Court Opinion

ID: 9444938
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-03 21:16:27.480276+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:30:04.471248
License: Public Domain

BROWN, Circuit Judge
(dissenting).
The majority declares plainly that the District Court had jurisdiction. It does that on the basis of § 301. With this I am in complete agreement. But applying the rationale of Mr. Justice Frankfurter’s opinion as though it was all that was said by a court of eight, § 301 is confined rigorously to the procedural concept. Finding neither state nor federal statute (apart from § 301) authorizing injunctive enforcement of the agreement to arbitrate, the majority concludes that the court with power is yet powerless to proceed — it has power but no tools — in short, the door is opened but the hall is empty. I decline to believe that power is so sterile or that § 301, if needed to bridge any gaps, exhausts itself by opening the door.
On jurisdiction I would spell out what seems implicit in the majority opinion: This is, on all tests, a union controversy in which the union is asserting in its collective capacity a demand relating to all of the employees as a group, on the one hand, and the employer, as such on the other. It is not the assertion, through name or guise of the union, of a single claim for one or the aggregation of many single claims for all arising under the individual contracts of employment, as such, between employee and employer. Arbitration, as the last step in the grievance machinery, is in explicit terms the undertaking1 of union and employer, and by its nature, its force and hence effectiveness, is derived from em*90ployer and union pledging that each will be bound. It is, we all agree,2 therefore a case for § 301.
What law was then to be applied? Side-stepping the engaging prospect of divining the mathematical probabilities of decision on this point amongst Justices splitting on a 3-2-1-2 combination, the court determines that under neither Alabama nor Federal law is there a right to enforce arbitration.
I am willing here to accept this cautious approach and assume that Alabama 3 will not specifically enforce an agreement to arbitrate and that the United States Arbitration Act, 9 U.S. C.A. § 1, is not available4 or effective to supply the federal statutory mechanics for arbitration.
But the studied search for a federal statute, the painstaking analysis of the cases under it, demonstrates, I think, a misconception of the fundamentals. It is as though we were dealing with a court having statutory power only. But that is not the case. The United States District Court is a constitutional organ with the intrinsic capacity to grant traditional coercive relief as the cause over which it has jurisdiction may require. Williamson v. Berry, 8 How. 495, 536, 12 L.Ed. 1170, 1187, “Jurisdiction in chancery is inherent and original, comprehending now almost every exigency of human disagreement, for which there is not an adequate remedy at law.”
Judge Goodrich in the recent opinion in Johnston v. Marsh, 3 Cir., 227 F.2d 528, 530, finding ample inherent power to grant bail even though no statute can be found described both this full power to act once the court acquires jurisdiction [here by virtue of § 301] and the basic misconception that the *91district court can do only that which some statute permits:
“The statement is often made that the inferior courts of the United States are courts of limited jurisdiction. This is a truism in one sense. These courts are competent to act in such cases, and only in such cases, as the Congress, pursuant to the Constitution, assigns to them. And unless constitutional provisions stand in the way, the assignment may be varied at the will of Congress. But within the area of activity assigned to them, Federal courts are courts of full stature, and we may rightly look to common law concepts and precedents to see the scope of the implied or ‘inherent’ authority which the judicial office carries with it. * * We believe that the basic misconception in those decisions denying this authority lies in their view that since Federal courts have limited, statutory jurisdiction, their powers in proceedings involving this jurisdiction are necessarily limited and must be statutory. See Principe v. Ault, D.C.N.D.Ohio 1945, 62 F.Supp. 279, 282. This, as already indicated, is not our view of the matter.”
The remedy sought here is common and traditional — the equity injunction to compel or restrain action because of the inadequacy of the usual money damage. Its availability need find no source, as such, in specific statute. Indeed, it has been the frequent instrument of effectual sanction for enforcement of the policy of statutes.5 Since power is present and a traditional tool is available and effective, is there an obstacle to their full use ? There is clearly no statutory 6 proscription, and an accurate treatment *92of historical precedent reveals no self-generated decisional policy against its use. Despite the flood of words that ordinarily executory contracts to arbitrate will not be specifically enforced, this reflects no federal policy of hostility to arbitration as such. On the contrary, arbitration is given enthusiastic federal sanction7 and where a general Congressional policy is plainly indicated that such a mechanism will be useful in effecting its legislative aim, equity has the power, and the right, in the public interest, to make arbitration effective.8
Clearly, arbitration is a welcome device to Congress. Indeed, the Arbitration Act itself, 9 U.S.C.A. § 1, reflects a determination that the needs of the business and industrial world would be aided by giving procedural certainty and greater vitality to the use of voluntary non-court means of settling disputes. The express exclusion of “contracts of employment” is no left-handed, reverse reinstatement of the ancient attitude of hostility—“contrary to public policy.” Rather, the difficulties encountered by the Third, Fourth and Sixth Circuits in-attempting to adapt that statute to the field of labor problems covered so long by special legislation bespeaks, perhaps, a Congressional prescience.
