Court Opinion

ID: 9930916
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2024-02-07 21:01:10.13065+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T12:12:49.371841
License: Public Domain

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                                             PUBLISHED

                              UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
                                  FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

                                              No. 21-4684

        UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

                           Plaintiff – Appellee,

                     v.

        ADONIS MARQUIS PERRY,

                           Defendant – Appellant.

        Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, at
        Norfolk. Rebecca Beach Smith, Senior District Judge. (2:18-cr-00113-RBS-DEM-1)

        Argued: October 27, 2023                                   Decided: February 6, 2024

        Before GREGORY, RICHARDSON, and BENJAMIN, Circuit Judges.

        Affirmed by published opinion. Judge Richardson wrote the opinion, in which Judge
        Gregory and Judge Benjamin joined.

        ARGUED: Patricia A. René, THE RENÉ LAW FIRM, Williamsburg, Virginia, for
        Appellant. Daniel J. Honold, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY,
        Alexandria, Virginia, for Appellee. ON BRIEF: Jessica D. Aber, United States Attorney,
        Richmond, Virginia, William B. Jackson, Assistant United States Attorney, Joseph E.
        DePadilla, Assistant United States Attorney, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES
        ATTORNEY, Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellee.
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        RICHARDSON, Circuit Judge:
               Adonis Perry was arrested in 2017 for possessing a firearm as a felon and for

        possessing marijuana after he was found with both during a traffic stop. While awaiting

        trial, he repeatedly tried to convince his girlfriend, one of the government’s key witnesses,

        to refuse to cooperate. This led to four witness-tampering and obstruction-of-justice

        charges. A jury found Perry guilty on all counts. He now appeals, advancing seven

        challenges to his convictions and sentence. Finding no reversible error, we affirm.

        I.     BACKGROUND

               A.     Factual Background

                      1.     The December 18 Traffic Stop

               Perry first came to the police’s attention around midnight on December 18, 2017.

        He and his girlfriend, Beatrice McCarr, were driving in the Huntersville neighborhood in

        Norfolk, Virginia—an area well-known for gang activity and violent crimes—in an SUV

        with no front license plate and a temporary paper license plate on the rear. 1 Officers Joshua

        Miller and Brian Para were on patrol in the same area and, after observing the unusual

        plate, decided to follow the vehicle. When the officers made a U-turn to investigate, the

        vehicle “tr[ied] to flee,” accelerating away from the patrol car in an evasive manner and

        running two stop signs in the process. J.A. 278, 281.

               The officers pursued, losing sight of the SUV for about ten seconds. When they

        caught up, the vehicle had pulled over in a parking lot and the passenger door was open.

               1
                   See Va. Code Ann. § 46.2-715 (2017) (“License plates assigned to a motor vehicle
        . . . shall be attached to the front and the rear of the vehicle.”).
                                                      2
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        Officer Miller activated his patrol car’s lights, which automatically turned on his dashboard

        camera. He then turned on his body camera. One feature of this camera is that it constantly

        keeps a thirty-second memory, even when it is not activated, allowing it to “go back 30

        seconds in time from when [the officer] actually click[s] it on.” J.A. 281. So even though

        Officer Miller had not turned on his camera during the initial encounter with the SUV on

        the road, his activation at the parking lot meant that the recording captured Perry and

        McCarr running the second stop sign. Miller then watched McCarr exit the driver’s-side

        door. He also saw the person in the passenger’s seat, Perry, briefly “lean[] towards the

        ground, the floorboard,” before “jump[ing] over the center console” of the car to exit the

        driver’s-side door as well. J.A. 283, 958. 2

               Because of the wide-open passenger door and furtive movements toward the

        floorboard, the officers ordered Perry and McCarr to show their hands before walking them

        back toward the patrol car. There, the officers handcuffed them before questioning the two

        individually. According to Officer Miller, the officers wanted to investigate “the license

        plate, why they appeared to be eluding [the police] and disregard[ing] two stop signs, the

        movement that we saw towards the floorboard, and why they both came out of the driver’s

        side of the vehicle.” J.A. 285–86.

               2
                  That McCarr was the first to exit the vehicle suggested to Officer Miller that she
        was driving the car and that Perry was the passenger. But Perry later told Officer Miller
        that he was the one driving and that he and McCarr quickly traded places during the ten
        seconds that the police lost them. If true, Perry would have been both the driver for the
        traffic infractions and the passenger who leaned toward the floorboard during the traffic
        stop.
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               Officer Miller took charge of investigating Perry, first asking for identification and

        running a background check. In response to questioning about the license plate, Perry said

        McCarr had all the necessary paperwork, implying that she owned the vehicle. Officer

        Miller then frisked Perry for weapons and had Perry sit in the back of the patrol car for the

        rest of the investigation (even though Perry was not yet under arrest). During the frisk,

        Officer Miller noticed something hanging out of Perry’s back pocket. Perry permitted him

        to search the pocket, where Officer Miller found a blue bandana. The bandana, in addition

        to a notification from police dispatch that Perry had gang connections, led Officer Miller

        to believe that Perry was affiliated with the Crips gang.

