Court Opinion

ID: 9950144
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2024-03-13 15:01:20.39757+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T14:35:52.343361
License: Public Domain

Appellate Case: 22-2158     Document: 010111014668       Date Filed: 03/13/2024     Page: 1
                                                                                   FILED
                                                                       United States Court of Appeals
                       UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS                          Tenth Circuit

                              FOR THE TENTH CIRCUIT                           March 13, 2024
                          _________________________________
                                                                          Christopher M. Wolpert
                                                                              Clerk of Court
  UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

        Plaintiff - Appellee,

  v.                                                          No. 22-2158
                                                    (D.C. No. 2:14-CR-01666-KG-1)
  PAUL MICHAEL ASTORGA,                                        (D. N.M.)

        Defendant - Appellant.

  –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

  UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

        Plaintiff - Appellee,
                                                              No. 22-2160
  v.                                                (D.C. No. 2:21-CR-00407-KG-1)
                                                               (D. N.M.)
  PAUL MICHAEL ASTORGA,

        Defendant - Appellant.
                       _________________________________

                              ORDER AND JUDGMENT*
                          _________________________________

 Before BACHARACH, BALDOCK, and MORITZ, Circuit Judges.
                  _________________________________

       *
         After examining the briefs and appellate record, this panel has determined
 unanimously to honor the parties’ request for a decision on the briefs without oral
 argument. See Fed. R. App. P. 34(f); 10th Cir. R. 34.1(G). The case is therefore
 submitted without oral argument. This order and judgment is not binding precedent,
 except under the doctrines of law of the case, res judicata, and collateral estoppel. It
 may be cited, however, for its persuasive value consistent with Fed. R. App. P. 32.1
 and 10th Cir. R. 32.1.
Appellate Case: 22-2158    Document: 010111014668        Date Filed: 03/13/2024    Page: 2

       On November 3, 2020, officers with the Metro Narcotics and Federal Bureau

 of Investigation Task Force in Las Cruces, New Mexico, executed a warrant to arrest

 Paul Michael Astorga. The arrest warrant stemmed from Mr. Astorga’s violations of

 the conditions of his supervised release imposed on a previous federal conviction.

 Based upon evidence recovered from his apartment after his arrest, a superseding

 indictment charged Mr. Astorga with (1) being a felon in possession of a firearm and

 ammunition, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 922(g)(1) and 924; (2) possession of

 fentanyl with intent to distribute, in violation of 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1) and

 (b)(1)(C); and (3) possession of a firearm in furtherance of a drug trafficking crime,

 in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(1)(A)(i). A jury convicted Mr. Astorga on all three

 counts, and the district court sentenced him to 320 months’ imprisonment. On

 appeal, Mr. Astorga challenges only his conviction on the two firearms-related counts

 underlying appeal number 22-2160.1 Exercising jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C.

 § 1291, we affirm.

       1
         The district court also revoked Mr. Astorga’s supervised release and
 sentenced him to 24 months’ imprisonment to run concurrently with his new
 320-month sentence. He filed a notice appealing that judgment, which resulted in
 appeal number 22-2158. See R., Vol. 1 at 69. But his briefs do not contain any
 arguments challenging that judgment. He has therefore forfeited his appeal of the
 judgment at issue in appeal number 22-2158. See Bronson v. Swensen, 500 F.3d
 1099, 1104 (10th Cir. 2007).

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 I.    Background

       Mr. Astorga did not contest his guilt on the fentanyl charge at trial. Regarding

 the two firearms charges, he contended that another person, Erica Peña, had brought

 a gun into his apartment on the day of his arrest without his knowledge.

       Mr. Astorga’s appeal of his firearms-related convictions centers on the district

 court’s exclusion of prior statements by Officer Joseph Misquez in text messages he

 sent to Ms. Peña in which the officer (1) called her a “bad wife” and (2) stated he was

 her “get-out-of-jail-free card.” Mr. Astorga argues the court erred in excluding this

 evidence and violated his constitutional right to present a defense.

