Court Opinion

ID: 9790605
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-31 01:55:53.902835+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T07:37:30.521029
License: Public Domain

ON THE MERITS
*309James K. Buell, Portland, argued the cause for appellants. With him on the briefs were H. H. Phillips and Phillips, Coughlin, Buell & Phillips, Portland.
Roger L. Dick, The Dalles, argued the cause for respondent. On the brief were Dick & Dick, The Dalles.
Before McAllister, Chief Justice, and Bossman, Perry, Sloan, O’Connell, Goodwin and Denecke, Justices.
O’CONNELL, J.
This is an action to recover $100,000 under a certificate of accidental death insurance issued by the defendants. The insured died of a gunshot wound. Defendants appeal from a judgment entered on a verdict for plaintiff, the executor of the insured.
The issue at trial was whether the insured, Marion Mark Powell, died as a result of accidental bodily injury or as a result of suicide. Defendants’ principal *310contention on appeal is that there was not sufficient evidence to support a verdict of accidental death and that, therefore, the court erred in denying their motion for a directed verdict.
We are of the opinion that the evidence supporting plaintiff’s theory of the case was sufficient to justify submitting the case to the jury.
Powell, the insured, was a resident of Moro, Sherman County, Oregon, where he owned and operated a large wheat ranch. He was 49 years of age at the time of his death. He died as a result of a head wound inflicted by the discharge of a 30.06 Remington rifle while he was alone in a spare sleeping room in the basement of his home. The evidence showed that the bullet first penetrated the lower lip, blew away a part of the hard palate just behind the upper front teeth, proceeded through the left maxillary bone, the left eye, the tip of the frontal lobe of the brain and finally out through the upper part of the forehead. There was evidence of the path of the bullet on a portion of the bedstead and on the cement wall directly behind the head of the bed. When Powell’s wife found him he was on his back in bed. The rifle was leaning against the bed with the muzzle resting on the floor.
Defendants’ contention is summarized in the following statement taken from their brief:
“The undisputed physical facts proved by plaintiff show that Mr. Powell was flat on his back in bed with the rifle muzzle against or in his mouth at the time the gun was fired; that the path of the bullet was parallel to the body, through the roof of the mouth, out through the left eye, into the temple, out of the skull, ticking the vertical metal strut in the head of the bed and into the cement wall parallel to his body and directly in line with *311the position of his head on the bed. These undisputed physical facts overcome the presumption against suicide as a matter of law. How else could it have happened?”
Plaintiff points to the following circumstances which could explain to the jury’s satisfaction the wounding as an accident rather than as an attempted suicide;
(1) Mr. Stanley McDonald, a ballistics expert, testified that in his opinion Powell did not shoot himself intentionally. He drew this conclusion from the character of the wound and the absence of a visible soot pattern on Powell’s face.① He testified that tests made with Powell’s rifle showed that the muzzle end of the gun would have to be more than 12 inches away before a soot pattern would not be visible. He further testified that if the muzzle of the gun had been in Powell’s mouth at the time of discharge the explosive force of the expanding gas would have “entirely blown *312off” a large portion of Powell’s head. According to McDonald’s analysis of the situation, considering the character of the wound and the absence of a soot pattern, the length of the rifle barrel, the length of Powell’s arm, and other measurements, the only way Powell could have intentionally shot himself would have been by the use of a mechanical device such as a stick or string attached to activate the trigger. There was no evidence of any instrumentality of this kind in the room in which Powell was found.
(2) Although defendants assume that Powell was on his back in bed when the gun went off, plaintiff argues that the wound could have been inflicted while Powell was sitting on the bed with his feet on the floor or in some other position. In fact, since Powell was still living after he was wounded, it is possible that he could have been wounded while he was in a part of the room some distance from the bed and that he found his way to the bed after being wounded. However, this possibility is remote because the marks made by the bullet show that it passed in a trajectory nearly horizontal to the bed which would indicate quite clearly that Powell was on his back or in a prone position when struck by the bullet. But even if it is assumed that Powell was in the position described by defendants, plaintiff would still be entitled to get to the jury if it is not irrational to assume that Powell could have been in such a position while handling the rifle for some purpose other than killing himself, i.e., for the purpose of cleaning it, adjusting some part of the mechanism or the like. Gun accidents happen in all kinds of unusual circumstances. It does not seem reasonable to say that simply because Powell may have been stretched out in bed with a gun that no *313reasonable jury conld conclude that he could have had any object in mind other than the taking of his own life.
