Court Opinion

ID: 9408522
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-07-12 22:01:05.148727+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:20:44.410145
License: Public Domain

United States Court of Appeals
                        For the First Circuit

No. 22-1276

                      UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

                              Appellee,

                                 v.

                            AMANDA FORD,

                        Defendant, Appellant.

            APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
                 FOR THE DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS

           [Hon. Timothy S. Hillman, U.S. District Judge]

                               Before

              Montecalvo and Thompson, Circuit Judges,
                 and Carreño-Coll, District Judge.

     Syrie D. Fried, with whom Good, Schneider, Cormier, and Fried
was on brief, for appellant.
     Donald C. Lockhart, Assistant United States Attorney, with
whom Rachael S. Rollins, United States Attorney, was on brief, for
appellee.

                            July 12, 2023

        Of the District of Puerto Rico, sitting by designation.
              CARREÑO-COLL,    District       Judge.     In      this   sentencing

appeal, Amanda Ford faults the district court for failing to rule

on her factual disputes and attributing to her a cache of fentanyl

found in her boyfriend's home.          Seeing no error as to the former

and no clear error as to the latter, we affirm.

                                       I.

              Because Ford pleaded guilty, we draw the facts from the

change-of-plea colloquy, undisputed portions of the presentence

investigation report ("PSR"), and sentencing hearing.                   See United

States v. Rivera, 51 F.4th 47, 49 (1st Cir. 2022).                 Pedro Báez ran

a drug-trafficking organization with the help of his son and his

girlfriend, Ford.      Tipped off, law enforcement officers wiretapped

the organization's phones and set up controlled purchases.                     Two

of them involved Ford.        During the first controlled purchase, she

delivered 2.5 grams of a heroin-fentanyl mixture to a cooperating

witness who had contacted her at Báez's direction.                      During the

second, she drove Báez's son to a meeting place where he delivered

6.3   grams    of   crack   cocaine   and     5.1   grams   of    fentanyl   to   a

cooperating witness.        The exchange took place in the car she was

driving.      In between these purchases, she told a customer who

wanted to buy drugs to contact Báez's son.

              Ford also kept an eye out for police around Báez's home.

The government said in its sentencing memo that it had recorded

calls showing that Ford         would contact          Báez when she       noticed

                                      - 2 -
something suspicious.     On one call, she warned him that she had

seen an unusual car.      On another, she told him that she was

listening to a police scanner because state troopers had gone by

his home with a drug-sniffing dog.        There was also a call, the

government said, indicating that Ford was involved in large-scale

transactions:   Báez told his son that Ford was going to get $18,000

to pay another coconspirator for 500 grams of cocaine.      Finally,

the government argued that there were recorded calls showing that

Ford and Báez shared customers.         One of Báez's customers, for

example, told him that he had tried calling Ford.     And three days

before Ford and Báez were arrested, Báez told a customer that Ford

would deliver to him crack cocaine and a heroin-fentanyl mixture.

          Law enforcement officers arrested Ford and Báez early in

the morning at his home.      They found 144.3 grams of a heroin-

fentanyl mixture in his bedroom and another 1.35 grams inside a

purse in a bedroom that she used.

          A grand jury charged Ford, and others, with offenses

stemming from Báez's drug-trafficking organization.      She entered

a straight guilty plea to Count One of the Superseding Indictment,

which charged her with conspiring to distribute and possess with

intent to distribute 1 kilogram or more of heroin, 280 grams or

more of cocaine base, 400 grams or more of fentanyl, and 500 grams

or more of cocaine.     She agreed with the government's recitation

of what it would have proved at trial, except its statement that

                                - 3 -
she could be held responsible for the cache of drugs found in

Báez's home.

             Adding    together    the    drugs   from    the   two   controlled

purchases and the 145.65 grams of fentanyl1 found in Báez's home,

the   PSR     set   Ford's      base-offense      level   at    26,   see    USSG

§ 2D1.1(c)(7),        and    subtracted    3   levels     for   acceptance    of

responsibility, see USSG § 3E1.1(a)-(b), for a total-offense level

of 23.      With a criminal history category of I and total-offense

level of 23, her Guidelines sentencing range was 46 to 57 months

of imprisonment.        Ford objected to the PSR on several grounds,

including to its attribution to her of the 145.65 grams of fentanyl

found at the time of her arrest.            The probation officer rejected

her objections in writing.

             The parties' arguments at sentencing will make more

sense if we pause to explain why the PSR attributed to Ford the

cache of fentanyl found in Báez's home.                 In a drug conspiracy,

each coconspirator can be held responsible not only for the drugs

that she personally handled but also for the drugs that others

handled, so long as those acts were reasonably foreseeable to her,

committed within the scope of the conspiracy, and in furtherance

of the conspiracy.          United States v. Soto-Villar, 40 F.4th 27, 31

      1Although the drugs found in Báez's home were a mixture of
heroin and fentanyl, they count as fentanyl for sentencing purposes
because fentanyl results in the greater offense level. See USSG
§ 2D1.1(c), Note A to Drug Quantity Table.