       A.     Prosecution’s Case

       Officer Misquez is a member of the Task Force and an officer with the

 Las Cruces police department. He testified that he surveilled Mr. Astorga’s

 apartment from across the street, using binoculars, for 45 minutes to one hour before

 Mr. Astorga’s arrest. During that time, he saw a man he identified as Mr. Astorga

 exit and reenter the apartment. Officer Misquez then notified the United States

 Marshals, who had obtained the arrest warrant. A team of deputy marshals gathered

 and proceeded to the location of Mr. Astorga’s apartment.

       Meanwhile, Officer Misquez observed a white pick-up truck pull into the

 apartment building’s parking lot. When a dog ran from the truck, a woman—later

 identified as Ms. Peña—chased after and caught the dog, then went to Mr. Astorga’s

 apartment. Officer Misquez described Ms. Peña as wearing a sports bra and

 tight-fitting pants, consistent with a photo of her on that day that was admitted as

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 Prosecution Exhibit 42. See Suppl. R., Vol. 2 at 4. He testified that she carried the

 dog—and nothing else—into Mr. Astorga’s apartment. Officer Misquez said he did

 not see anyone other than Mr. Astorga and Ms. Peña enter or exit the apartment.

       Upon arrival, the deputy marshals split up, with one going to the back of the

 apartment building while the others loudly knocked on Mr. Astorga’s front door and

 announced themselves as police officers. No one answered. Each time a deputy

 attempted to use a key to unlock the deadbolt on the door, someone on the inside

 relocked it. While the deputies were trying to gain entry, the single deputy watching

 the back of the building observed a man he identified as Mr. Astorga exiting the

 apartment through a rear window. Mr. Astorga immediately returned inside when the

 deputy drew his gun and ordered him to show his hands.

       One of the deputies at the front door ultimately kicked the door open. Entering

 the apartment, they encountered Ms. Peña and a dog in the living area adjacent to the

 front door. They handcuffed her and escorted her outside. Deputies Joseph Gutierrez

 and Jonathan La Marca both testified that they did not recall seeing Ms. Peña

 carrying anything at that time. When Mr. Astorga emerged from the bedroom area at

 the back of the apartment, deputies handcuffed him, removed him from the

 apartment, and eventually placed him in a police vehicle for transport. The deputies

 then performed a protective sweep, finding no one else in the apartment. They

 noticed, however, a strong odor of marijuana and observed what appeared to be

 methamphetamine and a piece of foil with a burnt pill that they believed to be some

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 kind of narcotic. Upon learning of these observations, Officer Misquez sought and

 obtained a warrant to search Mr. Astorga’s apartment.

       While waiting for issuance of the search warrant, the deputies secured the

 apartment along with Officer Luis Rios of the Las Cruces police department. Deputy

 La Marca and Officer Rios both testified that they did not allow anyone into the

 apartment, with the exception of a maintenance worker who came to repair the front

 door. After confirming that Ms. Peña had no outstanding warrant, the deputies

 removed her handcuffs and allowed her to leave. Deputy La Marca testified that he

 did not recall Ms. Peña asking to use the bathroom in Mr. Astorga’s apartment, but

 he said that if such a request had been made his general practice would have been to

 search the bathroom for anything of evidentiary value then escort the person to and

 from that room.

       Officer Misquez spoke with Ms. Peña in the apartment building’s parking lot,

 after which they exchanged phone numbers via text messages. He testified that she

 did not have her phone with her and needed to retrieve it from her truck.

 Officer Misquez also stated that he did not know Ms. Peña before the date of

 Mr. Astorga’s arrest.

       On cross-examination, defense counsel asked Officer Misquez if he

 remembered how he referred to Ms. Peña in a text message. The prosecutor objected

 based on hearsay and relevance. Defense counsel stated that he expected

 Officer Misquez to say that he called Ms. Peña a “bad wife,” R., Vol. 2 at 488

 (internal quotation marks omitted). He explained that he wanted to establish,

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 contrary to the officer’s prior testimony, that Officer Misquez did know Ms. Peña

 before that day. The district court sustained the objection. When asked what his

 objective was in communicating with Ms. Peña, Officer Misquez testified he was

 attempting to make her a confidential and reliable informant and that, if successful, it

 was possible she would be paid. He also reiterated his prior testimony that he did not

 see Ms. Peña carry anything into Mr. Astorga’s apartment other than the dog.