               Officer Para, who had been questioning McCarr, asked her for permission to search

        the SUV. She consented, and Officer Miller took Officer Para’s place questioning McCarr

        while Officer Para began the search. McCarr told Officer Miller that she and Perry had no

        relation to the nearby apartment complex, which confirmed, in Officer Miller’s mind, that

        their erratic driving was to evade the police. Officer Miller then returned to Perry. As he

        began to Mirandize Perry, Officer Para shouted that he found a revolver protruding from a

        purse on the passenger’s-side floorboard. Officer Miller went over to the car, observed the

        revolver, and read McCarr the Miranda warnings. He then asked McCarr to talk. She

        agreed, telling him that the gun belonged to Perry. A few minutes later, Officer Para found

        another gun—a Glock with an extended magazine—on the passenger’s-side floorboard.

        The officers discovered that the serial number for the Glock corresponded with a stolen

        gun, and McCarr said that this gun was also Perry’s.

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               By this point, Officer Miller had learned from the background check that Perry was

        a felon. So he arrested Perry for being a felon in possession of a firearm and searched him

        incident to that arrest, discovering what Perry admitted was “weed.” J.A. 303, 963.

        McCarr, on the other hand, was permitted to leave, taking the SUV and Perry’s cell phone. 3

                       2.    Perry’s Pre-Trial Detention

               Perry remained detained during his pre-trial period. While detained, he often spoke

        to McCarr, who had his cell phone. He gave her the phone’s passcode, and she used it for

        personal purposes and to communicate with Perry and his family. During at least one

        conversation, McCarr and Perry discussed the phone’s contents, laughing over pictures of

        the two of them.

               Many of their calls, however, were less light-hearted. During one conversation,

        Perry instructed McCarr and a third party, Juice, to draft a letter recanting McCarr’s initial

        statements. After some reluctance from McCarr, Perry grew more insistent: “I just need

        you to do what I asked you to do. You understand me?” J.A. 1345. He told her that she

        would face no consequences for recanting and that doing so would cause the judge to

        release him.

               The next day, Perry told McCarr to call the prosecutor directly, rather than send a

        letter, and confess that she had lied before. And in a later call, Perry and McCarr discussed

               3
                 Officer Miller preserved the bodycam video from this encounter but failed to
        preserve the dashcam video, which was automatically deleted thirty days after the stop. He
        concluded, after watching his bodycam video, that the bodycam and dashcam videos would
        have shown largely the same things and that the bodycam would have shown a better
        recording of that night’s events. Officer Miller never reviewed the dashcam footage,
        however.
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        avoiding subpoenas, with Perry telling McCarr, “Listen, all you have to do is say, ‘I never

        got subpoenaed. I don’t live there.’” J.A. 1353. McCarr told Perry that she had done that,

        adding that the government messed up in “let[ting her] go” the night of Perry’s arrest. J.A.

        1353. During yet another call, McCarr told Perry that the police called her but that she

        pretended to be another person “because [she remembered] what [Perry] told [her] a long

        time ago.” J.A. 1355. As she said, Perry “already gave [her] the rundown.” J.A. 1359.

               Perry didn’t stop there. When he found out that federal agents had taken an interest

        in his case, he told McCarr, “[W]hatever you do, don’t never . . . they want you to come

        back to court on me.” J.A. 1360. And he mentioned the sentence he would face if

        convicted, prompting McCarr to say, “Well, just know I’m doing my part on my side.”

        J.A. 1361. “They don’t have nothing without you,” Perry replied. Id. He also assured

        McCarr that she would face no legal penalties for not testifying, while the court or

        prosecutors would pin any blame for the guns on her if she testified.

               Once Perry learned that McCarr had been subpoenaed, he pressed harder. Although

        McCarr was rightfully worried about the legal consequences of failing to appear, Perry told

        her not to worry, since “they can’t give you failure to come to court, because . . . [t]hey

        cannot make you testify against nobody.” J.A. 1376. He said that “if you do not show up

        at the next court date . . . they have to let me go.” J.A. 1377. And he promised that the

        government could not “do anything to [her].” Id. He swore this “on [his] daddy,” “on

        [their] dead child,” and “on [his] kids’ soul, every one of [his] kid’s [sic] soul.” Id. But

        when McCarr still seemed hesitant, Perry’s pleas became desperate as he begged her to

        stay away from any proceedings. See, e.g., J.A. 1378 (“They is waiting for you to come

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        here, man. Please, man, please don’t do it man. Please, man. Please, man. On my kids, I

        swear to God, I never do that s[***], Beatrice. Please don’t do it, man. Please.”).

               But McCarr decided to comply. And when she returned to Virginia for the grand-

        jury proceedings, she brought Perry’s phone, giving both it and the passcode to federal

        agents, along with her consent to search. Although they obtained McCarr’s consent, the

        federal officers still sought out a warrant to search the phone. The magistrate refused to

        issue one, but he pointed the officers to Casella v. Borders, 404 F. App’x 800 (4th Cir.

        2010) (unpublished), which they took as an indication that they did not need a warrant. So

        they searched the phone, finding, most relevantly, pictures of Perry with the guns recovered

        at the traffic stop and text messages referencing the locations where the guns were found.

        The metadata from the photos revealed that they were placed on the phone within a month

        of the December 18 traffic stop.