                                     - 4 -
(1st Cir. 2022); see also USSG § 1B1.3(a)(1)(B).             With that in

mind, we turn to Ford's sentencing.

            At sentencing, the judge said that he had read the PSR,

the parties' sentencing memos, and Ford's letters of support.          He

then noted that the PSR set Ford's Guidelines sentencing range at

46 to 57 months of imprisonment.           Ford reiterated her objection

to the PSR attributing to her the cache of fentanyl found in Báez's

home -- without it, her base-offense level would be much lower.

Although she was Báez's girlfriend and sometimes stayed the night

at his home, she said that the PSR was incorrect to say that she

lived there.      And so there is no factual basis to attribute the

cache to her, she argued, because her relationship with Báez

standing alone was not enough to make those drugs reasonably

foreseeable to her.      She then raised what she called a "procedural"

objection    to    the   non-PSR   information    in   the   government's

sentencing memo about "other transactions or other incidents that

[the government] says . . . [she] was aware of or participated

in."   She contended that the court should ignore that information

because it was not in the PSR and she had only a day's notice to

investigate it.      She nonetheless contested one of the calls not

mentioned in the PSR:       The government, she said, misrepresented

what had happened on the call where Báez told his son about her

role in getting the money to pay a coconspirator for a half

kilogram of cocaine.      She said that Báez had told his son that she

                                   - 5 -
was going to wake up someone who would get the money, not that she

would get the money herself.

           The    government        responded       that   Ford    had    received    in

discovery about 2.5 years earlier the non-PSR information in its

sentencing      memo.         It   then    defended    the      probation    officer's

rationale for attributing to her the cache of fentanyl seized on

the day of her arrest:               The cache, it argued, was reasonably

foreseeable because she was Báez's girlfriend, worked closely with

him,   stayed    at     his    home,      was   involved   in    taking     orders   and

conducting sales, and delivered drugs for him.

           After listening to the parties, the judge said that he

was not going to adjust the PSR's Guidelines calculation because

he believed that it was correct.                   He then imposed a downwardly

variant sentence of 24 months of imprisonment.                     In the statement

of reasons, a form issued after judgment is entered, he checked a

box that said that he had adopted the PSR without change.

                                            II.

           Ford advances two claims of error.                     First, she argues

that the district court violated Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure

32(i)(3)(B) because it did not rule on her factual disputes about

whether the cache of fentanyl found in Báez's home is attributable

to her.   Second, she argues that the court erred by attributing

those drugs to her.

                                           - 6 -
                                        A.

            The parties disagree about the proper standard of review

for Ford's Rule 32(i)(3)(B) claim.             Because in the past we have

reviewed such claims de novo, see, e.g., United States v. González-

Vélez, 587 F.3d 494, 508–09 (1st Cir. 2009), Ford contends that de

novo review applies      here.        The government counters that her

failure to object below constrains us to review for plain error

only.   As we have done before, we leave this question for another

day.    See United States v. González, 736 F.3d 40, 42 (1st Cir.

2013) (reserving the question of which standard of review applies

to an unpreserved Rule 32(i)(3)(B) claim because the claim failed

even under de novo review).           For "even under the more appellant-

friendly lens of de novo review," her claim fails.            See id.

            Rule 32(i)(3)(B) requires a sentencing court to rule on

factual disputes or conclude that a ruling is unnecessary because

the court will not take the disputed matter into account when

sentencing.     Although the absence of explicit rulings does not

always sound the death knell on appeal, judges should strive to

make explicit rulings.        See United States v. Romero, 906 F.3d 196,

210 (1st Cir. 2018).           This facilitates      appellate   review and

reduces unnecessary confusion about what happened below.                But we

will nonetheless uphold a Guidelines determination, even in the

absence of explicit rulings, so long as the "record read as a whole

'reliably     shows'   that     the    judge    implicitly   resolved     [the

                                      - 7 -
defendant]'s   objections   against   h[er]."   Id.   (quoting   United

States v. Carbajal-Váldez, 874 F.3d 778, 783 (1st Cir. 2017)).2

            This case is on all fours with Romero.      In Romero, we

held that the judge implicitly resolved the defendant's factual

protests against the PSR's inclusion of a sentencing enhancement

and rejection of a minor-role reduction because the judge stated

on the record that he had read the PSR and parties' sentencing

memos, listened to each side discuss the disputed issues, and

adopted the PSR without change (as indicated in his statement of

reasons).   Id.   Here, the same things happened:     The judge stated

that he had read the PSR and parties' sentencing memos, listened

to each side discuss its take on Ford's role in the conspiracy,

stated that the PSR's Guidelines calculation needed no adjustment,

and checked the box in his statement of reasons that said that he

had adopted the PSR without change, which necessarily included its

rejection of Ford's factual protests against attributing the cache

of fentanyl to her.

