Court Opinion

ID: 9912957
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-12-26 16:37:06.818553+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T13:06:32.936090
License: Public Domain

139 Nev., Advance Opinion   al
                         IN THE COURT OF APPEALS OF THE STATE OF NEVADA

                   MAGGIE ROE, N/K/A MAGGIE COX,                         No. 84893-COA
                   Appellant,
                   VS.
                   JASON J. ROE,
                   Respondent.

                                                                           BY

                               Appeal from a district court order modifying custody of a minor
                   child. Eighth Judicial District Court, Family Division, Clark County; Dawn
                   Throne, Judge.
                               Affirmed in part, reversed in part, vacated in part, and
                   remanded.

                   Roberts Stoffel Family Law Group and Melvin R. Grimes, Las Vegas,
                   for Appellant.

                   Page Law Firm and Fred Page, :Las Vegas,
                   for Respondent.

                   BEFORE THE COURT OF APPEALS, GIBBONS, C.J., and BULLA and
                   WESTBROOK, JJ.

                                                    OPINION

                   By the Court, GIBBONS, C.J.:
                               In this opinion, we address an unclear area of Nevada child
                   custody law, provide clarification with a definition of sole physical custody,
                   and outline what a district court must consider when entering an order for
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                   sole physical custody.    Further, we direct district courts to retain their
                   substantive decision-making authority over custodial modifications and
                   parenting time allocations, as well as reiterate that, in family law cases,
                   being a prevailing party alone is not a sufficient basis for an award of
                   attorney fees under NRS 18.010.            This opinion also clarifies when
                   reassignment of a case to a different judge on remand is appropriate because
                   of the requisite fairness demanded in ongoing child custody proceedings.
                               The    Nevada    Legislature     has   directed    that   "the   sole

                   consideration" in a custodial action "is the best interest of the child." NRS
                   125C.0035(1). Yet, it is left to our district courts to translate a child's best
                   interest into a quantifiable, clearly defined parenting time schedule. See
                   generally Bluestein v. Bluestein, 131 Nev. 106, 112, 345 P.3d 1044, 1048
                   (2015). To aid district courts, our appellate courts have given direction on
                   what allocation of parenting time constitutes a               physical custody
                   characterization from joint to primary and vice versa. See id. at 113, 345
                   P.3d at 1049 (directing district courts to consider Rivero's 40-percent
                   parenting time conclusion but providing that it is not the sole consideration
                   in characterizing custodial arrangements); Riuero v. .River'o, 125 Nev. 410,
                   417, 216 P.3d 213, 219 (2009) (defining joint physical custody generally as
                   a parenting time arrangement where each party has physical custody at
                   least 40 percent of the time), overruled on other grounds by Romano u.
                   Romano, 138 Nev. 1, 501 P.3d 980 (2022).

                          'We originally resolved this appeal in an unpublished order.
                   Appellant subsequently filed a motion to reissue the order as a published
                   opinion. We grant the motion and replace our earlier order with this
                   opinion. See NRAP 36(f). Appellant also filed a petition for rehearing of our
                   prior decision affirming the custodial modification. Having reviewed the
                   petition, we deny rehearing. See NRAP 40(c).
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                               By comparison, there is little direct.ion as to what a district

                   court must consider when entering an order for sole physical custody. Sole
                   physical custody is a custodial arrangement where the child resides with
                   only one parent and the noncustodial parent's parenting time is restricted
                   to no significant in-person parenting time. Sole physical custody is different
                   than primary or joint physical custody because sole physical custody
                   conflicts with this state's general policy for courts to support "frequent
                   associations and a continuing relationship" between parent and child. See
                   NRS 125C.001.(1).     Likewise, sole physical custody orders substantially

                   impede the fundamental parental rights of the noncustodial parent. See
                   Gordon v. Geiger, 133 Nev. 542, 545-46, 402 P.3d 671, 674 (2017); see also
                   Troxel v. Granville, 530 U.S. 57, 65 (2000) (concluding that parents have a
                   fundamental interest "in the care, custody, and control of their children"). •
                               In this opinion, we provide a definition of sole physical custody

                   to ensure custodial orders are properly charaéterized. We direct district
                   courts when entering an order for sole physical custody to first find either
                   that the noncustodial parent is unfit for the child to reside with, or to make
                   specific findings and provide an adequate explanation as to the reason
                   primary physical custody is not in the best interest of the child. Following
                   either of these findings, the district court must consider the least restrictive
                   parenting time arrangement possible to avoid constraining the parent-child
                   relationship any more than is necessary to prevent potential harm caused
                   by an unfit parent and meet the best interest of the child. If the court enters
                   a more restrictive parenting time arrangement than is otherwise available,
                   it must explain how the greater restriction is in the child's best interest.
                   Further, we reiterate that district courts Must retain substantive decision-

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                   making authority over custodial. modifications and           parenting time

                   allocations and may not substitute a third party's discretion for their own.
                               Here, substantial evidence supports the district court's decision
                   to modify physical custody based on its finding that there had been a
                   su.bstantial change in circumstances affecting H.R.'s welfare and its best
                   interest factor findings. However, the district court abused its discretion by
                   improperly characterizing its custodial award as primary physical custod.y
                   when it waS in actuality sole ph.ysical .custody, thereby overly restricting
                   appellant Maggie Cox's Parenting time without adequate findings, failing
                   to consider any less restrictive arrangement, and delegating its sUbstantive
                   decision-making authority to a therapist.         So, while we affirm the

                   modification of physical custody, we reverse the parenting time- allocation
                   and vacate the award of attorney fees and costs. On remand, we also direct
                   the chief judge to reassign this case to a different judge to ensure fairness
                   in the ongoing child custody Proceedings.     •
                                    FACTS .AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
                               Appellant Maggi.e Cox and respondent Jason J. Roe had been
                   divorced for approximatelY seven years when Maggie filed a motion in 2020
                   to modify physical custody of their child. H.R., born in 2009, who was then
                   eleven years old. At the time, the parties shared joint legal and physical
                   custody, with the most recent custodial order being entered by stipulation
                   in 2017. In her inotion, Maggie argued that H.R.'s behavior and attitude
                   toward her had become increasingly and alarmingly disrespectful and
                   aggressive, which she attributed i.n part to Jason's conduct and influence.
                   In addi.tion to seeking primary physical. custody, Maggie asked the district.
                   court to enter orders for therapy for H.R.. and requested a brief focused
                   assessment to determ ine the likely cause of H.R.'s change in demeanor and

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                   behavior. Jason opposed the motion and filed a countermotion for primary
                   physical custody alleging Maggie was emotionally unstable and that H.R.
                   preferred to live with him.     The district court granted the motion for

                   therapy, granted the request for a brief focused assessment, and set a
                   hearing date on the parties' motions to modify custody.
                                The therapist who conducted the brief focused assessment,
                   Maureen Zelensky, MFT, met with H.R., Maggie, and Jason multiple times
                   to conduct her assessment. She also reviewed the entire record of the case,

                   spoke with the parties' attorneys, and consulted with H.R.'s personal
                   therapist.   Zelensky's final report to the district court recognized the
                   problems between Maggie and H.R. and suggested that Jason was likely
                   engaging in parental alienation. Zelensky found that Maggie was almost
                   certainly suffering from anxiety and possibly from post-traumatic stress
                   disorder, which likely contributed to her highly emotional conduct. Based
                   on her assessment, Zelensky recommended that the district court enter a
                   behavior order for both parents and maintain the week-on/week-off
                   parenting time schedule. The district court adopted the recommendations
                   and entered an order for the parties to maintain joint legal and physical
                   custody. The district court set a date for a status check.
                                Before the status check, the situation between Maggie and H.R.
                   took a dramatic turn for the worse. On two separate occasions, H.R. was
                   taken into custody by law enforcement for battery against Maggie while
                   Maggie was exercising her parenting time. The police believed H.R. was
                   the primary aggressor both times, so they took H.R. for a 12-hour
                   detainment period after each incident. The record is clear that Maggie
                   never called the police on H.R. In the first situation, the call came from her
                   mother, and in the second situation, the call was from Jason. The record

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                        also supports Maggie's claim that once others had called the police, she had
                        little choice but to let H.R. be taken into custody.2
                                    Based on these incidents, Jason filed an emergency motion for