 Defense counsel showed Officer Misquez a photo admitted as Defense Exhibit B.

 See Suppl. R., Vol. 2 at 5. Officer Misquez identified Ms. Peña in the photo and

 agreed that it accurately depicted how she was dressed on the day of Mr. Astorga’s

 arrest. He also testified that he saw in the photo “a handbag on the bed of the truck,”

 R., Vol. 2 at 508, and he agreed that it could carry the firearm that was eventually

 discovered in Mr. Astorga’s apartment. On redirect, Officer Misquez testified that,

 when he observed Ms. Peña go into Mr. Astorga’s apartment, he did not see that she

 had with her the brown purse appearing in Defense Exhibit B.

       Officer Rios testified that he participated in securing and searching

 Mr. Astorga’s apartment. He stated that he photographed the entire interior before

 the officers touched anything. Officer Rios’s lapel camera recorded a video,

 admitted as Defense Exhibit C, while he took photographs and participated in the

 search. See Suppl. R., Vol. 3. He testified that he did not see any female belongings

 in the apartment. The officers found a baggie of 66 pills later identified as fentanyl

 on the floor of Mr. Astorga’s bedroom closet under some clothing. About three feet

 away from the pills, they found a firearm with a loaded magazine concealed under a

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 bottom drawer that they pulled out of Mr. Astorga’s dresser. The firearm was later

 identified as a 9mm semiautomatic pistol. Officer Rios testified that he

 photographed these items in the locations where they were found, as depicted in

 Prosecution Exhibits 29 and 35. See Suppl. R., Vol. 2 at 2-3.

       B.     Defense’s Case

       To support Mr. Astorga’s claim that Ms. Peña brought the gun to his

 apartment on the day he was arrested, defense counsel presented the testimony of

 Mr. Astorga’s mother, Jasmine Martinez, and two women with whom Mr. Astorga

 had romantic relationships, Jasmine Manasco and Audrey Gomez.

       Ms. Manasco testified that she stayed at Mr. Astorga’s apartment the night

 before the day he was arrested. She stated that she knows Ms. Peña but said that they

 do not get along. Ms. Manasco testified that, on that day, Mr. Astorga stepped out of

 the apartment, then returned with Ms. Peña and a dog. She confirmed that Ms. Peña

 was dressed that day the way she appeared in Defense Exhibit B. She testified that

 Ms. Peña “was wearing that outfit with something right here (indicating) on her

 armpit. I’m not too sure what it was. She was trying to maneuver the dog, but it

 looked like a little purse wallet.” R., Vol. 2 at 871. Ms. Manasco stated that she left

 Mr. Astorga’s apartment after Ms. Peña arrived.

       On cross-examination, Ms. Manasco admitted she was in a romantic

 relationship with Mr. Astorga and wanted to marry him some day. The prosecutor

 asked Ms. Manasco about a recorded telephone call she had with Mr. Astorga a few

 months before the trial. She denied that Mr. Astorga had coached her during that

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 conversation about what to say in her testimony. But she later admitted that

 Mr. Astorga told her, “You were there around the time that she got there” and

 “[r]emember she was carrying something and you don’t remember what.” Id. at 893

 (internal quotation marks omitted). Ms. Manasco also admitted that she has been

 convicted of a felony.

       Mr. Astorga’s mother, Ms. Martinez, testified that she went to his apartment

 after learning that he was being arrested. When a police officer opened

 Mr. Astorga’s door, Ms. Martinez saw two officers and Ms. Peña in handcuffs inside

 the apartment,2 but Mr. Astorga was not there. One of the officers brought Ms. Peña

 outside. At least one officer stayed inside the apartment while Ms. Martinez was

 there. Ms. Martinez testified that when she and Ms. Peña were waiting outside,

 Ms. Peña went back into the apartment to use the bathroom. Both Ms. Peña and

 Ms. Martinez left the scene at about the same time. Ms. Martinez testified that

 Ms. Peña had a dog and a purse with her, but she did not get a good look at the purse.

