Court Opinion

ID: 9498024
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 17:06:13.471953+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:58:34.227364
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OPINION OF THE COURT
VAN ANTWERPEN, Circuit Judge.1
This en banc court is presented with two cases consolidated on appeal. In the first case, Herbert Bendolph appeals from an order of the District Court which dismissed his motion to vacate, set aside, or correct a sentence under 28 U.S.C. § 2255 (“ § 2255 motion”) as untimely. In the second case, Julio Otero appeals from an order of the District Court denying him appointed counsel for an ineffectiveness of counsel evidentiary hearing held pursuant to his § 2255 motion. The District Courts had jurisdiction over these matters pursuant to 28 U.S.C. §§ 1381 and 2255. Our jurisdiction arises under 28 U.S.C. §§ 1291 and 2255.
Both cases raise issues concerning whether, under the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (“AEDPA”), courts may raise the timeliness of § 2255 motions sua sponte, and, if so, under what circumstances. Neither case falls within the summary dismissal period of Rule 4 of the Rules Governing Section 2255 Cases for the United States District Courts (“Rule 4 period”) because in both cases the government has filed answers that did not raise the AEDPA statute of limitations as a defense.
We asked the parties and amici2 to brief four main issues. First, may the gov*158ernment waive the AEDPA statute of limitations as a defense? Second, may a district court raise it sua sponte? Third, if so, at what stages in a habeas case may á district court raise the limitations issue? Fourth, may a district court still raise the issue even if the government concedes waiver?
For the reasons discussed herein, we answer the first, second, and fourth issues in the affirmative. As to the third, we answer by concluding that (i) during the Rule 4 period, after giving notice and an opportunity to respond,3 courts may raise the AEDPA statute of limitations issue sua sponte without analysis of prejudice; and (ii) after the Rule 4 period has ended, courts may continue to raise the AEDPA statute of limitations issue sua sponte, but only after providing, consistent with our prior decisions in Robinson v. Johnson, 313 F.3d 128 (3d Cir.2002), and Long v. Wilson, 393 F.3d 390 (3d Cir.2004), notice, an opportunity to respond, and an analysis of prejudice. Accordingly, we will affirm the District Court’s order in Bendolph. In Otero, we will reverse and remand to the District Court, with instructions to the District Court that it has discretion to raise the AEDPA limitations issue sua sponte.
I.
The relevant facts of these cases may be summarized as follows. A jury in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware convicted Herbert Ben-dolph of being a felon in possession of a firearm. We affirmed his conviction, 116 F.3d 470, entering judgment on May 5, 1997. The Delaware Federal Defender, acting as Bendolph’s counsel, then filed a petition with the Supreme Court of the United States for a writ of ceHiorari on August 25, 1997. Under Supreme Court Rule 13.1, which requires the filing of such petitions within 90 days of judgment, Ben-dolph’s petition was untimely. The Clerk of the Supreme Court was unaware of this, however, because someone involved in the filing of the petition impermissibly altered the date of this Court’s judgment. On the copy filed with the Supreme Court, someone had typed the number “27” over the “5” in the judgment date of May 5, 1997. As a result, the Clerk of the Supreme Court mistakenly believed the petition for ceHiorari was timely.4
A year later, on October 18, 1998, Ben-dolph filed a pro se motion under 28 U.S.C. § 2255. This too was untimely: Bendolph was obligated under the AEDPA’s one-year statute of limitations to have filed his motion by August 4, 1997, one year from the date on which the 90 day period to file a petition for ceHiorari had ended. See U.S.Supr. Ct. R. 13; Kapral v. United States, 166 F.3d 565, 575, 577 (3d Cir.1999) (holding that a judgment may become “final” in the context of §§ 2254 and 2255 when “the date on which the defendant’s time for filing a timely petition for ceHio-rari review expires”).5 Two weeks after *159Bendolph filed his § 2255 motion, the District Court ordered the government to file an answer. It did so on December 17, 1998, and did not raise the AEDPA limitations defense.6 Eight months later, the District Judge retired, and the matter was reassigned to another District Judge.
One year later, on August 24, 2000,7 the District Court entered an order suggesting the case was untimely under our decision in Kapral, 166 F.3d at 575-77, given that Bendolph had not timely filed a petition for certiorari by August 4, 1997, or 90 days after our May 5, 1997 judgment. In its August 24, 2000 order, the District Court identified the reasons why the case appeared to be time-barred, invited the parties to brief the issue, and set a deadline of September 21, 2000 for Bendolph to respond to the District Court’s analysis. Bendolph filed a three-page memorandum almost two weeks before that deadline, on September 8, 2000. The government responded on October 5, 2000, agreeing with the District Court that the case was time-barred. The District Court subsequently dismissed Bendolph’s § 2255 motion as untimely on January 3, 2001. Now, on appeal, Bendolph argues the District Court lacked the authority to raise the ÁEDPA limitations period sua sponte because the government had waived the defense by not raising it in its answer.8
In the second ease, Julio Otero pled guilty to operating a continuing criminal enterprise in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 848(a). On May 27, 1998, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania sentenced him to life imprisonment.. In accordance with his plea agreement, Otero did not appeal his conviction. On June 25, 2001, Otero filed a pro se § 2255 motion challenging the validity of his sentence on several grounds, including ineffective assistance of counsel. The government filed its answer on September 17, 2001. It did not raise the AEDPA’s statute of limitations as a defense.9
