Court Opinion

ID: 4397621
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2019-05-16 17:06:32.028538+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T14:31:06.319474
License: Public Domain

)LOHGE\&OHUNRI6XSUHPH&RXUW
                          ,17+(6835(0(&2857
                      67$7(2)1257+'$.27$

                                   1'

6WDWHRI1RUWK'DNRWD                                       3ODLQWLIIDQG$SSHOOHH

       Y

6WHYHQ*DUGQHU                                           'HIHQGDQWDQG$SSHOODQW

                                   1R

      $SSHDOIURPWKH'LVWULFW&RXUWRI&DVV&RXQW\(DVW&HQWUDO-XGLFLDO'LVWULFW
WKH+RQRUDEOH:DGH/:HEE-XGJH

       5(9(56('$1'5(0$1'('

       2SLQLRQRIWKH&RXUWE\7XIWH-XVWLFH

       0DUN5%RHQLQJ$VVLVWDQW6WDWH¶V$WWRUQH\)DUJR1'IRUSODLQWLIIDQG
DSSHOOHH

      /XNH 7 +HFN DUJXHG  DQG 'UHZ - +XVKND RQ EULHI  )DUJR 1' IRU
GHIHQGDQWDQGDSSHOODQW
                                    6WDWHY*DUGQHU
                                      1R

       7XIWH-XVWLFH
>@   6WHYHQ *DUGQHU DSSHDOV IURP DQ RUGHU GHIHUULQJ LPSRVLWLRQ RI VHQWHQFH
IROORZLQJKLVFRQGLWLRQDOJXLOW\SOHDWRFRQVSLUDF\WRSRVVHVVPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHZLWK
LQWHQWWRGHOLYHUDVZHOODVIURPDQRUGHUGHQ\LQJKLVPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVHYLGHQFH
IRXQG LQ D SDFNDJH WKDW ZDV QHLWKHU DGGUHVVHG WR KLP QRU VHQW WR KLV UHVLGHQFH
*DUGQHUDUJXHVKHZDVWKHRZQHURIDSDFNDJHXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\VHL]HGE\SROLFH
RIILFHUV DQG KLV ULJKWV ZHUH YLRODWHG E\ WKH VHL]XUH DQG VXEVHTXHQW VHDUFK RI WKH
SDFNDJH7KH6WDWHDUJXHV*DUGQHUGLGQRWHVWDEOLVKDSHUVRQDOSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVW
LQWKHSURSHUW\VXIILFLHQWWRVXSSRUWDFODLPWKDWKLVULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHG:HUHYHUVH
WKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VRUGHUGHQ\LQJ*DUGQHU¶VPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVDQGUHPDQGWRDOORZ
*DUGQHUWRZLWKGUDZKLVJXLOW\SOHD
                                              ,
>@   8QLWHG3DUFHO6HUYLFH ³836´ QRWLILHGODZHQIRUFHPHQWDERXWDVXVSLFLRXV
SDFNDJHLQLWVSRVVHVVLRQDGGUHVVHGWRD³3DXOLH0FFDII´DWDUHVLGHQFHRQWK6WUHHW
1RUWKLQ)DUJR$)DUJRSROLFHRIILFHUDVNHG836WRVHWWKHSDFNDJHDVLGHVRDFDQLQH
VHDUFKRIWKHSDFNDJHFRXOGEHSHUIRUPHG836VHWWKHSDFNDJHDVLGHZKHQLWDUULYHG
LQ)DUJREXWZRXOGQRWSHUPLW)DUJR3ROLFH'HSDUWPHQWFDQLQHVRQ836SURSHUW\
836WROGWKHRIILFHUKHFRXOGWHPSRUDULO\WDNHWKHSDFNDJHHOVHZKHUHWRFRQGXFW
D FDQLQH VHDUFK 7KH RIILFHU WRRN WKH SDFNDJH WR WKH &LW\ RI )DUJR 3XEOLF 6DIHW\
%XLOGLQJZKHUHDVHFRQGRIILFHUFRQGXFWHGDFDQLQHIUHHDLUVQLII7KHGRJDOHUWHGRQ
WKHSDFNDJH$IWHUREWDLQLQJDVHDUFKZDUUDQWIRUWKHSDFNDJHWKHRIILFHUVVHDUFKHG
LWDQGIRXQGPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHLQVLGH2IILFHUVOHDUQHGWKDW3DXO0HWFDOIOLYHGLQ
DSDUWPHQWIRXUDWWKHDGGUHVVOLVWHGRQWKHSDFNDJH$QRIILFHULGHQWLILHGDYHKLFOH
UHJLVWHUHGWR3DXO0HWFDOILQWKHDSDUWPHQWSDUNLQJORWDQGDWWHPSWHGGHOLYHU\RIWKH
SDFNDJH DW WKH DSDUWPHQW 0HWFDOI DQVZHUHG WKH GRRU VKRZHG KLV 1RUWK 'DNRWD
LGHQWLILFDWLRQ DQG DFFHSWHG WKH SDFNDJH 0RPHQWV ODWHU RIILFHUV VHDUFKHG WKH

