Court Opinion

ID: 9420576
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-02 22:55:16.4417+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:22:25.954349
License: Public Domain

Mr. Justice Reed,
with whom The Chief Justice and Mr. .Justice Minton join, dissenting.
The three organizations named in the caption, together with certain other groups and individuals, filed suits in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia primarily to have declared unconstitutional Executive Order No. 9835, March 21, 1947, 12 Fed. Reg. 1935, as applied against these petitioners. Acting un*188der Part III, § 3 of Executive Order No. 9835, note 3, infra, the Attorney General, on November 24,1947, transmitted the required list of organizations to the Loyalty Review Board. This list included the three above-named organizations. The Board promptly disseminated the information to all departments and agencies. It was published as Appendix A to Title 5, Administrative Personnel, CFR § 210.11 (b) (6). 13 Fed. Reg. 1471. Later, September 17, 1948, the three organizations were designated by the Attorney General as “communist.” 13 Fed. Reg. 6135. The relief sought by petitioners was to have the names of the organizations deleted from the allegedly unconstitutionally created lists because of the obvious harm to their activities by reason of their designation.
The list was transmitted to the Board by the Attorney General as a part of the plan of the President, broadly set forth in Executive Order No. 9835, to furnish maximum protection “against infiltration of disloyal persons into the ranks of [government] employees, and equal protection from unfounded accusations of disloyalty” for the loyal employees. 12 Fed. Reg. 1935. Executive Order No. 9835 came after long consideration of the problems of possible damage to the Government from disloyalty among its employees. 92 Cong. Rec. 9601. See the Report of the President’s Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty (appointed 1946), p. 23:
“The presence within the government of any disloyal or subversive persons, or the attempt by any such persons to obtain government employment, presents a problem of such importance that it must be dealt with vigorously and effectively.”
A list of subversive organizations under Executive Order No. 9300, 3 CFR, 1943 Cum. Supp., 1252, was likewise disseminated to government agencies. 13 Fed. Reg. 1473. *189Great Britain (see note 31, infra), Australia (Act of October 20, 1950), New Zealand (Deynzer v. Campbell, [1950] N. Z. L. R. 790; 37th Rep., Public Service Comm’n, New Zealand, 1949, p. 14; 38th Rep., Public Service Comm’n, New Zealand, 1950, p. 12), and the Union of South Africa (Act No. 44 of 1950) have taken legislative or administrative steps to control disloyalty among government employees. See The Report of the Royal Commission (Canada) appointed under Order in Council, P. C. 411, February 5, 1946. The method of dealing with communism and communists adopted by the Commonwealth of Australia was held beyond the powers of that government. Australian Communist Party v. Commonwealth, decision of Friday, March 9, 1951, 83 C. L. R. 1.
The procedure for designating these petitioners as communists may be summarized as follows: Executive Order No. 9835, Part III, was issued by the President as Chief Executive, “in the interest of the internal management of the Government” and under the Civil Service Act of 1883, 22 Stat. 403, as amended, and § 9A of the Hatch Act, 5 U. S. C. (Supp. II) § 118j. The former acts give general regulatory powers over the employment and discharge of government personnel; the latter is more specific.1 These present cases do not involve the removal of any employee. *190The Order required investigation of the loyalty of applicants for government employment and similar investigation of present employees. To assure uniformity and fairness throughout the Government in the investigation of employees, a Loyalty Review Board was created to review loyalty cases from any department or agency, disseminate information pertinent to employee loyalty programs, and advise the heads thereof. Standards were provided for employment and discharge. So far as pertinent to the objections of petitioner to inclusion on the list of subversive and communist organizations, they appear in note 3 and in the note below.2 It was apparently to avoid the necessity of continuous reexamination by all government departments and agencies of the characteristics of organizations suspected of aims inimical to the Government that provision was made in the Order for examination and designation of such organizations by *191the Attorney General. 12 Fed. Reg. 1938, Part III, § 3.3 It was under this plan that the Attorney General made his designations.
The designations made available for the use of the Loyalty Review Board and the departmental or agency loyalty boards, the result of the investigation of the Attorney General into the character of organizations that might fall under suspicion as totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive. The list does not furnish a basis for any court action against the organizations so designated. It of course might follow from discovery of facts by the investigation that criminal or civil proceedings would be begun to enforce an applicable criminal statute or to cancel the franchise or some license of a listed organization. In such a proceeding, however, the accused organization would have the usual protections of any defendant. The list is evidence only of the character of the listed organizations in proceedings before loyalty boards to determine whether “reasonable” grounds exist for belief “that the employee under consideration” is disloyal to the Government of the United States. See note 2, supra. The names were placed on the list by the Attorney General after investigation. If legally permissible, as carried out by the Attorney General, there is no question but that a single investigation as to the character of *192an organization is preferable to one by each of the more than a hundred agencies of government that are cata-logued in the United States Government Organization Manual. To require a determination as to each organization for the administrative hearing of each employee investigated for disloyalty would be impossible. The employee’s association with a listed organization does not, under the Order, establish, even prima facie, reasonable grounds for belief in the employee’s disloyalty.4
None of the complaints deny that the Attorney General made an “investigation” of the organizations to determine whether or not they were totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive as required by Part III, § 3, or that he had material information concerning disloyal activities on their part. The Council came the nearest to such an allegation in the quoted excerpts from their complaint in note 10, but we read them as no more than allegations of unconstitutionality because “investigation” without notice and hearing is not “appropriate.” Certainly there is no specific allegation of the way in which the Attorney General failed to follow the Order. We therefore assume that the designation was made after appropriate investigation and determination.5
*193No objection is or could reasonably be made in the records or briefs to an examination by the Government into the loyalty of its employees. Although the Founders of this Republic rebelled against their established government of England and won our freedom, the creation of our own constitutional government endowed that new government, the United States of America, with the right and duty to protect its existence against any force that seeks its overthrow or changes in its structure by other than constitutional means. Tolerant as we are of all political efforts by argument or persuasion to change the basis of our social, economic or political life, the line is drawn sharply and clearly at any act or incitement to act in violation of our constitutional processes. Surely the Government need not await an employee’s conviction of a crime involving disloyalty before separating him from public service. Governments cannot be indifferent to manifestations of subversion. As soon as these are significant enough reasonably to cause concern as to the likelihood of action, the duty to protect the state compels the exertion of governmental power. Not to move would brand a government with a dangerous weakness of will. The determination of the time for action rests with the executive and legislative arms. An objection to consideration of an employee’s sympathetic association with an admitted totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive group, as bearing upon the propriety of his retention or employment as a government employee would have no better standing. The Order gives conclusive indication of the type of organization that is meant by the four *194word-labels.6 Following them in Part III, § 3, 12 Fed. Reg. 1938, are the words, “or as having adopted a policy of advocating or approving the commission of acts of force or violence to deny others their rights under the Constitution of the United States, or as seeking to alter the form of government of the United States by unconstitutional means.” Bracketed with membership in listed organizations (Exec. Order No. 9835, Part Y) as activities for consideration in determining an employee’s loyalty are those listed below. These are the standards that define the type of organization subject to designation.7 Of course, the Order means that a communist or subversive organization is of the same general character as one that seeks to alter our form of government by unconstitutional means, 13 Fed. Reg. 6137, to wit by force and violence.
