Court Opinion

ID: 9476546
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 05:58:33.481372+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:45:22.617797
License: Public Domain

ROBERT MADDEN HILL, Circuit Judge,
specially concurring:
I gladly concur in the court’s removal of the “functional equivalent of the border” label from the Sierra Blanca checkpoint. As I have written before, I do not believe the Sierra Blanca checkpoint meets either the Supreme Court’s suggested descriptions of a functional equivalent of the border or our own more-specific criteria for bestowing that label. See United States v. Oyarzun, 760 F.2d 570, 577 (5th Cir.1985) (Hill, J., specially concurring). I write separately, however, for several reasons.
A.
The concept of a “functional equivalent of the border” is one not lacking theoritical and practical difficulties. Since coined by the Supreme Court in dicta in Almeida-Sanchez, 413 U.S. at 272, 93 S.Ct. at 2539, we have struggled to flush this label out. As Judge Reavley points out in an excellent overview of our authority, our opinions, much like the Rio Grande, have meandered from one reason or definition to another when attempting to support the functional equivalency label. See supra part I, at 854-857. See also Oyarzun, 760 F.2d at 577-79 (Hill, J., specially concurring) (our cases on functional equivalency have subtly expanded the concept beyond the Supreme Court’s dicta in Almeida-Sanchez).
If one returns to the Supreme Court’s two examples in Almeida-Sanchez of functional equivalents, it could be argued that functional equivalency should be a matter of pure geography. That is to say, the point that can function as the equivalent of the border must in essence mirror the geo*875graphical border of the United States for all means of transportation and persons stopped there. Justice Stewart’s example of the St. Louis airport receiving a non-stop flight from Mexico is the paradigm with which no one disagrees. The other example of two roads leading from the border which later converge at a single point presents the more difficult problem, for to give this example substantive effect, we may have to forego our absolute certainty that the persons and vehicles stopped at that point of convergence have actually crossed the United States border. Only if we read that example as entailing two roads which cross the border, which are not intersected by or joined with any purely domestic road, and which then converge at a point away from the border can we obtain the same certainty, as at the airport, that the persons and vehicles passing through the point of convergence have crossed the border.1 Such a construction might very well as a practical matter eliminate the second of Justice Stewart’s examples — it certainly eliminates Sierra Blanca as a functional equivalent of the border — for there are probably few points that geographically meet this standard. However, it seems to me that such a reading would prevent the creation of a “border zone” within which United States citizens, either living therein or passing through, are required to forfeit their Fourth Amendment rights.
Such a construction of a functional equivalent of the border setting would drastically reduce the government’s ability to invoke the concept, and in light of the substantial entry of illegal aliens and contraband into the border area it is certainly one not often suggested. In an effort to accommodate the difficulties faced on the Texas/Mexico border, it appears we have focused on statistics rather than geography for determining functional equivalency. If we must reject a geographical construction of the concept, I would agree that the court’s formulation of what is a functional equivalent represents a reasonable, but difficult, compromise.
Under the court’s test functional equivalency turns “entirely on the nature of the traffic passing through the checkpoint.” See supra part II, at 860. This standard is consistent with the Almeida-Sanchez examples since both emphasize the fact that the vehicles, persons, or effects being subjected to a “border search” at a point not actually the border of the United States have recently crossed the border. Pursuant to the court’s standard, the label “functional equivalent of the border” can be bestowed only when the government establishes that the traffic passing through the checkpoint is “international” in character and that this international traffic so predominates in the figures for the total traffic flow through the checkpoint that we are assured that “no more than a negligible number of domestic travellers” are intercepted. See supra II, at 860.
The above test for functional equivalency will of course turn now on those things that some consider most despicable — statistics.2 Because the type and amount of traffic flowing through a particular point now become the keys to unlocking the functional equivalency label for that point, my hesitancy with the court’s opinion arises because it leaves these two elements vaguely defined. Concededly, a specific definition of either element is not needed to invalidate the Sierra Blanca checkpoint as a functional equivalent of the border for it cannot meet any reasonable construction of these terms. But we are, I believe, attempting to enunciate a workable standard for what is proper government conduct away from the border so as to protect the integrity of the border, to give guidance to the government, and to protect the citizenry; accordingly, it seems logical that we should say what these terms mean.3
*876As for what is “international traffic,” my reading of the court’s opinion suggests we may be retreating from the definition contained in Alvarez-Gonzalez II. In Alvarez-Gonzalez II we stated that “international traffic” for functional equivalency purposes encompasses both vehicles and persons that have actually crossed the border and vehicles and persons that have begun their travels in the United States but near the border. See Alvarez-Gonzalez II, 561 F.2d at 624. We reasoned that the latter traffic, although domestic in nature, should nevertheless be considered international in fact because these travels began in an area close to the border and because we found such trips often were a method for smuggling aliens or contraband into the United States. Id. The court recognizes that the Alvarez-Gonzalez II definition of international traffic encompasses truly domestic traffic by United States citizens, which it certainly does, and then suggests that “[b]y including domestic traffic in our definition of international traffic, our cases have perverted the limiting principle inherent in the border search exception.” Supra part II, at 858. Such a statement would seem to reject at least in part the Alvarez-Gonzalez II definition of international traffic.
Thus, as I understand the court’s opinion, the focus of the international traffic element is: has the person stopped at a checkpoint crossed the border and not been subject to inspection. See also Alvarez-Gonzalez II, 561 F.2d at 627-28 (Goldberg, J., dissenting). If the person stopped has crossed the border and not been subject to inspection, regardless of whether the means of transportation the person presently occupies also crossed the border, the person is to be considered international traffic. If the person stopped, however, has not crossed the border then such person is not to be considered international traffic even though his present travel may have originated near the border; such a person then is properly designated domestic traffic. If my understanding of our definition of international traffic is correct, the government should structure questions in its future surveys accordingly. The focus should be on people and whether they have crossed the border without being subject to inspection.
