Court Opinion

ID: 9370496
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-02-13 21:00:48.780638+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:16:21.789457
License: Public Domain

RECOMMENDED FOR PUBLICATION
                               Pursuant to Sixth Circuit I.O.P. 32.1(b)
                                      File Name: 23a0028p.06

                   UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
                                  FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT

                                                            ┐
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
                                                            │
                                   Plaintiff-Appellee,      │
                                                             >        No. 21-5827
                                                            │
       v.                                                   │
                                                            │
 QUINCINO WAIDE,                                            │
                                Defendant-Appellant.        │
                                                            ┘

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Kentucky at Lexington.
                 No. 5:18-cr-00116-1—Karen K. Caldwell, District Judge.

                                  Argued: December 6, 2022

                             Decided and Filed: February 13, 2023

               Before: SILER, GILMAN, and NALBANDIAN, Circuit Judges.
                                 _________________

                                           COUNSEL

ARGUED: Patrick F. Nash, NASH MARSHALL, PLLC, Lexington, Kentucky, for Appellant.
Lauren Tanner Bradley, UNITED STATES ATTORNEY’S OFFICE, Lexington, Kentucky, for
Appellee. ON BRIEF: Patrick F. Nash, NASH MARSHALL, PLLC, Lexington, Kentucky, for
Appellant. Lauren Tanner Bradley, Charles P. Wisdom, Jr., UNITED STATES ATTORNEY’S
OFFICE, Lexington, Kentucky, for Appellee.

      GILMAN, J., delivered the opinion of the court in which NALBANDIAN, J., joined.
SILER, J. (pp. 19–21), delivered a separate dissenting opinion.
                                     _________________

                                            OPINION
                                     _________________

      RONALD LEE GILMAN, Circuit Judge. Quincino Waide first encountered the
Lexington police after a shed fire occurred on the property next to his. Although no one
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                                Page 2

suspected Waide of having anything to do with the fire, the fire investigator noticed surveillance
cameras attached to Waide’s duplex residence and asked Waide to turn over his digital video
recorder (DVR) to see what it might reveal about the shed fire. When Waide declined, the
investigator sought a warrant (the DVR warrant) to enter Waide’s apartment and retrieve the
DVR.

       The affidavit in support of the DVR warrant, however, lacked reliable evidence to
establish probable cause to believe that the shed fire was due to arson or any other criminal
activity. A state magistrate nevertheless issued the warrant. When the fire investigator and five
other officials with the Lexington Police and Fire Departments arrived at Waide’s duplex to
execute the DVR warrant, their threatened entry and a pointed inquiry about whether Waide had
drugs on the premises caused Waide to admit that his apartment contained a small amount of
marijuana.   This confession led to the issuance of two subsequent warrants (the narcotics
warrants) to search both units of Waide’s duplex for narcotics. The searches yielded a firearm
plus large quantities of drugs and money.

       After the district court denied Waide’s multiple motions to suppress evidence, he entered
into a conditional guilty plea to the offense of possessing cocaine and heroin with the intent to
distribute the drugs, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1), and to the offense of possessing a
firearm in furtherance of a drug-trafficking crime, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(1).

       Waide now appeals. For the reasons set forth below, we REVERSE the judgment of the
district court and REMAND with instructions to suppress the unlawfully collected evidence.

                                       I. BACKGROUND
A. Factual background

       Chris O’Bryan, an investigator with the Lexington Fire Department, received a call on
July 23, 2018 with regard to a fire at 428 Douglas Avenue. At that address was a single-family
house surrounded by a chain-link fence. The house itself was not affected by the fire, but a shed
in the rear had sustained fire damage. The fire department’s incident report, completed on the
same day, noted that both the source and the cause of the ignition were undetermined, and
 No. 21-5827                              United States v. Waide                        Page 3

O’Bryan later confirmed that he “didn’t have anything to indicate that there w[ere] any
accelerants or ignitable liquids used.”

        O’Bryan testified at trial that he spoke with the incident commander, who informed him
that the shed was vacant and had no electric power, but that squatters might have been living on
the property. The commander also noted that “it appeared that items had been removed out [of
the shed] and potentially set on fire as well.”

        There was no one present whom O’Bryan could identify as a potential suspect or witness.
Prior to leaving the scene that morning, however, O’Bryan noticed “what [he] classified as
sophisticated cameras” on the neighboring duplex at 430 Douglas Avenue. Two cameras were
on the front porch of the duplex, facing in opposite directions, and a third camera was mounted
at the rear.

        O’Bryan returned to the scene later that day, where he encountered Dorothy Waide,
Waide’s mother, outside of 430 Douglas Avenue. Ms. Waide informed O’Bryan that she lived
on the first floor of 430 Douglas Avenue, in Apartment 1. According to O’Bryan, Ms. Waide
told him that the cameras belonged to her son and that the DVR was on the second floor. He
further testified that Ms. Waide told him that her son was unlikely to permit access to the
surveillance footage.

        O’Bryan also spoke by phone with Andrea Wallace, the nonresident owner of the
property located at 428 Douglas Avenue. He told Wallace about the fire and “asked her to ask
around” about what might have happened. O’Bryan also asked about the contents of the shed.
Wallace informed O’Bryan that the shed had contained items of sentimental value that once
belonged to her deceased mother. From “a small pile of [what] looked like burned items,”
O’Bryan identified some of the objects that Wallace had described.

