Court Opinion

ID: 9568092
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-21 20:00:35.630572+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T12:33:14.102231
License: Public Domain

NOT RECOMMENDED FOR PUBLICATION
                               File Name: 23a0390n.06

                                      Nos. 22-3301/3697

                         UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
                              FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT                                 FILED
                                                                              Aug 21, 2023
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,                      )                         DEBORAH S. HUNT, Clerk
                                                )
        Plaintiff-Appellee,
                                                )
                                                        ON APPEAL FROM THE UNITED
                                                )
 v.                                                     STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR
                                                )
                                                        THE NORTHERN DISTRICT OF
                                                )
 TANDRE BUCHANAN, JR.,                                  OHIO
                                                )
        Defendant-Appellant.                    )
                                                                                     OPINION
                                                )

              Before: CLAY, McKEAGUE, and STRANCH, Circuit Judges.
       STRANCH, J., delivered the opinion of the court in which CLAY, J., joined, and
McKEAGUE, J., joined in part. McKEAGUE, J. (pp. 21–23), delivered a separate opinion
concurring in part and dissenting in part.

       JANE B. STRANCH, Circuit Judge. In May 2020, Defendant Tandre Buchanan, Jr.

participated in rioting and looting in Downtown Cleveland in the wake of George Floyd’s murder.

He smashed the window of a local bakery, then grabbed a chair from inside and used it to smash

another window—creating openings that others used to loot the store while the owner and her

employees were locked in the store’s bathroom. A jury convicted Buchanan on one count of Hobbs

Act Robbery and aiding and abetting the same and one count of tampering with evidence. The

district court sentenced Buchanan to 48 months’ imprisonment and ordered him to pay restitution.

On appeal, Buchanan challenges the judgment and the restitution order. Because the evidence was

sufficient to convict Buchanan on both counts, we AFFIRM the district court’s judgment.
Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

Because the district court’s restitution order is based on speculative lost profits, we VACATE its

restitution order and REMAND for a recalculation consistent with this opinion.

                                    I.   BACKGROUND
   A. Factual Background

       On May 30, 2020, Tandre Buchanan joined crowds of people in Downtown Cleveland to

protest the murder of George Floyd by a Minneapolis police officer. The protests did not remain

peaceful—rioting, looting, and property destruction ensued.

       As the protests spread and turned violent, business owner Kelly Kandah and several of her

employees were inside Colossal Cupcakes, a small bakery on Euclid Avenue. A rioter threw an

object and damaged one of the store’s large front windows. Kandah was at the front of the store,

while her employees were standing further back behind a counter. Hoping to avoid injury, Kandah

attempted to alert the rioters to their presence, but a cinder block was thrown back in response.

Buchanan, clothed in a bright orange sweatshirt, shoes, and durag, proceeded to break the already-

damaged window and was the first person to enter the store. In Kandah’s presence, Buchanan

grabbed one of the store’s chairs, exited, and smashed a second storefront window. Buchanan

dropped the chair on the sidewalk and walked away while other rioters streamed into the store

through the openings.

       Meanwhile, Kandah and her employees locked themselves in the store’s bathroom and

called emergency services. They could hear “cheering” and “chanting” in the store, and rioters

pounded on the bathroom door. Within approximately 10 minutes, Cleveland SWAT team

members arrived at Colossal Cupcakes and escorted Kandah and company out of the store. The

store had been “ransacked”; an employee testified that she was in “complete disbelief” when she

walked out of the bathroom because the store “had just been destroyed in a matter of minutes.”

Amidst the destruction, Kandah noticed “stuff was just taken,” including five computer tablets,

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

other electronic equipment, and cupcakes. The bakery remained exposed to the public for 11

hours. All told, approximately $280,000 of store property was stolen.

       On June 8, 2020, the FBI issued a press release requesting information on persons of

interest in connection with the May 30 riots. The release included two photos of Buchanan from

May 30: one featured Buchanan in the act of smashing Colossal Cupcakes’ storefront window

with the chair and the other showed him posing on a sidewalk with a deer head taken from a

sporting goods store. Within 15 minutes, Buchanan was identified, and the FBI confirmed his

identity through a driver’s license search and his personal Instagram account, which featured a

picture of Buchanan wearing the orange sweatshirt. Within an hour of the press release, Buchanan

restricted his Instagram profile from public access to private access.

       The FBI arrested Buchanan and executed a search warrant at his residence on June 10.

Investigators were unable to find the orange clothing worn by Buchanan on May 30; he later told

investigators that he had disposed of it.        After receiving consent, investigators searched

Buchanan’s phone, which contained videos and messages related to the riots, including messages

where Buchanan said he “was giving [cupcakes] out” and showed his awareness that Kandah was

in the store when he smashed the first window.

       B.      Judicial Proceedings

       On July 23, a federal grand jury indicted Buchanan on one count of Hobbs Act Robbery

and aiding and abetting the same in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1951(a) and § 2 and one count of

tampering with evidence with intent to impair an object’s integrity and availability for use in an

official proceeding in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1512(c)(1). The Hobbs Act Robbery charge was

limited to Buchanan’s conduct at Colossal Cupcakes, and the tampering with evidence charge was

related to Buchanan’s disposal of the orange clothing he was wearing that day.

