Court Opinion

ID: 9636475
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-22 14:30:24.004399+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T18:04:54.854499
License: Public Domain

OPINION
BOURCIER, Justice.
In these consolidated appeals, the defendant, Christopher S. Thornton, first challenges his convictions by a Superior Court trial jury for Mdnapping, domestic felony assaults, intimidation of a witness, and violation of a previous no-contact order. He also appeals from the denial of his post-trial motion to reduce the sentences that were imposed following his convictions.
Facts and Travel
For some six years prior to June 1996, Debra Means (Debra) and Christopher S. Thornton (defendant or Thornton) had been engaged in a relationship from which in 1994, a daughter, Amy,1 was born. Debra had another son, Adam,2 from an earlier relationship who was seven years old. The defendant, Debra, and the two children lived together in an apartment on Rockland Street in the town of Narragansett.
The relationship between the defendant and Debra was described as having been a tumultuous one, during which he had beaten her. Shortly before June 3, 1996, Debra broke off the relationship, and because of her fear of the defendant, she obtained a no-contact order against him. The no-contact order prevented the defendant from contacting Debra, but permitted him to visit his daughter, Amy.
On the afternoon of June 18, 1996, while Debra was preparing to leave for her employment at a health center in East Providence, her daughter, Amy, was in the living room watching television and waiting for Debra to drive her to her baby-sitter’s home. The defendant unexpectedly walked into the apartment, came up to Debra and said, “I’ve got something for you in my back pocket.” Debra touched his back pocket and felt the handle of a knife with a blade at least ten inches long. The defendant then pulled a telephone from the wall and pulled Debra into Adam’s bedroom. When Debra told the defendant’ that she was on her way to work, he sharply replied, “You are not going to work. You are going to die.” The defendant then directed Debra to telephone her employer and tell him that her car would not start and that she would not be coming to work. The defendant held the knife to her throat while she made the telephone call. Debra then called for Amy, but the defendant told her not to call Amy into the room, threatening to “take her out, too” if she came into the room.
A short time later, Diane Sullivan (Diane), Amy’s baby-sitter, telephoned Debra to find out why she had not brought Amy over to her home, where she baby-sat the child. Debra told Diane that she was not going to work, and Diane, sensing something was wrong, asked Debra whether the defendant was there, and Debra said yes. Because Diane was aware of the no-contact order and Debra’s fear of the defendant, she telephoned the Narragansett police to alert them of what might be happening.3
*1021Apparently sensing what had been said between Debra and Diane, the defendant became enraged and punched Debra in the face, knocking out her front teeth as Amy watched in horror.4 Within minutes, Debra was able to observe that the police were arriving, and she screamed out for help. At this, the defendant grabbed her by the hair, put his knife to her throat, and again threatened to kill her. The arrival of the police then triggered what would turn out to be a fourteen-hour-long confrontation-standoff between the defendant and the police, with the defendant holding Debra hostage and repeatedly threatening to kill her. The standoff lasted from mid-afternoon on June 18, 1996 through the early morning hours of the next day.5 During that time, the defendant repeatedly dragged Debra to the window in full view of the police, where he either would hold her by the hair with his knife to her throat or with his arm around her with his knife to her back. Debra made at least ten unsuccessful attempts to escape from the defendant, and after each attempt the defendant punched her in the face. During the standoff, the defendant also stabbed Debra four times, twice in the side, once in the back, and once in the arm.
Throughout the long standoff, the Narragansett police had extensive interaction with the defendant in an attempt to negotiate Debra’s release, but he repeatedly refused to release her. Later, he began demanding complete amnesty from prosecution in return for releasing Debra, which demands were rejected. Finally, in the early hours of June 19, about twelve hours into the standoff, the police concluded that the defendant would not release Debra, or surrender, so they called in the South Kingstown Emergency Services Unit (a police SWAT team) for assistance. Shortly after the SWAT team arrived, at about 4:30 a.m., it stormed the apartment and subdued the defendant. Debra was immediately taken to a local hospital, for extensive medical treatment.6
On September 23, 1996, a Washington County grand jury indicted the defendant, charging him with ten offenses stemming from the June 18-19, 1996 incident at Debra’s apartment. He was charged with first-degree sexual assault of Debra (count 1); assault with a dangerous weapon in a dwelling (count 2); felony assault with a dangerous weapon (count 3); assault with intent to murder Debra (count 4); felony assault resulting in serious bodily injury (count 5); breaking and entering a dwelling without consent of Debra (count 6); violation of a no-contact order (count 7); kidnapping Debra (count 8); intimidating a witness (Diane Sullivan) (count 9); and kidnapping Amy (count 10). The defendant was arraigned on September 25,1996, pled not guilty to all charges, and was referred to the Public Defender’s office for determination of his eligibility for the Public Defender’s services.7
The defendant’s trial before a Washington County Superior Court jury took place on December 2-5, 1997. On December 8, the trial jury returned its verdicts on the *1022nine charges that had been submitted to it.8 The jury found the defendant guilty on count 3 (felony assault with a dangerous weapon); count 5 (felony assault resulting in serious bodily injury); count 7 (violation of a no-contact order); count 8 (kidnapping Debra); and count 9 (intimidating a witness (Diane Sullivan)). He was found not guilty on count 1 (first-degree sexual assault of Debra); count 2 (assault with a dangerous weapon in a dwelling); count 4 (assault with intent to murder Debra); and count 10 (kidnapping Amy).
After sentences were imposed, the defendant timely appealed.
In his appeal, the defendant asserts' (1) that the trial justice erred in permitting him to waive his right to counsel without first determining whether such waiver was knowing and intelligent; (2) that the trial justice unduly impaired his right of self-representation; (8) that the trial justice erred in precluding admission of defense evidence that allegedly would have supported his diminished capacity defense; and (4) that the trial justice erred in permitting introduction of past incidents of misconduct by the defendant during the prosecutor’s cross-examination of defense expert Dr. Ronald Stewart (Dr. Stewart). Also before us is the defendant’s consolidated appeal from the denial of his post-trial motion to reduce his sentences. These issues will be dealt with in their order of significance to this opinion. Additional facts will be noted as needed.
Analysis
I
Waiver of Counsel
After rejecting representation by three court-appointed attorneys before trial, Thornton elected to represent himself pro se at trial with court-appointed standby counsel. On appeal he concedes that he had waived his right to counsel voluntarily but argues that his waiver violated his Sixth Amendment right to counsel because it was not made knowingly and intelligently, and the trial justice failed to make any finding that it was in fact so waived.
The record before us discloses that Thornton was arraigned on September 25, 1996, and he was referred to the Public Defender’s office to determine his eligibility for its services. He was found to be eligible, and Assistant Public Defender Richard Brousseau (Brousseau) was assigned to represent Thornton. Less than a month later, during a preliminary hearing on October 18, 1996, Thornton moved to dismiss Brousseau, asserting that he did not feel “comfortable” with Brousseau’s representation. He failed to outline his specific concerns regarding Brousseau’s representation but requested that he be assigned either another assistant public defender or be provided private counsel. The hearing justice deferred the pretrial proceedings and ordered Thornton to discuss his specific concerns with Brousseau to determine whether his concerns could be remedied.
Some five weeks later, on November 25, 1996, Thornton again appeared before the hearing justice and requested Brousseau’s removal, stating that differences of opinion existed between himself and Brousseau that affected the attorney-client relationship. Given Thornton’s complaints, Brousseau requested to be permitted to withdraw as Thornton’s counsel, and the hearing justice permitted his withdrawal. *1023The hearing justice at that time, apparently sensing that Thornton appeared to have initiated a course intended to delay his trial, warned Thornton that she would not allow “differences of opinion” with his next court-appointed counsel, standing alone, to justify removal of that attorney.
Attorney William O’Connell (O’Connell) subsequently was appointed to represent Thornton, and on December 2, 1996, he entered his appearance on Thornton’s behalf. O’Connell’s tenure was not much longer than Brousseau’s. In March 1997, Thornton motioned to have O’Connell removed because O’Connell had declined to handle a then-pending appeal by Thornton from an earlier probation-violation finding, a matter that later was resolved when Thornton agreed to have an assistant public defender represent him on that appeal. Five months later, however, in late August 1997, some three weeks prior to his scheduled trial date, Thornton once again moved to dismiss O’Connell as his attorney, asserting now that he had recently filed a disciplinary complaint against O’Connell claiming that O’Connell had failed to keep him informed about his case and that O’Connell was not devoting enough time to his case. The hearing justice again reminded Thornton that he was entitled to counsel, but not necessarily counsel of his choice, and that she had previously cautioned him that O’Connell would be his last court-appointed attorney. Despite her continued suspicion that Thornton was attempting to delay the start of his trial, a suspicion prompted by Thornton’s moving on “the eve of trial” to remove O’Connell, the hearing justice permitted O’Connell to withdraw, particularly because of the disciplinary complaint that had been filed against him by Thornton, which she believed created a conflict of interest in his continued representation of Thornton.9 She refused, however, to appoint new counsel for Thornton, and advised Thornton that it was now up to him to retain private counsel or to proceed pro se. Thornton objected to the hearing justice’s action and told her:
“[W]e already know I’m not an attorney, first of all. Second of all, I’m driving blind here because we haven’t discussed any type of defense. So if we want to proceed with this, fíne. I don’t know what I’m going to do, and I don’t even know what I’m going to say, but I made my argument and also presented to the court. * * * You’re asking me to come in here, represent myself for something we already both know I cannot do. * * * But I can surely guarantee you one thing, we both know I don’t know what I’m going to be doing to represent myself. So I would find that your argument and your grounds for that is a violation based on the fact that I cannot represent myself.”
On September 8, 1997, Thornton appeared before a different Superior Court justice to whom the case had been assigned for trial to determine whether he had retained counsel or whether he was going to proceed pro se. He once again objected to the options previously present*1024ed to him by the earlier hearing justice. Thornton explained that he understood he had a right to counsel but was “uncomfortable with putting my life in any hands — in [O’Connell’s] hands or a standby counsel’s hands” and would rather represent himself “even if it means having a fool for a client.” Thornton then requested additional time to prepare his defense and to make pro se objections to the validity of the indictment pursuant to Rule 6 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure; to file a discovery objection pursuant to Rule 16(a); and to request certain transcripts of previous witness testimony under Rule 26.1.