        Soon after his conversation with Wallace, O’Bryan encountered Waide, who allegedly
smelled of “what [O’Bryan] thought was marijuana,” on the sidewalk in front of 430 Douglas
Avenue. O’Bryan asked Waide whether he lived in the building, and Waide responded that he
owned it. When O’Bryan asked Waide’s permission to view the DVR footage for use in
investigating the shed fire, Waide declined.
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                              Page 4

       The next morning, O’Bryan reached out to Wallace again, this time to follow up on his
request that she “ask around.” O’Bryan testified that, in response, “[b]asically what [Wallace]
told [O’Bryan] was the word out there is that somebody pulled up in a vehicle and was . . . seen
removing things out of the shed just prior to the fire.” When asked by Waide’s counsel to clarify
this statement, O’Bryan confirmed that he did not know the identity of either the person to whom
Wallace spoke or the person who allegedly witnessed the removal of objects from the shed.
Wallace had speculated, though, that her ex-husband might have been responsible for the fire
“because he was a vindictive person,” and because the fire occurred on the morning after the
anniversary of her mother’s death.

       O’Bryan applied for a search warrant to collect the DVR from Waide’s second-floor unit,
Apartment 3. After the state magistrate issued the warrant, O’Bryan contacted the Lexington
Police Department for assistance in its execution. In speaking with the lieutenant on duty,
O’Bryan shared his earlier observation that Waide had smelled of marijuana, and he “advised
[the on-duty officer] that[,] due to some things that occurred in the initial investigation and the
camera system being on the residence[,] . . . there might be illegal narcotic activity occurring at
the residence.” The lieutenant told O’Bryan to contact the narcotics unit. During all of this,
Waide was not suspected of having any involvement in the shed fire.

       Two narcotics officers, Jared Curtsinger and Matthew Evans, along with three members
of the Arson Bureau, accompanied O’Bryan to 430 Douglas Avenue that same afternoon. When
the six-person cadre of officials attempted to execute the DVR warrant, however, no one was in
Apartment 3. But Ms. Waide was home in her downstairs apartment. At O’Bryan’s request, she
asked her son to return to the premises so that the warrant could be executed. Waide and his
cousin Vance arrived by car approximately 10 minutes later.

       O’Bryan explained to Waide that he and the accompanying officers planned to enter
Apartment 3 pursuant to the DVR warrant. Waide then offered to collect the DVR equipment
himself, but O’Bryan countered that he intended to execute the warrant regardless. Curtsinger,
who had identified himself to Waide as a police officer and was dressed in tactical gear, testified
that he “interjected at one point and asked [Waide]—advised him, you know, if he had any drugs
 No. 21-5827                              United States v. Waide                           Page 5

in the apartment, if that’s what he was worried about and so forth.” In response, Waide admitted
that “there may be a little marijuana.”

          Curtsinger then approached Waide’s car, which was parked on the street with the
windows down. He testified that he “could smell burnt marijuana coming from the vehicle,” and
so conducted a search. The search yielded “a marijuana grinder with some marijuana residue in
it and a partially smoked marijuana blunt.” “[D]ue to the admission that there was marijuana in
[Waide’s] apartment and the . . . drug paraphernalia that was located in his vehicle,” Waide was
handcuffed and detained. Curtsinger then left the scene in order to apply for an additional
warrant to search Apartment 3, this time for drugs. Unbeknownst to Waide, Curtsinger had,
“[d]uring no less than two investigations, . . . been advised by illegal drug traffickers that
Quincino Waide was selling large quantities of illegal narcotics in Lexington.”

          O’Bryan remained with Waide outside of 430 Douglas Avenue. Waide, who was still
handcuffed, was “constantly communicating” with his cousin Vance. Vance and Ms. Waide
went in and out of Apartment 1 for some time before eventually staying inside and shutting the
blinds.

          While still waiting for Curtsinger to return, O’Bryan was informed by the other officials
that there was noise coming from the duplex—specifically, O’Bryan testified that they told him
that “[i]t sounds like they’re pulling the ceiling down.” O’Bryan became worried that the
occupants of 430 Douglas Avenue “may be trying to destroy the DVR.”

          This concern caused O’Bryan, who had already asked Waide for the key to Apartment
3 “once or twice,” to ask again. O’Bryan “told him they were going in based on the fact that
[Vance and Ms. Waide] potentially are destroying evidence, and [O’Bryan] thought they were
going to destroy the DVR.” Waide at last provided the key, and O’Bryan and the officers then
entered Apartment 3 to conduct a protective sweep.

          In Apartment 3, the officials encountered a large hole leading up from Apartment
1, through which Officer Evans could see a ladder and scattered dry wall and insulation. The
officials immediately went to Apartment 1 to ensure that no evidence was being destroyed. They
found that the kitchen and bathroom sinks in Apartment 1 were overflowing and clogged with an
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                             Page 6

unidentified white substance. The officials turned off the water and escorted the occupants out
of the dwelling. They did not conduct a complete search of either apartment beyond the
protective sweep. But they relayed to Curtsinger what had taken place, and Curtsinger included
those events in his search-warrant affidavit for Waide’s Apartment 3.

       Curtsinger also sought an additional, nearly identical search warrant for Ms. Waide’s
Apartment 1. He returned two hours later, and all three warrants (the original DVR warrant and
the two later-issued narcotics warrants) were then executed. The execution of the warrants
culminated in the discovery of a firearm and large quantities of money and drugs, as well as the
collection of the DVR.

