                      low whenever a public school or other government entity       
                      “fail[s] to censor” private religious speech. Board of Ed. of 
                      Westside Community Schools (Dist. 66) v. Mergens, 496         
                      U. S. 226, 250 (1990) (plurality opinion). Nor does the       
                      Clause “compel the government to purge from the public        
                      sphere” anything an objective observer could reasonably in-   
                      fer endorses or “partakes of the religious.” Van Orden v.     
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 23                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      Perry, 545 U. S. 677, 699 (2005) (BREYER, J., concurring in   
                      judgment). In fact, just this Term the Court unanimously      
                      rejected a city’s attempt to censor religious speech based on 
                      Lemon and the endorsement test. See Shurtleff, 596 U. S.,     
                      at ___–___ (slip op., at 1–2); id., at ___ (ALITO, J., concurring
                      in judgment) (slip op., at 1); id., at ___, ___–___ (opinion of
                      GORSUCH, J.) (slip op., at 1, 4–5).4                          
                       In place of Lemon and the endorsement test, this Court       
                      has instructed that the Establishment Clause must be in-      
                      terpreted by “‘reference to historical practices and under-   
                      standings.’” Town of Greece, 572 U. S., at 576; see also      
                      American Legion, 588 U. S., at ___ (plurality opinion) (slip  
                      op., at 25). “‘[T]he line’” that courts and governments       
                      “must draw between the permissible and the impermissi-        
                      ble” has to “‘accor[d] with history and faithfully reflec[t] the
                      understanding of the Founding Fathers.’” Town of Greece,      
                      ——————                                                        
                       4Nor was that decision an outlier. In the last two decades, this Court
                      has often criticized or ignored Lemon and its endorsement test variation.
                      See, e.g., Espinoza v. Montana Dept. of Revenue, 591 U. S. ___ (2020);
                      American Legion v. American Humanist Assn., 588 U. S. ___ (2019);
                      Trump v. Hawaii, 585 U. S. ___ (2018); Trinity Lutheran Church of Co-
                      lumbia, Inc. v. Comer, 582 U. S. ___ (2017); Town of Greece v. Galloway,
                      572 U. S. 565 (2014); Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and
                      School v. EEOC, 565 U. S. 171 (2012); Arizona Christian School Tuition
                      Organization v. Winn, 563 U. S. 125 (2011); Hein v. Freedom from Reli-
                      gion Foundation, Inc., 551 U. S. 587 (2007); id., at 618 (Scalia, J., con-
                      curring in judgment); Van Orden v. Perry, 545 U. S. 677 (2005); id., at
                      689 (BREYER, J., concurring in judgment). A vast number of Justices
                      have criticized those tests over an even longer period. See Shurtleff v.
                      Boston, 596 U. S. ___, at ___–___, and nn. 9–10 (2022) (GORSUCH, J., con-
                      curring in judgment) (slip op., at 7–8, and nn. 9–10) (collecting opinions
                      authored or joined by ROBERTS and Rehnquist, C. J., and THOMAS,
                      BREYER, ALITO, KAVANAUGH, Stevens, O’Connor, Scalia, and Kennedy,
                      JJ.). The point has not been lost on our lower court colleagues. See, e.g.,
                      4 F. 4th 910, 939–941 (2021) (O’Scannlain, J., respecting denial of re-
                      hearing en banc); id., at 945 (R. Nelson, J., dissenting from denial of re-
                      hearing en banc); id., at 947, n. 3 (collecting lower court cases from
                      “around the country” that “have recognized Lemon’s demise”).  
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      24     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      572 U. S., at 577 (quoting School Dist. of Abington Town-     
                      ship v. Schempp, 374 U. S. 203, 294 (1963) (Brennan, J.,      
                      concurring)). An analysis focused on original meaning and     
                      history, this Court has stressed, has long represented the    
                      rule rather than some “‘exception’” within the “Court’s Es-   
                      tablishment Clause jurisprudence.” 572 U. S., at 575; see     
                      American Legion, 588 U. S., at ___ (plurality opinion) (slip  
                      op., at 25); Torcaso v. Watkins, 367 U. S. 488, 490 (1961)    
                      (analyzing certain historical elements of religious establish-
                      ments); McGowan v. Maryland, 366 U. S. 420, 437–440           
                      (1961) (analyzing Sunday closing laws by looking to their     
                      “place . . . in the First Amendment’s history”); Walz v. Tax  
                      Comm’n of City of New York, 397 U. S. 664, 680 (1970) (an-    
                      alyzing the “history and uninterrupted practice” of church    
                      tax exemptions). The District and the Ninth Circuit erred     
                      by failing to heed this guidance.                             
                                          B                                         
                       Perhaps sensing that the primary theory it pursued be-       
                      low rests on a mistaken understanding of the Establish-       
                      ment Clause, the District offers a backup argument in this    
                      Court. It still contends that its Establishment Clause con-   
                      cerns trump Mr. Kennedy’s free exercise and free speech       
                      rights. But the District now seeks to supply different rea-   
                      soning for that result. Now, it says, it was justified in sup-
                      pressing Mr. Kennedy’s religious activity because otherwise   
                      it would have been guilty of coercing students to pray. See   
                      Brief for Respondent 34–37. And, the District says, coerc-    
                      ing worship amounts to an Establishment Clause violation      
                      on anyone’s account of the Clause’s original meaning.         
                       As it turns out, however, there is a pretty obvious reason   
                      why the Ninth Circuit did not adopt this theory in proceed-   
                      ings below: The evidence cannot sustain it. To be sure, this  
                      Court has long held that government may not, consistent       
                      with a historically sensitive understanding of the Estab-     
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 25                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      lishment Clause, “make a religious observance compul-         
                      sory.” Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U. S. 306, 314 (1952). Gov-     
                      ernment “may not coerce anyone to attend church,” ibid.,      
                      nor may it force citizens to engage in “a formal religious ex-
                      ercise,” Lee v. Weisman, 505 U. S. 577, 589 (1992). No        
                      doubt, too, coercion along these lines was among the fore-    
                      most hallmarks of religious establishments the framers        
                      sought to prohibit when they adopted the First Amend-         
                      ment.5 Members of this Court have sometimes disagreed         
                      on what exactly qualifies as impermissible coercion in light  
                      of the original meaning of the Establishment Clause. Com-     
                      pare Lee, 505 U. S., at 593, with id., at 640–641 (Scalia, J.,
                      dissenting). But in this case Mr. Kennedy’s private reli-     
                      gious exercise did not come close to crossing any line one    
                      might imagine separating protected private expression         
                      from impermissible government coercion.                       
                       Begin with the District’s own contemporaneous descrip-       
                      tion of the facts. In its correspondence with Mr. Kennedy,    
                      the District never raised coercion concerns. To the con-      
                      trary, the District conceded in a public 2015 document that   
                      there was “no evidence that students [were] directly coerced  
                      to pray with Kennedy.” App. 105. This is consistent with      
                      Mr. Kennedy’s account too. He has repeatedly stated that      
                      he “never coerced, required, or asked any student to pray,”   
                      and that he never “told any student that it was important     
                      that they participate in any religious activity.” Id., at 170.
                       Consider, too, the actual requests Mr. Kennedy made.         
                      The District did not discipline Mr. Kennedy for engaging in   
                      ——————                                                        
                       5See, e.g., Lee v. Weisman, 505 U. S. 577, 640–642 (1992) (Scalia, J.
                      dissenting); Shurtleff, 596 U. S., at ___–___ (opinion of GORSUCH, J.) (slip
                      op., at 10–13) (discussing coercion and certain other historical hallmarks
                      of an established religion); 1 Annals of Cong. 730–731 (1789) (Madison
                      explaining that the First Amendment aimed to prevent one or multiple
                      sects from “establish[ing] a religion to which they would compel others
                      to conform”); M. McConnell, Establishment and Disestablishment at the
                      Founding, Part I: Establishment of Religion, 44 Wm. & Mary L. Rev.
                      2105, 2144–2146 (2003).                                       
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      26     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      prayer while presenting locker-room speeches to students.     
                      That tradition predated Mr. Kennedy at the school. App.       
                      170. And he willingly ended it, as the District has acknowl-  
                      edged. Id., at 77, 170. He also willingly ended his practice  
                      of postgame religious talks with his team. Id., at 70, 77,    
                      170–172. The only prayer Mr. Kennedy sought to continue       
                      was the kind he had “started out doing” at the beginning of   
                      his tenure—the prayer he gave alone. Id., at 293–294. He      
                      made clear that he could pray “while the kids were doing      
                      the fight song” and “take a knee by [him]self and give        
                      thanks and continue on.” Id., at 294. Mr. Kennedy even        
                      considered it “acceptable” to say his “prayer while the play- 
                      ers were walking to the locker room” or “bus,” and then       
                      catch up with his team. Id., at 280, 282; see also id., at 59 
                      (proposing the team leave the field for the prayer). In short,
                      Mr. Kennedy did not seek to direct any prayers to students    
                      or require anyone else to participate. His plan was to wait   
                      to pray until athletes were occupied, and he “told every-     
                      body” that’s what he wished “to do.” Id., at 292. It was for  
                      three prayers of this sort alone in October 2015 that the     
                      District suspended him. See Parts I–B and I–C, supra.         
                       Naturally, Mr. Kennedy’s proposal to pray quietly by         
                      himself on the field would have meant some people would       
                      have seen his religious exercise. Those close at hand might   
                      have heard him too. But learning how to tolerate speech or    
                      prayer of all kinds is “part of learning how to live in a plu-
                      ralistic society,” a trait of character essential to “a tolerant
                      citizenry.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 590. This Court has long rec-  
                      ognized as well that “secondary school students are mature    
                      enough . . . to understand that a school does not endorse,”   
                      let alone coerce them to participate in, “speech that it      
                      merely permits on a nondiscriminatory basis.” Mergens,        
                      496 U. S., at 250 (plurality opinion). Of course, some will   
                      take offense to certain forms of speech or prayer they are    
                      sure to encounter in a society where those activities enjoy   
                      such robust constitutional protection. But “[o]ffense . . .   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 27                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      does not equate to coercion.” Town of Greece, 572 U. S., at   
                      589 (plurality opinion).                                      
                       The District responds that, as a coach, Mr. Kennedy          
                      “wielded enormous authority and influence over the stu-       
                      dents,” and students might have felt compelled to pray        
                      alongside him. Brief for Respondent 37. To support this       
                      argument, the District submits that, after Mr. Kennedy’s      
                      suspension, a few parents told District employees that their  
                      sons had “participated in the team prayers only because       
                      they did not wish to separate themselves from the team.”      
