Court Opinion

ID: 9365537
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-01-24 14:13:35.027853+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:15:46.001397
License: Public Domain

COURT OF APPEALS OF VIRGINIA

            Present: Chief Judge Decker, Judge O’Brien and Senior Judge Haley
PUBLISHED

            Argued at Richmond, Virginia

            JUSTIN ANDREW HARVEY
                                                                                OPINION BY
            v.     Record No. 0723-21-2                             CHIEF JUDGE MARLA GRAFF DECKER
                                                                             JANUARY 24, 2023
            COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

                             FROM THE CIRCUIT COURT OF THE CITY OF RICHMOND
                                          W. Reilly Marchant, Judge

                           Kelsey Bulger, Senior Assistant Public Defender (Virginia Indigent
                           Defense Commission, on briefs), for appellant.

                           Rosemary V. Bourne, Senior Assistant Attorney General (Jason S.
                           Miyares, Attorney General, on brief), for appellee.

                   Justin Andrew Harvey appeals his convictions for two counts each of statutory burglary,

            unlawful filming, and aggravated sexual battery, as well as single counts of malicious wounding

            and rape, in violation of Code §§ 18.2-51, -61, -67.3, -90, and -386.1. He challenges the trial

            court’s refusal to exclude a juror for cause, the denial of his mistrial motion, and four different

            evidentiary rulings. For the following reasons, we hold that the trial court did not commit

            reversible error, and we affirm the appellant’s convictions.

                                                     BACKGROUND1

                   The appellant was convicted of crimes committed against three young women—E.A.,

            H.H., and K.J.—in the area of Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) in Richmond during

            two separate incidents in May 2018.

                   1
                     Under “familiar principles of appellate review,” we state the facts “in the light most
            favorable to the Commonwealth, the prevailing party at trial.” Poole v. Commonwealth, 73
            Va. App. 357, 360 (2021) (quoting Gerald v. Commonwealth, 295 Va. 469, 472 (2018)).
                                 I. Crimes Against E.A. and H.H.

       On the evening of May 4, twenty-one-year-old female students E.A. and H.H. attended a

party. H.H. became drunk, and E.A. helped H.H. return to E.A.’s apartment at about 1:00 a.m.

on May 5, where H.H. spent the night. H.H. “passed out” on E.A.’s bed, and E.A. slept on the

floor. When the two awoke in the morning, they realized that their clothing had been cut. E.A.

noticed a pair of scissors were missing from her bedroom. She then called the police. Police

later found the scissors on a windowsill outside her apartment.

       H.H. testified at trial that while she was in a “sleepy haze” and “barely aware of [her]

surroundings” that night, someone used scissors to cut off her clothing. She was also aware of

someone touching her lower back and vagina. She was “still very drunk” and did not open her

eyes during the assault. When she woke up in the morning, she was sober enough to realize the

significance of the fact that all of her clothing had been cut off, and she told E.A. about it. E.A.

then realized that her shorts had been partially cut in the buttocks area.

                                      II. Crimes Against K.J.

       On the evening of May 5, K.J. had drinks with her coworkers and returned to her

apartment at about 3:15 a.m. the next morning. Soon after entering, K.J. realized her front door

was open, and then someone knocked her unconscious. She later awoke on her bedroom floor.

Although fully dressed when she was knocked out, K.J. was naked when she woke up. She

sought help from a neighbor, reported the attack to police, and went to the hospital. K.J. had

injuries to her face, including significant swelling and a fractured orbital bone. In addition to

treating K.J.’s injuries, hospital staff collected samples for a physical evidence recovery kit.

                        III. Investigation of the Crimes and the Two Trials

       Police developed the appellant as a suspect in two skirt-lifting incidents not directly

related to the offenses against E.A., H.H., and K.J. In September 2018, in the course of the

                                                -2-
investigation of those incidents, the appellant turned over his cellular telephone to the VCU

Police. A VCU detective obtained a search warrant for the phone and delivered that phone to

Sergeant Bryan Hixson of the City of Richmond Police Department for forensic investigation.

Sergeant Hixon examined the appellant’s cell phone and extracted data from it for a limited

period of time in proximity to the skirt-lifting incidents.

       Subsequently, Richmond detectives obtained a warrant to search the appellant’s phone

for additional dates, including the dates of the offenses against E.A., H.H., and K.J. That warrant

led to the discovery of two videos showing a single perpetrator, the appellant, standing over E.A.

and raping H.H. in E.A.’s bedroom on May 5, 2018. Hixson also extracted a third video, which

K.J. identified as depicting a portion of the May 6, 2018 attack on her in her apartment. The

only part of the filmer appearing in that video is a hand.

       Forensic testing established that DNA found on E.A.’s scissors and the exterior back

doorknob to her apartment after the May 5, 2018 attack belonged to the appellant. No DNA

evidence linked the appellant to the May 6, 2018 attack on K.J., and she initially stated that she

did not see her assailant. However, K.J. testified at trial that after the appellant was arrested for

other offenses, she saw a photograph of him that triggered her memory. She explained that in

response to the photo, she recalled seeing the appellant standing over her at two discrete times

during the attack.

       At the close of the separate trials for the two sets of crimes, the appellant was convicted

of the charged offenses.2 With regard to the crimes against E.A. and H.H., the appellant was

convicted of statutory burglary, aggravated sexual battery of E.A., and unlawful filming and rape

of H.H. He was sentenced to a total of 75 years for the felonies and 12 months for the

misdemeanor filming offense. With regard to the crimes against K.J., the appellant was

       2
           The appellant was sentenced for both sets of offenses in a single joint proceeding.
                                                -3-
convicted of burglary, unlawful filming, malicious wounding, and aggravated sexual battery. He

was sentenced to a total of 50 years for the felonies and 12 months for the misdemeanor filming

offense. His sentences totaled 125 years for the felonies and 24 months for the misdemeanors.

                                            ANALYSIS

       The appellant challenges his convictions on six grounds. He argues that the trial court:

(1) erred by refusing to strike a juror for cause; (2) erroneously overruled his objection and

denied his mistrial motion related to the Commonwealth’s closing argument; (3) improperly

denied his motion to suppress evidence; (4) erroneously admitted evidence of a jail telephone

call; (5) incorrectly admitted evidence of other crimes; and (6) improperly excluded an

unredacted DNA certificate and related testimony and argument.

                                     I. Motion to Strike Juror

       We turn first to the appellant’s argument that the trial court erroneously refused to strike

Juror 19 for cause in his trial for the offenses against E.A. and H.H. He contends that the voir

dire showed Juror 19 was not indifferent to the cause and was not rehabilitated and,

consequently, should have been struck for cause.

       During voir dire, the prosecutor asked the jurors whether they would be able to watch a

video showing the rape of the unconscious victim. Juror 19 said that she had a friend who was

raped while unconscious. Following additional questioning, defense counsel objected to the

seating of Juror 19. The trial court denied the motion to strike her for cause.

       “[A] trial court’s denial of a motion to strike a juror for cause ‘will not be disturbed on

appeal unless there has been manifest error amounting to an abuse of discretion.’” Townsend v.

Commonwealth, 270 Va. 325, 329-30 (2005) (quoting Barrett v. Commonwealth, 262 Va. 823,

826 (2001)). An underlying question of juror impartiality is one of fact, and the trial court’s

determination on the subject is “‘entitled to great deference on appeal’” unless “plainly wrong or

                                                -4-
unsupported by the record.” Huguely v. Commonwealth, 63 Va. App. 92, 121, 127 (2014)

(quoting Lovos-Rivas v. Commonwealth, 58 Va. App. 55, 61 (2011)). In addressing whether the

juror should have been struck for cause, the appellate court must consider the juror’s “entire voir

dire, not just isolated portions.” Juniper v. Commonwealth, 271 Va. 362, 401 (2006) (quoting

Jackson v. Commonwealth, 267 Va. 178, 191 (2004)).

       Every defendant has the right to trial by an impartial jury. U.S. Const. amend. VI; Va.

Const. art. I, § 8; see Code §§ 8.01-357, -358. Exclusion may be required if a juror has “formed

any opinion[] or is sensible of any bias or prejudice.” Keepers v. Commonwealth, 72 Va. App.

17, 42 (2020) (quoting Lovos-Rivas, 58 Va. App. at 61). A manifest error in refusing to strike a

juror “occurs when the record shows that a prospective juror cannot or will not lay aside his or

her preconceived opinion.” Taylor v. Commonwealth, 67 Va. App. 448, 456 (2017). However,

“a trial judge who personally observes a juror, including the juror’s tenor, tone, and general

demeanor, is in a better position than an appellate court to determine whether a particular juror

should be str[uck].” Teleguz v. Commonwealth, 273 Va. 458, 475 (2007).