B. Procedural background

       A federal grand jury charged Waide with (1) possessing with the intent to distribute
5 kilograms or more of cocaine and 100 grams or more of heroin, (2) possessing a firearm in
furtherance of those drug-trafficking crimes, and (3) being a felon in possession of a firearm.
Waide filed multiple motions to suppress evidence, arguing in particular that the DVR warrant
lacked probable cause, that the “good-faith” exception to the exclusionary rule did not save the
warrant, that his incriminating statements were obtained in violation of his Miranda rights, and
that exigent circumstances did not justify the police entry into his apartment.

       The district court denied all of the suppression motions, and Waide subsequently entered
a conditional guilty plea to the possession of drugs with the intent to distribute and to the
possession of a firearm in furtherance of a drug-trafficking crime. As part of the plea agreement,
Waide reserved the right to appeal the district court’s suppression rulings. The district court
accepted Waide’s plea and sentenced him to 180 months of imprisonment.

       Waide now appeals. Although three warrants are at play in this case, Waide focuses his
challenge on the validity of the DVR warrant. He argues that all evidence obtained after the
issuance of that warrant should be suppressed as “fruit of the poisonous tree.”
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                              Page 7

                                         II. ANALYSIS
A. Standard of review

       When reviewing a district court’s decision concerning a motion to suppress evidence, an
appellate court “review[s] findings of fact under the clear-error standard and review[s]
conclusions of law de novo.” United States v. Whitley, 34 F.4th 522, 528 (6th Cir. 2022). A
district court’s after-the-fact conclusion that probable cause existed is a legal determination that
an appellate court reviews de novo. United States v. Hines, 885 F.3d 919, 924 (6th Cir. 2018).
And “[g]iven the de novo standard of review,” an appellate court “owe[s] the district court’s
conclusion no particular deference.” Id. (quoting United States v. Brown, 732 F.3d 569, 572-73
(6th Cir. 2013)).

B. The affidavit in support of the DVR warrant did not establish probable cause to
   believe that a crime had been committed

       As a threshold matter, one might think that Waide is afforded some protection because he
was never suspected of having been involved in the shed fire. That is not so. “In situations
where the State does not seek to seize ‘persons’ but only those ‘things’ which there is probable
cause to believe are located on the place to be searched, there is no apparent basis in the
language of the [Fourth] Amendment for also imposing the requirements for a valid arrest—
probable cause to believe that the third party is implicated in the crime.” Zurcher v. Stanford
Daily, 436 U.S. 547, 554 (1978) (holding that the Fourth Amendment does not prohibit the
issuance of search warrants simply because the possessor of the property is not suspected of
criminal involvement). Waide does not argue to the contrary.

        “Probable cause ‘is not a high bar,’” United States v. Sheckles, 996 F.3d 330, 337
(6th Cir. 2021) (quoting District of Columbia v. Wesby, 138 S. Ct. 577, 586 (2018)), but neither
is it a nonexistent one. “[T]o establish probable cause for a search, an affidavit must show a
likelihood of two things: first, that the items sought are ‘seizable by virtue of being connected
with criminal activity’; and second, ‘that the items will be found in the place to be searched.’”
United States v. Abernathy, 843 F.3d 243, 249 (6th Cir. 2016) (alteration in original) (quoting
United States v. Church, 823 F.3d 351, 355 (6th Cir. 2016)); see also Zurcher, 436 U.S. at 554
(“[V]alid warrants may be issued to search any property . . . at which there is probable cause to
 No. 21-5827                            United States v. Waide                              Page 8

believe that fruits, instrumentalities, or evidence of a crime will be found.” (original emphasis
omitted)).

       Waide’s key contention in the case before us is that the state magistrate was not presented
with a “substantial basis” to believe that the shed fire was “connected with criminal activity.”
See Abernathy, 843 F.3d at 249; Sheckles, 996 F.3d at 338. In its entirety, O’Bryan’s affidavit in
support of the DVR warrant reads as follows:

               On the morning of July 23, 2018 a fire investigator was requested to
       respond to 428 Douglas Avenue for a structure fire. Crews discovered a storage
       shed in the rear of the home heavily involved in fire. Once extinguished, a
       fire/arson investigator was requested to respond.
               As I began the investigation, it was determined that someone entered the
       property through one of the two gates in the fence, proceeded back to the rear,
       where the shed was located. According to the victim, a witness explained to her
       that someone was observed pulling up to the residence, entering the property and
       removing items from the shed around the time of the fire. The victim estimated
       the items stored inside the shed to be valued around $8000. She explained the
       items stored were antique possessions that belonged to her deceased mother. At
       the completion of the investigation, the fire has been determined to have been
       incendiary in nature.
              During the course of the investigation, the residence directly next door
       (430 Douglas Ave), just feet away from one of the two gates on the property
       where the arson occurred, has evidence to indicate that there is a surveillance
       camera system on the property. The cameras are located on the exterior and
       would capture public view outside of the residence at 430 Douglas Avenue,
       capturing video of the property where the arson occurred.
               An attempt was made to get consent from the owner of the property on the
       afternoon of July 23. He denied giving of any videos captured from his
       surveillance system.