                      App. 356.                                                     
                       This reply fails too. Not only does the District rely on     
                      hearsay to advance it. For all we can tell, the concerns the  
                      District says it heard from parents were occasioned by the    
                      locker-room prayers that predated Mr. Kennedy’s tenure or     
                      his postgame religious talks, all of which he discontinued at 
                      the District’s request. There is no indication in the record  
                      that anyone expressed any coercion concerns to the District   
                      about the quiet, postgame prayers that Mr. Kennedy asked      
                      to continue and that led to his suspension. Nor is there any  
                      record evidence that students felt pressured to participate   
                      in these prayers. To the contrary, and as we have seen, not   
                      a single Bremerton student joined Mr. Kennedy’s quiet         
                      prayers following the three October 2015 games for which      
                      he was disciplined. On October 16, those students who         
                      joined Mr. Kennedy were “‘from the opposing team,’” 991       
                      F. 3d, at 1012–1013, and thus could not have “reasonably      
                      fear[ed]” that he would decrease their “playing time” or de-  
                      stroy their “opportunities” if they did not “participate,”    
                      Brief for Respondent 43. As for the other two relevant        
                      games, “no one joined” Mr. Kennedy on October 23. 991         
                      F. 3d, at 1019. And only a few members of the public par-     
                      ticipated on October 26. App. 97, 314–315; see also Part I–   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      28     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      B, supra.6                                                    
                       The absence of evidence of coercion in this record leaves    
                      the District to its final redoubt. Here, the District suggests
                      that any visible religious conduct by a teacher or coach      
                      should be deemed—without more and as a matter of law—         
                      impermissibly coercive on students. In essence, the District  
                      asks us to adopt the view that the only acceptable govern-    
                      ment role models for students are those who eschew any        
                      visible religious expression. See also post, at 16–17         
                      (SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting). If the argument sounds famil-    
                      iar, it should. Really, it is just another way of repackaging 
                      the District’s earlier submission that government may         
                      script everything a teacher or coach says in the workplace.   
                      See Part III–B, supra. The only added twist here is the Dis-  
                      trict’s suggestion not only that it may prohibit teachers     
                      from engaging in any demonstrative religious activity, but    
                      that it must do so in order to conform to the Constitution.   
                       Such a rule would be a sure sign that our Establishment      
                      Clause jurisprudence had gone off the rails. In the name of   
                      protecting religious liberty, the District would have us sup- 
                      press it. Rather than respect the First Amendment’s double    
                      protection for religious expression, it would have us prefer- 
                      ence secular activity. Not only could schools fire teachers   
                      for praying quietly over their lunch, for wearing a yarmulke  
                      to school, or for offering a midday prayer during a break     
                      before practice. Under the District’s rule, a school would be 
                      required to do so. It is a rule that would defy this Court’s  
                      traditional understanding that permitting private speech is   
                      ——————                                                        
                       6The dissent expresses concern that looking to “histor[y] an[d] tradi-
                      tion” to guide Establishment Clause inquiries will not afford “school ad-
                      ministrators” sufficient guidance. Post, at 30. But that concern supplies
                      no excuse to adorn the Constitution with rules not supported by its terms
                      and the traditions undergirding them. Nor, in any event, is there any
                      question that the District understands that coercion can be a hallmark
                      of an Establishment Clause violation. See App. 105. The District’s prob-
                      lem isn’t a failure to identify coercion as a crucial legal consideration; it
                      is a lack of evidence that coercion actually occurred.        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 29                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      not the same thing as coercing others to participate in it.   
                      See Town of Greece, 572 U. S., at 589 (plurality opinion). It 
                      is a rule, too, that would undermine a long constitutional    
                      tradition under which learning how to tolerate diverse ex-    
                      pressive activities has always been “part of learning how to  
                      live in a pluralistic society.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 590. We are
                      aware of no historically sound understanding of the Estab-    
                      lishment Clause that begins to “mak[e] it necessary for gov-  
                      ernment to be hostile to religion” in this way. Zorach, 343   
                      U. S., at 314.                                                
                       Our judgments on all these scores find support in this       
                      Court’s prior cases too. In Zorach, for example, challengers  
                      argued that a public school program permitting students to    
                      spend time in private religious instruction off campus was    
                      impermissibly coercive. Id., at 308, 311–312. The Court       
                      rejected that challenge because students were not required    
                      to attend religious instruction and there was no evidence     
                      that any employee had “us[ed] their office to persuade or     
                      force students” to participate in religious activity. Id., at 
                      311, and n. 6. What was clear there is even more obvious      
                      here—where there is no evidence anyone sought to per-         
                      suade or force students to participate, and there is no for-  
                      mal school program accommodating the religious activity at    
                      issue.                                                        
                       Meanwhile, this case looks very different from those in      
                      which this Court has found prayer involving public school     
                      students to be problematically coercive. In Lee, this Court   
                      held that school officials violated the Establishment Clause  
                      by “including [a] clerical membe[r]” who publicly recited     
                      prayers “as part of [an] official school graduation ceremony” 
                      because the school had “in every practical sense compelled    
                      attendance and participation in” a “religious exercise.” 505  
                      U. S., at 580, 598. In Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v.   
                      Doe, the Court held that a school district violated the Es-   
                      tablishment Clause by broadcasting a prayer “over the pub-    
                      lic address system” before each football game. 530 U. S.      
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      30     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      290, 294 (2000). The Court observed that, while students      
                      generally were not required to attend games, attendance       
                      was required for “cheerleaders, members of the band, and,     
                      of course, the team members themselves.” Id., at 311. None    
                      of that is true here. The prayers for which Mr. Kennedy       
                      was disciplined were not publicly broadcast or recited to a   
                      captive audience. Students were not required or expected      
                      to participate. And, in fact, none of Mr. Kennedy’s students  
                      did participate in any of the three October 2015 prayers      
                      that resulted in Mr. Kennedy’s discipline. See App. 90, 97,   
                      173, 236–239; Parts I–B and I–C, supra.7                      
                                          C                                         
                       In the end, the District’s case hinges on the need to gen-   
                      erate conflict between an individual’s rights under the Free  
                      Exercise and Free Speech Clauses and its own Establish-       
                      ment Clause duties—and then develop some explanation          
                      why one of these Clauses in the First Amendment should        
                      “‘trum[p]’ ” the other two. 991 F. 3d, at 1017; App. 43. But  
                      the project falters badly. Not only does the District fail to 
                      offer a sound reason to prefer one constitutional guarantee   
                      ——————                                                        
                       7Even if the personal prayers Mr. Kennedy sought to offer after games
                      are not themselves coercive, the dissent suggests that they bear an in-
                      delible taint of coercion by association with the school’s past prayer prac-
                      tices—some of which predated Mr. Kennedy, and all of which the District
                      concedes he ended on request. But none of those abandoned practices
                      formed the basis for Mr. Kennedy’s suspension, and he has not sought to
                      claim First Amendment protection for them. See Town of Greece, 572
                      U. S., at 585 (other past practices do not permanently “despoil a practice”
                      later challenged under the Establishment Clause). Nor, contrary to the
                      dissent, does the possibility that students might choose, unprompted, to
                      participate in Mr. Kennedy’s prayers necessarily prove them coercive.
                      See post, at 18–20, 32–33. For one thing, the District has conceded that
                      no coach may “discourag[e]” voluntary student prayer under its policies.
                      Tr. of Oral Arg. 91. For another, Mr. Kennedy has repeatedly explained
                      that he is willing to conduct his prayer without students—as he did after
                      each of the games that formed the basis of his suspension—and after
                      students head to the locker room or bus. See App. 280, 282, 292–294.
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 31                 
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      over another. It cannot even show that they are at odds. In   
                      truth, there is no conflict between the constitutional com-   
                      mands before us. There is only the “mere shadow” of a con-    
                      flict, a false choice premised on a misconstruction of the Es-
                      tablishment Clause. Schempp, 374 U. S., at 308 (Goldberg,     
                      J., concurring). And in no world may a government entity’s    
                      concerns about phantom constitutional violations justify ac-  
                      tual violations of an individual’s First Amendment rights.    
                      See, e.g., Rosenberger, 515 U. S., at 845–846; Good News      
                      Club, 533 U. S., at 112–119; Lamb’s Chapel v. Center          
                      Moriches Union Free School Dist., 508 U. S. 384, 394–395      
                      (1993); Widmar, 454 U. S., at 270–275.8                       
                                          V                                         
                       Respect for religious expressions is indispensable to life   
                      in a free and diverse Republic—whether those expressions      
                      take place in a sanctuary or on a field, and whether they     
                      manifest through the spoken word or a bowed head. Here,       
                      a government entity sought to punish an individual for en-    
                      gaging in a brief, quiet, personal religious observance dou-  
                      bly protected by the Free Exercise and Free Speech Clauses    
                      of the First Amendment. And the only meaningful justifi-      
                      cation the government offered for its reprisal rested on a    
                      mistaken view that it had a duty to ferret out and suppress   
                      ——————                                                        
                       8Failing under its coercion theory, the District offers still another
                      backup argument. It contends that it had to suppress Mr. Kennedy’s
                      protected First Amendment activity to ensure order at Bremerton foot-
                      ball games. See also post, at 2, 8–9, 11, 34–35 (SOTOMAYOR, J., dissent-
                      ing). But the District never raised concerns along these lines in its con-
                      temporaneous correspondence with Mr. Kennedy. And unsurprisingly,
                      neither the District Court nor the Ninth Circuit invoked this rationale to
                      justify the District’s actions. Government “justification[s]” for interfer-
                      ing with First Amendment rights “must be genuine, not hypothesized or
                      invented post hoc in response to litigation.” United States v. Virginia,
                      518 U. S. 515, 533 (1996). Nor under our Constitution does protected
                      speech or religious exercise readily give way to a “heckler’s veto.” Good
                      News Club v. Milford Central School, 533 U. S. 98, 119 (2001); supra, at
                      22–23.                                                        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      32     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    Opinion of the Court                            
                      religious observances even as it allows comparable secular    
                      speech. The Constitution neither mandates nor tolerates       
                      that kind of discrimination. Mr. Kennedy is entitled to       
                      summary judgment on his First Amendment claims. The           
                      judgment of the Court of Appeals is                           
                                                        Reversed.                   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 1                  
                                    THOMAS, J., concurring                          
                      SUPREME   COURT  OF THE  UNITED  STATES                       
                                       _________________                            
                                       No. 21–418                                   
                                       _________________                            
                            JOSEPH A. KENNEDY, PETITIONER v.                        
                             BREMERTON  SCHOOL DISTRICT                             
                      ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF           
                               APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT                        
                                      [June 27, 2022]                               
                       JUSTICE THOMAS, concurring.                                  
                       I join the Court’s opinion because it correctly holds that   
                      Bremerton School District violated Joseph Kennedy’s First     
                      Amendment rights. I write separately to emphasize that        
                      the Court’s opinion does not resolve two issues related to    
                      Kennedy’s free-exercise claim.                                
                       First, the Court refrains from deciding whether or how       
                      public employees’ rights under the Free Exercise Clause       
                      may or may not be different from those enjoyed by the gen-    
                      eral public. See ante, at 19, n. 2. In “striking the appropri-
                      ate balance” between public employees’ constitutional         
                      rights and “the realities of the employment context,” we      
                      have often “consider[ed] whether the asserted employee        
                      right implicates the basic concerns of the relevant constitu- 
                      tional provision, or whether the claimed right can more       
                      readily give way to the requirements of the government as     
                      employer.” Engquist v. Oregon Dept. of Agriculture, 553       
                      U. S. 591, 600 (2008). In the free-speech context, for exam-  
                      ple, that inquiry has prompted us to distinguish between      
                      different kinds of speech; we have held that “the First       
                      Amendment protects public employee speech only when it        
                      falls within the core of First Amendment protection—          
                      speech on matters of public concern.” Ibid. It remains an     
                      open question, however, if a similar analysis can or should   
                      apply to free-exercise claims in light of the “history” and   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      2      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                    THOMAS, J., concurring                          
                      “tradition” of the Free Exercise Clause. Borough of Duryea    
                      v. Guarnieri, 564 U. S. 379, 406 (2011) (Scalia, J., concur-  
                      ring in judgment in part and dissenting in part); see also    
                      id., at 400 (THOMAS, J., concurring in judgment).             
