Court Opinion

ID: 9614747
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-22 04:27:53.581874+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T18:03:38.626165
License: Public Domain

CLARK, J.
I dissent.
Section 1151 of the Evidence Code excludes evidence of subsequent remedial modifications when offered to prove “culpable conduct.” Culpable conduct includes conduct breaching a legal duty. Because a plaintiff seeking recovery on a product liability theory must prove the defendant breached his legal duty not to place a defective product in the stream of commerce, section 1151 is applicable to the case before us.
“Culpable” is defined as: “[b]lamable; censurable; involving the breach of a legal duty or the commission of a fault. The term is not necessarily equivalent to ‘criminal,’ for in present use, and notwithstanding its derivation, it implies that the act or conduct spoken of is reprehensible or wrong but not that it involves malice or a guilty purpose. ‘Culpable’ in fact connotes fault rather than guilt.” (Black’s Law Dict. (4th rev. ed. 1958) p. 454.) From the above definition it is clear “culpable” includes conduct breaching a legal duty. Concededly, “culpable” connotes moral blameworthiness or moral fault; however, the definition is not restricted to the latter concept, and clearly includes legal blameworthiness and legal fault.
A manufacturer placing a product in the stream of commerce has a legal duty to prevent defects causing injury. (Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc. (1963) 59 Cal.2d 57, 63 [27 Cal.Rptr. 697, 377 P.2d 897, 13 A.L.R.3d 1049].) And before a plaintiff may recover on a theory of product liability, he must prove the defendant breached this duty. Thus, by definition, the plaintiff must prove the defendant’s conduct “culpable,” and in proving such culpability, section 1151 clearly prohibits using evidence of subsequent remedial measures.
The important policy underlying prohibiting evidence of subsequent change is as applicable to product liability actions as to negligence actions.
*125The basis for the exclusion in negligence cases is that the jury may unjustifiably view the change as an admission of fault. Following an injury, modifications will frequently be made which would have rendered the injury less likely. While these modifications might be the result of some feeling of responsibility, it is at least as probable the change was made because it was the socially desirable or humane thing to do. Such conduct is not probative of an admission that the modification was the required standard of conduct prior to the injury. It may have been thought to be the standard required only after the injury is known. Or, the defendant may have desired to rise above the required standard. (See, Proposed Fed. Rules of Evid., § 407, Practice Comment, p. 104.) Finally, the change may not be a safety measure at all but rather a change made for functional, aesthetic or economic reasons.
Acknowledging the lack of probative value, this court many years ago held that an admission of negligence may not be founded on evidence of change following an accident and that when such evidence is relevant only to prove admission it must be excluded. (Helling v. Schindler (1904) 145 Cal. 303, 312 [78 P. 710]; Sappenfield v. Main-St. etc. R.R. Co. (1891) 91 Cal. 48, 62 [27 P. 590].) Lack of probative value is the basis for the exclusionary rule according to Professor Wigmore, although he recognizes that some courts have also relied on public policy to avoid discouraging persons from making repairs following an accident. (2 Wigmore on Evidence (3d ed. 1940) pp. 151-159.)1
There is even less probative value when evidence of subsequent change is offered to prove an admission in product liability cases. Change in a *126product is frequently made for reasons unrelated to the remedial nature of the change. Among the motivations for change are the desires to decrease production cost or to increase efficiency or salability. The most striking illustration of lack of probative value is supplied by the automobile industry. Each year hundreds of changes are made in a new model. It is absurd to suggest that each change reflects an admission the modification was made to remedy a defect.
Notwithstanding the lack of probative value, juries, in the heat of negligence or product liability trials—learning only of a single change—may conclude the change reflects an admission of negligence or defect and may give great and decisive weight to the perceived admission. The danger of such misuse of evidence is at least as great in product liability cases as in negligence cases.
The lack of probative value and the danger of misuse of evidence of subsequent change are not cured when the issue before the jury is defect rather than negligence, and no reason exists for refusing to give the word “culpable” its common meaning. Accordingly, I conclude that section 1151 should be applicable in product liability cases.
n
The remaining issue is the application of section 1151 to the evidence that International Harvester changed from aluminum 380 to malleable iron. Section 1151 excludes evidence only when used to prove negligence or culpable conduct. Case law allows evidence of subsequent change to prove issues other than negligence or culpable conduct. For example, evidence of subsequent precautions may properly be admitted when it tends to impeach the testimony of a witness. (Daggett v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry. Co. (1957) 48 Cal.2d 655, 661 [313 P.2d 557]; Hatfield v. Levy Brothers (1941) 18 Cal.2d 798, 809-810 [117 P.2d 841]; Inyo Chemical Co. v. City of Los Angeles (1936) 5 Cal.2d 525, 543-544 [55 P.2d 850].)
Despite relevance to a proper purpose, the danger of a jury improperly viewing the evidence as an admission of legal fault is apparent, and the danger of misuse may well outweigh probative value of the evidence. Not only is such misuse contrary to the express prohibition created by the Legislature, but also the misuse is manifestly unfair to defendant. To alleviate the potential unfairness and to implement the legislative prohibition, the trial court must carefully balance the need for the evidence against the dangers of its use.
Consequently, before evidence of subsequent change is received as rele*127vant to a proper issue, the party introducing the evidence must persuasively satisfy the trial court2 that the “issue on which it is offered is of substantial importance and is actually, and not merely formally in dispute, that the plaintiff cannot establish the fact to be inferred conveniently by other proof, and consequently that the need for the evidence outweighs the danger of its misuse.” (McCormick, Evidence (2d ed. 1972) pp. 668-669; see also, Evid. Code, § 352; Sanchez v. Bagues & Sons Mortuaries (1969) 271 Cal.App.2d 188, 191 [76 Cal.Rptr. 372]; Jefferson, Cal. Evidence Benchbook (1972) § 21.1; cf. Proposed Fed. Rules of Evid., § 407 and the Practice Comment.)
To improperly admit such evidence to prove issues not actually disputed or easily provable by other evidence judicially repeals the statute. (Sanchez v. Bagues & Sons Mortuaries, supra, 271 Cal.App.2d 188, 191-193; Pierce v. J. C. Penney Co. (1959) 167 Cal.App.2d 3, 11 [334 P.2d 117].)
When this three-part test is not applied to evidence of subsequent modification, and the admission of such evidence results in a miscarriage of justice, the case should be reversed. (Hrnjak v. Graymar, Inc. (1971) 4 Cal.3d 725, 734 [94 Cal.Rptr. 623, 484 P.2d 599, 47 A.L.R.3d 224]; People v. Watson (1956) 46 Cal.2d 818, 836 [299 P.2d 243]; Cal. Const., art. VI, § 13.)
In this case the record not only indicates that the above three-part test was not considered by the court before admitting evidence of subsequent modification, but also that plaintiff apparently introduced such evidence on the issue of feasibility of malleable iron to avoid application of section 1151. The primary dispute in this case was whether the aluminum steering gear box caused the injury. Feasibility was not a contested issue and, even if contested, could have been proven by evidence other than International Harvester’s subsequent replacement of the aluminum steering gear box.3 Accordingly, the evidence should have been excluded.
The record reveals improper introduction of the subsequent modification was highly prejudicial to defendant. The evidence on the critical issue *128—whether the aluminum steering gear box actually caused the injury— was closely balanced. In the first trial, the jury was unable to reach a verdict. During the second trial, plaintiff’s trial tactics included constant emphasis of the subsequent change in the steering gear box, resulting in a plaintiff’s verdict. Under these circumstances, it must be concluded the improper admission of evidence substantially affected the verdict, constituting reversible error.
Appellant’s petition for a rehearing was denied January 23, 1975, and the opinion was modified to read as printed above. Clark, J., was of the opinion that the petition should be granted.