But Congress has been much more direct in its blessing. The Railway Labor Act, 45 U.S.C.A. § 151 et seq., is a detailed framework of voluntary conciliation and mediation with arbitration awards being final, binding and legally' *93enforceable.9 This same scheme is duplicated for airline carriers, 45 U.S.C.A. § 181 et seq. Moreover, the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947 contains the positive declaration that it is the policy of the United States that “sound and stable industrial peace and the advancement of the general welfare, health and safety of the Nation * * * can most satisfactorily be secured * * ” 29 U.S.C.A. § 171, by settlement of issues between employers and employees by conciliation, mediation, and voluntary arbitration. This is stated, not alone in categorical terms, 29 U.S.C.A. §§ 171 through 178, but the public interest is so direct that the statute establishes the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, an independent agency, as an arm of the Government operating at public expense.10
In every modern piece of labor legislation, the Congress has either directed the establishment of arbitration systems or has recognized the essential desirability of their existence with the full force of the Government, its prestige, and its treasury behind them as an essential device for maintenance of industrial peace. In such an atmosphere it contradicts all that Congress has done to resurrect the bones of an ancient day to find some supervening notion that arbitration agreements, while tolerated to the point of acceptance once completed, are inherently evil and beneath the claim of right which the Chancellor will affirmatively protect.
The power exists over parties and cause by § 301. Tho remedy sought is traditional, common and effective. There is no policy against its use and there is overwhelming evidence of a Congressional purpose to encourage, facilitate and make effectual all of the collective processes of bargaining, conciliation, mediation and arbitration. On this approach it is the use of the federal power, a federal remedy to effectuate a federal policy. There is no need to draw upon state jurisprudence with the constitutional uncertainties involved.
Moreover, this gives a cohesive consistency to the total federal labor pic*94ture. Federal constitutional power is amply present under this very Labor Management Relations Act to require employer and employees to bargain in good faith on the inclusion11 of an agreement to arbitrate in the bargaining contract and to issue necessary coercive orders to effectuate it, to protect parties from charges of unfair labor practice12 and deny reinstatement13 to displace strikers where the strike is a breach of the agreement to arbitrate. Arbitration is now the usual, almost universal mechanism to assure industrial peace during the life of the contract. Unlike its frequent use in cornmercial fields as a substitute for the costly delays and uncertainties of court litigation, the device is adopted in labor relations as a substitute for the economic pressures each can marshal in the strike or lockout, or the threat of either.14 It would be incongruous indeed to find difficulty or even doubt, that a *95sovereign which can constitutionally compel the parties seriously in good faith to negotiate for an agreement to arbitrate, and punish and coerce them into compliance with it by administrative orders, sanctions or the denial of them with the added prestige of court approval by appellate review, will lack the power when its constitutional court is asked to grant a traditional remedy which will have the same end.
If I am mistaken that the network of federal labor legislation is tho culture in which the Congressional policy of encouraging effective enforcement of arbitration can grow into a basis for an equity court granting an injunction, I would nonetheless reach the same result by using, for the first time, § 301 in a modified substantive way. I do this since I believe that § 301 is much more than a mere photoelectric cell to open wide the door as union-employer, ws-etvis, approach. When a genuine union controversy, i. e., a 301 suit comes before it, the combinations of dissenting and concurring opinions in Westinghouse will, I believe, restore sufficient vitality to § 301 to enable it- to reflect federal policy itself and reach out comfortably, as the occasion may require, into state and federal concepts to fashion the controlling law. Whether this will be the creation of new federal rights or merely the release of is nascent powers, this reading of § 301 would say to the district court that if there has been a breach of the collective bargaining agreement it shall exert whatever of its traditional weapons — the money judgment, the declaratory pronouncement, or the equity injunction — which will best assure contractual compliance,
Difficulties in forging a responsive jurisprudence neither indicate nor foretell a constitutional void, and it seems surprising at this late date that our flexible judicial apparatus, because of the likelihood of conflict with local law, should shrink from the necessity. The federal system has so well demonstrated its fluid capacity15 that, applying its rule, doctrines frequently ignore, often reject, and frequently collide with local *96(state) principles16 and, where needed to effectuate Congressional will, the conflict and collision17 may occur between two federal statutes or policies.
The agreement to arbitrate, for employer and employees alike, goes to the very heart of the collective contract. The native forces of competing economic pressures are held in leash by it. Repudiation by either is a challenge which § 301 sought to answer. If it is not available here, then nought18 is left of § 301 but the right to sue for money damages. Had that been the narrow hope of Congress, just such simple words would have been used.
The injunctive order to compel arbitration was right and should be affirmed.
I therefore respectfully dissent.