                       Second, the Court also does not decide what burden a gov-    
                      ernment employer must shoulder to justify restricting an      
                      employee’s religious expression because the District had no   
                      constitutional basis for reprimanding Kennedy under any       
                      possibly applicable standard of scrutiny. See ante, at 20.    
                      While we have many public-employee precedents address-        
                      ing how the interest-balancing test set out in Pickering v.   
                      Board of Ed. of Township High School Dist. 205, Will Cty.,    
                      391 U. S. 563 (1968), applies under the Free Speech Clause,   
                      the Court has never before applied Pickering balancing to a   
                      claim brought under the Free Exercise Clause. A govern-       
                      ment employer’s burden therefore might differ depending       
                      on which First Amendment guarantee a public employee in-      
                      vokes.                                                        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 1                  
                                    ALITO, J., concurring                           
                      SUPREME   COURT  OF THE  UNITED  STATES                       
                                       _________________                            
                                       No. 21–418                                   
                                       _________________                            
                            JOSEPH A. KENNEDY, PETITIONER v.                        
                             BREMERTON  SCHOOL DISTRICT                             
                      ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF           
                               APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT                        
                                      [June 27, 2022]                               
                       JUSTICE ALITO, concurring.                                   
                       The expression at issue in this case is unlike that in any   
                      of our prior cases involving the free-speech rights of public 
                      employees. Petitioner’s expression occurred while at work     
                      but during a time when a brief lull in his duties apparently  
                      gave him a few free moments to engage in private activities.  
                      When he engaged in this expression, he acted in a purely      
                      private capacity. The Court does not decide what standard     
                      applies to such expression under the Free Speech Clause       
                      but holds only that retaliation for this expression cannot be 
                      justified based on any of the standards discussed. On that    
                      understanding, I join the opinion in full.                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 1                  
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      SUPREME   COURT  OF THE  UNITED  STATES                       
                                       _________________                            
                                       No. 21–418                                   
                                       _________________                            
                            JOSEPH A. KENNEDY, PETITIONER v.                        
                             BREMERTON  SCHOOL DISTRICT                             
                      ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF           
                               APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT                        
                                      [June 27, 2022]                               
                       JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR, with whom JUSTICE BREYER and              
                      JUSTICE KAGAN join, dissenting.                               
                       This case is about whether a public school must permit a     
                      school official to kneel, bow his head, and say a prayer at   
                      the center of a school event. The Constitution does not au-   
                      thorize, let alone require, public schools to embrace this    
                      conduct. Since Engel v. Vitale, 370 U. S. 421 (1962), this    
                      Court consistently has recognized that school officials lead- 
                      ing prayer is constitutionally impermissible. Official-led    
                      prayer strikes at the core of our constitutional protections  
                      for the religious liberty of students and their parents, as   
                      embodied in both the Establishment Clause and the Free        
                      Exercise Clause of the First Amendment.                       
                       The Court now charts a different path, yet again paying      
                      almost exclusive attention to the Free Exercise Clause’s      
                      protection for individual religious exercise while giving     
                      short shrift to the Establishment Clause’s prohibition on     
                      state establishment of religion. See Carson v. Makin, 596     
                      U. S. ___, ___ (2022) (BREYER, J., dissenting) (slip op., at 1).
                      To the degree the Court portrays petitioner Joseph Ken-       
                      nedy’s prayers as private and quiet, it misconstrues the      
                      facts. The record reveals that Kennedy had a longstanding     
                      practice of conducting demonstrative prayers on the 50-       
                      yard line of the football field. Kennedy consistently invited 
                      others to join his prayers and for years led student athletes 
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      2      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      in prayer at the same time and location. The Court ignores    
                      this history. The Court also ignores the severe disruption    
                      to school events caused by Kennedy’s conduct, viewing it as   
                      irrelevant because the Bremerton School District (District)   
                      stated that it was suspending Kennedy to avoid it being       
                      viewed as endorsing religion. Under the Court’s analysis,     
                      presumably this would be a different case if the District had 
                      cited Kennedy’s repeated disruptions of school program-       
                      ming and violations of school policy regarding public access  
                      to the field as grounds for suspending him. As the District   
                      did not articulate those grounds, the Court assesses only     
                      the District’s Establishment Clause concerns. It errs by as-  
                      sessing them divorced from the context and history of Ken-    
                      nedy’s prayer practice.                                       
                       Today’s decision goes beyond merely misreading the rec-      
                      ord. The Court overrules Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U. S. 602     
                      (1971), and calls into question decades of subsequent prec-   
                      edents that it deems “offshoot[s]” of that decision. Ante, at 
                      22. In the process, the Court rejects longstanding concerns   
                      surrounding government endorsement of religion and re-        
                      places the standard for reviewing such questions with a       
                      new “history and tradition” test. In addition, while the      
                      Court reaffirms that the Establishment Clause prohibits       
                      the government from coercing participation in religious ex-   
                      ercise, it applies a nearly toothless version of the coercion 
                      analysis, failing to acknowledge the unique pressures faced   
                      by students when participating in school-sponsored activi-    
                      ties. This decision does a disservice to schools and the      
                      young citizens they serve, as well as to our Nation’s         
                      longstanding commitment to the separation of church and       
                      state. I respectfully dissent.                                
                                          I                                         
                       As the majority tells it, Kennedy, a coach for the District’s
                      football program, “lost his job” for “pray[ing] quietly while 
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 3                  
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      his students were otherwise occupied.” Ante, at 1. The rec-   
                      ord before us, however, tells a different story.              
                                          A                                         
                       The District serves approximately 5,057 students and         
                      employs 332 teachers and 400 nonteaching personnel in         
                      Kitsap County, Washington. The county is home to Bahá’ís,     
                      Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, Muslims, Sikhs, Zoroastrians,        
                      and many denominations of Christians, as well as numer-       
                      ous residents who are religiously unaffiliated. See Brief for 
                      Religious and Denominational Organizations et al. as          
                      Amici Curiae 4.                                               
                       The District first hired Kennedy in 2008, on a renewable     
                      annual contract, to serve as a part-time assistant coach for  
                      the varsity football team and head coach for the junior var-  
                      sity team at Bremerton High School (BHS). Kennedy’s job       
                      description required him to “[a]ccompany and direct” all      
                      home and out-of-town games to which he was assigned,          
                      overseeing preparation and transportation before games,       
                      being “[r]esponsible for player behavior both on and off the  
                      field,” supervising dressing rooms, and “secur[ing] all facil-
                      ities at the close of each practice.” App. 32–34, 36. His du- 
                      ties encompassed “supervising student activities immedi-      
                      ately following the completion of the game” until the         
                      students were released to their parents or otherwise al-      
                      lowed to leave. Id., at 133.                                  
                       The District also set requirements for Kennedy’s interac-    
                      tions with players, obliging him, like all coaches, to “exhibit
                      sportsmanlike conduct at all times,” “utilize positive moti-  
                      vational strategies to encourage athletic performance,” and   
                      serve as a “mentor and role model for the student athletes.”  
                      Id., at 56. In addition, Kennedy’s position made him re-      
                      sponsible for interacting with members of the community.      
                      In this capacity, the District required Kennedy and other     
                      coaches to “maintain positive media relations,” “always ap-   
                      proach officials with composure” with the expectation that    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      4      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      they were “constantly being observed by others,” and “com-    
                      municate effectively” with parents. Ibid.                     
                       Finally, District coaches had to “[a]dhere to [District] pol-
                      icies and administrative regulations” more generally. Id.,    
                      at 30–31. As relevant here, the District’s policy on “Reli-   
                      gious-Related Activities and Practices” provided that         
                      “[s]chool staff shall neither encourage or discourage a stu-  
                      dent from engaging in non-disruptive oral or silent prayer    
                      or any other form of devotional activity” and that “[r]eli-   
                      gious services, programs or assemblies shall not be con-      
                      ducted in school facilities during school hours or in connec- 
                      tion with any school sponsored or school related activity.”   
                      Id., at 26–28.                                                
                                          B                                         
                       In September 2015, a coach from another school’s football    
                      team informed BHS’ principal that Kennedy had asked him       
                      and his team to join Kennedy in prayer. The other team’s      
                      coach told the principal that he thought it was “‘cool’” that 
                      the District “‘would allow [its] coaches to go ahead and in-  
                      vite other teams’ coaches and players to pray after a game.’” 
                      Id., at 229.                                                  
                       The District initiated an inquiry into whether its policy    
                      on Religious-Related Activities and Practices had been vio-   
                      lated. It learned that, since his hiring in 2008, Kennedy     
                      had been kneeling on the 50-yard line to pray immediately     
                      after shaking hands with the opposing team. Kennedy re-       
                      counted that he initially prayed alone and that he never      
                      asked any student to join him. Over time, however, a ma-      
                      jority of the team came to join him, with the numbers vary-   
                      ing from game to game. Kennedy’s practice evolved into        
                      postgame talks in which Kennedy would hold aloft student      
                      helmets and deliver speeches with “overtly religious refer-   
                      ences,” which Kennedy described as prayers, while the         
                      players kneeled around him. Id., at 40. The District also     
                      learned that students had prayed in the past in the locker    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 5                  
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                        Photograph of J. Kennedy standing in group of kneeling players.
                      room prior to games, before Kennedy was hired, but that       
                      Kennedy subsequently began leading those prayers too.         
                       While the District’s inquiry was pending, its athletic di-   
                      rector attended BHS’ September 11, 2015, football game        
                      and told Kennedy that he should not be conducting prayers     
                      with players. After the game, while the athletic director     
                      watched, Kennedy led a prayer out loud, holding up a          
                      player’s helmet as the players kneeled around him. While      
                      riding the bus home with the team, Kennedy posted on          
                      Facebook that he thought he might have just been fired for    
                      praying.                                                      
                       On September 17, the District’s superintendent sent Ken-     
                      nedy a letter informing him that leading prayers with stu-    
                      dents on the field and in the locker room would likely be     
                      found to violate the Establishment Clause, exposing the       
                      District to legal liability. The District acknowledged that   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      6      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      Kennedy had “not actively encouraged, or required, partic-    
                      ipation” but emphasized that “school staff may not indi-      
                      rectly encourage students to engage in religious activity” or 
                      “endors[e]” religious activity; rather, the District explained,
                      staff “must remain neutral” “while performing their job du-   
                      ties.” Id., at 41–43. The District instructed Kennedy that    
                      any motivational talks to students must remain secular, “so   
                      as to avoid alienation of any team member.” Id., at 44.       
                       The District reiterated that “all District staff are free to 
                      engage in religious activity, including prayer, so long as it 
                      does not interfere with job responsibilities.” Id., at 45. To 
                      avoid endorsing student religious exercise, the District in-  
                      structed that such activity must be nondemonstrative or       
                      conducted separately from students, away from student ac-     
                      tivities. Ibid. The District expressed concern that Kennedy   
                      had continued his midfield prayer practice at two games af-   
                      ter the District’s athletic director and the varsity team’s   
                      head coach had instructed him to stop. Id., at 40–41.         
                       Kennedy stopped participating in locker room prayers         
                      and, after a game the following day, gave a secular speech.   
