Court Opinion

ID: 9419467
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-02 22:49:37.76292+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:22:18.321976
License: Public Domain

Me. Justice Rutledge,
concurring:
I concur in the result and substantially in the Court’s opinion, except for qualifications expressed below. In view of these and my difference from the Court’s position in Yakus v. United States, ante, p. 414, a statement of reasons for concurrence here is appropriate.
I.
With reference to the substantive aspects of the legislation, I would add here only the following. Since the phases in issue in this case relate to real estate rentals, it is not amiss to note that these ordinarily are within the state’s power to regulate rather than that of the federal government. But their relation, both to the general *522system of controlling wartime price inflation and to the special problems of housing created in particular areas by war activities, gives adequate ground for exercise of federal power over them.
Likewise, with respect to the delegation of authority to the administrator to designate “defense rental areas” and to fix maximum rentals within them, the same considerations, and others, sustain the delegation as do that to fix prices of commodities generally. The power to specify defense rental areas, rather than amounting to an excess of permissible delegation, is actually a limitation upon the administrator’s authority, restricting it to regions where the facts, not merely his judgment, make control of rents necessary both to keep down inflation and to carry on the war activities concentrated in them. Accordingly, I concur fully with the Court’s expressed views concerning the substantive features of the legislation.
II.
This appeal presents two kinds of jurisdictional and procedural questions, though they are not unrelated. The first sort relate to the power of the District Court to restrain the further prosecution of the state court proceedings and the execution of, or attempts to execute, orders issued in them. The other issues relate to the District Court’s power to restrain Mrs. Willingham from violating the Emergency Price Control Act and the orders issued pursuant to it affecting her interests.
As to the former, I have no doubt that the District Court had power, for the reasons stated by the Court, to restrain the prosecution of the suit in the state court and the execution of orders made by it. By § 204 (d) of the Act, Congress withheld from all courts, including the state courts, with an exception in the case of the Emergency Court of Appeals and this Court on review of its judg*523merits, “jurisdiction ... to stay, restrain, enjoin, or set aside, in whole or in part, any provision of this Act authorizing the issuance of such regulations or orders, or making effective any such price schedule, or any provision of any such regulation, order, or price schedule, or to restrain or enjoin the enforcement of any such provision.” The single exception was the power of the Emergency Court by its final judgment, or of this Court on final disposition in review thereof, § 204 (a), (b), to set aside an order or regulation. Congress clearly had the power thus to confine the equity jurisdiction of the federal courts and to make its mandate for uninterrupted operation of the rent control system effective by prohibiting the state courts so to interfere with the statutory plan, at least until it should be shown invalid by the channel created for this purpose.1 Any effort of the state court therefore to enjoin the issuance of rent orders or suspend their operation, whether on constitutional or other grounds, was directly in the teeth of the statute’s explicit provisions and a violation of its terms. By this mandate the state courts were not required to give their sanction to enforcement of an unconstitutional act or regulation or even of one which might turn out to be such. They were merely commanded to keep hands off and leave decision upon the validity of the statute or the regulations, for purposes of suspending or setting them aside, to another forum established for that purpose. Congress clearly had the power and the intent to authorize federal courts to enforce this command, by injunction if necessary.
III.
In vesting jurisdiction in the federal district courts to enjoin violations of the Price Control Act and regulations *524issued pursuant to it, Congress included not only violations of the statute’s prohibition directed to the state courts against staying enforcement but other violations as well. The District Court, acting in the exercise of that jurisdiction, rested its judgment on the decision of a question it was authorized to consider, namely, whether the Act, rather than merely a regulation issued under it, is invalid. Since the court decided that question erroneously in disposing of this case, reversal of its judgment would be required. And perhaps in strictness this is all that it would be necessary to decide at this time.
But the contention has been made earnestly all through these proceedings that the regulations, on the basis of which any injunction obtained by the administrator must rest, are invalid and beyond his authority under the Act. And the Court, relying upon the decision in the Yakus case, has indicated that these contentions may not be considered in a proceeding of this character.