                        temporary sole legal and sole physical custody of H.R. In March 2021, the
                        district court granted the motion, finding "something wrong with the parent
                        who cannot manage an 11-year-old," that Maggie had been the one to call
                        the police on H.R., and that her behavior was "histrionic." The court also
                        found that upon H.R.'s release from custody, Maggie should have let H.R.
                        go with Jason, despite• it still being Maggie's parenting time. The court
                        supported this conclusion by finding that Maggie "is obviouslY not able to
                        pärent her son" and "it is not safe when you have the police call out to your
                        home as somebody might get shot, and it is not safe." The district court
                        ordered Maggie's contact with H.R. immediately restricted to just six hours
                        of parenting time weekly and reunification therapy sessions conducted by
                        Dr. Sunshine Collins. The district court characterized its parenting time
                        order as sole physical custody. The district court also appointed a guardian
                        ad litem for H.R. and a parenting coordinator to help the parties, with the
                        costs of each to be split between Maggie and Jason.
                                    A few months later, Maggie took H.R. out for a day of bowling
                        and shopping within her restricted parenting time allocation. During the
                        outing, H.R. ran from Maggie, hid in a bathroom at a local store, and called
                        Jason to be picked up. Maggie believed H.R. ran after becoming upset about

                              2With exceptions, an arrest is required when police respond to a
                        reported battery constituting domestic violence and find probable cause
                        supporting the commission of the offense, which results in a minimum 12-
                        hour detainment period. See NRS 171.137(1); NRS 178.484(7).
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                   losing the bowling game, while Jason claimed H.R. ran because he feared
                   that Maggie would bave him arrested again.
                                As a result of the continued conflict between Maggie and H.R.,
                   the parenting coordinator recommended in August 2021 that all contact be
                   "paused" between Maggie and H.R. until the district court could sort out the
                   issues between the parents. Along with her recommendation, the parenting
                   coordinator also informed the court that Maggie, an educator, would likely
                   be unable to pay for Dr. Collins's Services.     Dr. Collins was outside of

                   Maggie's insurance network, and the:district court had also ordered Maggie
                   to pay other obligations, including child support to Jason. The parenting
                   coordinator recommended that Jason bear sorne of the cost of reunifiCation

                   services and that he should be included in the sessions.
                                Jason filed an objection, in part, to the parenting coordinator's
                   recommendation that he attend and partially pay for reunification services.
                   In September 2021, the district court granted Jason.'s objection and ordered
                   Maggie to "have [no contacti" with H.R. "outside of the therapeutic services"
                   with Dr. Collins. At that point, Dr. Collins was requiring Maggie to attend
                   several individual sessions before she would be allowed to start joint
                   sessions with H.R., which Maggie was struggling to afford.          Thus, by

                   granting Jason's objection and entering an order for no contact between
                   H.R. and Maggie outside of therapy, the district court effectively prohibited
                   all contact of' any kind between Maggie and H.R.3
                                Maggie withdrew her motion for prirnary physical custody
                   shortly thereafter and instead asked the court to maintain joint legal and
                   physical custody pursuant to the 2017 order. The district court set the case

                         3The district court's order effectively ended all contact between
                   Maggie and H.R. for the next six months.
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                   for an evidentiary hearing in March 2022, now only on Jason's motion for
                   modification of physical custody. The district court advised the parties that,
                   at the hearing, they would be restricted from introducing evidence that
                   predated the 2017 order.
                               During the March 2022 evidentiary hearing, Jason presented
                   evidence that the child custody best interest factors favored his motion to
                   modify custody, especially that H.R., who was now 12 years old, preferred
                   to live with hirn. Evidence was also introduced that showed Maggie could
                   not afford Dr. Collins's services and that both she and Dr. Collins agreed
                   they were not a good therapeutic fit for Maggie's individual sessions. On
                   March 11, 2022, day two of the hearing, the district court learned that its
                   September 2021 order had prevented Maggie from contacting H.R. on the
                   child's birthday and that the order had also prevented Maggie from sending
                   gifts or cards to H.R. during the holidays.      The court referred to this

                   September order as "the no contact order of Dr. Collins." The district court
                   then orally modified its no-contact order and allowed Maggie to send cards
                   to, text, and call H.R. This oral modification was subsequently described by
                   the district court as the "March 11, 2022, Order."
                               At the close of the hearing, the district court maintained joint
                   legal custody but granted Jason what it called primary physical custody,
                   finding a substantial change of circumstances in the severe deterioration of
                   H.R. and Maggie's relationship and H..R.'s age and wishes. The district
                   court also considered H.R.'s best interest and found that H.R. wanted to live
                   with Jason, Jason had relatively superior mental health, and the

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                   relationship between H.R. and Jason was comparatively less fraught.4 See
                   NRS 125C.0035(4)(a), (f), (h). The court merely referred to the "March 11,
                   2022, [oral] Order" in setting Maggie's parenting time, ostensibly restricting
                   Maggie's parenting time to no contact with H.R. except for cards, texts, and
                   calls. Thus, in the district court's final order modifying custody, Maggie was
                   awarded no in-person parenting time with her child.
                                The district court also ordered Maggie to attend individual
                   therapy with Dr. Collins twice per month, with the goal of working towards
                   joint reunification sessions with H.R. If Maggie did not attend twice a
                   month, the court ordered the downward adjustment in the child support
                   order was to be terminated.5      Dr. Collins was also given authority to
                   determine when Maggie's parenting time could be expanded to potentially
                   include in-person contact with H.R.      Finally, the district court ordered
                   Maggie to pay $11,365 i.n attorney fees and costs to Jason because he was
                   the prevailing party. This appeal followed."

                          'The district court did find that Maggie was more likely to allow H.R.
                   to have frequent associations with Jason, see NRS 125C.0035(4)(c), but that
                   "Dr. Collins will be able to address anything that Jason might say or do that
                   is not supportive of [H.R's] relationship with Maggie . . . . This Court can
                   also issue Orders to Enforce for Jason if necessary."

                         5The   district court adjusted Maggie's child support obligation
                   downward based on her extra costs to see Dr. Collins. However, based on
                   invoices in the record, for Maggie to be treated by Dr. Collins twice a month
                   would cost her significantly more than the downward adjustment offset.

                         "District and appellate courts are to expedite decisions affecting the
                   custody of minor children, meaning resolutions must be reached in district
                   court within six months of custody or parenting time being contested absent
                   unforeseeable circumstances with specific findings justifying exceeding that
                   time period. See SCR 251. The temporary custody orders in this case were

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                                                    ANALYSIS

                               On appeal, Maggie raises issues with the limitations the district

                   court placed on her parental rights and the fairness of the proceedings
                   below. Maggie contends that the district court: (1) did not have substantial
                   evidence to modify child custody, improperly considered child testimony
                   when determining what was in H.R.'s best interest, and abused its
                   discretion in finding there was a substantial change of circumstances since
                   the 2017 order; (2) demonstrated actual bias against her; (3) violated her
                   parental rights: and (4) abused its discretion in awarding Jason attorney
                   fees and costs. Maggie also argues that the district court's errors are to such
                   a degree that this court should reverse the district court's order and remand
                   with instructions to conduct a new evidentiary hearing presided over by a
                   different judge. In contrast, Jason argues that the district court's order is
                   supported by substantial evidence, Maggie's fundamental parental rights
                   are not properly at issue as she can reconnect with H.R. as soon as she does
                   the work prescribed by Dr. Collins, and he is entitled to attorney fees and
                   costs as the prevailing party.
                   The district court's decision to modify ph,ysical custody is supported by
                   substantial evidence
                               Maggie argues that the order modifying physical custody is not

                   supported by substantial evidence and that the district court abused its
                   discretion by finding a substantial change in circumstances.        A district

                   court's child custody order is reviewed for an abuse of discretion. Wallace
                   v. Wallace, 112 Nev. 1015, 1019, 922 P.2d 541, 543 (1996). Factual findings
                   of the district court will not be set aside if "supported by substantial