Procedure under the Executive Order does not require “proof” in the sense of a court proceeding that these communist organizations teach or incite to force and vio*195lence to obtain their objectives.8 What is required by the Order is an examination and determination by the Attorney General that these organizations are “communist.” The description “communist” is adequate for the purposes of inquiry and listing. No such precision of definition is necessary as a criminal prosecution might require. Cf. United States v. Chemical Foundation, 272 U. S. 1, 14. Communism is well understood to mean a group seeking to overthrow by force and violence governments such as ours and to establish a new government based on public ownership and direction of productive property. Undoubtedly, there are reasonable grounds to conclude that accepted history teaches that revolution by force and violence to accomplish this end is a tenet of communists.9 No more is necessary to justify an organization’s designation as communist.
*196As a basis for petitioners’ attack on the list, the Refugee Committee set forth facts in its complaint to show its charitable character. These indicate activities and expenditures in aid of the Spanish Republicans in flight from their homeland. The International Workers Order sets forth facts to show that it was a duly organized fraternal benefit society under New York law, furnishing sickness and death benefits as well as life insurance protection to its members. It states other worthy objectives in which it is engaged and asserts it is not an organization such as are referred to in the Order, Part III, § 3, supra. The Council, too, sets out its purpose to promote American-Soviet friendship by means of education and information. It asserts:
“In all its activities the NATIONAL COUNCIL has sought to further the best interests of the American people by lawful, peaceful and constitutional means.”
The absence of any provision in the Order or rules for notice to suspected organizations, for hearings with privilege to the organizations to confront witnesses, cross-examine, produce evidence and have representation of counsel or judicial review of the conclusion reached by the Attorney General is urged by the petitioners, as a procedure so fundamentally unfair and restrictive of personal freedoms as to violate the Federal Constitution, specifically the Due Process Clause and the First Amendment. No opportunity was allowed by the Attorney General for petitioners to offer proof of the legality of their purposes or to disprove charges of subversive opera*197tions. This is the real gravamen of each complaint, the basis upon which the determination of unconstitutionality is sought.10
To these complaints, the Government filed motions to dismiss because of failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. The motions were granted by the District Court and the Court of Appeals affirmed.
Admissions by motions to dismiss. — It is held in Mr. Justice Burton's opinion that the motion to dismiss should have been denied. It is said:
“The inclusion of any of the complaining organizations in the designated list solely on the facts alleged in the respective complaints, which must be the basis for our decision here, is therefore an arbitrary and unauthorized act. In the two cases where the complaint specifically alleges the factual absence of any *198basis for the designation, and the respondents’ motion admits that allegation, the designation is necessarily contrary to the record.” P. 137.
I understand Mr. Justice Burton’s opinion to hold that as a motion to strike for failure to state a cause of action admits all well-pleaded facts, respondents’ motion admits such allegations in the complaint as that quoted in the third preceding paragraph from the Council’s complaint and the assertions that petitioners are not “totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive.” Such statements, however, appear to me to be only conclusions of law as to the effect of facts stated, or empty assertions or conclusions without well-pleaded facts to sustain them.11 Where the issue is the permissibility of designation without notice or hearing, a motion to strike does not admit an allegation of “arbitrary” action or that “all its activities [are] . . . constitutional.” These complaints may not be decided upon any such posture in pleading. Petitioners’ charge, that their “designation” violates due process and the First Amendment, remains the issue.
Standing to sue. — A question is raised by the United States as to petitioners’ standing to maintain these actions. It seems unnecessary to analyze that problem in this dissent. If there should be a determination that petitioners’ constitutional rights are violated by petitioners’ designation under Part III, § 3, of the Order, it would seem they would have standing to seek redress. The “standing” turns on the existence of the federal right.12 Does petitioners’ designation abridge their rights under the First Amendment? Do petitioners have a constitutional right under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth *199Amendment to require a hearing before the Attorney General designates them as a subversive or communist organization for the purposes of Executive Order No. 9835?
First Amendment. — Petitioners assert that their inclusion on the disloyal list has abridged their freedom of speech, since listeners or readers are more difficult to obtain for their speeches and publications, and parties interested in their work are more hesitant to become associates. The Refugee Committee brief adds that “thought” is also abridged. A concurring opinion accepts these arguments to the point of concluding that the publication of the lists “with or without a hearing” violates the First Amendment.
This Court, throughout the years, has maintained the protection of the First Amendment as a major safeguard to the maintenance of a free republic. This Nation has never suffered from an enforced conformity of expression or a limitation of criticism. But neither are we compelled to endure espionage and sedition. Wide as are the freedoms of the First Amendment, this Court has never hesitated to deny the individual’s right to use the privileges for the overturn of law and order. Reasonable restraints for the fair protection of the Government against incitement to sedition cannot properly be said to be “undemocratic” or contrary to the guarantees of free speech. Otherwise the guarantee of civil rights would be a mockery.13 Even when this Court spoke out most strongly against previous restraints, it was careful to recognize that “the security of the community life may be protected against incitements to acts of violence and the overthrow by force of orderly government.” Near v. Minnesota, 283 U. S. 697, 716.
*200Recognizing that the designation, rightly or wrongly, of petitioner organizations as communist impairs their ability to carry forward successfully whatever legitimate objects they seek to accomplish, we do not accept their argument that such interference is an abridgment of First Amendment guarantees.14 They are in the position of every proponent of unpopular views. Heresy induces strong expressions of opposition. So long as petitioners are permitted to voice their political ideas, free from suggestions for the opportune use of force to accomplish their social and economic aims, it is hard to understand how any advocate of freedom of expression can assert that their right has been unconstitutionally abridged. As nothing in the orders or regulations concerning this list limits the teachings or support of these organizations, we do not believe that any right of theirs under the First Amendment is abridged by publication of the list.
Due Process. — This point brings us face to face with the argument that whether the Attorney General was right or wrong in listing these organizations, his designation cannot stand because a final decision of ineligibility for employment without notice and hearing rises to the importance of a constitutional defect. If standards for definition of organizations includable on the list are necessary, the order furnishes adequate tests as appears from the text preceding notes 2 and 7 above and the standards set out in those notes. Compare cases cited, note 6, supra.
Does due process require notice and hearing for the Department of Justice investigation under Executive Order No. 9835, Part III, § 3, note 3, supra, preliminary to listing? As a standard for due process one cannot do better than to accept as a measure that no one may be deprived of liberty or property without such reasonable *201notice and hearing as fairness requires. This is nay understanding of the meaning of the opinions upon due process cited in the concurring opinions. We are not here concerned with the rightfulness of the extent of participation in the investigations that might be claimed by petitioners.15 They were given no chance to take part. Their claim is that the listing resulted in a deprivation of liberty or property contrary to the procedure required by the Fifth Amendment.16
*202The contention can be answered summarily by saying that there is no deprivation of any property or liberty of any listed organization by the Attorney General’s designation. It may be assumed that the listing is hurtful to their prestige, reputation and earning power. It may be such an injury as would entitle organizations to damages in a tort action against persons not protected by privilege. See Spalding v. Vilas, 161 U. S. 483; Glass v. Ickes, 73 App. D. C. 3, 117 F. 2d 273. This designation, however, does not prohibit any business of the organizations, subject them to any punishment or deprive them of liberty of speech or other freedom. The cases relied upon in the briefs and opinions of the majority as requiring notice and hearing before valid action can be taken by administrative officers are where complainant will lose some property or enforceable civil or statutory right by the action taken or proposed.17 “[A] mere abstract declaration” by an administrator regarding the character of an organization, without the effect of for*203bidding or compelling conduct on the part of complainant, ought not to be subject to judicial interference. Rochester Telephone Corp. v. United States, 307 U. S. 125, 129, 143. That is, it does not require notice and hearing.