       Here, the trial court found that Juror 19 could be impartial, and that finding is entitled to

deference on appeal unless plainly wrong. See Huguely, 63 Va. App. at 127. Additionally, the

voir dire as a whole supports the trial court’s finding of impartiality. Juror 19 explained that she

had a close friend who had been raped. She initially stated that she would “be fine” considering

the rape charge fairly “without a video” but that “with a video” and in light of the appellant’s

defense of consent, she was “not sure [she] could do that fairly.” In response to further

questioning, Juror 19 responded that she could evaluate evidence in addition to the video but

would probably be “sway[ed]” by the video.

       Additional voir dire blended several subjects, including the juror’s possible bias and her

thoughts about the persuasive value of video evidence. The juror also volunteered what she

                                                -5-
knew about the law of unconsciousness and consent. The trial court’s exchange with her

constituted merely clarifying the juror understood that, after receiving the court’s instructions on

the law of consent, she would be free to consider all of the evidence and would need merely to

“be open to consider” the defense. Juror 19 replied that she “would try to” and “th[ought]” she

could do so. The court again instructed her that she would have to wait for the evidence and that

the voir dire was just to “know” if she “c[ould] apply the law that [the court would] give [her].”

After that further explanation by the court, the prosecutor again asked Juror 19 whether she could

consider evidence that the alleged victim consented and evidence that she did not consent. Both

times the juror responded unequivocally in the affirmative.

       Juror 19’s combined responses indicate that she did not present a fixed bias based on her

experience with her friend. To the contrary, she indicated merely that the existence of a video of

the contact could be persuasive evidence on the issue of consent. This record supports the trial

court’s finding that the challenged juror never stated a fixed opinion and indicated that she could

be impartial. It was within the province of the trial court, the finder of fact on these issues, to

determine what significance to give the juror’s statements, including her use of the language, “I

think.” See Castillo v. Commonwealth, 70 Va. App. 394, 423 (2019) (recognizing that the trial

court assesses the juror’s answers in light of “inflections, tone, and tenor of the dialogue, and the

[juror’s] general demeanor” (quoting Smith v. Commonwealth, 219 Va. 455, 464-65 (1978))).

       The appellant suggests that the trial court engaged in overly “aggressive questioning” of

the juror while attempting to rehabilitate her and thereby “undermined the confidence in the voir

dire examination.” We recognize that “when a trial court itself becomes involved in the

rehabilitation of a potential juror, we must review the court’s decision to retain the person on the

panel more carefully.” See Bradbury v. Commonwealth, 40 Va. App. 176, 181 (2003). “Mere

assent to a trial judge’s questions . . . is not enough to rehabilitate a prospective juror who has

                                                 -6-
initially demonstrated a prejudice or partial predisposition.” Keepers, 72 Va. App. at 46 (quoting

Griffin v. Commonwealth, 19 Va. App. 619, 625 (1995)). However, the judge may give basic

instructions and ask general clarifying questions as “necessary to determine the presence of bias”

in the first instance. McGill v. Commonwealth, 10 Va. App. 237, 242-43 (1990). Such

questioning does not constitute rehabilitation. Bradbury, 40 Va. App. at 181; see Keepers, 72

Va. App. at 46. “If a trial judge adheres to this role, an appellate court may not set aside the trial

judge’s determination of a juror’s impartiality if the juror’s responses, even though conflicting,

support that determination.” McGill, 10 Va. App. at 243.

       The record here supports the conclusion that the trial judge, while “remain[ing] relatively

detached,” was able to assess whether Juror 19 was impermissibly biased or would be able to

apply the law in the instructions after the presentation of all the evidence. See id. To the extent

the juror gave responses that were unclear, the judge clarified them and confirmed that the juror

could sit impartially. Although the court asked a series of questions regarding the law, the

prosecutor asked the final questions. When the juror was asked if she could consider evidence

from both the prosecution and the defense on the issue of consent, she responded, “Yes,” and

“Absolutely.” In the end, the record supports the conclusion that the juror did not demonstrate a

fixed bias and that the trial court’s questioning and instruction constituted appropriate

clarification, not improper rehabilitation.

       Accordingly, the court’s denial of the appellant’s motion to strike the juror was not error.

       II. Objection and Mistrial Motion in Response to Prosecutor’s Rebuttal Argument

       The appellant argues that in his trial for the offenses against K.J., the court erroneously

overruled his objection to the prosecutor’s rebuttal argument and denied his mistrial motion.

       In closing argument, defense counsel noted the absence of any evidence of the appellant’s

DNA in K.J.’s home. She further pointed to a certificate of analysis showing that someone else’s

                                                 -7-
DNA was found on K.J.’s buttocks where video evidence showed the perpetrator had touched

K.J. Counsel argued that the person who left the DNA, who was not the appellant, was the

person who assaulted K.J. and made the video.

       In rebuttal, the prosecutor replied that the jurors could judge for themselves whether the

forensic nurse had obtained the DNA sample from the same part of K.J.’s buttock that the

perpetrator touched in the video. He then argued about what the DNA certificate said the

appellant was “excluded from,” pointing out that it was from the DNA profile developed from

“the sperm fraction of the perianal buttocks sample.” (Emphasis added). The prosecutor

asserted that this proved only that K.J. “had sex with someone” else, and he noted that “[n]o one

ever said [the perpetrator] had sex with her,” only that “[h]e tried to.”

       Defense counsel objected and asked to approach the bench to state the basis for her

objection. The trial court overruled the objection and told counsel that she could proffer the

basis for it after argument had concluded. After the jury retired to deliberate, defense counsel

stated the basis for her objection to the Commonwealth’s rebuttal argument in detail,3 but she did

not request a mistrial or a cautionary instruction. Following a recess, she asked the court to

declare a mistrial on the same basis on which she had objected. The court denied the objection

and mistrial motion. The appellant challenges those rulings in this Court.

       Virginia law makes clear that “errors assigned because of a prosecutor’s improper

comments . . . during argument will not be considered on appeal unless the accused timely

moves for a cautionary instruction or for a mistrial.” Martinez v. Commonwealth, 241 Va. 557,

559 n.2 (1991); accord Maxwell v. Commonwealth, 287 Va. 258, 267-68 (2014). In order to

avoid a waiver, a mistrial motion must be made “when the objectionable words were spoken.”

       3
         Defense counsel characterized the prosecutor’s argument as falsely representing that the
“DNA swab [was] attributable to a consensual partner,” and she asserted that an earlier ruling of
the court prevented the defense from rebutting that false argument.
                                               -8-
Yeatts v. Commonwealth, 242 Va. 121, 137 (1991) (quoting Reid v. Baumgardner, 217 Va. 769,

774 (1977)). If defense counsel “believes that an argument requires or justifies a mistrial, he has

the duty to [make a mistrial motion] promptly before the conclusion of the argument.” Bennett v.

Commonwealth, 29 Va. App. 261, 281 (1999) (emphasis added) (quoting Pullen v. Nickens, 226

Va. 342, 347 (1983)). This rule applies even where the defendant makes an objection to the

argument that is overruled by the trial court. Maxwell, 287 Va. at 268 (citing Yeatts, 242 Va. at

136-37).

        In short, to preserve an objection to allegedly improper argument made by the

prosecution, defense counsel must object contemporaneously, state the basis for the objection,

“articulate . . . clearly the action he desire[s] the court to take” (i.e., grant a mistrial or give a

cautionary instruction), and point out “that the action need[s] to be taken before the jury

retire[s].” Id. at 268-69. “There appears to be no exception in Virginia law to the strict

application of this rule.” Bennett, 29 Va. App. at 281; see Cheng v. Commonwealth, 240 Va. 26,

38-39 (1990) (objection to rebuttal argument).

        Here, defense counsel’s only contemporaneous action was to object to the prosecutor’s

argument and ask to state the basis for her objection.4 She did not request a cautionary

instruction, make a motion for mistrial, or indicate that she needed to obtain a ruling on such a

motion from the court before the jury retired. Instead, it was only after the jury retired to

deliberate, after she stated the basis for her objection for the record, and after the court declared a

recess that she asked the court to return to the bench so that she could make a motion for a

        4
          We assume without deciding that the court prevented defense counsel from stating the
basis for her objection in a timely fashion by denying her post-objection request to approach the
bench. See generally McGinnis v. Commonwealth, 296 Va. 489, 501 (2018) (approving the
practice of assuming without deciding to permit deciding a case on the best and narrowest
ground). However, this denial did not prevent counsel from making a motion for a cautionary
instruction or a mistrial simultaneously with her statement, “I am going to object at this point,”
and the appellant does not suggest otherwise on appeal.
                                                -9-
mistrial on the same grounds on which she objected. As a result, the request for relief came too

late. See Maxwell, 287 Va. at 267-68.