                   in effect for more than one year and contained very few findings, and none
                   explained the lengthy delays.
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                   evidence, which is evidence that a reasonable person may accept as
                   adequate to sustain a judgment." Ellis v. Carucci, 123 Nev. 145, 149, 161
                   P.3d 239, 242 (2007) (footnote omitted).
                               We begin with the issue of child testimony. Maggie al.leges that
                   testimony given at the hearing by the guardian ad litem that recounted
                   H.R's wish to live with Jason. which is a best interest factor a district court
                   must consider under NRS 125C.0035(4)(a), was both inadmissible hearsay
                   and unrecorded child testiMony under Gordon v. Geiger, 133 Nev. 542, 547,
                   402 P.3d 671, 675 (2017).7       Maggie's arguthent that the district court

                   improperly considered child testimony fails for three reasons. First, she
                   does not address the effect of similar testimony given by Jason, H.R.'s
                   stepmother, and Dr. Collins, and therefore, she has not shown how the

                   adrnission of the guardian ad litern's testimony affected her substantial
                   rights. See Wyeth v. Rowatt, 126 Nev. 446, 465, 244 P.3d 765, 778 (2010)
                   ("To establish that an error is prejudicial, the movant must show that the
                   error affects the party's substantial rights so that, but for the alleged errok,
                   a different result might reasonably have been reached."). Second, while
                   Gordon does direct that child interviews be recorded, the facts are
                   distinguishable and its holding is limited to interviews intended to be used
                   in lieu of in-court child testimony. See Gordon, 133 Nev. at 547-48, 402 P.3d
                   at 675-76. Therefore, we decline to adopt an interpretation that would
                   require a guardian ad litem to record a child's interview when the guardian
                   ad litem's purpose is not to garner testimony but to protect the best interest

                         7 Gordon provides "that child interviews must be recorded" and that
                   child testimony must abide by the Uniform Child Witness Testimony by
                   Alternative Methods Act. 133 Nev. at 547, 402 P.3d at 675; NRS 50.500-
                   .620; see also NRCP 16.215.
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                     of the child. See NRS 159A.0455; see generally NRCP 16.215(a), (f). Third,
                     we note that a hearsay exception, such as a statement of H.R.'s then-
                     existing mental or emotional condition, likely applies. See NRS 51.105(1).
                                 Maggie also argues that Jason did not meet his burden to show
                     a substantial change in circumstances affecting H.R.'s welfare and that the
                     district court did not have sufficient evidence that modification was in
                     H.R.'s best interest. See Romano v. Romano, 138 Nev. 1, 9, 501 P.3d 980,
                     986 (2022) (concluding that to modify custody a movant must show "there
                     has been a substantial change in circumstances affecting the welfare of the
                     child" and "the modification would serve the child's best interest").
                                 The district court found that the severely deteriorating
                     relationship between H.R. and Maggie and H.R.'s age and wishes
                     constituted a substantial change in circumstances affecting H.R.'s welfare.
                     These   findings   are   supported   by   substantial   evidence.       Maggie

                     acknowledged and explained her deteriorating relationship with H.R. in her
                     motion to modify, which was the motion that initiated the matter before us.
                     In that motion, she alleged that her relationship with H.R. had deteriorated
                     to the point of H.R. calling her names, punching her, and locking her out of
                     the home. By the time the matter reached the final evidentiary hearing, it
                     was undisputed that the interactions between the two had devolved to
                     include H.R. lashing out physically and running from Maggie. It was also
                     undisputed that Maggie struggled to regulate her emotions during these
                     conflicts. While the district court's findings that Maggie was primarily at
                     fault for H.R's behavior are suspect based on the evidence introduced

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                     during the hearing,8 under Romano the court was only required to find that
                     a substantial change in circumstances affecting H.R.'s welfare existed.
                     Romano's holding does not require the district court to properly diagnose
                     the cause, even if it might be important in the ultimate custody decision.
                                 Likewise, substantial evidence supported the district court's
                     best interest findings that three factors favored Jason: (1) H.R.'s wishes;
                     (2) Jason's mental health," as compared with Maggie's "highly emotionally
                     dysregulated" disposition; and (3) the nature of H.R.'s relationship with
                     each parent)"    See NRS 125C.0035(4)(a), (0, (h).      Multiple witnesses,

                           8As   mentioned above, Zelensky's report stated Jason was likely
                     engaged in parental alienation, and we note that the district court did not
                     give this evidence any weight. "Parental alienation is a strategy whereby
                     one parent intentionally displays to the child unjustified negativity aimed
                     at the other parent." Ken Lewis, Parental Alienation Can Be Emotional
                     Child Abuse, National Center for State Courts: Trends in State Courts, 46,
                     47 (last visited June 29, 2023), https://cdm16501.contentdm.ocic.org/digital/
                     collection/famct/id/1644. The result is damage to the child's relationship
                     with the other parent, turning into rejection and hostility directed at the
                     nonalienating parent. Id. Parental alienation is a "form of emotional child
                     abuse." ld. Zelensky testified to Jason's behavior she personally witnessed.
                     Additionally, the guardian ad litem testified she was concerned H.R. was
                     being coached by Jason. Dr. Collins testified that she did "not believe that
                     alienation [was] the primary reason for [H.R.'s] dissatisfaction with" their
                     relationship "today," and the district court agreed. (Emphasis added.)
                     Further, Maggie offered testimony that H.R. would come back from
                     spending time with Jason making unusual recriminations for a young child,
                     such as accusing Maggie of printing a fake college degree.

                           "The district court did not address in its order how this finding was
                     affected by either Zelensky's report that Jason had taken psychotropic
                     medications or Jason's own testimony that he took antidepressants.

                          'Mt potential fourth factor, H.R.'s physical and developmental needs,
                     cannot be viewed as supporting the custody decision because it was

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                   including therapists called to testify by both parties, attested to H.R.'s
                   wishes and to Maggie's emotional state. It is undisputed that the nature of
                   Maggie's and H.R.'s relationship had deteriorated to include H.R. becoming
                   physically aggressive and running away. The record shows that by the time
                   of the evidentiary hearing, H.R. was estranged from Maggie.
                               These factual findings were included in the district court's final
                   order, and we do not reweigh evidence on appeal.        Yamaha Motor Co.,
                   U.S.A. v. Arnoult, 114 Nev. 233, 238, 955 P.2d 661, 664 (1998) (noting that
                   appellate courts are "not at liberty to weigh the evidence anew, and where
                   conflicting evidence exists, all favorable inferences must be drawn towards
                   the prevailing party"). Also, the standard of review here is deferential. See
                   Ellis, 123 Nev. at 149, 161 P.3d at 242.       We therefore conclude that
                   substantial evidence supports the district court's findings that Jason
                   demonstrated a substantial change in circumstances affecting H.R.'s
                   welfare and supports the court's best interest factor findings. Thus, as the
                   district court's findings allowed for a modification of the custody order, we
                   affirm that determination. Yet we decline to give similar deference to its
                   parenting time allocation.
                   The district court's allocation of parenting time is contrary to Nevada law
                   and policy
                                Maggie argues that the district court's order infringed upon her
                   parental rights and that the court's interlocutory and operative orders were
                   so extreme that the district court effectively undermined her relationship
                   with H.R. to the point of near termination of her parental rights. Jason

                   confusingly found to be "neutral" in part but "favor[ed] Jason" in part
                   because "Maggie has not yet done the things she needs to do in order to"
                   have a relationship with H.R. See NRS 125C.0035(4)(g).
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                   argues that Maggie's fundamental parental rights are not properly at issue
                   because she can simply follow the court's order, do the work as prescribed
                   by Dr. Collins, and be reunited with H.R. as soon as Dr. Collins is satisfied
                   with Maggie's progress.
                               "The   district court   has broad     discretionary   power    in
                   determining child custody," including parenting time. Dauis v. Ewalefo, 131
                   Nev. 445, 450, 352 P.3d 1139, 1142 (2015) (internal quotation marks
                   omitted).   We review a district court's discretionary determinations
                   deferentially, but deference is not owed to legal error or findings that "may
                   mask legal error." Id. Here, there are three significant legal errors in the
                   district court's order. First, the order restricts Maggie's parenting time to
                   such a degree that it has unduly infringed upon Maggie's parental rights
                   and effectively awarded sole physical custody to Jason without a sufficient
                   legal basis or findings for so doing. Second, the district court improperly
                   delegated its substantive authority to a third party, Dr. Collins. Finally,
                   the order incorporates by reference what the district court called the "March
                   11, 2022, Order," which was its oral modification to "the no contact order of
                   Dr. Collins" made rnidway through the evidentiary hearing, as its final
                   parenting time order. No other findings or information are included as to
                   how the "March 11, 2022, Order" controls Maggie's parenting time, so the
                   final order is facially unenforceable. We address each error in turn.
                         Sole physical custody
                               The parent-child relationship is a fundamental liberty interest.
                   See, e.g., Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, 399 (1923); Rico v. Rodriguez,
                   121 Nev. 695, 704, 120 P.3d 812, 818 (2005) (quoting Troxel, 530 U.S. at 65,
                   in concluding that parents have a fundamental interest in the care, custody,
                   and control of their children). A permanent change to parenting time affects