These petitioners are not ordered to do anything and are not punished for anything. Their position may be analogized to that of persons under grand jury investigation. Such persons have no right to notice by and hearing before a grand jury; only a right to defend the charge at trial.18 Property may be taken for government use without notice or hearing by a mere declaration of taking by the authorized official. No court has doubted the constitutionality of such summary action under the due process clause when just compensation must be paid ultimately.19 Persons may be barred from certain positions merely because of their associations.20
To allow petitioners entry into the investigation would amount to interference with the Executive’s discretion, contrary to the ordinary operations of Government. Long ago Mr. Chief Justice Taney in Decatur v. Paulding, 14 Pet. 497, stated the rule and the reason against judicial interference with executive discretion:
“The head of an executive department of the government, in the administration of the various and important concerns of his office, is continually required to exercise judgment and discretion. . . .
“If a suit should come before this Court, which involved the construction of any of these laws, the Court certainly would not be bound to adopt the construction given by the head of a department. *204And if they supposed his decision to be wrong, they would, of course, so pronounce their judgment. But their judgment upon the construction of a law must be given in a case in which they have jurisdiction, and in which it is their duty to interpret the act of Congress, in order to ascertain the rights of the parties in the cause before them.” P. 515.
“The interference of the Courts with the performance of the ordinary duties of the executive departments of the government, would be productive of nothing but mischief; and we are quite satisfied that such a power was never intended to be given to them.” P. 516.
That rule still stands. Larson v. Domestic & Foreign Corp., 337 U. S. 682, 704.21 This Court applied it recently in Chicago & Southern Air Lines, Inc. v. Waterman S. S. Corp., 333 U. S. 103, as to foreign policy decisions of the President concerning overseas airline licenses.22 In Louisiana v. McAdoo, 234 U. S. 627, the State sought to *205enjoin an order of the Secretary of the Treasury fixing the customs rate on sugar as “arbitrary, illegal and unjust” and irreparably injurious to the State. The Court refused the State permission to file the suit as in reality a suit against the United States, saying an officer may be compelled to act ministerially.
“But if the matter in respect to which the action of the official is sought, is one in which the exercise of either judgment or discretion is required, the courts will refuse to substitute their judgment or discretion for that of the official entrusted by law with its execution. Interference in such a case would be to interfere with the ordinary functions of government.” P. 633.
It seems clearly erroneous to suggest that “listing” determines any “guilt” or “punishment” for the organizations or has any finality in determining the loyalty of members. The President and the Attorney General pointed this out.23 It is written into the Code of Federal Regulations, *2065 CFR § 210.11 (b) (6), note 4, supra. The standard for discharge emphasizes the meaning. See notes 2 and 7, supra.
Before stating our conclusions a comment should be made as to the introduction by the concurring opinions of a discussion of the rights of a member of these organizations. It is suggested by one concurrence that as the “Government proceeds on the basis that each of these associations is so identical with its members that the subversive purpose and intents of the one may be attributed to and made conclusive upon the other,” the organization must be permitted to vindicate the members’ rights or due process is not satisfied. Another concurrence states “an employee may lose his job because of the Attorney General’s secret and ex parte action.” Both concurrences indicate, it seems to me, that as a member of petitioner organizations is denied due process by the effect of listing the organizations, the organization is likewise denied due process in the listing. Without accepting the logic of the concurrences, and waiving inquiry as to the standing of a corporation or unincorporated association to defend the rights of a member to employment, we think the suggestions as to lack of due process are based on an erroneous premise. Employees generally, under executive departments and agencies, whether or not members of listed organizations, without special statutory protection such as permanent employees under the competitive and classified civil service laws and regulations or preference eligibles under the Veterans’ Preference Act of 1944, 58 Stat. 387, 5 U. S. C. § 851, 5 CFR, Parts 9 and 22, and Part 2, § 2.104, are subject to summary removal by the appointing officers.24 Listing of these organiza*207tions does not conclude the members’ rights to hold government employment. It is only one piece of evidence for consideration.25 That mere membership in listed organizations does not normally bring about findings of disloyalty is graphically shown by a report of proceedings under the loyalty program.26 The procedure for removal of employees suspected of disloyalty follows the routine prescribed for the removal of employees on other grounds for dismissal. Employees under investigation have never had the right to confrontation, cross-examination and quasi-judicial hearing. 37 Stat. 555, as amended, 5 *208U. S. C. § 652. Normal removal procedure functions for permanent employees about in this way. The employing agency may remove for the efficiency of the service, including grounds for disqualification of an applicant. 5 CFR, 1947 Supp., § 9.101.27 Removal requires notice and charges.28 Before the loyalty review boards similar procedure is followed.29 Where initial consideration in*209dicates a removal of an incumbent for disloyalty may be warranted, notice is provided for.30 Thus, there is scrupulous care taken to see that an employee who has fallen under suspicion has notice of the charges and an opportunity to explain his actions. The employee has no opportunity to disprove the characterization placed upon the listed organization by the Attorney General for the practical reasons stated following note 2, supra. The employee does have every opportunity to explain his association with that organization. The Constitution requires for the employee no more than this fair opportunity to explain his questioned activities. Such procedure is quite similar to that followed in Great *210Britain in the removal or transfer of civil servants from positions “vital to the security of the State.” The Prime Minister assumed the authority to designate membership in the Communist Party or “other forms of continuing association” therewith as sufficient to bar employment in sensitive areas.31
Conclusion. — In our judgment organizations are not affected by these designations in such a manner as to *211permit a court’s interference or to deny due process. That conclusion holds good also when we assume the organizations may present their members’ grievances over discharge as a part of the organization’s case. The administrative hearing granted an employee facing discharge is a statutory modification of the employing agent’s former authority to discharge summarily. Such act of grace does not create a constitutional right. Due process is called for in determinations affecting rights.
What petitioners seek is a ruling that the Government cannot designate organizations as communist for the purpose of furthering investigations into employees’ loyalty by the employing agencies without giving those organizations an opportunity to examine and meet the information on which the list is based. One can understand that position. There is a natural hesitation against any action that may damage any person or organization through an error that notice and hearing might correct. Such attitude of tolerance is reflected in § 13 of the Internal Security Act of 1950, 64 Stat. 987, 998. A statutory requirement for notice and administrative hearing, how*212ever, does not mean the existence of a constitutional requirement.32
The Executive has authority to gather information concerning the loyalty of its employees as congressional committees have power to investigate matters of legislative interest. A public statement of legislative conclusions on information that later may be found erroneous may damage those investigated but it is not a civil judgment or a criminal conviction. Due process does not apply. Questions of propriety of political action are not for the courts. Information that an employee associates with or belongs to organizations considered communistic may be deemed by the Executive a sound reason for making inquiries into the desirability of the employment of that employee. That is not “guilt by association.” It is a warning to investigate the conduct of the employee and his opportunity for harm.
While we must be on guard against being moved to conclusions on the constitutionality of action, legislative or executive, by the circumstances of the moment, undoubtedly varying conditions call for differences in procedure. Due process requires appraisal in the light of conditions confronting the executive during the continuation of the challenged action.33 Power lies in the executive to guard the Nation from espionage, subversion and sedition by examining into the loyalty of employees, and due process in such investigation depends upon the particular exercise of that power in particular conditions.34 In investigations to determine the purposes of suspected organizations, the Government should be free to proceed without notice or hearing. Petitioners will have protec*213tion when steps are taken to punish or enjoin their activities. Where notice and such administrative hearing as the Code of Federal Regulations prescribes precede punishment, injunction or discharge, petitioners and their members’ rights to due process are protected.
The judgment of the Court of Appeals should be affirmed.