            Our dissenting colleague argues that we misconstrue

     2 The dissent states a more difficult standard to meet when
there are no explicit rulings or findings, framing the standard
for our review of the record for an implicit finding as "whether
the 'sentencing record' compels a finding that the district court
'implicitly resolved' the disputed facts and ruled on the objected-
to portions of the PSR at sentencing." (emphasis added) (quoting
Carbajal-Váldez, 874 F.3d at 783).     Our case law, however, is
clear that our standard is whether the record "read as a whole
'reliably shows'" the implicit resolution. Romero, 906 F.3d at
210 (emphasis added) (quoting Carbajal-Váldez, 874 F.3d at 783).
                                - 8 -
Romero because, in that case, there were "other indicia that the

district court complied with Rule 32(i)(3)(B)."        But the dissent

distinguishes Romero based on considerations that played no role

in our ultimate analysis.       To be sure, we noted in Romero that the

court    (1)   "arguably   addressed    Romero's   minor-role-reduction

request" by stating that his role in the organization was "very

important" and (2) stated further that it was "not sure" whether

Romero's objections mattered because of the government's below-

Guidelines sentencing recommendation.        906 F.3d at 209–10.    But

we did not say that those statements helped show that the court

had implicitly resolved Romero's objections.       See id.   Instead, we

held that the record reliably showed that the court had "implicitly

resolved Romero's objections against him" because it had adopted

the PSR without change, which meant that it had "accepted the PSR's

sentencing-range calculations, including its rejection of Romero's

[objections]."    Id. at 210.    And we knew that the court had adopted

the PSR without change "because of the judge's written statement

of reasons."     Id.   So the dissent is rewriting what mattered in

Romero to distinguish it from this case.3

     3 The dissent also argues that our reliance on the district
court's statement of reasons disregards Rule 32(i)(3)(B)'s text
because the statement was not prepared "at sentencing." But the
timing of the statement's preparation does not matter: We rely
on it because it records what the court did at sentencing.
     In the end, the dissent's disagreement with our analysis falls
under its own weight. The dissent says that the facts that Ford
disputed   "underpinn[ed]    the   guidelines   calculation"    and
                                   - 9 -
              Setting aside this case's procedural similarity with

Romero, Ford's arguments also show that the judge implicitly

resolved her factual protests against her.                 She argues that the

factual disputes "bore directly" on the Guidelines calculation and

that the "judge's acceptance of the probation officer's treatment

of [her factual] objections" led to her being held responsible for

the   cache    of    fentanyl    found    in   Báez's   home.   So   under   her

reasoning,      by    adopting    the    PSR     without   change,   the   judge

necessarily resolved the factual disputes against her.

              One final point.      Although the case law above suggests

that even a minimal indication that the judge implicitly resolved

the factual disputes is sufficient to avoid remand, we remind

district courts that Rule 32(i)(3)(B) requires them to rule on the

factual disputes (or explain why they need not rule on them):                The

district court "must -- for any disputed portion of the presentence

report or other controverted matter -- rule on the dispute or

determine that a ruling is unnecessary either because the matter

will not affect sentencing, or because the court will not consider

"underl[ay] . . . the attribution analysis" in the PSR. If that
is true, then what mystery is there about how the district court
resolved those disputes when it adopted the PSR without
change? The dissent's insistence that it is nonetheless necessary
to remand for resentencing so that the court may clearly state on
the record its resolution of Ford's factual disputes would "exalt
form over substance" -- something we are rightfully "reluctant" to
do. See Carbajal-Váldez, 874 F.3d at 783.

                                        - 10 -
the matter in sentencing."    Fed. R. Crim. P. 32(i)(3)(B).   As this

court has said, the best practice is to make "explicit rulings."

Romero, 906 F.3d at 210.     While we have rejected Rule 32(i)(3)(B)

claims, where, as here, the district court indicated that it had

resolved the factual disputes by accepting or adopting the PSR, we

are mindful that an outer boundary exists where the absence of any

explanation will be insufficient as a matter of law.4

          But in the end, the record here reliably shows that the

judge implicitly resolved Ford's factual disputes about whether

the cache of fentanyl is attributable to her.        Thus, her Rule

32(i)(3)(B) claim fails.