(3) When Powell was found he was clutching a cigarette lighter in his right hand. He was right handed. If defendants’ version of the facts is accepted, this appears to be a one-handed suicide, or at best a clumsy two-handed one. The jury could have believed that one bent on suicide would have gone about it with a little more efficiency. It would have been inconvenient, it would seem, for Powell to get the barrel of the gun up to his mouth and pull the trigger while one hand was occupied with a cigarette lighter. He could have pressed the trigger or held the gun barrel with his right hand even with the cigarette lighter in it or he could have activated the trigger with his toe. It seems more likely, however, that if Powell had decided to take his own life he would have done it in a less complicated manner. At least the jury could have so concluded.
(4) There was evidence that the rifle involved in this case had gone off accidentally on another occasion. A witness who had been on a hunting trip with Powell testified as follows:
“* * * He and I went hunting in his new pickup on my ranch. * * * [H]e had two clips, and one of them had no shells in it, and the other had shells; and he put the clip in with no shells, and the gun refused to unlock or do anything. He took it out from the pickup — in fact we had spotted some deer. He was about to shoot and discovered he couldn’t. He took it out of the pickup and he couldn’t unlock it. He beat it up and down with the butt on the ground, and to get the clip out he had to put it over the bumper of the pickup and force that latch. Well, a couple of hours later we *314run across another hunch of deer. We lost that bunch; and he had always put that gun in the pickup on the floor this way (indicating), and I didn’t like that pointing at me, so I asked him to put it in pointing the other way. We ran across another bunch of deer, and I stopped the pickup. I was driving, and he went to jump out and the damned— the gun went off as he was getting out the door and I didn’t exactly see if it was in his hand yet •or if he was still pulling it, because I was watching the deer. It happened right here.
“Q Where was he when the gun went off?
“A He was just getting out the door, either that or on the ground, I am not sure which, I was astounded at the gun going off so quick. It was an accidental firing and he swore at the gun and says, ‘The damned thing could hurt somebody.’ ”
It is not impossible that on the day Powell was wounded he made a similar effort to remedy some defect in the rifle and in doing so caused it to fire. A witness testified that Powell frequently did not unload his gun when he brought it home after hunting.
(5) The jury could justifiably have made something of the fact that the gun was leaning against the bed and was not on it (as it might well have been if it was held in line with Powell’s body when discharged). Similarly, Powell’s glasses and dentures were found on the floor rather than on the bed which could suggest that Powell may not have been in the position described by defendants.
(6) There was evidence negating a motive for suicide. The jury could have concluded from the evidence that Powell was in good financial condition, healthy, in good spirits, not unhappily married, not moody or morose, and generally interested in the day to day affairs of life.
*315 The foregoing summary presents a view of the evidence most favorable to plaintiff. This is not to suggest that there was not evidence tending to support defendants’ position.② However, plaintiff is entitled to our evaluation of the facts in a light most favorable to its contention.③ "We hold that when the evidence is so viewed there was sufficient evidence to support the jury’s conclusion that Powell’s death resulted from an accidental injury.
The defendants’ fifth assignment of error attacks the following instruction to which exception was duly taken:
“I instruct you that the law never presumes that one accused of committing a suicide is guilty thereof. The presumption is against suicide. It is presumed that a person accused of doing a wrongful act is innocent of such accusation. Such a presumption is the equivalent of evidence and the plaintiff is entitled to its benefit throughout the trial of this case and throughout your deliberations on the facts until such time, if ever, as sufficient evidence may satisfy your minds to the contrary. It is therefore presumed that the gunshot wounds received by the deceased Marion M. Powell were the result of an accident and were not intentionally self-inflicted. If you find that the gunshot wounds caused the death of Marion Powell then, unless the presumption against suicide has been overcome by *316sufficient evidence to satisfy you, it is presumed that Marion M. Powell’s death was the result of an accidental bodily injury and was not the result of suicide. Generally, if you find that Powell’s injury and death were accidental, plaintiff is entitled to recover. If you find that Powell intentionally shot himself, resulting in his death, the defendant should recover.”
Defendants contend that it was erroneous to state that it is “presumed” that the gunshot wounds “were the result of an accident and were not intentionally inflicted.” It is argued that this instruction gives recognition to a presumption of accidental death and that there is no such presumption. There is a presumption against suicide, it is conceded, but this presumption, defendants argue, does not “breed another presumption that the death was accidental.” Although the presumption against suicide cannot, in every case, be stated in terms of a presumption of accidental death,④ we are unable to see any difference in the manner of expressing the presumption (i.e., in terms of accident or suicide) if the sole issue is, as it was in the present case, whether death resulted from accident or suicide. We find no error in this part of the instruction.
