Court Opinion

ID: 9391462
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-05-02 14:00:23.998481+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:18:42.836907
License: Public Domain

21-610-cv
Owens v. Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S.

                                UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
                                    FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT

                                      SUMMARY ORDER
RULINGS BY SUMMARY ORDER DO NOT HAVE PRECEDENTIAL EFFECT. CITATION TO A
SUMMARY ORDER FILED ON OR AFTER JANUARY 1, 2007 IS PERMITTED AND IS GOVERNED BY
FEDERAL RULE OF APPELLATE PROCEDURE 32.1 AND THIS COURT’S LOCAL RULE 32.1.1. WHEN
CITING A SUMMARY ORDER IN A DOCUMENT FILED WITH THIS COURT, A PARTY MUST CITE
EITHER THE FEDERAL APPENDIX OR AN ELECTRONIC DATABASE (WITH THE NOTATION
“SUMMARY ORDER”). A PARTY CITING A SUMMARY ORDER MUST SERVE A COPY OF IT ON
ANY PARTY NOT REPRESENTED BY COUNSEL.

        At a stated term of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, held at the
Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse, 40 Foley Square, in the City of New York, on the
2nd day of May, two thousand twenty-three.

PRESENT:          PIERRE N. LEVAL,
                  DENNY CHIN,
                  JOSEPH F. BIANCO,

                                     Circuit Judges.

James Owens, Victoria J. Spiers, Gary Robert Owens,
Barbara Goff, Frank B. Pressley, Jr., Yasemin B.
Pressley, David A. Pressley, Thomas C. Pressley,
Michael F. Pressley, Berk F. Pressley, Jon B.
Pressley, Marc Y. Pressley, Sundus Buyuk, Montine
Bowen, Frank Pressley, Sr., Bahar Buyuk, Serpil
Buyuk, Tulay Buyuk, Ahmet Buyuk, Dorothy
Willard, Ellen Marie Bomer, Donald Bomer, Michael
James Cormier, Andrew John William Cormier,
Alexandra Cormier, Patricia Feore, Clyde M. Hirn,
Alice M. Hirn, Patricia K. Fast, Inez P. Hirn, Joyce
Reed, Workley Lee Reed, Cheryl L. Blood, Bret W.
Reed, Ruth Ann Whiteside, Lorie Gulick, Pam
Williams, Flossie Varney, Lydia Sparks, Howard
Sparks, Tabitha Carter, Howard Sparks, Jr., Michael
Ray Sparks, Gary O. Spiers, Victoria Q. Spiers, Julita
A. Qualicio, Judith Abasi Mwila, Donte Akili
Mwaipape, Donti Akili Mwaipape, Victoria Donti
Mwaipape, Elisha Donti Mwaipape, Joseph Donti
Mwaipape, Debora Donti Mwaipape, Nko Donti
Mwaipape, Monica Akili, Akili Musupape, Valentine
Mathew Katunda, Abella Valentine Katunda, Venant
Valentine Mathe Katunda, Veidiana Valentine
Katunda, Diana Valentine Katunda, Edwine
Valentine Mathe Katunda, Angelina Mathew Felix,
Edward Mathew Rutaheshelwa, Elizabeth Mathew
Rutaheshelwa, Happiness Mathew Rutaheshelwa,
Eric Mathew Rutaheshelwa, Enoc Mathew
Rutaheshelwa, Angelina Mathew-Ferix, Mathew-
Ferix, Samuel Thomas Marcus, Cecilia Samuel
Marcus, Coronella Samuel Marcus, Hanuni
Ramadhani Ndange, Shabani Saidi Mtulya, Adabeth
Said Nang’Oko, Kulwa Ramadhani, Rizwan Khaliq,
Jenny Christiana Lovblom, Imran khaliq, Tehsin
Khaliq, Imtiaz Bedum, Irfan Khaliq, Yasir Aziz,
Naurin Khaliq, Kenneth Spencer, Jr., Samuel P. Rice,
Steven A. Diaz, Estate of David Brown, Estate of
Jesse James Ellison, Robert Sword, Steven Sibille,
Frances Spencer, Estate of Kenneth Spencer, Sr.,
Amy Morrow, Karen Brown, Kris Boerger, Samuel
O. Rice, Belinda Rice, Amy Cogswell, David Rice,
Todd Rice, Valerie Trail, Daniel Rice, Lisa Schultz,
Steven James Diaz, Jane Astrid Diaz, Robert Diaz,
Teresa Diaz, Magdalena Mary Diaz, Raul Diaz,
Edward Diaz, Estate of Daniel P. Diaz, Carmella
Wood, Patsy McEntire, Lewis Brown, Lisa Maybin,
Ronny Brown, Cynthia Burt, Estate of Therisa
Edwards, Estate of Andres Alvarado Mirbal, Estate of
Nerida Tull Baez, Estate of Margaret O’Brien,
Mitchell Anderson, Estate of Virginia Ellison, Estate
of Kenneth Ellison, Kimberly Carlson, Gary Carlson,
Daniel Carlson, William Carlson, Penny Nelson,
Beulah Sword, William Sword, John Sword, Jerry
Sword, Caroline Broadwine, Estate of Verian Sibille,
Estate of Victor Sibille, Jr., Victor Sibille, IV, Kevin
Sibille, Valerie Unkel, Pamela Schultz, Stephanie
Hardy, Mary Jane Howell, Ronald Howell, Donna
Black, Mario H. Vasquez, Denny West, The Estate of
John Chipura, Eileen Chipura, Nancy Chipura, Gerard
Chipura, Susan Cohen, Estate of Roscoe Hamilton,
Freda Sue Gayheart, Ramona Green, Robert
Hamilton, James Edwards, Ray Edwards, Betty Sue
Rowe, Gary Edwards, Ralph Edwards, Estate of Larry
Edwards, Estate of David Worley, Nancy Worley,
David Worley, Bryan Worley, Estate of John
Buckmaster, Esther Buckmaster, Gregg Buckmaster,
Vickie Buckmaster, Arley Buckmaster, Estate of