The District Court initially denied all of Otero’s claims except his ineffective assistance of counsel claim, for which an evi-dentiary hearing was scheduled. The District Court did not appoint counsel to represent Otero at that hearing, and denied his claim on the merits. Otero argues on appeal that (i) the District Court erred in failing to appoint counsel for him at his evidentiary hearing, and (ii) neither the District Court nor the government may raise the AEDPA statute of limitations issue on remand because the government has waived the defense.10
*160II.
We turn first to the District Court’s decision not to provide counsel to Otero at his ineffective assistance of counsel evidentiary hearing. Rule 8(c) of the Rules Governing Section 2255 Cases requires that “[i]f an evidentiary hearing is warranted, the judge must appoint an attorney to represent a moving party who qualifies to have counsel ... [as an indigent].” The appointment of counsel is clearly mandatory for an indigent petitioner. See United States v. Iasiello, 166 F.3d 212, 213-14 (3d Cir.1999) (vacating judgment and remanding to district court where district court conducted a § 2255 evidentiary hearing without appointing counsel to indigent movant). “[H]arm to [a movant] must be presumed when his statutory right to counsel is thus abridged.” Id. at 214. The government does not dispute that, as a federal inmate since 1996, Otero is likely indigent; nor does it attempt to rebut the presumption of prejudice. Accordingly, we must reverse the District Court’s dismissal of Otero’s ineffective assistance of counsel claim. The record is unclear as to whether Otero is indigent and the -District Court should inquire as to his status. Should he qualify as indigent, he must be afforded counsel for his ineffective assistance of counsel claim.
III.
A.
We now turn to the four main issues, supra, before us in these consolidated appeals. The analysis of the AEDPA statute of limitations issue, which in these two cases involves undisputed facts, is subject to plenary review. See, e.g., Long, 393 F.3d at 396 (citing Swartz v. Meyers, 204 F.3d 417, 419 (3d Cir.2000)); see also Werts v. Vaughn, 228 F.3d 178 (3d Cir.2000).
As we observed in Long, our analysis necessarily begins with Robinson, 313 F.3d 128. Our prior discussion of that case in Long is thorough, see 393 F.3d at 396-98, and needs no further elaboration here. In Long we encapsulated Robinson ’s holdings as follows:
[F]irst ... because the statute of limitations is not jurisdictional in nature, see Miller v. New Jersey State Dep’t of Corr., 145 F.3d [616], 617-18 [ (3d Cir.1998) ], the state may waive the defense .... [W]e then considered whether Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 8(c) requires that a defendant plead ... a statute of limitations[ ] in its answer.... We explained: “Parties are generally required to assert affirmative defenses early in litigation, so ... prejudice may be avoided[ ] and judicial resources may be conserved. Habeas proceedings are no exception.” ... We further emphasized: “The purpose ... is to avoid surprise and undue prejudice by providing the plaintiff with notice and the opportunity to demonstrate why the affirmative defense should not succeed.”....
[We then] held that “a limitations defense does not necessarily have to be raised in the answerf,]” [but] must be raised “as early as practicable” thereafter.... What the earliest practicable or possible or feasible moment might be in another case ... we necessarily left open.
Long, 393 F.3d at 397-98 (quoting Robinson, 313 F.3d at 134-37). Consistent with these holdings, we then analyzed in Long a Magistrate Judge’s report and recommendation that flagged the limitations issue sua sponte. We used the analytical framework provided by Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 15(a) because the government had subsequently filed, in response, an *161“endors[ment] [of] the Magistrate Judge’s view that the habeas petition was untimely.” Long, 393 F.3d at 395. Under Rule 15(a), we articulated a standard for judging prejudice in the AEDPA statute of limitations context as follows:
[ Our prior cases including Robinson ] counsel that, whether a habeas petitioner has been prejudiced by the assertion of the AEDPA statute of limitations defense after an answer has been filed is the ultimate issue, and that prejudice turns on such factors as how late in the proceedings the defense was raised, whether the petitioner had an opportunity to respond, and whether the respondent acted in bad faith .... Delay is related to prejudice but was not a problem here, and inadvertence does not equal bad faith.
Id. at 401 (internal citations omitted). We held that Long was not prejudiced by the government’s delay in raising the limitations defense, which it had done through its express endorsement of the Magistrate Judge’s analysis of the timeliness issue. We then concluded that the District Court did not abuse its discretion by construing the government’s filing as an amendment to its answer. Id. at 401.
Addressing the Magistrate Judge’s sua sponte flagging of the limitations issue, we said:
Our answer to [this issue] was foreshadowed by Banks v. Horn, 271 F.3d 527, 533 n. 4 (3d Cir.2001), rev’d on other grounds, 536 U.S. 266, 122 S.Ct. 2147, 153 L.Ed.2d 301 (2002) .... In a footnote ... we expressed the view that a court of appeals could address the AED-PA statute of limitations defense sua sponte even if the habeas respondent had waived the issue on appeal. We wrote:
“Even if not raised, we believe we could consider the issue sua sponte .... The Court has the power to notice a ‘plain error’ though it is not assigned or specified .... In exceptional circumstances, especially in criminal cases, appellate courts, in the public interest, may, of their own motion, notice errors to which no exception has been taken, if the errors are obvious, or if they otherwise seriously affect the fairness, integrity or public reputation of judicial proceedings.”