       The only information contained in the affidavit that is proffered to support a finding of
probable cause is the statement of an unidentified person made to the unidentified property
owner, and then communicated second-hand to O’Bryan, regarding an unknown person entering
the property and removing items from the shed around the unspecified time of the fire. When
presented with such hearsay information from an undisclosed source, “a court must consider the
veracity, reliability, and the basis of knowledge for that information as part of the totality of the
circumstances for evaluating the impact of that information.” United States v. Helton, 314 F.3d
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                             Page 9

812, 819 (6th Cir. 2003); accord United States v. Frazier, 423 F.3d 526, 532 (6th Cir. 2005).
“[I]n the absence of any indicia of the informants’ reliability, courts insist that the affidavit
contain substantial independent police corroboration.” Frazier, 423 F.3d at 532.

       The affidavit in question contains a minimum of two levels of hearsay—from the
unidentified property owner and from the unnamed witness, who might or might not have been
the person who allegedly observed the relevant incident first-hand. Moreover, the property
owner’s sole basis for the information included in the affidavit is the word of an unknown third
party whose own foundation for providing that information is undisclosed. The affidavit lacks
any additional information that might support either source’s credibility, such as “averments
about the reliability of the information provided by the anonymous informants in the past,”
“averments about the length of the relationship between [O’Bryan] and the confidential
informants,” or a “suggestion that [O’Bryan] disclosed the informants’ true identities to the
issuing magistrate.”    See id.    “Nor does the affidavit contain evidence that [O’Bryan]
corroborated”—or even attempted to corroborate—“the information that the informants
provided.” See id. Here, as in Frazier, the uncorroborated information is not sufficiently
reliable to support a finding of probable cause.

       The district court’s opinion cites additional facts that were collected by O’Bryan during
his investigation—including that the house at 428 Douglas Avenue was vacant and that items
identified as having been among the shed’s contents had been burned on the lawn outside of the
shed—that might have been sufficient to establish probable cause to believe that the shed fire
was caused by arson. See United States v. Brown, 732 F.3d 569, 573 (6th Cir. 2013) (“Probable
cause exists ‘when there is a “fair probability,” given the totality of the circumstances, that
contraband or evidence of a crime will be found in a particular place.’” (quoting United States v.
Greene, 250 F.3d 471, 479 (6th Cir. 2001))). But O’Bryan’s affidavit in support of the DVR
warrant did not include any of these facts.

       This court has long held that, “[w]hen determining whether an affidavit establishes
probable cause, we look only to the four corners of the affidavit; information known to the
officer but not conveyed to the magistrate is irrelevant.” Abernathy, 843 F.3d at 249 (quoting
United States v. Brooks, 594 F.3d 488, 492 (6th Cir. 2010)). The absence of particularized facts
 No. 21-5827                            United States v. Waide                             Page 10

in a warrant affidavit is fatal to a finding of probable cause because “the information presented
must be sufficient to allow the [magistrate] to independently determine probable cause; ‘his
action cannot be a mere ratification of the bare conclusions of others.’” United States v. Weaver,
99 F.3d 1372, 1377 (6th Cir. 1996) (quoting Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213, 239 (1983)).

       Aside from the unsubstantiated hearsay assertions discussed above—that an
unidentified person saw another unidentified person removing items from the shed around the
unspecified time of the fire—the only other relevant facts that can be surmised from the affidavit
are (1) that the storage shed had contained antique possessions, valued at approximately $8,000,
which once belonged to the property owner’s deceased mother; (2) that the shed had been
“heavily involved in [a] fire”; (3) that a neighboring property had a surveillance-camera system
that might have recorded the events at 428 Douglas Avenue on the night in question; and (4) that
the owner of the neighboring property had declined to provide the DVR footage to law
enforcement when asked to do so.

       That a fire occurred in the storage shed is not itself evidence of a crime. As the Supreme
Court has made quite clear, “[t]o secure a warrant to investigate the cause of a fire, an official
must show more than the bare fact that a fire has occurred.” Michigan v. Tyler, 436 U.S. 499,
507 (1978). The affidavit’s assertions that the fire was “incendiary in nature” and an “arson,”
without any additional factual support, was thus a conclusory statement equating the occurrence
of a fire with a criminal act. Although the government asserts that requiring additional support
to reach such a conclusion “ignores basic common sense” (on the basis that “storage sheds rarely
spontaneously combust”), we find its argument unpersuasive. After all, “where the justification
for the search is as simple and as obvious to everyone as the fact of a recent fire, a magistrate’s
review would be a time-consuming formality of negligible protection.” Id.

       Nor does the existence of surveillance cameras attached to Waide’s duplex add to a
finding of probable cause. A valid search warrant requires reliable evidence that some crime has
been committed, Abernathy, 843 F.3d at 249, and the mere existence of a home security system
does nothing to so suggest. Whether or not the district court was correct in concluding that the
affidavit successfully indicated “a fair probability that evidence relating to the shed fire would be
 No. 21-5827                            United States v. Waide                              Page 11

located on the recording equipment mounted on the neighboring property” is therefore irrelevant
in determining the sufficiency of the affidavit.

       Waide’s refusal to voluntarily provide access to the DVR equipment is likewise irrelevant
to the probable-cause analysis. A charitable reading of the affidavit might lead one to conclude
that the magistrate interpreted Waide’s refusal as inherently suspect and indicative of Waide’s
involvement in the shed fire. But even if this reading did not require numerous interpretive
leaps, “[t]he exercise of a constitutional right, whether to refuse to consent to a search, to refuse
to waive Miranda rights or to decline to testify at trial, is not evidence of guilt.” United States
v. Clariot, 655 F.3d 550, 555 (6th Cir. 2011).