               B.     Procedural Background

               In October 2019, a federal grand jury returned a second superseding indictment

        charging Perry with six counts. Count One charged Perry with possessing a firearm as a

        felon from around October 21, 2017, to December 18, 2017. 18 U.S.C. §§ 922(g)(1),

        924(a)(2). Count Two charged witness tampering by attempting to influence, delay, and

        prevent testimony. 18 U.S.C. § 1512(b)(1). Count Three charged witness tampering by

        attempting to induce a witness to evade legal process. § 1512(b)(2)(C). Count Four

        charged witness tampering by attempting to cause a witness to be absent from an official

        proceeding to which the witness had been summoned. § 1512(b)(2)(D). Count Five

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        charged obstruction of justice. § 1512(c)(2). And Count Six charged possession of a

        controlled substance. 21 U.S.C. § 844(a).

               In the lead-up to trial, Perry burned through appointed attorneys at a remarkable

        rate. The first five of Perry’s lawyers all withdrew after he credibly threatened each one

        and, often, his or her family. And Perry moved to have his sixth court-appointed counsel,

        Mr. Robinson, removed as well, arguing that Robinson had a conflict of interest because

        Perry threatened him in an unrelated 2016 state-court case. Robinson, however, felt no

        conflict of interest and asserted that he could effectively represent Perry. The court

        similarly found no conflict, permitting Robinson to remain as Perry’s counsel. As a

        precaution, however, the court appointed a seventh lawyer as Robinson’s co-counsel.

               With this arrangement, Perry proceeded to trial. It lasted three days, at the end of

        which the jury returned a guilty verdict on all six counts. Perry made a Rule 29 motion for

        judgment of acquittal, which the district court denied. At sentencing, the Presentence

        Investigation Report initially calculated a Sentencing Guidelines range of 262–327

        months’ imprisonment. Perry objected to various sentencing enhancements, two of which

        the court sustained, reducing Perry’s recommended sentence to 168–210 months. The

        court sentenced Perry to 210 months and three years of supervised release, denying the

        government’s motion for an upward variance and the defense’s motion for a downward

        variance. Perry filed a timely notice of appeal.

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        II.    DISCUSSION

               A.     The Traffic Stop

               Perry’s first argument is that he was unconstitutionally seized for much of the

        December 18 traffic stop. So he claims that the district court erred in refusing to suppress

        all the evidence that came from the stop as fruit of the poisonous tree. “In reviewing the

        denial of a motion to suppress, ‘we review legal conclusions de novo and factual findings

        for clear error.’” United States v. Pulley, 987 F.3d 370, 376 (4th Cir. 2021) (quoting United

        States v. Seerden, 916 F.3d 360, 365 (4th Cir. 2019)). “In conducting this review, the Court

        evaluates the evidence ‘in the light most favorable to the government.’” United States v.

        Runner, 43 F.4th 417, 421 (4th Cir. 2022) (quoting United States v. Green, 599 F.3d 360,

        375 (4th Cir. 2010)). We conclude that the seizure was constitutional.

               The Fourth Amendment protects the right of the people to be free from

        “unreasonable searches and seizures.” U.S. Const. amend. IV. Seizures of persons

        generally must be supported by probable cause. Dunaway v. New York, 442 U.S. 200, 208–

        09 (1979). But probable cause is not an indispensable prerequisite. In Terry v. Ohio, the

        Supreme Court recognized that the police may constitutionally “conduct a brief,

        investigatory stop when [an] officer has a reasonable, articulable suspicion that criminal

        activity is afoot.” Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119, 123 (2000) (discussing Terry, 392

        U.S. 1 (1968)). This is an objective inquiry. Rather than focusing on the officer’s

        “subjective frame of mind,” we ask whether the facts known to the officer support an

        objective finding of “reasonable suspicion.” United States v. Branch, 537 F.3d 328, 340

        (4th Cir. 2008).

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               Either probable cause or reasonable suspicion may justify a traffic stop. Berkemer

        v. McCarty, 468 U.S. 420, 439 & n.29 (1984). But a traffic stop’s duration cannot extend

        indefinitely. Instead, a stop’s “mission” determines how long an officer may tolerably

        detain the subject of his investigation. Rodriguez v. United States, 575 U.S. 348, 354

        (2015). The police may not extend the stop beyond the scope of its initial mission without

        “either the driver’s consent or a ‘reasonable suspicion’ that illegal activity is afoot.” United

        States v. Guijon-Ortiz, 660 F.3d 757, 764 (4th Cir. 2011) (quoting Branch, 537 F.3d at

        336). So the validity of an officer’s actions during a traffic stop often turns on whether

        those actions advanced the “mission” of the stop.

               Here, the officers seized the vehicle and its occupants after finding the car stopped

        in the parking lot of an apartment complex with the passenger door open. At that point,

        the officers activated their blue lights and ordered the two occupants to show their hands

        and join them at the patrol car. Then, they handcuffed the occupants for officer safety. See

        California v. Hodari D., 499 U.S. 621, 626 (1991) (holding that a seizure occurs upon

        “submission to the assertion of authority”). This seizure was supported by both probable

        cause of observed traffic violations and reasonable suspicion of other criminal activity.