The trial justice again presented Thornton the option of his either appearing pro se with standby counsel or agreeing to be represented by O’Connell after “making his peace” with O’Connell. Asserting that he was being “forced” to appear pro se, Thornton nonetheless agreed to the appointment of standby counsel, and the trial date then was continued until December 2, 1997. Attorney Anthony Amalfetano (Am-alfetano), a seasoned and experienced criminal defense attorney, was appointed shortly thereafter to serve as standby counsel. Amalfetano proceeded to review the various motions Thornton, had filed and also moved for permission to engage a medical expert with expertise in diminished capacity defenses and an investigator to assist the defense. On October 28, 1997, Amalfetano’s motion to engage a medical expert and investigator was granted, and the trial justice asked Thornton to consider whether he wanted Amalfetano to represent him at trial and gave him several weeks to make a decision. At a pretrial hearing on November 14, 1997, Thornton now moved to dismiss Amalfetano as his standby counsel, contending that Amalfe-tano was not competent in “this area of law,” apparently referring to his already decided upon diminished capacity defense. The trial justice refused Thornton’s request to have “competent counsel in this area of law that I base my defense on” appointed to represent him.
On November 26, 1997, less than a week before his second scheduled trial, Thornton finally agreed to accept Amalfetano as his attorney, but only on condition that Thornton be given “at least a ninety day continuance to a six months continuance based on the fact that he would have to explore, research, speak with witnesses, talk with anybody that would come to mind.” The trial justice denied Thornton’s motion for a continuance, explaining to Thornton that he had in fact chosen to represent himself pro se by three times rejecting the services of competent counsel who had previously been appointed to represent him. The trial justice considered Thornton’s actions to be another trial-delay tactic, and refused to grant Thornton’s request for up to a six-month trial continuance. On December 2, 1997, Thornton proceeded to trial pro se with Amalfetano as standby counsel.
During the course of the four-day trial, extending from December 2 through December 6, 1997, the record discloses that the trial justice was overly solicitous of Thornton’s pro se status. He took great care when necessary to explain in detail various points of law to Thornton, entertained defense motions out of time, and encouraged Thornton to rely on standby counsel’s advice as much as possible.10 He also allowed standby counsel to assist in the jury voir dire, to examine and cross-*1025examine witnesses, introduce exhibits, to file motions and to make legal argument on Thornton’s behalf, all as directed by Thornton, and to assist Thornton with preparing requested jury instructions.
The trial record discloses to ua that Thornton, in addition to cleverly using his repeated ingratiating reminders to the jury during trial about his pro se status, more than adeptly managed to conduct his defense. He filed .numerous pretrial motions, delivered an impassioned opening statement and closing argument, artfully examined or cross-examined the various trial witnesses, and interposed numerous evidentiary objections, which for the most part were sustained by the trial justice. He successfully moved during trial for judgment of acquittal on the charge against him of breaking and entering, and later was able to persuade the trial jury to acquit him of the charges of first-degree sexual assault, assault with a dangerous weapon in a dwelling house, assault with intent to murder, and of kidnapping his daughter. The trial justice specifically noted that Thornton had “represented [himself] quite effectively at the trial.” Additionally, we note from the trial record that Thornton was able to cleverly manage and handle with unusual acuity his post-trial proceedings. At the time of sentencing, for example, he was quite eloquent in the course of exercising his right of allocution, and the perceptive argument he presented at a later hearing on his motion to reduce his sentences was equal to that of any experienced criminal defense attorney.
Thornton initially contends here on appeal that the trial justice erred in failing to expressly advise him of the dangers of representing himself pro se at his trial before permitting him to do so. Thornton concedes that his waiver of counsel was voluntary, but because he claims to never have been specifically advised of the dangers of representing himself, his waiver was not a knowing and intelligent waiver on his part and that all of his convictions therefore must be reversed. However, a detailed review of the totality of the circumstances reveals that Thornton was well aware of the dangers of representing himself and chose to represent himself pro se with his “eyes open.” Faretta v. California, 422 U.S. 806, 835, 95 S.Ct. 2525, 2541, 45 L.Ed.2d 562, 582 (1975).
In considering whether Thornton’s waiver of counsel was validly made in this case, this Court employs a two-prong analysis to determine first, whether the waiver was “voluntary”, and second, whether the waiver was “knowing and intelligent.” State v. Briggs, 787 A.2d 479, 486 (R.I.2001) (citing State v. Chabot, 682 A.2d 1377, 1380 (R.I.1996) (per curiam)).
It is generally acknowledged that absent any showing of “good cause” for a defendant’s refusal to accept court-appointed counsel, such refusal is functionally equivalent to a voluntary waiver of the right to counsel. See, e.g., Dunn v. Johnson, 162 F.3d 302, 307 (5th Cir.1998), cert. denied, 526 U.S. 1092, 119 S.Ct. 1507, 143 L.Ed.2d 659 (1999); United States v. Patterson, 140 F.3d 767, 776 (8th Cir.1998); McKee v. Harris, 649 F.2d 927, 930-31 (2d Cir.1981); State v. Craig, 274 Mont. 140, 906 P.2d 683, 690 (1995). Accord State v. Desroches, 110 R.I. 497, 505, 293 A.2d 913, 918 (1972). In this case, three different, capable, experienced court-appointed defense attorneys had been rejected by Thornton — all without good reason being shown for their rejection.11 He concedes that his decision to proceed pro se was *1026constitutionally voluntary. Accordingly, we believe that he voluntarily waived his right to a fourth court-appointed counsel. The options offered to him — accepting the services of previously appointed counsel, hiring private counsel, or proceeding pro se with standby counsel — all met constitutional muster. Thornton’s repeated refusal to accept the services of competent court-appointed defense counsel demonstrates clearly the voluntary waiver of his right to counsel, and that he was not in any way unconstitutionally “forced” to proceed pro se. See, e.g., United States v. Padilla, 819 F.2d 952, 956 (10th Cir.1987).
Having conceded that his waiver of counsel was voluntary, Thornton however asserts that it was not a knowing and intelligent waiver. As with other constitutional questions, this Court reviews such a determination de novo, giving deference to the lower court’s findings of historical fact. Simpson v. State, 769 A.2d 1257, 1265-66 (R.I.2001). Thornton specifically asserts here that his waiver must be deemed to have been invalid because the trial justice failed to conduct a Faretta inquiry and did not expressly advise him of the dangers of self-representation before Thornton proceeded pro se. The “absence of explicit bench warnings or a colloquy on the record” mandates no such conclusion. Maynard v. Meachum, 545 F.2d 273, 277 (1st Cir.1976).12 This Court has recently held in a unanimous opinion, in which the dissenting justice himself had joined, that a Faretta colloquy, while preferable, is not constitutionally required.
*1027In State v. Spencer, 783 A.2d 413, 416-17 (R.I.2001), we held:
“Although the simplest method to determine whether a waiver of counsel is knowing or voluntary may be a detailed colloquy between the trial court and the defendant, such an inquiry is not constitutionally required. * * * In fact, the [United States] Supreme Court has indicated that the inquiry ‘must be pragmatic and directed to the “particular stage of the proceedings in question.” ’ * * * We are persuaded that an examination of the totality of the circumstances, in light of the particular stage of the proceedings at the time the waiver is proposed, is the better approach to determine whether a waiver of counsel is knowing, voluntary and intelligent,”
In assessing the validity of a defendant’s waiver of counsel when competence is not an issue, this Court recommends, but does not require, that trial justices consider the six factors discussed in Chabot, 682 A.2d at 1380, namely:
“(1) the background, the experience, and the conduct of the defendant at the hearing, including his age, his education, and his physical and mental health; (2) the extent to which the defendant has had prior contact with lawyers before the hearing; (3) the defendant’s knowledge of the nature of the proceeding and the sentence that may potentially be [ ] imposed; (4) the question of whether standby counsel has been appointed and the extent to which he or she has aided the defendant before or at the hearing; (5) the question of whether the waiver of counsel was the result of mistreatment or coercion; and (6) the question of whether the defendant is trying to manipulate the events of the hearing.” Briggs, 787 A.2d at 486 (quoting Chabot, 682 A.2d at 1380).
In this case, an explicit colloquy between the trial justice and Thornton did not take place. However, the trial justice’s failure to conduct such a colloquy does not defeat a finding that the defendant’s waiver of counsel was a knowing and intelligent waiver when other evidence in the record clearly supports that conclusion. See, e.g., United States v. Goad, 44 F.3d 580, 588-89 (7th Cir.1995); United States v. Fant, 890 F.2d 408, 409-10 (11th Cir.1989); State v. Harmon, 575 N.W.2d 635, 642 (N.D.1997). Our analysis of the six Chabot factors, we believe, confirms our conclusion that Thornton knowingly and intelligently waived his right to counsel. We take up consideration of those factors.
Defendant’s Background, Experience, and Conduct
Thornton’s conduct at pretrial hearings demonstrates that he understood the dangers of self-representation. At one such hearing he told the pretrial hearing justice:
“I am not an attorney, your Honor. However, I do know and understand that I have a basic fundamental right to legal representation in this forum. I feel, however, that by not being provided to me at this time, that I could see myself being — I can see myself being uncomfortable with putting my life in any hands — in his hands or a standby counsel’s hands — at this time, okay, to represent myself, then I could choose the latter, even if it means having a fool for a client.”
At a later pretrial hearing, Thornton again related to the pretrial hearing justice:
“I do not have the knowledge or skills to represent myself because I do not understand if the indictment is good or bad, and I am unfamiliar with the Rules *1028of Evidence, your Honor. Without the aid of counsel, I may be put on trial ■without a proper charge or conviction, upon incompetent evidence, or otherwise inadmissible. Your Honor, I lack both the skill and knowledge to adequately prepare my defense. I need the guiding hand of counsel at every step in the proceedings against me.”
“What I need from you, your Honor, is for you to assign counsel so I will become — so I will not become a victim of overzealous prosecution.”
Thornton further related to the pretrial hearing justice that representing himself meant “not having access to people to be able to interview him, not having access to the law library,” and that he was not qualified to represent himself. Such remarks certainly reflect a defendant’s awareness of the disadvantages of self-prepresentation. See, e.g., United States v. Sandles, 23 F.3d 1121, 1124 (7th Cir.1994); Craig, 906 P.2d at 690. Throughout the pretrial proceedings in this ease, Thornton made abundantly clear the fact that he recognized how an attorney would be of great assistance to him. For example, he acknowledged that an attorney would best know how to preserve objections for appeal; how to accomplish a change of venue for excessive publicity pursuant to Rule 21 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure; and how to prepare and file motions. The defendant also reiterated to the court that “I will never concede * * * that I requested to be my own attorney. That will be, like I made the Court aware, I will be a fool for my own client.”