. Article VIII prescribes tbe steps. In Step 1 between Room Steward and department Overseer, Step 2 General Shop Committee and Mill Superintendent, the aggrieved employee may, “in his discretion” accompany the union representatives; but in Step 3 between the union and a representative of Employer’s executive management and in Step 4 (adopting arbitration under IX (F) ), it is strictly between union and employer, Article IX(A) states: “The employer and the union agree that the grievance procedures provided herein are adequate *90to provide a fair and final determination of all grievances * * *. It is the desire of the Union and the Employer to avoid strikes and work stoppages.” Sub-paragraphs (B), (C), (D) and (E) contain a precise set of rules for the consequences of strikes, wildcat strikes, slowdowns, and other stoppages in disregard of the agreement to exhaust grievance machinery, including arbitration.
Subparagraph (E) makes it clear that both parties thought this was a § 301 contract as the employer releases the union from liability for damages on the part of the union, its officers, agents or members “for breach of contract of any kind or character whatsoever” in consideration of the union’s agreement to make the grievance machinery effectual.

. Our case International Molders etc. v. Western Foundry Company, No. 15235, decided March 30, 1955 (remanded, per curiam, to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction), certiorari denied, 350 U.S. 886, 76 S.Ct. 139, applied Westinghouse to claim by union for wage increases due employees ; Ferguson-Steere Motor Co. v. International Brotherhood, etc., 5 Cir., 223 F.2d 842, held that § 301 could not be used to by-pass the National Labor Relations Board.

. Alabama may be reluctant as to remedy but not as to general validity. Alabama’s constitution and statutes contain provisions indicating a public policy favorable to arbitration in general and spelling out in detail a system and procedure of arbitration. Code of Alabama, Constitution of 1901, Article 4, § 84; Code of Alabama, Title 7, § 829 (formerly 2908) thru § 844 (formerly 2923). § 844 states that the statute is cumulative rather than restrictive, but §§ 829, 830, and 831 may indicate that the statute and public policy are limited to agreements to arbitrate specific disputes already arisen and do not comprehend agreements for arbitration of future disputes. See Headley v. Aetna Insurance Co., 202 Ala. 384, 80 So. 466, 467; Ex parte Birmingham Fire Insurance Co., 233 Ala. 370, 172 So. 99, 101; Caldwell v. Caldwell, 157 Ala. 119, 47 So. 268, 269.