                      He returned to pray in the stadium alone after his duties     
                      were over and everyone had left the stadium, to which the     
                      District had no objection. Kennedy then hired an attorney,    
                      who, on October 14, sent a letter explaining that Kennedy     
                      was “motivated by his sincerely-held religious beliefs to     
                      pray following each football game.” Id., at 63. The letter    
                      claimed that the District had required that Kennedy “flee     
                      from students if they voluntarily choose to come to a place   
                      where he is privately praying during personal time,” refer-   
                      ring to the 50-yard line of the football field immediately fol-
                      lowing the conclusion of a game. Id., at 70. Kennedy re-      
                      quested that the District simply issue a “clarif[ication] that
                      the prayer is [Kennedy’s] private speech” and that the Dis-   
                      trict not “interfere” with students joining Kennedy in        
                      prayer. Id., at 71. The letter further announced that Ken-    
                      nedy would resume his 50-yard-line prayer practice the        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 7                  
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      next day after the October 16 homecoming game.1               
                       Before the homecoming game, Kennedy made multiple            
                      media appearances to publicize his plans to pray at the 50-   
                      yard line, leading to an article in the Seattle News and a    
                      local television broadcast about the upcoming homecoming      
                      game. In the wake of this media coverage, the District be-    
                      gan receiving a large number of emails, letters, and calls,   
                      many of them threatening.                                     
                       The District responded to Kennedy’s letter before the        
                      game on October 16. It emphasized that Kennedy’s letter       
                      evinced “materia[l] misunderstand[ings]” of many of the       
                      facts at issue. Id., at 76. For instance, Kennedy’s letter    
                      asserted that he had not invited anyone to pray with him;     
                      the District noted that that might be true of Kennedy’s Sep-  
                      tember 17 prayer specifically, but that Kennedy had           
                      acknowledged inviting others to join him on many previous     
                      occasions. The District’s September 17 letter had explained   
                      that Kennedy traditionally held up helmets from the BHS       
                      and opposing teams while players from each team kneeled       
                      around him. While Kennedy’s letter asserted that his pray-    
                      ers “occurr[ed] ‘on his own time,’ after his duties as a Dis- 
                      trict employee had ceased,” the District pointed out that     
                      Kennedy “remain[ed] on duty” when his prayers occurred        
                      “immediately following completion of the football game,       
                      when students are still on the football field, in uniform, un-
                      der the stadium lights, with the audience still in attend-    
                      ance, and while Mr. Kennedy is still in his District-issued   
                      and District-logoed attire.” Id., at 78 (emphasis deleted).   
                      ——————                                                        
                       1The Court recounts that Kennedy was “willing to say his ‘prayer while
                      the players were walking to the locker room’ or ‘bus,’ and then catch up
                      with his team.” Ante, at 4 (quoting App. 280–282); see also ante, at 5.
                      Kennedy made the quoted remarks, however, only during his deposition
                      in the underlying litigation, stating in response to a question that such
                      timing would have been “physically possible” and “possibly” have been
                      acceptable to him, but that he had never “discuss[ed] with the District
                      whether that was a possibility for [him] to do” and had “no idea” whether
                      his lawyers raised it with the District. App. 280.            
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      8      KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      The District further noted that “[d]uring the time following  
                      completion of the game, until players are released to their   
                      parents or otherwise allowed to leave the event, Mr. Ken-     
                      nedy, like all coaches, is clearly on duty and paid to con-   
                      tinue supervision of students.” Id., at 79.                   
                       The District stated that it had no objection to Kennedy      
                      returning to the stadium when he was off duty to pray at      
                      the 50-yard line, nor with Kennedy praying while on duty      
                      if it did not interfere with his job duties or suggest the Dis-
                      trict’s endorsement of religion. The District explained that  
                      its establishment concerns were motivated by the specific     
                      facts at issue, because engaging in prayer on the 50-yard     
                      line immediately after the game finished would appear to      
                      be an extension of Kennedy’s “prior, long-standing and well-  
                      known history of leading students in prayer” on the 50-yard   
                      line after games. Id., at 81. The District therefore reaf-    
                      firmed its prior directives to Kennedy.                       
                       On October 16, after playing of the game had concluded,      
                      Kennedy shook hands with the opposing team, and as ad-        
                      vertised, knelt to pray while most BHS players were sing-     
                      ing the school’s fight song. He quickly was joined by         
                      coaches and players from the opposing team. Television        
                      news cameras surrounded the group.2 Members of the pub-       
                      lic rushed the field to join Kennedy, jumping fences to       
                      access the field and knocking over student band members.      
                      After the game, the District received calls from Satanists    
                      who “‘intended to conduct ceremonies on the field after foot- 
                      ball games if others were allowed to.’” Id., at 181. To secure
                      the field and enable subsequent games to continue safely,     
                      the District was forced to make security arrangements with    
                      ——————                                                        
                       2The Court describes the events of the October 16 game as having
                      “spurred media coverage of Mr. Kennedy’s case.” Ante, at 5. In fact, the
                      District Court found that Kennedy himself generated the media coverage
                      by publicizing his dispute with the District in his initial Facebook posting
                      and in his media appearances before the October 16 game. 443 F. Supp.
                      3d 1223, 1230 (WD Wash. 2020).                                
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 9                  
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      the local police and to post signs near the field and place   
                      robocalls to parents reiterating that the field was not open  
                      to the public.                                                
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                          Photograph of J. Kennedy in prayer circle (Oct. 16, 2015).
                       The District sent Kennedy another letter on October 23,      
                      explaining that his conduct at the October 16 game was in-    
                      consistent with the District’s requirements for two reasons.  
                      First, it “drew [him] away from [his] work”; Kennedy had,     
                      “until recently, . . . regularly c[o]me to the locker room with
                      the team and other coaches following the game” and had        
                      “specific responsibility for the supervision of players in the
                      locker room following games.” Id., at 92–93. Second, his      
                      conduct raised Establishment Clause concerns, because         
                      “any reasonable observer saw a District employee, on the      
                      field only by virtue of his employment with the District, still
                      on duty, under the bright lights of the stadium, engaged in   
                      what was clearly, given [his] prior public conduct, overtly   
                      religious conduct.” Id., at 93.                               
                       Again, the District emphasized that it was happy to ac-      
                      commodate Kennedy’s desire to pray on the job in a way        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      10     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      that did not interfere with his duties or risk perceptions of 
                      endorsement. Stressing that “[d]evelopment of accommo-        
                      dations is an interactive process,” it invited Kennedy to     
                      reach out to discuss accommodations that might be mutu-       
                      ally satisfactory, offering proposed accommodations and in-   
                      viting Kennedy to raise others. Id., at 93–94. The District   
                      noted, however, that “further violations of [its] directives” 
                      would be grounds for discipline or termination. Id., at 95.   
                       Kennedy did not directly respond or suggest a satisfac-      
                      tory accommodation. Instead, his attorneys told the media     
                      that he would accept only demonstrative prayer on the 50-     
                      yard line immediately after games. During the October 23      
                      and October 26 games, Kennedy again prayed at the 50-         
                      yard line immediately following the game, while postgame      
                      activities were still ongoing. At the October 23 game, Ken-   
                      nedy kneeled on the field alone with players standing         
                      nearby. At the October 26 game, Kennedy prayed sur-           
                      rounded by members of the public, including state repre-      
                      sentatives who attended the game to support Kennedy. The      
                      BHS players, after singing the fight song, joined Kennedy     
                      at midfield after he stood up from praying.                   
                          Photograph of J. Kennedy in prayer circle (Oct. 26, 2015).
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 11                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                       In an October 28 letter, the District notified Kennedy       
                      that it was placing him on paid administrative leave for vi-  
                      olating its directives at the October 16, October 23, and Oc- 
                      tober 26 games by kneeling on the field and praying imme-     
                      diately following the games before rejoining the players for  
                      postgame talks. The District recounted that it had offered    
                      accommodations to, and offered to engage in further discus-   
                      sions with, Kennedy to permit his religious exercise, and     
                      that Kennedy had failed to respond to these offers. The Dis-  
                      trict stressed that it remained willing to discuss possible   
                      accommodations if Kennedy was willing.                        
                       After the issues with Kennedy arose, several parents         
                      reached out to the District saying that their children had    
                      participated in Kennedy’s prayers solely to avoid separat-    
                      ing themselves from the rest of the team. No BHS students     
                      appeared to pray on the field after Kennedy’s suspension.     
                       In Kennedy’s annual review, the head coach of the varsity    
                      team recommended Kennedy not be rehired because he            
                      “failed to follow district policy,” “demonstrated a lack of co-
                      operation with administration,” “contributed to negative re-  
                      lations between parents, students, community members,         
                      coaches, and the school district,” and “failed to supervise   
                      student-athletes after games due to his interactions with     
                      media and community” members. Id., at 114. The head           
                      coach himself also resigned after 11 years in that position,  
                      expressing fears that he or his staff would be shot from the  
                      crowd or otherwise attacked because of the turmoil created    
                      by Kennedy’s media appearances. Three of five other assis-    
                      tant coaches did not reapply.                                 
                                          C                                         
                       Kennedy then filed suit. He contended, as relevant, that     
                      the District violated his rights under the Free Speech and    
                      Free Exercise Clauses of the First Amendment. Kennedy         
                      moved for a preliminary injunction, which the District        
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      12     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      Court denied based on the circumstances surrounding Ken-      
                      nedy’s prayers. The court concluded that Kennedy had          
                      “chose[n] a time and event,” the October 16 homecoming        
                      game, that was “a big deal” for students, and then “used      
                      that opportunity to convey his religious views” in a manner   
                      a reasonable observer would have seen as a “public em-        
                      ployee . . . leading an orchestrated session of faith.” App. to
                      Pet. for Cert. 303. The Court of Appeals affirmed, again      
                      emphasizing the specific context of Kennedy’s prayers. The    
                      court rejected Kennedy’s contention that he had been “pray-   
                      ing on the fifty-yard line ‘silently and alone.’” Kennedy v.  
                      Bremerton School Dist., 869 F. 3d 813, 825 (CA9 2017). The    
                      court noted that he had in fact refused “an accommodation     
                      permitting him to pray . . . after the stadium had emptied,”  
                      “indicat[ing] that it is essential that his speech be delivered
                      in the presence of students and spectators.” Ibid. This       
                      Court denied certiorari.                                      
                       Following discovery, the District Court granted summary      
                      judgment to the District. The court concluded that Ken-       
                      nedy’s 50-yard-line prayers were not entitled to protection   
                      under the Free Speech Clause because his speech was made      
                      in his capacity as a public employee, not as a private citizen.
                      443 F. Supp. 3d 1223, 1237 (WD Wash. 2020). In addition,      
                      the court held that Kennedy’s prayer practice violated the    
                      Establishment Clause, reasoning that “speech from the cen-    
                      ter of the football field immediately after each game . . . con-
                      veys official sanction.” Id., at 1238. That was especially    
                      true where Kennedy, a school employee, initiated the          
                      prayer; Kennedy was “joined by students or adults to create   
                      a group of worshippers in a place the school controls access  
                      to”; and Kennedy had a long “history of engaging in reli-     
                      gious activity with players” that would have led a familiar   
                      observer to believe that Kennedy was “continuing this tra-    
                      dition” with prayer at the 50-yard line. Id., at 1238–1239.   
                      The District Court further found that players had reported    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 13                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      “feeling compelled to join Kennedy in prayer to stay con-     
                      nected with the team or ensure playing time,” and that the    
                      “slow accumulation of players joining Kennedy suggests ex-    
                      actly the type of vulnerability to social pressure that makes 
                      the Establishment Clause vital in the high school context.”   
                      Id., at 1239. The court rejected Kennedy’s free exercise      
                      claim, finding the District’s directive narrowly tailored to  
                      its Establishment Clause concerns and citing Kennedy’s re-    
                      fusal to cooperate in finding an accommodation that would     
                      be acceptable to him. Id., at 1240.                           