Thornton, we note, was no newcomer to criminal procedures. His extensive previous criminal background demonstrated that he was well-acquainted with the criminal justice system and its procedures, and was completely aware of the importance of being represented by legal counsel. See, e.g., United States v. Moya-Gomez, 860 F.2d 706, 736 (7th Cir.1988); State v. Worthy, 583 N.W.2d 270, 276-77 (Minn.1998); State v. Crisafi, 128 N.J. 499, 608 A.2d 317, 325 (1992).
We note also from the record before us that just before trial, the trial justice repeatedly implored Thornton to accept the assistance of Amalfetano as trial counsel, but Thornton remained intransigent, apparently intending to be able to later capitalize on what he envisioned could be a built-in trial error which, if convicted, could serve to his advantage.13
Thornton’s intelligence and clever street savvy, his repeated references to the dangers of self-representation, and the trial justice’s observations regarding how well Thornton articulated his legal arguments, all tend to show that Thornton was perfectly competent to, and did, make a know*1029ing and intelligent waiver of his right to have counsel’s assistance during his trial.
Extent to Which Defendant Had Previous Contact with Counsel
As noted earlier, Thornton rejected the services of three different attorneys before electing to represent himself pro se. Each time, his rejection was based at least in part on differences of opinion about proposed trial strategy.14 In the course of those disagreements, Thornton appears to have consulted with his previous attorneys about the nature of his case and potential defense strategies, in particular his alleged diminished capacity. Indeed, his rejection of Amalfetano was predicated entirely on his belief that he needed counsel more experienced in diminished capacity defenses, which certainly indicates that he must have discussed that defense with Amalfetano. It is reasonable to assume that Thornton’s two former attorneys had also discussed with him the nature of the various indictment charges, trial preparation, and trial strategies, State v. Gethers, 197 Conn. 369, 497 A.2d 408, 415 (1985), and the benefits of legal representation, including the dangers of proceeding pro se. State v. Jones, 266 N.W.2d 706, 712 (Minn.1978). These factors militate in favor of a finding that his waiver of counsel was both a knowing and intelligent waiver. See Spencer, 783 A.2d at 417.
Defendant’s Knowledge of the Criminal Proceedings and Possible Sentences
The record before us additionally contains numerous indications that Thom-ton clearly understood the nature of the criminal proceedings against him. He knew the number and nature of each count, including felonies that he considered so serious that he did not want to place “my life” in someone else’s hands. Thornton clearly was also aware of his anticipated trial strategy, as evidenced by his insistence upon having counsel experienced in diminished capacity defenses, an indication of his familiarity with the nature of the specific-intent requirement underlying many of the charges levied against him. See Moya-Gomez, 860 F.2d at 733.
In his opening statement to the trial jury and as well during his cross-examination of the victim, Debra Means, he clearly exhibited not only his thorough knowledge and appreciation of the seriousness of the various charges against him, but also the trial strategy that he had chosen to convince the trial jury that on the day of the police standoff incident he was not his usual self, was suffering from the influence of prior drug use, and was devastated over his inability to visit his child, in short, a diminished capacity defense that he had cleverly planned on to absolve himself of any criminal responsibility for the various and brutal crimes for which he had been indicted.
We are satisfied, as was the trial justice, that Thornton was totally aware of the “magnitude of the undertaking” of self-representation and, as well, the dangers involved in representing himself at trial. Maynard, 545 F.2d at 279.
Appointment and Participation of Standby Counsel
The record also discloses that Amalfetano, as standby trial counsel, did pro*1030vide, when requested, diligent assistance to Thornton throughout the trial. He assisted Thornton in conducting .the jury voir dire, with complicated procedural and evi-dentiary motions, with the direct examination of the defense’s medical expert witness, and with strategic decisions such as whether to withdraw a witness from the defense witness list. The fact that standby counsel was available at all times during the trial to advise Thornton whenever he required assistance and that Thornton readily used standby counsel’s services also supports the conclusion that Thornton’s waiver of counsel was knowing and intelligent. See Spencer, 783 A.2d at 417.
Whether Defendant’s Choice Resulted from Mistreatment or Coercion
This factor in the analysis of whether the waiver of counsel was knowing and intelligent is not on the facts before us relevant because Thornton has conceded that his waiver was voluntary and not coerced. Other than Thornton’s subjective belief that he was “forced” to represent himself, there is no evidence in the record indicating that his choice to do so resulted from any mistreatment or coercion. See id.
Whether Defendant Tried to Manipulate Events of the Hearing
Evidence of a defendant’s efforts to manipulate court proceedings against him may be gleaned from a defendant’s request for new counsel on the eve of trial without good cause, Goad, 44 F.3d at 591; People v. Arguello, 772 P.2d 87, 94 (Colo.1989), or from a finding that his or her request was made for tactical reasons. See, e.g., United States v. Bell, 901 F.2d 574, 579 (7th Cir.1990).
The record here clearly demonstrates that both the pretrial hearing justice and the trial justice each believed that Thornton was attempting to delay the start of his trial. A perfect example of this was Thornton’s last-minute refusal to be represented by Amalfetano based on his belief that Amalfetano was not experienced enough with diminished capacity defenses, which was followed by an about-face by Thornton when he realized that if he accepted Amalfetano’s representation on the eve of trial, that maneuver might further delay the trial by three to six months.
We accord great deference to the trial justice’s factual determination that Thornton’s requests for new counsel had been strategically motivated to manipulate and delay the start of his trial, and it is reasonable for us to weigh the manipulative intent factor heavily against Thornton.15 See, e.g., Sandies, 23 F.3d at 1129. We also are able to glean from the pretrial motion filings by Thornton in this case that he appears to have cleverly initiated and carefully maneuvered a pretrial strategy for himself that was geared to not only delay the start of his trial, but to also create a built-in pretrial denial of counsel issue that might later serve to rescue him from an unfavorable jury verdict or verdicts.16 He apparently had learned well from his previous criminal experiences and his past trials which undoubtedly served to sharpen and hone his criminal litigation skills. His misfortune in this case, however, appears to have been his failure to maneuver his cunning strategy past two *1031seasoned and perceptive pretrial hearing justices, who quickly recognized that he was more the wily fox than the hapless defendant he was pretending to be.
We conclude from our de novo review of the record before us that there is ample evidence in that record to establish that Thornton voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently waived his Sixth Amendment right to counsel, and contrary to the dissent’s contention, no specific finding on the record by the trial justice to that effect was required. United States v. Benefield, 942 F.2d 60, 65 (1st Cir.1991); United States v. Campbell, 874 F.2d 838, 845 (1st Cir.1989). His appeal on this ground is denied and dismissed.
II
Defendant’s Right of Self-Representation
Thornton’s next allegation of error in this appeal is that notwithstanding his affirmative request for the assistance of standby counsel during his trial, standby counsel’s representation of his interests at sidebar and in chambers conferences and standby counsel’s approaching of witnesses in lieu of Thornton’s doing so himself served to violate his Sixth Amendment right to counsel as outlined in McKaskle v. Wiggins, 465 U.S. 168, 104 S.Ct. 944, 79 L.Ed.2d 122 (1984).
In determining whether standby counsel violates a defendant’s Faretta rights, the Court must focus on “whether the defendant had a fair chance to present his case in his own way.” Id. at 177, 104 S.Ct. at 950, 79 L.Ed.2d at 132. When standby counsel participates in some aspect of a trial over a defendant’s objection, the Faretta right imposes two limits on the extent of standby counsel’s participation:
“First, the pro se defendant is entitled to preserve actual control over the case he chooses to present to the jury. This is the core of the Faretta right. If standby counsel’s participation over the defendant’s objection effectively allows counsel to make or substantially interfere with any significant tactical decisions, or to control the questioning of witnesses, or to speak instead of the defendant on any matter of importance, the Faretta right is eroded.”
“Second, participation by standby counsel without the defendant’s consent should not be allowed to destroy the jury’s perception that the defendant is representing himself. * * * [T]he right to appear pro se exists to affirm the accused’s individual dignity and autonomy. * * * From the jury’s perspective, the message conveyed by the defense may depend as much on the messenger as on the message itself. From the defendant’s own point of view, the right to appear pro se can lose much of its importance if only the lawyers in the courtroom know that the right is being exercised.” McKaskle, 465 U.S. at 178-79, 104 S.Ct. at 951, 79 L.Ed.2d at 133-34.
The Supreme Court has also noted that if standby counsel participates at trial with the defendant’s approval, such participation erodes both a subsequent claim that the defendant lacked control over his own defense and that he no longer appeared to the jury to be defending himself. Id. at 182-83, 104 S.Ct. at 953, 79 L.Ed.2d at 136. In this case, Thornton at times actually requested the trial justice to permit standby counsel to approach the bench and consult with the trial justice regarding defendant’s objections made to the introduction of state trial exhibits.
(a) Sidebar Conferences
Thornton next challenges the validity of his convictions by asserting that the trial *1032justice’s ruling requiring that he be handcuffed when attending any sidebar bench conferences per se violated his Sixth Amendment right to counsel as set forth in McKaskle.17
We examine first the predicate facts leading to the trial justice’s ruling requiring Thornton to be handcuffed when taking part in any sidebar bench conferences during the jury voir dire and later at trial. In doing so we note that the trial record fails to indicate whether in fact there had been any sidebar bench conferences that had taken place during the voir dire proceedings.
The trial justice, when making what was certainly a discretionary ruling, was aware of not only the severity of the horrendous and vicious acts of alleged violence giving rise to the pending charges against Thornton, but also Thornton’s extensive past criminal record, which included convictions for past crimes of violence.18 Added to that mix also was the trial justice’s firsthand observations of Thornton’s disruptive conduct and the sarcastic demeanor he displayed during several of the pretrial hearings on various motions that he or his former court-appointed counsel filed.19 Armed with that background information and being cognizant of the fact that the jury voir dire proceedings and the trial would take place in the small Washington County courtroom, it became the trial justice’s duty to maintain general order in the courtroom and to minimize any potential danger to himself, the jury, and courtroom personnel and spectators. This Court has long recognized that duty of a trial justice, State v. Correra, 480 A.2d 1251, 1256 (R.I.1981), and his or her “full discretion” to implement any measures reasonably necessary to ensure the safety of the jurors. *1033State v. Lerner, 112 R.I. 62, 92, 308 A.2d 324, 343 (1973). That duty could permit a defendant to be restrained with handcuffs and/or shackles, if circumstances required such precautions. State v. Hightower, 661 A.2d 948, 957 (R.I.1995).
