Court Opinion

ID: 9926531
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2024-01-24 21:00:56.408803+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:21:07.913098
License: Public Domain

USCA11 Case: 22-10408    Document: 62-1      Date Filed: 01/24/2024   Page: 1 of 46

                                                          [PUBLISH]
                                    In the
                 United States Court of Appeals
                         For the Eleventh Circuit

                           ____________________

                                 No. 22-10408
                           ____________________

        UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
                                                      Plaintiﬀ - Appellee,
        versus
        JONATHAN WAYNE DANIELS,
                                                   Defendant- Appellant.

                           ____________________

                  Appeal from the United States District Court
                      for the Southern District of Florida
                     D.C. Docket No. 1:19-cr-20708-DPG-1
                           ____________________
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        2                       Opinion of the Court               22-10408

        Before JORDAN, LAGOA, and MARCUS, Circuit Judges.
        LAGOA, Circuit Judge:
               After a jury convicted Jonathan Daniels of ten counts of
        Hobbs Act robbery, the district court sentenced Daniels to 180
        months’ imprisonment. Daniels now appeals his conviction and
        sentence. He argues that the district court erred by rejecting his
        proposed jury instruction on eyewitness identifications and that cu-
        mulative evidentiary errors prejudiced his right to a fair trial. He
        also argues that the jury lacked sufficient evidence to convict him
        under Count 7 of the superseding indictment. Finally, he argues
        that his sentence was substantively unreasonable.
              For the following reasons, we affirm Daniels’s convictions
        and sentence.
                           I.      BACKGROUND
               A grand jury charged Jonathan Daniels with six counts of
        Hobbs Act robbery in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1951(a). About a
        month-and-a-half later, the government ﬁled a superseding indict-
        ment charging Daniels with ten counts of Hobbs Act robbery.
        Daniels pleaded not guilty to all ten counts, and his case proceeded
        to a nine-day jury trial in October 2021. At the trial, the govern-
        ment elicited the following evidence, which we summarize by
        count.
                 A. Count 1: October 7, 2019, Miami 7-Eleven #1
              On October 7, 2019, Myrlande Dorziere was working at a 7-
        Eleven store at 533 NW 103rd St. in Miami, Florida. Around 7:26
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        22-10408              Opinion of the Court                        3

        p.m., a black male entered the store and asked Dorziere for New-
        port cigarettes. Dorziere turned to get the cigarettes, and when she
        turned back towards the man, he was pointing a gun at her. The
        man said, “Don’t do anything stupid. Open both registers and give
        me the money.” Dorziere complied.
               According to Dorziere, the robber wore red shoes, a long-
        sleeve blue shirt, and a brimmed hat “like [the] ones the construc-
        tion people” wear. When the police showed her a lineup, Dorziere
        identiﬁed Jonathan Daniels as the robber, stating that she knew it
        was Daniels “[a]s soon as [she] saw [Daniels’s] picture.” Cell site
        data showed that Daniels’s cellphone was detected in the general
        area of 533 NW 103rd St. between 7:06 p.m. and 7:15 p.m. on the
        day of the robbery. The robbery occurred around 7:26 p.m.
                   B. Count 2: October 7, 2019, Miami 7-Eleven #2
               On October 7, 2019, Michael Keesee was working at a 7-
        Eleven at 10300 NW 12th Ave. in Miami, Florida. Around 7:40 p.m.
        that evening, a black male wearing red shoes, dark pants, a long-
        sleeve blue shirt, and a brimmed hat entered Keesee’s store. The
        man asked for a pack of Newport cigarettes, Keesee turned to get
        them, and when Keesee turned back, the man was pointing a gun
        at him. Keesee jumped at the sight of the gun, and the robber said,
        “Just calm down. That could have got you killed. Just give me the
        money.” Keesee complied.
                Later, Keesee could not identify the robber in a lineup. But
        cell site data showed that Daniels’s cell phone was at or near the
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        4                      Opinion of the Court                 22-10408

        scene of the robbery at 7:34 p.m. The robbery occurred at roughly
        7:40 p.m.
                  C. Count 3: October 9, 2019, Hialeah Murphy’s
                On October 9, 2019, Magaly Perez was working at a Mur-
        phy’s gas station at 5851 NW 177th St. in Hialeah, Florida. Shortly
        after 8:00 p.m., a black male wearing dark pants, a long-sleeve shirt,
        and a brimmed hat entered the store. He picked up a drink bottle
        and then approached the cash register. The man placed the bottle
        on the counter and drew “a small gun.” “You bitch . . . , give me
        the money in the register,” the man said. Perez complied.
               During a police lineup, Perez identiﬁed Daniels as the rob-
        ber. Police could not locate Daniels’s cell site data at the time of
        this robbery because there was “no activity for [them] to map.”
                 D. Count 4: October 10, 2019, Miami 7-Eleven #3
               On October 10, 2019, Trishana Chamberlain and Marytha
        Darbouze were working at a 7-Eleven located at 90 NW 167th St.
        in Miami, Florida. Around 7:00 p.m. that evening, a black male
        wearing red shoes, dark pants, a long-sleeve shirt, and a brimmed
        hat entered the store and asked Darbouze for a pack of Newport
        cigarettes. Darbouze turned to grab the cigarettes, but when she
        turned back to the cash register, the man had pulled out a pistol.
        The man also pointed his gun at Chamberlain and told her to “put
        the money on the counter.” After taking the money, the man
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                         5

        walked out of the store, and Darbouze watched him proceed to-
        ward the Roadway Inn across the street.
                Daniels’s cell site data showed that, during the robbery, his
        phone was at or near the crime scene. Chamberlain identiﬁed Dan-
        iels as the robber in a lineup. Darbouze said that she thought that
        the robber had a gold tooth, but she did not identify anyone in the
        lineup as the robber.
                   E. Count 5: October 10, 2019, Miami 7-Eleven #4
                On October 10, 2019, Coralia Padilla was working the 2
        p.m.-to-8 p.m. shift at a 7-Eleven located at 1550 Ives Dairy Rd. in
        Miami, Florida. A black male in red shoes, dark pants, a long-sleeve
        shirt, and a brimmed cap entered the store, pointed a gun at Padilla,
        and said, “Don’t do anything stupid. Just give me the money.” Pa-
        dilla complied. Later, Padilla could not identify the robber in a
        lineup, but cell-site data showed that Daniels’s phone was near the
        robbery at 6:16 p.m. on October 10, 2019.
              F. Count 6: October 11, 2019, Pembroke Park Subway
                On October 11, 2019, Ashley Benitez was working at a Sub-
        way restaurant at 4529 W Hallandale Beach Blvd. in Pembroke
        Park, Florida. Security footage shows a black male with a brimmed
        hat, a long-sleeve blue shirt, pants, and red shoes enter the Subway
        at 3:19 p.m. Benitez testiﬁed that the man “came in like a normal
        customer” and that she “asked him what he needed.” The man
        then “pointed a gun in [her] face” and “told [her] to give him all the
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        6                      Opinion of the Court                22-10408

        money” or “he would kill” her. Benitez complied, and the man left
        the store.
               Benitez identiﬁed Daniels in a lineup as the robber, saying
        she was “a hundred percent sure” of her identiﬁcation. Daniels’s
        cell phone was detected in the general area of the Subway at 4:37
        p.m. on the day of the robbery.
              G. Count 7: October 11, 2019, Miami Gardens 7-Eleven
                On October 11, 2019, roughly two hours after the Subway
        robbery, a black male with a brimmed hat, a dark long-sleeve shirt,
        dark pants, a red umbrella, and red shoes entered a 7-Eleven at
        19905 NW 2nd Ave. in Miami Gardens, Florida. Surveillance foot-
        age showed the man walking to the front counter, lawfully buying
        a pack of Newport cigarettes, and leaving the store. Ten minutes
        later, the man returned, reached into his pocket, and pulled out a
        pistol. The man pointed his pistol at the cashier who was cutting
        pizzas nearby. The cashier stopped cutting the pizza and started
        emptying the cash register. After the cashier gave him the money,
        the man walked away.
               The cashier never testiﬁed at trial, but Shari Richard, the
        store manager, testiﬁed that the surveillance footage was from the
        7-Eleven on October 11, 2019. She conﬁrmed that the footage de-
        picted the robber and Reynoldo Thomas, the 7-Eleven employee
        who emptied the cash register. Daniels’s cell site data suggests that
        he was in the area of the 7-Eleven around 5:16 p.m. The store’s
        surveillance footage suggests that the robbery occurred at roughly
        5:36 p.m.
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        22-10408              Opinion of the Court                        7