        We hold that the appellant failed to preserve the trial court’s denial of his objection

because he did not make a timely mistrial motion or ask for a cautionary instruction. Based on

this record, the issue is barred.

                III. Motion to Suppress Evidence Obtained with a Search Warrant

        The appellant asserts that the trial court erred with regard to both trials by denying his

motion to suppress evidence obtained in a search of his cell phone pursuant to a warrant.

        The appellant relinquished his cell phone in late September 2018, during an interview

with VCU police. The interview pertained to two incidents that had occurred several days

earlier, in which an assailant had lifted each victim’s dress or skirt. The appellant was arrested

following the interview.

        On October 1, 2018, a VCU detective obtained a warrant to view photos, videos, and

other data on the appellant’s phone for a six-day period from the date of the first skirt-lifting

incident to the date of the appellant’s arrest. In the accompanying affidavit, the detective stated

that the appellant admitted he was the assailant in the two skirt-lifting offenses under

investigation. VCU police turned the phone and the first search warrant over to Sergeant

Hixson, who compiled the data from the phone in the scope of the warrant within the week. The

validity of this warrant was never challenged.

        On October 11, 2018, a detective from the City of Richmond Police Department obtained

a second warrant to search the phone. However, fourteen months later, on December 10, 2019,

the appellant made a motion to suppress the evidence found pursuant to that warrant, and in early

January 2020, the court granted the motion. Sixteen days later, a different Richmond officer,

                                                 - 10 -
Detective Benjamin Neifeld, obtained a third search warrant. The appellant challenged that

warrant, and the trial court again granted the motion to suppress.

       In July 2020, one day after the trial court suppressed the results of the third search

warrant, Detective Neifeld obtained a fourth warrant for the phone, the warrant that is the subject

of this appeal. Unlike the second and third warrants, the fourth one included limitations on the

time periods for which data was sought, covering one month in 2015 and six months in 2018,

two periods during which several crimes had occurred that the appellant was suspected of

committing. The affidavit was also much more detailed than the second and third ones because

it added information obtained in the search of the S.D. card, an additional storage device in the

appellant’s phone. Although this data was extracted from the phone’s S.D. card pursuant to the

first warrant, Richmond detectives did not become aware of it at that time and therefore did not

include it in the affidavits supporting the second and third warrants.

       The new information obtained from the S.D. card and included in the affidavit submitted

as part of the application for the fourth warrant was composed of nine videos created over two

days in September 2018, including the appellant’s two known skirt-lifting incidents from that

period. Regarding a third video, the recording itself was corrupted, but it was created during the

narrow 23-minute window in which a woman reported that an assailant broke into her home as

she slept and digitally penetrated her vagina. According to the affidavit, a fourth video showed a

woman naked from the waist down while changing, as seen from outside her window. Two

additional videos showed the filmer in the bedroom of a young woman who was wearing an eye

mask and appeared to be asleep. The videos further showed the filmer approach the woman,

masturbate, and then ejaculate on her.

       The appellant made a motion to suppress the evidence obtained in the execution of the

fourth warrant for purposes of both trials. He alleged in part that the warrant was not supported

                                               - 11 -
by probable cause due to insufficient particularity and nexus and that the Commonwealth

unconstitutionally extended the seizure of the phone. The trial court rejected the appellant’s

arguments and denied the motion. The appellant challenges that ruling in this Court.

       It is undisputed that a cellular telephone is personal property that is protected by the

Fourth Amendment’s prohibition against unreasonable searches and that “a warrant is generally

required before such a search.” Riley v. California, 573 U.S. 373, 401-03 (2014). A judicially

issued search warrant is entitled to a “presumption of validity,” and a defendant challenging a

resulting search bears the burden of rebutting that presumption. Brown v. Commonwealth, 68

Va. App. 517, 524 (2018) (quoting Lebedun v. Commonwealth, 27 Va. App. 697, 711 (1998)).

       In reviewing a trial court’s ruling on the reasonableness of a search pursuant to a warrant,

the appellate court is “bound by the trial court’s factual findings unless . . . plainly wrong or

unsupported by the evidence.” Hicks v. Commonwealth, 281 Va. 353, 359 (2011) (quoting

Whitehead v. Commonwealth, 278 Va. 300, 306 (2009)). At the same time, the appellate court

generally reviews the trial court’s application of legal principles de novo. Id.

       This well-established standard of review guides our analysis of the appellant’s challenges

to the relevant search warrant. He argues that the warrant was not supported by probable cause

and that the seizure of evidence was unconstitutional due to the duration of the Commonwealth’s

retention of custody of his phone.

                                        A. Probable Cause

       Although an appellate court reviews the application of legal principles such as probable

cause de novo, the court must “grant ‘great deference’ to the magistrate’s finding of probable

cause” when a search warrant is involved. Id. at 360 (quoting Garza v. Commonwealth, 228 Va.

559, 563 (1984)); see Williams v. Commonwealth, 4 Va. App. 53, 68 (1987).

                                                - 12 -
       In examining whether an affidavit supporting a search warrant established probable

cause, the reviewing court looks to the totality of the circumstances. Hicks, 281 Va. at 359.

Probable cause exists when “there is a fair probability that contraband or evidence of a crime will

be found in a particular place.” Jones v. Commonwealth, 277 Va. 171, 178 (2009) (quoting

United States v. Grubbs, 547 U.S. 90, 95 (2006)). The appellant suggests that the information in

the affidavit did not establish probable cause because it was insufficiently particularized and did

not provide an adequate nexus.

                                          1. Particularity

       The Fourth Amendment proscribes general warrants. Andresen v. United States, 427

U.S. 463, 480 (1976); see Morke v. Commonwealth, 14 Va. App. 496, 500 (1992) (noting that

Code § 19.2-54 also proscribes general warrants). However, it lists only two things that the

warrant must describe with specificity: “‘the place to be searched’ and ‘the persons or things to

be seized.’” United States v. Cobb, 970 F.3d 319, 327 (4th Cir. 2020) (quoting Grubbs, 547 U.S.

at 97). The test for assessing particularity “is a pragmatic one.” Morke, 14 Va. App. at 500

(quoting United States v. Torch, 609 F.2d 1088, 1090 (4th Cir. 1979)). The “degree of

specificity required” depends on the circumstances and type of evidence sought in each case, and

“a practical margin of flexibility [is] permitted.” Id. (quoting Torch, 609 F.2d at 1090). Search

warrants “limit[ing] the executing officers’ discretion by directing them to seize only evidence of

a specific crime consistently have been held to satisfy the particularity requirement.” Id. at 501

(citing Andresen, 427 U.S. at 479-82), quoted with approval in Moyer v. Commonwealth, 33

Va. App. 8, 24 (2000) (en banc); see United States v. Blakeney, 949 F.3d 851, 862 (4th Cir.

2020) (holding the particularity requirement is met by a description detailed enough to permit the

executing officer to determine what may be seized even without reference to a specific crime).

                                               - 13 -
        Here, the record supports the trial court’s ruling that the challenged search warrant

satisfied the constitutional particularity requirement because it lists the specific crimes about

which the evidence was sought and the specific places on the appellant’s cell phone where the

officers were authorized to look for that evidence. See United States v. Williams, 592 F.3d 511,

520 (4th Cir. 2010) (upholding a seizure under a warrant authorizing the search of all “computer

systems” and “digital storage media” in a defendant’s home for evidence of two Virginia crimes,

including harassment by computer, in the face of a particularity challenge). Cf. generally Stickle

v. Commonwealth, 68 Va. App. 321, 337-38 (2017) (holding that using software to search files

the defendant shared on a particular network did not violate the constitutional particularity

requirement for warrants). The warrant confined the search to the appellant’s cell phone,

excluding any external storage locations. It also limited the examination of the phone itself to

applications that could hold video or photographic data. Finally, the warrant restricted the search

to files created between dates that were “book[-]end[ed]” by the crimes of 2015 and those of

2018. With regard to the one-month period in 2015, the police had DNA evidence that tied the

appellant to a crime on one of those dates and prevented them from eliminating him as the

perpetrator of the other one. Regarding 2018, the police were aware of seven very similar crimes

that occurred on various dates within the six-month window that year. The appellant admitted

committing at least two of the less-serious crimes that involved skirt-lifting, one of which

occurred on the first day of that period and the other of which occurred less than a week from its

last day.

        On these facts, we hold that the trial court did not err by concluding that the particularity

requirement of the Fourth Amendment was satisfied.

                                                - 14 -
                                             2. Nexus

       The Fourth Amendment “require[s] proof of a constitutionally sufficient nexus between

the [item sought] and the place to be searched.” Cunningham v. Commonwealth, 49 Va. App.