     4 In the past, for example, we have remanded for clarification
where the judge's failure to explicitly comply with Rule
32(i)(3)(B) frustrated appellate review. In Van, there were two
ways that the defendant could qualify for a leadership enhancement
under the Guidelines:    the criminal activity had to either (1)
involve five or more criminally responsible participants or (2) be
otherwise extensive. United States v. Van, 87 F.3d 1, 2 (1st Cir.
1996). The PSR initially included the enhancement on the ground
that the criminal activity involved five or more criminally
responsible participants.     Id.     But when Van disputed that
"Michael" was a criminally responsible participant (and thus that
there were at least five), the probation officer responded that,
even if there were not five, the criminal activity was "otherwise
extensive." Id. at 2–3. Because the probation officer did not
specify on which ground the PSR relied, the judge's adoption of
the PSR did not reveal how he had resolved the disputes about
Michael's criminal culpability.      Id. at 3–4.    Making matters
worse, the undisputed facts did not compel a finding that either
Michael was criminally responsible or that the criminal activity
in general was "otherwise extensive."         Id. at 4.     So the
uncertainty over which ground the judge had adopted frustrated our
review.    Here, in contrast, the PSR sets forth a consistent
explanation for why the cache is attributable to Ford.

                                - 11 -
                                        B.

            Ford claims next that the judge erred by attributing to

her the cache of fentanyl found in Báez's home.              The parties agree

that she preserved this claim.           Preserved claims that the judge

erroneously attributed drugs to the defendant are reviewed for

clear    error.     Soto-Villar,    40       F.4th    at   33.    "Under    this

deferential standard," we must accept the judge's drug-quantity

finding "unless, on the whole of the record, we form 'a strong,

unyielding belief that a mistake has been made.'"                 Id. (quoting

United States v. Cintrón-Echautegui, 604 F.3d 1, 6 (1st Cir.

2010)).

            The   amount   and   type    of   drugs    involved   in   a   drug-

trafficking conspiracy play a key role at sentencing.               Id. at 31.

Indeed, they generally control a defendant's base-offense level.

See USSG § 2D1.1(a).       Drugs are attributed to a defendant based

on her "count(s) of conviction" and relevant conduct. 5                    Soto-

Villar, 40 F.4th at 31.          Relevant conduct, "in the case of a

jointly undertaken criminal activity," includes "all reasonably

foreseeable acts and omissions of others in furtherance of the

     5 Criminal liability and sentencing liability are not always
the same. "While a conspiracy charge may encompass all acts by
co-conspirators in furtherance of the conspiracy, 'relevant
conduct' is limited to the foreseeable acts resulting from the
defendant's particular agreement.    Thus, the scope of relevant
conduct is 'not necessarily the same as the scope of the entire
conspiracy.'" United States v. Laboy, 351 F.3d 578, 583 (1st Cir.
2003) (citation omitted) (quoting USSG § 1B1.3, cmt. (n.2)).

                                   - 12 -
jointly undertaken criminal activity."             Cintrón-Echautegui, 604

F.3d at 5 (quoting USSG § 1B1.3(a)(1)(B)).              So a defendant "is

responsible not only for the drugs [s]he actually handled but also

for the full amount of drugs that [s]he could reasonably have

anticipated would be within the ambit of the conspiracy."             United

States v. Cortés-Cabán, 691 F.3d 1, 27 (1st Cir. 2012) (quoting

United States v. Santos, 357 F.3d 136, 140 (1st Cir. 2004)).

            Ford does not challenge being held responsible for the

drugs involved in the controlled purchases that she participated

in.    She challenges only the judge's finding that the cache of

fentanyl found in Báez's home on the day of her arrest constitutes

relevant conduct and is thus attributable to her.             But before we

review the judge's finding, we need to resolve a dispute about the

facts that he could rely on in making that finding:             Ford argues

that   he   could   not   rely   on   the     non-PSR   information   in   the

government's sentencing memo because she contested it.                She is

right, in part.

            "[A] sentencing judge, in her substantial discretion,

can consider any evidence with sufficient indicia of reliability

and can rely upon 'virtually any dependable information.'"            United

States v. Berríos-Miranda, 919 F.3d 76, 81 (1st Cir. 2019) (quoting

United States v. Doe, 741 F.3d 217, 236 (1st Cir. 2013)).              These

principles    apply   with   full     force   to   drug-quantity   findings.

Cintrón-Echautegui, 604 F.3d at 6.            The government's statements,

                                    - 13 -
"not adequately challenged by defense counsel who has a full

opportunity to respond, may constitute reliable information" for

sentencing purposes.     United States v. Montalvo-Febus, 930 F.3d

30, 34 (1st Cir. 2019) (quoting United States v. Díaz-Arroyo, 797

F.3d 125, 130 n.3 (1st Cir. 2015)).