                                              
DSDUWPHQWDQGGHWDLQHG0HWFDOIZKRZDVDORQHLQWKHDSDUWPHQW0HWFDOIWROGODZ
HQIRUFHPHQWWKDWKLVEURWKHUZRXOGVHQGSDFNDJHVWRWKHDSDUWPHQWLQWHQGLQJWKHP
IRU*DUGQHU0HWFDOIGHVFULEHGKLPVHOIDVD³PLGGOHPDQ´UHJDUGLQJWKHSDFNDJHV
8SRQUHFHLSWRIDSDFNDJH0HWFDOIZDVWRFDOO*DUGQHUZKRZRXOGFRPHDQGSLFN
XSWKHSDFNDJH0HWFDOIWROGSROLFHWKHSDFNDJHZDV*DUGQHU¶VDQG*DUGQHUZRXOG
RUGLQDULO\JLYHKLPVRPHPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHIRUWKHXVHRIKLVDGGUHVV$WWKHRIILFHUV¶
UHTXHVW0HWFDOIFDOOHG*DUGQHUWRFRPHSLFNXSWKHSDFNDJH:KHQ*DUGQHUDUULYHG
0HWFDOIJDYHKLPWKHSDFNDJH*DUGQHUGLGQRWSD\0HWFDOIRURWKHUZLVHH[FKDQJH
DQ\WKLQJIRUWKHSDFNDJH8SRQOHDYLQJWKHDSDUWPHQWEXLOGLQJZLWKWKHSDFNDJH
*DUGQHUZDVDUUHVWHG*DUGQHUILOHGDPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVWKHHYLGHQFHUHVXOWLQJIURP
WKHSDFNDJHVHDUFK
>@   $IWHUFRQGXFWLQJDKHDULQJWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWIRXQGWKDWWKHSDFNDJHZDVDQ
³HIIHFW´IRUSXUSRVHVRIWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW5HO\LQJRQState v. Ressler1'
1:GWKHFRXUWGHWHUPLQHGWKDWWKHUHPRYDORIWKHSDFNDJH
IURP836WRFRQGXFWDFDQLQHVHDUFKZDVDQLOOHJDOVHL]XUH,QXOWLPDWHO\GHQ\LQJ
*DUGQHU¶V PRWLRQ WR VXSSUHVV WKH FRXUW FRQFOXGHG *DUGQHU ODFNHG D VXIILFLHQW
SHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRFODLPWKHLOOHJDOVHL]XUHYLRODWHGKLVFRQVWLWXWLRQDO
ULJKWV7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWIRFXVHGH[FOXVLYHO\RQWKHSDFNDJHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGWKH
IDFWWKDW*DUGQHU¶VQDPHDQGDGGUHVVZHUHQRWRQWKHSDFNDJH$GGLQJWKDW*DUGQHU
GLGQRWOLYHDWWKHDGGUHVVZKHUHWKHSDFNDJHZDVGHOLYHUHGWKHFRXUWFRQFOXGHG³,
VHHQRUHDOFRQQHFWLRQVZKDWVRHYHURI0U*DUGQHUWRWKHSDFNDJH´
                                           ,,
>@   7KHLVVXHRQDSSHDOLVZKHWKHUXQGHUWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWWRWKH8QLWHG
6WDWHV&RQVWLWXWLRQRU$UWLFOH,RIWKH1RUWK'DNRWD&RQVWLWXWLRQDQLQGLYLGXDO
PD\DVVHUWKLVULJKWDJDLQVWXQUHDVRQDEOHVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVUHODWLQJWRDSDFNDJH
WKDWZDVQHLWKHUDGGUHVVHGWRKLPQRUVHQWWRSURSHUW\ZKHUHKHZDVOLYLQJ,IVXFK
IDFWVGRQRWFDWHJRULFDOO\EDU*DUGQHU¶VFODLPZHWKHQPXVWFRQVLGHUZKHWKHUWKH
WRWDOLW\RIFLUFXPVWDQFHVSUHVHQWHGLQWKHHYLGHQFHEHIRUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWVXSSRUWV

                                           
DILQGLQJWKDW*DUGQHUODFNHGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRDVVHUW
DYLRODWLRQRIKLVSHUVRQDOULJKWV
>@   :KHQUHYLHZLQJDGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VGHFLVLRQRQDPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVV
       :HZLOOGHIHUWRDGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VILQGLQJVRIIDFWLQWKHGLVSRVLWLRQRI
       DPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVV&RQIOLFWVLQWHVWLPRQ\ZLOOEHUHVROYHGLQIDYRU
       RIDIILUPDQFHDVZHUHFRJQL]HWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWLVLQDVXSHULRUSRVLWLRQ
       WRDVVHVVFUHGLELOLW\RIZLWQHVVHVDQGZHLJKWKHHYLGHQFH*HQHUDOO\D
       GLVWULFW FRXUW¶V GHFLVLRQ WR GHQ\ D PRWLRQ WR VXSSUHVV ZLOO QRW EH
       UHYHUVHGLIWKHUHLVVXIILFLHQWFRPSHWHQWHYLGHQFHFDSDEOHRIVXSSRUWLQJ
       WKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VILQGLQJVDQGLILWVGHFLVLRQLVQRWFRQWUDU\WRWKH
       PDQLIHVWZHLJKWRIWKHHYLGHQFH
State v. Adams1'1:G$OWKRXJKZHGHIHUWRWKHGLVWULFW
FRXUW¶VUHVROXWLRQRIXQGHUO\LQJIDFWXDOGLVSXWHVWKHXOWLPDWHFRQFOXVLRQRIZKHWKHU
WKHIDFWVVDWLVI\WKHDSSOLFDEOHOHJDOVWDQGDUGLVDTXHVWLRQRIODZIXOO\UHYLHZDEOHRQ
DSSHDOState v. Nickel1'1:G
>@   $QLQGLYLGXDOFKDOOHQJLQJDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHKDVWKHLQLWLDOEXUGHQWRVKRZD
FRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\SURWHFWHGSHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLPSOLFDWHGE\WKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHState
v. Zacher1'1:GState v. Glaesman1:G
Q 1'  ³,QVXSSUHVVLRQFDVHVWKHGHIHQGDQWKDVWKHLQLWLDOEXUGHQRI
HVWDEOLVKLQJDSULPDIDFLHFDVHWKDWWKHHYLGHQFHZDVLOOHJDOO\VHL]HG´ :KHQWKH
6WDWH FRQGXFWV D VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH ZLWKRXW D ZDUUDQW LW EHDUV WKH EXUGHQ RI
RYHUFRPLQJWKHSUHVXPSWLRQWKDWDZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHLVXQUHDVRQDEOH
State v. Pogue  1'     1:G   :D\QH 5 /D)DYH
Search and Seizure E S GHG  VWDWLQJ³LIWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHZDV
SXUVXDQWWRDZDUUDQWWKHGHIHQGDQWKDVWKHEXUGHQRISURRIEXWLIWKHSROLFHDFWHG
ZLWKRXWDZDUUDQWWKHEXUGHQRISURRILVRQWKHSURVHFXWLRQ´ . :KHUHWKHLVVXHLV
ZKHWKHUWKHGHIHQGDQW¶VSHUVRQDOULJKWVKDYHEHHQYLRODWHGDVRSSRVHGWRWKHULJKWV
RIDWKLUGSDUW\ZHKDYHVDLGWKHGHIHQGDQWEHDUVWKHEXUGHQWRVKRZDVXIILFLHQW
SHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLQWKHDVVHUWHGYLRODWLRQSee State v. Raywalt1:G
1'  ³2QFHWKH6WDWHUDLVHVODFNRIVWDQGLQJLWLVWKHGHIHQGDQW¶VEXUGHQWR
HVWDEOLVKWKDWKHKDGDOHJLWLPDWHH[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\LQWKHSODFHVHDUFKHG´ 

                                            
>@   7KH H[FOXVLRQDU\ UXOH LV DQ DWWHPSW WR HIIHFWXDWH WKH VHDUFK DQG VHL]XUH
SURWHFWLRQVRIWKHVWDWHDQGIHGHUDOFRQVWLWXWLRQVState v. Klevgaard1:G
 1'  GHVFULELQJWKHUXOH¶VWZRSXUSRVHV³  WRGHWHUXQODZIXOSROLFH
FRQGXFWDQG  WRSUHVHUYHMXGLFLDOLQWHJULW\E\QRWSHUPLWWLQJHYLGHQFHWDLQWHG
ZLWKLOOHJDOLW\WREHDGPLWWHGLQFRXUW´ $OWKRXJKRULJLQDOO\DSSOLHGE\WKH8QLWHG
6WDWHV 6XSUHPH &RXUW WR H[FOXGH HYLGHQFH REWDLQHG LQ YLRODWLRQ RI WKH )RXUWK
$PHQGPHQWMapp v. Ohio86  WKLV&RXUWKDVDOVRDSSOLHGWKH
H[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHWRYLRODWLRQVRI$UWLFOH,RIWKH1RUWK'DNRWD&RQVWLWXWLRQState
v. Stockert  1:G   1'   $Q LQGLYLGXDO LV HQWLWOHG WR WKH
SURWHFWLRQRIWKHH[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHRQO\LIthe individual’s own FRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWV
ZHUHYLRODWHG²WKHLQGLYLGXDOPD\QRWFODLPYLRODWLRQRIDWKLUGSDUW\¶VULJKWVState
v. Oien 1', ¶ 1:GState v. Fischer1:G
1'   FLWLQJ Mancusi v. DeForte  86     ³)RXUWK
$PHQGPHQW ULJKWV DUH SHUVRQDO ULJKWV DQG    PD\ EH HQIRUFHG E\ H[FOXVLRQ RI
HYLGHQFH RQO\ DW WKH LQVWDQFH RI RQH ZKRVH RZQ SURWHFWLRQ ZDV LQIULQJHG E\ WKH
VHDUFKDQGVHL]XUH´  abrogatedRQRWKHUJURXQGV Plumhoff v. Rickard86
   ³)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWULJKWVDUHSHUVRQDOULJKWVZKLFKPD\QRW
EHYLFDULRXVO\DVVHUWHG´ 
>@   ³7KHULJKWRIWKHSHRSOHWREHVHFXUHLQWKHLUSHUVRQVKRXVHVSDSHUVDQG
HIIHFWV DJDLQVW XQUHDVRQDEOH VHDUFKHV DQG VHL]XUHV VKDOO QRW EH YLRODWHG DQG QR
:DUUDQWVVKDOOLVVXHEXWXSRQSUREDEOHFDXVHVXSSRUWHGE\2DWKRUDIILUPDWLRQDQG
SDUWLFXODUO\ GHVFULELQJ WKH SODFH WR EH VHDUFKHG DQG WKH SHUVRQV RU WKLQJV WR EH
VHL]HG´86&RQVWDPHQG,97KHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOWH[WWHOOVXVDYLRODWLRQRFFXUV
ZKHQIRXUWKLQJVDUHWUXH  WKH6WDWHHQJDJHGLQDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH RI   WKH
FODLPDQW¶V   SHUVRQ KRXVH SDSHU RU HIIHFW DQG   WKH VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH
XQUHDVRQDEO\ YLRODWHG WKH FODLPDQW¶V ULJKW WR EH VHFXUH LQ WKH REMHFW VHDUFKHG RU
VHL]HGSee State v. Planz1:G 1' 
>@   )LUVWZDVWKHUHD³VHDUFK´RUD³VHL]XUH´E\WKH6WDWH"State v. Garrett
1'     1:G  ³,W LV D[LRPDWLF WKDW WKH )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW¶V