605, 616 (2007). An adequate nexus may be established based on “the nature of the item[s]”

sought and “normal inferences” concerning “where one would likely keep such evidence.”

United States v. Anderson, 851 F.2d 727, 729 (4th Cir. 1988); see Gregory v. Commonwealth, 46

Va. App. 683, 690-91 (2005) (permitting the magistrate to draw such inferences).

       The appellant argues that evidence of a nexus between his cell phone and the nine crimes

of which police suspected him was lacking because “there was evidence in only one” that the

assailant used a phone to record the potential crime—a 2015 incident in which a woman saw a

cell phone that “was possibly recording” “sticking through [her] shower curtain.” He concedes

that the affidavit also relied on items found on his phone pursuant to the first search warrant, but

he suggests that no evidence established that these videos were “criminal in nature.”

       We conclude that the evidence in the affidavit establishes a nexus between the appellant’s

phone and the crimes under investigation. The affidavit lists his two prior convictions for

nonconsensual filming of an undressed person. Further, it reflects the investigation of the

appellant’s first 2018 crime covered by the challenged search warrant, during which he pushed

down a young woman wearing a dress and attempted to pull off her underwear. That

investigation revealed that the appellant appeared to be carrying a cell phone in his hand

immediately prior to the March 2018 attack.

       The affidavit additionally indicates that data lawfully obtained from the appellant’s phone

established that he recorded at least five other crimes of a sexual nature committed on September

21 and 22, 2018. Two of those videos match the skirt-lifting offenses of those dates. A third

video was damaged and not viewable, but its creation time matches the narrow period in which

                                               - 15 -
the appellant broke into a woman’s residence and penetrated her digitally, as confirmed by the

victim and DNA evidence. Two additional videos created during the 30-hour time period show

what appear to be previously unknown crimes—a recording of a partially nude woman taken

from outside her home, and a video showing an apparent home invasion in which the filmer

ejaculates on a sleeping woman.

       Therefore, of the nine groups of offenses in the affidavit that were committed in 2015 and

2018 and involved identified victims, video evidence was known or strongly suspected to exist in

five of them. In the remaining four incidents, regarding which the police had not received

reports of filming, the victims were unconscious or asleep for some or all of the attacks and were

understandably unable to indicate whether filming had occurred. This record, including the

appellant’s two prior convictions for unlawful filming and the two videos lawfully discovered on

his phone showing previously unknown offenses, provides more than enough evidence to

support the trial court’s finding that an adequate nexus existed for probable cause to search the

appellant’s phone for videos and photographs created during the two listed time frames.5

       Therefore, the warrant and affidavit established an adequate nexus for the phone search.

                                     B. Length of the Seizure

       The appellant suggests that the search of his cell phone was unreasonable under the

Fourth Amendment based on the length of time it took the Commonwealth to obtain a valid

search warrant.6

       5
          Due to the fact that the warrant was supported by probable cause, this Court does not
address whether the good faith exception also supports the denial of the suppression motion.
See, e.g., Sanders v. Commonwealth, 64 Va. App. 734, 742 n.3 (2015).
       6
          This is an issue of first impression insofar as binding precedent is concerned. See
Commonwealth v. Eutsler, No. 1515-19-3, slip op. at 20, 2020 WL 1042160, at *11
(Va. Ct. App. Mar. 3, 2020) (“It appears that no Virginia appellate court has addressed this
issue.”); see also Otey v. Commonwealth, 61 Va. App. 346, 350 n.3 (2012) (recognizing that
unpublished opinions are not binding but can be “considered for their persuasive value”).
                                                 - 16 -
       A seizure that is “lawful at its inception can nevertheless violate the Fourth Amendment

[if] its manner of execution unreasonably infringes possessory interests protected by” that

amendment. United States v. Jacobsen, 466 U.S. 109, 124 (1984). The owner of an item

lawfully seized by police retains at least some possessory interest in it, and a lack of diligence by

authorities that unnecessarily lengthens the time during which that person is denied his

possessory interest before a valid warrant is obtained can render the seizure unreasonable. See

United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696, 709-10 (1983); United States v. Pratt, 915 F.3d 266, 271

(4th Cir. 2019).

       Assessing the reasonableness of the duration of the retention of the item seized, in this

case the phone, requires balancing “the nature and quality” of the Fourth Amendment intrusion

“against the importance of the governmental interests alleged to justify” it. Place, 462 U.S. at

703. This is a fact-specific test based on the totality of the circumstances. United States v. Laist,

702 F.3d 608, 613 (11th Cir. 2012); see United States v. Mitchell, 565 F.3d 1347, 1351 (11th Cir.

2009). Relevant factors include (1) “the significance of the interference with the person’s

possessory interest”; (2) “the duration of the delay”; (3) the presence or absence of consent to the

seizure; and (4) “the government’s legitimate interest in holding the property as evidence.”

Laist, 702 F.3d at 613-14; see United States v. Smith, 967 F.3d 198, 206 & n.1, 208-09 (2d Cir.

2020) (applying factors resembling those in Laist and citing cases from other circuits recognizing

similar factors). When balancing these factors, a court should also “take into account whether

the police diligently pursue[d] their investigation.” Laist, 702 F.3d at 614 (alteration in original)

(quoting Place, 462 U.S. at 709). We address each of these considerations in turn.

       First, in assessing the degree of interference with one’s possessory interest, the nature of

the property at issue is relevant. Computers, cell phones, and the like are “unique possession[s]

. . . in which individuals may have a particularly powerful possessory interest,” due to the

                                                - 17 -
quantity of both business and personal data typically stored on such devices. Id.; see Brewer v.

Commonwealth, 71 Va. App. 585, 593 (2020). However, it is undisputed that the appellant was

prohibited from possessing his phone by Code § 18.2-431.1(B) while incarcerated. And he was

incarcerated continuously following his arrest, which took place the same day his phone was

seized. Consequently, the seizure did not deprive the appellant of any direct interest in

possessing the phone. See United States v. Sullivan, 797 F.3d 623, 633 (9th Cir. 2015). Further,

defense counsel received a disk containing all the data on the phone during discovery. See Laist,

702 F.3d at 616. To the extent the appellant retained the right to have a designee pick up the

phone itself, he eventually made a request for its return by means of notarized letters. Those

letters, however, were not delivered until more than 21 months after police took custody of the

phone, around the same time that the fourth search warrant (later held valid) was obtained.

Consequently, the degree of interference with his possessory interest before the police obtained a

valid warrant related to the charges at issue was minimal.

        Second, regarding the duration of the delay, about 650 days or more than 21 months

passed from when the phone was seized until the prosecution obtained the fourth warrant. This

delay was without doubt a lengthy one, and that delay must be accounted for in the balancing of

the factors.

        Third, addressing consent, the evidence in the record, viewed in the light most favorable

to the Commonwealth, establishes that the appellant “voluntarily” gave his phone to a VCU

detective on September 27, 2018. The trial court was entitled to reject the appellant’s testimony

that he did not turn it over willingly, particularly in light of evidence to the contrary. As noted,

the appellant eventually requested the return of the phone, but he did not do so until around the

same time that the fourth search warrant was obtained. As a result, those requests for return are

entitled to little weight on the issues of consent to take and retain the phone.

                                                - 18 -
       Fourth, we consider the Commonwealth’s interest in holding the property. The phone

was obtained at the time of the appellant’s arrest, on September 27, 2018, and it was searched

pursuant to a valid warrant issued on October 1, 2018. The search pursuant to that first warrant

yielded not only evidence of several crimes but also videos that were themselves contraband

because they violated Code § 18.2-386.1, which proscribes filming a nonconsenting nude or

partially clad person. Additionally, by that time, the appellant had been indicted for the separate

September 2018 skirt-lifting incidents, and evidence of those offenses was on the phone’s S.D.

card. Personal property without independent evidentiary value may not be kept indefinitely. See

Pratt, 915 F.3d at 273 (reasoning that where only a phone’s files “had evidentiary value,” the

files could be “removed or copied” and the phone “returned” after examination pursuant to a

warrant). Here, however, the Commonwealth repeatedly sought subsequent warrants to permit it

to search the appellant’s phone for evidence of specific additional crimes that he was suspected

of committing, and it had a strong interest in retaining the property while doing so in as prompt a

manner as possible. See Laist, 702 F.3d at 616-17.