 She did not say when or where she saw Ms. Peña with a purse.

       When Ms. Martinez returned to Mr. Astorga’s apartment later that day,

 officers gave her a receipt for the items seized in the search, released the apartment to

 her, and left. Ms. Martinez testified that Ms. Gomez and two other people arrived at

 Mr. Astorga’s apartment, followed by Ms. Peña about an hour later. Ms. Martinez

       2
         Ms. Martinez initially testified that she “saw a girl in handcuffs.” R., Vol. 2
 at 811. She later referred to this girl as Ms. Peña. See id. at 813. It is unclear from
 the record when Ms. Martinez knew that the girl she saw was Ms. Peña.
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 described Ms. Peña as appearing worried and anxious while they talked about what

 had happened that day. She testified that Ms. Peña “admit[ted] that . . . she knew a

 gun was in the apartment,” and that Ms. Peña said “[t]hat she got nervous when they

 were knocking and that she kind of slid [the gun] down her and kicked it under the

 couch.” R., Vol. 2 at 835. According to Ms. Martinez, Ms. Peña said she did so

 because “she was in trouble before so she didn’t want to get caught with nothing.”

 Id. at 833. On cross-examination, Ms. Martinez admitted that, even though she knew

 Mr. Astorga was being charged with possession of a firearm, she never told anyone in

 law enforcement what Ms. Peña had said about a gun. Ms. Martinez agreed it would

 have been important to do so.

       Ms. Gomez testified she had known Mr. Astorga for 25 years. She said she

 also knows Ms. Peña. She stated that she and Ms. Peña were at Mr. Astorga’s

 apartment after the police left, along with his mother and others. Ms. Gomez

 testified that Ms. Peña said that, when the arrest warrant was being executed, “she

 had a firearm in her purse and that she was scared, so she took it out and she kicked it

 under the couch.” R., Vol. 2 at 900. On cross-examination, Ms. Gomez admitted she

 never told anyone in law enforcement what Ms. Peña said about a gun. She

 acknowledged that she and Mr. Astorga had been romantically involved and she

 wanted to build a life with him, and she also admitted she had been convicted of a

 felony. Ms. Gomez testified that she had exchanged numerous text messages with

 Mr. Astorga after his arrest, including messages discussing Ms. Peña. On redirect,

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  Ms. Gomez testified that Ms. Peña was married but was having an affair with

  Mr. Astorga.

        The defense also recalled Officer Misquez and asked him why he did not

  obtain a statement from Ms. Peña at the scene of Mr. Astorga’s arrest. Officer

  Misquez testified that “[s]he wasn’t a suspect at the time.” R., Vol. 2 at 858.

  Defense counsel then asked, “Did you tell Ms. Peña that day that you are her

  ‘get-out-of jail-free card?’” Id. The prosecutor objected based on hearsay and

  relevance, and also because the defense had improperly recalled Officer Misquez

  solely to impeach him. The district court sustained the objection.

        The jury found Mr. Astorga guilty on all three counts.

  II.   Discussion

        “We review a district court’s evidentiary rulings for abuse of discretion,

  considering the record as a whole.” United States v. Cristerna-Gonzalez, 962 F.3d

  1253, 1266 (10th Cir. 2020) (internal quotation marks omitted). “A district court

  abuses its discretion when it renders an arbitrary, capricious, whimsical, or

  manifestly unreasonable judgment.” United States v. Silva, 889 F.3d 704, 709

  (10th Cir. 2018) (internal quotation marks omitted). “[W]e will not disturb an

  evidentiary ruling absent a distinct showing that it was based on a clearly erroneous

  finding of fact or an erroneous conclusion of law or manifests a clear error in

  judgment.” United States v. Channon, 881 F.3d 806, 809-10 (10th Cir. 2018)

  (internal quotation marks omitted). We review de novo whether a district court’s

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  evidentiary ruling violates a defendant’s constitutional right to present a defense.