 5 U. S. C. (Supp. II) § HSj:
“(1) It shall be unlawful for any person employed in any capacity by any agency of the Federal Government, whose compensation, or any part thereof, is paid from funds authorized or appropriated by any Act of Congress, to have membership in any political party or organization which advocates the overthrow of our constitutional form of government in the United States.
“(2) Any person violating the provisions of this section shall be immediately removed from the position or office held by him, and thereafter no part of the funds appropriated by any Act of Congress for such position or office shall be used to pay the compensation of such persons.”

 See 12 Fed. Reg. 1938, 5 CFR §210.11 (a):
“(a) Standard. The standard for the refusal of employment or the removal from employment in an Executive department or agency on grounds relating to loyalty shall be that, on all the evidence, reasonable grounds exist for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States. The panel shall reach its decision on consideration of the complete file, arguments, brief and testimony presented to it.
“(b) Activities and associations. Among the activities and associations of an applicant or employee which may be considered in connection with the determination of disloyalty may be one or more of the following:
“(6) Membership in, affiliation with or sympathetic association with any foreign or domestic organization, association, movement, group or combination of persons, designated by the Attorney General as totalitarian, fascist, communist, or subversive, or as having adopted a policy of advocating or approving the commission of acts of force or violence to deny other persons their rights under the Constitution • of the United States, or as seeking to alter the form of government of the United States by unconstitutional means.”