C. The incriminating evidence should be suppressed because it stemmed from the
   exploitation of the unlawful DVR warrant

       1. The fruits of an unlawful search warrant, even if that warrant was not
          actually executed, should be excluded if the search warrant was otherwise
          exploited

       Courts are required to suppress evidence that is directly or indirectly “the tainted ‘fruit’ of
unlawful governmental conduct.” Nix v. Williams, 467 U.S. 431, 441 (1984) (recounting the
history of the fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine). The government insists, however, that “the
exclusionary rule and the fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine contemplate an actual unlawful
search, not simply the act of obtaining of a signed warrant that goes unexecuted.”

       Contrary to the government’s position, the Supreme Court has made no distinction
between actual and threatened violations of the Fourth Amendment with regard to the
suppression of unlawfully obtained evidence. See Kentucky v. King, 563 U.S. 452, 469, 472
(2011). We therefore hold that the fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine may be used to suppress
evidence derived from the threatened use of an unlawful warrant.

       The government, true enough, cites several instances where the fruit-of-the-poisonous-
tree doctrine has been applied to evidence deriving from unlawful searches and seizures actually
executed. But it cites no case suggesting that the doctrine applies only to such completed
searches and seizures.     The Supreme Court has in fact recognized that “the ‘fruit of the
poisonous tree’ doctrine has not been limited to cases in which there has been a Fourth
 No. 21-5827                             United States v. Waide                         Page 12

Amendment violation” at all, but has even been applied “where the violations were of the Sixth
Amendment, as well as of the Fifth Amendment.” Nix, 467 U.S. at 442 (citing United States
v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218 (1967), and Kastigar v. United States, 406 U.S. 441 (1972), before
applying the doctrine in the Sixth Amendment context (but ultimately concluding that the
“inevitable discovery” exception precluded suppression)). What matters is not the particular
illegal act that the police have engaged in, but that the challenged evidence is the result of
unlawful police conduct. See id. at 442-43 (“The core rationale consistently advanced by this
Court for extending the exclusionary rule to evidence that is the fruit of unlawful police conduct
has been that this admittedly drastic and socially costly course is needed to deter police from
violations of constitutional and statutory protections.”).

        Threatened Fourth Amendment violations have also supported the application of the
exclusionary rule more generally.         The Supreme Court has observed that the “exigent-
circumstances” exception to the warrant requirement is sufficient to preclude suppression “when
the police do not gain entry to premises by means of an actual or threatened violation of the
Fourth Amendment.” King, 563 U.S. at 469, 472 (emphasis added) (holding that an exigency
justified a warrantless search “[b]ecause the officers in this case did not violate or threaten to
violate the Fourth Amendment prior to the exigency”). And when presented with the question of
“whether a search can be justified as lawful on the basis of consent when that ‘consent’ has been
given only after the official conducting the search has asserted that he possesses a warrant,” the
Court “h[e]ld that there can be no consent under such circumstances.”          Bumper v. North
Carolina, 391 U.S. 543, 548 (1968). The Court reasoned that “[w]hen a law enforcement officer
claims authority to search a home under a warrant, he announces in effect that the occupant has
no right to resist the search.” Id. at 550.

        Such a situation was determined to be inherently coercive, and “[w]here there is coercion
there cannot be consent.” Id. In light of the seriousness with which the Supreme Court has
treated threatened Fourth Amendment violations when dealing with the exigent-circumstances
and consent exceptions to the warrant requirement, we see no reason why the
fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine should not also serve to exclude evidence obtained by an
official declaring his intent to act upon an unlawful warrant.
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                             Page 13

               2. The “attenuation” exception to the fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree
                  doctrine is inapplicable in the present case

       To exclude evidence under the fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine, “the defendant must
show more than ‘the mere fact that a constitutional violation was a “but-for” cause of [the
police’s] obtaining [the] evidence.’” United States v. Pearce, 531 F.3d 374, 381 (6th Cir. 2008)
(alterations in original) (quoting Hudson v. Michigan, 547 U.S. 586, 592 (2006)). Under the
attenuation exception, “the more apt question in such a case is whether, granting establishment of
the primary illegality, the evidence to which [the] instant objection is made has been come at by
exploitation of that illegality or instead by means sufficiently distinguishable to be purged of the
primary taint.” Id. (quoting Hudson, 547 U.S. at 592)).

       The Supreme Court has set forth three factors to guide the attenuation inquiry: “the
temporal proximity of the unlawful [conduct] and the emergence of the incriminating evidence at
issue, the presence of intervening circumstances, and, particularly, the purpose and flagrancy of
the official misconduct.” United States v. Williams, 615 F.3d 657, 669 (6th Cir. 2010) (cleaned
up) (quoting Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590, 603-04 (1975)). Here, Waide confessed to having
marijuana in his apartment during the same conversation in which O’Bryan informed Waide that
the officials intended to execute the DVR warrant in their possession. Similarly, Waide provided
O’Bryan with the key to search his apartment immediately after O’Bryan again threatened to
execute the DVR warrant. In all, the entire encounter took place in the course of one afternoon.
Temporal proximity is thus in Waide’s favor. Compare, e.g., id. (the defendant’s immediate
confession and the subsequent discovery of tangible evidence following the unlawful action
weighed against finding attenuation), and Brown, 422 U.S. at 604 (two hours between the
unlawful action and the defendant’s confession weighed against finding attenuation), with United
States v. Elmore, 18 F.4th 193, 200-01 (6th Cir. 2021) (two months between the searches and the
discovery of evidence weighed in favor of finding attenuation), and United States v. Gross,
662 F.3d 393, 402 (6th Cir. 2011) (two months between the unlawful seizure and the defendant’s
confession weighed in favor of finding attenuation).