From what already has been said, it is clear the contention misconceives the administrator’s rights with respect to an injunction restraining the further prosecution of the state suit and execution of the state court’s orders. His right to such an injunction may rest on considerations entirely different from those governing his right to secure an injunction restraining Mrs. Willingham from violating the regulation. The former could be founded wholly upon the power of Congress to require the state courts to keep hands entirely off, in the discharge of federal functions by federal officials, at any rate during such time as might be required for decision, with finality, upon the validity of the statute and regulations issued under it by an appropriate alternative federal method. The latter, however, presents the different question whether Congress can require the federal district courts, organized under Article III and vested by it with the judicial power, not merely to keep hands off, but by affirmative exercise *525of their powers to give permanent sanction to the legislative or administrative command, notwithstanding it is or may be in conflict with some constitutional mandate.
That Congress can require the court exercising the civil jurisdiction in equity to refrain from staying statutory provisions and regulations is clear. Whether the enforcing court acts civilly or criminally, in circumstances like these, Congress can cut off its power to stay or suspend the operation of the statute or the regulation pending final decision that it is invalid. But this leaves the question whether Congress also can confer the equity jurisdiction to decree enforcement and at the same time deprive the court of power to consider the validity of the law or regulation and to govern its decree accordingly.
Different considerations, in part, determine this question from those controlling when enforcement is by criminal sanction. The constitutional limitations specially applicable to criminal trials fall to one side. Those relating to due process of law in civil proceedings, including whatever matters affecting discrimination are applicable under the Fifth Amendment, and to the independence of the judicial power under Article III, in relation to civil proceedings, remain applicable. Since in these cases the rights involved are rights of property, not of personal liberty or life as in criminal proceedings, the consequences, though serious, are not of the same moment under our system, as appears from the fact they are not secured by the same procedural protections in trial. It is in this respect perhaps that our basic law, following the common law, most clearly places the rights to life and to liberty above those of property.
All this is pertinent to whether Congress, in providing for civil enforcement of the Act and the regulations, can do what in my opinion it cannot require by way of criminal enforcement of this statute, namely, by providing the single opportunity to challenge the validity of the *526regulation and making this available for the limited time, constitute the method afforded the exclusive mode for securing decision of that question and, either by virtue of the taking advantage of it or by virtue of the failure to do so within the time allowed, foreclose further opportunity for considering it.
In my opinion Congress can do this, subject however to the following limitations or reservations, which I think should be stated explicitly: (1) The order or regulation must not be invalid on its face; (2) the previous opportunity must be adequate for the purpose prescribed, in the constitutional sense; and (3), what is a corollary of the second limitation or implicit in it, the circumstances and nature of the substantive problem dealt with by the legislation must be such that they justify both the creation of the special remedy and the requirement that it be followed to the exclusion of others normally available.
In this case, in my judgment, these conditions concur to justify the procedure Congress has specified. Except for the charge that the regulations, or some of them, are so vague and indefinite as to be incapable of enforcement, there is nothing to suggest they are invalid on their face. And they clearly are not so, either in the respect specified or otherwise.2 The proceeding by protest and appeal through the Emergency Court, even for civil consequences *527only, approaches the limit of adequacy in the constitutional sense, both by reason of its summary character3 and because of the shortness of the period allowed for following it.4 A reservation perhaps is in order in the latter respect, when facts are discovered after the period which, if proven, would invalidate the regulation and which by reasonable diligence could not have been discovered before the period ends. Finally, it hardly can be disputed that the substantive problem and the circumstances which created and surrounded it were such as, if ever they could be, to justify a procedure of this sort.5
Accordingly, I agree that, as against the challenges made here, the special remedy provided by the Act was adequate and appropriate, in the constitutional sense, for the determination of appellee’s rights with civil effects, had she followed it. And her failure to follow it produced no such irrevocable and harmful consequences, for such purposes, as would ensue if she were charged with violation as a crime. Accordingly, by declining to take the plain way opened to her, more inconvenient though that may have been, and taking her misconceived remedy by another route, she has arrived where she might well have expected, at the wrong end.
No doubt this was due to a misconception of her rights, *528both as a matter of substance and as one of procedure, due perhaps ta failure to take full account of the reach of the nation’s power in war. Nevertheless, the Court not improperly has set at rest some of her misconceptions concerning the effects of the regulations. Thus, it is held that the statute is not invalid in providing for maximum rents which are “generally fair and equitable.” § 2 (b). It does not lessen the effect of this ruling for purposes of deciding the regulation’s validity, that Maximum Rent Regulation Number 26, § 5 (c) (1), of which appellee complained on various constitutional grounds, including confiscation, provided that the administrator might order a decrease of the maximum rent for specified housing accommodations only on the ground that that rent “is higher than the rent generally prevailing in the defense rental area for comparable housing accommodations on April 1,1941.” (Italics added.)