My second concern centers on what “a negligible number of domestic travellers” means within the context of the majority’s test. Negligible is certainly a definable term but it is one of those words whose meaning depends upon the point of view of the person defining it. Generally it means an amount considered insignificant or that can be ignored as unimportant. See The Random House Dictionary of the English Language 956 (1969). The difficulty with the application of “negligible” in our formula of course is that the government may consider a 30 to 40 percent interdiction of domestic traffic “negligible” in light of its interest in combatting illegal alien and contraband smuggling. We however as the author of the term and as the arbiter of constitutional principles should be the body responsible with giving the word a substantive meaning. With the same concerns of promulgating a workable standard that gives the government guidance and the citizenry protection, I think we should define negligible more precisely.
We have in the past said that a 40% interdiction of domestic travel at the La Gloria checkpoint is permissible. See Alvarez-Gonzalez II, 561 F.2d at 623, 625. Prior to that we stated “anything approaching a majority percentage” of interdicted domestic traffic would be improper. Alvarez-Gonzalez I, 542 F.2d at 229. It would seem the court’s “negligible” percentage standard goes back beyond even Alvarez-Gonzalez 7’s threshold and certainly does not adhere to Alvarez-Gonzalez II's notions about how much domestic travel may *877be stopped. In the end, however, and in the interest of a workable definition, we are destined to simply assign an actual numerical percentage to the term “negigi-ble.” By doing so the government thus would be spared the costs of setting up a checkpoint after a survey, having the checkpoint challenged, and then being told that the interdiction of 21 or 16, or whatever, percent of domestic travel as established in the survey is not negligible in our view. Concomitantly, if the government is told the minimum requirements necessary for a functional equivalent, the citizenry would not have to bear the burden of unconstitutional stops and searches that this after-the-fact evaluation process promotes.
The actual numerical percentage chosen while important is not as critical as the realization that sooner or later one must be selected. It seems to me we are in as good of a position as we will ever be to select what numerical amount of domestic traffic may be permissibly interdicted at a point designated the functional equivalent of the border. The percentage chosen of course will reflect how much we will compromise the fourth amendment rights of citizens in order to implement the functional equivalency concept.4
If my words convey nothing else they must be construed as expressing reluctance with the adoption of an unwieldy concept and our sometimes casual way of dealing with it. Once functional equivalency becomes dependent upon statistical analyzes rather than a geographical setting, problems in addition to those addressed also arise, such as how long must a survey be conducted to determine the flow statistics, how long will a given survey be given effect, when should the survey be conducted, etc. While I may have more confidence in the science of statistics than others and may believe these problems and others can be managed, we are relegated to become more involved as statistical soothsayers than traditional judges in the area of functional equivalents of the border. This is a prospect I do not look forward to with any measure of comfort or assurance.
Nevertheless, agreeing that the Sierra Blanca checkpoint cannot be sustained as a functional equivalent of the border under any test, I concur in the court’s withdrawal of that appellation.
B.
Since Sierra Blanca cannot be sustained as a functional equivalent of the border, I agree further with the court’s opinion that we must look elsewhere in Fourth Amendment jurisprudence to see if the searches conducted in these cases can be considered constitutional. My search ends with the Supreme Court’s opinions in United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 643, 96 S.Ct. 3074, 49 L.Ed.2d 1116 (1976), and United States v. Ortiz, 422 U.S. 891, 95 S.Ct. 2585, 45 L.Ed.2d 623 (1975), for in those cases the Court has defined the powers of the government at permanent checkpoints5, *878such as Sierra Blanca, within this country. Under the teachings of these opinions the searches conducted in these cases were unconstitutional.
At permanent checkpoints the Supreme Court has stated that consonant with the Fourth Amendment the government may stop vehicles without suspicion, may question the persons inside the vehicle about their citzenship status, but that before any search of the persons or vehicle is undertaken the government officials must have either consent or probable cause to search. See Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. at 567, 96 S.Ct. at 3087; Ortiz, 422 U.S. at 892, 95 S.Ct. at 2586. In these cases the government admits that searches, as that term is understood in the Fourth Amendment arena, occurred and it does not urge that the officers acted upon consent or probable cause in searching the defendants; accordingly, these searches were unconstitutional.
With this said I see no reason to join the court’s extensive discussion on the possible viability and use of an “area warrant” in the Sierra Blanca locality. No area warrant has been issued in this case and I think the court speaks prematurely about the propriety of such warrants. To say the very least, the use of area warrants outside the narrow confines of administrative searches established by the Supreme Court raises the spectre of the general warrant of the pre-Revoluntionary period. It is undisputed that the Fourth Amendment was specifically adopted in reaction to the Crown’s use of general warrants. Therefore, I see no reason to place this court’s imprimatur on such a practice until the government actually attempts to utilize such a device. Accordingly, I do not join in part IV of the court’s opinion.
C.
Finally, I write briefly on the court’s application of the good faith exception to the exclusionary rule in these cases. I agree with the court that the teachings of Leon and Krull apply to these cases, but I do so while sharing Judge Rubin’s concerns expressed in his concurrence. Application of the exception makes sense to me in these cases because this court in its prior opinion specifically authorized the conduct undertaken by the Border Patrol officials, i.e., the search of persons and vehicles at Sierra Blanca without any suspicion. Thus in these cases we stand in the shoes of the magistrate acting in Leon or the legislators involved in Krull. Outside of situations where we have authorized the specific conduct undertaken and then later declared it unconstitutional, I believe the analogy to Leon and Krull weakens and the exception should probably not be applied. Not to place such a limitation on the application of the exception would it seems to me transform the exception into the rule and would always deny to defendants the benefit of successfully litigating a Fourth Amendment claim when an officer claimed he was relying merely upon general caselaw in the Fourth Amendment area.
With these concerns and reservations, I concur in the affirmance of the defendants’ convictions.