                       The Court of Appeals affirmed, explaining that “the facts    
                      in the record utterly belie [Kennedy’s] contention that the   
                      prayer was personal and private.” 991 F. 3d 1004, 1017        
                      (CA9 2021). The court instead concluded that Kennedy’s        
                      speech constituted government speech, as he “repeatedly       
                      acknowledged that—and behaved as if—he was a mentor,          
                      motivational speaker, and role model to students specifi-     
                      cally at the conclusion of the game.” Id., at 1015 (emphasis  
                      deleted). In the alternative, the court concluded that Ken-   
                      nedy’s speech, even if in his capacity as a private citizen,  
                      was appropriately regulated by the District to avoid an Es-   
                      tablishment Clause violation, emphasizing once more that      
                      this conclusion was tied to the specific “evolution of Ken-   
                      nedy’s prayer practice with students” over time. Id., at      
                      1018. The court rejected Kennedy’s free exercise claim for    
                      the reasons stated by the District Court. Id., at 1020. The   
                      Court of Appeals denied rehearing en banc, and this Court     
                      granted certiorari.                                           
                                          II                                        
                       Properly understood, this case is not about the limits on    
                      an individual’s ability to engage in private prayer at work.  
                      This case is about whether a school district is required to   
                      allow one of its employees to incorporate a public, commu-    
                      nicative display of the employee’s personal religious beliefs 
                      into a school event, where that display is recognizable as    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      14     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      part of a longstanding practice of the employee ministering   
                      religion to students as the public watched. A school district 
                      is not required to permit such conduct; in fact, the Estab-   
                      lishment Clause prohibits it from doing so.                   
                                          A                                         
                       The Establishment Clause prohibits States from adopt-        
                      ing laws “respecting an establishment of religion.” Amdt.     
                      1; see Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U. S. 38, 49 (1985) (recogniz- 
                      ing the Clause’s incorporation against the States). The       
                      First Amendment’s next Clause prohibits the government        
                      from making any law “prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”  
                      Taken together, these two Clauses (the Religion Clauses)      
                      express the view, foundational to our constitutional system,  
                      “that religious beliefs and religious expression are too pre- 
                      cious to be either proscribed or prescribed by the State.” Lee
                      v. Weisman, 505 U. S. 577, 589 (1992). Instead, “preserva-    
                      tion and transmission of religious beliefs and worship is a   
                      responsibility and a choice committed to the private          
                      sphere,” which has the “freedom to pursue that mission.”      
                      Ibid.                                                         
                       The Establishment Clause protects this freedom by “com-      
                      mand[ing] a separation of church and state.” Cutter v. Wil-   
                      kinson, 544 U. S. 709, 719 (2005). At its core, this means    
                      forbidding “sponsorship, financial support, and active in-    
                      volvement of the sovereign in religious activity.” Walz v.    
                      Tax Comm’n of City of New York, 397 U. S. 664, 668 (1970).    
                      In the context of public schools, it means that a State cannot
                      use “its public school system to aid any or all religious faiths
                      or sects in the dissemination of their doctrines and ideals.” 
                      Illinois ex rel. McCollum v. Board of Ed. of School Dist. No. 
                      71, Champaign Cty., 333 U. S. 203, 211 (1948).                
                       Indeed, “[t]he Court has been particularly vigilant in       
                      monitoring compliance with the Establishment Clause in        
                      elementary and secondary schools.” Edwards v. Aguillard,      
                      482 U. S. 578, 583–584 (1987). The reasons motivating this    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 15                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      vigilance inhere in the nature of schools themselves and the  
                      young people they serve. Two are relevant here.               
                       First, government neutrality toward religion is particu-     
                      larly important in the public school context given the role   
                      public schools play in our society. “‘The public school is at 
                      once the symbol of our democracy and the most pervasive       
                      means for promoting our common destiny,’” meaning that        
                      “‘[i]n no activity of the State is it more vital to keep out di-
                      visive forces than in its schools.’” Id. at 584. Families “en-
                      trust public schools with the education of their children . . .
                      on the understanding that the classroom will not purposely    
                      be used to advance religious views that may conflict with     
                      the private beliefs of the student and his or her family.”    
                      Ibid. Accordingly, the Establishment Clause “proscribes       
                      public schools from ‘conveying or attempting to convey a      
                      message that religion or a particular religious belief is fa- 
                      vored or preferred’” or otherwise endorsing religious be-     
                      liefs. Lee, 505 U. S., at 604–605 (Blackmun, J., concurring)  
                      (emphasis deleted).                                           
                       Second, schools face a higher risk of unconstitutionally     
                      “coerc[ing] . . . support or participat[ion] in religion or its
                      exercise” than other government entities. Id., at 587 (opin-  
                      ion of the Court). The State “exerts great authority and co-  
                      ercive power” in schools as a general matter “through man-    
                      datory attendance requirements.” Edwards, 482 U. S., at       
                      584. Moreover, the State exercises that great authority       
                      over children, who are uniquely susceptible to “subtle coer-  
                      cive pressure.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 588; cf. Town of Greece v. 
                      Galloway, 572 U. S. 565, 590 (2014) (plurality opinion)       
                      (“[M]ature adults,” unlike children, may not be “‘readily     
                      susceptible to religious indoctrination or peer pressure’”).  
                      Children are particularly vulnerable to coercion because of   
                      their “emulation of teachers as role models” and “suscepti-   
                      bility to peer pressure.” Edwards, 482 U. S., at 584. Ac-     
                      cordingly, this Court has emphasized that “the State may      
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      16     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      not, consistent with the Establishment Clause, place pri-     
                      mary and secondary school children” in the dilemma of         
                      choosing between “participating, with all that implies, or    
                      protesting” a religious exercise in a public school. Lee, 505 
                      U. S., at 593.                                                
                       Given the twin Establishment Clause concerns of en-          
                      dorsement and coercion, it is unsurprising that the Court     
                      has consistently held integrating prayer into public school   
                      activities to be unconstitutional, including when student     
                      participation is not a formal requirement or prayer is silent.
                      See Wallace, 472 U. S. 38 (mandatory moment of silence for    
                      prayer); School Dist. of Abington Township v. Schempp, 374    
                      U. S. 203 (1963) (nonmandatory recitation of Bible verses     
                      and prayer); Engel, 370 U. S., at 424 (nonmandatory recita-   
                      tion of one-sentence prayer). The Court also has held that    
                      incorporating a nondenominational general benediction         
                      into a graduation ceremony is unconstitutional. Lee, 505      
                      U. S. 577. Finally, this Court has held that including pray-  
                      ers in student football games is unconstitutional, even       
                      when delivered by students rather than staff and even         
                      when students themselves initiated the prayer. Santa Fe       
                      Independent School Dist. v. Doe, 530 U. S. 290 (2000).        
                                          B                                         
                       Under these precedents, the Establishment Clause viola-      
                      tion at hand is clear. This Court has held that a “[s]tate    
                      officia[l] direct[ing] the performance of a formal religious  
                      exercise” as a part of the “ceremon[y]” of a school event “con-
                      flicts with settled rules pertaining to prayer exercises for  
                      students.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 586–587. Kennedy was on the     
                      job as a school official “on government property” when he     
                      incorporated a public, demonstrative prayer into “govern-     
                      ment-sponsored school-related events” as a regularly sched-   
                      uled feature of those events. Santa Fe, 530 U. S., at 302.    
                       Kennedy’s tradition of a 50-yard line prayer thus strikes    
                      at the heart of the Establishment Clause’s concerns about     
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 17                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      endorsement. For students and community members at the        
                      game, Coach Kennedy was the face and the voice of the Dis-    
                      trict during football games. The timing and location Ken-     
                      nedy selected for his prayers were “clothed in the tradi-     
                      tional indicia of school sporting events.” Id., at 308.       
                      Kennedy spoke from the playing field, which was accessible    
                      only to students and school employees, not to the general     
                      public. Although the football game itself had ended, the      
                      football game events had not; Kennedy himself acknowl-        
                      edged that his responsibilities continued until the players   
                      went home. Kennedy’s postgame responsibilities were           
                      what placed Kennedy on the 50-yard line in the first place;   
                      that was, after all, where he met the opposing team to        
                      shake hands after the game. Permitting a school coach to      
                      lead students and others he invited onto the field in prayer  
                      at a predictable time after each game could only be viewed    
                      as a postgame tradition occurring “with the approval of the   
                      school administration.” Ibid.                                 
                       Kennedy’s prayer practice also implicated the coercion       
                      concerns at the center of this Court’s Establishment Clause   
                      jurisprudence. This Court has previously recognized a         
                      heightened potential for coercion where school officials are  
                      involved, as their “effort[s] to monitor prayer will be per-  
                      ceived by the students as inducing a participation they       
                      might otherwise reject.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 590. The reasons  
                      for fearing this pressure are self-evident. This Court has    
                      recognized that students face immense social pressure.        
                      Students look up to their teachers and coaches as role mod-   
                      els and seek their approval. Students also depend on this     
                      approval for tangible benefits. Players recognize that gain-  
                      ing the coach’s approval may pay dividends small and large,   
                      from extra playing time to a stronger letter of recommenda-   
                      tion to additional support in college athletic recruiting. In 
                      addition to these pressures to please their coaches, this     
                      Court has recognized that players face “immense social        
                      pressure” from their peers in the “extracurricular event      
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      18     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      that is American high school football.” Santa Fe, 530 U. S.,  
                      at 311.                                                       
                       The record before the Court bears this out. The District     
                      Court found, in the evidentiary record, that some students    
                      reported joining Kennedy’s prayer because they felt social    
                      pressure to follow their coach and teammates. Kennedy         
                      told the District that he began his prayers alone and that    
                      players followed each other over time until a majority of the 
                      team joined him, an evolution showing coercive pressure at    
                      work.                                                         
                       Kennedy does not defend his longstanding practice of         
                      leading the team in prayer out loud on the field as they      
                      kneeled around him. Instead, he responds, and the Court       
                      accepts, that his highly visible and demonstrative prayer at  
                      the last three games before his suspension did not violate    
                      the Establishment Clause because these prayers were quiet     
                      and thus private. This Court’s precedents, however, do not    
                      permit isolating government actions from their context in     
                      determining whether they violate the Establishment            
                      Clause. To the contrary, this Court has repeatedly stated     
                      that Establishment Clause inquiries are fact specific and     
                      require careful consideration of the origins and practical re-
                      ality of the specific practice at issue. See, e.g., id., at 315;
                      Lee, 505 U. S., at 597. In Santa Fe, the Court specifically   
                      addressed how to determine whether the implementation of      
                      a new policy regarding prayers at football games “insulates   
                      the continuation of such prayers from constitutional scru-    
                      tiny.” 530 U. S., at 315. The Court held that “inquiry into   
                      this question not only can, but must, include an examina-     
                      tion of the circumstances surrounding” the change in policy,  
                      the “long-established tradition” before the change, and the   
                      “‘unique circumstances’” of the school in question. Ibid.     