                    H. Count 8: October 12, 2019, Miami Chevron
                On October 12, 2019, Tania Lugo was working at a Chevron
        gas station at 18305 NW 57th Ave. in Miami, Florida. Surveillance
        footage showed a black male entering the store while wearing a
        brimmed hat, a long-sleeve shirt, and dark pants. According to
        Lugo, the man approached the register and asked for a pack of
        Newport cigarettes. Lugo turned to get the cigarettes, and when
        she turned back toward the man, he pulled out a gun. The man
        pointed the gun at Lugo’s stomach and told her to “give him the
        bills.” She complied.
               Lugo later identiﬁed Daniels in a lineup as the robber. Mari-
        yol Mendez, another Chevron cashier who was present, also iden-
        tiﬁed Daniels in a lineup and said that she was a “[h]undred percent
        sure” that Daniels was the robber. Daniels’s cellphone was located
        in the vicinity of the robbery at 6:51 p.m. on October 12, 2019.
        Mendez testiﬁed that the robbery occurred sometime around 7:00
        p.m.
                   I. Count 9: October 14, 2019, Miramar 7-Eleven
              On October 14, 2019, Andrew Arce was working at a 7-
        Eleven at 11150 Pembroke Rd. in Miramar, Florida. Around 8:30
        p.m., the black male in dark pants, a long-sleeve shirt, and a
        brimmed hat robbed the store. Arce testiﬁed that the man “robbed
        [him] at gunpoint” and said something like “come over here, big
        man,” or “open the register.” Arce complied.
              Arce identiﬁed Daniels as the robber in a lineup but acknowl-
        edged that another person in the lineup gave him pause. Arce
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        8                      Opinion of the Court                 22-10408

        ultimately selected Daniels because Daniels “looked the most fa-
        miliar” to him. Daniels’s cell site data placed his phone near the
        robbery at 8:23 and 8:24 p.m.—a few minutes before the robbery
        occurred.
            J. Count 10: October 14, 2019, Pembroke Pines Marathon
               On October 14, 2019, Yavima Casadevall was working at a
        Marathon gas station at 7191 Pembroke Rd. in Pembroke Pines,
        Florida. Shortly before 9:00 p.m., a black male in dark pants, a long-
        sleeve shirt, and a brimmed hat entered the store, drew a gun, and
        told Casadevall to give him all the money in her cash register. He
        also demanded a pack of Newport cigarettes. Casadevall complied
        and the robber left on foot.
                Cell site data showed that Daniels’s phone was near the
        scene of the robbery when it occurred. Casadevall also identiﬁed
        Daniels as the robber in a lineup but struggled while making her
        identiﬁcation. Because Casadevall was struggling to identify the
        robber, the oﬃcer conducting the lineup showed Casadevall two
        still pictures of the robbery from the surveillance footage “[a]s a
        refresher.” After she was shown the images captured by surveil-
        lance, she looked at the lineup again and identiﬁed Daniels as the
        robber.
                      K. Daniels’s Arrest on October 15, 2019
               On the evening of October 15, 2019, the police surveilled a
        black Jeep Liberty registered to Jonathan Daniels. Oﬃcers ob-
        served the Jeep park at a Motel 7, and oﬃcers discovered that Dan-
        iels was renting one of the rooms at the Motel 7. When the oﬃcers
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        22-10408              Opinion of the Court                        9

        arrived at the motel, Daniels ﬂed through the back window of his
        room and started running toward a nearby highway. An oﬃcer ran
        after Daniels and apprehended him on the on-ramp to the highway.
               After securing a warrant, the oﬃcers searched Daniels’s ho-
        tel room and his Jeep Liberty. Among other things, they discovered
        red boots, a brimmed hat, Newport cigarettes, and a red umbrella
        (resembling the red umbrella the robber carried during the Miami
        Gardens 7-Eleven crime).
               A forensic examiner with the Federal Bureau of Investiga-
        tion (“FBI”) also generated a report based on data extracted from
        Daniels’s cell phone. The FBI examiner determined that on Octo-
        ber 12, 2019, and October 13, 2019, someone used the internet
        browser on Daniels’s phone to search terms such as “[r]obbery at
        gas station,” “7-Eleven gas station robbery,” “Miami robbery to-
        day,” and “[g]as station robbery today.” On October 12, 13, and 15,
        someone also used Daniels’s phone to search for terms such as
        “[g]as station robbery today,” “[r]obbery at 7-Eleven on 215th
        Street,” “MIAM 8 gas station robbery at gas station,” “[r]obbery at
        gas station,” and “[a]rmed robbery of gas station last night.” Addi-
        tionally, on October 15, someone used Daniels’s phone to search
        for “[a]rmed robbery of gas station last night top ten news,”
        “[a]rmed robbery gas station last night Broward County,” “[g]as sta-
        tion robbery on Channel 10 News,” “[g]as station robbery in
        Broward County,” “[a]rmed robbery at gas station in Broward
        County on Channel 10 News,” and “Channel 10 News gas station.”
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        10                    Opinion of the Court                  22-10408

             L. Daniels’s Rule 29 Motion, the District Court’s Jury In-
                           structions, and the Jury’s Verdict
                Once the prosecution and the defense rested, Daniels moved
        for a judgment of acquittal under Federal Rule of Criminal Proce-
        dure 29 as to Count 2, Count 5, and Count 7. The district court
        denied Daniels’s motion in full.
               After the district court denied Daniels’s Rule 29 motion, the
        court considered the parties’ proposed jury instructions. The gov-
        ernment proposed that the district court use this Court’s pattern
        instruction on eyewitness identiﬁcation, which states:
              If a witness identiﬁes a Defendant as the person who
              committed the crime, you must decide whether the
              witness is telling the truth. But even if you believe the
              witness is telling the truth, you must still decide how
              accurate the identiﬁcation is. I suggest that you ask
              yourself questions:
                  1. Did the witness have an adequate oppor-
                  tunity to observe the person at the time the
                  crime was committed?
                  2. How much time did the witness have to ob-
                  serve the person?
                  3. How close was the witness?
                  4. Did anything aﬀect the witness’s ability to
                  see?
                  5. Did the witness know or see the person at an
                  earlier time?
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                      11

              You may also consider the circumstances of the iden-
              tiﬁcation of the Defendant, such as the way the De-
              fendant was presented to the witness for identiﬁca-
              tion and the length of time between the crime and
              the identiﬁcation of the Defendant.
              After examining all the evidence, if you have a reason-
              able doubt that the Defendant was the person who
              committed the crime, you must ﬁnd the Defendant
              not guilty.
        11th Cir. Crim. Pattern Instr. S3.
               On the other hand, Daniels proposed using the Third Cir-
        cuit’s model instruction on eyewitness identiﬁcation. See 3d Cir.
        Model Crim. Jury Instr. § 4.15. And during the charge conference,
        Daniels focused on ﬁve factors from the Third Circuit’s instruction
        that he believed our instruction fails to address. The ﬁve factors
        that Daniels highlighted were: (1) “how closely the witness was
        paying attention to the person”; (2) “whether the witness was un-
        der stress while observing the person who committed the crime”;
        (3) “whether the witness and the person committing the crime
        were of diﬀerent races”; (4) “whether the witness gave a descrip-
        tion of the person who committed the crime,” and, if so, “how the
        witness’s description of the person who committed the crime com-
        pares to the defendant”; and (5) “whether the witness made the
        identiﬁcation while exposed to the suggestive inﬂuences of oth-
        ers.” 3d Cir. Model Crim. Jury Instr. § 4.15.
               The district court rejected Daniel’s request to use the Third
        Circuit’s model instruction. But the district court supplemented
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        12                     Opinion of the Court                 22-10408

        our pattern instruction with the “race” and “stress” factors from
        the Third Circuit’s model instruction. Thus, in addition to the
        usual factors from our pattern instruction, the ﬁnal instruction
        “suggest[ed]” that the jury consider:
               6. Was the witness under stress while observing the
               person who committed the crime?
               7. Were the witness and the person committing the
               crime of diﬀerent races?
        The ﬁnal instruction, however, did not include the other factors
        that Daniels highlighted from the Third Circuit’s version. The dis-
        trict court explained that the “close attention” factor was unneces-
        sary because it was already encapsulated by our pattern instruc-
        tion’s direction that the jury should ask “[h]ow much time” the wit-
        ness had to observe the robber. See 11th Cir. Crim. Pattern Instr.
        S3. Next, the district court rejected the “witness description” factor
        because the defendant had presented no evidence suggesting that
        witnesses gave inaccurate descriptions of Daniels. Finally, the dis-
        trict court rejected the “suggestive inﬂuence” factor because our
        pattern instruction already directed the jury to consider “the cir-
        cumstances of the identiﬁcation of the Defendant, such as the way
        the Defendant was presented to the witness for identiﬁcation.” See
        id.
             The jury ultimately convicted Daniels on all ten counts of
        Hobbs Act robbery as alleged in the superseding indictment.
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                         13