It is further argued that the reference in the in*317struction to a presumption of accidental death had the effect of shifting the burden of proof to defendants. This criticism has prompted us to re-examine the character of the presumption against suicide and the manner in which the jury is to be instructed with respect to it. In Wyckoff v. Mutual Life Insurance Co. of New York, 173 Or 592, 147 P2d 227 (1944) we held that although the presumption against suicide is not evidence in the strict sense, it -has “evidentiary value” and an instruction revealing the evidentiary quality of the presumption must be given.
As Professor Morgan has pointed out in his comment in 23 Or L Rev 269, 272 (1944) on Wyckoff v. Mutual Life Insurance Co., supra, strictly speaking a presumption itself is not evidence. However, the facts upon which a presumption is based may be treated as evidence. The instruction commonly given in Oregon referring to a presumption as evidence may be justified as an elliptical way of saying that the facts upon which the presumption is based are to be treated as evidence. However, unless the instructions go on and explain the basis for the presumption, the jury is not likely to understand the ellipsis. We shall point out later how this explanation should be made to the jury.
The presumption against suicide is a presumption based upon a “fact” that has probative value. The “fact” is not formally adduced as evidence, but is derived from the generally accepted assumption, judicially noticed, that there is a human revulsion against suicide. From this psychological fact it is assumed that when a violent death is shown to have occurred and the evidence does not establish the cause of death as suicide or accident, it is more probable than not *318that death resulted from an accident. Stated statistically, it is assumed that of all the violent deaths which occur the greater number result from accidents rather than suicide.
 The jury should be informed that it is entitled to use this generality as a basis for reasoning that, since there is a normal human revulsion against suicide generally, the deceased in the particular case before it also experienced the revulsion and, therefore, did not take his own life. The jury should be told that the presumption expresses a generality only, i.e., that humans do not ordinarily take their own lives. The presumption does not purport to describe the state of mind of all persons in every circumstance. In the particular case before it the jury is free to conclude from the evidence adduced that the deceased overcame the normal revulsion against suicide.
There is a preliminary question of whether we should even recognize the existence of a presumption against suicide in the present case. In his dissent Mr. Justice Goodwin questions the validity of a so-called presumption against suicide. This criticism of the presumption against suicide, at least as applied to cases of death by gunshot wounds, has been expressed elsewhere, including the article by White, Presumptions in Violent Death Cases or Quo Vadis Presumption?, 15 U Miami L Rev 1 (1960) relied upon by the dissent.⑤ The critics of the presumption rely upon statistics showing that a majority of deaths resulting from gunshot wounds not inflicted by third persons *319are motivated by stdcide.⑥ On the basis of these statistics it is contended that a presumption against suicide should not be recognized where death occurs under ^uch circumstances.⑦
The suggestion that the presumption against suicide be abolished in these circumstances does not appeal to us. Assuming that the statistics accurately represent the percentages of death by accident and suicide, it will seldom be clear where a particular case falls within the fact-grouping upon which the statistics are based. Where death results from wounds not inflicted by another person, the circumstances may vary considerably as to the place, motive, and other indicia, sometimes pointing to suicide and sometimes pointing to accident. If the facts point more strongly to accident than suicide, certainly there is no reason why the plaintiff should not be entitled to have the benefit of the presumption simply because the case falls generally into the category constituting the basis for the statistics. The trial judge, and eventually the appellate court, would be confronted with the task of deciding in each case whether or not the facts justified *320the recognition of the presumption. It is preferable to recognize the presumption, informing the jury that it is merely a broad generalization as to human reaction to suicide, and permit the opponent to weaken or destroy the inference by showing that in the facts of the particular case the evidence points the other way.⑧
Those who would reject the presumption against suicide in the case of self-inflicted gunshot wounds rely upon statistics taken from the public records. It is quite probable that one could rummage through other records and find data running counter to many other presumptions based upon a general probability. When are we permitted to assume that these statistics are trustworthy? Obviously the statistics represent purely hearsay statements. Moreover, the raw statistics do not tell us what data was used in making the tabulation separating eases of suicide from cases of accident. This court is divided on the question of whether there is evidence to support a verdict of suicide in the present case. How does the Board of Health classify the present case? It could be classified either way, depending upon whether one accepts the view *321taken by the jury or the view taken by the dissent in this case. Until the matter is fully adjudicated the case must be placed in a third category of unclassified cases. But the public statistics make only two classifications which do not reveal how the doubtful cases are resolved for the purposes of the classification.⑨ It is our conclusion that the presumption against suicide is applicable to the facts of the present case and that the jury should be made aware of the existence of the presumption.⑩