Thus we observed prior to Robinson that the AEDPA statute of limitation is an important issue, the raising of which may not necessarily be left completely to the state.
Long, 393 F.3d at 401-02 (quoting Banks, 271 F.3d at 533 n. 4) (internal citations and quotations omitted). After then reviewing the relevant decisions of the other courts of appeals, especially Acosta v. Artuz, 221 F.3d 117 (2d Cir.2000), we held further that
our decision in Robinson ... does not prevent a magistrate judge from raising the AEDPA statute of limitations defense sua sponte even after an answer has been filed.
Long, 393 F.3d at 403 (internal citations omitted).
Fundamental to our analysis was (i) our agreement with the Second Circuit that “[w]hile civil in nature, habeas corpus cases are different from ordinary civil cases where only the interests of the parties are involved,” Long, 393 F.3d at 402 (citing Acosta, 221 F.3d at 123), and (ii) our conclusion that courts “may raise the ... limitations issue ... after an answer has been filed.” Long, 393 F.3d at 403. Our basis for the latter was Granberry v. Greer, 481 U.S. 129, 134-35, 107 S.Ct. 1671, 95 L.Ed.2d 119 (1987) (holding courts *162have discretion, in interests of comity and federalism, to require that a claim be fully exhausted or to reject it if it plainly lacks merit), as well as our prior decisions in cases such as Sweger v. Chesney, 294 F.3d 506, 520-21 (3d Cir.2002) (holding courts may consider sua sponte whether procedural default bars claim), cert. denied, 538 U.S. 1002, 123 S.Ct. 1902, 155 L.Ed.2d 830 (2003) and Szuchon v. Lehman, 273 F.3d 299, 321 n. 13 (3d Cir.2001) (holding court of appeals can sua sponte consider procedural default). See Long, 393 F.3d at 402-403.
We rejected two decisions contra, Scott v. Collins, 286 F.3d 923 (6th Cir.2002) and Nardi v. Stewart, 354 F.3d 1134 (9th Cir.2004), concluding they were “at odds with Robinson and our Rule 15(a) jurisprudence, which do not require that affirmative defenses be pled in the first responsive pleading.” Long, 393 F.3d at 403. We then stated that:
[ hjaving in mind that AEDPA’s statute of limitations, like other procedural ha-beas issues, furthers the principles of comity, finality, and federalism, ... we hold further that a federal magistrate judge may, consistent with Robinson v. Johnson ... raise sua sponte the AED-PA statute of limitations defense even after an answer has been filed.
Long, 393 F.3d at 404 (internal citations omitted).
With the analytical framework of Robinson and Long in mind, we turn to the questions before us.
B.
We must first address whether our decisions in the Long and Robinson § 2254 cases apply to the § 2255 cases before us today. In resolving the question, we are mindful of our obligation to be faithful to the intent of Congress’ 1996 habeas corpus reforms. Congress was cognizant not just of the practical realities of habeas filings, but also the spectrum of federal interests that those realities implicate, as evidenced by “the profound societal costs that attend the exercise of habeas jurisdiction.” Calderon v. Thompson, 523 U.S. 538, 554, 118 S.Ct. 1489, 1500, 140 L.Ed.2d 728 (1998) (internal quotation omitted) (emphasis added). “ ‘AEDPA’s purpose” ’ is not only to further the interests of comity and federalism, but also to further the “ ‘finality’ ” of convictions, Duncan v. Walker, 533 U.S. 167, 178, 121 S.Ct. 2120, 2127, 150 L.Ed.2d 251 (2001) (quoting Williams v. Taylor, 529 U.S. 420, 436, 120 S.Ct. 1479, 1490, 146 L.Ed.2d 435 (2000)), and to curb abusive habeas filings. See, e.g., H.R. Conf. Rep. No. 104-518, at 111 (1996), reprinted in 1996 U.S.C.C.A.N. 944 (stating that AED-PA was passed, in relevant part, “to curb the abuse of the statutory writ of habeas corpus”).11 Other courts have similarly held that “a signal purpose[] animating AEDPA is the desire of Congress to achieve finality in criminal statutes, both federal and state.” Brackett v. United States, 270 F.3d 60, 69 (1st Cir.2001) (citations omitted), cert. denied, 535 U.S. 1003, 122 S.Ct. 1575, 152 L.Ed.2d 495 (2002). See also United States v. Espinoza-Saenz, 235 F.3d 501, 505 (10th Cir.2000) (noting the “intent of Congress that claims under *163§ 2255 be advanced within one year after a judgment of conviction becomes final”) (internal citations omitted).
We have similarly recognized the wide spectrum of interests that Congress intended to protect through habeas reform. See, e.g., Long, 393 F.3d at 402-03 (identifying interests of judicial economy and finality of judgments in concluding that “[tjhe AEDPA statute of limitations is an important issue, the raising of which may not necessarily be left completely to the state”); Robinson, 313 F.3d at 137 (recognizing an interest in not “wasting precious legal and judicial resources”). See also United States v. Brooks, 230 F.3d 643, 649 (3d Cir.2000) (observing Congress’ intent in amending § 2255 was “to place limits on federal collateral review”); Banks, 271 F.3d at 533 n. 4 (recognizing interests of, inter alia, the public reputation of judicial proceedings and the public interest generally); Kapral, 166 F.3d at 571 (recognizing “Congress[’] inten[t] to reduce ... delayed and repetitive [habeas] filings”) (internal quotation omitted); Miller, 145 F.3d at 618 (stating that the AEDPA “was enacted, in relevant part, to curb the abuse of the writ of habeas corpus.”) (emphasis in original).
It is thus clear, we believe, that Congress’ intent with respect to habeas reform — one facet of which is the AEDPA statute of limitations — was not limited to interests of federalism and comity, which apply only to petitions filed under § 2254. Rather, Congress was concerned with abuses of, and the interests implicated by, habeas filings under both §§ 2254 and § 2255.12