  United States v. Hammers, 942 F.3d 1001, 1009-10 (10th Cir. 2019).

        A.     Bad-Wife Statement

        On cross-examination, defense counsel established that Officer Misquez had

  exchanged text messages with Ms. Peña. Regarding a particular message, he asked

  the officer, “[D]o you remember what you said you were going to call her?” R., Vol.

  2 at 487. When Officer Misquez responded, “Yes,” defense counsel asked, “And

  what was that?” Id. The prosecution objected based on hearsay and relevance.

        Defense counsel stated that he wanted to elicit testimony that Officer Misquez

  had called Ms. Peña a “bad wife” in a text message. Id. at 488 (internal quotation

  marks omitted). He argued this statement was not hearsay. As to relevance, he

  contended the officer’s bad-wife statement suggested that Officer Misquez and

  Ms. Peña had a prior relationship because “[h]ow would [Officer Misquez] know that

  Erica Peña is a bad wife unless he had some conversations before” Mr. Astorga’s

  arrest. Id. Defense counsel stated that he was “trying to impeach [Officer Misquez]

  by refreshing his recollection on what he said to [Ms. Peña] and how that reference is

  inconsistent with his testimony that he has no prior knowledge or relationship with

  [Ms. Peña].” Id.

        The district court responded that Officer Misquez “hasn’t said he doesn’t

  remember, so there’s no need to refresh his recollection.” Id. at 489. When the court

  sought additional explanation from defense counsel as to the relevance of Officer

  Misquez calling Ms. Peña a bad wife, he responded that “it’s consistent with his

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  character for untruthfulness” and he referenced an “inconsistent” statement that

  Officer Misquez made in 2013. Id. The district court concluded:

                I’m not seeing the connection here . . . . I’m trying to give you some
         room to help me understand, but I’m not hearing it, based on what you just
         said. I don’t hear that he’s denied it. I don’t hear that he doesn’t recall.
         And the question you’re asking is calling for hearsay on what she told him
         and even what he told her. And so I’m going to sustain the objection, just
         based on what I’ve heard so far . . . . I don’t see the connection.
  Id. at 489-90. The court suggested that defense counsel could ask direct questions to

  establish a relationship between Officer Misquez and Ms. Peña. And if the officer

  did not remember, defense counsel could use the text messages between them to

  refresh his recollection. Defense counsel continued to cross-examine Officer

  Misquez, including regarding the officer’s attempt to recruit Ms. Peña as a

  confidential source, but he did not ask any further questions regarding a relationship

  predating his arrest.

         On appeal, the government concedes that Officer Misquez’s out-of-court

  statement that Ms. Peña was a bad wife was not hearsay because it was not offered

  for its truth. Therefore, the question we address is whether the district court abused

  its discretion in finding that Mr. Astorga failed to show the testimony was relevant.

  “Evidence is relevant if: (a) it has any tendency to make a fact more or less probable

  than it would be without the evidence; and (b) the fact is of consequence in

  determining the action.” Fed. R. Evid. 401.

         Mr. Astorga now argues that Officer Misquez’s statement calling Ms. Peña a

  bad wife was relevant to his defense because proof of a relationship between them

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  predating Mr. Astorga’s arrest could establish that Officer Misquez was biased in

  favor of Ms. Peña when he testified about what she carried into Mr. Astorga’s

  apartment. But defense counsel did not clearly articulate the relevance of Officer

  Misquez’s bad-wife statement in this manner at trial. He instead stated that he

  wanted to refresh Officer Misquez’s recollection and impeach his previous testimony

  regarding when the officer had met Ms. Peña. He further contended the bad-wife

  statement was consistent with Officer Misquez’s “character for untruthfulness.” R.,

  Vol. 2 at 489.3 Although defense counsel spoke in general terms about “trying to

  develop the relationship here,” id. at 490, he acknowledged he did not know “what

  kind of relationship they had,” id., and he did not tell the district court he intended to

  establish that, based upon their preexisting relationship, Officer Misquez’s testimony

  was biased in favor of Ms. Peña. Considering the trial record, we conclude that

  Mr. Astorga fails to show the district court’s lack-of-relevance finding regarding

  Officer Misquez’s bad-wife statement was an arbitrary, capricious, whimsical, or

  manifestly unreasonable judgment.