We turn, then, to a consideration of defendant’s contention that the instruction as to the effect of the presumption constituted error. The trial court first instructed the jury that “The plaintiff has the burden throughout this case of proving this accidental injury by a preponderance — or a greater weight — of the evidence.” Thereafter, the instruction relating to the presumption against suicide, set out above, was given. The latter instruction is in the form endorsed in the *322Wyckoff case. Attention is called to the part of the instruction which states that “unless the presumption against suicide has been overcome by sufficient evidence to satisfy you, it is presumed that Marion M. Powell’s death was the result of an accidental * * * injury and was not the result of suicide.” This is tantamount to saying that the defendant has the burden of proof, on the issue of suicide or accident, which, of course, would contradict the previous instruction to the effect that plaintiff has the burden of proving death by accident. The contradiction in this manner of instructing the jury is pointed out by Professor Morgan in his comment in 23 Or L Rev 269, 273 (1944) on the Wyckoff case. There he states:
“* * # [T]he court, both majority and minority, approves the instruction of the trial judge that the burden of proof that decedent met his death by accident, not by suicide, is upon plaintiff. It is generally, if not universally, agreed that to instruct a trier that a party has the burden of proving a fact is to direct the trier to find the nonexistence of that fact if his mind is in equilibrium, that is, unless he is convinced that its existence is more probable than its nonexistence. Therefore the court, including Mr. Justice Belt, would have the jury instructed in effect that they must find that the insured committed suicide unless they are convinced that it is more probable that his death was caused by accidental means than by his intentional act. At the same time Mr. Justice Belt would have them instructed in plain and simple language that, unless their minds are satisfied by the evidence that the insured committed suicide, they must find that the insured drowned by accident. By what mental gymnastics could a jury or any other trier of fact obey both these instructions? Where the existence of the presumed fact is made an issue by the pleadings in a case, to say that a party has the burden of *323satisfying the minds of the jury that the presumed fact does not exist is to say that the party has the burden of persuasion on that issue. It can mean nothing else.”
Professor Morgan concludes that the Wyckoff case demonstrates again “the impossibility of a rational interpretation of a rule which purports to make a presumption evidence, which requires it to persist until the mind of the trier has been satisfied of the nonexistence of the presumed fact by evidence, and which is held not to affect the burden of persuasion.”
We believe that this criticism of the form of instruction approved in the Wyckoff case is sound. The same criticism is applicable to the form of instruction given in some of our previous oases.⑪ In our previous cases we have recognized that in an action brought on the double indemnity provisions of an insurance policy the plaintiff has the burden of proving death by accident. We reaffirm this position.⑫ Therefore, it is *324improper to instruct the jury, as was done in the present case, that “unless the presumption against suicide has been overcome by sufficient evidence to satisfy you it is presumed that * * * death was the result of an accidental bodily injury and was not the result of suicide.”
In concluding that such an instruction is improper, we have not overlooked OBS 41.360 which provides in part that disputable presumptions “may be controverted by other evidence * * * but unless so overcome, the jury is bound to find according to the presumption.” This section is susceptible to more than one interpretation. On the one hand, it may be read as applying only where no evidence opposing the presumption has been adduced and as binding the jury only under such circumstances. On this view, if there were some evidence opposing the presumption, the jury, taking into consideration all of the evidence introduced by both parties, would be free to decide either way. Were the evidence in equipoise, the jury would be bound to find for the defendant inasmuch as plaintiff would not have met his burden of proof. On the other hand, the statute may be interpreted to apply even in cases where evidence opposing the presumption has been adduced. On this view, the jury would be bound to find according to the presumption unless such opposing evidence exceeded or outweighed the presumption and thus “overcame” it. This interpretation would place the burden of proof on the person forced to meet the presumption.
We do not think that the legislature intended OBS 41.360 to have this latter meaning. As is explained in a footnote in Deady’s Code, the chapter on evidence (including what is now OBS 41.360) was “mainly con*325densed and extracted from G-reenleaf’s Treatise on the Law of Evidence” (p. 315). ORS 41.360 was very probably an attempt to state the principal expressed in section 33 of Redfield’s Edition of Greenleaf’s Treatise.⑬ In that section Greenleaf, discussing presumptions, explains that “if no opposing evidence is offered, the jury are bound to find in favor of the presumption.” (Emphasis supplied). It seems reasonable to construe ORS 41.360 to express the meaning found in the foregoing quotation from Greenleaf.