Second, to provide guidance to the district courts, as well as to avoid confusion, we have previously held that we should treat § 2255 motions and § 2254 petitions the same absent sound reason to do otherwise. See, e.g., Miller, 145 F.3d at 619 n. 1 (“[T]o provide guidance to the. district courts, and hence facilitate the orderly administration of justice in these cases, we have followed the practice, whenever we decide an AEDPA issue that arises under § 2254 and the same holding would analytically be required in a case arising under § 2255, or vice versa, of so informing the district courts.”). We see no reason to depart from this practice here.
Third, such an approach is consistent with the interests served by statutes of limitations generally. Limitations periods “protect defendants and the courts ... United States v. Kubrick, 444 U.S. 111, 117, 100 S.Ct. 352, 357, 62 L.Ed.2d 259 (1979) (internal quotation omitted) (emphasis added), because they “free[ ] ... courts from adjudicating stale claims,” Sun Oil Co. v. Wortman, 486 U.S. 717, 736, 108 S.Ct. 2117, 2129, 100 L.Ed.2d 743 (1988) (Brennan, J., concurring). They also support “ ‘the minimization of unnecessary litigation.’ ” Felder v. Casey, 487 U.S. 131, 154, 108 S.Ct. 2302, 2315, 101 L.Ed.2d 123 (1988) (White, J., concurring) (internal quotation omitted). These public and judicial interests transcend the parties to a litigation in the same way as the interests furthered by the AEDPA’s limitations period. See Long, 393 F.3d at 402-04; Robinson, 313 F.3d at 134-37; Banks, 271 F.3d at 533 n. 4; Artuz, 221 F.3d at 123.13
*164Because there exist sound reasons to approach the AEDPA limitations period the same under both §§ 2254 and 2255, and because to do so is faithful with both Congress’ intent and our habeas jurisprudence, we hold that our § 2254 decisions in Robinson and Long apply to AEDPA limitations issues arising under § 2255.
C.
We return to the four main issues we asked the parties and amici to brief.
(1) With regard to the government’s ability to waive the AEDPA statute of limitations, all of the parties and both amici agree that, under our decisions in Miller, Robinson, and Long, discussed supra, the limitations period is not jurisdictional and therefore is subject to equitable considerations such as waiver. We accordingly reaffirm our holdings on these issues in these cases.
The more difficult question, which we address infra, remains: whether a party’s waiver of a defense, intentional or not, may impact the exercise of an inherent power that a court may possess in the circumstances presented here. We foreshadow our answer by observing that neither the parties nor amici have cited to us authority requiring that a party’s waiver of a defense must necessarily curtail the inherent powers of a court.
(2) As to the second main issue, whether courts ever have the power to act sua sponte in the circumstances here, the answer is plainly yes. First, as we have discussed supra, the eases confirm, in similar contexts, an analogous power. See, e.g., Granberry, 481 U.S. at 134-35, 107 S.Ct. 1671, 95 L.Ed.2d 119; Sweger, 294 F.3d at 520-21; Szuchon, 273 F.3d at 321 n. 13. This authority is persuasive with respect to the issue before us because we have already recognized that the AEDPA statute of limitations is “like other procedural habeas issues.” Long, 393 F.3d at 404. The application of such cases to the circumstances before us also conforms with sua sponte jurisprudence generally.14
Second, while two circuits disagree with our conclusion in Long as to when a court may act sua sponte, all of the courts of appeals that have considered the issue agree that courts do possess a sua sponte power to raise the limitations issue. See, e.g., Hill v. Braxton, 277 F.3d 701, 705-06 (4th Cir.2002) (“Even though the limitations period is an affirmative defense, a *165federal habeas court has the power to raise affirmative defenses sua sponte .... We agree with our sister circuits that have determined a district court has the power to raise the limitations defense [to a § 2254 petition] sua sponte.”); Jackson v. Sec’y for the Dep’t of Corr., 292 F.3d 1347, 1349 (11th Cir.2002) (per curiam) (“we hold that the district court possessed the discretion to raise sua sponte the timeliness issue”); Artuz, 221 F.3d at 124 (holding “a district court has the authority to raise the AEDPA statute of limitations on its own motion”); Kiser v. Johnson, 163 F.3d 326, 329 (5th Cir.1999) (“In holding that Fed. R.Civ.P. 8(c) does not bar sua sponte consideration of the AEDPA’s statute of limitations provision, we follow a long line of precedent establishing the authority of courts to raise non-jurisdictional defenses sua sponte in habeas cases.”). See also United States v. Sosa, 364 F.3d 507, 510 (4th Cir.2004) (applying Hill to motion filed under § 2255).
The decisions contra to our decision in Long with respect to when a district court may sua sponte raise the limitations issue do not suggest that courts lack the inherent power in the first place. See Herbst v. Cook, 260 F.3d 1039, 1042 (9th Cir.2001) (“The district court ... had the authority to raise the [AEDPA] statute of limitations sua sponte.”); Nardi v. Stewart, 354 F.3d 1134, 1141 (9th Cir.2004) (reaffirming Herbst’s holding that a district court may raise sua sponte the limitations defense, but narrowing the time period in which the court can do so); Scott v. Collins, 286 F.3d 923, 930 (6th Cir.2002) (holding Rule 4 does not give a district court “continuing” power to dismiss sua sponte after the Rule 4 period ends).15
As we discussed supra and first articulated in Long, the interests underlying the AEDPA’s statute of limitations that are applicable to § 2255 motions are furthered, not hindered, by courts exercising discretionary power sua sponte in post-answer cases such as those before us here. See Long, 393 F.3d at 402-03 (identifying interests of judicial economy and finality of judgments); Robinson, 313 F.3d at 137 (identifying “precious legal and judicial resources”). See also Banks, 271 F.3d at 533 n. 4 (recognizing the public reputation of judicial proceedings and the public interest generally); Kapral, 166 F.3d at 571 (recognizing “Congress[’] inten[t] to reduce ... delayed and repetitive [habeas] filings”) (internal quotation omitted).