               First, the district court reasonably found that the officers had observed the vehicle

        run two stop signs, which bodycam footage corroborated. This observation established

        probable cause that a traffic violation had occurred. See United States v. Williams, 740

        F.3d 308, 312 (4th Cir. 2014) (“When an officer observes a traffic offense—however

        minor—he has probable cause to stop the driver of the vehicle.” (quoting United States v.

        Hassan El, 5 F.3d 726, 730 (4th Cir. 1993))).

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               But the reason for the seizure was not so limited. The district court accepted that

        the officers perceived running the stop signs as unprovoked flight after the officers turned

        around to follow the SUV. And as the Supreme Court has explained, officers may stop

        individuals in a high-crime area who engage in “unprovoked flight upon noticing the

        police.” Wardlow, 528 U.S. at 123–24.

               In attempting to undercut Wardlow’s applicability, Perry treats the fact that he and

        McCarr ran two stop signs as any run-of-the-mill traffic infraction. That is, Perry argues

        that, since they were pulled over for traffic infractions, any investigation not directly related

        to those specific infractions was unreasonable. But this ignores important evidence that

        drove the mission of the seizure. McCarr and Perry weren’t pulled over just for the traffic

        infractions. The officers testified, and the district court reasonably found, that when they

        made the U-turn to follow the SUV with a missing license plate, Perry and McCarr

        accelerated away. It was during this escape that they ran the two stop signs. Thus, the

        court found that Officer Miller witnessed McCarr and Perry engage in “unprovoked flight

        upon noticing the police,” just like in Wardlow. See 528 U.S. at 123–24. Additionally,

        before ordering the two occupants to show their hands and walk to the patrol car, Officer

        Miller observed Perry crouched in the car’s passenger seat with the door wide open before

        exiting the vehicle somewhat oddly by leaping over the center console to leave through the

        driver’s-side door. See United States v. George, 732 F.3d 296, 300 (4th Cir. 2013) (“A

        suspect’s suspicious movements can also be taken to suggest that the suspect may have a

        weapon.”). Under these circumstances, we conclude that Officer Miller had reasonable

        suspicion sufficient to justify detaining Perry.

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               Accordingly, the mission for the seizure was not, at any point, limited to the

        observed traffic violation (running two stop signs). The officers reasonably suspected 4 that

        criminal activity was afoot based on Perry and McCarr’s reaction to the officers’ U-turn.

        Investigating that activity was therefore part of the traffic stop’s mission from the

        beginning. See Rodriguez, 575 U.S. at 354.

               Even so, Perry challenges both the length of the stop and his detention during the

        stop. Neither was problematic.

               First, under Terry, an individual’s detention can “last no longer than necessary to

        verify or dispel the officer’s suspicion.” United States v. Elston, 479 F.3d 314, 320 (4th

        Cir. 2007) (quoting United States v. Leshuk, 65 F.3d 1105, 1109 (4th Cir. 1995)). So

        officers may constitutionally detain suspects until their suspicions should be reasonably

        verified or dispelled. But rather than alleviating the officers’ suspicions, the initial

        detention revealed information to Officers Miller and Para that heightened their suspicions,

        such as Perry’s furtive movements toward the floorboard and the fact that both he and

        McCarr exited out of the driver’s-side door, even with the passenger’s-side door wide open.

               4
                 At the end of his argument on the traffic stop, Perry makes the conclusory assertion
        that, despite Officer Miller’s statements to the contrary, Perry was actually under arrest
        after he was handcuffed and placed in the patrol car. This would require probable cause,
        not reasonable suspicion. But he makes this assertion “without argument or explanation,”
        Grayson O Co. v. Agadir Int’l LLC, 856 F.3d 307, 316 (4th Cir. 2017), citing no caselaw
        as to the legal standards governing when a Terry stop morphs into a custodial arrest. This
        “passing shot” at the issue is not enough to preserve it for appellate review. Id. (citation
        omitted). In failing to “develop [his] argument,” Perry has forfeited it. Id. (citation
        omitted).
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        And that heightened suspicion led the officers to ask McCarr for consent to search the

        vehicle.

               Perry argues that the officers deviated from the stop’s mission in asking to search

        the car, making the search and prolonged seizure unreasonable.             But once again,

        investigating suspicion of criminal activity was part of that mission. And as we have

        recognized, one purpose of a Terry stop is to allow the officer to “attempt[] to obtain [a

        person’s] consent to a search when reasonable suspicion exists.” Leshuk, 65 F.3d at 1110.

        This makes sense—if the point of the stop is to confirm or debunk suspicions, a search

        based on the suspect’s consent is a reasonable (indeed, the least intrusive) way to do that.

        The search, therefore, advanced the traffic stop’s mission of investigating suspected

        criminal activity. So the officers did not impermissibly extend the traffic stop either in

        asking for McCarr’s consent to search or in searching the vehicle.

               Second, the officers constitutionally detained Perry during the stop. The Supreme

        Court has long acknowledged the risks that unrestrained passengers can present to officers

        during traffic stops. E.g., Maryland v. Wilson, 519 U.S. 408, 413 (1997). For this reason,

        officers may “attend to related safety concerns” during such stops. Rodriguez, 575 U.S. at

        354. And this is not some minor, ancillary concern. Instead, the precautions that officers

        take to preserve their safety “stem[] from the mission of the stop itself.” Id. at 356.