                                                  2
Malka Roth, Frimet Roth, Pesia Roth, Rivka Roth
Rappaport, Zvi Roth, Shaya Roth, Pinchas Roth,
Estate of Jacob Fritz, Noala Fritz, Estate of Lyle Fritz,
Ethan Fritz, Daniel Fritz, Estate of Bryan Chism,
Elizabeth Chism, Danny Chism, Vanessa Chism, Julie
Chism, Estate of Shawn Falter, Linda Falter, Marjorie
Falter, Estate of Russell J. Falter, Russell C. Falter,
Andrew Lucas, David Lucas, Timothy Lucas, Marsha
Novak, Jason Sackett, Estate of Ahmed Al-Taie,
Hathal K. Taie, Kousay Al-Taie, Nawal Al-Taie,
Monicah Okoba Opati, in her own right, as executrix
of the estate of Caroline Setla Opti, Selifah Ongecha
Opati, Rael Angara Opati, Salome Ratemo, in his own
right, as executor of the Estate of Sally Cecilia
Mamboleo, Kevin Ratemo, Fredrick Ratemo, Louis
Ratemo, Stacy Waithera, Michael Daniel Were,
Judith Nandi Busera, Roselyne Karsorani, George
Mwangi, Bernard Macharia, Gad Gideon Achola, Gad
Gideon Achola, Jonathan Karania Nduti, Gitionga
Mwaniki, Rose Nyette, Elizabeth Nzaku, Patrick
Nyette, Cornel Kebungo, Phoebe Kebungo, Joan
Abundo, Benard Abundo, Nancy Njoki Macharia,
Sally Omondi, Jael Nyosieko Oyoo, Edwin Oyoo,
Miriam Muthoni, Priscah Owino, Greg Owino,
Michael Kamau Mwangi, Joshua O. Mayunzu,
Zackaria Musalia Ating’a, Julius M. Nyamweno,
Polychep Odhiambo, David Jairus Aura, Charles
Oloka Opondo, Ann Kanyaha Salamba, Erastus
Mijuka Ndeda, Techonia Oloo Owiti, Joseph Ingosi,
William W. Maina, Peter Ngigi Mugo, Simon
Mwanhi Nhure, Joseph K. Gathungu, Dixon Olubinzo
Indiya, Peter Njenga Kungu, Charles GT. Kabui, John
Kiswilli, Fransisca Kyalo, Charity Kitao, Leilani
Bower, Winnie Ndioda Kimeu, Audrey Maini
Nasieku Pussy, Kennedy Okelo, Kennedy Okelo,
Hellen Okelo Nyaiego, Ronald Okelo, Elizabeth M.
Akinyi Okelo, Lesley Hellen Achieng, Rispah Jessica
Auma, Stephen Jonathan Omandi, Andrew Thomas
Obongo, Laura Margaret Atieno, Wallace Njorege
Stanley Nyoike, Peter Kinyanjui, Lukas Ndile Kimeu,
Jackson Kthuva Muskoya, Gladys Munanie
Musyoka, Arcy Musyoka Kithuva, Jane Mutua, Mary
Nzisiva Samuel, Syuindo Musyoka, Kilei Musyoka,
Conceptor Orende, Grace Bosiberi Onsongo, Nephat
Kimathi, Leonard Shinengah, Caroline Wangu
Karigi, Steve Marungi Karigi, Martin Karigi,

                                                   3
Wycliffe Okello Khabuchi, Mary Saliku Bulimu,
Hesbon Lihanda, Winifred Maina, Betty Kagai,
Katimba Mohamed, Frida Yohan Mtitu, Geoffrey L.
Tupper, Omar Zuberi Omar, Asha R. Mahundi, Emma
R. Mahundi, Mwajuma R. Mahundi, Shaban R.
Mahundi, Juma R. Mahundi, Amiri R. Mahundi,
Yusuph R. Mahundi, Mwajabu R. Mahundi, Ally R.
Mahundi, Said R. Mahundi, Asha Shabani Kiluwa,
Levis Madahana Busera, Emmanuel Musambayi
Busera, Christine Kavai Busera, Agnes Tupper,
Shaardrack Upper, Ronnie Gaudens, Selina Gaudens,
Mary Esther Kiusa, Leonard Rajab Waithira, Joseph
Ndungu Waithira, Grace Wanjiru Waithira, Badawy
Itati Ali, Fridah Makena Alijah, Ruth Gatwiri
Mwirigi, Joan Kendi Mwirigi, Francis Joseph
Kwinbere, Irene Francis Kwinbere, Fredrick Francis
Kwinbere, Sani Benjamin Franci Kwinbere, Barbara
Wothaya Olao, Allan Collins Olao, Levina Valerian
R. Minja, Violet Tibruss Minja, Emmanuel Tibruss
Minja, Nickson Tibress Minja, Rehana Malik,
Elizabeth Clifford Tarimo, Maraget Clifford Tarimo,
Mercy Nyokabi Ndiritu, Christopher Ndiritu, Denis
Kinyua, Edwin Kaara Magother, Sedrick Jerome
Keith Nair, Tanya Nair, Valentina Hiza, Christopher
Hiza, Christantson Hiza, Christemary Hiza, Salima
Isumail, Joseph Farahat Abdallah, Majdoline Sarah
Abdallah, Rispah Aysha Abdalla, Flavia Hiyanga,
Diana Frederick Kibodya, Margaret Njeru Murigi,
Belonce Wairimu Murig, Faith Njeri Murigi, Misheck
Nduati Murigi, Felix Matheka Mwaka, Eric Wambua
Mwaka, Cecilia Wayua Mwaka, Agnes Akiwal
Kubai, Collins Kubai, Celestine Kubai, Saline Kubai,
Hellen Jepkorir Maritim, Alice Jerop Maritim, Ruth
Cherono Maritim, Anne Chepkemoi Maritim, Sheila
Chebet Maritim, Edgar Kiplino Martin, Rammy
Kipyego Rotich, Wambui E. Kungu, Lorna N. Kungu,
Edward G. Kungu, Oneal Ezekiel Mdobilu, Peter
Lous Mdobilu, John George Mdobilu, Katherine
Anne Mdobili, Immanuel Setven Mdobilu, Anipha
Solly, Inosensia Mpoto, Denis Matern, Anthony
Mungai, Barbara Muthoni, Eddie kiburu, Joanne
Natalie Awuor Oport, Yvonne Natasha Akinyi Oport,
Sally Rissy Auma Oport, Milicent Malesi, Godfrey
Jadevera, Lydia Andemo, Rodgers Akidiva, Frida
Mwanuru, Emmily Mmbone, Lydia Osebe Gwaro,
Debora Moige Gwaro, Emmanuel Ogoro Gwaro,

                                              4
James Ogweri Gwaro, John Ndibui Mwangi, Gideon
Wabwoba Ofisi, Andrew Nhuli Makau, Francis
Wabuti Ofisi, Geoffrey Mbuuri Mbugua, Alex John
Mjuguna Mbugua, Anne Wambui Ng’Ang'A, Esther
Njeri Ng'Ang'A, Catherine Njeri, Jackson Ndngu,
John Ngure, Joseph Kambo, Jackline Wambui, Jeff
Rabar Oriaro, Felix Munguti, Petronila Katheo
Munguti, Alex Kitheu Munhuti, Zakayo Matiko,
Jacob Gati, Maureen Kadi, Beverlyne Kadi, Cecilia
Dayo, Dickson Ulleta Lihanda, Ruth Kavereri, Beryl
Shiumbe, Irene Khasande, Michael Tsuma, Leslie
Sambuli, Harriet Chore, Stanley Chaka Murabu,
Stacey Nzalambi Murabu, Ifuraim Onyango Okuku,
Christine Nabwire Okuku, Jospeh Kambo, Vallen
Andeyo, Peter Muyale Kuya, Peninah Akwale Mucii,
Daniel Amboko Kuya, Norman Kagai, Tabitha Kagai,
Charles Kagai, Wendy Kagai, Pauline Akoth Adundo,
Samuel Odhiambo, Theresa Achieng Adundu, Isidore
Opondo Adundo, Anne Wasonga Adundo, Henry
Aliviza Shitiavai, Judy Aliviza Shitiavai, Humpherey
Aliviza, Collins Mudaida Aliviza, Jacqueline Aliviza,
Jaruha Yashieena Musalia, Florence Musalia, Elly
Mugove MusaliaElly, Gladis Lihanda, Jane Isiaho
Shamwama, Beatrice Hoka, Joab Andayi Misango,
Ireen Semo, Johnstone Mukabi, Ann Wairimu,
Maryann Njokie, Daniel Kiongo, Sammy Ndungu
Kiarie, Faith Mutindi, Joyce Mutheu, Beatrice Atinga,
Sammy Onzere, Purity Muhonja, Victor Adeka, Brian
Kubai, John Zephania Mboge, Joyce Thadei Lokoa,
Meresiana (Mary) Paul, Rashid Selemani Katimba,
Said Selemani Katimba, Asha Omari Abdullah,
August Maffry, Caroline S. Maffrey, Alison D.
Maffry, Alice-Mary Talbot, Enna John Omolo,
Lynette Oyanda, Linda Oyanda, Felogene Oyanda,
Claire Owino, Owino Kenneth, Lair Owino, Jarrod
Owino, Ora Cohen, Shalom Cohen, Shokat Sadian,
Ronit Mohabber, Mohaber Orly, Orly Mohaber,
Joseph Mohaber, Nethaniel Chaim Bluth, Shoshana
Rosalyn Bluth, Ephraim Bluth, Tsipora Batya Bluth
Reicher, Yigal Amihai Bluth, Arieh Yahuda Bluth,
Chanina Samuel Bluth, Abraham Bluth, Joseph Bluth,
Titus Kyaw Musyoka, Tabitha Nthambi Kalio,
Kamali Musyoka, David Kamu, Velma Bonyo, Lilian
Mbelu Kalio, Steve Mbuku, Philip Kariuki Gitumbo,
Daen Nthambi Mulu, Winnie Bonyo, Catherine
Mbatha, Bernice Mutheu Ndeti, Ali Hussein Ali,