        B.     Get-out-of-jail-free-card Statement

        Defense counsel recalled Officer Misquez in the defense’s case in chief. After

  establishing that the officer did not take a statement from Ms. Peña at the scene of his

  arrest, he asked, “Did you tell Ms. Peña that day that you are her ‘get-out-of jail-free

        3
          We note that Mr. Astorga’s summary of his response to the prosecution’s
  relevance objection is consistent with our description here. See Aplt. Opening Br. at
  8-9.
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  card?’” R., Vol. 2 at 858. The prosecution objected based on hearsay and relevance.

  Defense counsel acknowledged he had not laid a proper foundation to confront

  Officer Misquez with his prior statement. Regarding relevance, defense counsel

  argued that Officer Misquez’s credibility was at issue because he had a prior history

  of untrustworthiness from 2013. He noted that Officer Misquez was the only witness

  to testify about seeing what Ms. Peña took into the apartment. When the district

  court sought further clarification, defense counsel stated, “The relevance is if

  [Officer Misquez] even said it.” Id. at 860. The prosecution objected that it was

  improper for defense counsel to recall Officer Misquez to impeach him. Defense

  counsel then responded “No” when the district court asked if he had any other

  questions for Officer Misquez. Id. at 863. The district court sustained the

  prosecution’s objection, stating, “I’m construing this as a question for impeachment

  purposes only.” Id.

        Following the trial, the district court entered an order elaborating on its

  reasoning for excluding Officer Misquez’s get-out-of-jail-free-card statement. It said

  the statement was likely hearsay. Regarding Mr. Astorga’s argument that he intended

  to impeach the officer, the court concluded he could not call a witness solely to

  impeach him and that defense counsel had not articulated any other reason for

  recalling Officer Misquez. Further, Mr. Astorga had ample opportunity to impeach

  Officer Misquez with his past conduct during cross-examination but chose not to.

  The court held that Mr. Astorga also had not elicited any statement from Officer

  Misquez that could be contradicted by his prior get-out-of-jail-free-card statement,

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  which it concluded involved an issue peripheral to the case. The court added that

  “there is real concern here that even with a limiting instruction, the jury could misuse

  the inconsistent statement as substantive evidence, or be confused by it, rather than

  consider it only as pertinent to the witness’s credibility.” Suppl. R., Vol. 1 at 319.

  Concluding its reasoning on why it sustained the government’s objection, the district

  court stated:

              Finally, assuming for a moment that the prior statement were
        admissible, it is irrelevant and fails the [Fed. R. Evid.] 403 balancing test.
        The Court finds the connection between the text message statement and the
        witness’s character for truthfulness tenuous at best. The Court further
        concludes that the risk of confusion, misleading the jury, or asking
        cumulative questions well outweighs any probative value.
  Id.

        On appeal, Mr. Astorga argues Officer Misquez’s statement that he was

  Ms. Peña’s get-out-of-jail-free card was not hearsay because it was not offered for its

  truth. He also now argues that “[t]he statement is proof of bias because it shows that

  Officer Misquez favored [Ms.] Peña by offering to be her get-out-of-jail-free card and

  that his testimony about her not taking anything into the apartment was therefore not

  credible.” Aplt. Opening Br. at 15. As with Officer Misquez’s bad-wife statement,

  defense counsel did not clearly articulate a bias argument in response to the

  prosecution’s objection to the officer’s get-out-of-jail-free-card statement. See R.,

  Vol. 2 at 858-60. But in any event, Mr. Astorga’s bias theory depends on the truth of

  the statement because there is no inference of bias unless Officer Misquez was or

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  believed himself to be Ms. Peña’s get-out-of-jail-free card. We therefore conclude

  that the district court did not err in holding it was hearsay.