Other issues raised by the appellee with respect to the regulations likewise are disposed of by the rulings upon the statute’s provisions.6 In so far as the regulations are identical with the statute, therefore, and the objections to them are identical, the disposition of these objections to the Act disposes also of those made to the regulations. In so far as the latter raised questions not raised concerning the statute, and since none of these, except as mentioned above, called attention to any feature making a regulation void on its face, the appellee has foreclosed her opportunity to assert them, as to facts existing when the suit was begun, by her failure to follow the prescribed special remedy. It is not unreasonable, in a matter of this importance and urgency, to require one, whose only valid objection to the law, including the regulations, rests in proof of facts not apparent to the administrator or the *529court, to make his proof in the manner provided and to do so promptly, as a condition to securing equitable or other civil relief.
Mr. Justice Roberts :
I should be content if reversal of the District Court’s decision were upon the ground that that court lacked power to enjoin prosecution of the appellees’ state court suit. The policy expressed in § 265 of the Judicial Code applies in this instance. Moreover, if the provision of § 204 (d) of the Emergency Price Control Act is valid, the lack of jurisdiction of the state court could, and should, have been raised in that court and review of its ruling could have been obtained by established means of resort to this court. Since, however, the court has determined that the District Court acted within its competency in enjoining further prosecution of the state court suit, other issues must be faced.
The appellant in his complaint charged that the appellees threatened to disobey the provisions of the Act and the regulations made pursuant to it. The appellees answered that the Act and the regulations were void because in excess of the powers of Congress. I do not understand the Administrator to contend that the court below was precluded by the terms of the statute from passing upon the question whether the Act constitutes an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power. I am not sure whether he asserts that the provisions of § 204 (d), which purport to prohibit any court, except the Emergency Court of Appeals created by the Act, from considering the validity of any regulation or order made under the Act, prevent consideration of the Administrator’s rent regulations and orders here under attack. If so, I think the contention is untenable.
The statute of its own force is not applicable in any area except the District of Columbia unless and until so *530made by a regulation of the Administrator. The statutory provisions respecting rentals amount only to conference of authority on the Administrator to make regulations and do not themselves prescribe or constrain any conduct on the part of the citizen. In short, one cannot violate the provisions of the statute unless they are implemented by administrative regulations or orders. To say then that, while the court in which the Administrator seeks enforcement of the Act, and regulations made under it, has jurisdiction to pass upon the constitutionality of the Act, it may not consider the validity of pertinent regulations, is to say that the court is to consider the Act in vacuo and wholly apart from its application to the defendant against whom enforcement is sought. Under the uninterrupted current of authority the argument must be rejected.
This brings me to a consideration of the appellees’ principal contention, namely, that, as applied to rent control, the Emergency Price Control Act is an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to an administrative officer. In approaching this question it is hardly necessary to state the controlling principles which have been reiterated in recent decisions.1 Congress may perform its legislative function by laying down policies and establishing standards while leaving administrative officials free to make rules within the prescribed limits and to ascertain facts to which the declared policy is to apply. But any delegation which goes beyond the application and execution of the law as declared by Congress is invalid.
Congress cannot delegate the power to make a law or refrain from making it; to determine to whom the law shall be applicable and to whom not; to determine what the law shall command and what not. Candid appraisal *531of the rent control provisions of the Act in question discloses that Congress has delegated the law-making power in toto to an administrative officer.