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

       At trial, the Government introduced evidence related to Buchanan’s charged conduct at

Colossal Cupcakes and evidence related to other uncharged conduct at other establishments that

day. The district court admitted the latter evidence over Buchanan’s objection. At the close of

both parties’ cases, Buchanan moved for judgment of acquittal on both counts under Federal Rule

of Criminal Procedure 29, but the district court denied the motion. The jury convicted Buchanan

on both counts.

       The district court sentenced Buchanan to 48 months’ imprisonment and, at a later hearing,

ordered him to pay $228,887.61 in restitution, of which $189,796 represented lost profits for the

four-month period Colossal Cupcakes was closed for repairs.

       Buchanan timely appealed both the district court’s judgment and subsequent restitution

order, and this court granted his motion to consolidate the appeals.

                                       II.   ANALYSIS

       On appeal, Buchanan argues that the district court erred in (1) denying his motion for

judgment of acquittal because the Government presented insufficient evidence on both counts;

(2) admitting evidence that he vandalized or looted three other businesses on May 30; and

(3) awarding restitution for the bakery’s lost profits. We take each issue in turn.

       A.      Sufficiency of the Evidence

       Buchanan moved under Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 29 for a judgment of acquittal

on both counts of the indictment; the district court denied the motion, finding that the evidence

was sufficient for a jury to convict him on both counts. We review challenges to the sufficiency

of the evidence de novo, considering “whether, after viewing the evidence in the light most

favorable to the prosecution, any rational trier of fact could have found the essential elements of

the crime beyond a reasonable doubt.” United States v. Kennedy, 714 F.3d 951, 956-57 (6th Cir.

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

2013) (quoting Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 319 (1979)). We do not “‘weigh the evidence

presented, consider the credibility of witnesses, or substitute our judgment for that of the jury.’”

United States v. Graham, 622 F.3d 445, 448 (6th Cir. 2010) (quoting United States v. M/G Transp.

Servs., Inc., 173 F.3d 584, 588-89 (6th Cir. 1999)).

               1.      Count 1: Hobbs Act Robbery

       The jury convicted Buchanan on the first count of the indictment, which charged him with

committing, and aiding and abetting others in committing, Hobbs Act Robbery of Colossal

Cupcakes. Hobbs Act Robbery has two elements: (1) the substantive criminal act, which in this

case is robbery, and (2) interference with interstate commerce, which is not at issue here. United

States v. Ostrander, 411 F.3d 684, 691 (6th Cir. 2005). The Hobbs Act defines robbery as:

       [T]he unlawful taking or obtaining of personal property from the person or in the
       presence of another, against his will, by means of actual of threatened force, or
       violence, or fear of injury, immediate or future, to his person or property, or
       property in his custody or possession, or the person or property of . . . anyone in his
       company at the time of the taking or obtaining.

18 U.S.C. § 1951(b)(1). The verdict form did not distinguish between Buchanan’s liability as a

principal and his liability as an aider and abettor because the liability is the same under either

theory. See 18 U.S.C. § 2(a). Buchanan argues that the evidence was insufficient to convict him

under either theory.

                       a.     Buchanan’s Liability as a Principal

       Buchanan argues that the Government’s evidence was insufficient to convict him for

Hobbs Act Robbery as a principal because the evidence (1) did not show that Buchanan took any

property from Colossal Cupcakes while Kandah and her employees were present and (2) did not

show that he “committed some violent act or that he threatened violence.”

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

         Buchanan maintains that he did not take anything from Colossal Cupcakes while Kandah

and her employees were present. But the video evidence corroborates Kandah’s testimony that

Buchanan entered the store and took a chair, which he used to smash the second storefront window.

Buchanan does not address his taking of the chair, and he did not raise a defense that he did not

intend to deprive Colossal Cupcakes of the chair because he left it on the sidewalk—likely because,

under the plain language of the statute, such a defense does not exist.1 The Government’s evidence

was sufficient to show that Buchanan unlawfully took the chair from Colossal Cupcakes in the

presence of Kandah.

         Buchanan’s second objection is that the Government proved Kandah was in fear but failed

to prove he committed or threatened a violent act, relying on our holding in United States v. Gooch

that Hobbs Act Robbery is a crime of violence under 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(3). See 850 F.3d 285,

292 (6th Cir. 2017). Buchanan argues that breaking a window outside the store and then briefly

entering it is not an act of violence or a threat of violence. While Gooch rejected the argument

that “one could commit Hobbs Act robbery by ‘putting the victim in fear of injury’ without

violence or the threat of violence,” it does not support Buchanan’s argument that breaking a

window is not an act of violence. Id. at 291-92. Gooch held only that Hobbs Act Robbery has as

an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of force and thus constitutes a crime of

violence. Id. The statute’s plain language requires a taking “by means of actual of threatened

force, or violence, or fear of injury, immediate or future,” to the person or their property. 18

U.S.C. § 1951(b)(1) (emphasis added). The evidence here is sufficient to show that Buchanan

1
  Under the federal carjacking statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2119, which also requires the taking of property from the person or
presence of another, we have held that “an intent to permanently deprive [is not] an element of the offense.” United
States v. Moore, 73 F.3d 666, 669 (6th Cir. 1996). Rather, “‘[t]aking’ property as defined under the federal robbery
statutes is simply the acquisition by the robber of possession, dominion or control of the property for some period of
time.” Id. Accord United States v. Wright, 246 F.3d 1123, 1126 (8th Cir. 2001).