                                               5
Joyce Abur, Wason Musyoka, Caroline Kasungo
Mgali, Rashihid Iddi, Annah Wangeci Irungu, Peter
Kibue Kamu, Aquilas Mutuku Kalio, Kelesendhia
Apondi, Elijah Bonyo, Elizabeth Wanjiku, Beatrice
Martha Kithuva, Faith Kihafio, Anjela Bonyo,
Barnabas Onyango, Jane Kathuka, Tilda A. Abur,
Omar Iddi, Eunice Mouthoui, Paul Jaboda Onyango,
Fathma Iddi, Juliet Awuor, Benson Malusi Musyoka,
Catherine Gitumbo, Dorine Bonyo, Jacquiline
Wangeci, Mahmoud Iddi, Selina Saidi, Susan Hirsh,
Estate of Geoffrey Mulu Kalio, Kihato Irungu,
Majahwa Ramadhani, Maua Mdange, Kulwa
Ramadhani, Mohamed Y. Mnyolya, Saidi Mtuyla,
Mwhajabu Ndange, Jecinta W. Wahome, Aisha
Kambenga, Hanuni Ramadhani Ndange, Hussein
Ramadhani, Juma Ndange, Adabeth Said Nang'Oko,
Belinda Akinyi Adika, Rukia Munjiru Ali, Upendi
Ramadhani, Idifonce Saidi, Kassim Ramadhani,
Joseph Wahome, Nuru H. Sultani, Halima Ndange,
Beunda Kebogo J. Chaka, Magdalena Paul, Judith
Abasi Mwila, Mengo Ramadhani, Monica Wangari
Munyori, Shabani Saidi Mtulya, George M. Mimba,
John Saidi, Milke W. Macharia, Elizabeth Muli
Kibue, Ramahdani Ndange, Mary Ofisi, Kiriumbu
Wmburu Mukuria, Veronica Alois Saidi, Rehena
Ramadhani, Abdul Ndange, Abdul Mtulya, David K.
Kiburu, Daniel Saidi, Nicholas M. Mutiso, Racheal
Wambui, Humphrey Kibiru, Harrison Kariuki
Kimani, Estate of Tony Kihato Irungu, Alice
Muzhomi Kiongo, David Kiburu, Steve Irungu, Jane
Mweru Kiarie, Michael Kibue Kamau, Ikonye
Michael Kiarie, Estate of Francis Watoro Manai,
Dawn Nthambi Mulu, Victor Manai, Jacqueline
Irungu, Jennifer Wambui, Newton Kamau, Faith
Wambui Kihato, Grace Wanjiku Kimani, Peter
Ikonya, Jane Kavindu Kathuka, Judy Walthera, Ruth
Nduta, Grace Njeri Kimata, Humphrey Kiburu, Estate
of Joseph Kamau Kiongo, Estate of Geoffrey Mulu
Kalio, Thomas Adundo, Happiness Mwila, Emmily
Bulimu, Linda O'Donnell, Edilberto Quilacio, Estate
of Rodney Moorefiled, Agnes Wanjiku Ndungu,
Betty Oriaro, Mathew Rtaheshelwa, Frida Bulimu,
Mercy Bulimu, Lora Murphy, Patrick Nyette,
Katherine Mwaka, Estate of Eulogio Quilacio, Jane
Khabuchi, Margaret Baker, Mwajumba Mahundi,
Anne Nganga Mwangi, Loretta Paxton, Jackson

                                             6
Bulimu, Eloise Hubbel, Anthony Kiarie, Beverlyne
Ndeda, Lucy Kambo, Laura Onono, Ester Nganga
Mwangi, Candelaria Fraceliso, Lydia Bulimu, Paul
Hirn, Rodgers Bulimu, Eucabeth Gwaro, Hesbon
Lihanda, Peter Kunigo, William Mwila, Godfrey
Bulimu, Loise Kuya, Titus Kyalo Musyoka, Leslie
Onono, Richard Patrick, Ruth Lihanda, Estate of
Leroy Moorefield, Judy Kiarie, Christine Mikali
Kamau, Donald Howell, Estate of Roger Moorefield,
Rolando Quilacio, Stacy Chaka, Cecilia Ndeda,
Victor Watoro, Charity Kiato, Barbara Kiarie, Joseph
Gathunga, George Karas, Stanley Kinyua Macharia,
Andrew Onono, Hesbon Bulimu, Joan Kendi
Nkanatha, Laura Harris, Ann Salambia, Stephen
Onono, Millicent Bulimu, Ephraim Onyango Bwaku,
Vallen Andeyo, James Chaka, Betty Owens, Susan
Nicholas, Linda Shough, Tirisa Thomas, Civilier
Wayua Mwaka, Justin Amduso, Rose Nyette, Victor
Mpoto, Christine Nabwire Bwaku, Gideon Maritim,
Kelliy Musyoka, Shadrack Tupper, Juruha Musalia,
Beatrice Amduso, Irene Khabuchi, Sedrick Nair,
Manzi Musyoka, Sharone Maritim, Nicholas Karas,
Joshua Daniel Mdobilu, Edgar Maritim, Franciso
Kyalo, David Kariuki Ngugi, Negeel Andika, Warren
Awala, Shira Cohen, Angela Wamai, Estate of Adams
Titus Wamai, Estate of Lucy Grace Onono, Grace
Njeri Gicho, Njeri Kimata, Edwina Owuor, Vincent
Owuor, Orly Cohen, Alice Muhoni Kamau, Estate of
Frederick Yafes Maloba, Titus Wamai, Paul Mwangi
Ngugi, Meirav Cohen, Mordechai Thomas Onono,
Samuel Pussy, Felister Wanjiru Gitau, Elchanan
Cohen, Dick Obworo, Gerald Owino, Adhiambo
Sharon, Estate of Peter Kabau Marcharia, Estate of
Kimeu Nzioka Ngana, Elizabeth Vutage Maloba,
Pauline Kamau, Grace Njeri Gicho, Sarah Anyiso
Tikolo, Debra Mayaka, Leah Owino, Jacob Awala,
Mary Mutheu Ndambuki, Estate of Francis Watoro
Maina, Andrew Pussy, Stanley Njar Ngugi, Estate of
Moses Geofrey Naniai, Diana Nyangara, Nagugi
Macharia, Ann Wambui Kamau, Newton Kamau,
Diana Williams, Grace Njeri Kimata, Daniel Cohen,
Marlong Okile, Diana Njoki Macharia, Gitau
Catherine Waithira, Winifred Wairiumu Wamai,
Lloyd Wamai, Margaret Njoki Ngugi, Elsy Pussy,
Joseph Kamau Kiongo, Wendy Achieng, Earnest
Gichiri Gitau, Lewis Mafwavo, Okile Marlon, Ngugi