                                     M. Sentencing
               At sentencing, both parties agreed that the applicable sen-
        tencing guidelines yielded an oﬀense level of 28, resulting in a
        guideline range of 110 to 137 months’ imprisonment. But the gov-
        ernment moved for an upward variance, urging the district court
        to impose at minimum a sentence of 15 to 17 years in prison. Cit-
        ing Daniels’s extensive criminal history and its duty to protect the
        public, the district court found that a sentence above the guideline
        range was appropriate and granted the motion, sentencing Daniels
        to 180 months in prison.
               Daniels now timely appeals.
                      II.      STANDARDS OF REVIEW
               We review a district court’s refusal to give a requested jury
        instruction for an abuse of discretion. United States v. King, 751 F.3d
        1268, 1275 (11th Cir. 2014).
                We also review the cumulative impact of trial errors de
        novo. United States v. Pendergrass, 995 F.3d 858, 881 (11th Cir. 2021).
        “No cumulative error exists where a criminal defendant cannot es-
        tablish that the combined errors aﬀected his substantial rights.” Id.
        Further, we review unpreserved trial errors for plain error. United
        States v. Margarita Garcia, 906 F.3d 1255, 1266 (11th Cir. 2018). And
        if a district court sustains an objection at trial, but the objecting
        party did not request further curative action, we review the district
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        14                      Opinion of the Court                  22-10408

        court’s failure to take further curative action for plain error. See
        United States v. Mosquera, 886 F.3d 1032, 1046 (11th Cir. 2018).
               Further, “[w]e review de novo whether suﬃcient evidence
        supports a conviction, resolving all reasonable inferences in favor
        of the verdict.” United States v. Farley, 607 F.3d 1294, 1333 (11th Cir.
        2010). “In reviewing evidentiary suﬃciency, ‘we must determine
        whether the evidence, construed in the light most favorable to the
        government, would permit the trier of fact to ﬁnd the defendant
        guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.’” Id. (quoting United States v.
        Brown, 415 F.3d 1257, 1270 (11th Cir. 2005)). “We will not reverse
        unless no reasonable trier of fact could ﬁnd guilt beyond a reason-
        able doubt.” Id.
                And we review the substantive reasonableness of a sentence
        “under a deferential abuse-of-discretion standard.” Gall v. United
        States, 552 U.S. 38, 41 (2007).
                              III.       ANALYSIS
               On appeal, Daniels advances several arguments. First, he ar-
        gues that the district court erroneously rejected his proposed jury
        instruction on eyewitness identiﬁcations. Second, he claims that
        cumulative errors prejudiced his right to a fair trial. Third, he ar-
        gues that there was insuﬃcient evidence to convict him under
        Count 7 of the superseding indictment. Finally, he argues that his
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        22-10408                Opinion of the Court                          15

        sentence was substantively unreasonable. We address these issues
        in turn.
                                   A. Jury Instruction
               First, Daniels argues that the jury’s verdict should be vacated
        because the district court did not adopt his proposed instruction on
        eyewitness identiﬁcation from the Third Circuit’s model instruc-
        tions. See 3d Cir. Model Crim. Jury Instr. § 4.15. In response, the
        government argues that the district court correctly declined to
        adopt Daniels’s proposed instruction because the pattern instruc-
        tion “substantially covered” the proposed instruction and, in any
        event, the district court’s instruction did not “substantially impair”
        Daniels’s ability to present an eﬀective defense. See 11th Cir. Crim.
        Pattern Instr. S3. The government is correct.
               “A trial court is not bound to use the exact words and phras-
        ing requested by defense counsel in its jury charge.” United States
        v. Gonzalez, 975 F.2d 1514, 1517 (11th Cir. 1992). Rather, “a district
        court ‘has wide latitude in determining the exact formulation of
        the jury instruction.’” United States v. Mayweather, 991 F.3d 1163,
        1175 (11th Cir. 2021) (quoting United States v. Gaines, 690 F.2d 849,
        856 (11th Cir. 1982)). And when “a district court declines to give a
        requested jury instruction for which there was a suﬃcient eviden-
        tiary basis, we will reverse ‘only if: (1) the requested instruction cor-
        rectly stated the law; (2) the actual charge to the jury did not sub-
        stantially cover the proposed instruction; and (3) the failure to give
        the instruction substantially impaired the defendant’s ability to pre-
        sent an eﬀective defense.’” King, 751 F.3d at 1275 (quoting United
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        16                     Opinion of the Court                  22-10408

        States v. Palma, 511 F.3d 1311, 1315 (11th Cir. 2008)). “In determin-
        ing whether an instruction substantially covered the proposed in-
        struction, we ‘need only ascertain whether the charge, when viewed
        as a whole, fairly and correctly states the issues and the law.’” Id.
        (emphasis added) (quoting Gonzalez, 975 F.2d at 1517).
              In this case, the district court instructed the jury to consider
        whether the eyewitnesses’ identiﬁcation testimony was accurate
        and “suggest[ed]” a number of factors that the jury may consider
        when making this determination. Under our precedent, that was
        suﬃcient to substantially cover Daniels’s proposed instruction on
        eyewitness identiﬁcations. We ﬁnd King to be particularly instruc-
        tive.
              In King, the defendant proposed that the district court sup-
        plement our pattern instruction on witness identiﬁcation with a
        couple of sentences about cross-racial identiﬁcation. 751 F.3d at
        1275. The defendant’s proposed instruction stated:
               You may also consider whether an identifying witness
               is not of the same race as the Defendant and whether
               that fact might have had an impact on the accuracy of
               the witness’s original perception, and/or the accu-
               racy of the subsequent identiﬁcation. You should
               consider that, in ordinary human experience, people
               may have greater diﬃculty in accurately identifying
               members of a diﬀerent race.
        Id. The district court rejected this proposed instruction and instead
        used our pattern instruction, which was an older version of, but
        materially identical to, the pattern instruction at issue here. See id.
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        22-10408                Opinion of the Court                         17

        at 1276. Viewing the district court’s instruction “as a whole,” we
        held that the instruction “was suﬃciently comprehensive to assist
        the jury in evaluating the witnesses’ identiﬁcation testimony.” Id.
        We explained that our pattern instruction “highlighted potential
        questions for the jurors while also suggesting that those questions
        were not the only factors they should consider.” Id. The district
        court’s instruction also informed the jury that “they should assess
        the reliability of the identiﬁcations even if they believed the wit-
        nesses were telling the truth,” suggested that the jury “should con-
        sider the identiﬁcation procedure,” and informed the jury that “if
        they had a reasonable doubt regarding the identity of the defendant
        as the robber, they should ﬁnd him not guilty.” Id.
               Thus, under King, the district court, in its instruction on eval-
        uating eyewitness identiﬁcations, is not required to explicitly ad-
        dress every potential problem with eyewitness identiﬁcations
        raised by the defendant. See id. Instead, the district court may pro-
        vide a non-exhaustive list of questions that are generally relevant
        to evaluating eyewitness identiﬁcations, and counsel, in closing ar-
        guments, may suggest other questions that may be relevant to eval-
        uating the particular eyewitness identiﬁcation in the case. Id.
               Applying King here, the district court’s instruction used
        broad language that required the jury to evaluate eyewitness iden-
        tiﬁcations. The instruction highlighted speciﬁc considerations as
        examples, not as an exclusive list. In the end, the instruction re-
        quired jurors to consider “how accurate” a witness’s “identiﬁcation
        is.” The instruction then stated, “I suest that you ask yourself [the
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        18                        Opinion of the Court                     22-10408

        following] questions . . . .” (Emphasis added). After enumerating
        that list of questions, the instruction stated, “You may also con-
        sider . . . .” (Emphasis added). Finally, the instruction concluded,
        “After examining all the evidence, if you have a reasonable doubt
        that the Defendant was the person who committed the crime, you
        must ﬁnd the Defendant not guilty.” (Emphasis added). This lan-
        guage suggests that the speciﬁc factors enumerated by the district
        court are neither exclusive nor mandatory considerations. 1 We
        thus conclude that the district court’s use of our pattern instruction
        substantially covered Daniels’s proposed instruction, and we aﬃrm
        as to this issue.
                                    B. Cumulative Error
               Daniels next argues that cumulative errors prejudiced his
        right to a fair trial. He highlights four potential errors—only one
        of which he objected to at trial. As he acknowledges, the district
        court sustained his objection in the one instance when he did ob-
        ject. His argument about the sustained objection is that “the dam-
        age was done” by the time he objected. But Daniels never moved
        to strike the improper testimony and never requested a limiting