        Exercising their power to protect themselves, officers routinely detain passengers or limit

        their movements. See Wilson, 519 U.S. at 414–15; Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S. 249,

        258 (2007) (“It is also reasonable for passengers to expect that a police officer at the scene

        of a crime, arrest, or investigation will not let people move around in ways that could

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        jeopardize his safety.”). Just as the officers acted within the mission of the traffic stop by

        asking for consent and searching the car, they also acted within the mission of the stop by

        detaining Perry throughout the search.

               The Constitution also permits officers to take reasonable steps to preserve their

        safety from any passengers they may have detained. Cf. United States v. Hill, 852 F.3d

        377, 383 (4th Cir. 2017).      While Perry argues that the officers went overboard by

        handcuffing him, putting him in the patrol car, and running a background check, we have

        previously approved each of these practices. See Elston, 479 F.3d at 320; Hill, 852 F.3d.

        at 382. We have never recognized that taking one step to preserve officer safety during a

        Terry stop precludes others, and we decline to do so now.

               For these reasons, we conclude that Perry’s detention was constitutional and that the

        district court did not err in refusing to suppress the evidence from the stop.

               B.     The Cell Phone

               Perry next contends that investigators violated his Fourth Amendment rights when

        they searched his cell phone with McCarr’s consent. According to him, McCarr had neither

        actual nor apparent authority to grant such consent, meaning the police needed either his

        consent or a warrant. But McCarr had the requisite authority to consent to the search; so

        we affirm the district court’s decision not to suppress the cell phone’s contents. 5

               5
                 The government asks us to hold that Perry had no reasonable expectation of
        privacy in his cell phone in light of Casella, 404 F. App’x at 802–04 (holding that an
        individual had no reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents of a cell phone once
        she relinquished physical control of it). In finding that McCarr had authority to consent,
        we see no need to address this question. We thus assume, but do not decide, that Perry had
        a reasonable expectation of privacy in his cell phone.
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               Just as the Fourth Amendment protects against unreasonable seizures, it also

        protects against unreasonable searches. U.S. Const. amend. IV. Consent makes a search

        reasonable, functioning as an exception to both the warrant and probable-cause

        requirements of the Fourth Amendment. United States v. Matlock, 415 U.S. 164, 165–66

        (1974). Consent need not be obtained from the search’s ultimate target. Id. at 171. Instead,

        consent from any person with “common authority over or other sufficient relationship to

        the . . . effects sought to be inspected” suffices. Id. That is, as long as the person who

        consents has “joint access or control for most purposes” over something, others with an

        interest in that effect will be seen to “have assumed the risk” that the consenter might

        submit the object to the police to be searched. Id. at 171 n.7.

               The district court’s reasonable factual findings show that McCarr had at least joint,

        if not sole, access and control over the cell phone at the time of the search. The court

        concluded that, for the seven months leading up to her decision to give the phone to federal

        agents, McCarr was the only person to use the cell phone. And she regularly used the

        phone for purely personal purposes. Furthermore, she had access to the contents of the

        entire phone. Cf. Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391, 403 (4th Cir. 2001) (noting that locked

        computer files to which the consenter did not know the password were not covered by

        consent). As such, she could go through the phone’s photos, which she discussed with

        Perry during a recorded jail call. While Perry contends that he limited McCarr’s authority

        to use the phone, he points to nothing in the record that supports his assertion. Indeed, his

        positive reaction to McCarr’s admission that she was going through the phone’s contents

        strongly undercuts his argument. Thus, we conclude that McCarr had actual authority to

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        consent to the phone’s search, and the government’s failure to get Perry’s consent or a

        warrant is irrelevant.

               Perry’s last-ditch argument is that the government failed to establish that McCarr’s

        consent was voluntary. The voluntariness of consent is a factual question that we review

        for clear error. United States v. Carter, 300 F.3d 415, 423 (4th Cir. 2002). And, contrary

        to Perry’s assertion, a knowing waiver of the right to refuse is not the sine qua non of

        consent. Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 246 (1973). Nothing in the record

        suggests that federal officials coerced McCarr in any way, so Perry cannot meet his burden

        of showing clear error. Indeed, Perry doesn’t argue to the contrary. All he says is that “[i]t

        is unclear whether McCarr’s consent was voluntary.” Reply Br. at 14. But it is the

        appellant’s burden “to demonstrate clear error in factual findings.” Zahn v. Nygaard, 989

        F.3d 1070, 1072 (8th Cir. 2021) (quoting Griffin v. City of Omaha, 785 F.2d 620, 626 (8th

        Cir. 1986)). Conclusory assertions unsupported by evidence do not suffice.

               Accordingly, the district court did not err in refusing to suppress the contents of

        Perry’s cell phone.

               C.     The Dashboard Camera

               Perry’s next argument is that the charges against him should have been dismissed

        because Officer Miller failed to preserve the dashcam footage from the traffic stop,

        depriving him of due process. “We review the district court’s factual findings on a motion

        to dismiss an indictment for clear error, but we review its legal conclusions de novo.”

        United States v. Perry, 757 F.3d 166, 171 (4th Cir. 2014) (quoting United States v.

        Woolfolk, 399 F.3d 590, 594 (4th Cir. 2005)).