                                              7
Macharia, Grace Paul, Estate of Peter Kabau
Macharia, Mercy Kamau Mairimu, Doreen Mayaka,
Dennis Okatch, Neria Mohaber, Lucy Kamau, Peter
Kamau, Deborah Kerubo, Ole Pussy Samuel Kashoo,
Jenipher Okatch, Estate of Francis Olewe Ochilo,
Doreen Nasieku, John Mungai Ngugi, Ann Ruguru,
Sammy Okere, John Muriuki Girandi, Orly Mohaber,
Estate of Maurice Okatch Ogola, Francis Watoro
Maina, Josinda Katumba Kamau, Rachel Wambui,
Estate of Rachel Mungasia Pussy, Jane Kamau,
Margaret Maloba, Samson Ogolla Okatch, Faith
Wanza Kamau, Rosemary Anyango Olele, Daniel
Kiomho Kamau, Priscilla Okatch, Peter Ngugi, Victor
Maina, Estate of Mayaka Lydia Mukiri, Rosemary
Anyango Okatch, Nyangoro Wilfred Mayaka, Estate
of Vincent Kamau Nyoike, Vera Jean Oyanda,
Kenneth Maloba, Caroline Wanjiru Kamau, Estate of
Teresia Wairimu, Estate of Frederick Maloba Yafes,
Raphael N. Kivindyo, Estate of Frederick Maloba
Yafes, Elizabeth Vutage Maloba, Kenneth Maloba,
Mary Vutagwa Mwalie, Estate of Teresia Wairimu
Kamau, Elizabeth Victoria Kitao, Sara Mwendia
Mbogo, Luka Mwalie Litwaj, Sharon Adhiambo
Maloba, Lucy Kamau Kiongo, Margaret Onyachi
Margaret, Margaret Mwikali Nzomo, Derrick
Maoakitwe, Nancy N. Machari, Marlon Okile
Maloba, Estate of Steven Odhiambobelinda
Adhiambo, Moses Kinyua, Teresia Waitimer, Lewis
Mafwavo Maloba, Dennis Kinyua, Faith Acheing,
Teresia Wairimu Kamau, Benson Ndegwa Muruthi,
Stephe Njuki, Stephen Muli, Emiy Kanaiza Minay,
Phoeba Nyaguthi Ndegwa, Phoeba Nyaguthi
Ndegwa, Solomon Mbugua Mbuun, Barbara Muli,
Ephanus Njagi, Stella Wambui Mbugua, Nancy
Wanjeru, Raphael Peter Munguti, Reuben Nyaga,
Reuben Nyaga, Mary Mbeneka Munguti, Hudson
Chore Makidiah, Anne Muchogo, Sammy Ng'ang
Mwangi, Nancy Nagak, Charles Mwaka Mulwa,
Meshark Ireri, George Magak Mimba, Estate of
Francis Mbogo Njunge, Catherin Nduki Mwaka,
Samuel Mbugua Ndungu, Angela Mwongeli, Isack
Kariuki, Anastasiah Lucy Mugure, Maureen Ndeda,
Edith Njeri, Lydiah Mdila Makau, Omuchirwa
Charles Ochola, Margret Ndibui Ndibui, Estate of
Francis Ndungu Mbugua, Valentine Ndeda, Charles
Mwangi Ndibui, James Ndeda, Nigeel Andika Namai,

                                             8
John Mwiry, Mary Muthoni, Roselyne Kasorani,
Mary Makau Ofisi, Aaron Makau Ndivo, Samuel
Mbugwa, Sara Tikolo Naniai, Winfred Maina, Lucy
N. Ng'ang'a, Anges Wanjiku, Francis Maina Ndibui,
Rael Ochola, Estate of Moses Namai, Estate of
Abdulrahman M. Abdalla, Pauline D. Abdallah,
Aggrey N. Abuti, Abdulrahman R. Bashir,
Annastaciah Lucy Boulden, Olambo Charles, Jennifer
J. Chebol, Boniface Chege, Joseph T. Gathecha,
Caroline W. Gichuru, Wunnie W. Gichuru, Mary
Majugu Gitonga, Peris Gitumbu, Estate of Klyeliff C.
Bonyo, Olambo Charles, Jennifer J. Chebol, Boniface
Chege, Lucy Chege, Peris Gitumbu, Sajjad Gulamali,
Christant Hiza, Estate of Hamida Iddi, Estate of
Hindu Omar Iddi, Ramdan Kimam Jurau, Frederick
Kabodya, Elsie Kagimbi, Iddi A. Kaka, Estate of
Geoffrey Mulu Kalio, Estate of Joel Gitumbo Kamau,
James Kanja, Eddieson Kapesa, Marini Karima,
Limmles I. Kasui, Bernard M. Kaswii, Valentry
Katunda, Henry Bathazar Kessy, David M. Kimani,
Cynthia Kimble, Marina Kirima, Samuel Kivindyo,
Blasio Kubai, Moses M. Kuiyva, Peter N. Kung’u,
Edward Kung’u, Lorna Kung’u, Wambui Kung’u,
Thomas G. Kuria, Evitta Francis Kwimbere, James M
Macharia, Milka Wangari Macharia, Livingstone
Busera Madahana, Sita Magua, Estate of Ramadhani
Mahundi, Aaron Makau, Menelik Kwamia
Makonnen, Nafisa Malik, Toitoro O. Masanga,
Robert M. Matheka, Edson Maumu, Richard N
Maweu, Gideon K. Mazitim, Matthew M Mbithi,
Christopher McMullen, Laurel McMullen, Justina
Mdobilu, Makonnen K. Meneric, Emily K. Minayo,
Tibruss Minja, Hosianna Mmbaga, Estate of Abdallah
M. Mnyolya, Charles Mwaka Mulwa, Paul K Musau,
Estate of Dominic Musyoka, Edward M. Muthama,
Thomas M. Mutua, Laydiah Wanjiru Mwangi,
Gitonga Mwanike, Estate of William Abbas Mwila,
Paul G. Mwingi, Valerie Nair, Estate of Yusuf
Ndange, James Babira Ndeda, Charles M. Ndibul,
Lucas M Ndile, John Muiru Ndungu, Margaret W.
Ndungu, Anthony Ngingya, Caroline Ngui Ngugi,
Charles Mwirigi Nkanatha, Estate of Bakari Nyumbu,
Enos Nzalwa, Julius M. Nzivo, Caroline N. Ochieng,
John Makau Ofisi, Julius Gwardo Ogoro, Julius
Ogoro, Patrick Ouma Okechi, Joash O. Okendo,
Wellingtone Oluoma, Estate of Eric Onyango,