In Hansen v. Oregon-Wash. R. & N. Co., 97 Or 190, 188 P 963, 191 P 655 (1920), the word “overcome” is construed to mean equal or outweigh. Thus it is said that “when the evidence for the defendant equals and balances the evidence for the plaintiffs, the defendant has just as effectively “overcome” the evidence for the plaintiffs as though the defendant’s evidence incomparably and overwhelmingly outweighed the evidence for the plaintiffs.” (p. 224-225). We do not think that the word “overcome” as used in the instruction given in the present case would be understood by the average juror as having the meaning ascribed to it in the foregoing quotation. We believe that most jurors would understand the word “overcome” to mean “outweigh” and to regard the instruction as an admonition that a verdict must be returned for the plaintiff unless defendant established by a preponderance of the evidence that death by suicide was more probable than death by accident.
Although it was error to instruct the jury, in effect, that the presumption stands unless overcome by op*326posing evidence, defendants did not call the error to the trial court’s attention. As we have already observed, the instructions were excepted to on the ground that they improperly referred to a presumption of accident rather than a presumption against suicide. This, we have held, was not error. Defendants made no exception to the language of the instruction which we have found objectionable. Defendants did request an instruction to the effect that if the evidence was evenly balanced the verdict should be in favor of the defendants. This did not draw the trial court’s attention to the error in the instruction given and in view of the fact that the court had instructed the jury as to plaintiff’s burden of proof, the requested instruction would be unnecessary but for the confusion created by the instruction relating to the effect of the presumption. Since the defect in the instruction was not brought to the trial court’s attention, we shall not regard it as reversible error.
Nothing that we have said should be taken to mean that the jury should not be instructed on the effect of the presumption against suicide. We hold only that the instruction should not describe the presumption as standing until the jury is satisfied that it has been overcome by evidence to the contrary. The jury should be told that there is a presumption against suicide. The basis for the presumption should be explained, i.e., the normal human revulsion against taking one’s own life. It would be proper to explain to the jury that it may infer that because people normally do not take their own lives because of this instinct for self-preservation, the deceased did not take his own life in the case before it. The jury should be told that the improbability of suicide is to be treated as any other *327evidentiary fact and that the presumption does not endow the fact upon which it is based with any special value for evidentiary purposes. As stated in Jefferson Standard Life Ins. Co. v. Clemmer, 79 F2d 724, 731 (4th Cir 1935), “the jury should be permitted to give the inference such weight as it deems best, undisturbed by the thought that the inference has some sort of artificial probative force which must influence their deliberation.” The court goes on to say:
“* * * Likewise as to the opposing evidence, the jury should be instructed to weigh its credibility and effect in the usual way, and finally, upon the whole evidence, to determine whether death by accident has occurred, bearing in mind that if the evidence leaves their minds in such doubt that they are unable to decide the point, the verdict should be against the party upon whom the burden of persuasion rests. Such a charge can be easily understood and enables the jury to do justice to both sides.”
The evil to be avoided is couching the instruction in language suggesting that the presumption stands unless overcome by evidence sufficient to satisfy the jury to the contrary, because an instruction in that form places the burden of proof on the defendant.
Defendants contend that error was committed in sustaining plaintiff’s objection to an offer of proof in which Dr. Shanklin, a psychiatrist, expressed his opinion with respect to the emotional state of persons prior to committing suicide. The evidence developed by plaintiff tended to show that Powell was a person well adjusted to his surroundings; that he was happy and with no apparent reason for committing suicide. The offer of proof purported to show that suicides some*328times occur when a person is not despondent. Dr. Shanklin testified as follows:
“They [suicides] don’t necessarily occur in the depths of despondency. Speaking generally, in other levels of retardation you will see your great peak of suicides as the improvement begins. This is the pattern, so that the behavior the day before or week before, even though it is quite jolly and socially correct, appropriate in all respects, — this is of no moment in deciding whether or not this particular act was suicide or accident.”
If this is a statement simply that some people commit suicide even though immediately preceding it they manifest a jolly spirit and correct social attitude, the testimony does not inform the members of the jury of anything they would not already know from their general observation. If the witness was purporting to tell the jury that in certain cases in which a person’s condition is improving there is a pattern of suicide in spite of an outward appearance of jollity, the statement is too vague and not sufficiently related to Powell’s condition.
This court is unable to discern from testimony what scientific phenomenon the witness was attempting to describe or how it relates to the particular death in this case, and we do not think the jury was in any better position to do so. The trial court refused to accept the offer of proof on the ground that it dealt with a matter within the province of the jury and that it was “too speculative.” Apparently the trial court interpreted the testimony as we do. We hold that there was no abuse of discretion in rejecting the offer of proof.
The judgment is affirmed.