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               Spoliation of evidence, or the destruction of or failure to preserve evidence, can be

        a due-process violation. Arizona v. Youngblood, 488 U.S. 51, 58 (1988). In order to rise

        to that level, however, the defendant must show that the unpreserved evidence had “an

        exculpatory value that was apparent before the evidence was destroyed[] and [was] of such

        a nature that the defendant would be unable to obtain comparable evidence by other

        reasonably available means.” California v. Trombetta, 467 U.S. 479, 489 (1984). In

        addition, the defendant must establish that the police acted in “bad faith” in failing to

        preserve the evidence. Youngblood, 488 U.S. at 58. Thus, spoliation will only violate due

        process where “the police themselves by their conduct indicate that the evidence could

        form a basis for exonerating the defendant” yet still failed to preserve it. Id.

               Perry cannot satisfy even one of these elements. Trombetta makes clear that

        evidence will not have a constitutionally significant exculpatory value just because it

        “might conceivably” aid the defendant. 467 U.S. at 489. Instead, where “a dispassionate

        review” of the evidence “can only lead one to conclude that the chances are extremely low

        that the preserved [evidence] would have been exculpatory,” failure to preserve “is without

        constitutional defect.” Id. at 488–89. Here, Officer Miller and a dashboard-camera expert

        both testified that Officer Miller’s bodycam captured the same, if not better, footage of the

        traffic stop.    But the jury watched that video and found nothing exculpatory.

        “Dispassionate” consideration of the evidence thus negates Perry’s bald assertion that the

        dashcam “would have answered . . . questions and aided Perry in his defense.” Opening

        Br. at 40. Instead, the record suggests it would have “confirm[ed]” what the bodycam

        video already captured. Trombetta, 467 U.S. at 489. And the fact that the two videos were

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        duplicative also prevents Perry from arguing that “comparable evidence” was not

        reasonably available. Id.

               Similarly, Perry cannot show bad faith. He argues that Officer Miller acted in bad

        faith because he failed to follow official policy on dashcam preservation. The government

        disputes the content of department policy, but this dispute is largely irrelevant. Youngblood

        says that bad faith requires that “the police themselves by their conduct indicate that the

        evidence could form a basis for exonerating the defendant.” 488 U.S. at 58. But Perry

        doesn’t do that. And he doesn’t try. Instead, Perry explicitly acknowledges that Officer

        Miller believed that it was unnecessary to preserve the dashcam because the stop was

        sufficiently captured by the bodycam. While he argues that this belief was unreasonable,

        that at most would show negligence, not bad faith. Cf. Utah v. Strieff, 579 U.S. 232, 241–

        42 (2016).

               Perry has failed to show that Officer Miller did not preserve potentially exculpatory

        evidence in bad faith. Therefore, his due-process argument fails.

               D.     Sufficiency of the Evidence

               Next, Perry asserts that the evidence supporting his convictions was insufficient. In

        reviewing the sufficiency of the evidence, we ask “whether, after viewing the evidence in

        the light most favorable to the prosecution, any rational trier of fact could have found the

        essential elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt.” Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S.

        307, 319 (1979). We conclude here that there was substantial evidence supporting every

        charge and thus sustain the verdicts.

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               For the firearm charge, the officers witnessed Perry “reaching down in the passenger

        seat” just feet from where two firearms were eventually found. And McCarr testified that

        Perry owned both guns. She also testified that, earlier that day, Perry had pointed one of

        those guns at her and threatened to kill her. That evidence, plus the photos of Perry holding

        the firearms and his text messages discussing the location of the firearms before they were

        found, is sufficient for a reasonable jury to find Perry guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

               For the witness-tampering and obstruction charges, recorded phone calls document

        Perry telling McCarr to avoid legal process, to change her testimony, and to simply not

        show up to proceedings after being subpoenaed. Perry argues that those recordings only

        show that he was trying to convince McCarr to tell the “truth.” Opening Br. at 47. Perhaps

        a jury could have agreed. But it is unclear why someone encouraging a witness to tell the

        truth would then tell the witness to avoid process and ignore a subpoena. And the jury was

        not required to accept what Perry called the “truth” as the actual truth, especially in light

        of McCarr’s testimony that Perry’s version was simply “not the truth.” J.A. 1144. So that

        evidence was enough to sustain his convictions, too.

               Finally, for the drug charge, Perry argues that the police lacked a chain of custody

        regarding the marijuana found during the search incident to arrest after the traffic stop.

        This objection was not raised at trial and is therefore reviewed for plain error. See United

        States v. Collins, 982 F.3d 236, 241 (4th Cir. 2020). To establish plain error, Perry “must

        show that an error (1) was made, (2) is plain (i.e., clear or obvious), and (3) affects

        substantial rights.” United States v. Lynn, 592 F.3d 572, 577 (4th Cir. 2010). And even if

        he makes this showing, we may only correct the error if it “seriously affects the fairness,

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        integrity[,] or public reputation of judicial proceedings.” Id. at 577 (quoting United States

        v. Massenburg, 564 F.3d 337, 343 (4th Cir. 2009)).