Finally, we consider the argument contra, a thumbnail sketch of which is this: Habeas cases are civil, governed by the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. As such, the AEDPA statute of limitations must be treated like any other in a civil *166case. Therefore, it is a defense possessed by the habeas respondent alone, and courts may not intervene.
The argument plainly rests on the premise that habeas cases and ordinary civil cases are indistinguishable, something we disagreed with in Long and do so again today. See, e.g., Harris v. Nelson, 394 U.S. 286, 293-94, 89 S.Ct. 1082, 1087-88, 22 L.Ed.2d 281 (1968) (“It is, of course, true that habeas corpus proceedings are characterized as ‘civil.’ ... But the label is gross and inexact. Essentially, the proceeding is unique. Habeas corpus practice in the federal courts has conformed with civil practice only in a general sense.”) (internal citations and footnote omitted); Long, 393 F.3d at 402 (“While civil in nature, habeas corpus cases are different from ordinary civil cases where only the interests of the parties are involved.”) (citing Acosta, 221 F.3d at 123); see also O’Brien v. Moore, 395 F.3d 499, 505 (4th Cir.2005) (noting the unique hybrid nature of habeas actions and collecting cases observing same); Walker v. O’Brien, 216 F.3d 626, 636 (7th Cir.2000) (observing that habeas cases are a “group unto themselves”); Brown v. Vasquez, 952 F.2d 1164, 1169 (9th Cir.1991) (noting habeas corpus is “dramatically different from any other type of civil action”).
As to the claim that the AEDPA statute of limitations is the government’s alone to use or lose, we have found no authority supporting such exclusivity. Certainly, we have been cited to none. As such, we must doubt that Congress intended to relegate the efficacy of its reforms to the vagaries of a prosecutor’s decisions or mistakes.16 Similarly, we discern no Congressional intent to hamstring courts in carrying out its reforms. The better conclusion is that Congress did not render the courts powerless.17
For all of these reasons, we reaffirm Long and hold that courts have the power to raise the AEDPA limitations issue sua sponte in cases arising under 28 U.S.C. §§ 2254 and 2255.
(3) What remains are our final two main issues and their application to the cases before us. For analytical purposes, they may be combined: Given the courts’ power to raise the AEDPA statute of limitations sua sponte, at what stages may they do so, and does it matter if the government has waived?
We hold the answer is once again provided by our decision in Long. Our analysis there presents no obvious reason why, given notice and an opportunity to respond, *167and absent prejudice to the habeas petitioner or movant, a court’s exercise of its sua sponte powers should be limited to only the Rule 4 period.18 The spectrum of interests that we identify in Robinson, Long, and this opinion today — finality and judicial efficiency, most notably, but also the public interest and the public reputation of judicial proceedings — are just as ably advanced post-answer as pre-answer when an untimely case is dismissed upon a district court’s own motion. Recognition of this disentangles the overriding federal, judicial, and societal interests that are relevant to our analysis from those that concern the parties alone. Further, as we have stated, such an approach is not only most faithful to Congress’ 1996 habeas reforms, but it is also most certainly not inconsistent with existing authority. We have been cited to nothing that requires the inherent sua sponte power to terminate at the conclusion of the Rule 4 period, and we can find no such authority ourselves.
The above considerations, which we fully articulated in Long, are no less persuasive in instances where the government has either waived the limitations defense or so concedes. Not only are habeas cases different, but, as for the AEDPA limitations provision, the government can claim no monopoly on its use.
To conclude otherwise asks too much of waiver, which occurs only upon the “ ‘intentional relinquishment or abandonment of a known right.’ ” United States v. Olano, 507 U.S. 725, 733, 113 S.Ct. 1770, 1777, 123 L.Ed.2d 508 (1993) (quoting Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 464, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 1023, 82 L.Ed. 1461 (1938)). Unlike ordinary civil litigation, the practical reality of habeas is that the government may lack, for long periods of time, the file documents necessary to knowledgeably analyze timeliness. As amicus Federal Defender observes, habeas cases present “sometimes difficult questions of time computation.” Brief of Amicus at 13. Indeed, the Supreme Court has explained:
[District judges often will not be able to make [AEDPA limitations] calculations based solely on the face of habeas petitions .... [As] [s]uch calculations depend on information contained in documents that do not necessarily accompany the petitions.
Pliler v. Ford, 542 U.S. 225, 124 S.Ct. 2441, 2446, 159 L.Ed.2d 338 (2004) (citation omitted). The result is that, all too easily, habeas respondents and courts may “err in their calculation ....” Id. at 2447. Even when the record papers are obtained, it can be difficult to decipher what a pro se habeas movant has done, meaning many “waivers” will not actually have been “the result of a purposeful or deliberate decision to forego the defense.” Scott, 286 F.3d at 931 (Stafford, J., dissenting).19 *168For these reasons and others, Long correctly instructs that the analysis in the first instance turns not. on waiver, but rather on whether courts have the inherent power to protect themselves from ha-beas abuse, post-answer, consistent with Congress’ intent, and whether, where a court exercises that power, the habeas movant is prejudiced.