 Dr. Skirving, who attended Powell immediately after the shooting, testified as follows:
“Q Did you look to determine whether there was a soot pattern on the face of Mr. Powell?
“A We did, and we looked specifically, because at first we thought it would be obvious, and when we didn’t find any we looked very carefully, as we were curious, and there was none any place that we could determine, any powder bums or soot pattern.”
On cross-examination he testified:
“Q Doctor, you have already mentioned that you did not find any soot pattern, although you carefully looked. Did you find any flash bum?
“A There was none evidenced. By that I assume you intend to mean the searing by the flash itself?
“Q Yes; and you did not find that?
“A I did not find any.
“Q Did you look?
“A I certainly did.”

 There was evidence, for example, tending to establish the following: That the front sight of the gun contained bits of Powell’s nasal hair; that Powell’s dentures and glasses contained traces of nitrates; that the 30.06 Remington rifle was not the rifle which had misfired on the previous occasion; that the 30.06 Remington rifle was, in fact, in sound, safe mechanical condition; that Powell had experienced marital difficulties, although not recently; that disease may have worked subtle, but incurable, changes in his personality and emotional control.

 Copenhagen, Inc. v. Kramer et ux, 224 Or 535, 356 P2d 1064 (1960).

 See Anno., 12 ALR2d 1264, 1269 (1950), where the conditions precedent to the existence of an affirmative presumption of accidental death are set forth. See also, Pan-American Life Ins. Co. v. American Industrial Inv. Co., 207 SW2d 173 (Tex Civ App 1947), holding that no affirmative presumption arises where the policy provides that plaintiff must establish that the death of the insured was caused by external, violent and accidental means, except in instances where the defense is suicide. Compare Seater v. Penn. Mut. Life Ins. Co., 176 Or 542, 571-76, 156 P2d 386, 159 P2d 826 (1945), holding that no affirmative presumption of accidental death exists where evidence indicates probability that physical or mental ailments caused death.