       The final step in the analysis is to weigh the various factors, also taking into account the

diligence of the officers. See id. at 613-14. Under a totality-of-the-circumstances analysis, the

evidence supports the trial court’s conclusion that the retention of the appellant’s lawfully seized

cell phone, although lengthy, did not unreasonably infringe his possessory interests. The

appellant had a reduced interest in the phone because he was incarcerated for the duration of the

seizure and therefore was prohibited by law from possessing the phone himself. He turned over

the phone voluntarily at the time of his arrest, and only four days later, the VCU police obtained

a warrant to search it for evidence of a different but related group of crimes. Although the

appellant submitted written requests for the return of the phone, he did not do so until after the

fourth search warrant (the one challenged in this appeal) was issued, more than 21 months after

                                               - 19 -
law enforcement took custody of the phone.7 Despite the letters, defense counsel did not file a

motion seeking a return of the phone, and the prosecutor provided defense counsel with a disk of

all the data on it.

        Finally, regarding the diligence of the officers with respect to the May 2018 offenses at

issue in this case, they sought an additional search warrant each time the court granted a motion

to suppress and did so no more than sixteen days after each adverse ruling. See id. at 614

(recognizing that for a Fourth Amendment event based only on reasonable suspicion, “a delay as

short as 90 minutes may be unreasonable” but that where police seized a defendant’s computer

with his consent and he did not revoke it until after the police obtained a warrant, “a delay of

over three months may be reasonable”). The officers involved therefore acted diligently, if

imperfectly, to obtain a valid warrant permitting the search that is the subject of this appeal.8 See

generally Derr v. Commonwealth, 242 Va. 413, 421 (1991) (recognizing “the Fourth

Amendment’s strong preference for searches conducted pursuant to a warrant” (quoting Illinois

v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213, 236 (1983))).

        The evidence before this Court supports the trial court’s ruling that the total period of

delay was not unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment.

                                   C. Validity of Search Warrant

        The evidence met the particularity and nexus requirements to support the finding of

probable cause and established that the duration of the authorities’ retention of the phone was not

        7
        The appellant waited 11 months after issuance to challenge the second search warrant,
dated October 11, 2018.
        8
          The appellant argues that the Commonwealth could not rely on the second or third
warrants because the trial court found the police did not act in good faith in obtaining them. The
trial court, by denying the motion to suppress the fourth warrant, ruled that these prior findings
were not dispositive under the applicable totality-of-the-circumstances analysis.
                                               - 20 -
unreasonable under the circumstances. Therefore, the record supports the trial court’s ruling

denying the motion to suppress the evidence seized pursuant to the fourth search warrant.

                          IV. Jail Call and Alleged Discovery Violation

       The appellant suggests that in his trial for the offenses against K.J., the court improperly

admitted evidence of a telephone call he made from jail because the prosecution did not produce

it in a timely fashion in discovery.

       On the second day of trial, the prosecution called a witness to authenticate a recording of

a “jail [phone] call[]” from over two years earlier that it planned to introduce into evidence.

Defense counsel objected, representing that the defense first learned about the call, as well as the

Commonwealth’s intent to use it at trial, on the Friday afternoon immediately preceding the

Tuesday trial. Counsel further represented that the defense did not receive a recording of the call

until Monday, the day before trial. As a result, she asked the court to exclude the recording due

to the alleged discovery violation.

       Regarding the content of the recorded call, the appellant asks a woman if she heard “that

there w[ere] fractured faces involved.” He also says, “I don’t know how I’m supposed to live

with myself after that. I didn’t realize there was that much damage done.”9

       Defense counsel argued to the court that due to the late disclosure of the recording, they

were unable to fully prepare. Counsel suggested that it was not clear whether the reference to

“fractured faces” applied to K.J., the victim of the offense for which the appellant was then on

trial, or might instead reference a case involving a different victim. When the court inquired

whether defense counsel wished to tell the jury the reference might be to someone else whom the

       9
         We limit our assessment of admissibility to the portions of the recording that the
appellant addresses in this Court. See Rule 5A:20(d)-(e); Bartley v. Commonwealth, 67 Va. App.
740, 744-46 (2017).
                                              - 21 -
appellant was charged with harming, counsel replied, “No.” Defense counsel did not articulate

any other way in which the appellant’s case was harmed by the late discovery.

       The court denied the appellant’s motion to exclude the jail call. It held that defense

counsel received the recording “a day ahead of time” at the latest and that such timing was not

prejudicial because the only thing counsel needed to do was talk to the appellant about the call.

The appellant now contends that the trial court erroneously admitted the statements he made in

the jail call because he was prejudiced by the call’s late disclosure.10

       On appeal, this Court reviews a claim that the trial court erred in the manner in which it

oversaw the parties’ discovery pursuant to the Rules of the Supreme Court of Virginia under an

abuse of discretion standard. See Juniper, 271 Va. at 393-94. An abuse of discretion has

occurred only when “reasonable jurists could not differ” in their assessment that an erroneous

result was reached. Commonwealth v. Swann, 290 Va. 194, 197 (2015) (quoting Grattan v.

Commonwealth, 278 Va. 602, 620 (2009)).

       A felony defendant is entitled to his own “written or recorded statements or confessions

. . . made . . . to any person other than a law enforcement officer[] that the Commonwealth

intends to introduce into evidence against the accused at trial.” Rule 3A:11(a)(1), (b)(2)(B); see

Code § 19.2-265.4. Upon request, the trial court must set a deadline for disclosure, and the rule

includes a continuing duty to disclose. Rule 3A:11(f), (h). It further provides that in the event of

noncompliance, “the court must order [the noncomplying] party to permit the discovery or

inspection of materials not previously disclosed” and it “may grant such other relief authorized

by Virginia law as [the court] may in its discretion deem appropriate.” Rule 3A:11(h) (emphasis

       10
           The trial court first found that the Commonwealth in fact produced the recording in a
timely fashion in discovery. We conclude that the court’s alternate ruling that the appellant
failed to prove that he was prejudiced by the alleged late disclosure of the call provides the best
and narrowest ground for decision. See McGinnis, 296 Va. at 501. Consequently, we do not
consider the trial court’s finding regarding when the recording of the jail call was first produced.
                                                 - 22 -
added). Options for relief include “grant[ing] a continuance” or “prohibit[ing] the

Commonwealth from introducing evidence not disclosed.” Code § 19.2-265.4(B). Whether to

grant relief “upon a violation of Rule 3A:11 is within the discretion of the trial court, giving due

regard to the right of the accused . . . to investigate and evaluate the evidence in preparation for

trial.” Frye v. Commonwealth, 231 Va. 370, 383 (1986).

        On appeal, when a defendant challenges the prosecution’s late disclosure of inculpatory

evidence under Rule 3A:11 and asks for sanctions, he must prove that the late disclosure

prejudiced his case. Smoot v. Commonwealth, 37 Va. App. 495, 502 (2002). “To show

prejudice, the defendant must demonstrate how timely disclosure would have changed his trial

strategy or affected the outcome of the trial.” Id.

        Here, the appellant’s allegations of prejudice involve ways in which his trial strategy

might have differed if he had more time to evaluate the content of the recorded phone call. It is

undisputed that defense counsel knew about the recorded call, and the Commonwealth’s plan to

use it, the Friday before trial was scheduled to begin the following Tuesday. Additionally, the

prosecutor emailed a recording of the call to defense counsel on Monday morning. This afforded

the appellant’s two trial attorneys at least a full business day to evaluate it before trial. If defense

counsel viewed this amount of time as inadequate to complete their evaluation or alter their trial

strategy, they nonetheless had adequate time to ask for a continuance. However, the appellant’s

attorneys did not request a continuance or even mention that they had considered doing so. See

Frye, 231 Va. at 384; see also Lane v. Commonwealth, 20 Va. App. 592, 594-95 (1995) (holding

under Rule 3A:11 that a defendant who claimed surprise but did not request a recess or

continuance “sought only suppression of the truth” and could not show prejudice).

                                                 - 23 -
       On the facts of this case, the appellant did not establish prejudice, and the trial court

therefore did not abuse its discretion by admitting the recording of the phone call. See Naulty v.

Commonwealth, 2 Va. App. 523, 526, 528-29 (1986).

                            V. Admission of Evidence of Other Crimes

       The appellant argues that the trial court erroneously admitted prejudicial evidence of

other crimes in his trial for the offenses against K.J.

       Prior to the appellant’s trial for the crimes against K.J., the prosecution sought a ruling

permitting it to introduce evidence of the offenses against E.A. and H.H. Both sets of crimes

occurred within about half a mile and twenty-four hours of each other in May 2018.

Additionally, both are depicted in video recordings that were found on the appellant’s cell phone.

At least a portion of the perpetrator’s hand can be seen in both sets of videos. Part of the

perpetrator’s face, however, is visible in only one of the videos showing the crimes against H.H.

       The appellant objected to the admission of the videos of the offenses against E.A. and

H.H., their related testimony, and DNA evidence linking the appellant to those crimes. He

contended that the evidence, including the video showing him raping H.H., was highly

prejudicial propensity evidence and was not admissible under any exception.