As already stated, the Act is not in itself effective with respect to rents. It creates an Office of Price Administration to be under the direction of a Price Administrator appointed by the President (50 U. S. C. § 921 (a)). This official is authorized, “whenever in [his] judgment . . . such action is necessary or proper in order to effectuate the purposes” of the Act, to issue a declaration setting forth the necessity for, and recommendations with reference to, the stabilization or reduction of rents for accommodations within a particular defense-rental area. If within sixty days such rents within such area have not “in the judgment of the Administrator” been stabilized or reduced in accordance with his recommendations, he may, by regulation or order, establish such maximum rent or maximum rents for such accommodations “as in his judgment will be generally fair and equitable and will effectuate the purposes” of the Act. “So far as practicable” in establishing maximum rents he is to ascertain and duly consider the rents prevailing for such accommodations, or comparable accommodations, on or about April 1, 1941 (or if, prior or subsequent to April 1, 1941, defense activities shall have resulted, or threaten to result, in increases in rents of housing accommodations in such area inconsistent with the purposes of the Act, then on or about a date (not earlier than April 1, 1940) which, “in the judgment of the Administrator” does not reflect such increases) ; and he shall make adjustments “for such relevant factors as he may determine and deem to be of general applicability in respect of such accommodations, including increases or decreases in property taxes and other costs.” “In designating defense-rental areas, in prescribing regulations and orders establishing maximum rents for such accommodations, and in selecting *532persons to administer such regulations and orders, the Administrator shall, to such extent as he determines to be practicable,” consider recommendations made by State and local officials (50 U. S. C. § 902 (b)). The form and the manner of establishing a regulation or order, the insertion of classifications. and differentiations, the provisions for adjustments and reasonable exceptions lie wholly “in the judgment of the Administrator” as to their necessity or propriety in order to effectuate the purposes of the Act (50 U. S. C. § 902 (c)).
The “judgment of the Administrator” as to what is necessary and proper to effectuate the purposes of the Act is the only condition precedent for his issue of an order, regulation, or prohibition affecting speculative or manipulative practices or renting or leasing practices in connection with any defense-area housing accommodations, which practices “in his judgment” are equivalent to or are likely to result in rent increases inconsistent with the purposes of the Act (50 U. S. C. § 902 (d)).
At the moment these statutory provisions were adopted rent control was not effective in any part of the nation. The Administrator was appointed for the purpose of enacting such control by regulations and orders. As will be seen, the first step he was authorized to take was to issue a declaration stating the necessity for reduction of rents within a particular defense-rental area and recommendations as to the nature of such reductions.
How is the reader of the statute to know what is meant by the term “defense-rental area”? The statutory “standard” is this:
“The term ‘defense-rental area’ means the District of Columbia and any area designated by the Administrator as an area where defense activities have resulted or threaten to result in an increase in the rents for housing accommodations inconsistent with the purposes of this Act” (Italicssupplied.) (50U.S. C. § 942 (d).)
*533Save for the District of Columbia, the designation of an area where the Act is to operate depends wholly upon the Administrator’s judgment that so-called defense activities have resulted or threaten to result in an increase of rents inconsistent with the purposes of the Act. Note that the judgment involved is solely that of the Administrator. He need find no facts, he need make no inquiry, he need not, unless he thinks it practicable, even consult local authorities. In exercising his judgment the Administrator must be persuaded that “defense activities” have caused or will cause a rise in rents. The statute nowhere defines or gives a hint as to what defense activities are. In time of war it is conceivable that an honest official might consider any type of work a defense activity. His judgment, however exorbitant, determines the coverage of the Act. It is true that he is authorized to make such studies and investigations as he deems necessary or proper to assist him in prescribing regulations or orders (50 U. S. C. § 922 (a)), but his unfettered judgment is conclusive whether any are necessary or proper.
But is not the Administrator’s judgment channeled and confined by the final limitation that his action must be the promotion of the “purposes of this Act”? What are they? So far as material they are: “To prevent speculative, unwarranted, and abnormal increases in . . . rents” (50 U. S. C. § 901 (a)). There are other general phrases in the section which may be claimed to throw some light on the considerations the Administrator may entertain but, so far as rents are concerned, they are so vague as to be useless; as, for example, the protection of persons with relatively fixed and limited incomes, consumers, wage earners, investors and persons dependent on life insurance, annuities, and pensions from undue impairment of their standard of living, and more of the same. I have discussed these “standards” in an opinion filed in Yakus v. United States, ante, p. 448.
*534Language could not more aptly fit this grant of power than that used in Schechter Corp. v. United States, supra, at p. 551: “Here in effect is a roving commission to inquire into evils and upon discovery correct them.” Equally apposite is what was said at p. 541: “It [the Act] does not undertake to prescribe rules of conduct to be applied to particular states of fact determined by appropriate administrative procedure. Instead of prescribing rules of conduct, it authorizes the making of codes to prescribe them. For that legislative undertaking, § 3 sets up no standards, aside from the statement of the general aims of rehabilitation, correction and expansion described in section one. In view of the scope of that broad declaration, and of the nature of the few restrictions that are imposed, the discretion of the President in approving or prescribing codes, and thus enacting laws for the government of trade and industry throughout the country, is virtually unfettered.”