In this case, although vested with the discretionary right to have terminated outright Thornton’s self-representation because of his serious and obstructionist misconduct and to have appointed standby counsel to represent Thornton, Faretta, 422 U.S. at 834-35 n. 46, 95 S.Ct. at 2541 n. 46, 45 L.Ed.2d at 581 n. 46, the trial justice opted instead to exercise his discretion to impose what he believed to be the most unobtrusive measure to avoid any dangerous disruption of the voir dire and trial proceedings by Thornton. He requested only that Thornton be handcuffed if he wanted to personally take part in sidebar bench conferences at which Thornton would be within immediate reach of the trial justice and the trial jury. If Thornton refused to be handcuffed on those occasions, his standby counsel could attend and participate to keep Thornton informed of all that had taken place at the sidebar bench conference. At no other times during the jury voir dire or the actual trial was Thornton required to be in handcuffs while representing himself pro se. Indeed, the trial justice’s decision to conditionally preclude a pro se defendant from sidebar conferences is constitutionally protected when there is legitimate concern that he or she might disrupt the court proceedings. “The right of a defendant to attend sidebars is no broader than the right of self-representation itself, which the trial judge may, within an appropriate exercise of discretion, divest or circumscribe.” McKnight v. Albauch, No. 97 Civ. 7415 WK, 2000 WL 1072351, at *7 (S.D.N.Y. Aug.2, 2000).
In this case, the trial justice permitted Thornton to act as his own attorney in all respects, with the one exception that he could only appear at sidebars handcuffed. This, we believe, was an objectively reasonable, measured response to Thornton’s conduct. The trial justice apparently did not believe that restraining Thornton was required during those “other times” in the courtroom because he then was always within arm’s length and immediate reach of the two committing squad guards assigned to transport him to and from the Adult Correctional Institutions (ACI), where he was being held. Consequently, Thornton’s general assertions that he was precluded ipso facto as a pro se “lead counsel” from participating in any sidebar bench conferences are simply not accurate.20 Thornton, as does the dissent, overlooks the undeniable trial record fact that the trial justice specifically had informed Thornton that he could indeed take part in any and all bench conferences, provided that while doing so he be in handcuffs. It was Thornton who con*1034sciously rejected that choice afforded him by the trial justice. However critical of the choice afforded him, it was a choice fairly imposed and within the parameters of the discretion vested in the trial justice, and this Court should not lightly second-guess a trial justice’s discretion in that regard. “It is too obvious for argument that hardly any other matter can better be relegated to the discretion of the trial court than that of safeguarding the court, counsel, jury, and spectators, and assuring the continued presence and attendance of the accused at the trial.” McDonald v. United States, 89 F.2d 128, 136 (8th Cir.1937). See also State v. Patriarca, 112 R.I. 14, 308 A.2d 300 (1973).
Thornton’s Sixth Amendment right to represent himself as pro se counsel, we point out, was not “a license to abuse the dignity of the courtroom.” Faretta, 422 U.S. at 835 n. 46, 95 S.Ct. at 2541 n. 46, 45 L.Ed.2d at 581 n. 46 (citing Illinois v. Allen, 397 U.S. 337, 90 S.Ct. 1057, 25 L.Ed.2d 353 (1970)). See also United States v. Mills, 895 F.2d 897 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 495 U.S. 951, 110 S.Ct. 2216, 109 L.Ed.2d 541 (1990).
Interestingly, Thornton, below as here, attempts to justify his election not to take part in any bench conferences while handcuffed and thereby also his contention that he was precluded from participating in sidebar bench conferences because he feared that his appearance in handcuffs would prejudice the jury against him. We do not share fully in his fear. This fanciful fear on Thornton’s part is somewhat paradoxical. It overlooks his earlier warning to the trial justice that unless he was able to get counsel of his own choice provided to him, he was going to insist upon keeping his handcuffs on throughout the course of the trial in full view of the trial jury.
The mere fact that the jury would have observed Thornton in handcuffs would not, as he fears, and as the dissent contends, per se have prejudiced him. State v. Bleau, 649 A.2d 215, 219 (R.I.1994). Indeed, as we previously have noted, “one juror who sees a defendant in handcuffs is as apt to be filled with compassion as another juror who might feel the defendant’s guilt has been established.” State v. Palmigiano, 112 R.I. 348, 358, 309 A.2d 855, 861 (1973). Contrary to the defendant’s contentions, it was his burden to prove that he was prejudiced in his absence from sidebar conferences, and he failed to do so on the record before us. Id. at 358, 309 A.2d at 861. Clear evidence of that failure can be gleaned from the fact that despite having been made aware of Thornton’s incarceration from a transcript of the voir dire of Dr. Stewart, which had been admitted without objection as a full trial exhibit, the trial jury acquitted Thornton of several of the more serious felony charges that had been lodged against him.
We additionally note from the trial record the trial justice’s conscientious effort to avoid any possible prejudice that might have resulted from Thornton’s appearance at any bench conferences while in handcuffs. Following our earlier directions to trial justices who might be faced with a situation in which a defendant’s “in custody” status could be interpreted from security measures employed by court sheriffs or committing squad personnel, the trial justice in this case offered on several occasions prior to trial to inform the jury pool in voir dire, and later the trial jury, that Thornton was in custody, and to give a cautionary instruction that would alleviate or serve to avoid any prejudice against him that might have resulted. Those offers were rejected by the defendant, who now contends that he refused to appear at bench conferences in handcuffs because *1035being seen handcuffed by the jury would prejudice him.21
Thornton, it appears, was at all times permitted to attend and participate at the bench conferences had he chosen to do so, and his appearance in handcuffs would then have permitted the trial justice to give a cautionary instruction to the jury and to obtain from the jurors their assurance that their verdict would not be based on the fact that Thornton was in custody. This is what was done in Bleau, and we found the procedures that the trial justice employed in that case to be free of any error. In providing Thornton with the option of participating in sidebar conferences in handcuffs, we believe that the trial justice struck a reasonable balance between Thornton’s interests and the trial justice’s duty to maintain an orderly and safe courtroom. See, e.g., Hightower, 661 A.2d at 957.
Thornton, in addition, utterly fails to show that his absence from the sidebar conferences substantially interfered with his ability to present his defense or otherwise control his case. Thornton’s active role at trial, the trial justice’s instructions about Thornton’s acting pro se, and Thornton’s own repeated references before the jury to his pro se status all demonstrate that his absence from sidebar conferences did not cause the jury to conclude that he was not in control of his defense. See, e.g., McKaskle, 465 U.S. at 186-87, 104 S.Ct. at 955-56, 79 L.Ed.2d at 188-39; United States v. McDermott, 64 F.3d 1448, 1453-54 (10th Cir.1995); Mills, 895 F.2d at 905. The trial record discloses that it was Thornton himself who had, on numerous occasions, enlisted the assistance of standby counsel in the presence of the jury during the trial, which certainly served to indicate to the jury that standby counsel participated in sidebar conferences at Thornton’s request. See McDermott, 64 F.3d at 1454; Mills, 895 F.2d at 905.
Thornton also contends here on appeal that the jury might have perceived him to be dangerous based upon his absence from sidebar conferences. That contention never was presented to the trial justice. During trial, he asserted only that he wanted to personally participate in sidebar conferences because he was “lead counsel.” His newly raised objection concerning his absence from sidebar conferences was not *1036raised below, is therefore waived, and is not now properly before us. State v. Hazard, 785 A.2d 1111, 1115 (R.I.2001). We note, however, that given the trial testimony of Debra Means, the state’s first trial witness, and Thornton’s own admission to the trial jurors in his opening statement and later in his closing argument that he had indeed committed two of the vicious felonious assaults for which he later was convicted, it appears unlikely that the jury would have found him any more dangerous simply because of his absence from sidebar conferences. We also note that during the trial, only four bench conferences occurred and that all are noted in the trial transcripts as “off the record.” In Mills, in which a pro se defendant had been prohibited from participating in sidebar bench conferences, “the apparently few instances of exclusion did not constitute ‘a substantial violation of [the defendant’s] Faretta rights.’” McDermott, 64 F.3d at 1453 (quoting Mills, 895 F.2d at 904). We point out that Thornton’s preclusion from participating in the sidebar bench conferences unless handcuffed did not violate his Sixth Amendment right to represent himself as pro se counsel. See Mills, 895 F.2d at 905.
We conclude that the trial justice did not abuse his discretion in requiring the defendant to be handcuffed when attending any sidebar bench conferences, and no error resulted from his so ruling.
(b) Chambers Conferences
We next consider whether the trial justice’s refusal to permit Thornton, as a defendant and pro se counsel, to participate in six chambers conferences, violated his Fourteenth Amendment due process right to be present at every stage of his trial,22 or his right to do so provided by our Rule 43 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure.23 We examine his Fourteenth Amendment due process right and his right to be present as enunciated in our Rule 43 in the light of our previous holdings.
In State v. Souza, 425 A.2d 893, 901-02 (R.I.), cert. denied, 454 U.S. 840, 102 S.Ct. 148, 70 L.Ed.2d 123 (1981), we noted:
“ ‘So far as the Fourteenth Amendment is concerned, the presence of a defendant is a condition of due process to the extent that a fair and just hearing would be thwarted by his absence, and to that extent only.’ Snyder v. Massachusetts, 291 U.S. 97, 107-08, 54 S.Ct. 330, 333, 78 L.Ed. 674, 679 (1934). To the extent that Rule 43 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure grants a broader right of presence than does the Fourteenth Amendment, it too *1037guarantees substantial as opposed to shadowy or theoretical rights of presence. The rule does not require that a ‘defendant has a right to be present at all occurrences after the impaneling of the jury — but only to those occurrences that concern the guilt or innocence of defendant or affect his ability to defend against the charges’ in the case. State v. LaChappelle, 424 A.2d 1039 (R.I.1981).”
More recently in State v. Brouillard, 745 A.2d 759 (R.I.2000), we again noted:
“Pursuant to the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause, a defendant’s presence at a particular stage of the pretrial proceedings is a condition of due process ‘to the extent that a fair and just hearing would be thwarted by his absence, and to that extent only.’ Kentucky v. Stincer, 482 U.S. 730, 745, 107 S.Ct. 2658, 2667, 96 L.Ed.2d 631, 647 (1987) (quoting Snyder v. Massachusetts, 291 U.S. 97, 107-08, 54 S.Ct. 330, 333, 78 L.Ed. 674, 679 (1934)). Although Rule 43 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure grants broader rights to a defendant, it, too, only requires the defendant to be present at every stage of the trial that concerns ‘the guilt or innocence of defendant or affect[s] his ability to defend against the charges against him.’ ” Brouillard, 745 A.2d at 766-67 (quoting LaChappelle, 424 A.2d at 1046).