       The trial court held that the evidence was admissible to prove identity, intent, and modus

operandi. It reasoned that the key connection was the presence of both sets of videos on the

appellant’s phone. It further ruled that the acts themselves were “idiosyncratic enough” in terms

of temporal and geographic proximity, the touching and how it “was done,” and the fact that the

acts were filmed.

       At the appellant’s trial for the offenses against K.J., the prosecution introduced testimony

from E.A., H.H., and various witnesses who investigated the crimes against them, as well as the

video evidence showing the appellant’s commission of those crimes. K.J. also testified,

                                                - 24 -
confirming that she was the victim in the video that showed only the perpetrator’s hand, and she

identified the appellant as her attacker. Defense counsel challenged her identification on

cross-examination and in closing argument. Counsel further suggested that the appellant could

have downloaded the video depicting the attack on K.J. from social media.

       At the close of trial, the court instructed the jurors that they could consider evidence that

the appellant committed a crime other than the one for which he was on trial only as evidence of

his intent, identity, and “the unique nature of the method of committing the crime charged in

connection with the crime for which he [was] on trial and for no other purpose.” The appellant

contends that the trial court erroneously admitted the videos and related evidence of the crimes

against E.A. and H.H. in his trial for the crimes against K.J.

       On appeal, a court’s decision to admit or exclude evidence is reviewed for an abuse of

discretion. Hicks v. Commonwealth, 71 Va. App. 255, 270 (2019); see Turner v.

Commonwealth, 259 Va. 645, 651 (2000). This standard “includes review to determine that the

discretion was not guided by erroneous legal conclusions.” Hicks, 71 Va. App. at 270 (quoting

Porter v. Commonwealth, 276 Va. 203, 260 (2008)).

       When a question regarding the admissibility of evidence requires the resolution of an

underlying factual issue, the trial court must determine those facts by a preponderance of the

evidence. Id. at 275 (citing Bloom v. Commonwealth, 262 Va. 814, 821 (2001)). Such

“subsidiary findings are binding on appeal ‘unless “plainly wrong” or without evidence to

support them.’” Id. (quoting Campos v. Commonwealth, 67 Va. App. 690, 702 (2017)); see

Meade v. Commonwealth, 74 Va. App. 796, 805-06 (2022) (applying standard to a video).

       The law is clear that evidence “tend[ing] to show that the accused is guilty of other

crimes and offenses at other times” is not admissible if “offered merely to show [the accused’s]

propensity to commit” the charged crime. Ortiz v. Commonwealth, 276 Va. 705, 714-15 (2008);

                                               - 25 -
see Va. R. Evid. 2:404(b). “However, numerous exceptions to this rule authorize the admission

of [prior] ‘bad acts’ evidence.” Ortiz, 276 Va. at 714. Even so, such evidence is admissible only

if its “legitimate probative value . . . outweigh[s] its incidental prejudice.” Kenner v.

Commonwealth, 299 Va. 414, 427 (2021) (quoting Va. R. Evid. 2:404(b)). We consider the

exceptions and balancing test in turn.

                              A. Exceptions Permitting Admissibility

       Virginia “follows an ‘inclusionary approach’ to the uncharged misconduct doctrine by

admitting [other-crimes] evidence ‘if relevant[] for any purpose other than to show a mere

propensity.’” Castillo, 70 Va. App. at 415 (quoting Thomas v. Commonwealth, 44 Va. App. 741,

757 n.8, adopted upon reh’g en banc, 45 Va. App. 811 (2005)). Recognized exceptions to the

rule barring propensity evidence permit its admission to prove identity or intent. See Va. R.

Evid. 2:404(b).

       One method of proving identity involves evidence of criminal acts that share a common

modus operandi, defined as “a distinctive . . . resembl[ance]” between two crimes that is

sufficient to “raise the probability of a common perpetrator.” Spencer v. Commonwealth, 240

Va. 78, 89 (1990). The other crime need not qualify as a “signature” or “virtual carbon cop[y]”

of the offense for which the defendant is on trial to be admitted. Id. at 89-90. Instead, it is

enough if the other crime “bear[s] ‘a singular strong resemblance to the pattern of the offense

charged.’” Id. at 90 (quoting United States v. Hudson, 884 F.2d 1016, 1021 (7th Cir. 1989)).

       Here, a strong pattern of evidence links the crimes against K.J. with the crimes against

E.A. and H.H. for purposes of admissibility. First and foremost, police found the videos

showing portions of both sets of offenses in precisely the same location on the appellant’s

Samsung phone—the separate “My Files” folder “under the downloads tab.” The two sets of

videos were accompanied by virtually identical metadata. That metadata reflects their creation

                                                - 26 -
on an iPhone 6 using the same version of operating system software and supported a finding that

they were transferred to the Samsung at the same time several months later. Further, the

evidence established that the appellant previously owned an iPhone.11 The record therefore

supports a finding by a preponderance of the evidence that the appellant personally took all three

May 2018 crime videos with the iPhone 6 and later transferred them to his new Samsung phone.

       Additionally, the contents of the videos and the ways in which the two sets of crimes

were committed involve distinct similarities. See Spencer, 240 Va. at 91. The victims in both

sets of crimes were young women with similar builds and skin tones. Cf. Turner, 259 Va. at 650,

653 (holding that dissimilarities in skin tone and age were not dispositive). They were assaulted

within about twenty-four hours of each other in apartments about half a mile apart. See id. at 652

(considering geographical proximity of abductions). In one attack, the perpetrator entered

through an unlocked door and likely also did so in the second attack.12 See Spencer, 240 Va. at

88 (considering similar method of entry through windows).

       Further, the victims arrived home between about 1:00 a.m. and 3:15 a.m. and were

attacked between about 3:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. All had been drinking before returning to their

apartments, rendering them more appealing targets because they were less likely to wake up

       11
          The appellant’s face is visible in one of the videos of E.A. and H.H., which was taken
with an iPhone 6. An unrelated photo on the Samsung shows him in front of a mirror holding
what appears to be an iPhone, and that photo was taken with an iPhone 6 using the same version
of operating system software, about a month after the crimes at issue. Only one video or photo
in evidence was taken with the Samsung. Detective Hixson confirmed that the videos and photos
did not appear to have been tampered with and that someone could transfer such files from an
old iPhone to the “downloads” folder of a new phone.
       12
         E.A. had not checked the door used to access her apartment to see if it was locked, and
defense counsel argued that the Commonwealth offered no evidence of forced entry.
                                            - 27 -
during the sexual attacks.13 See Turner, 259 Va. at 652 (considering the time of day the offenses

were committed); Spencer, 240 Va. at 88 (noting that the victims were all “overcome while

asleep”). Each primary victim was clothed before being attacked and was disrobed by her

attacker while her ability to resist was impaired. Each video also depicts the primary victim in

bed in a room with the lights on.

       Finally, each video shows the filmer using his left hand to touch the victim’s left buttock

and expose her anus and vulva. The trial court found that this hand motion was very similar in

both attacks, and the evidence, viewed under the appropriate standard, supports that finding. See

Meade, 74 Va. App. at 805-06. The size and shape of the hand visible in the attack on K.J. also

closely resembles the hand visible in the appellant’s assault on H.H. Finally, the fingernails are

of the same length and have visible dirt under them in both videos, which were filmed only about

24 hours apart.

       This evidence, viewed in its entirety, supports the trial court’s ruling regarding the

probative value of the other-crimes evidence to prove the disputed element of identity.

       Although the appellant suggests that he could simply have downloaded the video of the

assault on K.J. from the internet, this argument ignores K.J.’s testimony at trial that she

remembered seeing him standing over her twice during the attack in her apartment.14 And the

standard for admissibility of other-crimes evidence requires merely “the probability of a common

       13
          H.H. was unable to walk home by herself and remembered that “strangers on the
street” noticed how drunk she was. K.J. admitted that she had consumed “three mixed drinks
and two or three shots” while with her friends, and she had a blood alcohol content of .154 four
hours after she returned home.
       14
          Although the prosecutor represented prior to trial at the pretrial motion hearing that
K.J. “w[ould] not be able to identify” the appellant “as [her] assailant,” this Court may consider
K.J.’s identification at trial in reviewing the appellant’s admissibility challenge. See Bottoms v.
Commonwealth, 22 Va. App. 378, 383-84 (1996) (noting that a judge has a duty to alter a pretrial
ruling on a motion in limine if required by “the case as it actually develops” at trial).
                                                 - 28 -
perpetrator,” not affirmative proof of one. See Turner, 259 Va. at 652. The evidence before the

jury permitted it to consider the possibility that he committed the offenses against E.A. and H.H.

and simply downloaded the video of the crimes against K.J. from the internet. The likelihood of

this scenario was for the jury to determine when it weighed all of the evidence. This possibility

did not render the evidence of the crimes against E.A. and H.H. inadmissible to prove identity in

part through modus operandi.