Placing the relevant sections of the statute together we find that the term “defense-rental area” means any area designated by the Administrator as an area where “defense activities” have resulted, or threaten to result, in “speculative, unwarranted, and abnormal increases in . . . rents.” Can anyone assert that Congress has thus laid down a standard to control the action of the executive? The Administrator, and he alone, is to say what increase is speculative, what increase is unwarranted, and what increase is abnormal. What facts is he to consider? Such as he chooses. What facts did he consider in the instant case? One cannot know.
But the matter does not stop here. We have now only arrived at the designation of an area by the Administrator. As we have seen, his next step is to issue a declaration or recommendation. How shall he determine whether to do so or not? As seen by the above summary of the Act’s provisions, the matter rests in the judgment of the Ad*535ministrator as to whether such action is necessary or proper to effectuate the purposes of the Act. We have just seen what those purposes are. Again, his sole and untrammeled judgment as to what is needed to prevent speculative, unwarranted or abnormal increases is the only criterion of his action. The public records show that declarations made by him merely state that, in his judgment, the basic fact exists. He makes no findings; he is not bound to make any specific inquiry; he issues a fiat. No one is to be advised as to the basis of his judgment; no one need be heard.
Does the statute afford a standard for the Administrator to follow in deciding the quantity of the reduction? Again his judgment alone is determinative. And, more, in his judgment alone rests the decision as to what accommodations within the area are to be affected by the decreed reduction. He may recommend the reduction of rent for “any accommodations” within the defense-rental area.
After the issue of his declaration and recommendations the Administrator must wait sixty days before putting his recommendations into effect. If, in his sole and unfettered judgment, stabilization has not been accomplished, he may then, by regulation or order, establish such maximum rent or maximum rents as “in his judgment” will be “generally fair and equitable and will effectuate the purposes of this Act.” His order may be based upon nothing but his own opinion. It may be made without notice, without hearing, without inquiry of any sort, without consultation with local authorities. The rents established may vary from street to street, and from subdivision to subdivision, all in accordance with the Administrator’s personal judgment. The order may involve classification and exemption if the Administrator, in his sole discretion, deems that this course will “effectuate the purposes of this Act.” Which means, of course, if he thinks non-specula*536tion, non-abnormality, or sufficient warrant justifies the discriminations involved.
How shall he fix the amount of the maximum rent? The only standard given him is the exercise of his own judgment that the rents fixed will be “generally fair and equitable and will effectuate the purposes of this Act.” “Fair and equitable” might conceivably be a workable standard if inquiry into the specific facts were prescribed and if the bearing of those facts were to be given weight in the ultimate decision, but the addition of the word “generally,” and the failure to prescribe any method for arriving at what is fair and equitable leaves the Administrator such room for disregard of specific injustices and particular circumstances that no living person could demonstrate error in his conclusion. And, again, even the phrase “generally fair and equitable” is qualified by empowering the Administrator to consider also questions of speculation, unwarranted action or abnormality of condition. Such a “standard” is pretense. It is a device to allow the Administrator to do anything he sees fit without accountability to anyone.
But, it is said, this is an unfair characterization of the statute because, “so far as practicable,” the Administrator must ascertain and duly consider rents prevailing for “such accommodations, or comparable accommodations, on or about April 1,1941,” and that, although he may pick out some other period which he thinks more representative, he must not select any period earlier than April 1, 1940, and, therefore, he is definitely confined and prohibited in exercising control over rentals. This argument will not do. The mere fact that he may not go to any period for comparison earlier than April 1, 1940, although he may take any later period he thinks appropriate, does not serve to obliterate the fact that after such wide and unrestricted choice of a period he can make any regulation he sees fit.
*537Without further elaboration it is plain that this Act creates personal government by a petty tyrant instead of government by law. Whether there shall be a law prescribing maximum rents anywhere in the United States depends solely on the Administrator’s personal judgment. When that law shall take effect, how long it shall remain in force, whether it shall be modified, what territory it shall cover, whether the different areas shall be subject to different regulations, what is the nature of the activity that shall motivate the institution of the law,—all these matters are buried in the bosom of the Administrator and nowhere else.