                                              9
Samuel O. Oriaro, Tobias O. Otieno, Estate of Elisha
E. Paul, Estate of Mtendeje Rajabu, Estate of Dotto
Ramadhani, Estate of Saidi Rogath, Blasio Shikami,
Elizabeth Slater, Stacy Waithere, Justus M. Wambua,
Rachel Wambui Watoro, Benjamin Winford,

                     Plaintiffs-Appellants,

Jennifer Njeri, Anthony Njoroge, Hamida Idi, Peter
Mulwa Mwaka, Valentine Jemo, Phelister Okech,
Richard Otolo, Estate of Roger Toka Otolo, Caroline
Ochi Okech, Hilario Ambrose Fernandes, Mischeck
Mbogo, Abraham Otolo, Trusha Patel, Elizabeth
Kerubo Gwaro, Lydia Nyaboka Otao, Dennis Okoth,
Estate of Edwin Opiyo Omori, Alexander
Vrontamitis, Julius Ogoro Ogoro, Samuel Odhiambo
Oriaro, Isaac Kariuki Mbogo, Patrick Ouma Okechi,
Margaret Kanini Otolo, Victor Otolo, Victor Otolo,
Victor Otolo, Betty Obunga, Bryan Boaz Omori,
Samson Ogolla, Nancy Mbogo, Estate of Maurice
OgollaOkatuh, Jackline Achieng, Johnathan Gilbert
Okech, Ann Mbogo, Leonidas Vrontamitis, Ephantus
Mbogo, Estate of Francis Olewe Ochilo, Jackline
Achieng, Reuben Nyaga Mbogo, Florence Pamela
Omori, Oport Oport, Michael Ware, Stephen Mbogo,
Mary Akotsi Mudeche, Rachel Oyanda, Rosemary A.
Olewe, Priscilla Ndula Okatch, Annah Wangechi,
Phaedra Vrontamitis, Joash Otao Okindo, Jacinta W.
Wahome, Jerry Oreta Omori, Roselyne Ndeda,
Philemon Oport, Hannah Wambui, Doreen Atieno
Oport, Charles Olewe, Estate of Evans Onsongo,
Edwin Nyangau Onsongo, Venice Onsongo, Mary
Onsongo, Vincent Owuor, Peris Onsongo, Jomo
Matiko Boke, Gaudens Thomas, James Andayi
Mukabi, Martha Achieng Onyango, Irene Kung’u,
Velma Akosa Bonyo, Ally Kindamba, Estate of
Chrispine Bonyo, Osborn Olwch Awalla, Hamida
Boke, Joyce Onyango, George Onsongo, Enoch
Onsongo, Juliana Atieno Onyango, Edwina Owuor,
Bernard Onsongo, Milly Mikali Amduso, Warren
Awala, Marita Onyango, Edward Rutasheherwa,
Estate of Eric Onyango, Estate of Abaliah Musydkya
Mwilu, Yvonne Bochart, Salome Onsongo, Irena
Kung’u, Hamsa Safula Asdi, Monicah Kebayi
Matiko, Zephania Mboge, Gladys Onsongo, Onsongo
Mweberi, Estate of Josia Owuor, Vonzaidriss Mwilu,

                                              10
Gerald Bochart, Asha Mwilu, Victor Mpopo, Joyce
Auma Ombese Abur, Catherine Waithera Gitau, Faith
Wanza Kamau, Carolyne W. Kamau, Grace Njeri
Gicho, Beatrice Mugemi Bwaku, Hannah Ngenda
Kamau, Merab Godia, Estate of LawrenceAmbrose
Gitau, Margaret Wambui Gitau, Monicah Wairimo
Kamau, Simon Ngugi, Alexander Verontamitis,
Murabu Chaka, Jotham Odiango Godia, Earnest
Gichiri Gitau, Diana Njoki Macharia, Jane Kamau,
Estate of Phaedra Verontamitis, Estate of Vincent
Kamau Kyoike, Joan Wanjiko Kamau, Doreen
Bonyo, Estate of Tilda Abur, Venis Onsongo, Selina
Boke, Hamida Mwilu, Joyce Onyango, George
Onsongo, Enoch Onsongo, Juliana Atieno Onyango,
Bernard Onsongo, Peninah Onsongo, Milly Mikali
Amduso, Warren Awala, Marita Onyango, Edward
Rutasheherwa, Estate of Eric Onyango, Estate of
Abaliah Musydkya Mwilu, Yvonne Bochart, Salome
Onsongo, Irena Kung’u, Hamsa Safula Asdi, Monicah
Kebayi Matiko, Zephania Mboge, Gladys Onsongo,
Onsongo Mweberi, Estate of Josia Owuor, Abur
Onyango, Vonzaidriss Mwilu, Gerald Bochart, Asha
Mwilu, Victor Mpopo, Joyce Auma Ombese Abur,
Catherine Waithera Gitau, Faith Wanza Kamau,
Carolyne W. Kamau, Catherine Lucy Nyambura
Mwangi, Caroline Nguhi Kamau, Grace Njeri Gicho,
Beatrice Mugemi Bwaku, Hannah Ngenda Kamau,
Merab Godia, Estate of LawrenceAmbrose Gitau,
Winnie Bonyo, Estate of Vincent Kamau Kyoike,
Margaret Wambui Gitau, Monicah Wairimo Kamau,
Simon Ngugi, Alexander Verontamitis, Murabu
Chaka, Jotham Odiango Godia, Earnest Gichiri Gitau,
Diana Njoki Macharia, Jane Kamau, Estate of
Phaedra Verontamitis, Hindu Omari Idi, Estate of
Vincent Kamau Kyoike, Joan Wanjiko Kamau,
Doreen Bonyo, Anastasia Gianopulos, Mercy
Wanjiru, Angela Bonyo, Rashid Idi, Susan Njeri
Gitau, Christine M. Kamau, Belinda Chaka, Estate of
Peter Kabau Macharia, Paul Verontamitis, Duncan
Nyoike, Japeth Munjal Godia, Lucy Wairimu, Estate
of Joseph Nduta Kamau, Benson Bwaku, Josinda
Katumba Kamau, Josinda Katumba Kamau, Leon
Verontamitis, Mahamud Idi, Grace Akanya, Elijah
Bonyo, Merab A. Godia, Stanley Nyoike, Lucy
Muthoni Gitau,

                                             11
                       ADR Providers-Appellants,

ABC,
                       Plaintiff,

                       v.                                          21-610-cv

Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S.,

                       Defendant-Appellee,

DEF,
                       Defendant.

