Court Opinion

ID: 9465778
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 00:55:25.465962+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:39:21.944179
License: Public Domain

WALLACE, Circuit Judge,
dissenting:
I cannot agree that the factual findings made by the district judge as to what occurred on March 12, 1977, were clearly erroneous. The arrest issue constitutes one of those close questions which makes deciding difficult. While I am in harmony with many parts of the majority opinion of my brothers, I am convinced that the test established for determining when an arrest occurs is faulty. Even applying that test, the closeness of the issue causes me to support the factual determination of the district judge. Therefore, I must respectfully dissent.
I
The district judge, after listening to and carefully weighing all of the evidence, came to the conclusion that this was a proper investigatory stop. That is, that there was a founded or reasonable suspicion present which allowed the customs officers to stop the taxi. See United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 884, 95 S.Ct. 2574, 45 L.Ed.2d 607 (1975) (officers need reasonable suspicion to stop a vehicle); United States v. Rocha-Lopez, 527 F.2d 476, 477 (9th Cir. 1975) (founded suspicion and reasonable suspicion are substantially the same); Wilson v. Porter, 361 F.2d 412, 415 (9th Cir. 1966) (brief detention valid where officers had reasonable grounds for their action).
The majority never comes to grips with the question whether this finding of fact *503was clearly erroneous. The majority states simply that the finding by the district judge “that this was a mere investigatory stop and frisk is clearly erroneous.” At the conclusion of the majority opinion, however, in the discussion approving of the district judge’s determination that there was no probable cause for an arrest, the majority seems to imply that the district judge was wrong in finding reasonable suspicion for the stop:
Most of the activity observed by the agents was innocuous and consistent with the behavior of a typical visitor. Any inferences to be drawn from their observed activities would be contrived at best. Finally, there is a strong suggestion that the stop and detention was a pretext or subterfuge to enable the officers to conduct a warrantless search after having failed to otherwise substantiate their suspicions during the four days of surveillance.
In footnote 2 of the majority opinion, the majority suggests once more that it may not agree that the officers had reasonable suspicion.
To the extent that the majority has concluded that there was no reasonable or founded suspicion for an investigatory stop, the stop itself would have to be considered illegal. Therefore, under this formulation, any evidence secured by the customs officers as a result of that stop would be suppressed, Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 484-85, 83 S.Ct. 407, 9 L.Ed.2d 441 (1963); United States v. Strickler, 490 F.2d 378, 380 (9th Cir. 1974), and the case reversed. Thus, the majority should not reach the issue of whether and at what point there was an “arrest.” The statements of the majority indicating that the officers had no reasonable suspicion upon which to base even a stop make the majority’s discussion pertaining to the arrest issue pure dicta. I cannot say, in reviewing the entire evidence, that I am “left with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed” by the district judge in finding that the officers had a reasonable suspicion to make the stop. United States v. United States Gypsum Co., 333 U.S. 364, 395, 68 S.Ct. 525, 92 L.Ed. 746 (1948). While our cases have not always been internally consistent, we have developed certain basic principles which guide our determination whether law enforcement officers have established that they had a reasonable suspicion in any particular case. In Wilson v. Porter, supra, 361 F.2d at 415, we stated that there is nothing necessarily unconstitutional in routine investigation and detention:
[D]ue regard for the practical necessities of effective law enforcement requires that the validity of brief, informal detention be recognized whenever it appears from the totality of the circumstances that the detaining officers could have had reasonable grounds for their action. A founded suspicion is all that is necessary, some basis from which the court can determine that the detention was not arbitrary or harassing.
Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to the government, see, e. g., United States v. Glover, 514 F.2d 390, 391 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 857, 96 S.Ct. 108, 46 L.Ed.2d 83 (1975), the following circumstances in the record appear to me to be significant: (1) the nervousness of Dickerson when he first came through the customs gate at the border; (2) the marks on Dickerson’s arm, which the officers could reasonably conclude were needlemarks resulting from narcotic injections; (3) the claim of Dickerson and Beck that they had come to Arizona to investigate the University of Arizona at Tucson, which was contradicted by their admitted actions and, therefore, could lead the officers reasonably to conclude they were lying; (4) the report from the Clinton, Missouri Police Department that Beck and Dickerson were involved in drug trade there and that Beck was under suspicion for armed robbery; (5) the apparent spending of Thursday night in Mexico by Beck and Dickerson and their return to the United States by some means other than the customs gate through which they left; (6) the use of the pay phone in the lobby of the motel when there was a telephone available in their motel room; (7) the *504suspicious activity oí Beck and Dickerson in apparently looking for something in the hedges near their motel; (8) the extensive use of taxis for traveling unusually short distances in Nogales; (9) the rental and use of a safe deposit box by Beck and Dickerson despite their short stay in the area; and (10) the change of motels during their short stay. While no one of the above factors may be sufficient to justify founded suspicion and several are neutral on their face, the test is not whether the conduct may be deemed consistent with innocent activity, but whether under all the circumstances, the officers were reasonable in believing that criminal activity was involved. United States v. Holland, 510 F.2d 453, 455 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 422 U.S. 1010, 95 S.Ct. 2634, 45 L.Ed.2d 674 (1975). Viewing these factors in a light most favorable to the government, I cannot say that the finding of reasonable suspicion was clearly erroneous.
Nor can I give any weight to the speculation of the majority that the stop on the way to the airport was a mere pretext. Such a factual finding would have to be made by the trial court and none was made in this case. The officers apparently waited until the last minute to secure all possible valuable leads during this investigation of a possible narcotics offense. They did not know what other evidence might be developed on the way to the airport. In addition, I find nothing improper with making the stop at a place which was safest for the officers.
II.
Because I conclude that the finding of reasonable suspicion is not clearly erroneous, I must examine the charges made by Beck and Dickerson that, based upon the facts of this case, there was an arrest prior to the time the officers found the narcotics. The question is whether an investigatory stop, properly made pursuant to founded suspicion, became an arrest, because of the actions of the customs officers. Resolution of this issue is critical due to the finding of the district court that the officers had no probable cause for an arrest at the time they stopped the taxi. If the investigatory stop turned into an arrest prior to the officers finding probable cause, we would be required to suppress the evidence which resulted from the search in this case. If, on the other hand, there were no arrest, there would be no need for suppression because the evidence was found during a patdown, which is allowable pursuant to a reasonable suspicion stop. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968).
The majority establishes three tests for determining when an arrest has taken place: (1) whether the average person, innocent of a crime, reasonably would think he was being arrested; (2) the extent that freedom of movement is curtailed; and (3) the degree and manner of force used to stop and detain.
The majority’s first test refers to what the “average person” or “ordinary citizen” would believe under the circumstances; that is, would this hypothetical individual believe he was being arrested? The majority does not directly cite any case as authority for this test. The majority does refer to United States v. Scheiblauer, 472 F.2d 297, 301 (9th Cir. 1973), but that citation is properly preceded by “See.” Indeed, Scheiblauer did not hold that there is any such test. The language in question is:
That Scheiblauer may have thought that he had been arrested is of no consequence. We are convinced that, under similar circumstances, the average, reasonable person, would not have thought that he had been arrested. In any event, even if he did, such a person would at least have asked why the agents were accosting him and whether or not he was under arrest.
Id. It seems to me that this language was merely a response to an argument made by Scheiblauer in his appeal, and says nothing more than that Scheiblauer was not reasonable in his belief that he was being arrested. Significantly, if the first two sentences of the quoted passage are taken literally, as they apparently are by the majority, then consistency. would require that the third *505sentence also be taken literally. We would thus require defendants to make inquiry before they can be considered to be under arrest. That surely is not and should not be ■the law.
In addition, the average reasonable person test is unworkable in situations such as that before us. To apply the majority test, we must assume that an average reasonable person, unlearned in the law, can tell the difference between a temporary detainment and investigation by a police officer pursuant to Terry and an arrest. In both instances, the average reasonable person understands that his freedom of movement has been restricted. In both instances, the police officers will probably ask questions. It seems unreasonable to me to establish a rule which requires the “average reasonable person” to differentiate between these two types of police confrontations when judges and lawyers have such a difficult time analyzing them. Indeed, the average reasonable person simply does not have the necessary experience and legal understanding to make that differentiation.