With the benefit of this Court’s previous holdings in Souza and Brouillard as guidance, we undertake now to inquire about the nature and substance of each of the six chambers conferences to determine whether Thornton’s personal absence therefrom “thwarted” his Fourteenth Amendment right to a fair and just hearing, Souza, 425 A.2d at 901-02, in short, to ascertain whether at those chambers conferences attended by the state prosecutor and defendant’s standby counsel anything constituting a matter of importance took place that affected Thornton’s guilt or innocence or affected his ability to defend against the charges made against him.
Our review of the record discloses that at each of the chambers conferences in which the state’s prosecutor and Thornton’s standby counsel participated, nothing transpired that “thwarted” Thornton’s right to a fair hearing or affected his ability to defend against the charges made against him. In fact, the first three chambers conferences all were held to accommodate pretrial motions Thornton filed through his standby counsel, and all were resolved in Thornton’s favor.
The first of those chambers conferences concerned Thornton’s request to be permitted to engage, at state expense, a medical expert in psychiatry to assist Thornton in advancing his alleged diminished capacity defense. The trial justice granted that request, as well as Thornton’s request to hire, at state expense, an investigator to assist Thornton in discovering witnesses and evidence that could help Thornton’s defense.
The second chambers conference concerned the defense psychiatrist’s request for state funds to permit him to perform various medical tests and to set deadlines for those tests to be completed.
The third chambers conference was initiated by the trial justice for the sole purpose of informing the parties that he would permit the defendant’s expert witness to testify concerning the results of various tests that had been conducted by other qualified persons at the request of the defendant’s expert.
The fourth chambers conference was to consider a request by Thornton to be furnished with trial transcripts from all other and previous criminal trials in which *1038Thornton had been a defendant and in which none of the state’s witnesses expected to be called in the pending trial were involved. Such a request, mind-boggling to say the least, properly was denied. Because such transcripts would be inadmissible at Thornton’s pending trial, other than to confirm his past vicious conduct and convictions, we are unable to perceive how the defendant’s right to a fair and just hearing had in any way been thwarted by Thornton’s absence from that chambers conference.
The fifth chambers conference concerned the trial justice’s intention to excuse a prospective juror, who during voir dire questioning by the trial justice, had informed the trial justice that he did not believe that he could be an impartial juror in light of the nature of the pending charges against the defendant. Certainly, Thornton was not in any way prejudiced by the trial justice’s decision to excuse that juror unless he wants us to believe now that he would have preferred to have an admittedly biased and partial juror, who had concluded Thornton’s guilt before trial, to remain as a prospective juror.
It also should be noted that it was during the jury voir dire conducted personally by the trial justice pursuant to Rule 24 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure that the trial justice excused the prospective juror from the panel of jurors. It is difficult to imagine, let alone believe, that if the trial justice had not excused the potential juror that the defendant himself would not have done so. 24
The sixth chambers conference occurred during the trial. During trial, one of the trial jurors had notified the trial justice through the courtroom’s sheriff that he suddenly had realized after listening to the testimony of Dr. Stewart, the defense medical expert, that he was somehow acquainted with Dr. Stewart. The trial justice then questioned the juror in chambers with the state’s prosecutor and standby counsel present, and they also were permitted to thoroughly question the juror. All parties present were completely satisfied that the juror could remain impartial. The trial justice determined that the juror, despite his limited knowledge of Dr. Stewart, remained unbiased and impartial and permitted him to remain on the jury. Thornton immediately was advised of what had transpired at the chambers *1039conference by his standby counsel and at no time voiced any objection to the trial justice’s decision permitting the juror to remain on the jury. Even if Thornton had objected and disagreed with the trial justice’s decision, exclusion of a trial juror for possible bias is left to the sound discretion of the trial justice. Hazard, 785 A.2d at 1122 (citing State v. McDowell, 685 A.2d 252, 255 (R.I.1996)).
We are satisfied that there was no abuse of discretion on the part of the trial justice in permitting the juror to remain on the jury panel. We also are satisfied that Thornton’s exclusion from the six chambers conferences did not interfere with his Sixth Amendment right to control his pro se defense, nor did his absence “thwart” or adversely affect his ability to defend against the various charges made against him in the indictment.
(c) Restrictions on Movement
Nothing in the trial record suggests any form of limitation that had been placed upon Thornton’s ability to address the trial jury in opening and closing statements or to approach and question any of the trial witnesses for purposes of conducting direct or cross-examination or to show them exhibits. As a matter of record, Thornton was not handcuffed during the trial while in the presence of the trial jury.
The record, on the other hand, discloses that Thornton openly requested standby counsel’s assistance on repeated occasions. Thus, there is a total absence in the record of any evidence showing that Thornton was somehow impermissibly restrained while the jury was present in the courtroom or to support his claim that his movements during his trial in the courtroom were restricted. See, e.g., Cronan ex rel. State v. Cronan, 774 A.2d 866, 878-79 (R.I.2001). We conclude that Thornton fails to show any material interference with his Sixth Amendment rights in this regard.
Ill
Exclusion of Evidence
In endeavoring to buttress his diminished capacity defense, Thornton attempted to establish at trial that he was so influenced by his prior use of cocaine and alcohol that he was unable on June 18, 1996 to form the specific intent necessary to convict him of the specific-intent crimes for which he had been charged. He vainly attempted during his cross-examination of the state’s witnesses to elicit from them evidence of his alleged diminished capacity to demonstrate that his behavior on June 18 was consistent with his being “high” and that he only returned to a coherent state after the effects of drugs and alcohol had dissipated. He also called as a defense witness Capt. Glenn Browning of the Narragansett police department, who witnessed the standoff. The trial justice refused, however, to allow any lay witnesses to speculate about the type of mindset that could have caused Thornton’s behavior or when and whether his mindset could have changed during the time he was assaulting Debra and holding her hostage.
Before trial, Thornton himself sought to limit the number of police officers who would be permitted to testify for the prosecution, and the state obligingly pared down its initial trial witness list. During the state’s case, Thornton extensively cross-examined Sgt. Joseph Little (Sgt. Little), who, along with Officer Denise Owens (Officer Owens), served as a negotiator with Thornton during the standoff. During the course of the standoff, Sgt. Little had engaged in approximately forty conversations with Thornton through an apartment window and by telephone. Officer Owens, who later arrived at the scene, *1040assumed the role of lead negotiator, but she and Sgt. Little acted jointly throughout the standoff. Both had equal opportunity to observe Thornton’s behavior.
Thornton later attempted to call Officer Owens as a defense witness, explaining that as the primary police negotiator during the standoff, she had “more time to develop [an] opinion” of Thornton’s condition than other police witnesses. The state objected based on Sgt. Little’s testimony that he and Officer Owens had been together the entire time and had worked jointly; that Officer Owens’s testimony simply would be cumulative; and that Officer Owens should not be permitted to offer a lay opinion as to Thornton’s state of mind. The trial justice agreed, finding the proposed testimony cumulative, and her lay opinion inadmissible, and therefore sustained the state’s objection..
Both the United States and Rhode Island Constitutions guarantee a criminal defendant the right to confront and cross-examine adverse witnesses and to present defense evidence. U.S. Const. Amends. VI, XIV; R.I. Const, art. 1, sec. 10. However, a defendant has “no constitutional right to introduce irrelevant, immaterial, or prejudicial evidence.” State v. Malone, 568 A.2d 1378, 1382 (R.I.1990).
It is well-settled that a trial justice may exclude evidence “if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the * * * needless presentation of cumulative evidence.” R.I.R.Evid. 403. As with other Rule 403 rulings, this Court reviews determinations of cumulative evidence under the deferential abuse-of-discretion standard. See, e.g., State v. White, 512 A.2d 1370, 1373 (R.I.1986).
In this case, the trial justice did not abuse his discretion in excluding Officer Owens’s testimony on the grounds that it would have been cumulative. The trial justice and prosecutor noted that many other witnesses had testified concerning Thornton’s demeanor and behavior, including Debra, who spent the fourteen-hour ordeal as Thornton’s hostage, and Sgt. Little, who arrived at the scene thirty minutes before Officer Owens and who had later negotiated with Thornton, along with Officer Owens, throughout the standoff.
Thornton made no offer of proof to suggest that Officer Owens’s testimony would have added anything materially new or different to assist in his diminished capacity defense nor did he request to voir dire Officer Owens outside the jury’s presence. Without a proffer or other description about the expected substance of the proposed testimony, the trial justice’s decision to reject Officer Owens as a witness cannot be faulted, State v. Cote, 691 A.2d 537, 541-42 (R.I.1997), and this Court is unable to conclude any abuse of discretion resulting from the trial justice’s ruling. Hazard, 785 A.2d at 1120.25 Also, it does not matter that the testimony already in the record concerning Thornton’s appearance and demeanor during the standoff came primarily from prosecution rather than defense witnesses. See, e.g., State v. Nardolillo, 698 A.2d 195, 202 (R.I.1997) (holding that excluded defense witness, testimony would have been cumulative to testimony already given by prosecution witness).
We. observe nothing in the record to suggest that Officer Owens’s testimony concerning Thornton’s demeanor and be*1041havior would have been anything more than cumulative to the testimony of the trial witnesses who preceded her. Accordingly, we discern no error on the part of the trial justice in excluding her testimony.
IV
Admission of Previous Misconduct Evidence
Thornton also contends that the trial justice erred when he allowed the prosecutor to cross-examine Dr. Stewart, the defense’s expert witness, concerning previous bad acts committed by Thornton. He contends that Rule 404(b) of the Rhode Island Rules of Evidence prohibited such cross-examination.26 However, Thornton confuses Rule 404(b) with Rules 708 and 705, which relate to the formulation of opinion testimony by expert witnesses.27 A trial justice’s ruling on the admissibility of expert testimony will not be disturbed absent an abuse of discretion. Gallucci v. Humbyrd, 709 A.2d 1059, 1064 (R.I.1998) (citing Frias v. Jurczyk, 633 A.2d 679, 683 (R.I.1993)).
Thornton misconceives the trial record by arguing that allegations of his prior bad acts did not occur until Dr. Stewart’s testimony. In fact, it was Thornton himself who opened the door to the admission of evidence of prior bad acts through his cross-examination of Debra, when, in support of his diminished capacity defense, he brought out that in the past he behaved violently toward her only when he was “high” from alcohol or cocaine use. He brought out from Debra on cross-examination that when she was living -with him she feared him when he would get “high” because he “would come back and beat [her] up.” Thornton did not object to, nor move to strike, her responses or request a cautionary instruction regarding the evidence.