(4) With these' precepts in mind, we turn to the cases before us. In Bendolph, a judgment entry of this Court was intentionally and impermissibly altered by someone involved in filing Bendolph’s petition for a writ of certiorari, to conceal the untimeliness of a Supreme Court filing. Such an act should not, of course, be countenanced in any way. Without doubt, the ability of a court to, deal with such a circumstance is inherently within its sua sponte powers, and does not depend on the responding party’s position.
The issue before us, however, is whether the District Court could raise the AEDPA limitations issue on its own motion, and, if so, whether the exercise of that power was limited by a government waiver. For the reasons we have discussed above, we conclude that the District Court did possess the power to flag the issue sua sponte, and that even if the government’s actions did constitute waiver, that waiver could not have limited the court’s exercise of its power.20
The questions remaining are (i) whether the District Court provided Bendolph with adequate notice of the issue and an opportunity to respond, and (ii) whether Bendolph was prejudiced by the District Court’s motion. The record shows that the District Court’s August 24, 2000 order placed both Bendolph and the government on notice, both by raising the timeliness issue and by articulating the reasons why Bendolph’s filing appeared untimely. In that same order, the District Court expressly invited the parties to brief or otherwise respond to its analysis. Bendolph was given until September 21, 2000 to respond. That the District Court’s order constituted sufficient notice and provided sufficient time and opportunity to respond is evidenced by the fact that Bendolph filed his memorandum in response two weeks early, on September 8, 2000. The District Court subsequently received a letter submission from the government on October 5, 2000. It then denied Ben-dolph’s § 2255 motion as untimely about three months later, on January 3, 2001. On these facts, we hold that Bendolph was provided adequate notice of the timeliness issue, as well as adequate opportunity to respond.
Because the District Court flagged timeliness after the Rule 4 period had ended, we must next consider “the ultimate issue,” prejudice to Bendolph. Long, 393 F.3d at 401. We look first to how late in the case the limitations issue was raised. Id. Here, as stated, the District Court raised the issue on August 24, 2000; the government, in turn, did so on October 5, 2000. These two events occurred almost two years after October 18, 1998, the date Bendolph filed his § 2255 motion. During that time, the record reflects the following activity in-Bendolph’s case: he filed a mo*169tion to compel discovery, which was denied; the case was reassigned upon the retirement of the District Judge; and Ben-dolph was ordered to make an election pursuant to United States v. Miller, 197 F.3d 644 (3d Cir.1999). On these facts, the raising of timeliness was not so late that Bendolph was prejudiced. There is no evidence that he had .commenced costly or time-consuming discovery, suffered a loss or a diminution of his ability to prepare his case, or lost another litigation opportunity elsewhere. As such, while “[djelay is related to prejudice,” and while a period of almost two years may be strong evidence of prejudice in another case, “[it] was not a problem here.” Long, 393 F.3d at 401. The prejudice inquiry looks next to whether Bendolph had sufficient opportunity to respond to the issue, once raised. See id. We have already discussed this in our analysis of notice; such opportunity was plain from the District Court’s August 24, 2000 order and Bendolph’s memorandum in response. There is no problem here, either. Finally, we consider whether the government acted in bad faith. Just as it would be unfair to ascribe the altered judgment entry date to Bendolph himself, rather than someone acting on his behalf, it would also be unfair to suggest that the government’s delay was improper.21 See Long, 393 F.3d at 401 (“[ijnadvertence does not equal bad faith”).
No prejudice arising from the District Court’s sua sponte flagging of the issue, and notice and an opportunity to respond having been shown on this record, we affirm the District Court’s dismissal of the § 2255 motion in Bendolph as untimely.
This leaves Otero. We have already reversed and remanded for failure to appoint counsel, as discussed supra. As to the remaining issue of whether the District Court may consider the apparent untimeliness of Otero’s § 2255 motion sua sponte on remand, we answer in the affirmative, provided the District Court gives notice, an opportunity to respond, and a prejudice analysis consistent with this opinion and our prior decision in Long.22,
D.
In conclusion, we hold that, upon finding a potential AEDPA statute of limitations problem in a habeas case arising under 28 U.S.C. §§ 2254 or 2255, a court may act sua sponte at any point in the proceedings, regardless of the government’s position, provided the court (i) gives notice of the issue and an opportunity to respond; and, (ii) if the case has passed the Rule 4 stage, also analyzes the prejudice components of Rule 15(a) and Long that we reaffirm today.23 The application of these mandatory requirements, like the determination of timeliness itself, remains subject to plenary review. See Long, 393 F.3d at 396. What remains, including whether to raise timeliness sua sponte in the first place, and, if so, whether to invite the government to amend its answer or not, remains within the district courts’ sound discretion and will not be disturbed absent an abuse of that discretion. Id.
*170For the foregoing reasons, the January 3, 2001 order of the District Court dismissing the § 2255 motion of Herbert Ben-dolph is affirmed, and the February 4, 2002 order of the District Court dismissing the § 2255 motion of Julio Otero and denying his ineffectiveness of counsel claim is reversed and remanded to the District Court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.