         Mr. Astorga argues Officer Misquez’s statement that he was Ms. Peña’s

  get-out-of-jail-free card was nonetheless admissible under Fed. R. Evid. 613(b) as

  extrinsic evidence of a prior inconsistent statement with which he could attack the

  officer’s credibility. As he acknowledges, however, such evidence cannot be used

  for impeachment unless the witness first testifies in a manner inconsistent with his

  prior statement. See United States v. Caraway, 534 F.3d 1290, 1298 (10th Cir. 2008)

  (holding witness’s prior statement “was not impeachment evidence because she had

  [not yet] testified to the contrary”). But Mr. Astorga points to no inconsistent

  testimony by Officer Misquez before defense counsel asked, “Did you tell Ms. Peña

  that day that you are her ‘get-out-of jail-free card?’” R., Vol. 2 at 858. We therefore

  conclude that Mr. Astorga did not properly offer the statement as impeachment

  evidence under Rule 613(b).4

         Moreover, Mr. Astorga does not address the district court’s final ground for

  excluding Officer Misquez’s get-out-of-jail-free-card statement. The court concluded

         4
           Because we conclude that Mr. Astorga did not properly offer the hearsay
  get-out-of-jail-free-card statement as impeachment evidence, we need not address his
  contention that the district court erred in alternatively concluding that the statement
  was inadmissible because defense counsel improperly recalled Officer Misquez
  solely to impeach him. See, e.g., Caraway, 534 F.3d at 1298 (noting “otherwise
  admissible evidence” may be excluded “when the record clearly and unequivocally
  establishes that the party’s primary purpose in calling the witness or in asking the
  question was to utilize a prior hearsay statement as substantive evidence” (internal
  quotation marks omitted)).
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  that, even if admissible, it “fails the Rule 403 balancing test” because “the risk of

  confusion, misleading the jury, or asking cumulative questions well outweighs any

  probative value.” Suppl. R., Vol. 1 at 319.

          Mr. Astorga fails to show the district court abused its discretion in excluding

  Officer Misquez’s out-of-court statement that he was Ms. Peña’s get-out-of-jail-free

  card.

          C.    Harmless Error

          The government argues that, in any event, any non-constitutional error was

  harmless. We agree. “A non-constitutional error is harmless unless it had a

  substantial influence on the outcome or leaves one in grave doubt as to whether it had

  such effect.” United States v. Roach, 896 F.3d 1185, 1194-95 (10th Cir. 2018)

  (internal quotation marks omitted). To determine the effect of an error, “we review

  the entire record de novo, examining the context, timing, and use of the erroneously

  . . . excluded[] evidence at trial and how it compares to properly admitted evidence.”

  Id. at 1195 (internal quotation marks omitted). The government bears the burden of

  showing harmlessness by a preponderance of the evidence. Id.

          The alleged errors related only to Mr. Astorga’s attack on Officer Misquez’s

  credibility, and specifically his testimony that he did not see Ms. Peña carry anything

  into the apartment other than a dog. In light of the following evidence, we conclude

  the alleged errors did not have a substantial influence on the outcome of

  Mr. Astorga’s trial as to his two firearms-related convictions:

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      Testimony and other evidence that officers found a loaded handgun concealed

        under a drawer in Mr. Astorga’s dresser, within feet of fentanyl pills he

        admitted possessing for distribution;

      Expert testimony that drug traffickers frequently possess the type of weapon

        found in Mr. Astorga’s bedroom;

      Testimony by two deputy marshals that they did not recall seeing Ms. Peña

        carrying anything when she was handcuffed;

      Prosecution Exhibit 42, which shows Ms. Peña in handcuffs next to a dog, but

        no purse;

      Officer Rios’s testimony that he saw no female belongings in the apartment;

      The absence of the brown purse seen in Defense Exhibit B from Officer Rios’s

        lapel camera video taken during the search;

      The lack of testimony by any officer about finding a brown purse in

        Mr. Astorga’s apartment;

      Officer Misquez’s uncontested testimony that Ms. Peña had to retrieve her

        phone from her truck;

      The weakness in Ms. Martinez’s and Ms. Gomez’s testimony that Ms. Peña

        stated she had removed a gun from her purse and kicked it under the couch

        when there was no evidence that a gun was found under a couch in the

        apartment and neither witness had reported such a statement to law

        enforcement;

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      The reasonable inference that Mr. Astorga had coached Ms. Manasco in a

        post-arrest phone call regarding her testimony about being in the apartment

        when Ms. Peña arrived and what Ms. Peña was carrying; and

      The impeachment of Mr. Astorga’s witnesses based upon their biases in favor

        of Mr. Astorga due to their close relationships with him.