       Nor were there any intervening circumstances between the threatened execution of the
unlawful DVR warrant and the discovery of the challenged evidence. The affidavits that sought
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                             Page 14

the narcotics warrants authorizing searches of the two 430 Douglas Avenue apartments satisfied
the probable-cause requirement only because of information that had been obtained by that
threat. As Curtsinger testified, and as the government argues, the primary basis for the narcotics
warrants was Waide’s confession about the presence of marijuana in his apartment.

       But Waide confessed only because of the officials’ threat to execute the unlawful DVR
warrant. When O’Bryan informed Waide that the officials intended to execute the DVR warrant,
Curtsinger affirmatively “interjected at one point and asked him—advised him, you know, if he
had any drugs in the apartment, if that’s what he was worried about and so forth.” And a
confession “made in response to a question posed by [an officer] [] is not the kind of ‘intervening
spontaneous action’ that typically supports attenuation.” See Williams, 615 F.3d at 669 (finding
no attenuation where an officer had asked a question that prompted the incriminating response).

       To the extent that the marijuana residue in Waide’s car contributed to the officials’
suspicions, it too was discovered only because of the threatened execution of the DVR warrant.
Waide’s vehicle was not present at the scene until Ms. Waide called her son and asked him to
return to the duplex so that the officials could execute the DVR warrant.

       The only other possible basis for the establishment of probable cause—the evidence
observed during the protective sweep of the 430 Douglas Avenue duplex—was likewise brought
about by the threatened execution of the DVR warrant. Nothing in the record suggests that the
occupants of the duplex would have begun destroying evidence for any reason other than the
imminent threat of unlawful police entry.       Moreover, O’Bryan obtained the key to enter
Apartment 3 only after telling Waide that the officials intended to enter the apartment to prevent
the destruction of the DVR. Under these circumstances, the second attenuation factor also favors
Waide. See id. at 669-70 (citing cases where the court found no intervening circumstances
where those circumstances were entangled with the unlawful police conduct).

       Finally, Curtsinger’s purpose in exploiting the unlawful DVR warrant weighs against
finding attenuation. “The Supreme Court has explained that the purposefulness factor is met
when the unlawful action is investigatory, that is, when officers unlawfully [act] ‘in the hope that
something might turn up.’” Id. at 670 (quoting Brown, 422 U.S. at 605). Here, Curtsinger had
 No. 21-5827                             United States v. Waide                         Page 15

already been aware that the sought-after DVR footage might show “illegal narcotic activity
occurring at the residence.” He also stated in his affidavits in support of the narcotics warrants
that he had received tips that Waide was a drug trafficker, “and toward that end[, Curtsinger]
immediately asked several questions related to criminal activity other than” arson. See id. at
670-71. The challenged evidence thus “came out only because [Curtsinger] asked about it,”
which this court has held is indicative of a purpose weighing against a finding of attenuation.
See id. at 671 (emphasis in original).

               3. The “inevitable-discovery” exception to the fruit-of-the-poisonous-
                  tree doctrine is also inapplicable in the present case

       Suppression of evidence is similarly not required under the “inevitable-discovery”
exception to the fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine, which “allows for the admission of
evidence that would have been discovered even without the unconstitutional source.” United
States v. Cooper, 24 F.4th 1086, 1091 (6th Cir. 2022). This court “recognize[s] two scenarios in
which inevitable discovery operates. First, the doctrine applies when there is ‘an independent,
untainted investigation’ that was bound to uncover the same evidence. . . . Inevitable discovery
also applies when ‘other compelling facts’ demonstrate that discovery was inevitable.” Id.
(quoting United States v. Kennedy, 61 F.3d 494, 499 (6th Cir. 1995)).

       The first scenario does not apply in the present case because, although the narcotics unit
might have previously shown interest in Waide, the unit’s participation in the execution of the
DVR warrant meant that its investigation was neither independent of nor untainted by that
warrant.   Cf. id. (citing “two parallel, independent efforts to locate a victim’s corpse: an
interrogation by detectives and a volunteer grid search” as an example of “an independent,
untainted investigation”).

       Nor can suppression be avoided by means of the second scenario.              Although the
affidavits in support of the narcotics warrants contained other facts that implicated Waide in
criminal activity—such as tips from unnamed sources that Waide was responsible for trafficking
large quantities of narcotics throughout Lexington, and the discovery of marijuana paraphernalia
in Waide’s car—those facts would not have justified the issuance of a search warrant to enter
Waide’s apartment.     See, e.g., United States v. Brown, 828 F.3d 375, 384 (6th Cir. 2016)
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                             Page 16

(“[O]ur cases teach, as a general matter, that if the affidavit fails to include facts that directly
connect the residence with the suspected drug dealing activity, or the evidence of this connection
is unreliable, it cannot be inferred that drugs will be found in the defendant’s home—even if the
defendant is a known drug dealer.”).