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

used force to effectuate the unlawful taking of property when he punched and kicked the first

window to break it and enter the store, a violent action that reasonably put Kandah in fear of injury.

       In sum, the Government’s evidence was sufficient for a reasonable jury to find that

Buchanan was guilty of Hobbs Act Robbery as a principal.

                       b.      Buchanan’s Liability as an Aider and Abettor

       Buchanan argues that the evidence was insufficient to find him liable as an aider and abettor

because it did not show that he “specifically intended to help others commit Hobbs Act robbery.”

       A defendant aids and abets if he “(1) takes an affirmative act in furtherance of [an] offense,

(2) with the intent of facilitating the offense’s commission,” Rosemond v. United States, 572 U.S.

65, 71 (2014), and is punishable as a principal, 18 U.S.C. § 2(a). Regarding the affirmative act

requirement, “Congress used language that ‘comprehends all assistance rendered by words, acts,

encouragement, support, or presence.’” Rosemond, 572 U.S. at 73 (quoting Reves v. Ernst &

Young, 507 U.S. 170, 178 (1993)). The defendant’s intent “must go to the specific and entire crime

charged”; “[a]n intent to advance some different or lesser offense is not, or at least not usually,

sufficient.” Id. at 76. A defendant must do more than just “‘associate himself with the venture’”;

he must participate and act in a way “‘to bring [it] about’” and “‘make it succeed.’” Id. (quoting

Nye & Nissen v. United States, 336 U.S. 613, 619 (1949)).

       Buchanan does not contest that breaking out the windows of Colossal Cupcakes satisfies

the act requirement or that other principals committed Hobbs Act Robbery; he contends only that

he did not intend to facilitate the crime. But a reasonable jury could have inferred that he did based

on several pieces of evidence. Evidence showed the general environment of “mayhem” on Euclid

Avenue: “[B]asically everywhere . . . had been broken into, and people were going in and out of

[stores] carrying stuff in and out.” The rioters were breaking windows and “jumping in windows

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

and pulling stuff out of the inside of” stores. Further, the Government introduced evidence tending

to show that Buchanan knew people were inside Colossal Cupcakes: Kandah testified that she was

still in the main part of the store and pleaded with the rioters before they entered, and text messages

showed that Buchanan was aware of Kandah’s presence in the store when he smashed the first

window. In short, sufficient evidence existed that a reasonable jury could find Buchanan was an

“active participant” in a criminal venture with “full awareness of its scope” and had “determined .

. . to do what he [could] to ‘make [that scheme] succeed.’”2 Rosemond, 572 U.S. at 78-79 (quoting

Nye & Nissen, 336 U.S. at 619) (second alteration in Rosemond).

                 2.       Count 2: Tampering With Evidence

        The second count of the indictment charged Buchanan with tampering with evidence, often

called obstruction of justice, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1512(c)(1). Buchanan argues that the

evidence was insufficient to convict him for tampering with evidence because it did not show that

an official proceeding was reasonably foreseeable when he disposed of the orange sweatshirt,

shoes, and durag he was wearing during the riot.

        To secure a conviction under § 1512(c)(1), the Government “needed to prove that the

defendant knowingly and ‘corruptly’ altered or destroyed a document or object with the intent to

impair that document or object’s use in an official proceeding.” United States v. Sterling, 860 F.3d

233, 245–46 (4th Cir. 2017); United States v. Mehmood, 742 F. App’x 928, 936 (6th Cir. 2018)

(finding the same elements). Additionally, we have applied a nexus requirement in the context of

another subsection of the obstruction statute, § 1512(c)(2), “to limit obstruction liability to cases

2
  Contrary to Buchanan’s argument otherwise, there is no need for “direct evidence of actual communication between
the aider and abett[or] and the principal [to] be introduced.” United States v. Lawson, 872 F.2d 179, 181 (6th Cir.
1989) (quoting United States v. Bradley, 421 F.2d 924, 927 (6th Cir. 1970)). The terms aiding and abetting have a
“broader application” than, for example, a conspiracy, because they do not “presuppose the existence of an
agreement.” Pereira v. United States, 347 U.S. 1, 11 (1954) (citing Nye & Nissen, 336 U.S. at 620)).

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

where the defendant foresaw, or could reasonably foresee, that his conduct would interfere with

an official proceeding.” United States v. Wellman, 26 F.4th 339, 347 (6th Cir. 2022). Both parties

agree that Wellman’s nexus requirement logically applies to prosecutions under § 1512(c)(1)

because the statute uses the same language, and the jury was instructed on it.