The majority’s second test requires an evaluation of the extent that the officers curtail a person’s freedom of movement. In footnote 2 of its opinion, the majority does not reach the issue whether such a test is appropriate when there has been a stop pursuant to reasonable suspicion.1 As I have concluded that the finding of reasonable suspicion was not clearly erroneous, I must reach that issue. The so-called restriction of liberty of movement test had its foundation in Henry v. United States, 361 U.S. 98, 103, 80 S.Ct. 168, 4 L.Ed.2d 134 (1959). See also Plazola v. United States, 291 F.2d 56, 60 (9th Cir. 1961). While the Henry “restriction of freedom of movement” language has not been specifically overruled, it is no longer always helpful in determining when an arrest has taken place. In 1968, the Supreme Court established that police officers may “stop” an individual in circumstances which do not warrant an arrest. Terry v. Ohio, supra, 392 U.S. at 22, 30, 88 S.Ct. 1868. There is no doubt that in a Terry -type stop, a citizen’s liberty of movement is curtailed and in fact restricted. Thus, where there has been a stop based upon a reasonable suspicion, the test should not be applied.
The third test relied upon by the majority is the “degree and manner of force used in the stop and detention.” The majority concludes, on the basis of the evidence as a whole, that there was “an overwhelming show of authority” and “implied restraint which immediately ripened into actual physical restraint and custody,” and holds that “the arrest was complete in our case by the time each man was taken by two agents to separate locations, if not before.”
The overwhelming show of authority, as indicated by the majority, apparently is the following: (1) nine officers were involved; (2) the taxi was boxed in by three vehicles for the stop; (3) six officers approached the taxi; (4) the officers surrounded the taxi; (5) the officers were armed (although they did not draw their guns); and (6) two officers escorted each of the defendants to three different locations to be questioned and frisked.
In reviewing the factual findings of the district court in a light most favorable to the government, I do not conclude that they are clearly erroneous. None of the officers drew their weapons in spite of an indication that one of the defendants might be wanted for armed robbery and the implication therefrom that fatal danger might be involved. That knowledge, together with the fact that the officers were investigating what appeared to them to be a narcotics *506importation offense, seems to me to justify the implicit finding of the district judge that the use of additional officers for greater protection was reasonable. Nor do I conclude that the district judge was wrong in not finding that because three vehicles were used instead of one that there was an arrest.
The decision to separate the three defendants for preliminary questioning when the taxi was stopped does not appear unreasonable. That two officers, rather than one, took each defendant aside did not seem to the district court to be unreasonable.
Thus, I cannot conclude, as does the majority, that there was an “overwhelming show of authority” in this case; indeed, under the circumstances, it does not appear to me to be an unreasonable response to the situation at hand. While some may disagree with the district judge’s factual findings, I do not find them to be clearly erroneous.
This case provides a proper setting to determine when a proper stop pursuant to reasonable suspicion ripens into an arrest. It also give us an opportunity to define with more particularity the test which can be applied to determine at what point an arrest has occurred. I have concluded that there are three inquiries which would be appropriate: (1) What was the extent of the detention by the law enforcement officers? (2) What was the scope of the search made by the officers? and (3) Was the force used reasonable under the circumstances?
In response to the first inquiry, the extent of the detention here was not appreciably different from what would be expected in any Terry -type stop under similar circumstances. As to the second, there was no search other than a patdown, which was valid pursuant to the stop based upon reasonable suspicion. The real question arises under the third inquiry which, in essence, was stressed by the majority under its formulation of “the degree and manner of force used in the stop and detention.” I would restate the test in order to determine whether what was done was reasonable. In this case, the trial court apparently believed that the officers’ response was not unreasonable under the circumstances and therefore that there was no arrest. That finding should not be overturned.
I would affirm the convictions.

. The meaning of this statement eludes me. The majority purports to decide only that “the arrest was complete ... by the time each man was taken by two agents to separate locations, if not before.” Yet, either the majority, in footnote 2, indicates that it is actually deciding that an arrest occurred at the first instant that the officers stopped the taxi, or that there was no founded suspicion for the stop. If, although never openly considered by the majority, it is the latter, then, as I have already shown, the majority’s analysis regarding when an arrest occurs is pure dicta; if it is the former, then it becomes difficult to understand when a stop is ever not an arrest.