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                   a parent's fundamental right concerning the custody of their child. Gordon,
                   133 Nev. at 546, 402 P.3d at 674. Even parents deemed highly emotionally
                   dysregulated retain their fundamental rights. Cf. Santosky v. Kramer, 455
                   U.S. 745 (1982) (concluding that parents retain constitutional rights even if
                   they are found to be unfit).
                                Nevada's district courts enter one of three parenting time

                   arrangements in a custodial order—joint, primary, or sole physical custody.
                   The Nevada Legislature and our supreme court have previously defined the
                   first two parenting time arrangements and provided guidance on what a
                   court must consider when entering an award for either joint or primary
                   physical custody.      See, e.g., NRS 125C.0025; NRS 125C.003; NRS
                   125C.0035; Rivero, 125 Nev. at 424, 216 P.3d at 224. Our supreme court
                   has defined joint physical custody as a custodial arrangement awarding
                   "custody of the minor child or children to BOTH PARENTS and providing
                   that physical custody shall be shared by the parents in such a way to ensure
                   the child or children of frequent associations and a continuing relationship
                   with both parents," which "must approximate an equal timeshare." Rivero,
                   125 Nev. at 424, 216 P.3d at 224 (quoting Hearing on S.B. 188 Before the
                   Assemb. Judiciary Comm., 61st Leg. (Nev., Apr. 2, 1981)) (emphasis in
                   original).   Joint physical custody is the first alternative a court should

                   consider when deciding custody.       See NRS 125C.003(1).       If such an

                   arrangement is not in the best interest of child, the court may then order
                   primary physical custody. Id. Joint physical custody is presumed not to be
                   in a child's best interest in certain circumstances. NRS 125C.003(1)(a)-(c);
                   but see NRS 125C.0025(1)(b) (providing joint physical custody remains the
                   "preference" and "would be in the best interest of a minor child if.... [a]
                   parent has demonstrated, or has attempted to demonstrate but has had his

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                   or her efforts frustrated by the other parent, an intent to establish a
                   meaningful relationship with the minor child").
                               Primary physical custody "may encompass a wide array of
                   circumstances." Rivero, 125 Nev. at 428, 216 P.3d at 226; see also NRS
                   125C.003(1)(a) (providing that an award of primary physical custody is
                   appropriate when the district court determines that joint physical custody
                   is not in the best interest of the child and specifying that joint physical
                   custody is presumed not to be in the best interest of the child if"a parent is
                   unable to adequately care for a minor child for at least 146 days of the
                   year"). "The focus of primary physical custody is the child's residence."
                   Rivero, 125 NeV. at 428, 216 P.3d at 226 (quoting Tenn. Code Ann. § 36-6-
                   402(4) (2005), which defines "primary residential parent" as the parent with
                   whom the child resides for more than 50 percent of the time). A primary
                   physical custody arrangement is expansive enough to include parenting
                   time arrangements where the nonprimary custodial parent has limited in-
                   person parenting time. Id. (citing Metz v. Metz, 120 Nev. 786, 789, 101. P.3d
                   779, 781 (2004), wherein the. court affirmed a primary custodial order where
                   the nonprimary custodial parent had parenting time "every other weekend"
                   and "custody of the child during the month of July").
                               However, neither the Nevada Legislature nor our supreme
                   court has previously defined sole physical custody. Even so, the existence
                   of sole physical custody as a parenting time arrangement is acknowledged
                   in NRS 125C.0035.         NRS 125C.0035(5) (explaining that clear and
                   convincing evidence of domestic violence creates the presumption that "sole
                   or joint physical custody" by the perpetrator is not in the best interest of the
                   child (emphasis added)).     Further, it is a parenting time arrangement
                   ordered by Nevada's district courts and subject to appellate review. See,

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                   e.g., Garver u. Garver, No. 82471-COA, 2022 WL 1772546, at *1 (Nev. Ct.
                   App. May 27, 2022) (Order of Affirmance) (affirming an order granting sole
                   physical custody that allowed only two virtual sessions per week with the
                   noncustodial parent).
                               In a sole physical custody arrangement, the child "reside[s]

                   with ... one parent" yet is "subject to the power of the [district] court to
                   order" parenting time for the noncustodial parent.     See Cal. Fam. Code

                   § 3007 (West 2004) (defining sole physical custody, cited by Rivero, 125 Nev.
                   at 422, 216 P.3d at 222); see also Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. Ch. 208 § 31
                   (distinguishing "sole physical custody" from "shared physical custody").
                   Sole physical custody is distinct from primary physical custody.        In a

                   primary physical custody arrangement, a child spends most, but not all, of
                   their time residing with one parent.     Comparatively, in a sole physical

                   custody arrangement, the child reasonably can be said to reside with only
                   one parent. For example, with primary physical custody, a child may reside
                   with both parents by spending most or some weekends living with the
                   nonpriniary-custodial parent. See Rivero, 125 Nev. at 425-26, 216 P.3d at
                   224. But this is not the type of parenting time arrangement our district
                   courts consider when entering an order for sole physical custody."
                               We now define sole physical custody as a custodial arrangement
                   where the child resides with only one parent and the noncustodial parent's
                   parenting time is restricted to no significant in-person parenting time.
                   Therefore, when a district court enters an order that limits parenting time

                         11See, e.g., In re Parental Rights as to A.M., No. 81098-COA, 2020 WL
                   6955396, at *1 (Nev. Ct. App. Nov. 25, 2020) (Order Granting Petition for
                   Writ of Mandamus) (reviewing an order granting sole physical custody that
                   did not award any parenting time to the noncustodial parent).
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                   to restrictive supervised parenting time, virtual contact, phone calls,
                   letters, texts, a very limited block of hours on a single day of the week, or a
                   similarly restraining parenting time arrangement, it has entered an order
                   for sole physical custody.
                               Because the noncustodial parent's care, custody, and control of

                   their child is so severely restricted, sole physical custody orders implicate a
                   parent's fundamental rights and policies in a manner manifestly distinct
                   from orders for joint or primary physical custody. See Blanco v. Blanco, 129
                   Nev. 723, 731, 311 P.3d 1170, 1175 (2013) ("[C]hild custody decisions
                   implicate due process rights because parents have a fundamental liberty
                   interest in the care, custody, and control of their children."). While a district

                   court does not terminate a parent's rights by entering a sole physical
                   custody order, the severe restriction on the noncustodial parent's care,
                   custody, and control of their child requires additional findings and
                   procedure as compared to entry of a joint or primary physical custody order.
                   See NRS 128.005(2)(a) (providing that the public policy of Nevada is to
                   preserve and strengthen family life; thus, "[s]everance of the parent-child
                   relationship is a matter of such importance" that it requires "judicial
                   determination"); cf. NRS 128.105 (outlining specific findings a district court
                   must make before terminating parental rights); NRS 128.160-.190
                   (providing the procedure for seeking a restoration of parental rights).
                               To protect a noncustodial parent's rights, judicial discretion is

                   tempered by this state's policy of supporting "frequent associations and a
                   continuing relationship" between parent and child after the parents'
                   relationship with each other has ended. NRS 125C.001(1). Therefore, a
                   district court risks abusing its discretion when it orders sole physical
                   custody without sufficient cause or otherwise unnecessarily restricts a.nd