       Wellman warned against “conflating obstruction of an official proceeding with obstruction

of a mere criminal investigation unconnected with an official proceeding,” but noted that where

specific evidence in the record “reveals that a defendant acted with awareness ‘that he was the

target of an investigation’ and that ‘the government might be trying to build a case against [him],’

the nexus requirement is satisfied.” Id. at 348 (quoting United States v. Persico, 645 F.3d 85, 108

(2d Cir. 2011)). Ultimately, a defendant “need not have known an official proceeding was

ongoing, just that it was foreseeable his conduct would interfere with one” because any other rule

“would create the perverse incentive for defendants to obstruct justice more proficiently.” Id. at

349.

       Buchanan argues that the evidence was insufficient to show that his disposal of the clothing

was in light of a reasonably foreseeable official proceeding. The evidence does not directly show

when Buchanan disposed of the orange shoes, sweatshirt, and durag he was wearing on May 30.

On May 31, Buchanan exchanged messages that he had seen a video of himself, and he was “so

happy they ain’t got my face.” The other person responded: “Why would you wear that bright

ass orange[?] You probably in hella videos[.]” Buchanan also received a text saying, “They want

to hang you about that shit.” The FBI press release featuring Buchanan in the orange clothing was

issued on June 8, and Buchanan switched his Instagram profile, which featured a picture in the

clothing, from public to private within an hour of its issuance. Law enforcement arrested

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

Buchanan on June 11, and on the morning of June 12, he told the investigators that he had disposed

of the clothing.

       Buchanan submits that this evidence is not sufficient to satisfy the nexus requirement,

pointing to the indictment’s charge that he disposed of the orange clothing “on or about May 30,

2020 through on or about June 1, 2020.” “When ‘on or about’ language is used in an indictment,

proof of the exact date of an offense is not required as long as a date reasonably near that named

in the indictment is established.” United States v. Ford, 872 F.2d 1231, 1236 (6th Cir. 1989).

Crediting the circumstantial evidence, specifically Buchanan’s actions regarding his Instagram

privacy settings, a reasonable jury could conclude that Buchanan disposed of the clothing after the

FBI press release. In that scenario, his actions satisfy the nexus requirement because he would

have been aware when he disposed of the clothing that he was the target of an investigation, and

that the government was building a case against him. See Wellman, 26 F.4th at 348.

       Even assuming Buchanan disposed of the clothing prior to the FBI press release on June 8,

a reasonable jury could still find that it was foreseeable to Buchanan that his conduct would

interfere with an official proceeding. See id. at 349. On May 31, Buchanan sent messages that he

was “so happy” that his face had not been captured in one video and received messages questioning

why he would wear such distinctive clothing and stating that “they” wanted to “hang” him about

his actions. That Buchanan disposed of all three orange items of clothing, in and of itself, indicates

his awareness that an official proceeding could be forthcoming. In closing argument, defense

counsel argued that Buchanan disposed of the sweatshirt because it had a hole in it, but that

innocuous theory does not account for why he also disposed of the shoes and the durag. Sufficient

evidence existed that a reasonable jury could find the requisite nexus; finding otherwise would

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

reward Buchanan for “obstruct[ing] justice . . . proficiently.” Id. The district court did not err in

denying Buchanan’s Rule 29 motion regarding the tampering with evidence charge.

       B.      Admission of Evidence of Uncharged Conduct

       Prior to trial, the Government moved to admit “additional evidence of uncharged conduct”

tending to show that Buchanan vandalized or looted three other businesses located within a few

blocks of Colossal Cupcakes. We briefly summarize the additional evidence the Government

sought to admit.

       Huntington Bank.       The Government sought to introduce evidence recovered from

Buchanan’s cell phone showing that he threw a large object through the revolving door of

Huntington Bank. This occurred prior to the incident at Colossal Cupcakes.

       Geiger’s Sporting Goods. The Government sought to introduce evidence tending to show

that Buchanan stole a mounted deer head from a sporting goods store. The evidence consisted of

a picture of Buchanan with the deer head on a sidewalk and text messages stating that he got “a

deer head for the studio.” This occurred after the incident at Colossal Cupcakes.

       City Tap Bar and Restaurant.         The Government sought to introduce evidence that

Buchanan stole liquor from a restaurant that was looted. The evidence consisted of a picture of a

man in a bright orange sweatshirt outside City Tap loading the truck of a vehicle that belonged to

Buchanan’s brother, text messages stating Buchanan was with his brother at the relevant time,

social media messages sent from Buchanan’s account stating, “they only had 2 Crown bottles and

I sold them both,” and cell phone location data showing that Buchanan was within a block of City

Tap at the relevant time. This occurred after the incident at Colossal Cupcakes.

       As an initial matter, the trial transcripts reveal that Buchanan did not object to the admission

of the video showing the Huntington Bank incident or to certain text messages that included a

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

general discussion about looting and specific discussion about Colossal Cupcakes. In his opening

statement, moreover, his counsel played the video of the Huntington Bank incident to support the

defense theory that Buchanan’s intent was only to destroy property. We consider these issues

waived and limit our analysis to the evidence regarding Buchanan’s actions at Geiger’s Sporting

Goods and City Tap.