The policy of encouraging modification following an accident may not be viewed as the basis of the section 1151 exclusionary rule when the rule is considered in light of present California law. Section 1151 by its terms only excludes evidence when offered to prove negligence or culpability; the section does not necessarily exclude evidence when it is probative to other relevant issues. (Morehouse v. Taubman Co. (1970) 5 Cal.App.3d 548, 555 [85 Cal.Rptr. 308]; Sanchez v. Bagues & Sons Mortuaries (1969) 271 Cal.App.2d 188, 190-191 [76 Cal.Rptr. 372]; Baldwin Contracting Co. v. Winston Steel Works, Inc. (1965) 236 Cal.App.2d 565, 573 [46 Cal.Rptr. 421].) A party contemplating change in his real property, chattel, or product prior to trial cannot know with certainty that evidence of his change will not be received as relevant on issues other than negligence and culpability, frustrating the policy of encouraging safety modification. Because lack of admissibility is not predictable under the California rules but may only be determined on the basis of issues developed at trial, the goal of encouraging modifications is not substantially furthered by section 1151.
The m.ajority argue it is unlikely that potential admission of evidence of change will deter manufacturers from making changes toward increased safety. But, because encouraging change is not the purpose of section 1151, the reasoning does not furnish a basis to reject application of the section to product liability cases.

The burden of proof established in Hrnjak v. Graymar, Inc. (1971) 4 Cal.3d 725, 733 [94 Cal.Rptr. 623, 484 P.2d 599, 47 A.L.R.3d 224], should be applied here. Although Hrnjak was concerned with the collateral source rule, a similar issue is presented in this case. (See, Jefferson, Cal. Evidence Benchbook (1972) § 21.1.)

For example, feasibility could have been proven by offering evidence that other manufacturers produced vehicles with a malleable iron steering gear box prior to the accident. The plaintiff introduced evidence that International Harvester had installed the malleable iron steering gear box on some vehicles prior to the accident, This evidence was reasonably convenient and could have proven feasibility.