. See, The Federal Enforcement of Labor Arbitration Agreements, Seymour Phillip Kaye, New York University Sixth Annual Conference on Labor, 1953, p. 207, a detailed discussion of this problem and legislative history of the Arbitration Act; Legal Aspects of Labor Arbitration, Lee Epstein, New York University Second Annual Conference on Labor, 1949, p. 383 at 388; Labor Arbitration — The Ar-bitrable Issue, Ralph E. Kharas, Fifth Annual Conference on Labor, 1952, pp. 633, 637, 638; Legal Status of Labor Arbitration, Jesse Freidin, New York University First Annual Conference on Labor Law, 1948, 233, 247, 251.

. The equity injunction has been a potent weapon to effectuate declared policy in the field of labor relations against severe attacks that the statute reflecting such policy [here it would be the Taft Hartley Act] was silent on such sanction: Texas & New Orleans Railroad Company v. Brotherhood of Ry. & S. S. Clerks, 281 U.S. 548, 50 S.Ct. 427, 74 L.Ed. 1034; Virginian Ry. Co. v. System Federation No. 40, 300 U.S. 515, 551, 57 S.Ct. 592, 601, 81 L.Ed. 789, 801, “In considering the propriety of the equitable relief granted here, we cannot ignore the judgment of Congress, deliberately expressed in legislation, that whore the obstruction of the company union is removed, the meeting of employers and employees at the conference table is a powerful aid to industrial peace.” Steele v. Louisville & N. Railroad Co., 323 U.S. 192, 65 S.Ct. 226, 89 L.Ed. 173; Tunstal v. Brotherhood of L. F. & E., 323 U.S. 210, 65 S. Ct. 235, 89 L.Ed. 187; Graham v. Brotherhood of L. F. & E., 338 U.S. 232, 70 S.Ct. 14, 94 L.Ed. 22; Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen v. Howard, 343 U.S. 768, 72 S.Ct. 1022, 96 L.Ed. 1283.
See for other statutes: United States v. Morgan, 307 U.S. 183, 194, 59 S.Ct. 795, 83 L.Ed. 1211, 1218, 1219; Porter v. Warner Holding Company, 328 U.S. 395, 398, 66 S.Ct. 1086, 90 L.Ed. 1332, 1336, 1337; Hecht Co. v. Bowles, 321 U.S. 321, 329, 331, 64 S.Ct. 587, 88 L.Ed. 754, 760, 761; Federal Power Commission v. Panhandle Eastern Pipe Line Co., 337 U.S. 498, 500, 69 S.Ct. 1251, 93 L. Ed. 1499, 1502. Federal equity court grants or withholds its injunction to effectuate public policy, Hurd v. Hodge, 334 U.S. 24, 34, 35, 68 S.Ct. 847, 92 L. Ed. 1187, 1195.
This power to use a traditional federal equity remedy is so pervasive as to be available in diversity actions where, in a comparable situation, the local state court would not, or could not, grant equitable relief: see Guaranty Trust Co. v. York, 326 U.S. 99, 106, 65 S.Ct. 1464, 89 L.Ed. 2079, 2084, 2085.
Federal equity court lias great flexibility in molding relief in cases over which it has jurisdiction with all powers of the Court of Chancery: Sprague v. Ticonic National Bank, 307 U.S. 161, 164, 165, 167, 59 S.Ct. 777, 83 L.Ed. 1184, 1186, 1187; Barber v. Barber, 21 How. 582, 592, 16 L.Ed. 226, 229; it could hardly have this wide capacity were it required to find statutory basis for the remedy, its availability or use.
See also following which affirm an inherent power in a Federal Court to act: Wright v. Henkel, 190 U.S. 40, 63, 23 S. Ct. 781, 47 L.Ed. 948, 956; United States v. Hudson and Goodwin, 7 Cranch 32, 34, 11 U.S. 32, 34, 3 L.Ed. 259, 260; United States v. Shipp, 203 U.S. 563, 572, 573, 27 S.Ct. 165, 51 L.Ed. 319, 323.