          The Government argued that this evidence was admissible on two grounds: (1) as evidence

“inextricably intertwined” with the charged conduct or (2) as other acts evidence for the purpose

of showing motive, intent, and opportunity pursuant to Rule 404(b). Prior to trial, the district court

indicated that it was “inclined to let it in” but wanted to hear the testimony before definitively

ruling. At trial, the district court admitted the evidence over Buchanan’s objection and provided a

limiting instruction to the jury that explained permissible uses of the other act evidence under Rule

404(b).

          On appeal, Buchanan argues that the district court abused its discretion in admitting

evidence of uncharged conduct under either of the Government’s proposed grounds. He contends

that the evidence was improper character propensity evidence and should have been excluded. We

generally review evidentiary rulings for abuse of discretion. United States v. Hazelwood, 979 F.3d

398, 408 (6th Cir. 2020). However, “[s]ome panels of this Court have argued that there is an intra-

circuit split regarding the correct standard of review for a district court’s decision to admit Rule

404(b) evidence.” United States v. Mandoka, 869 F.3d 448, 456 (6th Cir. 2017). Some have

applied the abuse of discretion standard, see id., while others have followed a three-step process:

          First, we review for clear error whether there is a sufficient factual basis for the
          occurrence of the “bad act” that is being proffered as evidence (and challenged
          pursuant to 404(b)). Second, we determine de novo whether the evidence was
          proffered for an admissible purpose. Third, we review for an abuse of discretion

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

         whether the probative value of the proffered evidence is substantially outweighed
         by any undue prejudice that will result from its admittance.

Id. at 456-57 (citations omitted). We need not decide here which standard of review ought to apply

because Buchanan’s claim fails under either formulation; for purposes of this analysis, we will

assume the tripartite standard of review applies.

         As an initial matter, Buchanan does not dispute that the other acts occurred, so we proceed

to consider whether the evidence was proffered for an admissible purpose.

         Rule 404(b) bars using evidence of other acts to prove a “person’s character in order to

show that on a particular occasion the person acted in accordance with the character,” but it permits

use of such evidence for other purposes including opportunity, intent, and knowledge. Fed. R.

Evid. 404(b)(1)-(2). Regarding using other acts as evidence of intent, we have stated:

         [W]here there is thrust upon the government, either by virtue of the defense raised
         by the defendant or by virtue of the elements of the crime charged, the affirmative
         duty to prove that the underlying prohibited act was done with a specific criminal
         intent, other acts evidence may be introduced under Rule 404(b).

United States v. Johnson, 27 F.3d 1186, 1192 (6th Cir. 1994). Our court considers Hobbs Act

Robbery a specific intent crime.3 United States v. Dabish, 708 F.2d 240, 242 (6th Cir. 1983);

United States v. Cobb, 397 F. App’x 128, 137 (6th Cir. 2010).

         Buchanan’s theory of the case from his opening statement to his closing argument was that

he was at the protests and subsequent riots only to engage in vandalism and property destruction—

not to steal anything or commit robbery. That theory made Buchanan’s intent a “material issue in

the case” and opened the door for the Government to introduce other acts—Buchanan engaging in

3
  Buchanan cites the Sixth Circuit’s opinion in United States v. Carmichael to argue otherwise, but that case held only
that the district court was not required to give a jury instruction that “in order to convict Carmichael, it had to conclude
that Carmichael intended to violate the Hobbs Act.” 232 F.3d 510, 522 (6th Cir. 2000).

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

other looting activities—to evidence his intention at Colossal Cupcakes. Johnson, 27 F.3d at

1191-92. The admission of the evidence regarding uncharged conduct did not violate Rule

404(b)’s character propensity bar.

         Finally, the district court did not abuse its discretion in finding that the probative value of

the other act evidence was not substantially outweighed by undue prejudice. Although it was

prejudicial, it was not unduly so; it did not include violence or other highly inflammatory actions.

See, e.g., United States v. Clay, 667 F.3d 689, 700 (6th Cir. 2012) (noting that prejudicial impact

of uncharged conduct was high where evidence “suggested that [defendant] was a repeatedly

violent offender”). Further, the district court provided limiting instructions contemporaneously

and in its final charge to ensure the jury understood that Buchanan was only on trial for “the

robbery of the cupcake place” and “there’s a limited purpose for this type of testimony [about other

acts.]” Those repeated limiting instructions “sufficiently mitigated the risk that jurors would

consider [the other act evidence] for improper purposes.” United States v. Barnes, 822 F.3d 914,

924 (6th Cir. 2016); United States v. Perry, 438 F.3d 642, 649 (6th Cir. 2006) (holding probative

value of subsequent robbery for limited purpose was not substantially outweighed by unfair

prejudice in light of repeated limiting instructions).