               Though Perry doesn’t say so explicitly, his argument is essentially an authentication

        challenge. That is, absent a chain of custody, Perry argues that a reasonable jury could not

        find beyond a reasonable doubt that the drugs admitted were the drugs found on his person

        during the search incident to arrest. That would force, he contends, the district court to

        exclude the evidence under Federal Rule of Evidence 901. See Fed. R. Evid. 901(a) (“To

        satisfy the requirement of authenticating or identifying an item of evidence, the proponent

        must produce evidence sufficient to support a finding that the item is what the proponent

        claims it is.”).

               Even if the prosecution did fail to establish a perfect chain of custody, which we

        need not decide, the district court did not plainly err in admitting the drugs. A chain of

        custody is not necessary for authentication under Rule 901. As we have repeatedly held,

        “[t]he ‘chain of custody’ rule is but a variation of the principle that real evidence must be

        authenticated prior to its admission into evidence.” United States v. Howard-Arias, 679

        F.2d 363, 366 (4th Cir. 1982); see Fed. R. Evid. 901(a). It is not an “iron-clad requirement”

        but permits the admission of evidence, even with a “missing link,” where “the

        authentication testimony was sufficiently complete so as to convince the court that it is

        improbable that the original item had been exchanged with another or otherwise tampered

        with.” Howard-Arias, 679 F.2d at 366 (citation omitted). As long as the prosecution can

        establish to the satisfaction of the district court “that the item to be introduced, i.e.,

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        marijuana, is what it purports to be, i.e., marijuana seized from the [defendant],” there can

        be no Rule 901 or chain of custody objections. Id.

               Here, the district court did not plainly err by admitting the drugs because ample

        evidence showed that the marijuana admitted at trial “[was] what it purport[ed] to be”—

        the marijuana seized from Perry. First, Officer Miller testified that the marijuana submitted

        at trial was the same “weed that was found” during the “search incident to arrest.” J.A.

        963. And second, Arthur Christy, a forensic scientist for the Virginia Department of

        Forensic Science, testified that the drugs submitted at trial were those marked with “the

        unique forensic science laboratory number for this case.” J.A. 1045.

               Because the district court did not plainly err in concluding that the marijuana

        admitted at trial was what it purported to be, we are left with the baseline question of

        whether the evidence submitted at trial was sufficient to support a conviction. The answer

        is yes. Along with the drugs themselves, the government presented to the jury Perry’s own

        statements admitting that Miller found “weed” on him. J.A. 963. Though Perry now argues

        that his contemporaneous admission regarding the “weed” is different from admitting to

        possession of marijuana, that argument defies reality. Cf. Weed, Merriam-Webster’s

        Collegiate Dictionary 1418 (11th ed. 2020). In light of that evidence, a rational trier of fact

        could conclude that Perry was guilty of the possession charge.

               Because the government presented sufficient evidence for every crime charged, the

        district court did not err in refusing to grant a judgment of acquittal.

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               E.     Double Jeopardy

               Perry next argues that his obstruction and witness-tampering convictions violated

        the prohibition against placing a defendant in double jeopardy. But Perry did not lodge

        this objection below; we thus review it for plain error. Collins, 982 F.3d at 241.

               The Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment states that “[n]o person shall

        . . . be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.” U.S. Const.

        amend. V. This normally prevents multiple prosecutions for one offense, but the Supreme

        Court has interpreted the clause to also protect against “multiple punishments” for one

        offense. Jones v. Thomas, 491 U.S. 376, 381 (1989). Perry essentially argues that his

        obstruction and witness-tampering charges are the same offense and that he has thus faced

        multiple punishments.

               But, contrary to Perry’s claim, the fact that one act might lead to multiple charges

        does not itself violate the Double Jeopardy Clause. See Blockburger v. United States, 284

        U.S. 299, 304 (1932) (“The applicable rule is that, where the same act or transaction

        constitutes a violation of two distinct statutory provisions, the test to be applied to

        determine whether there are two offenses or only one, is whether each provision requires

        proof of a fact which the other does not.” (emphasis added)). Instead, “[w]hen a single

        course of conduct violates multiple statutes, multiple punishments may be imposed without

        violating the Double Jeopardy Clause, if that is what Congress intended.” United States v.

        Chandia, 514 F.3d 365, 372 (4th Cir. 2008). And we will presume that Congress intended

        multiple punishments when “the elements of each criminal statute ‘do not overlap.’”

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        United States v. Martin, 523 F.3d 281, 291 (4th Cir. 2008) (quoting United States v. Terry,

        86 F.3d 353, 356 (4th Cir. 1996)).

               Here, none of the relevant offenses involve completely overlapping elements.

        Count Two required the government to show that Perry intended “to influence, delay, or

        prevent the testimony of Beatrice McCarr in an official proceeding or to cause or induce

        her to withhold testimony.” J.A. 1294. Count Three required the government to show that

        Perry intended “to cause or induce Beatrice McCarr to evade legal process summoning her

        to appear in an official federal proceeding.” J.A. 1298–99. Count Four required the

        government to show that Perry intended “to cause or induce Beatrice McCarr to be absent

        from an official federal proceeding to which she had been summoned by legal process.”

        J.A. 1302. And Count Five required the government to show that Perry intentionally

        “obstructed, influenced, or impeded an official federal proceeding, or attempted to do so.”

        J.A. 1306.

               Without definitively deciding whether overlap might exist, 6 we cannot conclude that

        any potential error was “plain.” Perry must show the error was “clear under current law.”