. Judge Van Antwerpen wrote the opinion of the Court in which Chief Judge Scirica and Judges Roth, Rendell, Barry, Smith and Fisher joined. Judge Nygaard filed an opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part, in which Judges Sloviter, McKee, Ambro, and Fuentes joined. Judge Sloviter filed an opinion dissenting, in which Judges Nygaard, McKee, Ambro, and Fuentes joined.

. We acknowledge the consistently excellent advocacy provided by pro bono counsel on *158behalf of Messrs. Bendolph and Otero throughout the duration of these appeals, as well as the excellent briefs provided by both amici in advance of re-argument en banc.

.Although the court may act upon what plainly appears from the motion, attached exhibits and record, not all limitations issues may appear in such manner. As such, notice and an opportunity to respond should be afforded during the Rule 4 stage. See footnote 15 infra.

. The Supreme Court subsequently denied the petition for writ of certiorari on October 20, 1997.

. Bendolph did not get the benefit of tolling for the time the petition was under consideration by the Supreme Court because the petition was untimely and therefore not properly *159filed. See, e.g., Merritt v. Blaine, 326 F.3d 157, 164 (3d Cir.2003) (" ‘an application is 'properly filed’ when its delivery and acceptance are in compliance with the applicable laws and rules governing filings,’ ” including " 'the time limits upon its delivery’ ”) (quoting Artuz v. Bennett, 531 U.S. 4, 8, 121 S.Ct. 361, 361, 148 L.Ed.2d 213 (2000)) (emphasis in Artuz ).

. At the time this answer was filed, we had not yet rendered our decision in Kapral.

. Although the District Court docket sheet and the parties cite August 24, 2000 as the date of the District Court’s order, our review of the record shows August 22, 2000 as the date of that order. The discrepancy does not affect the issues now before us.

. The government initially conceded waiver in Bendolph, but now contends under Long, which we had not yet rendered at the time these cases were first argued, that waiver has not yet occurred.

. The statute of limitations issue was first raised on August 19, 2003 when a panel of this Court entered an order granting Otero a certificate of appealability.

. As in Bendolph, the government in Otero initially conceded waiver but has now reversed its position in light of our decision in Long.

. See also 141 Cong. Rec. S7803-01 (daily ed. June 7, 1995) (statement of Sen. Nickles) ("[H]abeas procedures are wasteful. The current system is wasteful of limited resources. At a time when both State and Federal courts face staggering criminal caseloads, we can ill afford to make large commitments of judicial and prosecutorial resources to procedures of dubious value iri furthering the ends of justice.”); Williams, 529 U.S. at 436, 120 S.Ct. at 1490 (observing that, in passing the AED-PA, it was Congress’ "intent to avoid unneeded evidentiary hearings in federal habeas corpus”).

. This conclusion is further reinforced, of course, by the purpose underlying Rule 4 of the Rules Governing Section 2254 and 2255 Cases, which promotes interests of judicial economy and efficiency.

. Moreover, limitations periods should be construed consonant with the legislative scheme they support. See, e.g., American Pipe & Const. Co. v. Utah, 414 U.S. 538, 557-58, 94 S.Ct. 756, 768, 38 L.Ed.2d 713 (1974). As discussed throughout this opinion, Congress plainly intended strict reform of habeas corpus in passing the AEDPA, and the practical *164problems of attempting to re-litigate matters which are many years old are obvious.

. In addition to the powers Granberry observed, courts may dismiss sua sponte for other reasons as well. See, e.g., Acosta, 221 F.3d at 121 (collecting cases); Kiser v. Johnson, 163 F.3d 326, 329 (5th Cir.1999) (collecting cases). Nor is the power limited to the habeas context. See, e.g., Gulf Oil Corp. v. Gilbert, 330 U.S. 501, 502, 67 S.Ct. 839, 840, 91 L.Ed. 1055 (1947) (inherent power to dismiss pursuant to the doctrine of forum non conveniens); Molinaro v. New Jersey, 396 U.S. 365, 366, 90 S.Ct. 498, 499, 24 L.Ed.2d 586 (1970) (inherent power to dismiss if the defendant is a fugitive).
Analogously instructive is the Supreme Court's decision in Link v. Wabash R. Co., 370 U.S. 626, 82 S.Ct. 1386, 8 L.Ed.2d 734 (1962). Link rejected the argument that the power afforded to civil defendants under Fed. R.Civ.P. 41 to move for involuntary dismissals necessarily extinguishes, by negative implication, the courts’ powers to dismiss sua sponte. Link, 370 U.S. at 629-30, 82 S.Ct. at 1388 (observing courts have inherent power to dismiss sua sponte "to clear their calendar of cases ... dormant because of inaction or dila-toriness ....”). Link counsels that concerns arising from sua sponte dismissals are best addressed not by curtailing inherent powers, but rather by determining whether a court has acted "within the permissible range of the court's discretion.” Id. at 633, 82 S.Ct. at 1389. We did as much in Long, an approach we reaffirm today.