. It would seem that only one road would suffice as well, if combined with the other relevant geographical features mentioned.

. Mark Twain, for example, is reported to have said when speaking about the evils of the world, "There are lies, damn lies, and then there are statistics."

.In footnote 4 of its opinion the court appears to recognize the importance statistics are to play in any future functional equivalency decision. *876The "well-crafted questions” it says are needed would seem to require us to tell future surveyors what should be the point of their question-aires. Without a clear definition of international traffic especially, we may either be condemning future survey efforts to irrelevance, like the survey conducted in these cases, or delegating to the surveyors the responsibility of defining our own terms. It seems to me we should bear the responsibility for our own words and what they mean.

. Consonant with this view, I would suggest that the permissible percentage of domestic traffic interdiction would fall within a range of one to not more than ten percent. A number within this range would to me be consistent with the meaning of negligible.

. In his able concurrence Chief Judge Clark would apparently abandon the use of all "labels" and adjudge all challenges on fourth amendment grounds with a "reasonableness" test. I do not believe, however, that labels and reasonableness are mutually exclusive notions. Labels can embody the very balancing of public and private interests that Chief Judge Clark says should occur in determining reasonableness. Especially when the Supreme Court has addressed factual situations and legal arguments similar to the situation we now address as a federal appellate court, our honest invocation of the Court’s label must embody the prior balancing performed by the Court itself.
Secondly, the Supreme Court has made labels important in this area of Fourth Amendment jurisprudence. Numerous classifications have been created, such as border searches, functional equivalent searches, extended border searches, permanent check points stops, and roving patrol searches. Each have their own requirements and each of them authorize different government actions. I feel therefore somewhat bound to utilize this general framework.
That is not to say however that a label cannot be misused or confusingly applied; our prior cases classifying Sierra Blanca as a functional equivalent of the border are examples of such applications. Nevertheless, if the substance of a label is understood and enunciated, I see nothing incongruous in applying it to a given situation as a sort of shorthand. The proper use of *878labels therefore can give appreciable guidance to government authorities as to how to obtain the given classification in another situation and what powers and restrictions go along with the label, while at the same time informing the citizenry of their civil rights.