        United States v. Olano, 507 U.S. 725, 734 (1993). And no authority from either the

        Supreme Court or this Court says that. In fact, we have held, in at least one unpublished

        case, that there is no double-jeopardy issue when a person is convicted of witness

               6
                 The three tampering charges seem to have an element that is not present in the
        others: Count Two required influencing, delaying, or preventing testimony, § 1512(b)(1);
        Count Three required causing the evasion of legal process, § 1512(b)(2)(C); Count Four
        required causing a person to be absent despite legal process having already been served,
        § 1512(b)(2)(D); and Count Five required corruptly obstructing, influencing, or impeding
        an official proceeding, § 1512(c)(2).
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        tampering under § 1512 and obstruction under § 1503 (an admittedly different statute than

        here). See United States v. Neal, 458 F. App’x 246, 248–49 (4th Cir. 2011) (unpublished).

        Without more definitive caselaw, we cannot conclude that any double-jeopardy error, if

        there was one, was plain.

               F.      Ineffective Assistance of Counsel

               Perry also alleges that his counsel was constitutionally ineffective. The Sixth

        Amendment right to counsel protects a criminal defendant’s right to the “reasonably

        effective assistance” of counsel. Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668, 687 (1984). But

        “[c]laims of ineffective assistance of counsel may be raised on direct appeal only where

        the record conclusively establishes ineffective assistance.” United States v. Baptiste, 596

        F.3d 214, 216 n.1 (4th Cir. 2010). Perry’s sole argument for ineffective assistance is that

        his lawyer had what Perry describes as a conflict of interest. True, a conflict of interest

        can support a claim of ineffective assistance of counsel. Mickens v. Taylor, 535 U.S. 162,

        174 (2002). But to establish ineffective assistance in a case alleging a conflict of interest

        where no objection was raised at trial, Perry must show that his lawyer had “an actual

        conflict of interest” that “adversely affected his lawyer’s performance.” Cuyler v. Sullivan,

        446 U.S. 335, 348 (1980).

               “Conflict of interest,” however, is not some catch-all term that encapsulates any

        friction in the attorney-client relationship. Rather, it is a term of art, requiring the defendant

        to show that the lawyer “actively represented conflicting interests,” Woodfolk v. Maynard,

        857 F.3d 531, 553 (4th Cir. 2017) (quoting Cuyler, 446 U.S. at 350), beyond “a mere

        theoretical division of loyalties.” Mickens, 535 U.S. at 171. And absent a showing that

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        “counsel protested his inability simultaneously to represent” conflicting interests, the

        defendant must also show that “the conflict of interest adversely affected his counsel’s

        performance.” Id. at 173–74.

               Perry fails to make this showing. He has not identified any other interest that his

        lawyer was representing during his trial. All he offers are unsupported and conclusory

        allegations that his lawyer could not adequately represent him because of Perry’s own

        disrespectful and threatening treatment of the lawyer in a prior proceeding. 7 Yet Perry

        does not explain how this amounts to a legal “conflict of interest.” Nor does he even

        address how the alleged conflict adversely affected his counsel’s performance. Therefore,

        because his trial counsel’s ineffective assistance is not conclusively established by the

        record, Perry has not established reversible error.

               G.     The Sentence

               Finally, Perry argues that his sentence was substantively unreasonable. We review

        such claims for an abuse of discretion. United States v. White, 850 F.3d 667, 674 (4th Cir.

        2017). Importantly, Perry concedes that his sentence was within the Sentencing Guidelines

        range. “A within-Guidelines range sentence is presumptively reasonable.” Id. Thus, we

        must affirm unless Perry “raises any arguments that would rebut the presumption.” United

        States v. Susi, 674 F.3d 278, 290 (4th Cir. 2012).

               7
                 Additionally, “[t]he district court is not compelled to substitute counsel when the
        defendant’s own behavior creates a conflict.” United States v. Morsley, 64 F.3d 907, 918
        (4th Cir. 1995).
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               In attempting to rebut that presumption, Perry primarily argues that it is

        unreasonable to impose a sentence of 210 months when Perry was initially charged with a

        crime carrying a maximum penalty of 120 months. He maintains that the “facts of the case

        remain the same.” Opening Br. at 54. But this ignores the pervasive pattern of witness

        tampering and obstruction between the December 18 traffic stop and trial. Those were the

        “additional charges” Perry implies were added simply as a method to “punish[]” Perry for

        “exercis[ing] his constitutional right to trial.” Id. But imposing a greater punishment on a

        defendant who committed more crimes is not unreasonable.

               Perry also argues that his “difficult life” warrants lenient punishment. Opening Br.

        at 55. The district court considered that argument and rejected it in light of Perry’s

        recidivistic criminal history. That the district court did not grant Perry’s background the

        sort of weight Perry would have liked does not establish an abuse of discretion. See Susi,

        674 F.3d at 290.

               Since Perry has shown nothing that amounts to an abuse of discretion, we affirm his

        sentence.

                                       *             *             *

               On appeal, Perry argues that his Fourth Amendment, Fifth Amendment, Sixth

        Amendment, and due-process rights were all violated. But we conclude that no such

        violations occurred. Thus, we find no reversible error, and the district court’s judgment is

                                                                                      AFFIRMED.

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