  Considering the trial record as a whole, we conclude that the limited restrictions on

  Mr. Astorga’s examination of Officer Misquez did not affect the outcome of the case,

  and any non-constitutional error was therefore harmless.

        D.     No Constitutional Violation

        The Fifth and Sixth Amendments grant a defendant “the right to present a

  defense.” United States v. Bishop, 926 F.3d 621, 626 (10th Cir. 2019) (internal

  quotation marks omitted). This includes “the right to testify, present witnesses in his

  own defense, and cross-examine witnesses against him.” Id. (internal quotation

  marks omitted). To establish a violation of the constitutional right to present a

  defense, Mr. Astorga must show “(1) the district court abused its discretion in

  excluding the evidence at issue; and (2) the excluded evidence was of such an

  exculpatory nature that its exclusion affected the trial’s outcome.” Hammers,

  942 F.3d at 1012 (internal quotation marks omitted).

        We have concluded that Mr. Astorga failed to show an abuse of discretion.

  But even if there were error, he has not satisfied the second requirement. In

  demonstrating prejudice, he must show that a “reasonable jury might have received a

  significantly different impression of” Officer Misquez’s credibility had the court
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  admitted evidence of his prior statements. Delaware v. Van Arsdall, 475 U.S. 673,

  680 (1986). The question is “whether the jury had sufficient information to make a

  discriminating appraisal of the witness’ motives and bias.” United States v.

  Holloway, 826 F.3d 1237, 1249 (10th Cir. 2016) (internal quotation marks omitted).

        Mr. Astorga contends the excluded statements could have affected the trial’s

  outcome because his defense was that he did not possess the gun, while Officer

  Misquez testified that he did not see Ms. Peña carry anything into the apartment but

  the dog. He asserts he therefore needed to confront Officer Misquez with his prior

  statements to establish the officer’s bias in favor of Ms. Peña.

        We are not persuaded that the excluded evidence was of such an exculpatory

  nature that Mr. Astorga has demonstrated a constitutional violation. Mr. Astorga was

  able to establish that Officer Misquez had exchanged text messages with Ms. Peña

  and had attempted to recruit her as a confidential informant. And we agree with the

  district court that the connection between Officer Misquez’s get-out-of-jail-free-card

  statement and his character for truthfulness was tenuous at best. The connection

  between Officer Misquez’s bad-wife statement and his credibility is weaker still.

  Moreover, the exclusion of the prior statements did not prevent Mr. Astorga from

  cross-examining Officer Misquez regarding (1) his prior-relationship theory based on

  the officer’s perception of Ms. Peña as a bad wife, or (2) his bias theory based on the

  officer’s belief that he was Ms. Peña’s get-out-of-jail-free card. Finally, in his

  arguments to the district court regarding evidence challenging Officer Misquez’s

  credibility, defense counsel noted an incident involving the officer in 2013. But

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  although the district court agreed that a police department report regarding that

  incident was probative of Officer Misquez’s credibility, defense counsel never asked

  Officer Misquez about that incident or the report. The court’s exclusion of other

  evidence potentially relevant to Officer Misquez’s credibility did not preclude him

  from doing so.

         Mr. Astorga fails to show a reasonable jury might have received a significantly

  different impression of Officer Misquez had the officer been permitted to testify

  about his previous statements to Ms. Peña. He therefore does not demonstrate that

  the district court’s exclusion of that evidence deprived him of his right to present a

  defense.

  III.   Conclusion

         We affirm the district court’s judgments in appeal numbers 22-2158 and

  22-2160.

                                              Entered for the Court

                                              Bobby R. Baldock
                                              Circuit Judge

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