        1 Indeed, during closing argument, Daniels’s counsel said, in reference to the

        witness identification instruction, “The Judge will list several factors, and
        they’re not exclusive. You can make your own determinations and judge the
        accuracy of the identifications.” Daniels then highlighted additional factors
        that the jury should consider, such as the accuracy of a witness’s description
        of the robber.
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                        19

        instruction. For the reasons below, we conclude that Daniels fails
        to demonstrate cumulative error requiring reversal.
                                     1. Background
                “The cumulative-error doctrine calls for reversal of a convic-
        tion if, in total, the non-reversible errors result in a denial of the
        constitutional right to a fair trial.” Pendergrass, 995 F.3d at 881.
        “Our ﬁrst step in a cumulative-error analysis calls for us to evaluate
        each claim independently.” Id. (citing Margarita Garcia, 906 F.3d at
        1280). Then, “we survey ‘the trial as a whole’ in assessing whether
        a defendant received a fundamentally fair trial.” Id. (quoting United
        States v. Ladson, 643 F.3d 1335, 1342 (11th Cir. 2011)).
                Plain-error review applies to each of Daniels’s claims of evi-
        dentiary error because he failed to preserve the issues “by unam-
        biguously ﬂagging the mistake and contemporaneously object-
        ing.” Margarita Garcia, 906 F.3d at 1263. Below, Daniels failed to
        object to any of the potential errors that he now highlights on ap-
        peal. To be sure, Daniels did object in one instance relevant to this
        appeal, which the district court sustained, but Daniels failed to re-
        quest a limiting instruction after that. Because Daniels did not re-
        quest a limiting instruction or move to strike the improper testi-
        mony, we review Daniels’s argument that the district court should
        have done so for plain error. Mosquera, 886 F.3d at 1046 (holding
        that the trial court’s failure to strike an oﬀending statement “is re-
        viewable only for plain error” when counsel does not move to
        strike).
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        20                      Opinion of the Court                   22-10408

                Under plain-error review, we “may only correct an unpre-
        served claim if the defendant proves ‘(1) error, (2) that is plain, and
        (3) that aﬀects substantial rights.’” Margarita Garcia, 906 F.3d at
        1266 (emphasis removed) (quoting United States v. Rodriguez, 398
        F.3d 1291, 1298 (11th Cir. 2005)). If all three conditions are met, we
        may then exercise our discretion “to notice a forfeited error, but
        only if (4) the error seriously aﬀects the fairness, integrity, or public
        reputation of judicial proceedings.” Id. at 1266–67 (quoting Rodri-
        guez, 398 F.3d at 1298). “The admission of evidence constitutes
        plain error when the evidence was ‘so obviously inadmissible and
        prejudicial that, despite defense counsel’s failure to object, the dis-
        trict court, sua sponte, should have excluded the evidence.’” Pender-
        grass, 995 F.3d at 878 (quoting United States v. Williams, 527 F.3d
        1235, 1247 (11th Cir. 2008)).
                 Plain error review is diﬀerent from harmless error review in
        several respects. Margarita Garcia, 906 F.3d at 1267. First, “relief
        under plain error review is discretionary, meaning that, even if a
        defendant establishes prejudice, her convictions might still be af-
        ﬁrmed.” Id. Second, “unlike harmless error—where the govern-
        ment carries the burden—the onus of establishing prejudice under
        plain error rests with the defendant.” Id. Third, “[t]he measure of
        prejudice under plain error review—the third prong of the plain
        error test—‘requires that an error have aﬀected substantial rights,
        which almost always requires that the error must have aﬀected the
        outcome of the district court proceedings.’” Id. (quoting Rodriguez,
        398 F.3d at 1299). With these principles in mind, we turn to Dan-
        iels’s alleged evidentiary errors.
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                          21

                   2. Detective Garcia: Criteria for Hobbs Act Robbery
               Daniels argues that the district court committed plain error
        by allowing the following exchange between the government and
        Elio Garcia, a detective with the Miami Dade Police Department:
              Q. Tell us how you ﬁrst got involved?
              A. I noticed a string of commercial robberies happen-
              ing within Miami-Dade County jurisdiction. Based
              on the description and the method of operation, I
              thought they were related; at which time I contacted
              the county detectives and asked them if they would
              like to proceed with federal prosecutions on this case,
              because the crimes that were being committed did ﬁt
              the criteria for Hobbs Act robberies. They agreed, at which
              time I contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigations
              and requested assistance in investigating these crimes.
        (Emphasis added). On appeal, Daniels argues that this testimony
        was improper because whether each robbery satisﬁed the “criteria”
        of the Hobbs Act was a question for the jury to decide based on the
        law as instructed by the district court. Daniels also argues that this
        error was compounded by Detective Garcia’s statement that “the
        county detectives” “agreed” with him, which is hearsay according
        to Daniels.
               Daniels has not shown plain error here. Daniels correctly
        notes that a witness “may not testify to the legal implications of
        conduct; the court must be the jury’s only source of law.” Mont-
        gomery v. Aetna Cas. & Sur. Co., 898 F.2d 1537, 1541 (11th Cir. 1990);
        see United States v. Grzybowicz, 747 F.3d 1296, 1310 (11th Cir. 2014)
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        22                     Opinion of the Court                 22-10408

        (relying on Montgomery in a criminal case). The government there-
        fore could not use Detective Garcia to oﬀer an opinion on the
        meaning of the Hobbs Act or the legal implications of Daniels’s
        conduct.
                But the government responds that no error occurred be-
        cause Detective Garcia’s statement was not oﬀered for that purpose
        but oﬀered merely as background information. We agree. Review-
        ing Detective Garcia’s mention of the Hobbs Act robbery criteria
        in context, the government did not present Detective Garcia’s tes-
        timony as a genuine opinion on Daniels’s ultimate guilt; rather, the
        testimony was merely a background detail explaining how the de-
        tective and the FBI became involved in the investigation. Cf.
        Grzybowicz, 747 F.3d at 1310–11. Given this context, we cannot say
        that Detective Garcia’s testimony was “so obviously inadmissible
        and prejudicial that, despite defense counsel’s failure to object, the
        district court, sua sponte, should have excluded the evidence.” See
        Williams, 527 F.3d at 1247 (quoting United States v. Smith, 459 F.3d
        1276, 1300 (11th Cir. 2006) (Tjoﬂat, J., concurring)).
               Additionally, Detective Garcia’s testimony that “the county
        detectives” “agreed” with him was not hearsay. Statements that are
        not oﬀered for the truth of the matter asserted are not hearsay. See
        United States v. Hawkins, 905 F.2d 1489, 1494 (11th Cir. 1990) (“A
        statement is not subject to the hearsay rule . . . unless it is oﬀered
        ‘to prove the truth of the matter asserted.’” (quoting Fed. R. Evid.
        801(c)(2))). These statements were not oﬀered to prove the truth
        of the idea that the robberies satisﬁed the criteria for Hobbs Act
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        22-10408              Opinion of the Court                       23

        robbery. Instead, they were oﬀered to explain why the FBI became
        involved in the investigation. Thus, the statements are not hearsay.
                     3. Detective Garcia: Red Shoes and Arm Swing
              Next, Daniels objects—for the ﬁrst time on appeal—to the
        following exchange that the government had with Detective Gar-
        cia:
              Q. [W]as there anything distinct about the person’s
              walk that made you believe it was the same individ-
              ual?
              A. . . . Yes, absolutely the very distinct arm swing is
              what caught our attention also. If you notice, not on
              this video clip but on the video clip from the Blades
              Car Wash, you could distinctly see red sneakers that
              he’s wearing. Part of the description that we got
              from the victims was red sneakers.
              So we were able to match this subject that we now
              see on camera, we were able to tie him to the robbery
              based on his clothing and the distinct arm swing that
              he had as he was walking back to the [black Jeep Lib-
              erty].
        Daniels argues that Detective Garcia’s statements about the rob-
        ber’s red shoes and the robber’s distinct arm swing are inadmissible
        for several reasons. First, he argues that the statements about the
        robber’s red shoes and arm swing violated Federal Rule of Evi-
        dence 701 because the statements were based on witness testimony
        and evidence that Detective Garcia reviewed instead of the detec-
        tive’s own perception. Second, he argues that the statements about
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        24                     Opinion of the Court                  22-10408