                                              
SURWHFWLRQIURPXQODZIXOVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHVLVQRWWULJJHUHGXQOHVVWKHUHKDVLQIDFW
EHHQDµVHDUFK¶RUµVHL]XUH¶E\WKH6WDWH´ 2XUFDVHVKDYHFRQVLVWHQWO\FRQVLGHUHGD
³VHDUFK´WRLPSOLFDWHWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOSURWHFWLRQLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKH³UHDVRQDEOH
H[SHFWDWLRQ RI SULYDF\´ WHVW Id. FLWLQJ Katz v. United States  86  
  +DUODQ - FRQFXUULQJ  United States v. Jones HPSKDVL]HG WKDW Katz¶
GHILQLWLRQVXSSOHPHQWHGUDWKHUWKDQUHSODFHGWKHSODLQPHDQLQJRID³VHDUFK´DVDQ
³LQWUXVLRQRIDFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\SURWHFWHGDUHDLQRUGHUWRREWDLQLQIRUPDWLRQ´
86  $³VHL]XUH´RIDSHUVRQRFFXUVZKHQWKHVWDWHPHDQLQJIXOO\
LQWHUIHUHVZLWKWKHSHUVRQ¶VOLEHUW\RUIUHHGRPRIPRYHPHQWState v. Mercier
1'1:G³$µVHL]XUH¶RISURSHUW\RFFXUVZKHQWKHUHLVVRPH
PHDQLQJIXOLQWHUIHUHQFHZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVLQWKDWSURSHUW\´
State v. Heier1'1:GRessler1'
1:G  ³,QLWLDOO\ ZH PXVW GHFLGH ZKHWKHU    PRYHPHQW RI WKH SDFNDJH
FRQVWLWXWHGDVHL]XUHDWDOO´ United States v. Jacobsen86  
>@ 6HFRQGZDVWKHLWHPVXEMHFWWRVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHRZQHGRUSRVVHVVHGE\WKH
SHUVRQRUSHUVRQVFODLPLQJSURWHFWLRQDWWKHWLPHRIWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH²ZDVLW
³WKHLU´HIIHFW"7KLVLVWKHSRLQWRIFRQWHQWLRQKHUHDVGLVFXVVHGEHORZ
>@ 7KLUG LVWKHLWHPWKDWZDVDOOHJHGO\VHL]HGRUVHDUFKHGDSHUVRQKRXVHSDSHU
RUHIIHFW"$VHDUFKRUVHL]XUHLPSOLFDWHVWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQLILWLVGLUHFWHGDWVRPHWKLQJ
ZLWKLQRQHRIWKHHQXPHUDWHGFDWHJRULHV³SHUVRQVKRXVHVSDSHUVDQGHIIHFWV´See
Heier1'1:GLubenow v. N.D. State Highway Comm’r
1:G 1' Oliver v. United States86
  UHMHFWLQJ DUJXPHQW WKDW RSHQ ILHOGV ZHUH ³HIIHFWV´ DQG VWDWLQJ Katz’
³UHDVRQDEOH H[SHFWDWLRQ RI SULYDF\´ VWDQGDUG GLG QRW VHYHU )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW
GRFWULQHIURPWKH$PHQGPHQW¶VODQJXDJH´ 
>@ )RXUWKZDVWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHDQ³XQUHDVRQDEOH´YLRODWLRQRIWKHFODLPDQW¶V
ULJKWWREHVHFXUHLQWKHLWHPVHDUFKHGRUVHL]HG"7KHWRXFKVWRQHIRUGHWHUPLQLQJ
FRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\ RI D VHDUFK LV UHDVRQDEOHQHVV ZKLFK W\SLFDOO\ UHTXLUHV ODZ
HQIRUFHPHQWWRREWDLQDMXGLFLDOZDUUDQWEHIRUHFRQGXFWLQJDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHState