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                   threatens the parent-child relationship. See, e.g., Davis, 131 Nev. at 453-
                   54, 352 P.3d at 1144-45 (concluding that the district court abused its
                   discretion and violated Nevada's policy of frequent a.ssociation by restricting
                   the child from traveling out of the country to visit his father); Mosley v.
                   Figliuzzi, 1.1.3 Nev. 51, 64, 930 P.2d 1110, 1118 (1.997) (explaining that
                   "courts should be striving to impose as little change from the intact two-
                   parent family as possible after parents separate"), overruled on other
                   grounds by Castle v. Simmons, 120 Nev. 98, 86 P.3d 1042 (2004); Herzog v.
                   Herzog, No. 73160, 2018 WL 4781619, at *2 (Nev. Oct. 2, 2018) (Order
                   Affirming in Part, Reversing in Part, and Remanding) (concluding that the
                   district court abused its discretion by severely limiting parenting time to a
                   degree that "could virtually destroy [a parent's] relationship with [her]
                   child").
                               To avoid unnecessary restrictions on parental rights, a district
                   court must only enter an order for sole physical custody if it first finds either
                   that the •noncustodial parent is unfit for the child to reside with,r2 or if it

                         12 NRS 128.018 defines, in the context of termination of parental
                   rights proceedings, an 'unfit parent' [as] any parent of a child who, by
                   reason of the parent's fault or habit or conduct toward the child or other
                   persons, fails to provide such child with proper care, guidance and support."
                   When a parent has been determined by a district court to be unfit or
                   neglectful, see NRS 128.106, this can be a basis for terminating parental
                   rights. However, when deciding sole phYsical custody, some of the factors
                   of NRS 128.106 are instructive or persuasive to the district court's findings
                   of whether a parent is unfit for a child to reside with. For example, if a
                   parent is found to be "unable to care for the immediate and cOntinuing
                   physical or psychological needs of the child for extended periods of time,"
                   engaged in abuse of the child, or excessively using alcohol or drugs so that
                   the "parent [is] consistently unable to care for the child," then that parent
                   may be unfit for the child to reside with. See NRS 128.106(a), (b), (d). These

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                   makes specific findings and provides an adequate explanation as to the
                   reasons why primary physical custody is not in the best interest of the child.
                   See Davis, 131 Nev. at 452, 352 P.3d at 1143 (stating that the district court
                   must rnake "specific findings and an adequate explanation of the reasons
                   for the custody determination because they are crucial to enforce or modify
                   a custody order and for appellate review" (quoting Rivero, 125 Nev. at 430,
                   216 P.3d at 227) (internal quotation marks omitted)); see also Routten v.
                   Routten, 843 S. E.2d 154, 159 (N.C. 2020) (interpreting the "best interest of

                   the child" to require additional written findings when "the court determines
                   that one parent should not be awarded reasonable visitation"). As in Davis,
                   these findings must be in writing, 131 Nev. at 452, 352 P.3d at 1143, and
                   are separate and in addition to the best interest findings required under
                   NRS 125C.0035(4) and our primary physical custody jurisprudence.
                                  After making either of these findings supporting sole physical

                   custody, the district court must then order the least restrictive parenting
                   time arrangement possible that is within the child's best interest. Cf. NRS
                   125C .0035(1) (stating that in an action for physical custody of a child, "the
                   sole consideration of the court is the best interest of the child").    When

                   entering its custodial order, if a less restrictive parenting time arrangement
                   is available, or proposed but rejected, the district court must provide an
                   explanation as to how the best interest of the child is served by the greater
                   restriction.    Cf. In, re S.L, 134 Nev. at 494-97, 422 P.3d at 1257-59
                   (concluding that to preserve a parent's fundamental rights, a district court

                   examples are not intended t.o be either controlling or exhaustive, but
                   instructive. See Poole u. Nev. Auto Dealership Invs., LLC, 135 Nev. 280,
                   287-88, 449 P.3d 479, 485-86 (Ct. App. 2019) (using a similar statute to
                   provide the definition of "material fact" in a statute where it was otherwise
                   undefined).
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   P)4711
                   must consider "the services offered to and the efforts made by the parents,
                   and whether additional services would bring about lasting change"). For
                   example, if a party, therapist, or guardian ad litem proposes supervised
                   parenting tirne in lieu of an order for no physical contact with the child, and
                   the district court declines to enter an order for supervised parenting time,
                   it must explain in its written findings why supervised parenting time is not
                   in the child's best interest." Cf. NRS 432B.530(3)(b) (stating that when a
                   child is placed in the physical custody of a nonparent, "the court shall set
                   forth good cause why the child was placed other than with a parent"). We
                   now turn to the situation at hand and apply these principles.
                                Here, the district court properly labeled its temporary order
                   restricting Maggie's parenting time to reunification therapy and a six-hour
                   visit on Sunday afternoons as sole physical custody. But this is not the case
                   in the district court's post-hearing custody modification order wherein it
                   expressly awarded "primary physical custody" to Jason yet limited Maggie's
                   parenting time solely to cards, texts, and calls. See Valley Bank of Nev. v.
                   Ginsburg, 110 Nev. 440, 445, 874 P.2d 729, 733 (1994) (noting that appellate
                   courts will generally construe a district court's order in terms of what it
                   "actually does, not what it is called").    By so doing, the district court

                   mislabeled   the custodial order and inequitably restricted Maggie's
                   parenting time so severely that she has less parenting time than other

                          "This level of detail is necessary to preserve the noncustodial parent's
                   modification rights. See Davis, 131 Nev. at 452, 352 P.3d at 1143. A
                   noncustodial parent, who has very limited or no care, custody, and control
                   of their child, has a considerable evidentiary challenge to show "a
                   substantial change in circumstances affecting the welfare of the child" and
                   that the child's best interest will be served by the modification as compared
                   to a joint, primary, or nonprimary custodial parent. See Romano, 138 Nev.
                   at 9, 501 P.3d at 986.
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10, 194711
                   parents in cases the supreme court has addressed who were incarcerated or
                   residing at in-person rehabilitation programs.'4      The record contains no
                   evidence to suggest that Maggie has any criminal history, any history of
                   substance abuse, any history of domestic violence, or unfitness.
                   Additionally, she is gainfully employed in public service as an educator, and
                   she has actively been in treatment with a therapist covered by her
                   insurance plan.    Yet, by order of the district court, Maggie has been
                   prohibited from exercising any in-person parenting time with H.R. for more
                   than one year. We also note that the indirect effect of the district court's
                   ruling has been to effectively terminate H.R.'s relationship with his half
                   sibling in Maggie's care.    See NRS 125C.0035(4)(i) (providing the best
                   interest of a child may include the ability to maintain a relationship with a
                   sibling).
                               Further, the district court's order put such a strangle on
                   Maggie's parenting time with its reunification therapy requirements and
                   imposition of significant financial liabilities, which tied any possible relief
                   to her now limited financial resources, that it unreasonably restricted
                   Maggie's fundamental rights concerning the custody of her child.           See
                   Gordon, 133 Nev. at 546, 402 P.3d at 674. There are few findings in the
                   final order as to why such a restriction on Maggie's rights was warranted,
                   even though such findings are required, especially when a district court
                   ratchets a restriction on a parent's rights this tightly. Cf. NRS 128.005(1)
                   ("The Legislature declares that the preservation and strengthening of
                   family life is a part of the public policy of this State."); NRS 432B.330 and
                   NRS 432B.390 (describing the circumstances under which a child is or may

                         "See, e.g., Herzog, No. 73160, 2018 WL 4781619, at *2; Bohannon,
                   No. 69719, 2017 WL 1080066, at *1.
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                   be in need of protection, none of which are present here, thereby allowing
                   removal from the home by child protection authorities). And this was all
                   done without the district court considering any less restrictive and
                   financially feasible option, such as supervised parenting time.
                               In sum, the district court erred by: (1) failing to consider a less
                   restrictive parenting time arrangement; (2) failing to adequately explain
                   why the greater restriction was necessary;15 (3) failing to make findings how
                   true primary physical custody was not in H.R.'s best interest; and
                   (4) implementing an almost unachievable plan with no ending, review, or
                   even status check date, and accordingly has undermined Nevada's public
                   policy, issued an order inconsistent with Nevada jurisprudence, and
                   violated Maggie's parental rights. As a result, we conclude that the district
                   court abused its discretion when it effectively awarded Jason sole physical
                   custody of H.R. Thus, we reverse the parenting time allocation and direct
                   the district court, on remand, to enter a parenting time order consistent
                   with Nevada jurisprudence and this opinion.
                         Delegation of substantive decision-making authority
                               Maggie argues that it is impossible to satisfy Dr. Collins's
                   treatment plan, as Maggie cannot afford to see her twice a month for an