I am far from urging that, in the present war emergency, rents and prices shall not be controlled and stabilized. But I do insist that, war or no war, there exists no necessity, and no constitutional power, for Congress’ abdication of its legislative power and remission to an executive official of the function of making and repealing laws applicable to the citizens of the United States. No truer word was ever said than this court’s statement in the Minnesota Mortgage Moratorium Case2 that emergency does not create power but may furnish the occasion for its exercise. The Constitution no more contemplates the elimination of any of the coordinate branches of the Government during war than in peace. It will not do to say that no other method could have been adopted consonant with the legislative power of Congress. “Defense-rental areas” and “defense activities” could have been reasonably defined. Rents in those areas could have been frozen as of a given date, or reasonably precise standards could have been fixed, and administrative or other tribunals could have been given power according to the rules and standards prescribed to deal with special situations after hearing and findings and exposition of the reasons for action. I say this only be*538cause the argument has been made that the emergency was such that no other form of legislation would have served the end in view. It is not for this court to tell Congress what sort of legislation it shall adopt, but in this instance, when Congress seems to have abdicated and to have eliminated the legislative process from our constitutional form of Government, it must be stated that this cannot be done unless the people so command or permit by amending the fundamental law.
The obvious answer to what I have said is that this court has sustained, and no one would now question, the constitutional validity of Acts of Congress laying down purported standards as vague as those contained in the Act under consideration. But the answer is specious. Generally speaking, statutes invoking the aid of the administrative arm of the Government for their application and enforcement fall into two classes,—those in which a policy is declared and an administrative body is empowered to ascertain the facts in particular cases so as to determine whether that policy in a particular case had been violated. Of this type of legislation the Interstate Commerce Act and the Federal Trade Commission Act are classical examples. In the one, carriers are required to charge just and reasonable rates for their services. In the other, citizens are forbidden to indulge in unfair methods of competition. If it be asserted that these are but vague standards of conduct, it must at once be said that, in adopting them, Congress adopted common law concepts, the one applying to those pursuing a public calling and the other to business competitors in general, and that the standards announced carried with them concepts and contours attaching as a result of a long legal history. But more, in such instances, the standards were not to be applied in the uncontrolled judgment of the administrative body. On the contrary, the statutes require a complaint specifying the conduct thought to violate the statute and opportunity for answer, for hearing, for production of evidence, and for findings *539which are subject to judicial review. With such a background for administrative procedure, what seems a loose and vague standard becomes in fact a reasonably ascertainable one that can fairly, equitably, and justly be applied.
The other and distinct class of cases is that in which Congress, as in the present instance, declares a policy and entrusts to an administrative agent, without more, the making of general rules and regulations for the implementation of that policy. These rules are, in all but name, statutes. Here, unless the rule for the guidance of the Administrator is clear, and the considerations upon which he may act are definite and certain, it must inevitably follow that, to a greater or less degree, he will make the law. No citizen can question the motive or purpose of Congress in enacting a specific statute to control and define conduct as long as Congress acts within the powers granted it by the Constitution. As has been pointed out, Congress, in passing the Emergency Price Control Act, has attempted to clothe its delegate—an Administrator—with the same unchallengeable legislative power which it possesses. In this respect the delegation is no different from that involved in the National Industrial Recovery Act which was held invalid in Schechter Corp. v. United States, supra.
We are told that “Congress has specified the basic conclusions of fact upon the ascertainment of which by the Administrator its statutory command is to become effective.” This means, I take it, that the Administrator need find no facts, in the accepted sense of the expression. He need only form an opinion,—for every opinion is a conclusion of fact. And “basic” means, evidently, that his opinion is that one of the “purposes of the Act” requires the making of a law applicable to a given situation. It is not of material aid that he discloses the reasons for his action. Such a test of constitutionality was unanimously rejected in the Schechter case.
*540The statute there in question declared the policy of Congress to be “to remove obstructions to the free flow of interstate and foreign commerce which tend to diminish the amount thereof; and to provide for the general welfare by promoting the organization of industry for the purpose of cooperative action among trade groups, to induce and maintain united action of labor and management under adequate governmental sanctions and supervision, to eliminate unfair competitive practices, to promote the fullest possible utilization of the present productive capacity of industries, to avoid undue restriction of production (except as may be temporarily required), to increase the consumption of industrial and agricultural products by increasing purchasing power, to reduce and relieve unemployment, to improve standards of labor, and otherwise to rehabilitate industry and to conserve natural resources.”