        the robber’s red shoes and arm swing violated the Confrontation
        Clause. Finally, he argues that Garcia’s statements about the rob-
        ber’s red shoes and arm swing are inadmissible hearsay. Daniels
        further contends that Detective Garcia’s statements prejudiced him
        because his “identiﬁcation of the suspect in count 4 was the most
        direct evidence connecting” Daniels’s black Jeep Liberty “to any
        robbery.” But Daniels acknowledges that “a black Jeep Liberty was
        also seen on surveillance footage near two other robberies” and
        that he owned a black Jeep Liberty.
                Daniels fails to prove plain error under any of these theories,
        and even if he did, Daniels does not satisfy his burden to prove prej-
        udice. First, Daniels fails to prove plain error under Rule 701. In
        Pendergrass, we held that a district court did not commit plain error
        by allowing an FBI agent to testify about evidence that he reviewed
        that “linked” the defendant to robberies. 995 F.3d at 881. The agent
        “identiﬁed the overlapping evidence between the robberies and the
        robbers’ overall modus operandi,” and the agent’s testimony was
        supported “by surveillance videos, still pictures, tangible evidence
        found at [the defendant’s] home, ballistics, cell-site data, and other
        witness testimony.” Id. Similarly here, the district court did not
        plainly err by allowing Detective Garcia to testify that he linked the
        individual who entered the black Jeep Liberty to the robberies be-
        cause of the individual’s red shoes and distinct arm swing. The
        robbers’ red shoes were already supported by witness testimony
        and video evidence presented to the jury. Furthermore, at the time
        that Detective Garcia referenced the robber’s distinct arm swing, it
        was unclear whether Detective Garcia was testifying based on his
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                        25

        own perception or a witness’s testimony. Detective Garcia testiﬁed
        about the arm swing as a matter of fact; he never said that he
        learned about it from bystanders. Thus, when he testiﬁed to the
        arm swing, it was not immediately obvious that he was relaying
        information that was not rationally based on his own perception.
        Again, plain error is error so obvious that the district court is ex-
        pected to intervene sua sponte even if the defendant does not object.
        Williams, 527 F.3d at 1247. This evidence does not rise to that level.
                Next, Daniels argues that the government violated the Con-
        frontation Clause when Detective Garcia said that the robber had
        a distinct arm swing and red shoes. Detective Garcia testiﬁed that
        the robbery victims told him that the robber was wearing red
        sneakers. However, this statement did not violate the Confronta-
        tion Clause because the victims of that particular robbery—
        Trishana Chamberlain and Marytha Darbouze—both testiﬁed at
        the trial and were available for cross-examination. In any event, the
        surveillance footage showed that the robber was wearing red shoes
        during the robbery. As for the “arm swing” evidence, it was unclear
        from Garcia’s testimony whether he was relaying the testimonial
        statements of another witness. See Crawford v. Washington, 541 U.S.
        36, 68 (2004) (holding that the Confrontation Clause applies only
        to testimonial statements). The district court is not obliged to in-
        terject whenever a detective testiﬁes to a fact to ensure that the de-
        tective is not simply relaying facts that he learned from someone
        else. The district court thus did not plainly err in this manner.
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        26                      Opinion of the Court                  22-10408

                Finally, Daniels argues that the district court plainly erred by
        allowing Detective Garcia to relay inadmissible hearsay about the
        robber’s shoes and arm swing. As with the Confrontation Clause
        argument, the robber’s red shoes were a fact already in evidence.
        It was also unclear from Detective Garcia’s testimony that his state-
        ments about the arm swing are hearsay. He never said that he was
        relaying what someone else told him. Daniels hypothesizes that
        Garcia was relaying hearsay because Agent Jarid Wesley—a witness
        who testiﬁed after Garcia—testiﬁed that he learned about the arm
        swing from three or four individuals who worked at a nearby
        carwash. In his reply brief, Daniels cites Hackett v. Housing Authority
        of City of San Antonio, 750 F.2d 1308, 1312 (5th Cir. 1985), for the
        proposition that “evidence derived from hearsay is inadmissible.”
        But when Detective Garcia said that the robber had a distinct arm
        swing, Agent Wesley had not yet testiﬁed that he learned this fact
        from bystanders. And even now, it is not clear that Detective Gar-
        cia learned about the distinct arm swing from bystanders. Dan-
        iels’s argument is grounded in speculation and thus does not show
        that the district court plainly erred.
               Moreover, even if Daniels demonstrated the existence of (1)
        an error (2) that was plain, he fails to show prejudice, which re-
        quires him to demonstrate “a reasonable probability” that the trial
        outcome would have been diﬀerent if the district court excluded
        the evidence. See Margarita Garcia, 906 F.3d at 1267. Daniels argues
        that Detective Garcia’s statements prejudiced him because they
        were the best evidence connecting Daniels’s Jeep Liberty to the
        robberies. But as Daniels acknowledges, there was other evidence
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                         27

        suggesting that his Jeep Liberty was near the scene of some of the
        robberies.
               And even if the jury never heard evidence about the Jeep
        Liberty, Daniels fails to show that he would not have been con-
        victed based on the other evidence. Indeed, the jury heard other
        signiﬁcant evidence against Daniels, including cell-site data, surveil-
        lance footage, witness testimony, and modus operandi evidence,
        among other sources. Daniels does not successfully explain why
        the jury would have acquitted him even if the jury did not know
        about the black Jeep Liberty. Thus, he fails to demonstrate preju-
        dice.
                              4. Agent Wesley: Arm Swing
               Next, Daniels argues that the district court plainly erred dur-
        ing Agent Jarid Wesley’s testimony, even though the district court
        sustained counsel’s objection to Agent Wesley’s oﬀending state-
        ment:
               Q. On or about October 11, 2019, did you and other
               special agents of the FBI canvass the area around the
               Advantage Destination?
               A. Yes.
               Q. And can you describe what you observed during
               this time?
               A. So on that day, I believe it was the 7-Eleven on
               194th, we were walking around. And behind the 7-
               Eleven there was a business called Blades Auto Detail-
               ing. There was three or four individuals there that
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        28                      Opinion of the Court                    22-10408

               worked, I am assuming at Blades, and we were asking
               them if they saw anything from the robbery that hap-
               pened, I believe it was the day before. And they de-
               scribed that they saw an individual walking with an
               exaggerated arm motion right after –
               MR. COHEN: Objection. Hearsay.
               MR. ALEXANDER: I’ll rephrase the question, Your
               Honor.
               THE COURT: All right. Sustained.
        Daniels argues that the district court violated the Confrontation
        Clause and improperly allowed hearsay because of Agent Wesley’s
        statement, combined with Detective Garcia’s earlier statement
        about the robber’s red shoes and distinct arm motion. Daniels con-
        tends that through the combined testimony of Agent Wesley and
        Detective Garcia, the jury learned that the man seen on surveil-
        lance footage entering a black Jeep Liberty was the same person
        who committed the robbery alleged in Count 4.
                Daniels fails to demonstrate plain error. First, Daniels does
        not explain how the district court erred. Indeed, the district court
        sustained Daniels’s objection to Wesley’s testimony. But after suc-
        cessfully objecting, Daniels did not move to strike or for a limiting
        instruction from the district court. To the extent that Daniels be-
        lieves that the district court plainly erred by failing to strike the tes-
        timony sua sponte, his argument is foreclosed by precedent. See
        Mosquera, 886 F.3d at 1046 (“It was not plain error—indeed, it was
        not error at all—for the court to not strike the question sua
        sponte.”).
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        22-10408                Opinion of the Court                         29

               Second, even if Daniels could prove error, he fails to demon-
        strate prejudice for the same reasons that he failed to demonstrate
        prejudice with respect to Detective Garcia’s testimony about the
        robber’s distinct arm swing. As explained above, even without evi-
        dence connecting Daniels’s Jeep Liberty to the robberies, there is
        no “reasonable probability” that the jury would have acquitted
        Daniels, given the other evidence against him. See Magarita Garcia,
        906 F.3d at 1267.
              5. Detective Hyatt: Security Footage Showed Jonathan Daniels
              Finally, Daniels argues that the district court plainly erred by
        allowing the following testimony from Pembroke Pines Detective
        Brad Hyatt:
              Q. All right. Now in this particular case, did you
              know who the suspect was? Or at some point did you
              learn who the suspect was?
              A. Yes.
              Q. Did you know whose photograph the suspect
              matched?
              A. Yes, I did.
              Q. And was a photographic lineup shown to the cash-
              ier, Yavima Casadevall?
              A. Yes, it was.
              Q. Who put together that photographic lineup?
              A. It was provided to me from—I believe it was Mi-
              ami-Dade that put together that particular lineup.
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        30                    Opinion of the Court                22-10408