            Díaz-Arroyo illustrates this point.     Díaz appealed his

sentence for being a felon in possession of a firearm.        The PSR

noted that he had been charged with murder and attempted murder

and that those charges had been dismissed.       Díaz-Arroyo, 797 F.3d

at 127.   But the PSR did not say why they were dismissed.     Id.   At

sentencing, the prosecutor recommended a top-of-the-Guidelines

sentence.    Id.   She explained that the charges "were dropped only

after the sole surviving witness to the incident (a minor who was

able positively to identify the defendant as the shooter) was

threatened and fled the jurisdiction."     Id.   In response, defense

counsel maintained the defendant's "innocence with respect to

those charges" and stated that "the charges had been dropped

because the witness had been in witness protection and did not

appear to testify."     Id.   On appeal, we held that the court was

"entitled to take into account the prosecutor's representations"

about why the charges had been dismissed because defense counsel

"did not directly challenge [her] account of the circumstances

surrounding the[ir] dismissal."     Id. at 130 n.3.   So, too, here.

            At the sentencing hearing, Ford challenged only the call

                                - 14 -
where Báez talked to his son about her role in getting the money

to pay a coconspirator for a half kilogram of cocaine.                      To be

sure, she generally objected to the information in the government's

sentencing memo on the grounds that it was not in the PSR and that

she should not have to rush to check it the day before sentencing.

But a sentencing court is not limited to the information in the

PSR.       See Doe, 741 F.3d at 236.          And she did not say that she

needed more time, let alone ask for more time, to review the non-

PSR information.           See United States v. Mathur, 624 F.3d 498, 508

(1st Cir. 2010) ("[A] defendant's claim of unfair surprise at

sentencing is 'severely undermined, if not entirely undone, by his

neglect to ask the district court for a continuance to meet the

claimed exigency.'" (quoting United States v. Díaz-Villafañe, 874

F.2d 43, 47 (1st Cir. 1989))).               Because Ford did not "directly

challenge" the non-PSR information in the government's sentencing

memo       –-   besides,    perhaps,   the   call   about    the   large   cocaine

transaction6 -- the judge could rely on it.                 See Díaz-Arroyo, 797

F.3d at 130 n.3.            And because the government argued that the

information supports a finding that the cache of fentanyl is

attributable to her, and the judge made that finding, we will

       We need not decide whether the judge could rely on this call
       6

after Ford's objection. Based on this record, we fail to discern
how her precise role in getting the money for a large cocaine
purchase from a coconspirator could have affected the judge's
decision as to whether the cache of fentanyl is attributable to
her.

                                       - 15 -
factor that information into our review.          See United States v.

Jiménez-Beltre, 440 F.3d 514, 519 (1st Cir. 2006) (en banc),

abrogated on other grounds by Rita v. United States, 551 U.S. 338

(2007) ("[A] court's reasoning can often be inferred by comparing

what was argued by the parties or contained in the pre-sentence

report with what the judge did.").

           There is no clear error in the judge's decision to hold

Ford responsible for the cache of fentanyl in Báez's home.             The

judge could reasonably find that Ford had agreed with Báez to

distribute a heroin-fentanyl mixture on an ongoing basis.              The

judge could also reasonably find that Báez's possession of the

cache   was   in   furtherance   of   that   agreement   and    reasonably

foreseeable to Ford.     There are two calls in the record, almost

one year apart, where Báez told customers who wanted to buy a

heroin-fentanyl mixture either to call Ford or that Ford would

deliver the mixture to them.          Following the first call, Ford

delivered 2.5 grams of that mixture to a cooperating witness.          The

second call took place only three days before Ford was arrested in

Báez's home, where the cache of that mixture was found.            So the

judge could reasonably infer that Ford and Báez regularly dealt in

a heroin-fentanyl mixture, including at the time of their arrest,

and therefore that it was reasonably foreseeable to her that he

had a cache of that mixture awaiting distribution.             Indeed, the

judge could even infer that Ford knew that Báez kept the cache in

                                 - 16 -
his home because she warned him when state troopers went by there

with a drug-sniffing dog.   See Cintrón-Echautegui, 604 F.3d at 7

("[T]he court is entitled to draw reasonable inferences from

information . . . in the sentencing record.").      It follows that,

under a reasonable view of the record, Báez's possession of a

heroin-fentanyl mixture in distributable quantities in his home

was within the scope of Ford's conspiracy agreement, in furtherance

of it, and reasonably foreseeable to her.     Where, as here, a view

of the record is reasonable, there can be no clear error in the

judge's decision to adopt it.     United States v. Martin, 749 F.3d

87, 92 (1st Cir. 2014).

           Ford's flagship argument about why she should not be

held responsible for the cache of fentanyl in Báez's home has clay

feet.    She contends that her relationship with Báez does not

automatically make her responsible for everything that he did.