FOR PLAINTIFFS-APPELLANTS:                              ROBERT L. WEIGEL (Jason W. Myatt &
                                                        Matthew D. McGill, on the briefs),
                                                        Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher LLP, New
                                                        York, NY & Washington, D.C.

FOR DEFENDANT-APPELLEE:                                 JOHN S. WILLIAMS (Eden Schiffmann &
                                                        Akhil K. Gola, on the brief), Williams &
                                                        Connolly LLP, Washington, D.C.

       Appeal from the judgment of the United States District Court for the Southern District of

New York (Cote, J.).

       UPON DUE CONSIDERATION, IT IS HEREBY ORDERED, ADJUDGED, AND

DECREED that the judgment of the district court is AFFIRMED.

       Plaintiffs appeal from the district court’s judgment, entered on March 3, 2021,

conditionally dismissing their complaint on the ground of forum non conveniens. Plaintiffs are

876 U.S. government employees, or their surviving family members, who were victims of the

following terrorists attacks: (1) the 1983 bombing of U.S. Marine barracks in Lebanon; (2) the

1998 bombings of the U.S. embassies in Tanzania and Kenya; (3) the 2001 bombing of a Sbarro

restaurant in Israel; (4) the 2002 attack on a school in Atzomna; (5) the 2003 bombing of a bus in

Jerusalem; and (6) the 2006 and 2007 abduction and murder of four U.S. servicemembers in Iraq.

                                               12
In the aftermath of these attacks, plaintiffs brought thirteen lawsuits against the Islamic Republic

of Iran (“Iran”), in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, for providing

material support for these terrorist attacks. Through these lawsuits, plaintiffs obtained more than

$10 billion in default judgments against Iran, which Iran has failed to satisfy. Plaintiffs, as

judgment creditors, have now sued defendant-appellee Türkiye Halk Bankasi A.Ş. (“Halkbank”),

a bank that is majority-owned by the Republic of Türkiye (“Turkey”) and headquartered in Turkey.

The lawsuit is based on Halkbank’s alleged fraudulent funneling of over $1 billion for Iran—

through correspondent bank accounts at U.S. financial institutions located in the Southern District

of New York—in violation of U.S. sanctions against Iran, thereby depriving plaintiffs of their

ability to collect their judgments. Plaintiffs seek (1) rescission and turnover of fraudulent

conveyances made in violation of New York Debtor and Creditor Law §§ 273-a and 276; (2)

turnover under New York Civil Practice Law and Rules § 5225; and (4) turnover under the

Terrorism Risk Insurance Act § 201(a), codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1610 note.

        The district court conditionally granted Halkbank’s motion to dismiss on the ground of

forum non conveniens, concluding that “plaintiffs’ choice of forum commands minimal deference,

Turkey is an adequate alternative forum for this action, and the private and public interest factors

weigh strongly in favor of dismissal . . . .” Special App’x at 36. Pursuant to this conditional

dismissal, the parties filed an agreement to litigate in Turkey under which Halkbank agreed to

“accept service in Turkey . . . ; submit[] to the jurisdiction of the [Turkish courts] . . . ; [and] not

file objections based on any statute of limitations for the period from March 27, 2020 (the date

Plaintiffs filed this action in this Court) to the date [p]laintiffs file a complaint in a proper Turkish

court . . . .” Id. at 41. Subsequently, the district court entered judgment dismissing the complaint

on the forum non conveniens ground, and plaintiffs appealed. We assume the parties’ familiarity

                                                   13
with the underlying facts, procedural history of the case, and issues on appeal, to which we refer

only as necessary to explain our decision to affirm.

                                          DISCUSSION

       We review dismissals on the ground of forum non conveniens for abuse of discretion.

Aguas Lenders Recovery Grp. v. Suez, S.A., 585 F.3d 696, 699 (2d Cir. 2009). In the context of

forum non conveniens, a district court abuses its discretion “when a decision[:] (1) rests either on

an error of law or on a clearly erroneous finding of fact, or (2) cannot be located within the range

of permissible decisions, or (3) fails to consider all the relevant factors or unreasonably balances

those factors.” Celestin v. Caribbean Air Mail, Inc., 30 F.4th 133, 137 (2d Cir. 2022) (internal

quotation marks and citation omitted). We review de novo determinations of foreign law. Animal

Sci. Prods., Inc. v. Hebei Welcome Pharm. Co., 138 S. Ct. 1865, 1873 (2018).

       To assess whether dismissal on the ground of forum non conveniens is warranted, district

courts conduct a three-step inquiry. Iragorri v. United Techs. Corp., 274 F.3d 65, 70–75 (2d Cir.

2001) (en banc). Under this inquiry, the district court: (1) determines what degree of deference

plaintiff’s choice of forum is entitled; (2) considers whether an adequate alternative forum exists;

and (3) balances the private and public interest factors implicated by the choice of forum. Id.

       On appeal, plaintiffs challenge the district court’s application of this framework.

Specifically, plaintiffs contend that the district court erred by: (1) granting only minimal deference

to plaintiffs’ choice of forum; (2) concluding that Turkey was an adequate forum for plaintiffs’

claims; and (3) finding that private and public interest factors favored litigating in Turkey. We

disagree. As set forth below, we conclude that the district court properly applied the requisite

three-part test and acted within its discretion in concluding that the action should be conditionally

dismissed on the ground of forum non conveniens.

                                                 14
    I.      Deference to Plaintiffs’ Choice of Forum

         Plaintiffs first argue that the district court abused its discretion in granting minimal

deference to plaintiffs’ choice of forum.

         Although there is generally a “strong presumption in favor of the plaintiff’s choice of

forum,” Piper Aircraft Co. v. Reyno, 454 U.S. 235, 255 (1981), when a plaintiff is “foreign,” the

choice of forum “deserves less deference,” id. at 256. As we have explained, “the degree of

deference to be given to a plaintiff’s choice of forum moves on a sliding scale depending on several

relevant considerations.” Iragorri, 274 F.3d at 71. Factors that support deference to a plaintiff’s

choice of forum include: “the convenience of the plaintiff’s residence in relation to the chosen

forum, the availability of witnesses or evidence to the forum district, the defendant’s amenability

to suit in the forum district, the availability of appropriate legal assistance, and other reasons

relating to convenience or expense.” Id. at 72. With regards to convenience, if “an expatriate U.S.

citizen residing permanently in a foreign country brings suit in the United States,” this court has

indicated that “it would be less reasonable to assume the choice of forum is based on convenience.”

Iragorri, 274 F.3d at 73 n.5.

         Applying these principles, we discern no abuse of discretion in the district court’s

determination that plaintiff’s choice of forum was “entitled to some, albeit minimal, deference.”

Special App’x at 29. Of the 670 plaintiffs for whom residency information is known, 202 reside

in the United States whereas 468 reside in foreign countries. See Joint App’x at 466–67. The

district court found that, because the vast majority of plaintiffs reside overseas rather than in the

United States, plaintiffs’ choice of forum was entitled to less deference. 1 The district court also

1
  To the extent plaintiffs suggest that the presence of U.S. citizen plaintiffs precludes a district court from
giving less deference to the choice of forum even when the overwhelming majority of the plaintiffs reside

                                                      15
noted that even though the alleged fraudulent scheme that is the subject matter of this action

“permitted funds to move through New York financial institutions without seizure either by the

U.S. government or by the plaintiffs as judgment creditors,” Special App’x at 29, the alleged

scheme was “orchestrated primarily in Turkey” and “there is little, if any, connection between this

action and this forum,” Id. at 28. Additionally, the district court relied on the facts that “almost

all of the relevant evidence is located in Turkey” and “many of the potentially relevant witnesses

are Halkbank employees . . . in Turkey . . . [and] outside the subpoena power of this Court.” Id.