         C.     The District Court’s Restitution Order

         Buchanan appeals the district court’s order awarding $228,887.61 in restitution, arguing

that the district court erred in awarding restitution for lost profits and for losses not directly and

proximately caused by his actions. We review whether restitution is permitted de novo and the

amount of restitution for abuse of discretion. United States v. Evers, 669 F.3d 645, 654 (6th Cir.

2012).

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

        “[R]estitution orders are proper ‘only when and to the extent authorized by statute.’”

United States v. Church, 731 F.3d 530, 535 (6th Cir. 2013) (quoting Evers, 669 F.3d at 655-56).

Buchanan’s Hobbs Act Robbery conviction implicated the Mandatory Victims Restitution Act

(MVRA), 18 U.S.C. § 3663A. Relevant here, “in the case of an offense resulting in damage to or

loss or destruction or property of a victim of the offense,” the MVRA requires a restitution order

to award an amount equal to the “value of the property” on the date of loss or on the date of

sentencing, whichever is greater, less the value of any property returned.                               Id.,

§§ 3663A(b)(1)(B)(i)-(ii). Buchanan argues that the statutory language specifying an amount

equal to the “value of the property” does not authorize the district court to award lost profits for

the four months that Colossal Cupcakes was closed after the riots. His argument is grounded in

the fact that the MVRA does not mention lost income for property offenses but does specify it for

bodily injury offenses. Specifically, the MVRA allows for awards of “income lost by such victim

as a result of [an offense resulting in bodily injury to a victim].” Id. § 3663A(b)(2)(C)

        Relying on United States v. Lively, 20 F.3d 193 (6th Cir. 1994), the district court held it

was authorized to award lost profits for a property offense under the MVRA.4 In Lively, the

defendant stole merchandise from the victim through mail fraud and then resold those items to

third parties. Id. at 200. The district court awarded restitution in the amount of the retail value,

i.e., the sales price of the merchandise, and not the wholesale cost that the victim would expend to

acquire these goods. Id. at 203. The defendant appealed arguing that the statute only allowed the

district court to consider the wholesale value, not the businesses’ lost profits. Id. The Lively court

disagreed, noting that the statute did not expressly foreclose such an award and determining that

4
 Lively analyzed the Victim and Witness Protection Act, which contains identical language to the MVRA. See 20
F.3d at 200-01.

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

the district court could order restitution in an amount that would “cover a company’s actual losses,

which would be the retail price in the case at bar” since the victim no longer had this merchandise

available to sell and awarding the retail price “was the only way to assure the restoration of these

victims to their prior state of well being,” the very purpose of restitution. See id. at 202-03

(discussing Hughey v. United States, 495 U.S. 411, 416 (1990), and legislative history for the

purpose of restitution).

       Buchanan attempts to distinguish Lively and relies on opinions from the Fourth and Fifth

Circuits barring awards of lost profits for property offenses based on the plain language of the

statute. See United States v. Mitchell, 876 F.2d 1178, 1183 (5th Cir. 1989); United States v. Sharp,

927 F.2d 170, 174 (4th Cir. 1991). The Government argues that Lively controls and cites decisions

from the Second, Ninth, and Tenth Circuits allowing awards for lost profits. See United States v.

Milstein, 481 F.3d 132, 136-37 (2d Cir. 2007); United States v. De La Fuente, 353 F.3d 766, 768,

771-73 (9th Cir. 2003); United States v. Wilfong, 551 F.3d 1182, 1183-87 (10th Cir. 2008).

       As an initial matter, Buchanan is correct that our decision in Lively is not directly on point.

Lively concerned how to determine the present value of misappropriated consumer goods, opting

to value goods at retail instead of wholesale price with the difference constituting the businesses’

profits. 20 F.3d at 202-03. Here, the district court attempted to value not only consumer goods,

like cupcakes, but also the operating capital of the business. Whether future estimated profits of

Colossal Cupcakes can constitute the “value of the property” presents an issue distinct from the

one raised in Lively. Indeed, in a case cited by the Government, the Tenth Circuit discussed this

distinction after comparing the ostensibly competing holdings of the Fourth and Fifth Circuits in

Sharp and Mitchell and the Second and Sixth Circuits in Milstein and Lively. See Wilfong, 551

F.3d at 1185-86. Ultimately, the Tenth Circuit affirmed an order awarding restitution for “lost

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

employee work time” due to a bomb threat but explained that the order was not “compensating for

lost profits or income” or “the diminution in future income,” only “giv[ing] the government

compensation for the cost of the property that was destroyed by [the defendant]’s actions.” Id. at

1186.

        In Mitchell, the defendant stole several trucks, and the district court awarded the victims

restitution for lost income for the period the business could not use its trucks. 876 F.2d at 1183.

The Fifth Circuit vacated the restitution order, relying on the logic Buchanan now uses:

        Congress is clearly capable of authorizing restitution for lost income when it
        chooses to do so. Despite this fact, it has not included lost income in the type of
        restitution that may be ordered in property cases and, unless and until it amends the
        statute to include lost income, courts may not order such restitution in property
        cases.