 See also Hartman, The Presumption. Against Suicide as Applied in Insurance Cases, 19 Marq L Rev 20 (1934); Breyfogle and Richardson, Problems of Proof in Distinguishing Suicide From Accident, 56 Yale L J 482 (1947).

 E.g., Statistics taken from the public records of the Vital Statistics Section of the Oregon State Board of Health show that in 1962, of 157 firearm deaths (excluding homicides), 127 were attributable to suicides. In 1961, there were 110 suicides out of 132 firearm deaths; in 1960 the proportion was 129 out of 147.

 On this reasoning the presumption would be discarded in any factual situation where statistics would establish a probability of suicide (e.g., death as a result of carbon monoxide gas poisoning, etc.). And the reasoning would carry us still further and require us to carve out of all presumptions which are based upon probability the factual groupings where statistics judicially noticed run counter to the probability upon which the presumption is based. Moreover, consistency would require the recognition of a presumption in accord with the probability revealed by the statistics. Thus in the present case the jury should be informed that there is a presumption of suicide rather than a presumption against it.

 Perhaps the rules of evidence should be extended to permit the defendant to introduce statistical data showing that the probability of suicide is greater where death results from wounds imposed by an instrumentality in the insured’s own hands. If it can be argued that such statistics may be relied upon to abolish the presumption (thus used by the court as “legislative” facts), it is at least equally arguable that they should be admissible as evidentiary facts. So used, they would permit the jury rather than the court to destroy the presumption by applying the statistical probability rather than the general probability derived from all cases of violent death. Cf. Joseph v. W. H. Groves Latter-Day Saints Hospital, 10 TJtah2d 94, 348 P2d 935 (1960) (statistical evidence held to prevent inference of negligence from arising); Note, The Use of Expert Evidence in Res Ipsa Loquitur Cases, 106 U Pa L Rev 731 (1958).

 It may be assumed that in many cases classified by the Board of Health the cause of death could be quite clearly established either as accidental or suicidal. Thus in one case a suicide note is found; in another the circumstances clearly show some mishap causing the death. How can a tabulation of such occurrences, based upon evidence clearly showing the cause of death, be helpful in cases such as the present where there is no comparable evidence? If, out of 100 cases classified as suicide, there were 75 oases in which a suicide note was left, the tabulation would mean little or nothing in a case such as we have here where no note or any other indicia clearly points to suicide. Similarly, were it shown that a significant proportion of the listed suicides occurred while a gun barrel was within the decedent’s mouth, the statistics would be of small importance here where the bullet entered through the decedent’s lower lip.

 Mr. Justice Goodwin, although rejecting the presumption against suicide, states that he would have no objection to a jury being instructed as the majority says it should have been instructed. It is difficult to see how any instruction could be given on the meaning of the presumption if the presumption itself is to be rejected.

 E.g., Stage v. St. Pierre, 224 Or 395, 400, 356 P2d 432 (1960) (presumption against negligence); Freytag v. Vitas, 213 Or 462, 467, 326 P2d 110 (1958) (presumption that a thing once proved to exist continues as long as is usual with things of that nature); Fowler v. Courtemanche et al, 202 Or 413, 453-54, 274 P2d 258 (1954) (presumption that a person is innocent of wrong). Semble, Dimitroff v. State Ind. Acc. Com., 209 Or 316, 306 P2d 398 (1957) (presumption that official duty has been regularly performed); State v. Robinson, 120 Or 508, 252 P 951 (1927) (presumption of intent to defraud and of knowledge of insufficient funds).

 We recognize that a contrary view has been expressed. Thus in McCormick, Evidence, pp. 671-672 (1954) it is argued that presumptions “having a substantial backing of probability” (which, we assume, would include the presumption against suicide) should have the effect of shifting the burden of proof to the party against whom it operates. This view is also adopted by Morgan, Presumptions and Burden of Proof, 47 Harv L Rev 59 (1933). We see no reason for giving the probability against suicide a special value as evidence nor are we able to find any policy considerations justifying the imposition of the burden of proof on the insurer.

 The Redfield Edition was published four years after the Code was enacted. It is likely that the earlier edition used in drafting the Code contained essentially the same exposition as section 33 of the Redfield Edition.