Thus, the district court observed that “[t]he difficulty of conducting discovery in this litigation if

it continues in the United States weighs against deference to the plaintiffs’ choice.” Id. at 28–29.

We conclude that the district court’s decision to grant minimal deference to plaintiffs’ choice of

forum, after weighing these considerations, was within its broad discretion. 2

abroad, we find that argument unpersuasive. See, e.g., Wamai v. Indus. Bank of Korea, No. 21-1956-cv,
2023 WL 2395675, at *2 n.1 (2d Cir. Mar. 8, 2023) (collecting cases).
2
   The district court also noted that “[i]t is unclear if Halkbank is even amenable to suit in the United States,
as it has contested jurisdiction in both this case and the criminal case [brought against Halkbank by the U.S.
Department of Justice in the Southern District of New York].” Special App’x at 29. Following the district
court’s decision, we held in the criminal case that Halkbank was not entitled to dismissal of the indictment
under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (“FSIA”) or common law, and the United States Supreme
Court subsequently affirmed that 18 U.S.C. § 3231 confers jurisdiction and that the FSIA does not provide
immunity from the criminal prosecution, but remanded to this court the issue of whether the common law
offers Halkbank immunity from a criminal prosecution. See Turkiye Halk Bankasi A.S. v. United States,
143 S. Ct. 940 (2023). Plaintiffs contend that the litigation in the criminal case supports their position
because, as plaintiffs assert, the district court based its decision in part on the uncertainty regarding
Halkbank’s amenability to suit in the United States. However, whether the FSIA provides Halkbank
immunity in a civil suit is a question that the Supreme Court did not reach. See id. at 946. Similarly, to the
extent that plaintiffs also assert that the district court failed to consider the likelihood of a criminal trial of
Halkbank in New York in assigning minimal deference to the choice of forum, the jurisdictional issue in
the criminal case remains unresolved. In any event, this jurisdictional issue was not a dispositive factor in
the district court’s analysis and thus, even if jurisdiction exists over Halkbank in this civil case and the
criminal case proceeds in New York, the district court did not abuse its discretion in concluding that
plaintiffs’ choice of forum was entitled to minimal deference based upon the other considerations
referenced above.

                                                        16
   II.      Adequacy of Alternative Forum

         Next, plaintiffs contend that the district court erred in finding Turkey to be an adequate

alternative forum.

         At step two of the forum non conveniens inquiry, a defendant has the burden of establishing

that an adequate alternative forum exists and that the relevant factors favor litigating in the

alternative forum. See Wiwa v. Royal Dutch Petrol. Co., 226 F.3d 88, 100 (2d Cir. 2000). If a

defendant “fails to carry this burden, the forum non conveniens motion must be denied regardless

of the degree of deference accorded plaintiff’s forum choice.” Norex Petrol. Ltd. v. Access Indus.,

Inc., 416 F.3d 146, 157 (2d Cir. 2005). “An alternate forum is adequate if the defendants are

amenable to service of process there, and if it permits litigation of the subject matter of the

dispute.” Figueiredo Ferraz E Engenharia de Projeto Ltda. v. Republic of Peru, 665 F.3d 384,

390 (2d Cir. 2011) (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). It is well established that an

alternative forum need not have identical causes of actions or remedies—or, more generally, law

as “favorable to the plaintiff’s chance of recovery” as the chosen forum—to be adequate. Piper,

454 U.S. at 250; see also Norex, 416 F.3d at 158 (“[T]he availability of an adequate alternative

forum does not depend on the existence of the identical cause of action in the other forum, nor on

identical remedies.” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)). However, a forum may be

inadequate if the remedy it offers is “so clearly inadequate or unsatisfactory that it is no remedy at

all,” Piper, 454 U.S. at 254, or if there is a “complete absence of due process or an inability . . . to

provide substantial justice to the parties” in the alternative forum, In re Arbitration Between

Monegasque De Reassurances S.A.M. v. Nak Naftogaz of Ukr., 311 F.3d 488, 499 (2d Cir. 2002).

A district court’s “[d]etermination of a foreign country’s law is an issue of law,” which we review

                                                  17
without deference to the district court’s ruling. Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier,

Inc., 153 F.3d 82, 92 (2d Cir. 1998).

        Plaintiffs concede that Halkbank is amenable to service of process in Turkey. However,

they argue that the district court erred in concluding that defendants met their burden of

demonstrating that Turkey is an adequate forum because, among other things, Halkbank failed to

establish that Turkish courts would recognize plaintiffs’ judgments or claims against Iran and that

plaintiffs are “highly unlikely to obtain justice” in Turkish courts in this case against a bank “which

is indirectly owned and controlled by the Turkish government and its agents . . . .” Appellants’

Br. at 44 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).               We find plaintiffs’ arguments

unpersuasive and conclude that the district court correctly determined that defendant had met its

burden of proving the adequacy of the alternative forum. 3

        According to plaintiffs, Halkbank did not establish that Turkish courts would recognize a

default judgment awarding punitive damages against a foreign sovereign (i.e., Iran) for tortious

acts that occurred in a third country. The district court, however, correctly rejected this argument

because “Halkbank and its experts ha[d] persuasively demonstrated several means by which the

plaintiffs may recover from Halkbank under Turkish law for the conduct alleged in the complaint.”

Special App’x at 31. In particular, as the district court noted, “[t]hese Turkish causes of action are

not contingent on the recognition of the plaintiffs’ U.S. judgments by Turkish courts, and in any

3
   On appeal, plaintiffs also argue that the forum is inadequate because defendants did not waive statute of
limitations defenses that may have accrued before the filing of this action, however, plaintiffs have waived
this argument by not raising it in the district court. See Bogle-Assegai v. Connecticut, 470 F.3d 498, 504
(2d Cir. 2006); see also Seales v. Panamanian Aviation Co., 356 F. App’x 461, 464 (2d Cir. 2009)
(summary order). While plaintiffs argue that their argument is a question of law and that this court may
exercise its discretion to review this issue, see Bogle-Assegai, 470 F.3d at 504, they have not pointed to any
statute of limitations defenses that Halkbank could invoke, and we decline to conduct an independent
investigation into Turkish law.

                                                     18
event, Halkbank and its experts have shown that plaintiffs’ U.S. judgments may be recognized in

Turkey.” Id. In other words, even if a Turkish court fails to enforce plaintiffs’ U.S. judgments,

Halkbank’s experts showed, and the district court properly credited their evidence, that plaintiffs

would not be without an adequate remedy, as other causes of action under Turkish law—collusion,

cancellation of a discretionary disposition, and tort—allow recovery for the alleged conduct and

are not contingent on recognition of the judgments.