 “3. The Loyalty Review Board shall currently be furnished by the Department of Justice the name of each foreign or domestic organization, association, movement, group or combination of persons which the Attorney General, after appropriate investigation and determination, designates as totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive, or as having adopted a policy of advocating or approving the commission of acts of force or violence to deny others their rights under the Constitution of the United States, or as seeking to alter the form of government of the United States by unconstitutional means.
“a. The Loyalty Review Board shall disseminate such information to all departments and agencies.”

 5 CFR § 210.11 (b) (6):
“Such membership, affiliation or sympathetic association is simply one piece of evidence which may or may not be helpful in arriving at a conclusion as to the action which is to be taken in a particular ease. ...”
See 5 CFR §200.1.

 13 Fed. Reg. 1471:
“After the issuance of Executive Order No. 9835 by the President, the Department of Justice compiled all available data with respect to the type of organization to be dealt with under that order. The investigative reports of the Federal Bureau of Investigation concerning such organizations were correlated. Memoranda on each such organization were prepared by attorneys of the Department. The list of organizations contained herein has been certified to the Board *193by the Attorney General on the basis of recommendations of attorneys of the Department as reviewed by the Solicitor General, the Assistant Attorneys General, and the Assistant Solicitor General, and subsequent careful study of all by the Attorney General.”
Cf. United States v. Chemical Foundation, 272 U. S. 1, 14; Lewis v. United States, 279 U. S. 63, 73.