But that is not what happened here.      To be sure, merely being in

a relationship with someone does not show that one agreed to

participate in the other's illicit activities.     See United States

v. Candelaria-Silva, 714 F.3d 651, 657-58 (1st Cir. 2013).     Given

the evidence about her role in the conspiracy, however, she is not

being saddled with Báez's bad acts merely because she was dating

him.    And to the extent that she argues that she cannot be held

responsible for the cache because the record does not show that

she knew about it, that argument is a non sequitur.       Reasonable

                                - 17 -
foreseeability            is   broader   than     knowledge.      United    States   v.

Pinkham, 896 F.3d 133, 137 (1st Cir. 2018).                           Because Báez's

possession of the cache of fentanyl with intent to distribute it

was reasonably foreseeable to Ford, committed within the scope of

the conspiracy that she had agreed to, and in furtherance of that

conspiracy, she is responsible for it.

                  As for the drugs inside the purse in the bedroom that

Ford used, those are attributable to her, too.                         Because those

drugs were also a mixture of heroin and fentanyl and were in the

same house as the cache, the judge could reasonably infer that

they       were    once    part   of     the   cache. 7     Because   the    cache   is

attributable to Ford, it does not matter that she (or someone else)

later removed some of it for personal use.                     See Pinkham, 896 F.3d

at 138; see also United States v. Marks, 365 F.3d 101, 105–06 (1st

Cir.       2004)    (holding      that    drugs    the    defendant   consumed   were

nonetheless attributable to him because he had acquired them "with

the intent that [they] would or could be distributed").                        In any

event, the 1.35 grams in the purse do not matter.                          Subtracting

them from Ford's total drug weight leaves her with the same base-

offense level (405.6 kg total converted drug weight minus 3.39 kg

       Ford tries to distance the drugs in the purse from the drugs
       7

in the cache by pointing out that, although both are a mixture of
heroin and fentanyl, they had different additives. But the judge
could reasonably infer that Báez's drug-trafficking organization
did not have the type of quality control that would ensure each
gram is identical.

                                           - 18 -
converted   drug   weight   equals    402.21   kg   total   converted   drug

weight).    See USSG § 2D1.1(c)(7) (providing that "[a]t least 400

kg but less than 700 kg of Converted Drug Weight" results in a

base-offense level of 26).     Moreover, we see no indication in the

record that removing the drugs in the purse from consideration

would have impacted Ford's sentence.           So any error as to the

attribution of the drugs in the purse would be harmless.                 See

Romero, 906 F.3d at 210–11 (stating that a harmless error "provides

no basis for upsetting the sentence").

                                     III.

            For the reasons above, we affirm Ford's sentence.

                     -Dissenting Opinion Follows-

                                 - 19 -
              MONTECALVO, Circuit Judge, dissenting.                        By finding, on

this record, that the district court met its Rule 32(i)(3)(B)

obligations to resolve controverted matters at sentencing that are

material      to    the    court's       analysis,       I   believe       the    majority's

interpretation of the rule is at odds with its plain text and in

tension      with    its    procedural         objective.          Not    only    does    this

interpretation undercut Rule 32(i)(3)(B)'s purpose by making it an

ineffective        procedural       safeguard         against      a   sentence     based   on

unsupported         allegations,         it    also    disincentivizes           the    record

development         necessary       to    effectively         review       the    procedural

reasonableness of a sentence on appeal.                      Consequently, I disagree

with the majority's conclusion that the record reliably shows that

the   district       court    implicitly         resolved       the      material      factual

disputes at sentencing, as required by Rule 32(i)(3)(B).                               For this

reason, I respectfully dissent.

              This case turns on the scope of the district court's

obligation under Rule 32(i)(3)(B) to resolve disputed material

facts at sentencing.            It is well-settled that "[w]hen a fact in

the PS[R] is disputed, a district court must resolve the dispute

so    long    as     the     fact        may    affect       the       court's    sentencing

determinations."           United States v. De Jesús-Torres, 64 F.4th 33,

40 (1st Cir. 2023).             Though disfavored, this resolution can be

implicit "when the court's statements and the sentence imposed

show that the facts were decided in a particular way," leaving no

                                              - 20 -
ambiguity as to the factual record considered at sentencing.

United States v. Van, 87 F.3d 1, 3 (1st Cir. 1996).            Because the

court made no express rulings on the disputed facts in this case,

the question before us is whether the "sentencing record" compels

a   finding    that   the   district   court   "implicitly   resolved"   the

disputed facts and ruled on the objected-to portions of the PSR at

sentencing.      United States v. Carbajal-Váldez, 874 F.3d 778, 783

(1st Cir. 2017); see also Van, 87 F.3d at 3.

              This is where I part ways with the majority's analysis.