                         15"Without an explanation of the reasons or bases for a district court's
                   decision, meaningful appellate review, even a deferential one, is hampered
                   because we are left to mere speculation." Jitnan v. Oliver, 127 Nev. 424,
                   433, 254 P.3d 623, 629 (2011) (explaining why deferential review does not
                   mean no review or require adherence to the district court's decision); see
                   also In re Guardianship of B.A.A.R., 136 Nev. 494, 500, 474 P.3d 838, 844
                   (Ct. App. 2020) ("[B]ecause it is not clear that the district court would have
                   reached the same conclusion... had it applied the correct [legal]
                   standard[,] . . . we must reverse the district court's decision and remand for
                   further proceedings.").
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It» 19-171t
                   indefinite time and the therapeutic relationship is unrecoverable.16 District
                   courts may direct that an investigation be conducted for assistance in
                   determining the appropriate custodial award.       NRS 125C.0025(2).      Yet

                   district courts must have "the ultimate decision-rnaking power regarding
                   custody determinations, and that power cannot be delegated." Bautista v.
                   Picone, 134 Nev. 334, 337, 419 P.3d 157, 159 (2018). Although some of its

                   authority may be delegated "by appointing a third party to perform quasi-
                   judicial duties," Harrison v. Harrison, 132 Nev. 564, 572, 376 P.3d 173, 178
                   (2016), the "decision-making authority [to be delegated] must be limited to
                   nonsubstantive issues . . . and it cannot extend to modifying the underlying
                   custody arrangement," including making significant changes to the
                   timeshare for either parent, Bautista, 134 Nev. at 337, 419 P.3d at 159-60.
                   This restriction applies to any delegation of a district court's decision-
                   making power when deciding an appropriate custodial award, as well as the
                   discretion to hear future, post-order modifications.
                               As outlined above, the district court ordered Dr. Collins to
                   determine when Maggie and H.R. were ready to have any modification to
                   the parenting time schedule.     The determination of child custody is a
                   substantive decision that rests solely within the district court's authority.
                   Id. at 337, 419 P. 3d at 159; see generally Romano, 138 Nev. at 9, 501 P.3d
                   at 986. Accordingly, we conclude that the district court abused its discretion
                   by tethering any post-order increase of Maggie's parenting time to Dr.
                   Collins's discretion.

                         ' 6We note that Dr. Collins was called by Jason as an expert witness
                   to testify for him and provide evidence unfavorable to Maggie, which
                   undoubtedly further strained the therapeutic relationship beyond what has
                   already been addressed.
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   [9471t    Lk
                                       Specificity of final order
                                             Maggie argues that the lack of specificity in the district court's
                                orders harmed her relationship with H.R., specifically noting the district
                                court's final order incorporating by reference only its oral modification of
                                "the no contact order of Dr. Collins." An order awarding parenting time
                                must "Kiefine that right with sufficient particularity to ensure that the
                                rights of the parties can be properly enforced and that the best interest of
                                the child is achieved," arid not use terms that are "susceptible to different
                                interpretations by the parties."        NRS 125C.010(1)(a), (2).      Generally, a
                                court's oral pronouncement from the bench is ineffective. Nalder v. Eighth
                                Judicial Dist. Court, 136 Nev. 200. 208, 462 P.3d 677, 685 (2020) (quoting
                                Millen v. Eighth Judicial Dist. Court, 122 Nev. 1245, 1251, 148 P.3d 694,
                                698 (2006)). Furthermore, a district court's written order must "specify the
                                compliance details in unambiguous terms." Cf. Div. of Child & Family
                                Servs. v. Eighth Judicial Dist. Court, 120 Nev. 445, 454-55, 92 P.3d 1239,
                                1245 (2004) (concluding that an order for contempt "must spell out the
                                details of compliance in clear, specific and unambiguous terms so that the
                                person will readily know exactly what duties or obligations are imposed on
                                [them•]").
                                             Here,   the     district   court's   final   parenting   time   order
                                incorporated, by reference only, its oral, mid-hearing direction to modify
                                "the no contact order of Dr. Collins" by allowing Maggie to send cards to,
                                text, or call H.R.         The details of the district court's mid-hearing
                                pronouncement were never reduced to writing, so there is little in the final
                                order outlining the scope or facilitating enforceability of the "March• 11,
                                2022, Order." Thus, there is no way to enforce the final order, especially as

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101 144711   .,:"^-4),T.:E.r,
                    to the involvement of law enforcement, and so it follows that the district
                    court's final order is ineffective.
                                  Therefore, on remand, we instruct the district court to enter an
                    interim order consistent with Nevada jurisprudence, thus returning
                    Maggie's parenting time to at a minimum what she could exercise following
                    the emergency motion—at least weekly contact, even if supervised, with the
                    goal of achieving "frequent associations and a continuing relationship." See
                    NRS 125C.001(1).        Thereafter, we direct the district court to retain its

                    substantive decision-making authority and enter a final enforceable order
                    that has the requisite level of specificity to comply with NRS 125C.010(1)(a),
                    (2), and the principles announced in this opinion.
                    On remand, this case rnust be reassigned to a different district court judge
                                  Maggie argues that the district court displayed bias against her
                    by: (1) ignoring the evidence in the record about who was responsible for
                    H.R.'s arrests; (2) ignoring H.R.'s personal therapist's recommendation that
                    H.R. would benefit from physical time with Maggie; (3) questioning her
                    excessively and rebuking her; and (4) predetermining the outcome before
                    the close of the evidentiary hearing. Jason responds that the district court
                    was not biased because it was Dr. Collins who recommended the ultimate
                    outcome—no contact—and the parenting coordinator also recommended
                    that contact be paused.
                                  "[A] judge is presumed to be impartial . . . ." Ybarra v. State,

                    127 Nev. 47, 51, 247 P.3d 269, 272 (2011). However, a judge must "act at
                    all   times    in   a    manner       that    promotes   public   confidence   in

                    the . . . impartiality of the judiciary." NCJC Rule 1.2. A judge shall perform
                    duties without bias or prejudice, not use words or conduct manifesting bias,
                    and require lawyers to refrain from such conduct. NCJC Rule 2.3(A)-(C). A
                    judge who "entertains actual bias or prejudice for or against one of the
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                   parties" must not preside over a proceeding. NRS 1.230(1). If a "judge's
                   impartiality might reasonably be questioned," then that judge should be
                   disqualified. NCJC Rule 2.11(A).
                                The test for judicial bias is a question of law, and the burden is
                   on the party asserting bias to establish the factual basis. Ybarra, 127 Nev.
                   at 51, 247 P.3d at 272.     Ultimately, a judge should be disqualified if "a

                   reasonable person, knowing all the facts, would harbor reasonable doubts
                   about the [judge's] impartiality."     Id. (alteration in original) (internal

                   quotation marks omitted).
                                When evaluating if a case should be reassigned on remand, we

                   consider the following factors:
                               (1) whether the original judge would reasonably be
                               expected upon remand to have substantial
                               difficulty in putting out of his or her mind
                               previously-expressed views or findings determined
                               to be erroneous or based on evidence that must be
                               rejected, (2) whether reassignment is advisable to
                               preserve the appearance of justice, and (3) whether
                               reassignment would entail waste and duplication
                               out of proportion to any gain in preserving the
                               appearance of fairness.
                   Sniith v. Mulvaney, 827 F.2d 558, 562-63 (9th Cir. 1987); see, e.g., Luong v.
                   Eighth Judicial Dist. Court, No. 84743-COA, 2022 WL 3755881, at *3 (Nev.
                   Ct. App. Aug. 29, 2022) (Order Granting in Part and Denying in Part
                   Petition for Writ of Mandamus and Denying Petition for Writ of Prohibi.tion)
                   (applying Mulvaney factors to reassign remanded family law case to a
                   different district court judge).
                               From the record, it appears that the district court's impartiality
                   can be reasonably questioned as early as the entry of the temporary order
                   in March 2021 when it found that Maggie "obviously [cannot] parent [H.R.]"
                   and "[t]here is something wrong . . . with the parent who cannot manage an
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(a) 104711
                   1 1-year-old." In the sarne order, the district court erroneously found that
                   Maggie called the police on H.R., despite the record demonstrating that
                   others had called. By the final prehearing conference, the district court said
                   on the record that Maggie was "in a bad position." During the hearing,
                   before Maggie presented any evidence, the district court stated, "l don't
                   think there's a whole bunch more that .. . needs to be said." • This court
                   considers   these   instances—despite     their   occurrences    during   the