                                            
v. Helm1'1:G:DUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVDUH
XQUHDVRQDEOH XQOHVV VXSSRUWHG E\ SUREDEOH FDXVH DQG RQH RI WKH UHFRJQL]HG
H[FHSWLRQV WR WKH ZDUUDQW UHTXLUHPHQW State v. Morales  1'    
1:GRessler1'1:G7KHUHDVRQDEOHQHVVRI
DVHL]XUHGHSHQGVRQDEDODQFLQJRIWKHSXEOLFLQWHUHVWDGYDQFHGE\WKHVHL]XUHDQG
WKHLQGLYLGXDOULJKWWRDOLEHUW\RUSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWIUHHIURPDUELWUDU\JRYHUQPHQW
LQWHUIHUHQFHGHWHUPLQHGE\ZHLJKLQJWKHJUDYLW\RIWKHLQWHUHVWWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFK
WKHVHL]XUHDGYDQFHVWKHLQWHUHVWDQGWKHVHYHULW\RIWKHLQWHUIHUHQFHZLWKWKHSULYDWH
OLEHUW\RUSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWSee Brown v. Texas86  
                                           ,,,
>@ 2XULQTXLU\KHUHFHQWHUVRQWKHVHFRQGTXHVWLRQZKHWKHUWKHSDFNDJHZDV
*DUGQHU¶VDWWKHUHOHYDQWWLPH²RULQWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOODQJXDJHZKHWKHUVRPHRQH
LQ*DUGQHU¶VFLUFXPVWDQFHVFRXOGVD\LWZDV³WKHLU´HIIHFW
>@ %XWYHU\EULHIO\ZHFOHDUDZD\WKHXQGHUEUXVKRIZKDWLVQRWLQGLVSXWH7KH
SDUWLHVGRQRWGLVSXWHWKDWWKHSDFNDJHDWLVVXHKHUHLVDQ³HIIHFW´State v. Nickel
1'1:GRessler1'1:G
FLWLQJJacobsen86DW 7KHSDUWLHVDOVRDJUHHWKDWXQGHUResslerDVHL]XUH
RFFXUUHGZKHQDQRIILFHUUHPRYHGWKHSDFNDJHIURP836WRFRQGXFWDFDQLQHIUHHDLU
VQLII  1'       1:G  7KHUH ZDV QR ZDUUDQW
DXWKRUL]LQJ WKH RIILFHU WR UHPRYH WKH SDFNDJH IURP 836 VR WKH VHL]XUH ZDV
SUHVXPSWLYHO\XQUHDVRQDEOHState v. Karna1'1:G
VWDWLQJ³ZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVDUHSUHVXPSWLYHO\XQUHDVRQDEOH´ ,QD
ZULWWHQVWDWHPHQWGHFOLQLQJWRSURVHFXWH0HWFDOIWKH6WDWH¶V$WWRUQH\DFNQRZOHGJHG
WKDW WKHUH KDG EHHQ DQ XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO VHL]XUH XQGHU Ressler DQG DQ\ HYLGHQFH
UHVXOWLQJIURPWKDWVHL]XUHZRXOGEHVXSSUHVVHGDWWULDO%HFDXVHWKHUHZDVDZDUUDQW
IRUWKHVHDUFKRIWKHSDFNDJHWKHHYLGHQFHUHVXOWLQJIURPWKHVHDUFKLVLPSOLFDWHG
RQO\EHFDXVHWKHOHJDOLW\RIWKHVHDUFKGHSHQGVRQWKHOHJDOLW\RIWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUH
>@ :HWXUQQRZWRZKHWKHU*DUGQHUKDGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKH
SDFNDJHDWWKHWLPHRIWKHXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOVHL]XUHWRFODLPWKDWVHL]XUHYLRODWHGKLV

                                           
ULJKWV7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWFRQFOXGHGWKDW*DUGQHU³KDGQRUHDVRQDEOHH[SHFWDWLRQRI
SULYDF\LQWKHSDFNDJH´7KLVIRFXVRQSULYDF\LQWHUHVWVLVFHQWUDOLQGHWHUPLQLQJ
ZKHWKHUDsearch LVXQUHDVRQDEOHEXWLWKDVOLWWOHWRGRZLWKZKHWKHUDseizure LV
XQUHDVRQDEOHRUZKHWKHU*DUGQHUKDVVXIILFLHQWSHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWWRFKDOOHQJHWKH
VHL]XUHKHUHZKLFKWKH6WDWHDJUHHGZDVFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\XQUHDVRQDEOH,QFRQWUDVWWR
D VHDUFK ZKLFK LPSOLFDWHV SULYDF\ D VHL]XUH LPSOLFDWHV LQGLYLGXDO OLEHUW\ RI
PRYHPHQWDQGSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVLQSURSHUW\6HHJacobsen86DW
GLVWLQJXLVKLQJSRVVHVVRU\DQGOLEHUW\LQWHUHVWVLPSOLFDWHGE\VHL]XUHVIURPSULYDF\
LQWHUHVWVLPSOLFDWHGE\VHDUFKHV Soldal v. Cook County86   ³RXU
FDVHVXQPLVWDNDEO\KROGWKDWWKH>)RXUWK@$PHQGPHQWSURWHFWVSURSHUW\DVZHOODV
SULYDF\´ United States v. Miller)G '&&LU  ILQGLQJ³D
EDVLFPLVPDWFKEHWZHHQ0LOOHU¶VZKROHVDOHUHOLDQFHRQKLVprivacyLQWHUHVWLQWKH
ER[HVDQGKLVFKDOOHQJHWRWKHseizureRIWKRVHER[HV´ Lavan v. City of Los Angeles
)G WK&LU  GLVWLQJXLVKLQJVHDUFKHVIURPVHL]XUHVDQG
FRQFOXGLQJ³7KHUHDVRQDEOHQHVVRI$SSHOOHHV¶H[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\LVLUUHOHYDQWDV
WR WKH TXHVWLRQ EHIRUH XV ZKHWKHU WKH )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW SURWHFWV $SSHOOHHV¶
XQDEDQGRQHGSURSHUW\IURPXQUHDVRQDEOHVHL]XUHV´ Bonds v. Cox)G
WK&LU  FRQFOXGLQJKRPHRZQHUKDGVWDQGLQJWRFKDOOHQJHVHL]XUHRIKHUUHDO
SURSHUW\ GHVSLWH KDYLQJ QR UHDVRQDEOH H[SHFWDWLRQ RI SULYDF\ LQ WKH KRXVH  :H
FRQFOXGHWKHSURSHUIRFXVLQHYDOXDWLQJDVHL]XUHLVRQWKHFODLPDQW¶VSRVVHVVRU\
LQWHUHVWVLQSURSHUW\
>@ *DUGQHU¶Vprivacy interests ZHUHQRWLPSOLFDWHGE\WKHVHL]XUHRIWKHSDFNDJH
LQ ZKLFK WKH SDFNDJH ZDV QRW RSHQHG EXW RQO\ UHPRYHG IURP 836 SURSHUW\
*DUGQHU¶V possessory interests ZHUH LPSOLFDWHG E\ WKH VHL]XUH ZKLFK WKH 6WDWH
FRQFHGHVZDVDFRQVWLWXWLRQDOYLRODWLRQ7KHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VIRFXVRQSULYDF\ ZKLOH
SHUKDSVXQGHUVWDQGDEOHLQYLHZRIWKHVRPHWLPHVPXUN\ZD\KatzKDVLQIOXHQFHG
VHDUFK DQG VHL]XUH FDVHV WR WXUQ VROHO\ RQ H[SHFWDWLRQV RI SULYDF\  ZDV D
PLVDSSOLFDWLRQ RI ODZ EHFDXVH *DUGQHU¶V SULYDF\ LQWHUHVWV LQ WKH SDFNDJH DUH
LUUHOHYDQW2QO\KLVSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVDUHUHOHYDQW

                                           
>@ *DUGQHU EHDUV WKH EXUGHQ WR VKRZ WKH SDFNDJH ZDV KLV²WKDW KH KDG D
VXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRFODLPKLVULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHGSee
Rakas v. Illinois  86   Q   ³7KH SURSRQHQW RI D PRWLRQ WR
VXSSUHVVKDVWKHEXUGHQRIHVWDEOLVKLQJWKDWKLVRZQ)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWULJKWVZHUH
YLRODWHG E\ WKH FKDOOHQJHG VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH´  Adams  1'    
1:G 7XIWH-FRQFXUULQJ 7KHUHDUHPDQ\IDFWRUVDFRXUWFDQDQGVKRXOG
FRQVLGHUZKHQGHWHUPLQLQJSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWSeeWilliams1'
1:G  FRQVLGHULQJ ZKHWKHU WKH FODLPDQW KDV D SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH
ORFDWLRQVHDUFKHGZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOWDNHVSUHFDXWLRQVWRNHHSWKHLWHPSULYDWH
RUZLWKLQKLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOKDVDFFHVVWRWKHWKLQJRUORFDWLRQ
HYHQWKRXJKLWLVORFNHGRUFORVHG Rawlings v. Kentucky86 
FRQVLGHULQJZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOKDVWKHSRZHUWRH[FOXGHZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDO
KDV SUHYLRXVO\ DFFHVVHG RU LV SHUPLWWHG WR DFFHVV WKH DUHD RU WKLQJ ZKHWKHU WKH
LQGLYLGXDOWDNHVSUHFDXWLRQVWRPDLQWDLQSULYDF\ZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOFODLPVRU
GHQLHVSRVVHVVLRQDQGKRZORQJWKHFODLPDQWKDVNQRZQWKHSHUVRQLQSRVVHVVLRQRI
WKH FRQWDLQHU ZLWK WKH FRQWUDEDQG  Adams DW    FRQVLGHULQJ ZKHWKHU WKH
LQGLYLGXDODVVHUWVRZQHUVKLSRYHUWKHLWHPRUWKHFRQWDLQHUZKHWKHUWKHUHLVHYLGHQFH
RISRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOLVSUHVHQWGXULQJWKHVHDUFKDQGGRHVQRW
REMHFWDQGZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHDQ\LGHQWLI\LQJPDUNVRUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRQHLWKHUWKH
FRQWDLQHURUWKHFRQWHQWV :KHWKHUDSHUVRQKDVDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQ
DQ LWHP WR FODLP LW ZDV XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\ VHDUFKHG RU VHL]HG LV UHYLHZHG RQ D
FDVHE\FDVHEDVLVFRQVLGHULQJWKHWRWDOLW\RIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHV-RKQ:HVOH\+DOO
-USearch and Seizure  WKHG ³>1@RVLQJOHIDFWRUGHWHUPLQHVZKHWKHU
DQLQGLYLGXDOOHJLWLPDWHO\PD\FODLP´WKHIUHHGRPIURPDYLRODWLRQRIKLVVHDUFKDQG
VHL]XUHULJKWVId.Adams, DWState v. Gatlin1'1:G
FRQVLGHULQJWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶V³SRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHWKLQJVVHL]HGRUWKHSODFH
VHDUFKHG´DVVKRZQE\H[FOXGLQJRWKHUVWDNLQJSULYDF\SUHFDXWLRQVDQGUHWDLQLQJ
DFFHVVGHVSLWHDORFNRURWKHUDFFHVVUHVWULFWLRQ  see Oliver86DW