              Q. Did you know which photograph matched the de-
              fendant?
              A. I would be able to pick him out of there, yes, I
              would.
              Q. Say that one more time.
              A. I knew who he was in there, yes.
              ...
              Q. Detective, is there another point in the conversa-
              tion with Yavima where you speak again?
              A. There was another point where I show a picture
              of the robbery as a refresher for her.
              Q. And when you say a picture of the robbery, where
              did you get the picture from?
              A. There was a still picture oﬀ, like, the surveillance
              cameras of him, you know, printed up on a piece of,
              you know, just normal paper.
              Q. Was it a picture of Jonathan Wayne Daniels?
              A. Yes.
              Q. Aside from the robbery?
              A. A picture in the store doing the robbery.
              Q. And why did you show her that picture?
              A. As a refresher.
              Q. And did you tell her that?
              A. Yes.
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        22-10408                 Opinion of the Court                           31

               Daniels argues that Detective Hyatt’s testimony violated
        Federal Rule of Evidence 701. Daniels contends that Detective Hy-
        att ﬁrst told the jury that, at the time of the photo lineup, he knew
        the identity of the robbery suspect and then later said that the per-
        son depicted in a still image from the robbery was the defendant,
        Daniels.
                Daniels is correct that Hyatt’s testimony contravened Rule
        701(a). Hyatt was not an eyewitness to any of the robberies, and
        therefore, his identiﬁcation of Daniels was not “rationally based on
        [his] perception.” Fed. R. Evid. 701(a). To be sure, “lay opinion
        identiﬁcation testimony may be helpful to the jury where . . . ‘there
        is some basis for concluding that the witness is more likely to cor-
        rectly identify the defendant from [surveillance footage] than is the
        jury.’” United States v. Pierce, 136 F.3d 770, 774 (11th Cir. 1998) (quot-
        ing United States v. Farnsworth, 729 F.2d 1158, 1160 (8th Cir. 1984)).
        But the government does not explain why Hyatt was more likely
        than the jury to correctly analyze the surveillance footage. Thus,
        Hyatt’s opinion violated Rule 701(a).
               Yet, to succeed in his appeal, Daniels must also prove that
        this error was “plain” and prejudiced his “substantial rights.” Mar-
        garita Garcia, 906 F.3d at 1266 (quoting Rodriguez, 398 F.3d at 1298).
        And even then, we “may” exercise our discretion to notice the er-
        ror, “but only if . . . the error seriously aﬀects the fairness, integrity,
        or public reputation of judicial proceedings.” Id. at 1266–67 (quot-
        ing Rodriguez, 398 F.3d at 1298).
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        32                      Opinion of the Court                   22-10408

                Assuming that the district court committed error that was
        plain, Daniels fails to prove that this error prejudiced his substantial
        rights, i.e., “a reasonable probability that, but for the error, a diﬀer-
        ent outcome would have occurred.” See id. at 1267. Even without
        Hyatt’s misstatement, there is not a reasonable probability that the
        jury would have acquitted Daniels. As we have already noted, the
        government demonstrated Daniels’s guilt beyond a reasonable
        doubt through cell-site data, surveillance footage, eyewitness testi-
        mony identifying Daniels as the robber, modus operandi evidence,
        evidence that Daniels owned clothing that resembled the robber’s
        clothing, and evidence that Daniels searched for news about the
        robberies after he completed them.
                Daniels also fails to establish prejudice because the district
        court’s jury instruction on identiﬁcation testimony emphasized
        that if a witness identiﬁes Daniels as the person who committed
        the crime, the jury “must still decide how accurate the identiﬁca-
        tion is.” “We assume juries follow the court’s instructions.” Pen-
        dergrass, 995 F.3d at 881. Hyatt’s testimony did not relieve the jury
        of its own obligation to decide whether Daniels was the robber de-
        picted in the surveillance video.
                   6. There is No Cumulative Error Requiring Reversal
               “In addressing a claim of cumulative error, we must examine
        the trial as a whole to determine whether the appellant was af-
        forded a fundamentally fair trial.” United States v. Calderon, 127 F.3d
        1314, 1333 (11th Cir. 1997). Daniels has shown one error, which
        was Detective Hyatt’s statement that Daniels was the robber
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        22-10408               Opinion of the Court                         33

        depicted in the surveillance videos. But as explained above, that
        error does not rise to the level of plain error because it is not prej-
        udicial. “Where there is no error or only a single error, there can
        be no cumulative error.” United States v. Gamory, 635 F.3d 480, 497
        (11th Cir. 2011). We thus conclude that Daniels has failed to show
        cumulative error, and we aﬃrm as to this issue.
                            C. Suﬃciency of the Evidence
               Next, Daniels challenges, on two grounds, the suﬃciency of
        the evidence to support his conviction under Count 7 of the super-
        seding indictment. First, Daniels argues that no reasonable jury
        could ﬁnd beyond a reasonable doubt that the robber in Count 7
        threatened the victim with force or violence—a necessary condi-
        tion for Hobbs Act robbery. Second, he argues that no reasonable
        jury could ﬁnd, beyond a reasonable doubt, that he committed the
        robbery alleged in Count 7. For the following reasons, we reject
        both arguments.
                              1. Threat of Force or Violence
                The Hobbs Act criminalizes “robbery” that “in any way or
        degree obstructs, delays, or aﬀects commerce or the movement of
        any article or commodity in commerce.” 18 U.S.C. § 1951(a). The
        Act deﬁnes “robbery,” in relevant part, as “the unlawful taking or
        obtaining of personal property from the person or in the presence
        of another, against his will, by means of actual or threatened force,
        or violence, or fear of injury, immediate or future, to his person or
        property, or property in his custody or possession.” Id. § 1951(b)(1)
        (emphases added). Daniels argues that no reasonable jury would
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        34                      Opinion of the Court                    22-10408

        ﬁnd, beyond a reasonable doubt, that the robber in Count 7 em-
        ployed “actual or threatened force, or violence, or fear of injury”
        to accomplish the robbery.
                 Daniels’s argument fails in light of the surveillance video.
        Although the video is grainy, it is clear enough to allow the jury to
        conclude that the robber had a pistol in his hand. The surveillance
        video shows the muzzle of a black pistol extending over the rob-
        ber’s enclosed ﬁst. And the video shows the silver coloring of the
        ejection port in the middle of the pistol’s black slide. The ﬁrearm
        depicted in the surveillance video also resembles the ﬁrearm used
        in the other robberies. Furthermore, the video shows that the be-
        havior of the 7-Eleven employee changed at the moment that the
        robber reached into his pocket and drew the ﬁrearm. Finally, the
        robber pointed the ﬁrearm at the employee and waived it around
        as if it were a gun.
                Because of the surveillance video, a reasonable jury could
        ﬁnd, beyond a reasonable doubt, that the robber employed “actual
        or threatened force, or violence, or fear of injury” to accomplish
        the robbery. § 1951(b)(1). The act of brandishing a ﬁrearm is suf-
        ﬁcient, on its own, to threaten force or violence under § 1951(b)(1).
        Cf. Parker v. United States, 801 F.2d 1382, 1384 (D.C. Cir. 1986) (Scalia,
        J.) (“The act of threatening others with a gun is tantamount to say-
        ing that the gun is loaded and that the gun wielder will shoot unless
        his commands are obeyed.” (quoting United States v. Marshall, 427
        F.2d 434, 437 (2d Cir. 1970))).
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        22-10408              Opinion of the Court                       35

                               2. Identity of the Robber
               Next, Daniels argues that no reasonable jury could ﬁnd, be-
        yond a reasonable doubt, that Daniels was the individual who com-
        mitted the robbery alleged in Count 7. Daniels emphasizes that the
        government never called an eyewitness to testify about the robbery.
        While this is true, signiﬁcant evidence supports the jury's verdict,
        so a reasonable jury could ﬁnd, beyond a reasonable doubt, that
        Daniels committed the robbery.
               First, modus operandi evidence suggests that Daniels com-
        mitted the robbery. As we summarized above, the government pre-
        sented the following evidence showing that the robbery alleged in
        Count 7 closely resembled the nine other charged robberies. The
        robbery was committed during the same seven-day timeframe in
        October 2019 as the other robberies that were committed. Like the
        other nine robberies, the robber in Count 7 wore a brimmed hat, a
        long sleeve shirt, and pants. The robber was also wearing distinc-
        tive red boots, which were observed in ﬁve of the other robberies.
        The robbery occurred in the late afternoon or evening, just like all
        the other robberies. The robber targeted a 7-Eleven, which is the
        same chain that he targeted in ﬁve of the other robberies. The rob-
        ber used a ﬁrearm that resembles the ﬁrearm depicted on the sur-
        veillance footage of the other robberies. Finally, the robber in
        Count 7 purchased a pack of Newport cigarettes from the 7-Eleven
        ten minutes before he robbed it. The robber also requested New-
        port cigarettes during ﬁve of the other robberies. Because of this
        strong modus operandi evidence, the jury could infer that Daniels
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        36                     Opinion of the Court                22-10408