. We are in accord that Norris-LaGuardia Act, 29 U.S.C.A. § 101 et seq., does not *92forbid relief here. See also Textile Workers Union v. American Thread Co., D.C. Mass., 113 F.Supp. 137; Local 207 v. Landers, D.C.Conn., 119 F.Supp. 877; Milk and Ice Cream Drivers v. Gillespie Milk Products Corp., 6 Cir., 203 F.2d 650; Textile Workers Union of America v. Aleo Mfg. Co., D.C.N.C., 94 F.Supp. 626; United Textile Workers v. Goodall Sanford, D.C.Me., 131 F.Supp. 767. Contra: Mead v. International Brotherhood, 1 Cir., 217 F.2d 6.

. The federal approach has not been that of many jurisdictions which, with jealous eye, scanned all such devices lest they infringe upon or oust the courts from their historic role. Judge Hough, in United States Asphalt Refining Co. v. Trinidad Lake Petroleum Co., Ltd., D.C.S.D.N.Y., 222 F. 1006, 1007, characterized it: “ * * * A more unworthy genesis cannot be imagined.” See Mr. Justice Story’s comments from Tobey v. Bristol County, Fed.Cas.No.14,065 quoted footnote 1 Red Cross Line v. Atlantic Fruit Co., 264 U.S. 109, 120, 44 S.Ct. 274, 276, 68 L.Ed. 582, 585, and Mr. Justice Bran-déis continued: “But an agreement for arbitration is valid, even if it provides for the determination of liability. If execu-tory, a breach will support an action for damages. Hamilton v. Home Ins. Co., 137 U.S. 370, 385-386, 11 S.Ct. 133, 34 L.Ed. 708, [713] * * * If executed— that is, if the award has been made—effect will be given to the award in any appropriate proceeding at law, or in equity. Karthaus v. Ferrer, 1 Pet. 222, 7 L. Ed. 121; Burchell v. Marsh, 17 How. 344, 15 L.Ed. 96; Bayne v. Morris, 1 Wall. 97, 17 L.Ed. 495. And, although there is no federal legislation on the subject, an executory agreement, however comprehensive, will, if made a rule of coui’t, be enforced in courts of the United States by any appropriate process. Heckers v. Fowler, 2 Wall. 123, 17 L. Ed. 759.”
The court in Marine Transit Corp. v. Dreyfus, 284 U.S. 263, 277, 52 S.Ct. 166, 170, 76 L.Ed. 282, 290, sustaining the-United States Arbitration Statute characterized compulsion of arbitration as= “one of remedy only.”

. Virginian Railway Co. v. System Federation No. 40, supra, 300 U.S. at page 552, 57 S.Ct. at page 601, “ * * * The peaceable settlement of labor controversies,. * * * is a matter of public concern. * * * Courts o'f equity may, and frequently do, go much farther both to give- and withhold relief in furtherance of the-public interest than they are accustomed’ to go when only private interests are involved * * *. The fact that Congress-has indicated its purpose to make negotiation obligatory is in itself a declaration of' public interest and policy which should' be persuasive in inducing courts to give-relief. It is for similar reasons that courts, which traditionally have refused' to compel performance of a contract to-submit to arbitration, Tobey v. Bristol County [C.C., 3 Story 800, Fed.Cas.No. 14,065], supra, enforce statutes commanding performance of arbitration agreements. Red Cross Line v. Atlantic Fruit Co. * * *; Marine Transit Co. v. Dreyfus * * *."

. The Adjustment Boards, § 153, are in reality bipartisan arbitrations -whose awards are final, 153, First (m) and enforceable within two years by court petition (p) (q); § 157 provides for arbitration of disputes not settled by mediation or Board of Adjustment under §§ 151-156, and under § 158(l) awards are binding, are filed (k) in the Federal District Court where, under § 159 the award is conclusive and on which the court shall enter judgment unless set aside for one of three limited, specific grounds.