Id. (citations omitted). The Fourth Circuit in Sharp also relied on the plain language of the statute

but notably distinguished and affirmed restitution measured by the cost of repairs to a damaged

mine. 927 F.2d at 174.

        The Government relies on the Second Circuit’s opinion in Milstein in which the defendant

violated trademark law by distributing misbranded drugs, and the district court awarded restitution

to drug manufacturers based on the value of lost sales.   481 F.3d at 137. After noting Sharp and

Mitchell, the Second Circuit instead determined that “[n]othing in the text or legislative history of

the [Act] precludes restitution for lost profits under section 3663(b)(1) where such losses amount

to the ‘value of the property’ the victim lost.” Id. at 136. It distinguished both cases, explaining

that they “confuse the loss of income suffered by a victim of personal injury with the very different

notion of lost profits as a measure of loss suffered by a victim of misappropriation of property.”

Id. Ultimately, Milstein held that the value of the property—intangible trademarks—could be

measured by the victims’ lost sales caused by the defendant. Id. at 137.

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

       At issue is the proper interpretation of the term “value,” which is undefined in the statute.

We agree with Milstein that nothing in the statutory language prohibits restitution for lost profits

where such losses amount to the “‘value of the property’ the victim lost.” 481 F.3d at 136. In this

case, that would be the retail price of cupcakes and other stolen items that could have been sold by

the victim on the day of the offense. Ultimately, however, the statutory language is both the

“starting point for interpretation” and the “ending point if the plain meaning of that language is

clear.” United States v. Henry, 819 F.3d 856, 870 (6th Cir. 2016). Because the statute does not

provide for the recovery of lost income for offenses resulting in property damage, the district

court’s restitution order including lost potential income during the time period the store was closed

for repairs was in error.

       Accordingly, the restitution order in this case may account for the retail price of the

cupcakes and other items stolen on May 30, 2020 (in addition to the cost of repairs), but not for

any speculative losses such as potential profits that may have been earned during the timeframe

due to the closure of the business for repairs. See United States v. Kilpatrick, 798 F.3d 365, 388

(6th Cir. 2015) (“Although the MVRA does not require courts to calculate restitution with exact

precision, some precision is required—‘[s]peculation and rough justice are not permitted.’”

(quoting United States v. Ferdman, 779 F.3d 1129, 1133 (10th Cir. 2015)).

       Buchanan also argues that the district court erred in holding him responsible for losses he

did not proximately cause.

       Of course, the loss attributable to a defendant under the MVRA is limited by the traditional

principles of “but for” and proximate causation. United States v. Scudder, 746 F. App'x 454, 457

(6th Cir. 2018) (quoting In re McNulty, 597 F.3d 344, 350 (6th Cir. 2010)). Under the MVRA, a

“victim” is a person “directly and proximately harmed as a result of the commission of an offense.”

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

18 U.S.C. § 3663A(a)(2). District courts are authorized to impose “full liability on any defendant”

as long as his conduct was a material cause of the loss. United States v. Church, 731 F.3d 530,

537-38 (6th Cir. 2013).

       Buchanan’s conduct was a direct and material cause of a foreseeable loss to Colossal

Cupcakes. As the district court noted:

       [I]t was reasonably foreseeable when Mr. Buchanan broke the windows in the midst
       of a riot that he would be allowing looters and vandals into the victim’s business.
       Further, based on the evidence presented at trial, including the fact that he continued
       breaking windows while the destruction and damaging of the victim’s property was
       on-going, and bragged about giving away the victim’s goods, the Court finds that
       he actually intended for the damage and destruction to take place. Further, it was
       reasonably foreseeable that committing, encouraging and facilitating this damage
       would lead to at least a temporary closing of the victim’s business, resulting in lost
       profits. No reasonable person could have broken out the windows of a storefront,
       in the midst of a riot, surrounded by other looters and vandals, and not expected the
       business to suffer significant property damage and lost profits.

(R. 98, Restitution Order, PageID 1214)

         Buchanan relies primarily on Paroline v. United States, in which the Supreme Court held

that, under 18 U.S.C. § 2559, a single defendant convicted of possession of child pornography was

not liable to a victim for her total loss of “millions of dollars . . . collectively caused by thousands

of independent actors[.]” 572 U.S. 434, 456 (2014). But we subsequently explained that Paroline

“distinguished the hundreds or even thousands of perpetrators of child pornography who ‘ha[ve]

no contact with the overwhelming majority of the [other] offenders’ from ‘a set of wrongdoers

acting in concert’ such as a ‘gang of ruffians [that] collectively beats a person.’” United States v.

Sawyer, 825 F.3d 287, 295 (6th Cir. 2016) (quoting Paroline, 572 U.S. at 454). Here, Buchanan

was acting in concert with other rioters. The district court did not err in awarding restitution for

damage other looters inflicted on Colossal Cupcakes resulting from Buchanan’s actions.

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

       In sum, the district court erred in awarding restitution for the speculative lost profits

suffered by Colossal Cupcakes for the four-month period it was closed after the riots on May 30,

2020; however, the district court did not otherwise err in awarding replacement, repair, and

construction costs. See Sharp, 927 F.2d at 174 (affirming award of repair costs but not lost

income).