On redirect examination, the prosecutor followed up on this line of questioning to demonstrate that Thornton did not limit his violent behavior only to times when he was “high.” Indeed, Debra testified without objection that Thornton had assaulted her on numerous previous occasions whether or not he was “high.” At the close of Debra’s testimony, the trial justice out of an abundance of caution gave the jury an unrequested, long Rule 404(b) cautionary instruction, to which Thornton did not object.
We note that the trial evidence elicited from Debra completely served to discredit the opinion testimony of Dr. Stewart. He had testified that Thornton’s violent behavior was an aberration and resulted from large amounts of alcohol, cocaine, lack of sleep and food, and the effects of a previous head injury. On cross-examination, Dr. Stewart readily conceded that he had *1042relied exclusively on what Thornton had told him in two short interviews to form his expert opinion about the cause of his violent behavior toward Debra on the day of the incident.
Doctor Stewart also conceded that it would have been significant for him to have reviewed Thornton’s past history of violent domestic assaults, but that he was mainly unaware of such history because Thornton barely mentioned it. The trial justice permitted the prosecutor to test Dr. Stewart’s opinion by inquiring about how much of his opinion about Thornton’s abuse of Debra and his criminal behavior could be attributed to Thornton’s drug abuse and whether his opinion would change if he knew that Thornton repeatedly had engaged in such violent and criminal conduct whether or not he was “high.” The state also was permitted to explore whether Dr. Stewart had considered that Thornton’s history of violent, episodic behavior, which the doctor attributed to drugs, alcohol, and other factors, was typical of someone who committed domestic violence.
When Thornton objected to this questioning, the trial justice informed the jury that the purpose of the state’s cross-examination was to test the credibility of Dr. Stewart’s opinion because that opinion rested entirely on statements Thornton had made to Dr. Stewart. Thornton did not object to the trial justice’s instruction.
Just as Thornton’s hearsay statements to Dr. Stewart were admissible under Rule 703 because of the doctor’s reliance upon them, otherwise inadmissible instances of the defendant’s prior bad conduct were admissible to test the basis and validity of the expert witness’s opinion. See, e.g., People v. Henderson, 794 P.2d 1050, 1054 (Colo.Ct.App.1989) (allowing under Rule 705 the prosecutor to use the defendant’s prior bad acts to cross-examine the expert concerning the basis of his opinion), rev’d on other grounds, 810 P.2d 1058 (Colo.1991); McCloskey v. State, 457 A.2d 332, 336-37 (Del.1983) (permitting under Rule 703 the introduction of inadmissible facts on cross-examination to test the basis of an expert’s opinion); see also State v. Copas, 252 Conn. 318, 746 A.2d 761, 768 (2000) (holding that the defendant’s otherwise inadmissible hearsay statements • may be used to cross-examine the expert to test the basis of the expert’s opinion). As part of the state’s cross-examination of Dr. Stewart, we are satisfied that it was permissible for the prosecutor to supply omitted facts of Thornton’s prior bad acts to determine whether those facts would alter or modify the expert’s opinion. People v. Fields, 170 Dl.App.3d 1, 120 Ill.Dec. 285, 523 N.E.2d 1196, 1205-06 (1988).
We note that it is generally held that a prosecutor’s cross-examination of a mental health expert in a case raising an insanity or diminished capacity defense may properly use the defendant’s previous convictions or other prior bad acts to test the expert’s proffered opinion and credibility.28 Such cross-examination was particularly appropriate in this case because the expert witness primarily had predicated his expert opinion on the defendant’s prior conduct and history as furnished to the expert by the defendant. See, e.g., Rogers v. United States, 483 A.2d 277, 289 (D.C.1984); State v. DeGraw, 196 W.Va. 261, 470 S.E.2d 215, 220-21, 223, 224-25 (1996). The nature of the material on which the expert opinion is based clearly is one of *1043the more important features of the expert’s testimony. Rogers, 488 A.2d at 289.
Notwithstanding that Thornton’s prior bad acts were properly admissible under Rules 703 and 705 rather than Rule 404(b), we reiterate our longstanding rule that their admission must still satisfy Rule 408,29 and, if challenged, their admission is subject to an abuse-of-discretion review. State v. Garcia, 743 A.2d 1038, 1050 (R.I.2000).
On the record before us we conclude that admission of the testimony concerning Thornton’s prior bad acts was necessary to the prosecutor’s ability to test the validity and credibility of Dr. Stewart’s opinion. In asserting his diminished capacity defense, Thornton was asserting that his mental capacity on the day of the incident had been substantially diminished by his use of cocaine and alcohol, and other factors, and was, in effect, a concession of his practical responsibility, rather than culpability. See State v. Barrett, 768 A.2d 929, 947 (R.I.2001); Correra, 430 A.2d at 1253. Admission of prior misconduct when the state of the defendant’s mental health is the primary issue creates less of an opportunity for prejudice than when the defendant denies the commission of the crimes altogether. In this case, Thornton did not contest the underlying facts.30 Given Thornton’s concessions and the trial justice’s cautionary jury instruction to eliminate any residual prejudice that might have occurred as a result of the prior bad act evidence, we believe that it is highly unlikely that the jury would have sufficiently relied upon the prior bad conduct evidence to conclude that Thornton had a propensity to commit the crimes with which he was charged. United States v. Bradshaw, 935 F.2d 295, 302 n. 2 (D.C.Cir.1991); Rogers, 483 A.2d at 288.
In that regard, we join with those courts that repeatedly have held that the Rule 403 balancing determination, when applied to prior bad act cross-examination conducted in circumstances such as this case, should come out in favor of admitting such evidence. See, e.g., Bradshaw, 935 F.2d at 302; United States v. Ruster, 712 F.2d 409, 411-12 (9th Cir.1983); Henderson, 794 P.2d at 1054; Copas, 746 A.2d at 769; Rogers, 483 A.2d at 289-90.
We consistently have refused to permit defendants to manipulate our Rules of Evidence and to “testify” to the jury through the lips of another, often more credible, witness and thereby avoid cross-examination. State v. Bustamante, 756 A.2d 758, 764 (R.I.2000); State v. Harnois, 638 A.2d 532, 535-36 (R.I.1994). When a defendant exercises his right not to testify at trial, “[h]e may not testify by other means * * Harnois, 638 A.2d at 535. “The rules of evidence will not be manipulated * * * [in order to] deprive the state of the opportunity of cross-examination.” Id. at 536. If the state had been prevented from cross-examining Dr. Stewart about the accuracy of the information Thornton had conveyed to him, Thornton would have *1044successfully manipulated our Rules of Evidence in precisely this prohibited manner.
For all of the reasons discussed above, we conclude that the trial justice did not err in permitting the state to present evidence of Thornton’s prior bad acts to the jury through the prosecutor’s cross-examination of the defense’s expert witness in order to test the credibility of the expert witness’s testimony and the validity of his opinion.
V
Denial of Motion to Reduce Sentence
“A motion to reduce sentence under [Super.R.Crim.P.] 35 is basically a plea by a defendant for leniency and, as such, is addressed to the sound discretion of the trial justice.” State v. Tiernan, 645 A.2d 482, 484 (R.I.1994). The motion “allows [a] trial justice to evaluate whether the sentence originally imposed is unduly severe under the circumstances and to consider any new information or circumstances that may arise * * *.” State v. Bettencourt, 766 A.2d 391, 393 (R.I.2001) (quoting State v. Ferrara, 748 A.2d 246, 248 (R.I.2000) (per curiam)). This Court has held that “only when the record unswervingly points to the conclusion that there is no ‘justification’ for the imposition of a sentence that is ‘grossly disparate from sentences generally imposed for similar offenses’ shall we modify or revise a sentence imposed in the exercise of a trial justice’s discretion.” State v. Pacheco, 763 A.2d 971, 983 (R.I.2001) (quoting State v. Crescenzo, 114 R.I. 242, 263, 332 A.2d 421, 433 (1975)).
In imposing sentence, a trial justice may consider numerous factors, including the severity of the crime; the defendant’s personal, educational, and employment background; the defendant’s potential for rehabilitation; societal deterrence; and the appropriateness of the punishment. State v. Mollicone, 746 A.2d 135, 138 (R.I.2000) (per curiam) (citing Tieman, 645 A.2d at 484). In determining the sentence, the trial justice is bound only by the statutory parameters established by the Legislature. Bettencourt, 766 A.2d at 394 (citing State v. Gordon, 539 A.2d 528, 530 (R.I.1988)).
After reviewing the presentence report, letters from the victim, her family, the chaplain at the ACI, and Thornton’s extensive criminal record, and after hearing Thornton’s arguments and allocution, the trial justice opted to impose consecutive maximum sentences on each charge for which Thornton had been convicted. The trial justice aptly likened the events of June 18-19, 1996 to a “combat zone” and found that Thornton had to pay for the fourteen. hours of repeated brutality that he had inflicted upon Debra.
We are satisfied that the trial justice carefully reviewed the purposes of incarceration and the various factors involved for imposing sentence, noting that Thornton never attempted to take advantage of his “ample opportunities” to resolve the fourteen-hour standoff in a peaceful manner. Rather, he noted that Thornton had placed in danger Debra’s life as well as the fives of the police during the fourteen-hour standoff. The record discloses that the trial justice gave careful and proper consideration to the nature and extent of the pain and multiple injuries that were repeatedly inflicted upon Debra dining the long standoff, and which he aptly described as being “intolerable.”
We note also that in considering Thornton’s motion to reduce his sentences the trial justice took into consideration Thornton’s extensive criminal record and his dubious potential for rehabilitation that “demonstrated a lack of commitment to rehabilitation and the inclination and ca*1045pacity to take [his] place as an honest and useful member of the society.” He finally stressed his hope that the sentences imposed would deter others from committing similar crimes and would send a message to others who might be inclined to do so that domestic violence and abuse would not be tolerated and would invoke long sentences for those convicted of doing so.
We discern also no error or abuse of discretion on the part of the trial justice in concluding that the parole board, rather than the court, should assess the quality of Thornton’s claimed rehabilitation. See Mollicone, 746 A.2d at 138; State v. Flores, 637 A.2d 366, 367 (R.I.1994) (per curiam).
Finally, with regard to Thornton’s motion to reduce sentence, we see that during the hearing thereon he stressed his alleged remorse for his actions and his good prison conduct. The trial justice apparently detected no salt in Thornton’s tears, nor do we, and as to Thornton’s claim of being a model prisoner, we simply remind him that “[s]uch a fact is entirely irrelevant to a reexamination of the reasons for the imposition of sentence in the first place” because “we expect nothing less than good behavior as a minimum from inmates of our correctional institutions.” State v. Upham, 439 A.2d 912, 914 (R.I.1982).
We observe nothing in the record before us to support Thornton’s contentions that the trial justice abused his discretion in denying Thornton’s Rule 35 motion to reduce his sentences.
Conclusion
For the reasons above stated, Thornton’s appeals are denied and dismissed. His judgments of conviction for two counts of domestic felony assault, violation of a no-contact order, kidnapping, and intimidation of a witness are affirmed. His appeal from the trial justice’s decision denying his motion to reduce sentence is denied and dismissed. The papers in this case are remanded to the Superior Court.
Chief Justice WILLIAMS did not participate.