. Thus it cannot be doubted that, at the very least, courts possess a sua sponte power during those stages of a habeas case governed by Rule 4 of the Rules Governing Section 2254 and Section 2255 Cases. That rule states in pertinent part:
If it plainly appears from the motion, any attached exhibits, and the record of prior proceedings that the moving party is not entitled to relief, the judge must dismiss the motion and direct the clerk to notify the moving party.
See § 2255 Rule 4(b); see also § 2254 Rule 4. As this language anticipates, the issues relevant to timeliness may not all appear on the face of a motion or petition, and for this reason courts should give notice that a limitations problem may exist, as well as provide an opportunity for a habeas movant or petitioner to respond. See, e.g., Hill v. Braxton, 277 F.3d 701, 707 (4th Cir.2002); Acosta v. Artuz, 221 F.3d 117, 121 (2d Cir.2000). We make no distinction as between habeas movants filing pro se and those represented by counsel. See, e.g., McMillan v. Jarvis, 332 F.3d 244, 245 (4th Cir.2003) (holding Hill's notification requirement applies to habeas movants represented by counsel as well as those proceeding pro se).

. For this reason, federal habeas courts acting sua sponte need not invite the government to amend an answer pursuant to Rule 15(a), nor wait to see if the government responds. See also Carlisle v. United States, 517 U.S. 416, 437, 116 S.Ct. 1460, 1471, 134 L.Ed.2d 613 (1996) (Stevens, J., dissenting) ("It is quite wrong ... to assume that a judge is nothing more than a referee whose authority is limited to granting or denying motions advanced by the parties."). And while government prosecutors have both prosecutorial discretion and heightened ethical duties to do justice, such considerations do not justify subordinating judicial power to the presence or absence of the AEDPA limitations defense in a government answer or motion.

. If nothing else, if the power exists, there is nothing to suggest that Congress has taken it away. While Congress may limit the courts' inherent powers, we should not "lightly assume that Congress intended to do so." Chambers v. NASCO, Inc., 501 U.S. 32, 47, 111 S.Ct 2123, 2134, 115 L.Ed.2d 27 (1991) (internal quotation omitted). Here, the statutory language and legislative history are silent, and "something far more than ambiguous silence is required to withdraw a district court's inherent power.” Carlisle, 517 U.S. at 449, 116 S.Ct. at 1477 (Stevens, J., dissenting).

. Although we have not yet had occasion to reach the question, other courts of appeals have held the AEDPA statute of limitations constitutional in the face of per se challenges brought under the Suspension Clause of the United States Constitution, Art. I, § 9, cl. 2. See, e.g., Wyzykowski v. Dep’t of Corr., 226 F.3d 1213, 1217 and n. 3 (collecting cases). Cf. Felker v. Turpin, 518 U.S. 651, 664, 116 S.Ct. 2333, 135 L.Ed.2d 827 (1996) (AEDPA's restrictions on successive petitions "do not amount to a ‘suspension’ of the writ”); Swain v. Pressley, 430 U.S. 372, 381, 97 S.Ct. 1224, 51 L.Ed.2d 411 (1977) (holding that the Suspension Clause is violated only where habeas corpus is rendered "inadequate or ineffective”).

. For these reasons, as a matter of elapsed time, the first practicable chance to knowledgeably raise a timeliness issue often arises later in the life of a habeas case than it would in an ordinary civil one. Thus we have already recognized the need for a longer pre-waiver period in habeas. See Robinson, 313 F.3d at 136-37 (allowing post-answer raising of the defense at the "earliest practicable moment”). Long, consistent with Robinson, then *168confirmed that prejudice is the "ultimate issue.” See Long, 393 F.3d at 401. Our earliest practicable moment standard in Robinson and our prejudice standard in Long correctly balance the realities summarized in Pliler, 124 S.Ct. at 2446, and a habeas petitioner's due process rights.

. We do not reach the issue of whether the government's actions constituted an inadvertent waiver, intentional waiver, or no waiver because, no matter the answer to that question, the court possessed the ability to act sua sponte.

. At the time, we had not yet rendered our decision in Kapral, supra, and in any event the petition for certiorari had been improperly altered.

. Although the issue has not been raised before us, it appears that the delay in Otero may exceed that in Bendolph and Long, as Otero filed his § 2255 motion on June 25, 2001. As noted, delay alone is not dispositive and must be considered along with the other components of prejudice that we identified in Long and reaffirm today.

.We leave for another day whether or not a district court may apply the statute of limitations if the government has intentionally waived this defense and continues to do so after the district court has raised the issue.