. Governmental assistance through the Mediation Service is specifically directed to settlement of differences by mutual agreement through conference, collective bargaining, “or by such methods as may be provided for in any applicable agreement for the settlement of disputes” § 171; this is spelled out further in 173(d), “Final adjustment by a method agreed upon by the parties is declared to be the desirable method for settlement of grievance disputes arising over the application or interpretation of an existing collective-bargaining agreement. Tho Service is directed to make its conciliation and mediation services available in the settlement of such grievance disputes only as a last resort and in exceptional eases.” See, Legal Aspects of Labor Arbitration, Epstein at p. 389, cited footnote 4, supra.
Forkoseh, Treatise on Labor Law, 1953, 476-488, in a detailed analysis suggests that the policy on arbitration is so strong that it might even be compulsory, at least in satisfying the conditions precedent to a Norris-LaGuardia injunction. This is certainly the plain holding of Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen v. Toledo, Peoria & Western Railroad, 321 U.S. 50, 64 S.Ct. 413, 88 L.Ed. 534, and its rejection of the holding of this Court, Mayo v. Dean, 5 Cir., 82 F.2d 554 (see Supreme Court discussion at 321 U.S. 61, 64 S.Ct. 419, 88 L.Ed. 541). The words of § 108, 29 U.S.C.A. § 108, are categorical that it is the policy of Congress that, “every reasonable effort to settle such dispute either by negotiation or with tho aid of any available governmental machinery of mediation or voluntary arbitration” shall be made. Inscribed so plainly and announced for such a length of time (since 1932), it seems unlikely to think that Congress must spell it out again.
See United Office and Professional Workers of America v. Monumental Life *94Ins. Co., D.C.E.D.Pa., 88 F.Supp. 602, 607.

. 29 U.S.C.A. § 158(a) (5). In N.L.R.B. v. Corsicana Cotton Mills, 5 Cir., 179 F.2d 234, 235, a contempt proceeding for violation of cease and desist order, we exerted a supervisory administration of the collective bargaining process, one of the points in controversy being the arbitration clause. See N.L.R.B. v. American National Insurance Co., 343 U.S. 395, 407, 408, 72 S.Ct. 824, 831, 96 L.Ed. 1027, 1038, 1039, requiring, but finding, good faith negotiation on the issue of a “management functions clause” versus “unlimited arbitration clause.”

. See Timken Roller Bearing Co. v. N.L.R.B., 6 Cir., 161 F.2d 949. Without invoking grievance machinery including arbitration for layoff of ten employees, union struck, employer refused further to entertain grievances and Board found employer guilty of unfair labor practice for failure to bargain; the court reverses holding that to require compliance with the contract including the agreement to submit to arbitration is the essence of collective bargaining in good faith; likewise, it held the union strike over a demand against subcontracting unlawful since the question whether subcontracting was or was not within the “management functions clause” was itself an arbitrable issue.
See also, N.L.R.B. v. Standard Oil Co., 6 Cir., 196 F.2d 892.

. W. L. Mead, Inc., 113 L.R.B. 109, 5 C. C.H. Labor Law Reports (4th Edition), par. 53162, Labor Law Journal, October 1955, Vol. 6, No. 10, p. 721; 20 employees walked off job, established a picket line to enforce demands concerning definition of duties and working hours of a truck driver after employer requested arbitration pursuant to arbitration clause in bargaining agreement. General Counsel brought complaint for refusal to rehire; Board reversed Trial Examiner and held employer could lawfully discharge the strikers. The Board stated: “ * * * There can be no question but that in the case before us the grievance and arbitration clause * * * is a material provision of that agreement. * * *_ ^ye that [the contract] * * * excluded any other means but arbitration for the resolution of disputes, particularly unilateral action by any party * * *.
“Every encouragement should be given to the making and enforcement of such clauses. * * * To hold that a strike in furtherance of such a material breach of a clear and binding contractual arbitration clause is to be protected by this Board would be contrary to the labor policy embodied in the National Labor Relations Act as interpreted by the Courts of Appeals and the Supreme Court.”