 Cf. Nash v. United States, 229 U. S. 373, 377; N. Y. Central Securities Corp. v. United States, 287 U. S. 12, 24; United States v. Petrillo, 332 U. S. 1.

 5 CFR § 210.11 (b):
“(1) Sabotage, espionage, or attempts or preparations therefor, or knowingly associating with spies or saboteurs;
“ (2) Treason or sedition or advocacy thereof;
“(3) Advocacy of revolution or force or violence to alter the constitutional form of government of the United States;
“(4) Intentional, unauthorized disclosure to any person under circumstances which may indicate disloyalty to the United States, of documents or information of a confidential or non-public character obtained by the person making the disclosure as a result of his employment by the Government of the United States, or prior to his employment;
“(5) Performing or attempting to perform his duties, or otherwise acting, so as to serve the interests of another government in preference to the interests of the United States; See also n. 2, supra.

 In Schneiderman v. United States, 320 U. S. 118, 148, 158, a review of the evidence of communist theory upon the use of force and violence presented in that record led this Court to hold that the evidence concerning communist teaching upon force and violence was not so “clear, unequivocal and convincing” as to justify deportation of that defendant. We refused specifically to pass upon the attitude of communism toward force and violence. 320 U. S. at 148, 158.

 The Russian Imperial Government fell quickly in February 1917, because its power had been sapped by bureaucratic rapacity and war losses as well as by communist revolutionary doctrines. Even under those circumstances, there are said to have been more than a thousand casualties in St. Petersburg. I Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, 141.
The doctrine and practices of communism clearly enough teach the use of force against an existing noncommunist government to justify an official of our Government taking steps to protect governmental personnel by screening individuals to determine whether they accept force and violence as a political weapon. From the last paragraphs of the Communist Manifesto to the seizure of the last satellite, force and violence appears as a communist method for gaining control. Lenin, Collected Works (1930), Vol. XVIII, pp. 279-280; Trotsky, op. cit., 106, 120, 144, 151; Lenin, The State and Revo*196lution, August, 1917, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow (1949), 28, 30, 33. Translations furnished me indicate the same attitude on the part of Stalin. Collected Works, Vol. I, pp. 131-137, 185-205, 241-246; Vol. III, pp. 367-370. And see Leites, The Operational Code of the Politburo (1950), c. xiii, “Violence.”
See § 2 of the Internal Security Act of 1950, 64 Stat. 987.

 In the Refugee Committee complaint unconstitutionality of the designation was predicated upon repugnancy:
“1) It is repugnant to the Constitution of the United States as a deprivation of freedom of speech, of the press, and of assembly and association in violation of the First Amendment.
“2) ... as a deprivation of the fundamental rights of the people of the United States reserved to the people of the United States by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments.
“3) ... as a deprivation of liberty and property without due process of law in violation of the Fifth Amendment.”
In the Council case, it was predicated upon a lack of “any advance notice” and the Attorney General’s acting “without making ‘an appropriate investigation and determination,’ as required” by the Order. It was said:
“The aforesaid actions of the defendants have been arbitrary, capricious, contrary to law, in excess of statutory right and authority. Such actions have violated the rights of the plaintiffs guaranteed by the First and Fifth Amendments to the Constitution and are contrary to the Ninth and Tenth Amendments.”
The same general allegations of violations of the Due Process Clause and the First Amendment appear in No. 71, International Workers Order, Inc.

 Nortz v. United States, 294 U. S. 317, 324; Pierce Oil Corp. v. City of Hope, 248 U. S. 498; Straus v. Foxworth, 231 U. S. 162, 168.

 Bell v. Hood, 327 U. S. 678, 681, 684; Larson v. Domestic & Foreign Corp., 337 U. S. 682, 690.

 United Public Workers v. Mitchell, 330 U. S. 75, 95, and cases cited; American Communications Assn. v. Douds, 339 U. S. 382, 394-399; Feiner v. New York, 340 U. S. 315, 320-321.

 The fairness of that designation is considered under the next point.

 Perhaps they would insist not only on notice that an investigation is to be had but on an opportunity to be present and to have counsel, to cross-examine, to object to the introduction of evidence, to argue and to have judicial review. Cf. Hiatt v. Compagna, 178 F. 2d 42, affirmed by an equally divided court, 340 U. S. 880. An injunction against listing could have delayed administration until today.
The statutory requirement for a hearing explains the statement in Morgan v. United States, 304 U. S. 1, 14, that “in administrative proceedings of a quasi-judicial character the liberty and property of the citizen shall be protected by the rudimentary requirements of fair play. These demand ‘a fair and open hearing,’ — essential alike to the legal validity of the administrative regulation and to the maintenance of public confidence in the value and soundness of this important governmental process. Such a hearing has been described as an ‘inexorable safeguard.’ ” This hearing was a rate determination proceeding.
See the statement in the first Morgan case, 298 U. S. 468, 480: “That duty is widely different from ordinary executive action. It is a duty which carries with it fundamental procedural requirements. There must be a full hearing. There must be evidence adequate to support pertinent and necessary findings of fact.”
No enforceable rights to a hearing exist in an alien seeking admission to the United States. United States ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy, 338 U. S. 537, 544; Ekiu v. United States, 142 U. S. 651. To the extent that Ng Fung Ho v. White, 259 U. S. 276, requires a hearing, it is on the issue of alienage, and not of admissibility.