. This is not the child’s real name.

. This is not the child’s real name.

. Diane telephoned Debra three or four times. On one occasion she spoke with the defendant, who warned Diane “that if he got in trouble and he had to go to jail” because of the testimony that Diane planned to give in an upcoming court proceeding "that there would be a letter out for me,” and that he was going to kill her. After this threat Diane called the police again. This threat formed the basis for the defendant’s charge for witness intimidation.

. Debra retrieved her teeth in hopes that they could be reimplanted, but because of the duration of her kidnapping the teeth deteriorated beyond salvage. Ultimately, she required oral surgery and permanent bridgework.

. Fortunately, Debra and the police, after repeated entreaties, were able to persuade the defendant to release Amy on June 18 at about 4 p.m.

. One of the stab wounds punctured a muscle near Debra’s diaphragm and required major surgery to properly close the wound.

. An assistant public defender was present to assist the defendant at his arraignment.

. At the close of the state's case in chief, the trial justice granted the defendant’s motion for judgment of acquittal on count 6, which had charged the defendant with breaking and entering a dwelling without the consent of the owner. Thus only nine of the ten indictment charges were submitted to the trial jury.

. The hearing justice noted:
“This case is on the eve of trial. A trial date has been assigned as to a date certain for over a month. The date certain for trial is scheduled for Monday, September 8. And I do not believe that is coincidence. Your motion to release Mr. O’Connell was filed on August 20, approximately two weeks before the date certain for trial. The concerns that you have about Mr. O’Con-nell and his representation, in fact, relate back to the proceedings of February and early March of this year. They are presumably complaints which you have had all along since that time. Yet, you have waited until the eve of trial to file your motion seeking to relieve him as counsel in this case.”

. Indeed, Thornton’s appellate counsel, who we are certain scrupulously reviewed the trial record, concedes that "[i]n many ways, the trial justice was a model of patience and accommodation and generally bent over backwards to enable Mr. Thornton to present his defense in propria persona.”

. The dissent contends that Thornton had rejected the assistance of only two attorneys to represent him at trial. The case record establishes otherwise. Three attorneys had been appointed by the court. Assistant Public Defender Richard Brousseau was assigned to *1026represent Thornton on September 25, 1996. After the motion justice permitted Brousseau to withdraw, William O’Connell was appointed to represent Thornton and made his first appearance on December 2, 1996. Thornton tried to have O’Connell removed in March 1997 and again in August 1997. Thornton agreed to the appointment of standby counsel on September 8, 1997, and the trial date was continued. Anthony Amalfetano then was appointed as standby counsel. As noted in the majority opinion, at a pretrial hearing on October 23, 1997, the pretrial hearing justice asked Thornton to consider whether he wanted Amalfetano to represent him as trial counsel at trial and gave him several weeks to make a decision. At a later hearing, on November 14, 1997, Thornton himself, despite at that time referring to Attorney Amalfetano as being his “co-counsel,” conceded that he had rejected the services of Amalfetano because he did not think Amalfetano was competent in "this area of the law” (diminished capacity defenses).

. The dissent contends that our reliance upon the First Circuit’s holding in Maynard v. Meachum, 545 F.2d 273 (1st Cir.1976), is misplaced because "the First Circuit itself has called into doubt the Maynard holding that no colloquy on the record is necessary,” citing to the First Circuit's 1982 holding in United States v. Harlan, 696 F.2d 5, 7 (1st Cir.1982).
We read United States v. Harlan much differently than does the dissent. We find nothing in Harlan that calls into doubt its earlier Maynard holding that no colloquy on the record is necessary. We note further that in Harlan, the colloquy about which the Circuit Court said, "[a] one minute dialogue should have taken care of the whole matter,” id. at 7, concerned whether the trial judge after being informed by the U.S. Attorney that the defendant was proceeding pro se because he was indigent, erred in failing to ask the defendant whether he was indigent and if so, then advising him that he was entitled to court-appointed counsel. That colloquy is a far cry from what is concerned in Thornton’s appeal.
We finally note that in the twenty years since Harlan was decided, the First Circuit never has cited to it, nor called into doubt Maynard’s "no colloquy required” holding. In fact, the Maynard holding has been expressly reaffirmed. See United States v. La-Bare, 191 F.3d 60, 68 (1st Cir.1999); United States v. Kneeland, 148 F.3d 6, 12 (1st Cir.1998); United States v. Benefield, 942 F.2d 60, 65 (1st Cir.1991); United States v. Campbell, 874 F.2d 838, 845-46 (1st Cir.1989). See also United States v. Woodard, 291 F.3d 95 (1st Cir.2002), in which LaBare, Kneeland, and Benefield are cited with approval and in which the rule espoused in Maynard is not contradicted.