. As perhaps unique proof of its unparti-sanship arbitration has the rare distinction of being praised and feared by management and labor alike. Peter Seitz, a management representative, in The Enforcement of Collective Bargaining Contracts By Arbitration, New York University Sixth Annual Conference on Labor, 1953, p. 15, describes it: “The first fact to note is that arbitration is what I call a ‘glandular’ word. By that I mean that the mere articulation of the word causes thyroid and adrenal glands to secrete. Mention the term and calm men get bloodshot eyes; pulses throb and temperatures rise. This is specially interesting because the identical, violent, physical and emotional reactions will be observed in both management and labor representatives * * * [the] attitude toward arbitration is not unlike that of George Wither, the Restoration poet, who impatient with the conspicuous lack of affection demonstrated by his lady-love proclaimed:
“ ‘If she be not so to me,
What care I how fair she be?’ ”
The widespread use commenced during *95tho vrar days under the National War Labor Board and was stimulated later by the President’s National Labor-Management Conference of 1945 attended by delegates representing AFL, CIO, Mine Workers, Railway Brotherhoods, United States Chamber of Commerce, National Assoeiation of Manufacturers which rec-ommonded final determination of griev-anees involving the interpretation or application of the collective bargaining agreement by an impartial chairman, arbitrator, or board, the decision of which should be final and binding on both, with specific machinery agreed to on the selection of the arbitrator (the agreement in this case tracks it closely). U. S. Department of Labor, Division of Labor Standards Bulletin No. 77, pp. 42, 43, 1946. A study made by tho Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1950, indicated that at least 80% of the collective bargaining agreements in the nation’s important industries provided for arbitration as the terminal point of the grievance machinery. See, How Arbitration Works, Elkourie, 1952, Tho Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., pp. 6-10; Arbitration and Arbitration Provisions, J. Noble Braden, Tribunal Vice-President, American Arbitration Association, New York University, Sesond Annual Conference on Labor, 1949, 355, 365. There has been a steady growth in percentage of agreements to arbitrate, from 73% in 1944 to 83% in 1949, Arbitration Provisions in Union Agreements in 1949, James Nix, Monthly Labor Review, February 1950, pp. 160-165, to approximately 91% in 1942, Arbitration Provisions in Collective Agreements, 1952, Er-nesteno M. Moore and James Nix, Monthly Labor Review, U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 1953, pp. 261-266. The value of arbitration in the workaday handling of labor relations is attested by the prae-tice of making formal, written arbitration reports which are indexed, digested and reported. See, Labor Arbitration Reports, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., approximately 21 volumes published.

. The federal courts have fashioned suitable federal principles in countless situations to effectuate multiple federa-l policies: Tort rules under Federal Employers Liability Act, Jesionowski v. Boston & M. R. R., 329 U.S. 452, 67 S.Ct. 401, 91 L.Ed. 416, Central Vermont Ry. Co. v. White, 238 U.S. 507, 35 S.Ct. 865, 59 L.Ed. 1433; The Jones Act, 46 U.S.C. 688, Socony-Vacuum Oil Co. v. Smith, 305 U.S. 424, 59 S.Ct. 262, 83 L. *96Ed. 265; Laches in the enforcement of federal rights, Holmberg v. Armbrecht, 327 U.S. 392, 66 S.Ct. 582, 90 L.Ed. 743; Government contracts, Priebe & Sons v. United States, 332 U.S. 407, 68 S.Ct. 123, 92 L.Ed. 32, Federal Crop Ins. Corp. v. Merrill, 332 U.S. 380, 68 S.Ct. 1, 92 L.Ed. 10; Federal negotiable instruments and bonds, Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States, 318 U.S. 363, 63 S.Ct. 573, 87 L.Ed. 838, National Metropolitan Bank v. United States, 323 U.S. 454, 65 S.Ct. 354, 89 L.Ed. 383, Continental American Bank & Trust Co. v. United States, 5 Cir., 161 F.2d 935, D’Oench, Duhme & Co. v. Federal Deposit Insurance Corp., 315 U.S. 447, 62 S.Ct. 676, 86 L.Ed. 956; Problems incident to National Banking System, Deitrick v. Greaney, 309 U.S. 190, 60 S.Ct. 480, 84 L.Ed. 694; Liabilities in performance interstate transportation contracts, O’Brien v. Western Union Telegraph Co., 1 Cir., 113 F.2d 539; and see Moore’s Commentary on the United States Judicial Code, 1949, pp. 340-359, revealing, in detail, the development of a full body of law adequate to give life to federal policy.