       We find similarly unpersuasive plaintiffs’ contention that the Turkish courts are unlikely

to provide substantial justice given the unique circumstances of this case. Specifically, plaintiffs

argue that the Turkish government’s aggressive interference with the criminal proceedings against

Halkbank, which allegedly arose from the same underlying conduct at issue here, demonstrates

that it is unlikely that plaintiffs will be able to obtain justice in the Turkish courts. Additionally,

plaintiffs point to a U.S. Department of State report stating that Turkish authorities have “restricted

fundamental freedoms and compromised the rule of law.” Appellants’ Br. at 45 (quoting Joint

App’x at 729). Thus, although plaintiffs recognize that U.S. courts have previously found

Turkey’s legal system to be an adequate forum for resolving civil disputes, they contend that

circumstances in this particular case do not support such a conclusion.

       We have emphasized that “considerations of comity preclude a court from adversely

judging the quality of a foreign justice system absent a showing of inadequate procedural

safeguards, so such a finding is rare.” PT United Can Co. Ltd. v. Crown Cork & Seal Co., Inc.,

138 F.3d 65, 73 (2d Cir. 1998) (internal citation omitted); accord Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc., 562

F.3d 163, 189 (2d Cir. 2009). Therefore, “the plaintiff bears the initial burden of producing

evidence of corruption, delay or lack of due process in the foreign forum, [and] the defendant bears

the ultimate burden of persuasion as to the adequacy of the forum.” Abdullahi, 562 F.3d at 189.

                                                  19
        In rejecting plaintiffs’ argument, the district court acknowledged that plaintiffs’ allegations

of Turkish officials’ interference in the criminal investigations against Halkbank are “serious and

deserve attention.” Special App’x at 32. However, the district court noted that “[i]f plaintiffs were

to litigate this matter in Turkey, . . . the litigation would involve Turkey’s civil court system rather

than its criminal law enforcement agencies.” Id. at 32–33. The district court correctly found that

“[p]laintiffs’ allegations regarding Turkish law enforcement are therefore not sufficient to

demonstrate that the Turkish civil court system is an inadequate forum for plaintiffs’ claims.” Id.

at 33. Similarly, the State Department report cited by plaintiffs did not support a finding that the

Turkish courts are “characterized by a complete absence of due process or an inability of the forum

to provide substantial justice to the parties.” Monegasque De Reassurances S.A.M., 311 F.3d at

499; accord Turedi v. Coca Cola Co., 460 F. Supp. 2d 507, 524–25 (S.D.N.Y. 2006) (rejecting

State Department reports as “insufficient to demonstrate the inadequacy of Turkey as an alternative

forum”), aff’d, 343 F. App’x 623 (2d Cir. 2009). Moreover, the fact that the litigation involves a

government-controlled bank does not make the alternative forum inadequate. See Monegasque

De Reassurances S.A.M., 311 F.3d at 499 (“[Plaintiff’s] contention that a Ukrainian forum is not

an adequate forum simply because a state-owned enterprise of Ukraine is involved also must be

rejected as without foundation. It is hardly unusual, considering the number of state-owned

business entities throughout the world, for a finding of forum non conveniens to be made in favor

of the forum of a state whose entity is a party litigant.”).

        In sum, we conclude that the district court, recognizing our “reluctance to find foreign

courts ‘corrupt’ or ‘biased,’” Special App’x at 33 (alteration adopted) (quoting Monegasque De

Reassurances S.A.M., 311 F.3d at 499), correctly determined that plaintiffs’ allegations were

insufficient to meet their “initial burden of producing evidence of corruption” in the Turkish civil

                                                  20
courts, Abdullahi, 562 F.3d at 189, and therefore did not undermine defendant’s evidence

regarding the adequacy of the forum.

   III.       Private and Public Interest Factors

          Finally, plaintiffs argue that the district court abused its discretion in deciding that private

and public interest factors weigh strongly in favor of dismissal.

          Even where the degree of deference to a plaintiff’s choice of forum is reduced at step one

and there is an adequate alternative forum at step two, dismissal is warranted only if the defendant

shows that plaintiff’s choice of forum is “genuinely inconvenient and the [alternative] forum

significantly preferable.” Iragorri, 274 F.3d at 74–75. In assessing the conveniences of the

forums, courts consider both private and public interest factors. Private interest factors include,

“the relative ease of access to sources of proof; availability of compulsory process for attendance

of unwilling, and the cost of obtaining attendance of willing, witnesses; possibility of view of

premises, if view would be appropriate to the action; and all other practical problems that make

trial of a case easy, expeditious and inexpensive.” Id. at 73–74 (internal quotation marks and

citation omitted). Public interest factors include, “administrative difficulties associated with court

congestion; the unfairness of imposing jury duty on a community with no relation to the litigation;

the interest in having localized controversies decided at home; and avoiding difficult problems in

conflict of laws and the application of foreign law.” Aguinda v. Texaco, Inc., 303 F.3d 470, 480

(2d Cir. 2002) (citation omitted).

          The district court concluded that the private factors weighed strongly in favor of litigating

in Turkey because “[t]he underlying facts in this litigation involve an alleged fraudulent scheme

conducted in large part by a Turkish bank and its Turkish employees in Turkey” and “[t]he relevant

evidence is largely in Turkey.” Special App’x at 34. Further, the district court determined that

                                                    21
most of the relevant witnesses are either within or closer to Turkey, and these witnesses are

“beyond the subpoena power of this Court.” Id. Thus, it found that “[t]rying this case in the United

States would not be easy, expeditious, or inexpensive.” Id. The district court also held that public

considerations weighed heavily in favor of litigating in Turkey. In particular, the district court

cited the lack of a connection between the case and New York, Turkey’s interest in hearing an

action involving an important Turkish financial institution, and the parties’ choice of law dispute

involving the potential application of Turkish substantive law.

        We discern no abuse of discretion in the district court’s weighing of the private and public

factors. To the extent plaintiffs argue that the district court “abused its discretion in disregarding

strong policies in favor of providing avenues for redress for victims of terrorism and aiding those

victims in their subsequent enforcement efforts in the United States,” Appellants’ Br. at 35, we

disagree. As an initial matter, we note that, in its opposition brief to the motion to dismiss in the

district court, plaintiffs failed to argue specifically that this policy should be weighed when they

addressed the balancing of the private and public factors. See Supp. App’x 1154–55. In any event,

to the extent plaintiffs made a cursory reference to such a policy in another portion of its opposition

brief, see id. at 1157, the district court was well within its discretion in finding that the other private

and public factors outweighed the consideration of that issue under the particular facts of this case,

see Wamai, 2023 WL 2395675, at *5 (“We . . . recognize that, in their capacity as judgment

creditors, victims of terrorism and their families have a legitimate and compelling interest in

pursuing claims against [a foreign bank] for its allegedly wrongful conduct that hindered their

ability to recover Iranian assets. However, their preference to litigate those claims in a U.S. court

is not the only consideration.”).

                                    *               *                *

                                                    22
       In sum, we conclude that the district court did not abuse its discretion in conditionally

granting the motion to dismiss on the ground of forum non conveniens.

       We have considered plaintiffs’ remaining arguments and conclude that they are without

merit. For the foregoing reasons, we AFFIRM the judgment of the district court.

                                                   FOR THE COURT:
                                                   Catherine O’Hagan Wolfe, Clerk of Court

                                              23