                      This Court’s precedent thus does not permit treating Ken-     
                      nedy’s “new” prayer practice as occurring on a blank slate,   
                      any more than those in the District’s school community        
                      would have experienced Kennedy’s changed practice (to the     
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 19                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      degree there was one) as erasing years of prior actions by    
                      Kennedy.                                                      
                       Like the policy change in Santa Fe, Kennedy’s “changed”      
                      prayers at these last three games were a clear continuation   
                      of a “long-established tradition of sanctioning” school offi- 
                      cial involvement in student prayers. Ibid. Students at the    
                      three games following Kennedy’s changed practice wit-         
                      nessed Kennedy kneeling at the same time and place where      
                      he had led them in prayer for years. They witnessed their     
                      peers from opposing teams joining Kennedy, just as they       
                      had when Kennedy was leading joint team prayers. They         
                      witnessed members of the public and state representatives     
                      going onto the field to support Kennedy’s cause and pray      
                      with him. Kennedy did nothing to stop this unauthorized       
                      access to the field, a clear dereliction of his duties. The BHS
                      players in fact joined the crowd around Kennedy after he      
                      stood up from praying at the last game. That BHS students     
                      did not join Kennedy in these last three specific prayers did 
                      not make those events compliant with the Establishment        
                      Clause. The coercion to do so was evident. Kennedy him-       
                      self apparently anticipated that his continued prayer prac-   
                      tice would draw student participation, requesting that the    
                      District agree that it would not “interfere” with students    
                      joining him in the future. App. 71.                           
                       Finally, Kennedy stresses that he never formally re-         
                      quired students to join him in his prayers. But existing      
                      precedents do not require coercion to be explicit, particu-   
                      larly when children are involved. To the contrary, this       
                      Court’s Establishment Clause jurisprudence establishes        
                      that “‘the government may no more use social pressure to      
                      enforce orthodoxy than it may use more direct means.’”        
                      Santa Fe, 530 U. S., at 312. Thus, the Court has held that    
                      the Establishment Clause “will not permit” a school “‘to ex-  
                      act religious conformity from a student as the price’ of join-
                      ing her classmates at a varsity football game.” Ibid. To      
                      uphold a coach’s integration of prayer into the ceremony of   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      20     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      a football game, in the context of an established history of  
                      the coach inviting student involvement in prayer, is to exact 
                      precisely this price from students.                           
                                          C                                         
                       As the Court explains, see ante, at 15, Kennedy did not      
                      “shed [his] constitutional rights . . . at the schoolhouse gate”
                      while on duty as a coach. Tinker v. Des Moines Independent    
                      Community School Dist., 393 U. S. 503, 506 (1969). Consti-    
                      tutional rights, however, are not absolutes. Rights often     
                      conflict and balancing of interests is often required to pro- 
                      tect the separate rights at issue. See Dobbs v. Jackson       
                      Women’s Health Organization, 597 U. S. ___, ___ (2022)        
                      (slip op., at 12) (BREYER, SOTOMAYOR, and KAGAN, JJ., dis-    
                      senting) (noting that “the presence of countervailing inter-  
                      ests . . . is what ma[kes]” a constitutional question “hard,  
                      and what require[s] balancing”).                              
                       The particular tensions at issue in this case, between the   
                      speech interests of the government and its employees and      
                      between public institutions’ religious neutrality and private 
                      individuals’ religious exercise, are far from novel. This     
                      Court’s settled precedents offer guidance to assist courts,   
                      governments, and the public in navigating these tensions.     
                      Under these precedents, the District’s interest in avoiding   
                      an Establishment Clause violation justified both its time     
                      and place restrictions on Kennedy’s speech and his exercise   
                      of religion.                                                  
                       First, as to Kennedy’s free speech claim, Kennedy “ac-       
                      cept[ed] certain limitations” on his freedom of speech when   
                      he accepted government employment. Garcetti v. Ceballos,      
                      547 U. S. 410, 418 (2006). The Court has recognized that      
                      “[g]overnment employers, like private employers, need a       
                      significant degree of control over their employees’ words     
                      and actions” to ensure “the efficient provision of public ser-
                      vices.” Ibid. Case law instructs balancing “the interests of  
                      the teacher, as a citizen, in commenting upon matters of      
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 21                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      public concern and the interest of the State, as an employer, 
                      in promoting the efficiency of the public services it performs
                      through its employees” to determine whose interests should    
                      prevail. Pickering v. Board of Ed. of Township High School    
                      Dist. 205, Will Cty., 391 U. S. 563, 568 (1968).              
                       As the Court of Appeals below outlined, the District has     
                      a strong argument that Kennedy’s speech, formally inte-       
                      grated into the center of a District event, was speech in his 
                      official capacity as an employee that is not entitled to First
                      Amendment protections at all. See Garcetti, 547 U. S., at     
                      418; 991 F. 3d, at 1014–1016 (applying Garcetti).3 It is un-  
                      necessary to resolve this question, however, because, even    
                      assuming that Kennedy’s speech was in his capacity as a       
                      private citizen, the District’s responsibilities under the Es-
                      tablishment Clause provided “adequate justification” for re-  
                      stricting it. Garcetti, 547 U. S., at 418.                    
                       Similarly, Kennedy’s free exercise claim must be consid-     
                      ered in light of the fact that he is a school official and, as
                      such, his participation in religious exercise can create Es-  
                      tablishment Clause conflicts. Accordingly, his right to pray  
                      at any time and in any manner he wishes while exercising      
                      his professional duties is not absolute. See Lee, 505 U. S.,  
                      ——————                                                        
                       3The Court’s primary argument that Kennedy’s speech is not in his
                      official capacity is that he was permitted “to call home, check a text, [or]
                      socialize” during the time period in question. Ante, at 18–19. These truly
                      private, informal communications bear little resemblance, however, to
                      what Kennedy did. Kennedy explicitly sought to make his demonstrative
                      prayer a permanent ritual of the postgame events, at the physical center
                      of those events, where he was present by virtue of his job responsibilities,
                      and after years of giving prayer-filled motivational speeches to students
                      at the same relative time and location. In addition, Kennedy gathered
                      public officials and other members of the public onto the field to join him
                      in the prayer, contrary to school policies controlling access to the field.
                      Such behavior raises an entirely different risk of depriving the employer
                      of “control over what the employer itself has commissioned or created”
                      than an employee making a call home on the sidelines, fleetingly check-
                      ing email, or pausing to hug a friend in the crowd. Garcetti, 547 U. S., at
                      422.                                                          
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      22     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      at 587 (noting that a school official’s choice to integrate a 
                      prayer is “attributable to the State”). As the Court ex-      
                      plains, see ante, at 13–14, the parties agree (and I therefore
                      assume) that for the purposes of Kennedy’s claim, the bur-    
                      den is on the District to establish that its policy prohibiting
                      Kennedy’s public prayers was the least restrictive means of   
                      furthering a compelling state interest. Church of Lukumi      
                      Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U. S. 520, 546 (1993).       
                       Here, the District’s directive prohibiting Kennedy’s         
                      demonstrative speech at the 50-yard line was narrowly tai-    
                      lored to avoid an Establishment Clause violation. The Dis-    
                      trict’s suspension of Kennedy followed a long history. The    
                      last three games proved that Kennedy did not intend to        
                      pray silently, but to thrust the District into incorporating a
                      religious ceremony into its events, as he invited others to   
                      join his prayer and anticipated in his communications with    
                      the District that students would want to join as well. No-    
                      tably, the District repeatedly sought to work with Kennedy    
                      to develop an accommodation to permit him to engage in        
                      religious exercise during or after his game-related respon-   
                      sibilities. Kennedy, however, ultimately refused to respond   
                      to the District’s suggestions and declined to communicate     
                      with the District, except through media appearances. Be-      
                      cause the District’s valid Establishment Clause concerns      
                      satisfy strict scrutiny, Kennedy’s free exercise claim fails as
                      well.                                                         
                                         III                                        
                       Despite the overwhelming precedents establishing that        
                      school officials leading prayer violates the Establishment    
                      Clause, the Court today holds that Kennedy’s midfield         
                      prayer practice did not violate the Establishment Clause.     
                      This decision rests on an erroneous understanding of the      
                      Religion Clauses. It also disregards the balance this         
                      Court’s cases strike among the rights conferred by the        
                      Clauses. The Court relies on an assortment of pluralities,    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 23                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      concurrences, and dissents by Members of the current ma-      
                      jority to effect fundamental changes in this Court’s Religion 
                      Clauses jurisprudence, all the while proclaiming that noth-   
                      ing has changed at all.                                       
                                          A                                         
                       This case involves three Clauses of the First Amend-         
                      ment. As a threshold matter, the Court today proceeds         
                      from two mistaken understandings of the way the protec-       
                      tions these Clauses embody interact.                          
                       First, the Court describes the Free Exercise and Free        
                      Speech Clauses as “work[ing] in tandem” to “provid[e] over-   
                      lapping protection for expressive religious activities,” leav-
                      ing religious speech “doubly protect[ed].” Ante, at 11. This  
                      narrative noticeably (and improperly) sets the Establish-     
                      ment Clause to the side. The Court is correct that certain    
                      expressive religious activities may fall within the ambit of  
                      both the Free Speech Clause and the Free Exercise Clause,     
                      but “the First Amendment protects speech and religion by      
                      quite different mechanisms.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 591. The      
                      First Amendment protects speech “by ensuring its full ex-     
                      pression even when the government participates.” Ibid. Its    
                      “method for protecting freedom of worship and freedom of      
                      conscience in religious matters is quite the reverse,” how-   
                      ever, based on the understanding that “the government is      
                      not a prime participant” in “religious debate or expression,” 
                      whereas government is the “object of some of our most im-     
                      portant speech.” Ibid. Thus, as this Court has explained,     
                      while the Free Exercise Clause has “close parallels in the    
                      speech provisions of the First Amendment,” the First          
                      Amendment’s protections for religion diverge from those for   
                      speech because of the Establishment Clause, which pro-        
                      vides a “specific prohibition on forms of state intervention  
                      in religious affairs with no precise counterpart in the speech
                      provisions.” Ibid. Therefore, while our Constitution “coun-   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      24     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      sel[s] mutual respect and tolerance,” the Constitution’s vi-  
                      sion of how to achieve this end does in fact involve some     
                      “singl[ing] out” of religious speech by the government. Ante, 
                      at 1. This is consistent with “the lesson of history that was 
                      and is the inspiration for the Establishment Clause, the les- 
                      son that in the hands of government what might begin as a     
                      tolerant expression of religious views may end in a policy to 
                      indoctrinate and coerce.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 591–592.         
                       Second, the Court contends that the lower courts erred by    
                      introducing a false tension between the Free Exercise and     
                      Establishment Clauses. See ante, at 20–21. The Court,         
                      however, has long recognized that these two Clauses, while    
                      “express[ing] complementary values,” “often exert conflict-   
                      ing pressures.” Cutter, 544 U. S., at 719. See also Locke v.  
                      Davey, 540 U. S. 712, 718 (2004) (describing the Clauses as   
                      “frequently in tension”). The “absolute terms” of the two     
                      Clauses mean that they “tend to clash” if “expanded to a      
                      logical extreme.” Walz, 397 U. S., at 668–669.                
                       The Court inaccurately implies that the courts below re-     
                      lied upon a rule that the Establishment Clause must al-       
                      ways “prevail” over the Free Exercise Clause. Ante, at 20.    
                      In focusing almost exclusively on Kennedy’s free exercise     
                      claim, however, and declining to recognize the conflicting    
                      rights at issue, the Court substitutes one supposed blanket   
                      rule for another. The proper response where tension arises    
                      between the two Clauses is not to ignore it, which effec-     
                      tively silently elevates one party’s right above others. The  
                      proper response is to identify the tension and balance the    
                      interests based on a careful analysis of “whether [the] par-  
                      ticular acts in question are intended to establish or inter-  
                      fere with religious beliefs and practices or have the effect of
                      doing so.” Walz, 397 U. S., at 669. As discussed above, that  
                      inquiry leads to the conclusion that permitting Kennedy’s     
                      desired religious practice at the time and place of his choos-
                      ing, without regard to the legitimate needs of his employer,  
                      violates the Establishment Clause in the particular context   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 25                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      at issue here. Supra, at 16–20.                               