                   performance of the judge's judicial duties—because •these• statements
                   indicate a lack of impartiality. See Canarelli v. Eighth Judicial Dist. Court,
                   138 Nev. 104, 109, 506 P.3d 334, 339 (2022) (concluding that generally what
                   a judge learns during the performance of his or her duties "does not warrant
                   disqualification unless the judge forms an opinion that displays a deep-
                   seated favoritism or antagonism that would make fair judgment impossible"
                   (internal quotation marks omitted)).
                               There are also extrajudicial concerns in the record that
                   implicate the district court's impartiality in this case, such as: (1) the
                   district court expressed repeatedly on the record its highly favorable opinion
                   of Dr. Collins, which was based on Dr. Collins's work in other cases the court
                   was familiar with, and then forced Maggie to see only Dr. Collins for
                   reunification therapy, despite Dr. Collins's concession that it was not a good
                   match; (2) the district court considered pre-2017 evidence, including asking
                   Maggie, before she gave her direct testimony, a series of questions related
                   to incidents that took place before the stipulated custody order, even though
                   the court restricted pre-2017 evidence at the outset of the hearing; (3) the
                   district court stated that being a stepmother was more challenging than

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1(1, 1447it
                   being a biological mother;17 and (4) the district court shared its opinion that
                   H.R. was better behaved with his father because children listen better to
                   men, in part because men have deeper voices and there is an underlying
                   threat of "fisticuffs" should a child not listen to a man.
                                 The above examples are nonexhaustive.          Although one can

                   reasonably argue that any statement made by a court during a lengthy
                   proceeding can only be understood in context, here the record is replete with

                   additional expressed views and findings that are either erroneous or based
                   on evidence predating the 2017 order." The district court's restrictive
                   interlocutory orders almost certainly aided the devolution of H.R. and
                   Maggie's relationship by prohibiting any form of contact between the two
                   for months on end and by restricting physical contact for more than a year,
                   and possibly to this day considering the requirements for reunification and
                   improper delegation of authority as previously discussed.         Further, the

                   district court did so without considering a less restrictive alternative, such
                   as supervised parenting time.      By failing to consider a less restrictive
                   alternative, the district court left Maggie only a single opportunity to
                   potentially   resume   seeing her     child—attend    regular   and   frequent

                          TAlexandra. H.R's stepmother and Jason's wife, testified fbr Jason at
                   the evidentiary hearing.

                          "The district court sustained several objections to the relevance of
                   the parties offering pre-2017 evidence during the evidentiary hearing. But
                   it did not sustain Maggie's objection to the relevance of the district court
                   asking her several questions about pre-2017 events. See NRS 50.145(2) (a
                   party may object to questions during the court's interrogation of a witness);
                   see also McMonigle v. McMonigle, 110 Nev. 1.407, 1408, 887 P.2d 742, 743
                   (1994) (providing that a party moving for a change in custody must show
                   that circumstances have been substantially altered since the last custodial
                   order), overruled on other grounds by Castle, 1.20 Nev. at 98, 86 P.3d at 1042.
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                   individual sessions with Dr. Collins and achieve a sufficient level of
                   progress, as determined by Dr. Collins, before joint reunification sessions
                   with H.R. could begin. We note again that Dr. Collins, who admittedly was
                   not a good therapeutic fit for Maggie, was not covered by Maggie's
                   insurance, so Maggie could not afford to regularly attend appointments.
                               Given the district court's strong negative opinions of Maggie, as

                   well as its shared on-the-record extrajudicial opinions, any duplication
                   necessary by reassignment of this case to a different judge is not out of
                   proportion to the requisite fairness demanded in child custody proceedings.
                   Thus, on remand, we direct the chief judge or presiding judge to reassign
                   this case to a different department to consider the issues related to Maggie's
                   parenting time and the financial issues previously discussed and as
                   discussed next.'9
                   The award of attorney fees and costs must be vacated
                               The district court awarded Jason attorney fees and costs under
                   both NRS 18.010 and NR.S 125C.250. The district court also later cited
                   EDCR 7.60(b)(3) as a legal basis for the award in its conclusions of law, but
                   did not cite NRS 125C.250.2° Rather, the district court's analysis focused

                          °Though we direct the assignment of this case on remand to a new
                   district court judge, we do not agree with Maggie's argument that the
                   proceedings were so infected by bias that an entirely new evidentiary
                   hearing is required. Many of the difficult relationship issues between
                   Maggie and H.R. predate the district court's first custody order in 2021, as
                   evidenced by Maggie's own initial motion outlining her deteriorating
                   relationship with H.R., as well as Zelensky's report on Maggie's emotional
                   state.

                         20 Following entry of the district court's order, sanctionable conduct in
                   the family division is now addressed in EDCR 5.219, effective June 10, 2022.
                   See In re Amendment of Part I & V of the Rules of Practice for the Eighth

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                   on NRS 18.010, which allows a prevailing party to recover attorney fees but
                   requires the district court to first find that "the claim . . . or defense of the
                   opposing party was brought or maintained without reasonable ground or to
                   harass the prevailing party." NRS 18.010(2)(b). NRS 125C.250 allows for
                   the recovery of reasonable attorney fees in child custody actions. EDCR
                   7.60(b)(3) allowed a district court in the family division to order sanctions,
                   including an award of attorney fees, if a party, "without just cause,"
                   "multiplies the proceedings in a case L-m to increase costs unreasonably and
                   vexatiously."
                               An award of attorney fees and costs is appropriately vacated
                   when a portion of the underlying order is reversed.           See Halbrook v.

                   Halbrook, 114 Nev. 1455, 1460, 971 P.2d 1262, 1266 (1998) (reversing an
                   award of attorney fees because the district court's order was reversed);
                   Iliescu v. Reg'l Transp. Comm'n of Washoe Cty., 138 Nev., Adv. Op. 72, 522
                   P.3d 453. 462 (Ct. App. 2022) (vacating an award of attorney fees because
                   the underlying judgment was reversed in part and the prevailing party was
                   no longer clear). As we reverse a portion of the district court's order in this
                   case, we now also vacate the award of attorney fees and costs to Jason.
                   However, as awards of attorney fees and costs in family law cases are
                   frequently appealed to this court, and they will have to be addressed again
                   upon remand, we review the bases cited by the district court for its order.
                               We begin with NRS 18.010. The general allowance for attorney
                   fees to a prevailing party, provided under NRS 18.010(2)(a), is limited to

                   Judicial Dist. Court, ADKT 0590 (Order Amending Part I and V of the Rules
                   of Practice for the Eighth Judicial District Court, Apr. 11, 2022). For clarity,
                   we cite to EDCR 7.60(b)(3), which was the purported legal authority for
                   sanctions at the time the district court entered its order.
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                     civil actions where the party recovers a money judgment. In re Execution
                     of Search Warrants for: 12067 Oakland Hills, Las Vegas, Nev. 89141, 134
                     Nev. 799, 799, 435 P.3d 672, 674 (Ct. App. 2018).      Clearly there is no

                     connection between a money judgment and a custody decision. Thus, an
                     award for attorney fees to the prevailing party in a custodial action cannot
                     be sustained under NRS 18.010(2)(a).
                                 NRS 18.010(2)(b), however, permits the district court to award

                     attorney fees to a prevailing party "when the court finds that the claim,
                     counterclaim[d ... or defense of the opposing party was brought or
                     maintained without reasonable ground or to harass the prevailing party."
                     The statute allows for liberal application because lilt is the intent of the
                     Legislature that the court award attorney's fees pursuant to this paragraph
                     and impose sanctions ... in all appropriate situations to punish for and
                     deter frivolous or vexatious claims and defenses."       Id.   Under NRS