D. The “good-faith” exception to the exclusionary rule is also inapplicable

       This leaves the “good-faith” exception to the exclusionary rule for consideration. In
United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 920 (1984), the Supreme Court held that evidence obtained
pursuant to an invalid warrant need not be suppressed “when an officer acting with objective
good faith has obtained a search warrant from a judge or magistrate and acted within its scope.”
But an officer does not act in objective good faith if the warrant is “based on an affidavit ‘so
lacking in indicia of probable cause as to render official belief in its existence entirely
unreasonable.’” Id. at 923 (quoting Brown, 422 U.S. at 610-11 (Powell, J., concurring in part)).

       The question before us is whether Leon’s good-faith exception should apply where the
affidavit in support of the DVR warrant failed to establish probable cause to believe that a crime
had been committed in the first instance. We hold that it does not. In United States v. Christian,
925 F.3d 305, 313 (6th Cir. 2019) (en banc), this court identified its decision in United States
v. Hython, 443 F.3d 480 (6th Cir. 2006), as “showing just how unsubstantiated an affidavit must
be to fail to qualify under Leon’s good-faith exception.” The affidavit at issue in Hython read as
follows:

               Narcotics Officers from the Steubenville Police Department, Toronto
       Police and Jefferson County Sheriff’s Office in a joint investigation conducted a
       controlled buy of crack cocaine from 241 South Fifth Street in the city of
       Steubenville.
              A reliable confidential informant advised officers that he was able to
       purchase crack cocaine from a female in Toronto. The female had advised the
       informant in the past that her source of crack cocaine is subject in the city of
       Steubenville. Officers provided the informant with one hundred and fifty dollars
       in marked U.S. currency for a transaction. Officers conducted surveillance and
       were able to follow the informant to the known drug location in Toronto where
       the informant met with the female suspect. Officers were able to hear
       conversation via an audio transmitter. During the conversation the female
       received the currency from the informant and advised that she would travel to
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                            Page 17

       Steubenville to obtain the crack cocaine. Officers were then able to follow the
       female to 241 South Fifth Street in the City of Steubenville. The female entered
       the residence and exited within two minutes. Officers were then able to follow
       the female back to Toronto where she met with the informant and provided him
       with a baggie containing crack cocaine.
               Due to the above transaction with the residence, officers believe the[re] to
       be further crack cocaine within the residence.

Hython, 443 F.3d at 482-83 (alteration in original). The court concluded that this affidavit was
not protected by the good-faith exception because “it was based on one undated, acontextual
controlled buy.” Id. at 489. Consequently, “a well-trained officer could not reasonably rely on
the affidavit.” Id.

       Yet the affidavit at issue in Hython, flawed as it was, contained at least one assertion of
criminal activity from a source whose reliability was attested to in the affidavit. See id. at
482-83. Moreover, the evidence sought to be seized was contraband, and so “[t]he nexus
between ‘criminal activity’ and the item to be seized [was] ‘automatic.’” United States v.
Abernathy, 843 F.3d 243, 249 (6th Cir. 2016) (quoting United States v. Church, 823 F.3d 351,
355 (6th Cir. 2016)). As discussed in Part II.B. above, the affidavit in support of the DVR
warrant fell well short of even this low standard.

       Finally, the affidavit’s deficiencies cannot be cured by looking to facts known to O’Bryan
that were omitted from the affidavit. This court has been unequivocal in holding that that “a
determination of good-faith reliance, like a determination of probable cause, must be bound by
the four corners of the affidavit.” United States v. Laughton, 409 F.3d 744, 751 (6th Cir. 2005).
And although “a court reviewing an officer’s good faith under Leon may look beyond the four
corners of the warrant affidavit to information that was known to the officer and revealed to the
issuing magistrate,” United States v. Frazier, 423 F.3d 526, 535-36 (6th Cir. 2005), the record in
this case is devoid of evidence that the magistrate who issued the DVR warrant had been
provided with any information beyond that presented in the affidavit.

       In sum, the DVR warrant was “based on an affidavit ‘so lacking in indicia of probable
cause as to render official belief in its existence entirely unreasonable.’” See Leon, 468 U.S. at
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                          Page 18

923 (quoting Brown, 422 U.S. at 610-11 (Powell, J., concurring in part)). The Leon good-faith
exception is therefore inapplicable.

                                       III. CONCLUSION
       This court has previously proclaimed that, “[a]lthough we do not relish the consequence
that the possessor of a large quantity of drugs will escape punishment, our overriding concern is
that the police must abide by the Fourth Amendment protections afforded to all of the inhabitants
of this great country, guilty and innocent alike.” United States v. Wilson, 506 F.3d 488, 496
(6th Cir. 2007). That core principle is fully applicable here. We therefore REVERSE the
judgment of the district court and REMAND with instructions to suppress the unlawfully
collected evidence.
 No. 21-5827                            United States v. Waide                             Page 19

                                        _________________

                                            DISSENT
                                        _________________

       SILER, Circuit Judge, dissenting. I respectfully dissent from the majority opinion. This
is not a fruit of the poisonous tree case. As stated by the Supreme Court:

       We need not hold that all evidence is “fruit of the poisonous tree” simply because
       it would not have come to light but for the illegal actions of the police. Rather,
       the more apt question in such a case is “whether, granting establishment of the
       primary illegality, the evidence to which instant objection is made has been come
       at by exploitation of that illegality or instead by means sufficiently distinguishable
       to be purged of the primary taint.”

Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 487-88 (1963) (citation omitted). Unlike the facts in
Wong Sun, the officers here were not illegally inside of a dwelling when Waide made his
incriminating statement that there was marijuana in his apartment.

       In the arson investigation on the first day at the scene, Waide’s mother met the
investigators and said the cameras on the building near the burned building belonged to her son
and that he would probably not release the footage from the camera attached to his apartment.
They also spoke with Waide at that time and smelled marijuana on him. Waide refused to
release the footage from the camera. The following day, the same investigators, accompanied by
narcotic officers Curtsinger and Evans, obtained a state search warrant for the DVR. When they
arrived at the premises, no one was home in Apartment 3, which was the object of the search
warrant. The officers asked Waide’s mother if she could call Waide to the scene, which she did,
and Waide arrived shortly thereafter.

       When Waide arrived, the officers told him that they had a search warrant for the DVR
and recording equipment for Apartment 3. Waide said he could go up to his apartment and get
the recording equipment for them, but they said they would just execute the DVR warrant.
Detective Curtsinger asked Waide if he had marijuana or other drugs in the apartment, and
Waide responded by saying he had “a little marijuana.” Curtsinger walked over to Waide’s
vehicle parked on the street and smelled marijuana coming from the car. He also looked through
the windows of the vehicle and spotted a burnt marijuana cigarette and grinder. The officers
 No. 21-5827                          United States v. Waide                             Page 20

then decided to get another warrant to search for marijuana inside the apartment. At that time,
there was no execution of the DVR search warrant, nor had the officers entered Waide’s
apartment. While Curtsinger went to obtain the search warrant for the marijuana, Waide was
placed in handcuffs in the area near his apartment, but not inside. Officers then saw suspicious
conduct around Apartment 1, just below Apartment 3 where Waide lived. They heard banging
noises from inside Apartment 1 and heard sounds from within Apartment 3, which was not
supposed to have anyone inside. Officers then made a clearing search of Apartment 1 and found
a large hole between Apartments 1 and 3. Although they secured both apartments, they did not
execute the warrant at that time. It was only later the narcotics warrant was executed, and the
firearm and narcotics were found inside the apartments.

       Yet, the majority suggests that there was coercion when the investigator said they would
proceed to execute the DVR warrant, Curtsinger then asked Waide about drugs inside, and
Waide admitted he had some marijuana in his apartment. The majority says this was a threat.
I disagree. Waide did not have to say anything when he was asked if he had drugs inside. He
was not under arrest nor handcuffed and was outside his apartment.

       Put simply, there is no fruit from a poisonous tree here because there is no poisonous tree.
Waide asserts that the first warrant, the DVR warrant, lacked probable cause, so the entire search
should be suppressed. However, the DVR warrant was never executed. Instead, the officer
suggested they would execute it, which gave rise to Waide’s admission of the drugs in his
apartment.

       The majority relies upon cases that are unlike the situation we have here. For instance, in
Kentucky v. King, 563 U.S. 452, 469, 472 (2011), the Court’s concern was whether the officers
invited the exigent circumstance that the government relied upon to justify the search. Here,
Waide does not claim that the officers invited exigent circumstances, so those facts do not
support the conclusion of the majority. In the case of Bumper v. North Carolina, 391 U.S. 543,
549 (1968), the Court reasoned that where law enforcement had already asserted in bad faith that
they had a warrant, the homeowner’s consent was invalid. Here we have a warrant and there was
no question of consent. The majority has also cited to United States v. Williams, 615 F.3d 657,
669 (6th Cir. 2010), but the circumstances there were much different because they concerned
 No. 21-5827                           United States v. Waide                            Page 21

questions posed to the suspect while then in custody. In our case, Waide was not in custody
when he admitted the marijuana possession so he was not under the pressure of the defendant in
Williams.

       Instead, I would follow the decision in United States v. Elmore, 18 F.4th 193, 200-02 (6th
Cir. 2021), where our court found that there was attenuation from the time of the alleged
unconstitutional conduct and the time that the search was made with a valid warrant of
Apartment 3. In our case, the alleged unconstitutional act was the suggestion by the investigator
that the first warrant would be executed. Once Waide admitted having drugs in his apartment,
there was a lapse of several hours before the second warrant was brought to the scene and
executed. The next attenuation factor in this case favors the government, as Detective Curtsinger
noticed evidence of the marijuana residue in the open vehicle on the premises.

       The final attenuation factor also favors the government. When Curtsinger learned that
Waide had some marijuana in his apartment, he stopped the execution of the DVR warrant to
apply for a search warrant for narcotics in the apartment. The fact that the officers heard and
saw conduct by others to disturb the contents of Apartment 3 was an intervening act which
officers thought was the destruction of illegal drugs, allowing them to enter the apartment to
stabilize the contents until a warrant could be obtained. See also United States v. Hearn, No. 22-
5093, 2022 WL 3211097, at *3 (6th Cir. Aug. 9, 2022) (even if the frisk was unconstitutional, it
bore no fruit). Therefore, I would uphold the decision of the district court. The tree here was not
poisonous.