                                          B                                         
                       For decades, the Court has recognized that, in determin-     
                      ing whether a school has violated the Establishment           
                      Clause, “one of the relevant questions is whether an objec-   
                      tive observer, acquainted with the text, legislative history, 
                      and implementation of the [practice], would perceive it as a  
                      state endorsement of prayer in public schools.” Santa Fe,     
                      530 U. S., at 308 (internal quotation marks omitted). The     
                      Court now says for the first time that endorsement simply     
                      does not matter, and completely repudiates the test estab-    
                      lished in Lemon, 403 U. S. 602. Ante, at 22–24. Both of       
                      these moves are erroneous and, despite the Court’s assur-     
                      ances, novel.                                                 
                       Start with endorsement. The Court reserves particular        
                      criticism for the longstanding understanding that govern-     
                      ment action that appears to endorse religion violates the     
                      Establishment Clause, which it describes as an “offshoot” of  
                      Lemon and paints as a “‘modified heckler’s veto, in which     
                      . . . religious activity can be proscribed’” based on “ ‘“percep-
                      tions”’” or “‘“discomfort.”’” Ante, at 21–22 (quoting Good    
                      News Club v. Milford Central School, 533 U. S. 98, 119        
                      (2001)). This is a strawman. Precedent long has recognized    
                      that endorsement concerns under the Establishment             
                      Clause, properly understood, bear no relation to a “‘heck-    
                      ler’s veto.’” Ante, as 22. Good News Club itself explained    
                      the difference between the two: The endorsement inquiry       
                      considers the perspective not of just any hypothetical or un- 
                      informed observer experiencing subjective discomfort, but     
                      of “‘the reasonable observer’” who is “‘aware of the history  
                      and context of the community and forum in which the reli-     
                      gious [speech takes place].’” 533 U. S., at 119. That is be-  
                      cause “‘the endorsement inquiry is not about the percep-      
                      tions of particular individuals or saving isolated            
                      nonadherents from . . . discomfort’” but concern “‘with the   
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      26     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      political community writ large.’” Ibid. (emphasis deleted).   
                       Given this concern for the political community, it is un-    
                      surprising that the Court has long prioritized endorsement    
                      concerns in the context of public education. See, e.g.,       
                      Santa Fe, 530 U. S., at 305; Wallace, 472 U. S., at 60–61;    
                      Edwards, 482 U. S., at 578, 593; see also Lee, 505 U. S., at  
                      618–619 (Souter, J., concurring) (explaining that many of     
                      the Court’s Establishment Clause holdings in the school       
                      context are concerned not with whether the policy in ques-    
                      tion “coerced students to participate in prayer” but with     
                      whether it “‘convey[ed] a message of state approval of        
                      prayer activities in the public schools’” (quoting Wallace,   
                      472 U. S., at 61)).4 No subsequent decisions in other con-    
                      texts, including the cases about monuments and legislative    
                      meetings on which the Court relies, have so much as ques-     
                      tioned the application of this core Establishment Clause      
                      concern in the context of public schools. In fact, Town of    
                      Greece v. Galloway, 572 U. S. 565, which held a prayer dur-   
                      ing a town meeting permissible, specifically distinguished    
                      Lee because Lee considered the Establishment Clause in the    
                      context of schools. 572 U. S., at 590 (plurality opinion).    
                       Paying heed to these precedents would not “‘purge from       
                      the public sphere’ anything an observer could reasonably      
                      infer endorses” religion. Ante, at 22. To the contrary, the   
                      Court has recognized that “there will be instances when re-   
                      ligious values, religious practices, and religious persons will
                      have some interaction with the public schools and their stu-  
                      dents.” Lee, 505 U. S., at 598–599. These instances, the      
                      Court has said, are “often questions of accommodat[ing]” re-  
                      ligious practices to the degree possible while respecting the 
                      ——————                                                        
                       4 The Court attempts to recast Lee and Santa Fe as solely concerning
                      coercion, ante, at 29–30, but both cases emphasized that it was important
                      to avoid appearances of “ ‘state endorsement of prayer in public schools.’ ”
                      Santa Fe, 530 U. S., at 308; see Lee, 505 U. S., at 590 (finding that the
                      “degree of school involvement” indicated that the “prayers bore the im-
                      print of the State”).                                         
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 27                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      Establishment Clause. Id., at 599.5 In short, the endorse-    
                      ment inquiry dictated by precedent is a measured, practi-     
                      cal, and administrable one, designed to account for the com-  
                      peting interests present within any given community.          
                       Despite all of this authority, the Court claims that it “long
                      ago abandoned” both the “endorsement test” and this           
                      Court’s decision in Lemon 403 U. S. 602. Ante, at 22. The     
                      Court chiefly cites the plurality opinion in American Legion  
                      v. American Humanist Assn., 588 U. S. ___ (2019) to sup-      
                      port this contention. That plurality opinion, to be sure, crit-
                      icized Lemon’s effort at establishing a “grand unified theory 
                      of the Establishment Clause” as poorly suited to the broad    
                      “array” of diverse establishment claims. 588 U. S., at ___,   
                      ___ (slip op., at 13, 24). All the Court in American Legion   
                      ultimately held, however, was that application of the         
                      Lemon test to “longstanding monuments, symbols, and           
                      practices” was ill-advised for reasons specific to those con- 
                      texts. 588 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 16); see also id., at ___–
                      ___ (slip op., at 16–21) (discussing at some length why the   
                      Lemon test was a poor fit for those circumstances). The only  
                      categorical rejection of Lemon in American Legion appeared    
                      in separate writings. See 588 U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 1)  
                      (KAVANAUGH, J., concurring); id., at ___ (slip op., at 6)     
                      ——————                                                        
                       5The notion that integration of religious practices into the workplace
                      may require compromise and accommodation is not unique to the public-
                      employer context where Establishment Clause concerns arise. The
                      Court’s precedents on religious discrimination claims similarly recognize
                      that the employment context requires balancing employer and employee
                      interests, and that religious practice need not always be accommodated.
                      See Kennedy v. Bremerton School Dist., 586 U. S. ___, ___ (2019) (slip op.,
                      at 6) (ALITO, J., statement respecting denial of certiorari) (noting that
                      “Title VII’s prohibition of discrimination on the basis of religion does not
                      require an employer to make any accommodation that imposes more
                      than a de minimis burden”). Surely, an employee’s religious practice that
                      forces a school district to engage in burdensome measures to stop spec-
                      tators from rushing onto a field and knocking people down imposes much
                      more than a de minimis burden.                                
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      28     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      (THOMAS, J., concurring in judgment); id., at ___ (slip op.,  
                      at 7) (GORSUCH, J., concurring in judgment); see ante, at 23, 
                      n. 4.6                                                        
                       The Court now goes much further, overruling Lemon en-        
                      tirely and in all contexts. It is wrong to do so. Lemon sum-  
                      marized “the cumulative criteria developed by the Court       
                      over many years” of experience “draw[ing] lines” as to when   
                      government engagement with religion violated the Estab-       
                      lishment Clause. 403 U. S., at 612. Lemon properly con-       
                      cluded that precedent generally directed consideration of     
                      whether the government action had a “secular legislative      
                      purpose,” whether its “principal or primary effect must be    
                      one that neither advances nor inhibits religion,” and         
                      whether in practice it “foster[s] ‘an excessive government    
                      entanglement with religion.’” Id., at 612–613. It is true     
                      “that rigid application of the Lemon test does not solve      
                      every Establishment Clause problem,” but that does not        
                      mean that the test has no value. American Legion, 588         
                      U. S., at ___ (slip op., at 1) (KAGAN, J., concurring in part).
                       To put it plainly, the purposes and effects of a govern-     
                      ment action matter in evaluating whether that action vio-     
                      lates the Establishment Clause, as numerous precedents        
                      beyond Lemon instruct in the particular context of public     
                      schools. See supra, at 14–16, 18. Neither the critiques of    
                      Lemon as setting out a dispositive test for all seasons nor   
                      ——————                                                        
                       6The Court also cites Shurtleff v. Boston, 596 U. S. ___ (2022), as evi-
                      dence that the Lemon test has been rejected. See ante, at 23. Again,
                      while separate writings in Shurtleff criticized Lemon, the Court did not.
                      The opinion of the Court simply applied the longstanding rule that, when
                      the government does not speak for itself, it cannot exclude speech based
                      on the speech’s “ ‘religious viewpoint.’ ” Shurtleff, 596 U. S., at ___ (slip
                      op., at 12) (quoting Good News Club, 533 U. S., at 112). The Court fur-
                      ther infers Lemon’s implicit overruling from recent decisions that do not
                      apply its test. See ante, at 23, n. 4. As explained above, however, not
                      applying a test in a given case is a different matter from overruling it
                      entirely and, moreover, the Court has never before questioned the rele-
                      vance of endorsement in the school-prayer context.            
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 29                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      the fact that the Court has not referred to Lemon in all sit- 
                      uations support this Court’s decision to dismiss that prece-  
                      dent entirely, particularly in the school context.            
                                          C                                         
                       Upon overruling one “grand unified theory,” the Court in-    
                      troduces another: It holds that courts must interpret         
                      whether an Establishment Clause violation has occurred        
                      mainly “by ‘reference to historical practices and under-      
                      standings.’” Ante, at 23 (quoting Town of Greece, 572 U. S.,  
                      at 576 (internal quotation marks omitted)). Here again, the   
                      Court professes that nothing has changed. In fact, while      
                      the Court has long referred to historical practice as one el- 
                      ement of the analysis in specific Establishment Clause        
                      cases, the Court has never announced this as a general test   
                      or exclusive focus. American Legion, 588 U. S., at ___–___    
                      (BREYER, J., concurring) (slip op., at 2–3) (noting that the  
                      Court was “appropriately ‘look[ing] to history for guidance’” 
                      but was not “adopt[ing] a ‘history and tradition test’”).     
                       The Court reserves any meaningful explanation of its his-    
                      tory-and-tradition test for another day, content for now to   
                      disguise it as established law and move on. It should not     
                      escape notice, however, that the effects of the majority’s    
                      new rule could be profound. The problems with elevating       
                      history and tradition over purpose and precedent are well     
                      documented. See Dobbs, 597 U. S., at ___ (BREYER,             
                      SOTOMAYOR, and KAGAN, JJ., dissenting) (slip op., at 16)      
                      (explaining that the Framers “defined rights in general       
                      terms to permit future evolution in their scope and mean-     
                      ing”); New York State Rifle & Pistol Assn., Inc. v. Bruen, 597
                      U. S. ___, ___–___ (2022) (BREYER, J., dissenting) (slip op., 
                      at 24–28) (explaining the pitfalls of a “near-exclusive reli- 
                      ance on history” and offering examples of when this Court     
                      has “misread” history in the past); Brown v. Davenport, 596   
                      U. S. ___, ___–___ (2022) (KAGAN, J., dissenting) (slip op., at
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      30     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      7–8) (noting the inaccuracies risked when courts “play am-    
                      ateur historian”).                                            
                       For now, it suffices to say that the Court’s history-and-    
                      tradition test offers essentially no guidance for school ad-  
                      ministrators. If even judges and Justices, with full adver-   
                      sarial briefing and argument tailored to precise legal is-    
                      sues, regularly disagree (and err) in their amateur efforts   
                      at history, how are school administrators, faculty, and staff 
                      supposed to adapt? How will school administrators exercise    
                      their responsibilities to manage school curriculum and        
                      events when the Court appears to elevate individuals’         
                      rights to religious exercise above all else? Today’s opinion  
                      provides little in the way of answers; the Court simply sets  
                      the stage for future legal changes that will inevitably follow
                      the Court’s choice today to upset longstanding rules.         