 Of course, notice to petitioners that an investigation was to be had to determine whether they had seditious purposes would be useless without opportunity for an administrative hearing. That is the effect of petitioners’ argument.

 For example, Shields v. Utah Idaho R. Co., 305 U. S. 177, interpreted a statutory requirement for determination by the Interstate Commerce Commission of the subjection of the railroad to the Railway Labor Act to necessitate procedural due process, “the hearing of evidence and argument.” We held, p. 183, that equity had cognizance of an objection to the proceeding, as “arbitrary and capricious,” p. 185, because failure to post a prescribed notice is punishable as a crime. A “right” was asserted.
Reliance on Interstate Commerce Comm’n v. Louisville & N. R. Co., 227 U. S. 88, is misplaced. The statute gave a right to a full hearing, p. 91.
United States v. Lovett, 328 U. S. 303, 316, protected an employee against what this Court held was legislative decree of exclusion from government employment without trial.
Columbia Broadcasting System v. United States, 316 U. S. 407, 418, depends upon this Court’s ruling that the regulation there subjected to attack required the Federal Communications Commission to reject applications and cancel outstanding licenses “on the grounds specified in the regulations without more.”

 Duke v. United States, 90 F. 2d 840; United States v. Central Supply Assn., 34 F. Supp. 241.

 46 Stat. 1421, 40 U. S. C. A. § 258 (a), and annotations; Catlin v. United States, 324 U. S. 229, 231.

 E. g., Underwriters from bank employment or direction. 48 Stat. 194, as amended, 49 Stat. 709, 12 U. S. C. § 78.

 This Court has declared the courts cannot supervise departmental action in discharge for inefficient rating, Keim v. United States, 177 U. S. 290, or enjoin leases of public lands where no contract rights are involved, Chapman v. Sheridan-Wyoming Co., 338 U. S. 621, 625. Cf. Work v. Rives, 267 U. S. 175.

 It said, p. Ill: “It would be intolerable that courts, without the relevant information, should review and perhaps nullify actions of the Executive taken on information properly held secret. Nor can courts sit in camera in order to be taken into executive confidences. But even if courts could require full disclosure, the very nature of executive decisions as to foreign policy is political, not judicial. Such decisions are wholly confided by our Constitution to the political departments of the government, Executive and Legislative.”
And added, pp. 112-113:
“Until the decision of the Board has Presidential approval, it grants no privilege and denies no right. It can give nothing and can take nothing away from the applicant or a competitor. It may be a step which if erroneous will mature into a prejudicial result, *205as an order fixing valuations in a rate proceeding may foreshow and compel a prejudicial rate order. But administrative orders are not reviewable unless and until they impose an obligation, deny a right or fix some legal relationship as a consummation of the administrative process.”

 5 CFR, App. A, p. 200, 13 Fed. Reg. 1471-1473:
“In connection with the designation of these organizations, the Attorney General has pointed out, as the President had done previously, that it is entirely possible that many persons belonging to such organizations may be loyal to the United States; that membership in, affiliation with, or sympathetic association with, any organization designated is simply one piece of evidence which may or may not be helpful in arriving at a conclusion as to the action which is to be taken in a particular ease. ‘Guilt by association’ has never been one of the principles of our American jurisprudence. We must be satisfied that reasonable grounds exist for concluding that an individual is disloyal. That must be the guide.”

 Keim v. United States, 177 U. S. 290; United Public Workers v. Mitchell, 330 U. S. 75, 102. Classified civil service employees by statute shall have notice of the charges in writing and the privilege *207of filing an answer with affidavits. The statute adds, “No examination of witnesses nor any trial or hearing shall be required except in the discretion of the officer or employee directing the removal or suspension without pay.” 37 Stat. 555, as amended, 5 U. S. C. § 652. And cf. Executive Order dated July 27, 1897, amending Civil Service Rule II, in 18th Report of the U. S. Civil Service Commission, at 282.

 5 CFR § 220.2 (a) (6). See note 4, supra.

 “A total of 3,166 Government employees have quit or have been discharged under President Truman’s loyalty program since it began March 21,1947, the Loyalty Review Board reported today.
“Of these, 294 actually were discharged for disloyalty. The remainder, 2,872, quit while under investigation and might or might not have been found disloyal.
“The loyalty figures cover all 2,000,000 or more Government employees, plus the additional thousands hired since the program was begun in the spring of 1947.
“The regular monthly loyalty report showed that loyalty boards of the various Federal agencies had received 13,842 reports from the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other investigating agencies since March 21, 1947. This meant investigators found something about those persons that raised a question about their loyalty.
“Of the cases ruled on by loyalty boards, 8,371 were found loyal and 522 disloyal. Of the 522, 294 were discharged, 186 won their jobs back on appeal and forty-two are still awaiting decisions.” New York Times, January 16, 1951.
See also n. 9 of Mr. Justice Douglas’ concurrence.