        committed the robbery in Count 7 just as he committed the other
        nine robberies. See Pendergrass, 995 F.3d at 876–77 (aﬃrming a
        jury’s verdict based on modus operandi evidence); United States v.
        Bowers, 811 F.3d 412, 425–30 (11th Cir. 2016) (same).
               Second, surveillance footage shows that the robber in Count
        7 carried a distinct red umbrella and wore red boots. Police recov-
        ered red boots and a red umbrella when they searched Daniels’s car.
               Third, Daniels’s cell-site data demonstrates that his phone
        was in the area of the robbery at least ﬁfteen minutes before the
        robbery occurred. See United States v. Ransfer, 749 F.3d 914, 933
        (11th Cir. 2014) (“Based on the cell phone records and surveillance
        footage introduced at trial, a jury could ﬁnd that Lowe was at the
        stores at the time of the robberies.”).
               Finally, the government presented evidence that someone
        used Daniels’s phone to repeatedly search the internet for news
        about the robberies, including, speciﬁcally, a robbery at a 7-Eleven.
        The robbery alleged in Count 7 occurred on October 11, 2019, at a
        7-Eleven in Miami Gardens. On October 12 and 13, 2019, someone
        used Daniels’s phone to search for “[r]obbery at gas station,” “7-
        Eleven gas station robbery,” “Miami robbery today,” and “[g]as sta-
        tion robbery today.” On October 12, 13, and 15, someone also
        searched for “[g]as station robbery today,” “MIAM 8 gas station
        robbery at gas station,” “[r]obbery at gas station,” and “[a]rmed
        robbery of gas station last night.”
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        22-10408                   Opinion of the Court                              37

              Based on this evidence, we conclude that a reasonable jury
        could convict Daniels for the robbery alleged in Count 7 of the su-
        perseding indictment. We therefore aﬃrm as to this issue.
                                          D. Sentence
                 Finally, Daniels challenges the substantive reasonableness of
        his 180-month sentence. But Daniels advances only one argument:
        that the district court erred because it accounted for Daniels’s con-
        viction under Count 7 when crafting his sentence even though, ac-
        cording to Daniels, there was insuﬃcient evidence to convict him
        under Count 7. Daniels’s argument fails because it rests only on
        the assumption that there was insuﬃcient evidence to convict him
        for the robbery alleged in Count 7. As explained above, that prem-
        ise is incorrect. 2 Accordingly, we aﬃrm Daniels’s sentence.
                                IV.     CONCLUSION
              For all these reasons, we aﬃrm Daniels’s convictions and
        sentence.
                AFFIRMED.

        2 At oral argument, Daniels conceded that if we reject his sufficiency-of-the-

        evidence challenge, then his sentencing challenge necessarily fails also.
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        22-10408              JORDAN, J., Concurring                        1

        JORDAN, Circuit Judge, Concurring:
                Judge Lagoa’s opinion for the court correctly applies our
        precedent, and I therefore concur in full. I write separately to urge
        the Eleventh Circuit Committee on Pattern Jury Instructions to re-
        vise the pattern instruction on identiﬁcation to allow juries to con-
        sider, in appropriate cases, that the witness and the person identi-
        ﬁed are of diﬀerent races.
               Eyewitness testimony asks much of judges and jurors alike,
        and courts have long struggled to balance the probative value of
        such evidence against the inherent dangers of misidentiﬁcation.
        The central question of whether and how to admit this type of ev-
        idence at trial necessarily implicates competing interests of justice.
        On the one hand, eyewitness testimony serves a key fact-ﬁnding
        function and may aid in determining guilt. On the other hand, in-
        accurate eyewitness testimony may just as easily skew the search
        for the truth.
               Many have noted the perils of eyewitness testimony in crim-
        inal cases. For example, Justice Frankfurter, before he went on the
        Supreme Court, surmised the risk nearly a century ago with a sin-
        gle question: “What is the worth of identiﬁcation testimony even
        when uncontradicted?” Felix Frankfurter, The Case of Sacco and
        Vanzetti 30 (Grosset & Dunlap 1962) [1927] (quoted in United States
        v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218, 228 (1967)). The Supreme Court reiterated
        that early warning in an opinion 40 years later when it vacated a
        conviction based on an uncounseled lineup and a subsequent in-
        court identiﬁcation. See Wade, 388 U.S. at 228. Writing for the
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        2                      JORDAN, J., Concurring                 20-10709

        majority, Justice Brennan stated that “[t]he vagaries of eyewitness
        identiﬁcation are well-known; the annals of criminal law are rife
        with instances of mistaken identiﬁcation.” Id. at 228. See also Man-
        son v. Brathwaite, 432 U.S. 98, 119−20 (1977) (Marshall, J., dissenting)
        (emphasizing “the unusual threat to the truth-seeking process
        posed by the frequent untrustworthiness of eyewitness identiﬁca-
        tion testimony”).
                By the end of the 20th century, some Justices on the Su-
        preme Court had speciﬁcally identiﬁed cross-racial identiﬁcations
        as a potential source of wrongful convictions. Justice Blackmun,
        writing for himself and other dissenting Justices, highlighted the
        danger in a case where the prosecution’s “only evidence . . . was the
        [eyewitness] testimony of the victim.” Arizona v. Youngblood, 488
        U.S. 51, 71−72 (1988) (Blackmun, J., dissenting). Arguing that the
        defendant was entitled to a “fair trial, not merely a good faith try at
        a fair trial,” Justice Blackmun cautioned that “[c]ross-racial identiﬁ-
        cations [were] much less likely to be accurate than same race iden-
        tiﬁcations.” Id. at 61, 72 n.8 (citation and internal quotation marks
        omitted).
               Empirical studies have largely conﬁrmed these warnings—
        both as to eyewitness testimony generally and cross-racial identiﬁ-
        cations in particular. In the words of Justice Sotomayor:
               It would be one thing if the passage of time had cast
               doubt on . . . our precedents. But just the opposite
               has happened. A vast body of scientiﬁc literature has
               reinforced every concern our precedents articulated
               nearly half a century ago . . . . [M]ore than 2,000
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        22-10408               JORDAN, J., Concurring                        3

               studies related to eyewitness identiﬁcation have been
               published . . . . [T]he research . . . is not only exten-
               sive, but it represents the gold standard in terms of
               applicability of social science research to the law.
        Perry v. New Hampshire, 565 U.S. 228, 262−63 (2012) (Sotomayor, J.,
        dissenting) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). The
        “unreliability of eyewitness testimony is now widely recognized in
        the psychological literature and by law enforcement.” United States
        v. Owens, 682 F.3d 1358, 1360 (11th Cir. 2012) (Barkett, J., dissenting
        from the denial of rehearing en banc).
                Some studies conclude, among other things, that “eyewit-
        ness recollections are highly susceptible to distortion” and that “ju-
        rors routinely overestimate the accuracy of eyewitness identiﬁca-
        tions.” Perry, 565 U.S. at 264 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting) (citations
        omitted). In fact, some have estimated that mistaken eyewitnesses
        may be responsible for roughly 80% of all wrongful convictions.
        See e.g., Barry Scheck, et al., Actual Innocence: Five Days to Execu-
        tion, and Other Dispatches from the Wrongly Convicted 73 (2000)
        (reporting that 84% of wrongful convictions were due, at least in
        part, to mistaken eyewitness identiﬁcation). See also Brandon L.
        Garrett, Convicting the Innocent: Where Criminal Prosecutions
        Go Wrong 48 (2011) (ﬁnding that eyewitnesses misidentiﬁed the
        suspect in 76% of the ﬁrst 250 convictions overturned due to DNA
        evidence); Randolph N. Jonakait, The American Jury System 290
        (2003) (“Because of their importance, eyewitness identiﬁcations
        have generated much study. The research consistently conﬁrms
        two key points. First, many mistakes are made in eyewitness
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        4                     JORDAN, J., Concurring                20-10709

        identiﬁcations. Second, jurors are not good at distinguishing incor-
        rect identiﬁcations from correct ones.”).
                Other studies have signiﬁcantly challenged the trustworthi-
        ness of cross-racial identiﬁcations. “[T]he own-race bias is quite
        consistent . . . among both Black and White subjects.” Robert K.
        Bothwell et al., Cross–Racial Identiﬁcation, 15 Personality & Soc.
        Psychol. Bull. 19, 23 (1989). See also Christian A. Meissner & John
        A. Brigham, Thirty Years of Investigating the Own–Race Bias in
        Memory for Faces: A Meta–Analytic Review, 7 Psychol. Pub. Pol’y & L.
        3, 18 (2001) (ﬁnding that “White participants demonstrated a sig-
        niﬁcantly larger [own-race bias] when compared with Black partic-
        ipants”). Though experts continue to debate the root causes of the
        cross-racial eﬀect, “researchers have endorsed the importance and
        reliability of the eﬀect in several surveys . . . and attorneys have
        acknowledged the importance of racial interactions in eyewitness
        identiﬁcations.” Id. at 4. One survey, for instance, reported that
        more than 90% of experts believe that “eyewitnesses ﬁnd it rela-
        tively diﬃcult to identify members of a race other than their own.”
        Saul M. Kassin, et al., On the “General Acceptance” of Eyewitness Tes-
        timony Research: A New Survey of the Experts, 56 Am. Psychol. 405,
        410 (2001).
               The current literature also highlights certain open ques-
        tions. For example, researchers “have long believed that exposure
        duration (e.g., time spent observing a perpetrator’s face during a
        crime) is correlated with greater accuracy of eyewitness identiﬁca-
        tion.” National Research Council, Identifying the Culprit: Assessing
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        22-10408               JORDAN, J., Concurring                          5