                                              
>@ +HUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWQDUURZHGLWVFRQVLGHUDWLRQRI*DUGQHU¶VSRVVHVVRU\
LQWHUHVW LQ WKH SDFNDJH WR WKH QDPH DQG DGGUHVV RQ WKH SDFNDJH DQG ZKHWKHU KH
RFFXSLHGWKHORFDWLRQWRZKLFKWKHSDFNDJHZDVDGGUHVVHG7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWVWDWHG
         >7@KHSDFNDJHZDVDGGUHVVHGWR0U0HWFDOIQRW0U*DUGQHU+H
         ZDVQRWDGGUHVVHG,WZDVGHOLYHUHGWRDQDGGUHVVRI0U0HWFDOI¶VWKDW
         LWZDVDGGUHVVHGWRQRW0U*DUGQHU¶V+HZDVQ¶WRQWKHSDFNDJH7KDW
         LV QRW ZKHUH KH OLYHG HW FHWHUD 7KH SDFNDJH ZDV QRW DGGUHVVHG WR
         *DUGQHUQRUZDVLWVHQWWRDSODFHZKHUHKHZDVVWD\LQJ,VHHQRUHDO
         FRQQHFWLRQVZKDWVRHYHURI0U*DUGQHUWRWKHSDFNDJH
7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWYLHZHGWKHLVVXHWRRQDUURZO\7KHIDFWWKDWWKHSDFNDJHGRHVQRW
EHDU *DUGQHU¶V QDPH RU DGGUHVV LV UHOHYDQW EXW QRW GHWHUPLQDWLYH ³:KHQ DQ
LQGLYLGXDODVNVVRPHRQHHOVHWRUHFHLYHPDLOIRUKLPKHGRHVQRWE\WKDWIDFWDORQH
VXUUHQGHU´KLVVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKWVUnited States v. Allen)6XSS
'0H 7KHXVHRIDQDOLDVRUILFWLWLRXVQDPHZKHQVHQGLQJDQGUHFHLYLQJ
SDFNDJHVLVQRWFRQFOXVLYHUnited States v. Pitts)G WK&LU
 United States v. Villarreal)G WK&LU United States
v. Richards  )G   WK &LU   7KHUH DUH PDQ\ UHDVRQV VRPH
LQQRFHQW DQG VRPH VXVSLFLRXV WKDW D SHUVRQ PLJKW XVH DQ DOLDV ZKHQ VHQGLQJ RU
UHFHLYLQJ D SDFNDJH Pitts DW  (IIRUWV DW DQRQ\PLW\ DUH QRW HTXLYDOHQW WR
GLVFODLPHUVRIRZQHUVKLSZKHQVHQGLQJRUUHFHLYLQJDSDFNDJHId. DWsee also
AllenDW:D\QH5/D)DYHSearch & Seizure I  WKHG 6XSS
 
>@ 6HYHUDOFDVHVIURPRWKHUMXULVGLFWLRQVKDYHUHMHFWHGDFODLPHGVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH
YLRODWLRQE\DSHUVRQZKRZDVQRWWKHVHQGHURUUHFHLYHURIDSDFNDJH7KHVHFDVHV
DUHGLVWLQJXLVKDEOHLQWKDWWKHSHUVRQFODLPLQJDYLRODWLRQIDLOHGHLWKHUWRFODLPRU
VXEVWDQWLDWH RZQHUVKLS RI HLWKHU WKH SDFNDJH RU LWV FRQWHQWVSee United States v.
Pierce)G WK&LU  FRQFOXGLQJQRULJKWWRFODLPVHDUFKDQG
VHL]XUHYLRODWLRQZKHUHSDFNDJHZDVQHLWKHUVHQWE\QRUDGGUHVVHGWRGHIHQGDQWDQG
GHIHQGDQWGHQLHGRZQHUVKLSRIERWKWKHSDFNDJHDQGWKHFRQWHQWV United States v.
Givens  )G   WK &LU   SHU FXULDP  UHMHFWLQJ FODLP ZKHUH
GHIHQGDQWFODLPHGDSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQSDFNDJHDGGUHVVHGWRWKLUGSDUW\ZKLFKFRQWDLQHG