The majority views our decision in United States v. Romero, 906

F.3d 196 (1st Cir. 2018), as directing its conclusion that the

district      court    implicitly      resolved   the   contested    facts

underpinning Ford's objections to the PSR.          I disagree.

              Here, the parties agree that the district court made no

explicit findings on (i) the drug quantity attributable to Ford or

(ii) the various subsidiary factual disputes bearing on that

attribution analysis.8

      8Ford raised the following objections to facts contained in
the PSR (i) whether Ford was Baez's "live-in girlfriend"; (ii) the
nature of Ford's involvement in the conspiracy and, in particular,
the meaning of Probation's factual statement that Ford was a
"runner of Pedro Baez's narcotics trafficking business"; and (iii)
whether the drugs recovered from a purse in the upstairs bedroom
belonged to Ford.      At sentencing, Ford also disputed the
government's characterization of a recorded phone call that it
introduced for the first time in its sentencing memorandum.

                                    - 21 -
              The sentencing hearing transcript is also clear that the

full extent of the district court's discussion of these issues at

sentencing was its conclusion that "I am not going to adjust the

guidelines.      I think they're properly calculated."

              Determining whether the court implicitly resolved these

disputes in a particular way requires us to ask if adoption of the

PSR's guidelines calculation -- taken with knowledge that the

district court read the PSR and the parties' sentencing memoranda

and   listened    to   the     parties'    arguments     --   "eliminate[s]      any

guesswork about what facts the sentencing court envisioned as the

basis   for    the    [attribution    of    the    disputed    drug     quantity]."

Carbajal-Váldez, 874 F.3d at 784.                On this record, I see no way

of getting to yes.           Here, where Ford's PSR objections disputed

several material facts and legal conclusions underpinning the

guidelines calculation, and where the full extent of the court's

engagement     with    these    issues     was    its   adoption   of    the   PSR's

guidelines calculation without explanation, it seems evident that

"[t]he PS[R] and the transcript of the [sentencing] hearing, taken

together, [are not enough to] furnish clear guidance as to the

basis on which" the district court concluded that attributing the

disputed quantity to Ford was appropriate.                    See id. at 783-84

(holding the court's statement that it agreed with the guidelines

calculation "coupled with the court's explanation that the captain

enhancement was applied because the appellant 'acted as the captain

                                     - 22 -
aboard the vessel which carried controlled substances,' makes

manifest that the court impliedly adopted the findings contained

in the PS[R]").

           Perhaps recognizing this deficiency too, the majority

opinion makes clear that the principal basis for finding the court

implicitly ruled on the disputed portions of the record is not in

the sentencing record.     Rather, the majority's conclusion turns

on the fact that the district court "checked the box in his

statement of reasons that said that he had adopted the PSR without

change."   But the Statement of Reasons and Final Judgment are form

documents that the district court completes after the sentence has

been imposed, outside the presence of the defendant, and as part

of a closed administrative process.     Meanwhile, Rule 32(i)(3)(B)

expressly refers to the court's obligation to resolve disputes "at

sentencing," whether by express statement or implicit reference,

and for good reason: to ensure the court engages in the requisite

factfinding in court and ahead of sentencing.        This not only

safeguards   defendants'   constitutional   right   to   a   sentence

predicated on reliable facts, but it also ensures that defendants

can preserve their challenges to the factual findings -- and the

                               - 23 -
procedural reasonableness of the sentence -- for appeal.9     See

United States v. Ramos-Carreras, 59 F.4th 1, 5 (1st Cir. 2023)

("[I]t is axiomatic 'that a convicted defendant has the right to

be sentenced on the basis of accurate and reliable information,

and that implicit in this right is the opportunity to rebut

the . . . evidence and the information' to be considered by the

court." (quoting United States v. Rivera-Rodríguez, 489 F.3d 48,

53 (1st Cir. 2007))); see also United States v. Berzon, 941 F.2d

8, 18 (1st Cir. 1991) ("Fed. R. Crim. P. 32 . . . 'embodies the

     9 Procedural safeguards, like Rule 32(i)(3)(B), are not just
technical rules that guide the flow of a proceeding.      They are
part of a complex web of requirements that together guarantee
defendants a fundamentally fair hearing, as required by the Due
Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, and safeguard the integrity
of an appeal. See United States v. Berzon, 941 F.2d 8, 18-20 (1st
Cir. 1991).
     Here, it is undisputed that the court adopted Probation's
guidelines calculation and therefore that it concluded that the
disputed drug quantity was attributable to Ford.     The issue is
that we do not know which facts the court relied on in reaching
its conclusion. The alleged facts the court might have relied on
include Ford's relationship to Baez, the PSR's characterization of
Ford as a "runner of Pedro Baez's narcotics trafficking business,"
the phone calls introduced in the government's sentencing memo,
the drugs in the purse alleged to belong to Ford, or some
combination of these facts. Because various combinations of these
facts could have led the court to adopt Probation's guidelines
calculation, it is difficult to tell which of these factual
disputes, if any, the court implicitly resolved by attributing the
disputed quantity to Ford. And where, as here, there are several
disputed facts, each of which may or may not have factored into
the court's attribution finding, knowing that information is
critical for our review on appeal.