 Disqualification grounds are in 5 CFR § 2.104 (a):
“(a) An applicant may be denied examination and an eligible may be denied appointment for any of the following reasons:
“(1) Dismissal from employment for delinquency or misconduct.
“(2) Physical or mental unfitness for the position for which applied.
“(3) Criminal, infamous, dishonest, immoral, or notoriously disgraceful conduct.
“(4) Intentional false statements or deception or fraud in examination or appointment.
“(5) Refusal to furnish testimony as required by §5.3 of this chapter.
“(6) Habitual use of intoxicating beverages to excess.
"(7) On all the evidence, reasonable grounds exist for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States.
“ (8) Any legal or other disqualification which makes the applicant unfit for the service.”
Paragraph (7) is new. Cf. 12 Fed. Reg. 1938.

 5 CFR §9.102 (1):
“No employee, veteran or nonveteran, shall be separated, suspended, or demoted except for such cause as will promote the efficiency of the service and for reasons given in writing. The agency shall notify the employee in writing of the action proposed to be taken. This notice shall set forth, specifically and in detail, the charges preferred against him. The employee shall be allowed a reasonable time for filing a written answer to such charges and furnishing affidavits in support of his answer. He shall not, however, be entitled to an examination of witnesses, nor shall any trial or hearing be required except in the discretion of the agency.”
See Part 22 for appeals under Veterans’ Preference Act of 1944.

 5 CFR, Part 220.

 5 CFR § 220.2 (f) and (g).
“ (g) . . . The notice of proposed removal action required in paragraph (f) of this section shall state to the employee:
“(1) The charges against him in factual detail, setting forth with particularity the facts and circumstances relating to the charges so far as security considerations will permit, in order to enable the employee to submit his answer, defense or explanation.
“(2) His right to answer the charges in writing, under oath or affirmation, within a specified reasonable period of time, not less than ten (10) calendar days from the date of the receipt by the employee of the notice.
“(3) His right to have an administrative hearing on the charges before a loyalty board in the agency, upon his request.
“(4) His right to appear before such board personally, to be represented by counsel or representative of his own choosing, and to present evidence in his behalf.”
Id:, § 220.3 (d):
“(d) Presentation of evidence. Both the Government and the applicant or employee may introduce such evidence as the board may deem proper in the particular case.
“The board shall take into consideration the fact that the applicant or employee may have been handicapped in his defense by the non-disclosure to him of confidential information or by the lack of opportunity to cross-examine persons constituting such sources of information.”

 The Prime Minister first described this program in a statement in the House of Commons, March 15, 1948, 448 H. C. Deb. 1703 ff., and in further detail on March 25, id. at 3418 if. The standards for the program are set forth at 451 H. C. Deb., Written Answers, p. 118, in the form of instructions to three “advisers on Communists and Fascists in the Civil Service,” retired civil servants designated to perform a function essentially parallel to that of the Loyalty Review Board here:
“1. The Government have stated that no one who is believed to be: — ■
“(i) either a member of the Communist Party or of a Fascist organisation; or
“(ii) associated with either the Communist Party or a Fascist organisation in such a way as to raise legitimate doubts about his reliability;
is to be employed in connection with work the nature of which is vital to the security of the State.
“2. You have been appointed to advise Ministers, in any cases referred to you, whether in your opinion their prima facie ruling that a civil servant comes under (i) or (ii) above is or is not substantiated. The decision on what employment is to be regarded as involving 'connection with work the nature of which is vital to the security of the State’ is one not for you but for Ministers in charge of Departments.
“3. Your functions do not extend beyond advising the Minister whether the prima facie case has or has not been substantiated. You are not concerned with the action which he may decide to take in relation to the matter.”
The Prime Minister stated that the civil servant concerned would be informed as specifically as possible of the charges against him, but *211that “It is quite impossible — and everyone will realise that it is— that we should give in detail exactly the sources of information. If we do that, we destroy anything like an effective security service.” Id., Yol. 448, at 3423. He would be allowed to appear personally in response to charges. Id. at 3425.
While the program is primarily intended to effect the transfer of unreliable civil servants to jobs not vital to the security of the state (unless their technical training fits them only for security jobs), nevertheless it has apparently been extended to cover all jobs in certain agencies, such as the Air Ministry Headquarters. Id., Yol. 452, at 940-941.
The Prime Minister did not answer directly questions as to the scope of the order in relation to “the telephone service and key telephone exchanges,” id., Vol. 448, at 1705, or “members of the Services who are engaged in dealing with secret processes.” Id. at 1706.

 Cf. Standard Computing Scale Co. v. Farrell, 249 U. S. 571.

 Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U. S. 81, 93, 100.

 Home Building & Loan Assn. v. Blaisdell, 290 U. S. 398, 426, 442.