                                               
GUXJVIRUZKLFKKHKDGQRW\HWSDLG Compare United States v. DiMaggio)6XSS
  1'1<   FRQFOXGLQJ QR SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW HVWDEOLVKHG ZKHQ
VXSSRUWHG RQO\ E\ FODLP RI RZQHUVKLS RI WKH FRQWHQWV DQG DOOHJHG FRQWURO RYHU
SDFNDJHVDVDFWXDOVHQGHUDQGUHFLSLHQW with Richards)GDW ILQGLQJ
GHIHQGDQW KDG VXIILFLHQW SHUVRQDO LQWHUHVW LQ SDFNDJH WR UDLVH)RXUWK $PHQGPHQW
FODLPGHVSLWHKLVQDPHQRWDSSHDULQJRQLWDQGKLVGHQLDORIRZQHUVKLS :HKDYH
HPSKDVL]HGFODLPLQJDSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQDFRQWDLQHUDQGLWVFRQWHQWVLVLPSRUWDQW
DOWKRXJKQRWFRQFOXVLYHLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDYDULHW\RIRWKHUFRQVWLWXWLRQDOHIIHFWVSee
Adams1'1:G UHMHFWLQJGHIHQGDQW¶VFODLPHG)RXUWK
$PHQGPHQW LQWHUHVW LQ D EDFNSDFN ORFDWHG ZLWKLQ VRPHRQH HOVH¶V YHKLFOH ZKHUH
GHIHQGDQWGHQLHGRZQHUVKLSGLGQRWREMHFWWRVHDUFKDQGEDFNSDFNODFNHGLGHQWLI\LQJ
PDUNVVKRZLQJKLVRZQHUVKLS State v. Dunn1'1:G
DIILUPLQJRUGHUVXSSUHVVLQJVHDUFKRIMDFNHWIRXQGO\LQJRQSULYDWHGULYHZD\ZKHUH
RZQHURIMDFNHWLQLWLDOO\GHQLHGEXWODWHUFODLPHGLWZDVKLV  State v. Huether
1:G 1'  DIILUPLQJRUGHUVXSSUHVVLQJVHDUFKRISDSHUEDJXQGHU
IURQW VHDW GXULQJ WUDIILF VWRS GHVSLWH GHIHQGDQW¶V GHQLDO RI RZQHUVKLS RI D EDJ RU
NQRZOHGJH RI LWV FRQWHQWV  Rawlings  86 DW  KROGLQJ LQVXIILFLHQW
SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW WR REMHFW WR VHDUFK RI SXUVH ZKHUH WKH GHIHQGDQW FODLPHG
RZQHUVKLSRIGUXJVLQWKHSXUVHEXWQRWRIWKHSXUVHLWVHOI United States v. Parada
 )G   WK &LU   HPSKDVL]LQJ IDLOXUH WR UHVSRQG RU FODLP
RZQHUVKLSZKHQTXHVWLRQHGDVZHLJKLQJDJDLQVWDVVHUWLRQRIVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKW 
United States v. Zabalaga)G '&&LU  KROGLQJGHIHQGDQW
PD\QRWDVVHUWYLRODWLRQRIVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKWEHFDXVHGHIHQGDQWVWDWHGZKHQ
DUUHVWHGWKDWKHGLGQRWRZQWKHFDUKDGQRSHUPLVVLRQWRXVHWKHFDUDQGGLGQRW
FODLPDSRVVHVVRU\ULJKWWRWKHFRQWHQWVRIWKHFDUQRUZHUHWKHUHLGHQWLI\LQJPDUNV
RQWKHFRQWHQWV 
>@ +HUH WKH GLVWULFW FRXUW HUUHG E\ IDLOLQJ WR H[DPLQH WKH WRWDOLW\ RI WKH
FLUFXPVWDQFHVSeeAllen)6XSSDWUnited States v. Sheldon)6XSS
G   ' +DZ   7KH GLVWULFW FRXUW GLG QRW FRQVLGHU WKH IROORZLQJ

                                              
XQGLVSXWHG IDFWV 0HWFDOI H[SODLQHG WR D SROLFH RIILFHU WKDW KH KDG D VWDQGLQJ
DUUDQJHPHQWEHWZHHQKLPVHOIKLVEURWKHUDQG*DUGQHU0HWFDOIPDGHVWDWHPHQWVWR
WKHSROLFHWKDWKHZDVWKH³PLGGOHPDQ´ZKRVLPSO\UHFHLYHGSDFNDJHVZKLFKKHJDYH
WR *DUGQHU*DUGQHUUHVSRQGHGWR0HWFDOI¶VFDOODERXWWKHSDFNDJHE\GULYLQJWR
0HWFDOI¶VDSDUWPHQWDQGUHWULHYLQJWKHSDFNDJH*DUGQHUGLGQRWH[FKDQJHDQ\WKLQJ
IRU WKLV SDFNDJH ZKHQ KH UHWULHYHG LW 7KH ODFN RI SD\PHQW WHQGV WR VKRZ ERWK
*DUGQHU DQG 0HWFDOI XQGHUVWRRG WKH SDFNDJH WR EH *DUGQHU¶V SURSHUW\ )XUWKHU
*DUGQHUSRVVHVVHGWKHSDFNDJHZKHQKHZDVDUUHVWHGFORVHLQWLPHWRWKHLOOHJDO
VHL]XUHZLWKRXWDQ\LQWHUYHQLQJSXUFKDVHDEDQGRQPHQWRURWKHUDFWLQGLFDWLQJD
FKDQJHLQODZIXOSRVVHVVLRQRIWKHSDFNDJHSee Richards)GDW:KHQWKH
WRWDOLW\RIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVLVFRQVLGHUHGUDWKHUWKDQRQO\WKHQDPHDQGDGGUHVVRQ
WKH SDFNDJH ZH FRQFOXGH WKH IDFWV HVWDEOLVK *DUGQHU¶V SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH
SDFNDJHIRUSXUSRVHVRIDVVHUWLQJDYLRODWLRQRIKLVFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWV%HFDXVHWKH
LQLWLDOVHL]XUHRIWKHSDFNDJHZDVFRQFHGHGO\XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO*DUGQHULVHQWLWOHGWR
FODLPWKHSURWHFWLRQRIWKHH[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHWRWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUHDQGWKH
VHDUFKHVWKDWIORZHGIURPWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUH
                                            ,9
>@ :HFRQFOXGHWKHWRWDOLW\RIWKHHYLGHQFHEHIRUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWGHPRQVWUDWHV
WKDW*DUGQHUKDGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHDWWKHWLPHLWZDV
VHL]HGDWWKH836IDFLOLW\WRFODLPKLVSHUVRQDOFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHG
$FFRUGLQJO\DOOHYLGHQFHIORZLQJIURPWKHLOOHJDOVHL]XUHDQGVXEVHTXHQWVHDUFKPXVW
EHVXSSUHVVHG:HUHYHUVHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VRUGHUGHQ\LQJ*DUGQHU¶VPRWLRQWR
VXSSUHVVDQGUHPDQGWRDOORZ*DUGQHUWRZLWKGUDZKLVJXLOW\SOHD
>@ -HURG(7XIWH
      'DQLHO-&URWKHUV
      /LVD)DLU0F(YHUV
      -RQ--HQVHQ

                                            
,FRQFXULQWKHUHVXOW
*HUDOG:9DQGH:DOOH&-

                             