        Eyewitness Identiﬁcation 97 (2014). The literature has conﬁrmed
        that hypothesis—ﬁnding that“[l]onger exposures [are] associated
        with higher rates of correct identiﬁcations and lower false alarm
        rates.” Id. at 98. Yet for reasons that remain unclear to researchers,
        the same relationship between time and accuracy may not extend
        to cross-racial identiﬁcations. See John C. Brigham et al., The Inﬂu-
        ence of Race on Eyewitness Memory in 2 Handbook of Eyewitness
        Psychology 261 (Rod C.L. Lindsey et al. eds., 2014) (discussing stud-
        ies that found “longer encoding times generally produced a de-
        crease in the magnitude of the [cross-racial eﬀect]” and others that
        “failed to indicate a signiﬁcant interaction”).
                Courts across the country have taken notice of the available
        research and sought to mitigate the risk of wrongful convictions in
        a number of ways, including allowing broad cross-examination, is-
        suing revised jury instructions, and admitting expert testimony.
        See, e.g., United States v. Rodriguez-Felix, 450 F.3d 1117, 1124−25 (10th
        Cir. 2006) (“We explored the admissibility of expert testimony on
        the reliability of eyewitness identiﬁcations . . . . [S]killful cross-ex-
        amination provides an equally, if not more, eﬀective tool.”); Young
        v. Conway, 698 F.3d 69, 79 (2d Cir. 2012) (“[D]istrict courts may
        property address the dangers of unreliable eyewitness identiﬁca-
        tion testimony by giving a jury charge appropriate to the circum-
        stances of the case.”) (citations and internal quotation marks omit-
        ted); Ferensic v. Birkett, 501 F.3d 469, 482 (6th Cir. 2007) (“[E]xpert
        testimony on eyewitness identiﬁcations, once thought to be unreli-
        able and overly prejudicial to the prosecution, is now universally
        recognized as scientiﬁcally valid and of ‘aid [to] the trier of fact’ for
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        6                       JORDAN, J., Concurring                  20-10709

        admissibility purposes.”) (citation omitted). With varying degrees
        of success, each of these procedural safeguards recognizes the po-
        tential unreliability of cross-racial identiﬁcations and aims to place
        jurors on alert. As one district court in this circuit put it:
               The potential inaccuracies of cross-racial identiﬁca-
               tions are not necessarily within the common
               knowledge of the average juror or, for that matter, the
               average judge . . . . If social-science research . . . aided
               this court’s ability to understand the evidence . . . it
               would be curious to assume that the same research
               would be of no aid to the jury.
        United States v. Smith, 621 F. Supp. 2d 1207, 1216−17 (M.D. Ala.
        2009) (citations omitted).
                Several courts have already revised their pattern instructions
        on eyewitness identiﬁcation to permit juries to consider whether
        the witness and the person identiﬁed were of the same race. See,
        e.g., Pattern Criminal Jury Instructions for the District Courts of
        the First Circuit § 2.22 (updated December 21, 2018) (“You may
        consider the following in evaluating the accuracy of an eyewitness
        identiﬁcation: risks of cross-racial identiﬁcation . . . .”); Third Cir.
        Model Crim. Jury Instr. § 4.15 (revised February 2021) (“Many fac-
        tors aﬀect whether a witness has an adequate opportunity to ob-
        serve the person committing the crime . . . includ[ing] . . . whether
        the witness and the person committing the crime were of diﬀerent
        races . . . .”); Judicial Council of California Criminal Jury Instruc-
        tion No. 315 (revised March 2022) (“In evaluating identiﬁcation
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        22-10408               JORDAN, J., Concurring                          7

        testimony, consider [whether] . . . the witness and defendant are of
        diﬀerent races.”). I submit it is time for us to do the same.
                “The purpose of a speciﬁc jury instruction on cross-racial
        identiﬁcation is to permit juries to consider the increased possibility
        of misidentiﬁcation in determining whether or not there is suﬃ-
        cient evidence of guilt.” David E. Aaronson, Cross-Racial Identiﬁca-
        tion of Defendants in Criminal Cases: A Proposed Model Jury Instruction,
        23 Crim. Justice 4, 6 (ABA Spring 2008). Nevertheless, I recognize
        that some courts have resisted this trend on grounds of insuﬃcient
        research. See generally Nathan R. Sobel, et al., On Fallibility of In-
        terracial Identiﬁcation, Eyewitness Identiﬁcation: Legal & Practical
        Problems § 9:20 (2d. & 2023 update) (“The issue of interracial iden-
        tiﬁcation is highly controversial . . . despite the availability of stud-
        ies concluding that interracial recognition is unreliable”).
               A recent Third Circuit task force consisting of “judges, law-
        yers, professors, and law enforcement agents” analyzed this divide
        in detail. See 2019 Report of the United States Court of Appeals for the
        Third Circuit on Eyewitness Identiﬁcation, 92 Temp. L. Rev. 1, 7 (2019).
        The task force reiterated that there was “substantial agreement
        among eyewitness researchers that witnesses may be less accurate
        when identifying members of another race” and that “[m]any
        courts ha[d] noted the scientiﬁc agreement.” Id. at 83. Only two
        members of the task force failed to join these ﬁndings in full, but
        even they agreed “that a cross-race eﬀect may exist under certain
        circumstances.” Id. at 85.
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        8                      JORDAN, J., Concurring                 20-10709

                 In this case, the district court faced an important decision on
        whether to use our circuit’s pattern instruction on eyewitness iden-
        tiﬁcation, grant the defendant’s request to use the Third Circuit’s
        model instruction, or do something in between. Among other dif-
        ferences, the Third Circuit’s instruction asks jurors to consider
        “whether the witness and the person committing the crime were
        of diﬀerent races.” Third Cir. Model Crim. Jury Instr. § 4.15. At
        trial, the government argued against any such instruction:
               Your Honor, I don’t think there is any need to bring
               race into this because I know counsel is referring to
               research that’s been done. I haven’t seen the research.
               I haven’t read the research. I don’t think we need to
               put in race . . . because it gives the insinuation
               that . . . people of diﬀerent races may have diﬃculty
               identifying the other person . . . it gives the jury some
               reason to believe that race is a factor . . . .
        D.E. 125 at 63. The district court disagreed with the government
        and instructed the jury that, in assessing the reliability and accuracy
        of the identiﬁcation, it could consider whether “the witness and the
        person committing the crime [were] of diﬀerent races[.]” D.E. 58
        at 7.
               I believe the district court made the right call, but I think we
        need to revise our pattern jury instructions to allow consideration
        of a possible cross-racial eﬀect on identiﬁcations. Although pattern
        instructions are “not binding,” United States v. Dohan, 508 F.3d 989,
        994 (11th Cir. 2007), they are relied upon by the bench and bar, and
        are generally viewed as a type of safe harbor for what is
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        22-10408              JORDAN, J., Concurring                        9

        appropriate. Our patten instruction on identiﬁcation has not been
        substantively updated since 1985, almost 40 years ago. Compare
        11th Cir. Crim. Pattern Jury Instr. No. 3 ( January 1985), with 11th
        Cir. Crim. Pattern Jury Instr. No. 3 (March 2022). It is time, in my
        view, for us to take account of the abundant literature on cross-
        racial identiﬁcation and revise our instruction on eyewitness iden-
        tiﬁcation to permit juries to consider, in appropriate cases, that the
        witness and the person identiﬁed were of diﬀerent races. I urge the
        Committee on Pattern Jury Instructions to make that change.