                                  III.   CONCLUSION

       For the foregoing reasons, we AFFIRM the district court’s judgment and VACATE and

REMAND its restitution order for recalculation in accordance with this opinion.

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

       McKEAGUE, Circuit Judge, concurring in part and dissenting in part. I join the

majority’s resolution of Buchanan’s sufficiency-of-the-evidence and Rule-404(b) claims.

However, I disagree with the majority’s narrow view of restitution available for property offenses

under the Mandatory Victims Restitution Act (MVRA). Because I interpret property “value” to

encompass lost profits, I respectfully dissent and would affirm the district court’s restitution order.

       Buchanan claims that the district court erred in awarding lost profits as restitution. Citing

decisions from the Fifth and Fourth Circuits, he argues that the MVRA’s language does not

authorize the recovery of lost income for offenses resulting in property damage. See United States

v. Mitchell, 876 F.2d 1178, 1183–84 (5th Cir. 1989); United States v. Sharp, 927 F.2d 170, 174 (4th

Cir. 1991). The majority agrees. It concludes that the district court exceeded its statutory authority

by ordering restitution for lost expected income during the time period Colossal Cupcakes was

closed for repairs. Maj. Op. at 18.

       The MVRA awards restitution to victims of certain crimes—including Hobbs Act

robbery—who suffer pecuniary loss. See 18 U.S.C. § 3663A. As the majority correctly notes, “in

the case of an offense resulting in damage to or loss or destruction of property of a victim of the

offense,” the statute compels a restitution award equal to the “value of the property” on the date of

loss or on the date of sentencing, whichever is greater, less the value of any property returned. Id.

§ 3663A(b)(1)(B); Maj. Op. at 15. The MVRA does not, however, define “value.” Circuits thus

disagree about whether courts may award restitution for lost profits as part of the “value of the

property” damaged. Compare, e.g., United States v. Milstein, 481 F.3d 132, 136–37 (2d Cir. 2007)

(allowing lost profits), with Mitchell, 876 F.2d at 1183–84 (barring lost profits), and Sharp, 927

F.2d at 174 (same).

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

       We addressed the lost-profits issue in United States v. Lively, 20 F.3d 193 (6th Cir. 1994).

There, the defendant stole merchandise from several victims and then resold the merchandise to

third parties. Id. at 195. The district court awarded restitution that included the retail value of the

stolen items, rather than merely the wholesale cost that the victims would expend to replace them.

The defendant argued on appeal that the restitution statute only allowed the district court to

consider the merchandise’s wholesale value, not the victims’ lost profits. Id. at 200. But we firmly

rejected that argument and affirmed the restitution order. We reasoned that the statute did not

expressly foreclose such an award and held that “including lost profits . . . was the only way to

assure the restoration of these victims to their prior state of well being.” Id. at 202–03. That

interpretation, we explained, furthers the very purpose of restitution and the legislative history

behind the MVRA. Id. (citing Hughey v. United States, 495 U.S. 411, 416 (1990)).

       Lively controls the present dispute, notwithstanding the majority’s attempt to distinguish it.

The majority argues that Lively addressed only “how to determine the present value of

misappropriated consumer goods” and does not implicate attempts “to value the operating capital

of [a] business.” Maj. Op. at 16; see also United States v. Wilfong, 551 F.3d 1182, 1185–86 (10th

Cir. 2008) (drawing a similar distinction). I disagree. To be sure, Lively’s facts differ in several

ways from those in this case. But Lively stands for the broader principle that the MVRA requires

courts to shape restitution orders to make victims whole—which might involve lost profits under

certain circumstances. Lively, 20 F.3d at 202–03; see also Milstein, 481 F.3d at 136–37 (citing

Lively approvingly in affirming lost-profit restitution award for estimated lost sales after defendant

misappropriated victim’s trademark). As both Lively and Milstein recognized, nothing in the

statutory language prohibits restitution for lost profits. And the MVRA’s purpose is promoted when

courts treat lost income as part of the “value of the property” damaged.

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Nos. 22-3301/3697, United States v. Buchanan

       The district court’s restitution order was thus proper. Buchanan’s actions caused the

destruction and theft of operating capital that produced income for Colossal Cupcakes. The shop

remained closed for several months as it carried out necessary repairs. It is not unreasonable, based

on such facts, to value the complete disruption of business operations as the lost income incurred

by the shop while its doors were shuttered. After all, district courts are empowered to consider

each case’s particular factual circumstances when determining the best way to value the property

at issue. See Wilfong, 551 F.3d at 1184 n.2. The district court concluded that the only way to restore

the Colossal Cupcakes proprietor to her “prior state of well being” involved compensating her for

profits lost while her shop was closed for repairs. Lively, 20 F.3d at 202–03. That choice is

consistent with the “wide latitude” district courts have in determining a victim’s loss, United States

v. Patel, 711 F. App’x 283, 287 (6th Cir. 2017), and nothing in the MVRA precludes it.

       For these reasons, I respectfully dissent in part and would affirm the restitution order.

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