. The trial justice advised and warned the defendant:
“You are not a lawyer; you told me that. * * * I want you to consider whether you want Mr. Amalfetano, now that he's in the case as standby counsel, to slide over, if I can use that expression * * * I’m giving you that opportunity for many reasons, many of which we’ve just talked about. And you don’t have to decide today about that, but I do, you know, want an answer from you as to how you feel about this when I see you on the 12th of November. Got it?
" * * * Now, as in sometime past, I’ve given you the occasion to allow standby counsel who is competent in criminal defense cases to slide over and be your counsel. Now you come before me and you want some unknown specialist in criminal law on a defense that I’m even'unaware of. Absolutely no. Not appropriate, not relevant, not acceptable. We’ll see you in December pro se with Mr. Amalfetano as standby counsel.” (Emphasis added.)

. The Sixth Amendment provides no right to counsel "who would blindly follow [a defendant's] instructions.” McQueen v. Blackburn, 755 F.2d 1174, 1178 (5th Cir.1985), cert. denied, 474 U.S. 852, 106 S.Ct. 152, 88 L.Ed.2d 125 (1985). Nor is there any “absolute right to counsel of one’s choice.” United States v. Peister, 631 F.2d 658, 661 (10th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 1126, 101 S.Ct. 945, 67 L.Ed.2d 113 (1981).

. In denying Thornton’s request for a trial continuance, the trial justice informed Thornton that he was convinced "that if I had continued this case today for another year, it wouldn’t make any difference. You’d be back with another request for an extension or another lawyer.” (Emphasis added.)

. Such a cunning stratagem is not unheard of. See, e.g., Harlan, 696 F.2d at 6.

. We note that McKaskle stops short of establishing a per se rule when it states that such events as Thornton complains of here only "erode” Faretta rights. " 'Erode' is not a synonym for ‘violate.’ Thus, the cases become fact-specific[J” United States v. McDer-mott, 64 F.3d 1448, 1454 (10th Cir.1995).

. As detailed in the state’s brief, the defendant’s record included forty-two criminal charges lodged against him since 1981. His record featured charges of larceny, uttering and publishing, cocaine possession, shoplifting, assault with a dangerous weapon, possession of a controlled substance with intent to deliver, domestic assault (both misdemeanor and felony), and possession of a dangerous weapon, among others. He had been violated numerous times, and had gone to trial as well as pled.

. We cite from the state's brief examples of the defendant Thornton’s obstreperous and unruly pretrial hearing conduct:
"Prior to trial defendant sometimes exhibited volatile behavior in the courtroom, interrupting the court and making sarcastic or otherwise disrespectful comments. * * * At one point, frustrated that the court refused to appoint counsel to his liking, defendant informed the trial justice that he was going to keep his handcuffs on throughout the trial even in front of the jury. * * * The court warned defendant that this was not defendant’s decision to make. * * * At the next pretrial hearing, defendant stated that if the court refused to grant him a continuance and get him another attorney, 1 will request that everything that I don’t understand, I be handed a dictionary, [and given] time to look it up
"Again the court admonished defendant:
"I want to tell you something about the conduct of the trial that I want you to think about * * * You request a dictionary in . front of me or in this Courtroom, or in front of fourteen men and women in that jury box, and you are not getting it. You are not going to do anything, being a non lawyer or whatever, to destroy the judicial process or delay your trial. I’m going to see to that.”
At the pretrial hearing on December 2, 1997, immediately prior to the start of trial, the defendant began the hearing by repeatedly interrupting the court so many times that the trial justice ordered him to "follow the rules of protocol in this Court, or you are going to hear your case downstairs in the cell block.”

. We believe that the dissent misconstrues both the December 2, 1997 pretrial hearing record and the state's position regarding the trial justice's restriction concerning the defendant Thornton’s participation at voir dire sidebar conferences. The hearing record fails to support the dissent’s position that “the trial justice flatly barred [Thornton] from attending sidebars for the purpose of jury voir dire, but allowed him to attend other sidebars only if he wore handcuffs.” The state’s brief also flatly contradicts the dissent's hypothecating that "the state concedes” the exclusion of the defendant at sidebar conferences contention to be accurate.
What is accurate, is the state’s clear statement in its appellate brief that because of the defendant Thornton’s previous "volatile behavior in the courtroom,” the "Court did not categorically preclude defendant’s participation, [at the voir dire and sidebars]” but ruled that if he were to participate he would have to do so in handcuffs * *

. In State v. Fenner, 503 A.2d 518, 522 (R.I.1986), in which a similar problem existed, this Court said:
"However, as guidance for trial courts in the future, we observe that it should be the obligation of a trial justice to inform counsel in advance if he or she intends to advise prospective jurors or jurors who have been selected to serve on a particular case that the defendant is in custody for the purpose of neutralizing any inference that might otherwise be formed. In the event that counsel objects to such an admonition, he or she has an obligation to inform the trial justice forthwith before the admonitions have been given. In such a situation, the trial justice should forego making such a statement to the jurors, but the defendant assumes the risk that by some inadvertence he or she may be seen in the course of being transported from the ACI to the courthouse or otherwise be seen to be in custody in circumstances of which- the court might not be aware and in circumstances where this observation might not be called to the attention of either the court or counsel. In other words, the defendant should have his choice in determining whether .this type of instruction should be given, but that choice should be exercised before the admonition is given, not afterward. The defendant, having exercised his choice, is then precluded from asserting as error the fact that the jurors might have seen him in custodial posture outside the courtroom or being transported in the prisoners’ van. Of course, if the trial justice becomes aware of such an observation, a cautionary instruction should be given at the defendant’s request." See also State v. Bleau, 649 A.2d 215, 219 (R.I.1994).

. We do not agree with the dissent’s contention that only the defendant's Sixth Amendment rights are relevant in our consideration of this appeal. Although his right to represent himself as pro se counsel clearly implicates Sixth Amendment considerations, he still remained a defendant in the trial, and as such, his Fourteenth Amendment due process rights were also implicated along with the rights afforded him by our Rule 43 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure. In Faretta, the Supreme Court clearly noted that:
"The Sixth Amendment includes a compact statement of the rights necessary to a full defense!.] * * * Because these rights are basic to our adversary system of criminal justice, they are part of the ’due process of law' that is guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to defendants in the criminal courts of the States.” Faretta v. California, 422 U.S. 806, 818, 95 S.Ct. 2525, 2532, 45 L.Ed.2d 562, 572 (1975).

. Rule 43 provides in pertinent part:
“The defendant shall be present at the arraignment and at the imposition of sentence, except as otherwise provided by these rules. The defendant shall be present at every stage of the trial, including the impaneling of the jury and the return of the verdict* * *.”

. We have not overlooked Thornton’s contention that the trial justice erred in not granting his pretrial motion for an individual voir dire of the prospective jury panel. Suffice it for us to note that there is nothing in Rule 24 of the Superior Court Rules of Criminal Procedure nor in G.L.1956 § 9-10-14 that specifically permits or provides for an individual voir dire, although in a particular instance in which such a voir dire might avoid the possible disqualification of an entire prospective jury panel, an individual voir dire may be permitted by the trial justice. See, e.g., State v. Massey, 119 R.I. 666, 382 A.2d 801 (1978). In any event, whether to permit an individual voir dire is left to the sound discretion of the trial justice.
Rule 24, we further note, permits a trial justice to conduct the voir dire examination of the prospective jurors, and allows a pro se defendant or counsel for the defendant and the state prosecutor to supplement the voir dire examination by further inquiry.
In .this case, the trial justice opted to personally conduct the voir dire. In so opting, he specifically informed the parties "that I will ask questions of the jury that are called to the box, and I will permit Ms. Lynch, Mr. Thornton and/or standby counsel to make further inquiry.” (Emphasis added.) Thus, at no time was the defendant prevented from participating in the jury voir dire proceedings. He was not handcuffed during the in-court proceedings, and was free to question the prospective jurors. He was required to be handcuffed only if he requested to participate in any sidebar bench conferences.

. Numerous cases have upheld a trial justice’s decision to preclude a defendant from eliciting testimony from a witness when the same evidence came in through other witnesses, rendering the proposed testimony cumulative. See, e.g., State v. D’Agostino, 691 A.2d 561, 563 (R.I.1997) (per curiam); State v. Speaks, 691 A.2d 547, 551 (R.I.1997); State v. Oliveira, 576 A.2d 111, 114 (R.I.1990).

. Rule 404(b) of the Rhode Island Rules of Evidence provides: "Evidence of other crimes, wrongs, or acts is not admissible to prove the character of a person in order to show that the person acted in conformity therewith. It may, however, be admissible for other purposes, such as proof of motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity, absence of mistake or accident, or to prove that defendant feared imminent bodily harm and that the fear was reasonable.”

. Rule 703 of the Rhode Island Rules of Evidence provides: "An expert’s opinion may be based on a hypothetical question, facts or data perceived by the expert at or before the hearing, or facts or data in evidence. If of a type reasonably and customarily relied upon by experts in the particular field in forming opinions upon the subject, the underlying facts or data shall be admissible without testimony from the primary source.”
Rule 705 provides: "Unless the court directs otherwise, before testifying in terms of opinion, an expert witness shall be first examined concerning the facts or data upon which the opinion is based.”

. United States v. Bradshaw, 935 F.2d 295, 301-02 (D.C.Cir.1991); McCloskey v. State, 457 A.2d 332, 336-37 (Del.1983); Rogers v. United States, 483 A.2d 277, 287-90 (D.C.1984); Holland v. State, 636 So.2d 1289, 1293 (Fla.1994); State v. DeGraw, 196 W.Va. 261, 470 S.E.2d 215, 220-26 (1996).

. Rule 403 of the Rhode Island Rules of Evidence provides: “Although relevant, evidence may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence.”

. Regarding the other general-intent crimes not subject to the diminished capacity defense, see State v. Doyon, 416 A.2d 130, 134—37 (R.I.1980), the only charge Thornton completely denied was the first-degree sexual assault of Debra, for which he was acquitted. He admitted to the remaining general-intent crimes (two counts of domestic felony assault and one .count of violating the no-contact order).