                     18.010(2)(b), "a claim is frivolous or groundless if there is no credible
                     evidence to support it," Rodriguez v.. Prirnadonna Co., 125 Nei/. 578, 588,
                     216 P.3d 793, 800 (2009), which requires the district court to consider the
                     actual circumstances of the case, Sernenza v. Caughlin Crafted Homes, 111
                     Nev. 1089, 1095, 901 P.2d 684, 688 (1995). Simply, in a custodial action,
                     being a prevailing party alone is not enough for the district court to enter
                     an award of attorney fees.
                                 Here, the district court did not make findings that Maggie's
                     claims or defenses were either unreasonable or meant to harass, as was
                     required • by the .statute.    Thus, the award of • attorney fees was

                     unsupportable under NRS 18.010(2)(b) based on the district court's sole
                     finding that the legal basis for the award of fees was that Jason -was the
                     prevailing party. To the extent NRS 18.020 influenced the court's decision,

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                   the award of costs is also unsupportable due to the lack of findings. See
                   NRS 18.020(1)-(5) (stating costs must be allowed to the prevailing party in
                   certain types of actions, none of which were found by the district court to be
                   present in this case).
                                Turning to NRS 125C.250, which allows a district court to
                   award reasonable attorney fees and costs in a custody or parenting time
                   action, the district court did not make any findings under this statute, nor
                   a sufficient overall determination as to the reasonableness of ordering
                   Maggie to pay Jason over $11,000 in attorney fees and costs, considering it
                   also ordered Maggie to pay for very expensive reunification services and
                   individual sessions with Dr. Collins to have any parenting time with H.R.
                   Adequate findings of reasonableness are necessary, as the evidence
                   indicates Maggie is largely unable to afford these payments and further
                   suggests Jason's conduct      has been at least       a contributing factor
                   necessitating the reunification services. Cf. Brunzell v. Golden Gate Nat'l
                   Bank, 85 Nev. 345, 349, 455 P.2d 31, 33 (1969) (providing the framework
                   for a district court to make findings on "the reasonable value of an attorney's
                   services"); Rodriguez v. Eighth Judicial Dist. Court, 120 Nev. 798, 806, 102
                   P.3d 41, 47 (2004) ("When considering an indigency application [i n contempt
                   proceedings], a trial judge must consider a party's complete financial
                   picture, balancing income and assets against debts and liabilities, taking
                   into account the cost of a party's basic needs and living expenses."); Wright
                   u. Osbu rn,, 114 Nev. 1367, 1370, 970 P.2d 1071, 1073 (1998) ("The disparity

                   in [the parents] income is also a factor to be considered in the award of
                   attorney fees.").
                               Finally, the district court could not properly sanction Maggie
                   under EDCR 7.60(3)(3) without notice and an opportunity to be heard. Nor

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                           would it be proper without the court first finding that Maggie had
                           multiplied the cost of litigation without just cause and did so unreasonably
                           and vexatiously, which does not appear to be the case considering Maggie
                           withdrew her motion to modify custody early in the proceedings.
                           Undoubtedly, there has been significant litigation in this case, but duration
                           or volume alone does not show that a litigant is per se unjust, unreasonable,
                           or vexatious, and the court made no findings as to the same.2 ' Thus, the

                                 21Also, as to the equity and reasonableness of either NRS 125C.250,
                           EDCR 7.60(b)(3), or EDCR 5.219 as a basis for this award, the record is
                           replete with questionable conduct from Jason's counsel. As a limited
                           example, in Jason's original opposition and countermotion, where the
                           parties argue about the restrictive COVID-19 protocols, counsel for Jason
                           opines in a footnote that "[tlhe hope is that [H.R.] will contract the virus
                           and then he will pass it on to Maggie." In the same document, he calls
                           Maggie offensive, sexist, and demeaning names. Cf. NRCP 12(f) (allowing
                           a district court to strike from a pleading "scandalous matter[s]"). Counsel
                           also has taken liberties by inaccurately describing H.R.'s release from
                           custody, including unjustly accusing Maggie of trying to get Jason killed via
                           law enforcement. See EDCR 5.218(a), (e) (defining "[c]ivility" in the family
                           division includes prohibiting "[p]ersonal attacks" and "[a]ctions and
                           presentations" that do not "serve the interest of candor, courtesy, and
                           cooperation by demonstrating respect for the court and all opposing
                           litigants and attorneys").
                                 Should the district court award attorney fees to Jason on remand, in
                           addition to what is discussed in the body of this opinion, it should consider
                           when deciding the amount of fees whether Jason's counsel's language and
                           behavior multiplied the proceedings and whether he presented positions
                           that were "obviously frivolous, unnecessary, or unwarranted," thereby
                           unnecessarily increasing the cost-of litigation. See EDCR 5.219(a); see also
                           NRPC 3.1, 3.2(a), 3.4(e) (outlining a lawyer's ethical duty to raise
                           Imleritorious [c]laims and [c]ontentions," to "make reasonable efforts to
                           expedite litigation" and to be fair to the opposing party); Creed of
                           Professionalism and Ciuility, State Bar of Nevada, https://nvbar.org/for-

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                   district court's findings did not support an award of attorney fees and costs
                   under NRS 18.010(2)(b), NRS 18.020(1)-(5), NRS 125C.250, or EDCR
                   7.60(b)(3); therefore, while we properly vacate the fees and costs here, we
                   conclude that the award of fees and costs could also be reversed for legal
                   error.22
                                                  CONCLUSION
                                Sole physical custody is a custodial arrangement where the
                   child resides with only one parent and the noncustodial parent's parenting
                   time is restricted to no significant in-person parenting time. A district court
                   entering an order for sole physical custody creates tension with a parent's
                   fundamental rights, Nevada's public policy, and future modification rights.
                   Thus, a district court must first find that either the noncustodial parent is
                   unfit for the child to reside with, or it must make specific findings and
                   provide an adequate explanation as to the reasons why primary physical
                   custody is not in the best interest of the child. Afterwards, the district court
                   must enter the least restrictive parenting time arrangement possible

                   lawyers/ethics-discipline/creed-of-professionalism-and-civility/ (last visited
                   June 30, 2023).

                          We also note that EDCR 5.219, which is now the basis for sanctions
                   in the family division, provides that Isjanctions may be imposed against a
                   party, counsel, or other person" without a litigant first moving for sanctions.
                   (Emphasis added.) Thus, after notice and an opportunity to be heard,
                   district courts in the family division may enter sanctions sua sponte "for
                   unexcused intentional or negligent conduct," or for any of the reasons listed
                   under the rule, including "[fjailing or refusing to comply with" the rule
                   prohibiting uncivil behavior. See EDCR 5.219(f); EDCR 5.218 ("Civility").

                         22 lnsofar as the parties have raised arguments that are not
                   specifically addressed in this opinion, we have considered the same and
                   conclude that they either do not present a basis for relief or need not be
                   reached given the disposition of this appeal.
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tf.), 1.147B
                   consistent with a child's best interest. Should it enter a more restrictive
                   order, it must explain how the greater restriction is in the child's best
                   interest. Moreover, it must retain its decision-making authority over future
                   custodial modifications and parenting time allocations, as well as enter
                   orders with sufficient specificity to allow enforcement. These steps are to
                   ensure that when a district court enters an order for sole physical custody,
                   it does so equitably and in accordance with Nevada's statutes and
                   jurisprudence, thereby preserving the noncustodial parent's fundamental
                   rights to the greatest degree possible:
                                The district court's order in this case did not meet these
                   requirements. Accordingly, while we conclude that substantial evidence
                   supports the district court's findings thereby allowing a modification of
                   custody, we reverse as to the parenting time allocation and improper
                   delegation of the district court's authority, vacate the award of attorney fees
                   and costs, and remand the case for reassignment to a different district court
                   judge for proceedings consistent with this opinion.

                                                                                     ,   c.j.
                                                       Gibbons

                   We concur:

                   Bulla

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