       The other-crimes evidence was also relevant to prove the appellant’s intent at his trial for

the offenses against K.J. Both the burglary and aggravated sexual battery charges included the

element of intent to commit rape or some other act of sexual abuse. See Code

§§ 18.2-67.3, -67.10, -90. The prosecution “is required to prove every element of its case” and

“is entitled to do so by presenting relevant evidence in support of the offense[s] charged.”

Kenner, 299 Va. at 426. A defendant cannot prevent the prosecution from doing so “simply

because [he] takes the position that the offense did not occur [or that someone else committed it]

and therefore intent is not genuinely in dispute.” Id.

       Consequently, the other-crimes evidence was relevant to prove identity (both

independently and through modus operandi) and intent. This does not, however, end the inquiry.

Whether it was admissible for these purposes depends upon a weighing of its probative value

against any prejudicial effect.

                              B. Prejudicial Versus Probative Value

       “[W]here a course of criminal conduct . . . consist[s] of a series of related crimes, the

perpetrator has no right to have the evidence ‘sanitized’ so as to deny the jury knowledge of all

but the immediate crime for which he is on trial.” Id. at 426-27 (quoting Scott v.

Commonwealth, 228 Va. 519, 526 (1984)). “Virginia law . . . intervenes” in such circumstances

“only when the alleged prejudice tends to inflame irrational emotions or leads to illegitimate

                                               - 29 -
inferences. And even then, [the issue is] a matter of degree.” Thomas, 44 Va. App. at 758.

Accordingly, relevant evidence is admissible as long as the “legitimate probative value of such

proof outweighs its incidental prejudice” to the defendant. Kenner, 299 Va. at 427 (quoting Va.

R. Evid. 2:404(b)). The responsibility for balancing these considerations rests with the sound

discretion of the trial court. Ortiz, 276 Va. at 715.

       Here, the evidence of the crimes against H.H. and E.A. was highly probative of the

identity of K.J.’s attacker. The probative value of this evidence was heightened because defense

counsel disputed the sufficiency of the evidence to prove identity. See Hewston v.

Commonwealth, 18 Va. App. 409, 414 (1994) (observing the “powerful probative value” of

other-crimes evidence on the “central issue” of the perpetrator’s identity); 5 Ronald J. Bacigal &

Corinna Barrett Lain, Virginia Practice Series: Criminal Procedure § 17:35, at 639 n.14

(2021-2022 ed.). Defense counsel also attacked K.J.’s claim that she recognized the appellant as

the perpetrator shortly after his arrest. Thus, the probative value of the evidence that the

appellant was the perpetrator of the offenses against H.H. and E.A. in his trial for the crimes

against K.J. was substantial. See Hewston, 18 Va. App. at 414. The evidence that the appellant

raped H.H. was also probative of his intent in entering K.J.’s apartment and attacking her.

       Admission of the video of the appellant having sexual intercourse with H.H. was

assuredly prejudicial. However, both the prosecution and the trial court took steps to restrict the

prejudicial impact of this other-crimes evidence. The prosecution noted that it sought to offer

evidence only of the crimes against E.A. and H.H., despite a number of other similar crimes in

which the appellant was implicated. The trial court limited the impact of the other-crimes

evidence through a cautionary instruction directing the jury to consider the evidence for the

limited purposes of his intent, identity, and modus operandi. See Model Jury Instrs.—Crim. No.

                                                - 30 -
2.260. The record contains no evidence that the jurors did not follow that instruction. See

Spencer, 240 Va. at 95.

       The record supports the trial court’s ruling that the probative value of the evidence on the

combination of elements for which it was offered—identity and intent—outweighed the obvious

yet incidental prejudice. In light of the record as a whole, we conclude that the trial court did not

abuse its discretion by admitting the video and related evidence of the appellant’s rape of H.H.

         VI. Redacted DNA Report and Evidence of K.J.’s Consensual Sexual Partners

       The appellant contends that in his trial for the offenses against K.J., the court erroneously

excluded evidence related to DNA found on her buttocks and that this error was not harmless.

       The appellant was charged with aggravated sexual battery of K.J. due to her physical

helplessness. The charge was based in part on the video of the attack found on the appellant’s

phone, which showed a hand twice purposefully touching and moving K.J.’s bare buttock while

she was unconscious, exposing her anus and vulva. No allegation was made that the assailant

penetrated K.J. or had any sexual contact with her beyond the purposeful touching.

       Following K.J.’s attack, a nurse swabbed her vaginal and perianal areas for evidence.

K.J. reported that she had one consensual sexual partner in the days before the attack, and Kerri

Rosana of the Department of Forensic Science found that person’s DNA in the vaginal sample

collected. Additionally, that person could not be eliminated as a contributor to the perianal

sample. A second person’s DNA was also detected in the perianal sample. Both K.J. and the

appellant were eliminated as contributors to that sample, which left a nonconsensual contributor

whose identity was unknown.

       The appellant sought a pretrial ruling permitting him to introduce the certificate of

analysis of K.J.’s perianal swab, as well as Rosana’s related testimony. He also requested

permission to cross-examine K.J. in limited fashion “regarding the number of [her] recent

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consensual [sexual] partners.” Defense counsel explained her dual goals: to be able to argue not

only (1) that the appellant did not leave DNA on K.J.’s buttock cheek but also (2) that another

person with whom K.J. did not have consensual contact did leave his DNA there, strengthening

the argument that someone other than the appellant was the attacker.

       The trial court ruled that evidence regarding anything other than exclusion of the

appellant as a contributor to the DNA on the perianal swab was inadmissible. It allowed the

appellant to present a redacted copy of the certificate of analysis showing only his exclusion.

The court further instructed defense counsel and the witness not to “talk about mixtures” or

“other unidentified people.”

       Rosana testified to the jury that she excluded the appellant as the source of the DNA

profile found on K.J.’s perianal swab. Defense counsel introduced the redacted certificate of

analysis, which showed that the appellant was “eliminated” from the DNA “profile developed

from . . . the perianal/buttocks sample.” Neither Rosana’s nor K.J.’s testimony nor the redacted

certificate (nor any combination of the three) permitted the inference that DNA from an

unidentified person who was not a consensual contact of K.J.’s was found in that profile.

       The appellant contends that the trial court erred by limiting the testimony of K.J. and

Rosana and requiring related redactions to the certificate of analysis. He argues that it was

crucial to his defense to prove not only that he himself had been eliminated as a possible

contributor of the DNA found on K.J.’s buttocks but also that the sample contained the DNA of

an unidentified person who was not a consensual sexual partner. He asserts that both categories

of evidence were admissible under the constitutional due process principles set out in Neeley v.

Commonwealth, 17 Va. App. 349 (1993), and were necessary to permit him to argue effectively

that the unidentified DNA was present on K.J.’s buttock because someone else committed the

crimes against her.

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       To resolve this case on the best and narrowest ground, we assume without deciding that

the trial court erred pursuant to Neeley but conclude that any error was harmless.15 See

Commonwealth v. White, 293 Va. 411, 419 (2017). Constitutional error is harmless if the

appellate court is “able to declare a belief that it was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt.”

Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 24 (1967); see White, 293 Va. at 422. Harmless error

analysis “is available not only when the error consists of erroneously admitting evidence” for the

Commonwealth “but also when it consists of [erroneously] excluding defense evidence.” United

States v. Cerro, 775 F.2d 908, 916 (7th Cir. 1985); see Ray v. Commonwealth, 55 Va. App. 647,

649-52 (2010). The test for the two types of error is not “identical,” in part because “an

asymmetry” exists between allowing the prosecutor “to put in more evidence of guilt than he

should have” and the extreme case of preventing the defendant “from putting on a[ny] defense

[at all].” Cerro, 775 F.2d at 916. However, where, as we assume here, a defendant is only

partially deprived of the “right to call witnesses on his behalf,” the error is harmless if the record

establishes “‘that a rational jury would have found the defendant guilty absent the error.’”