. Spectacular illustrations are found in the field of federal taxation: Burnet v. Harmel, 287 U.S. 103, 53 S.Ct. 74, 77 L.Ed. 199, property status oil lease under local (Texas) law rejected; Burk-Waggoner Oil Association v. Hopkins, 269 U.S. 110, 111, 114, 46 S.Ct. 48, 70 L.Ed. 183, 185, state law disregarded in determining status of group as partnership or corporation for income tax purposes; Lyeth v. Hoey, 305 U.S. 188, 59 S.Ct. 155, 83 L.Ed. 119, nature of interest under inheritance.
Similarly, state standards on existence of independent contractor relationship and the common law concept of direction and control, are frequently rejected: Rutherford Food Corp. v. McComb, 331 U.S. 722, 67 S.Ct. 1473, 91 L.Ed. 1772; United States v. Silk (Harrison v. Greyvan Lines), 331 U.S. 704, 715, 719, 67 S. Ct. 1463, 1469, 1471, 91 L.Ed. 1757; N.L.R.B. v. Hearst, 322 U.S. 111, 124-133, 64 S.Ct. 851, 88 L.Ed. 1170.

. The same situation or circumstance frequently produces diverse results: e. g., direction and control of trucks, adequate to create genuine independent contractor relationship under Wage & Hour Law, 29 U.S.C.A. § 151 et seq., and Social Security Law, 42 U.S.C.A. §§ 1001 et seq. 1101 et seq., United States v. Silk (Harrison v. Greyvan Lines), 331 U.S. 704, 67 S.Ct. 1463, 91 L.Ed. 1757, is insufficient to make physical performance by owner-drivers of trucks “transportation” under National Transportation Act, 49 U.S.C.A. § 301 et seq., United States v. N. E. Rosenblum Truck Lines, 315 U.S. 50, 62 S.Ct. 445, 86 L.Ed. 671, Thomson v. United States, 321 U.S. 19, 64 S.Ct. 392, 88 L.Ed. 513; a crew member of a non-self-propelled dredge is a “seaman” under the Jones Act, 46 U.S. C. A. § 688, McKie v. Diamond Marine Co., 5 Cir., 204 F.2d 132, but not a “seaman” under the Wage & Hour Act, 29 U.S.C.A. § 201 et seq.; Walling v. W. D. Haden Co., 5 Cir., 153 F.2d 196, certiorari denied 328 U.S. 866, 66 S.Ct. 1373, 90 L.Ed. 1636; Towing of barges physically performed by chartered tug is not “transportation” by tug owner-operator under the Interstate Commerce Act, 49 U.S.C.A. §§ 901, 909(a), De Bardeleben Coal Corp. v. United States, D.C. W.D.Pa., 54 F.Supp. 643, affirming Union Barge Line Application, 250 I.C.C. 689, but is “transportation” for transportation tax under 26 U.S.C. § 3475(a), Gulf Coast Towing Co. v. United States, 5 Cir., 196 F.2d 944.

. The court’s action in International Ladies’ Garment Workers, etc. v. Jay-Ann Co., 5 Cir., 228 F.2d 632, with this one, chipping away from § 301, adds only to the uncertainty. The court finds no jurisdiction to enforce the agreement to make payments by employer to the union’s welfare fund. I would disagree with it as well. That, too, seems to me to be a genuine union controversy, and finding no jurisdiction it is actually in conflict with the majority here.