                             - 24 -
congressional intent to assure a defendant's due process rights in

the sentencing process.'" (quoting United States v. Curran, 926

F.2d 59, 61 (1st Cir. 1991))).

            The majority asserts that Romero directs its conclusion.

But I do not read Romero to say that the mere notation of the

court's adoption of the PSR without change in the later-filed

Statement of Reasons alone suffices as a basis for finding that

the court implicitly resolved the objections to the PSR and thus

complied with Rule 32(i)(3)(B).              This is because the record in

Romero has other indicia that the district court complied with

Rule 32(i)(3)(B).

            First, the Romero court noted that "the judge arguably

addressed Romero's minor-role-reduction request at sentencing when

he   said   he    'agree[d]     with   the   government's    characterization

that . . . Romero's role was very important in the organization.'"

906 F.3d at 209-10.            This factual finding alone was likely a

sufficient       basis   for   concluding    the   court   complied   with   its

fact-finding obligations under Rule 32(i)(3)(B).10

       In Romero, we also noted that the district court -- after
      10

acknowledging Romero's objections to the PSR -- told the parties
that it was "'not sure that those objections' were 'all that
relevant,' since the government's proposal was 'below' what Romero
would get if he sustained the objections and reduced the offense
level." 906 F.3d at 203. Though not a focus of our decision in
Romero, this statement is arguably a sufficient basis for finding
the district court had complied with Rule 32 by implicitly
"determin[ing] that a ruling is unnecessary . . . because the
matter will not affect sentencing." Fed. R. Crim. P. 32(i)(3)(B).

                                       - 25 -
           Second, and perhaps more importantly, Romero objected to

the PSR’s application of the obstruction of justice enhancement

and rejection of the minor-role reduction based on the undisputed

facts as stated in the PSR.          Id. at 210-11.       Nothing in our

decision indicates that Romero was challenging the reliability of

the   underlying   facts   themselves.    Ford,     on   the   other   hand,

objected to the factual accuracy of material information in the

PSR, including facts Probation later added in its responses to her

objections.

           Therefore, the question before the court in Romero more

closely resembled a question of law -- whether the district court

implicitly    ruled   on   whether   Probation's    application    of   the

enhancement/reduction was in accord with the law in light of the

undisputed facts.      See id. at 210-11.          Whereas here, we are

dealing with a dispute about the underlying facts material to the

attribution analysis.      Without knowing how or whether the district

court resolved the factual disputes, we cannot effectively review

the legal conclusion as to attribution on appeal.          And checking a

box on the Statement of Reasons noting the court's adoption of the

PSR without change is neither a substitute for resolving disputes

at sentencing nor a reliable basis for inferring resolution of the

facts in a particular way.

           Aware of this issue and concerned that their decision

could invite courts to improperly avoid their duty to resolve

                                 - 26 -
material   facts   at    sentencing,       the   majority    wisely   instructs

district courts to "make explicit rulings" on factual disputes at

sentencing   notwithstanding         its   holding   that    "even    a   minimal

indication that the judge implicitly resolved the factual disputes

is sufficient to avoid remand."            But such an admonishment is of

little use where the court's decision simultaneously affirms based

on a sentencing record that even when read as a whole lacks minimal

indicators   --    let   alone   a    reliable     showing    that    the   judge

implicitly resolved the disputed facts.               And I fear that the

court's decision today will hinder our ability to enforce, as a

procedural matter, the need for district courts to make clear

findings at sentencing, as well as lower the bar for concluding

that the "record read as a whole 'reliably shows' that [a] judge

implicitly resolved" objections against a defendant.                 See Romero,

906 F.3d at 210.

           In sum, by overlooking the differences in what the

specific objections in Romero were and how the district court in

Romero engaged with them, and instead treating the record here as

"on all fours with Romero," I am concerned that the majority has

significantly narrowed the district court's obligations to resolve

factual disputes at sentencing.            In doing so, it has diminished

an important procedural protection by making it harder to ensure

that defendants are sentenced based on reliable evidence.

                                     - 27 -
          For all these reasons, I would vacate the sentence and

remand to the district court with instructions to (i) state clearly

on the record the factual basis for the court's decision on

attribution and (ii) resentence in light of the court's findings

regarding the disputed facts relating to attribution.

          I therefore respectfully dissent.

                              - 28 -