United States v. Rhynes, 218 F.3d 310, 323 (4th Cir. 2000) (en banc) (quoting Neder v. United

States, 527 U.S. 1, 18 (1999)); see Ray, 55 Va. App. at 652.16 This test contrasts with the

       15
          Virginia’s rape shield statute and its exceptions “serve[ merely] as a predicate to the
constitutional analysis” required to assess the admissibility of evidence of a victim’s prior sexual
conduct in prosecutions for various sexual offenses. Neeley, 17 Va. App. at 357 (citing Code
§ 18.2-67.7). A multipart test determines whether proffered evidence that is not admissible
under a statutory exception must nonetheless be admitted under constitutional standards. Id. at
356-58. We do not address this issue based on our conclusion that any error was harmless.
       16
          One federal appellate court has held that if a defendant “were utterly precluded from
defending himself, it would be clear that his conviction had to be reversed even if the evidence of
guilt was overwhelming.” Cerro, 775 F.2d at 916. Virginia recognizes this distinction between
“trial” and “structural” errors. Ray, 55 Va. App. at 651. Structural errors affect “the very
‘framework within which [a] trial proceeds,’” and examples recognized in Virginia include the
denial of a public trial and representation by counsel. Id. (quoting Puckett v. United States, 556
U.S. 129, 140 (2009)). Structural errors are so fundamental that they can never be harmless. Id.
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“sufficiency standard[, which] asks whether a rational [factfinder] could have found the

defendant guilty.” White, 293 Va. at 422.

       Consequently, in conducting harmless error analysis, the reviewing court must consider

“the potential effect of the excluded evidence in light of all the evidence” before the jury. Haas

v. Commonwealth, 299 Va. 465, 467 (2021) (quoting Commonwealth v. Proffitt, 292 Va. 626,

642 (2016)) (non-constitutional error); see Maynard v. Commonwealth, 11 Va. App. 437, 448

(1990) (en banc) (assuming that a constitutional error had the maximum damaging effect

possible). Ultimately, constitutional error in excluding defense evidence is harmless if “the

evidence of guilt was overwhelming and the defendant was allowed to put on a defense, [even] if

not quite so complete a defense as he might reasonably have desired.” Cerro, 775 F.2d at 916.

       In applying harmless error analysis here, we assume without deciding three things. We

assume that the appellant should have been allowed to introduce the unredacted certificate of

analysis and related testimony. We further assume that he was entitled, based on that evidence,

to argue that he was excluded as a contributor of the DNA on K.J.’s buttocks. Finally, we

assume he was also entitled to argue that DNA found there belonged to someone other than him

with whom K.J. did not have consensual sexual activity. Nonetheless, due to the appellant’s

argument based on the redacted certificate of analysis and the evidence as a whole, we conclude

beyond a reasonable doubt that the jury would have found the appellant guilty of the crimes

against K.J. even if the evidence at issue had been admitted. See White, 293 Va. at 422.

       First, despite the exclusion of evidence that DNA on K.J.’s perianal swab came from

someone with whom K.J. did not report having consensual sexual activity, defense counsel was

able to make the same basic point about DNA based on the evidence in the record, including the

redacted certificate of analysis and Rosana’s related testimony. Cf. Smith v. Commonwealth, 72

Va. App. 523, 545 (2020) (holding that excluding testimony “merely cumulative” of admitted

                                               - 34 -
testimony was harmless error). Defense counsel argued to the jury in closing that Rosana

analyzed the swab taken from K.J.’s “buttocks region, . . . the very region that [the jury saw] the

hand in the video touching,” and developed a DNA profile. Counsel emphasized repeatedly that

the DNA found there was not the appellant’s and argued that it was left by the perpetrator whose

hand was seen in the video. In short, the admitted evidence permitted defense counsel to argue

that the appellant was not the perpetrator and that the offense was committed by the unidentified

person whose DNA was found on the victim’s buttocks. The only thing the appellant was not

able to argue was that the evidence affirmatively proved that the DNA found there was from

someone who was not a consensual sexual partner of K.J.17

       Other evidence concerning the properties of DNA transfer weakened defense counsel’s

argument about the significance of the foreign DNA found on K.J.’s buttocks. Expert testimony

indicated, for example, that someone else’s DNA could have been transferred to K.J.’s buttocks

indirectly, lessening the importance of defense counsel’s argument about the foreign DNA found

there. Conversely, the record also established a reduced likelihood that the perpetrator’s DNA

would be there based on the brief, albeit highly intrusive, hand contact seen in the video. The

outcome was also dependent upon whether the area touched was actually swabbed during the

evidence collection, which the nurse testified was merely “possible” based on her usual practice.

       Most important in the harmless error analysis, though, is the additional evidence that

directly ties the appellant to the crimes against K.J. This evidence includes K.J.’s identification

of the appellant as her assailant, the recording of K.J.’s attack on his phone, his incriminating

       17
          The fact that the prosecutor argued on rebuttal that the DNA found on K.J.’s buttocks
came from a consensual sexual partner does not negate this assessment of harmlessness. See
generally Riverside Hosp., Inc. v. Johnson, 272 Va. 518, 525 (2006) (recognizing that arguments
of counsel are not evidence). As noted in Part II of the Analysis section, supra, the appellant
waived the right to challenge the prosecutor’s argument on this point.
                                               - 35 -
statements in the recorded jail call, and the evidence that he committed similar crimes against

E.A. and H.H.

       The video of the attack on K.J. shows her as she regains consciousness, cries out, and

tells her attacker to stop as sounds of punching can be heard. A subsequent CT scan revealed

that the orbital bone beneath her eye was fractured. K.J. did not remember who attacked her

immediately following the assault, but she testified that she recognized the appellant when he

was arrested several months later, and she identified him as her attacker at trial. A recording of a

telephone call that the appellant made from jail corroborated K.J.’s identification. In that call,

which the appellant made the day after he was denied bond for the charge of maliciously

wounding K.J., he indicated learning that “fractured faces” were “involved.” The appellant also

stated that he did not “realize there was that much damage done” and did not know how he could

“live with [him]self.”

       Additionally, the evidence of the similar offenses that the appellant committed against

E.A. and H.H. further ties the appellant to the crimes committed against K.J. the very next night.

DNA connected him to the offenses against E.A. and H.H., and his face was visible in one of the

videos. The videos of those crimes were found in the same “downloads” folder on the

appellant’s Samsung phone as the video of K.J. All the videos were created on an iPhone 6

using the same version of system software, showed no signs of alteration, and appeared to have

been downloaded to the Samsung within the same two-minute window. Finally, a photo taken

about a month after the crimes against the three women and two months prior to the transfer of

all three videos to the Samsung showed the naked appellant in front of a mirror holding a phone

consistent in appearance with an iPhone. This evidence establishes that the appellant took both

sets of videos on the iPhone 6 he owned at the time and later transferred them to his Samsung

phone on which they were found.

                                               - 36 -
       Other similarities connect the appellant to the crimes against K.J. As noted, the assaults

occurred within about 24 hours of each other in apartments about half a mile apart. The victims

were young women with similar skin tones and builds who arrived home between about

1:00 a.m. and 3:15 a.m. and were filmed between about 3:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. All three

victims had been drinking before returning to their apartments, rendering them less likely to

wake up during the sexual attacks. Each primary victim was clothed before being assaulted and

was disrobed by her attacker while incapacitated and unable to resist. Each video depicts the

primary victim in bed in a room with the lights on, while nude and either unconscious or in a

deep sleep. Each video also depicts the filmer using his left hand in a distinctive way to move

the primary victim’s left buttock cheek, exposing her anus and vulva. The size and shape of the

hand in the video of the attack on K.J. closely resembles the hand belonging to the appellant that

is visible in the assault on H.H., perpetrated the previous day.

       The evidence as a whole overwhelmingly proves that the appellant committed the

charged offenses against K.J. In light of that evidence and the fact that defense counsel was able

to argue both that the appellant was excluded as a contributor of the DNA found on K.J.’s

perianal swab and that someone else’s DNA was found there, we hold that any error in excluding

the evidence of K.J.’s consensual sexual contacts and defense counsel’s related arguments

regarding the results of the DNA testing was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt. See United

States v. Rand, 835 F.3d 451, 460, 462 (4th Cir. 2016) (holding that the constitutional error of

excluding a small portion of the defendant’s testimony about his confession was harmless given

“the overwhelming evidence” and his “opportunity to present a vigorous defense” and “explain

‘what was in his mind’ during his various interviews,” “albeit in a slightly limited way”).

                                               - 37 -
                                           CONCLUSION

       We hold that the trial court did not commit reversible error in any of the ways that the

appellant alleges. First, it did not err by refusing to strike Juror 19 for cause. Second, the

appellant failed to preserve his challenge to the prosecutor’s rebuttal argument. Third, the court

did not err by refusing to suppress evidence obtained in a search of the appellant’s phone.

Fourth, it did not abuse its discretion by declining to exclude the recording of the jail call. Fifth,

the court did not abuse its discretion by admitting the videos and related evidence of the

appellant’s crimes against two other victims. Sixth, assuming the trial court erred by limiting the

appellant’s evidence regarding DNA found on the victim’s buttocks swab and the victim’s recent

consensual sexual partners, any error was harmless due to the appellant’s ability to make

virtually the same argument based on the evidence that was admitted and the overwhelming

evidence of his guilt in the record. Consequently, we affirm the challenged convictions.

                                                                                             Affirmed.

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