Under that Act the President was required to find that the promulgation by him of a code of fair competition in any industry would “tend to effectuate the policy” of Congress as above declared. He did so find in promulgating the code there under attack.
I have already quoted what this court said with respect to the so-called standards established by the statute. That case and this fall into exactly the same category. There it was held that the President’s basic conclusions of fact amounted to an exercise of his judgment as to whether a law should come into being or not. Here it is said that the Administrator’s basic conclusions of fact are but the enforcement of an enactment by Congress. Whether explicitly avowed or not, the present decision overrules that in the Schechter.case.
The judgment of the Administrator is, by this Act, substituted for the judgment of Congress. It is sought to make that judgment unquestionable just as the judg*541ment of Congress would be unquestionable once exercised and embodied in a definite statutory proscription. But Congress, under our form of Government, may not surrender its judgment as to whether there shall be a law, or what that law shall be, to any other person or body.
The Emergency Price Control Act might have been drawn so as to lay down standards for action by the Administrator which would be reasonably definite; it might have authorized inquiries and hearings by him to ascertain facts which affect specific cases within the provisions of the statute. That would have been a constitutional and practicable measure. It has done no such thing.
But it is said the Administrator’s powers are not absolute, for the statute provides judicial review of his action. While the Act purports to give relief from rulings of the Administrator by appeal to the Emergency Court of Appeals and to this court, the grant of judicial review is illusory. How can any court say that the Administrator has erred in the exercise of his judgment in determining what are defense activities? How can any court pronounce that the Administrator’s judgment is erroneous in defining a “defense-rental area”? What are the materials on which to review the judgment of the Administrator that one or another period in the last three years reflects, in a given area, no abnormal, speculative, or unwarranted increase in rent in particular defense housing accommodations in a chosen defense-rental area? It is manifest that it is beyond the competence of any court to convict the Administrator of error when the supposed materials for judgment are so vague and so numerous as those permitted by the statute.
One only need read the decisions of the Emergency Court of Appeals to learn how futile it is for the citizen to attempt to convict the Administrator of an abuse of judgment in framing his orders, how illusory the purported *542judicial review is in fact. I have spoken more at length on this subject in my opinion in Yakus v. United States, ante, p. 448.
I think the judgment of the District Court was right and should be affirmed.

 The Moses Taylor, 4 Wall. 411; cf. Claflin v. Houseman, 93 U. S. 130, Plaquemines Tropical Fruit Co. v. Henderson, 170 U. S. 511.

 The maximum rentals established in the regulation are definite and easily enough ascertainable.. Appellee’s complaint against the regulation on the score of vagueness is addressed to the indefiniteness of the standards which the administrator has prescribed as a guide for his office in making decreases in maximum rentals, more particularly to § 5 (c) (1), which authorizes a decrease in the maximum if it is “higher than the rent generally prevailing in the Defense-Rental Area for comparable housing accommodations on April 1,1941.” But assuming this complaint is otherwise meritorious, the standards thus provided are no less definite than those contained in the Act itself and the contention is therefore disposed of by the determination of the constitutionality of the Act.

 Cf. the writer’s dissenting opinion in Yahus v. United States, ante, p. 460.

 Under the Act a protest against a regulation must be made within sixty days of its issuance, but if based on grounds arising after the sixty days, it may be filed “at any time” thereafter.
But under the Administrator’s Revised Procedural Regulation No. 3, § 1300.216, “a protest against a provision of a maximum rent regulation based solely on grounds arising after the date of issuance of such maximum rent regulation shall be filed within a period of sixty days after the protestant has had, or could reasonably have had, notice of the existence of such grounds.”

 Cf. the writer’s dissenting opinion in Yakus v. United States, ante. p. 460.

 E. g. the contention that the regulation, like the Act, improperly delegates to the administrator and his agents “legislative” power.

 Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U. S. 388; Schechter Corp. v. United States, 295 U. S. 495.

 Home Building & Loan Assn. v. Blaisdell, 290 U. S. 398, 425, 426.