                                          D                                         
                       Finally, the Court acknowledges that the Establishment       
                      Clause prohibits the government from coercing people to       
                      engage in religion practice, ante, at 24–25, but its analysis 
                      of coercion misconstrues both the record and this Court’s     
                      precedents.                                                   
                       The Court claims that the District “never raised coercion    
                      concerns” simply because the District conceded that there     
                      was “‘no evidence that students [were] directly coerced to    
                      pray with Kennedy.’” Ante, at 25 (emphasis added). The        
                      Court’s suggestion that coercion must be “direc[t]” to be cog-
                      nizable under the Establishment Clause is contrary to long-   
                      established precedent. The Court repeatedly has recog-        
                      nized that indirect coercion may raise serious establish-     
                      ment concerns, and that “there are heightened concerns        
                      with protecting freedom of conscience from subtle coercive    
                      pressure in the elementary and secondary public schools.”     
                      Lee, 505 U. S., at 592 (opinion of the Court); see also supra,
                      at 15–16. Tellingly, none of this Court’s major cases involv- 
                      ing school prayer concerned school practices that required    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 31                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      students to do any more than listen silently to prayers, and  
                      some did not even formally require students to listen, in-    
                      stead providing that attendance was not mandatory. See        
                      Santa Fe, 530 U. S., at 296–298; Lee, 505 U. S., at 593; Wal- 
                      lace, 472 U. S., at 40; School Dist. of Abington Township,    
                      374 U. S., at 205; Engel, 370 U. S., at 422. Nevertheless,    
                      the Court concluded that the practices were coercive as a     
                      constitutional matter.                                        
                       Today’s Court quotes the Lee Court’s remark that endur-      
                      ing others’ speech is “‘part of learning how to live in a plu-
                      ralistic society.’” Ante, at 26 (quoting Lee, 505 U. S., at   
                      590). The Lee Court, however, expressly concluded, in the     
                      very same paragraph, that “[t]his argument cannot prevail”    
                      in the school-prayer context because the notion that being    
                      subject to a “brief ” prayer in school is acceptable “overlooks
                      a fundamental dynamic of the Constitution”: its “specific     
                      prohibition on . . . state intervention in religious affairs.”
                      Id., at 591; see also id., at 594 (“[T]he government may no   
                      more use social pressure to enforce orthodoxy than it may     
                      use more direct means”).7                                     
                       The Court also distinguishes Santa Fe because Ken-           
                      nedy’s prayers “were not publicly broadcast or recited to a   
                      captive audience.” Ante, at 30. This misses the point. In     
                      Santa Fe, a student council chaplain delivered a prayer over  
                      the public-address system before each varsity football game   
                      of the season. 530 U. S., at 294. Students were not required  
                      as a general matter to attend the games, but “cheerleaders,   
                      members of the band, and, of course, the team members         
                      ——————                                                        
                       7The Court further claims that Lee is distinguishable because it in-
                      volved prayer at an event in which the school had “ ‘in every practical
                      sense compelled attendance and participation in [a] religious exercise.’ ”
                      Ante, at 29 (quoting Lee, 505 U. S., at 598). The Court in Lee, however,
                      recognized expressly that attendance at the graduation ceremony was
                      not mandatory and that students who attended only had to remain silent
                      during and after the prayers. Id., at 583, 593.               
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      32     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      themselves” were, and the Court would have found an “im-      
                      proper effect of coercing those present” even if it “regard[ed]
                      every high school student’s decision to attend . . . as purely
                      voluntary.” Id., at 311–312. Kennedy’s prayers raise pre-     
                      cisely the same concerns. His prayers did not need to be      
                      broadcast. His actions spoke louder than his words. His       
                      prayers were intentionally, visually demonstrative to an      
                      audience aware of their history and no less captive than the  
                      audience in Santa Fe, with spectators watching and some       
                      players perhaps engaged in a song, but all waiting to rejoin  
                      their coach for a postgame talk. Moreover, Kennedy’s pray-    
                      ers had a greater coercive potential because they were de-    
                      livered not by a student, but by their coach, who was still   
                      on active duty for postgame events.                           
                       In addition, despite the direct record evidence that stu-    
                      dents felt coerced to participate in Kennedy’s prayers, the   
                      Court nonetheless concludes that coercion was not present     
                      in any event because “Kennedy did not seek to direct any      
                      prayers to students or require anyone else to participate.”   
                      Ante, at 26; see also ante, at 30, n. 7 (contending that the  
                      fact that “students might choose, unprompted, to partici-     
                      pate” in their coach’s on-the-field prayers does not “neces-  
                      sarily prove them coercive”). But nowhere does the Court      
                      engage with the unique coercive power of a coach’s actions    
                      on his adolescent players.8                                   
                       In any event, the Court makes this assertion only by         
                      drawing a bright line between Kennedy’s yearslong practice    
                      of leading student prayers, which the Court does not de-      
                      ——————                                                        
                       8Puzzlingly, the Court goes a step further and suggests that Kennedy
                      may have been in violation of the District policy on Religious-Related
                      Activities and Practices if he did not permit the players to join his pray-
                      ers because the policy prohibited staff from “discourag[ing]” student
                      prayer. Ante, at 4, 30, n. 7. The policy, however, specifically referred to
                      student prayer of the student’s “own volition” and equally prohibited
                      staff from “encourag[ing]” student prayer. App. 28.           
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 33                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      fend, and Kennedy’s final three prayers, which BHS stu-       
                      dents did not join, but student peers from the other teams    
                      did. See ante, at 26 (distinguishing Kennedy’s prior prac-    
                      tice and focusing narrowly on “three prayers . . . in October 
                      2015”). As discussed above, see supra, at 18, this mode of    
                      analysis contravenes precedent by “turn[ing] a blind eye to   
                      the context in which [Kennedy’s practice] arose,” Santa Fe,   
                      530 U. S., at 315.9 This Court’s precedents require a more    
                      nuanced inquiry into the realities of coercion in the specific
                      school context concerned than the majority recognizes to-     
                      day. The question before the Court is not whether a coach     
                      taking a knee to pray on the field would constitute an Es-    
                      tablishment Clause violation in any and all circumstances.    
                      It is whether permitting Kennedy to continue a demonstra-     
                      tive prayer practice at the center of the football field after
                      years of inappropriately leading students in prayer in the    
                      same spot, at that same time, and in the same manner,         
                      which led students to feel compelled to join him, violates the
                      Establishment Clause. It does.                                
                       Having disregarded this context, the Court finds Ken-        
                      nedy’s three-game practice distinguishable from precedent     
                      ——————                                                        
                       9The Court claims that Kennedy’s “past prayer practices” should not
                      be seen to “taint” his current ones by again turning to Town of Greece v.
                      Galloway, the town assembly prayer case. Ante, at 30, n. 7. In the pas-
                      sage the Court cites, Town of Greece concluded that “two remarks” by two
                      different “guest minister[s]” on two isolated occasions did not constitute
                      a “pattern of prayers that over time denigrate, proselytize, or betray an
                      impermissible government purpose.” 572 U. S., at 585. As Town of
                      Greece itself emphasizes, the school context presents Establishment
                      Clause concerns distinct from those raised in a town meeting for “mature
                      adults.” Id., at 590 (plurality opinion). See supra, at 15. In any event,
                      Kennedy’s yearslong “past prayer practices” constituted an established
                      pattern, not an isolated occasion, and he hardly “abandoned” the prac-
                      tice. Ante, at 30, n. 7. As his October 14 letter and subsequent actions
                      made clear, Kennedy attempted to hew as closely to his past practice as
                      possible, taking a knee at the same time and place as previously, and in
                      the same manner that initially drew students to join him and by improp-
                      erly permitting spectators to join him on the field.          
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                      34     KENNEDY v. BREMERTON SCHOOL DIST.                      
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      because the prayers were “quie[t]” and the students were      
                      otherwise “occupied.” Ante, at 26. The record contradicts     
                      this narrative. Even on the Court’s myopic framing of the     
                      facts, at two of the three games on which the Court focuses,  
                      players witnessed student peers from the other team and       
                      other authority figures surrounding Kennedy and joining       
                      him in prayer. The coercive pressures inherent in such a      
                      situation are obvious. Moreover, Kennedy’s actual demand      
                      to the District was that he give “verbal” prayers specifically
                      at the midfield position where he traditionally led team      
                      prayers, and that students be allowed to join him “voluntar-  
                      ily” and pray. App. 64, 69–71. Notably, the Court today       
                      does not embrace this demand, but it nonetheless rejects      
                      the District’s right to ensure that students were not pres-   
                      sured to pray.                                                
                       To reiterate, the District did not argue, and neither court  
                      below held, that “any visible religious conduct by a teacher  
                      or coach should be deemed . . . impermissibly coercive on     
                      students.” Ante, at 28. Nor has anyone contended that a       
                      coach may never visibly pray on the field. The courts below   
                      simply recognized that Kennedy continued to initiate pray-    
                      ers visible to students, while still on duty during school    
                      events, under the exact same circumstances as his past        
                      practice of leading student prayer. It is unprecedented for   
                      the Court to hold that this conduct, taken as a whole, did    
                      not raise cognizable coercion concerns. Importantly, noth-    
                      ing in the Court’s opinion should be read as calling into     
                      question that Kennedy’s conduct may have raised other         
                      concerns regarding disruption of school events or misuse of   
                      school facilities that would have separately justified em-    
                      ployment action against Kennedy.                              
                                      *   *   *                                     
                       The Free Exercise Clause and Establishment Clause are        
                      equally integral in protecting religious freedom in our soci- 
                      ety. The first serves as “a promise from our government,”     
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
                                  Cite as: 597 U. S. ____ (2022) 35                 
                                   SOTOMAYOR, J., dissenting                        
                      while the second erects a “backstop that disables our gov-    
                      ernment from breaking it” and “start[ing] us down the path    
                      to the past, when [the right to free exercise] was routinely  
                      abridged.” Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v.       
                      Comer, 582 U. S. ___, ___ (2017) (SOTOMAYOR, J., dissent-     
                      ing) (slip op., at 26).                                       
                       Today, the Court once again weakens the backstop. It         
                      elevates one individual’s interest in personal religious exer-
                      cise, in the exact time and place of that individual’s choos- 
                      ing, over society’s interest in protecting the separation be- 
                      tween church and state, eroding the protections for           
                      religious liberty for all. Today’s decision is particularly mis-
                      guided because it elevates the religious rights of a school   
                      official, who voluntarily accepted public employment and      
                      the limits that public employment entails, over those of his  
                      students, who are required to attend school and who this      
                      Court has long recognized are particularly vulnerable and     
                      deserving of protection. In doing so, the Court sets us fur-  
                      ther down a perilous path in forcing States to entangle       
                      themselves with religion, with all of our rights hanging in   
                      the balance. As much as the Court protests otherwise, to-     
                      day’s decision is no victory for religious liberty. I respect-
                      fully dissent.