Court Opinion

ID: 9925717
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2024-01-22 21:01:02.042799+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:21:29.452496
License: Public Domain

NOT RECOMMENDED FOR PUBLICATION
                                File Name: 24a0032n.06

                                         Case No. 22-1573

                            UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
                                 FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT                                  FILED
                                                                                      Jan 22, 2024
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,                       )                            KELLY L. STEPHENS, Clerk
                                                 )
        Plaintiff - Appellee,                    )
                                                 )     ON APPEAL FROM THE UNITED
 v.                                              )     STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE
                                                 )     EASTERN DISTRICT OF MICHIGAN
 VONNELL ALANDO REED,                            )
        Defendant - Appellant.                   )                                       OPINION
                                                 )

Before: GIBBONS, WHITE, and THAPAR, Circuit Judges.

       GIBBONS, Circuit Judge. Vonnell Reed challenges his conviction for possessing a firearm

while a convicted felon in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1). Reed claims that the district court

erred in denying his motion to suppress and that he was deprived of his statutory and constitutional

rights to a speedy trial. Finding no basis to disturb the district court’s judgment, we affirm.

                                                 I.

                                                 A.

       In the late evening hours of April 4, 2019, Detroit Police Department Sergeant Harold

Lewis and Officers Michael Reyes and Gibron Lockhart were together on patrol in Detroit’s

northwestern corner near Seven Mile Road. Approaching a stoplight, they observed a black SUV

lacking a visible license plate. The officers agreed to initiate a traffic stop, and Lewis, who was

driving, followed the SUV, activating the cruiser’s lights. The SUV pulled over, and Lewis, Reyes

and Lockhart exited the cruiser, approaching the SUV on foot.
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

       The officers flanked the vehicle, with Lewis approaching from the driver’s side, Reyes

approaching from the passenger side, and Lockhart approaching from the rear. As they advanced,

Reyes and Lockhart directed their flashlights through the SUV’s tinted windows, and both officers

observed the driver — whom they would later identify as defendant Vonnell Reed — turn towards

the center console and toss an object into the SUV’s backseat. Reyes then “heard a thump on the

back right side door,” DE 68, Suppression Hr’g Tr. Vol. II, Page ID 324, and Lockhart similarly

heard “a clunk sound . . . like a metal object hitting the floorboard,” id. at 307. Both officers

suspected a firearm, and Reyes leaned towards Lockhart to “let him know that [he] had seen a

pistol and . . . needed [Lockhart] to unlock the doors.” Id. at 328.

       Lockhart then veered left and joined Sergeant Lewis at the front driver’s side door. After

unlocking the SUV’s doors to allow Reyes access to the backseat, Lockhart assisted Lewis in

removing Reed from the vehicle. Upon speaking with Reed, Lewis and Lockhart learned that Reed

possessed neither a valid driver’s license nor a Michigan concealed pistol license. The pair

handcuffed Reed and walked him back to the cruiser.

       Meanwhile, Reyes opened the rear passenger door and searched the SUV’s floorboard.

There, he recovered a 9mm Hi-Point pistol with seven live rounds loaded in the magazine. The

officers then placed Reed under arrest for carrying a concealed weapon in a motor vehicle, in

violation of Mich. Comp. L. § 750.227(2).

                                                 B.

       Subsequent investigation revealed Reed’s four prior felony convictions, and on April 23,

2019, a federal grand jury returned a one-count indictment charging Reed with possession of a

firearm by a convicted felon, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1). Reed pled not guilty, and he

remained in federal custody pending trial.

                                                -2-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

       The district court set a trial date of June 17, 2019, but Reed’s trial did not take place for

another three years. Between April 2019 and March 2020, a series of agreed continuances, in part

owing to back-to-back substitutions of Reed’s court-appointed counsel, repeatedly delayed Reed’s

trial date. Then, the COVID-19 pandemic and the district court’s related precautions, together

with Reed’s pretrial motions and subsequent attempts to replace his attorney yet again, delayed

Reed’s trial until March 2022.

       During this three-year interval, Reed litigated two issues relevant to his current appeal.

First, Reed moved to suppress the firearm that Reyes recovered from the backseat of his SUV,

arguing that the search violated his Fourth Amendment rights. The district court denied the

motion, concluding that Lockhart’s and Reyes’s visual and auditory observations — to which they

credibly testified at the suppression hearing — provided them with reasonable suspicion to conduct

a protective search of Reed’s vehicle.

       Second, Reed urged denial of the government’s October 2021 motion to adjourn trial, as

further delay would violate his constitutional and statutory rights to a speedy trial. The district

court disagreed and granted the government’s motion. Because the bulk of the delay up to that

point owed to Reed’s motions, pandemic-related precautions, or a confluence of the two, the court

concluded that further continuance would not violate Reed’s Sixth Amendment or Speedy Trial

Act rights.

       Representing himself, Reed ultimately went to trial in March 2022. The jury found Reed

guilty, and the district court sentenced him to seventy-one months’ imprisonment. Reed now

appeals his conviction, arguing that the district court erred in denying his motion to suppress and

that the delays violated his speedy trial rights under the Sixth Amendment and Speedy Trial Act.

                                               -3-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

                                                 II.

                                                 A.

       We begin with Reed’s motion to suppress. Reed contends that the district court should

have excluded the 9mm Hi-Point pistol and its accompanying ammunition from the evidence at

trial because Reyes discovered the pistol during an unconstitutional search of Reed’s vehicle. To

that end, Reed makes a predominantly factual argument, claiming that the district court erred in

deeming Lockhart and Reyes credible and thus erred in accepting their version of events. Without

the officers’ testimony, Reed surmises, the district court lacked a basis to conclude that Reyes’s

search of Reed’s vehicle was constitutionally sound. And without a constitutional justification for

the search, Reed concludes, the firearm that Reyes recovered should have been suppressed.1

       We review the district court’s factual findings, including its credibility determinations, for

clear error. United States v. Waide, 60 F.4th 327, 335 (6th Cir. 2023). District courts are typically

“in the best position to judge credibility,” United States v. Bradshaw, 102 F.3d 204, 210 (6th Cir.

1996), and we therefore lend their credibility findings “great deference,” United States v. Navarro-

1
  Reed appears to concede, by negative inference, that if the district court did not factually err in
deeming the officers credible, then its legal analysis under the Fourth Amendment is sound. See
CA6 R. 39, Appellant Br., at 28 (“Without credible testimony from the officers, there is no
evidence that substantiates reasonable suspicion to extend the traffic stop to include a search of
[Reed’s] vehicle.”). But even if the foregoing is not a concession, Reed advances no standalone
legal argument independent of his factual challenge. We therefore find that Reed has forfeited any
such argument. See Island Creek Coal Co. v. Wilkerson, 910 F.3d 254, 256 (6th Cir. 2018) (“Time,
time, and time again, we have reminded litigants that we will treat an ‘argument’ as ‘forfeited
when it was not raised in the opening brief.’” (quoting Golden v. Comm’r Internal Revenue, 548
F.3d 487, 493 (6th Cir. 2008))); see also United States v. Robinson, 390 F.3d 853, 886 (6th Cir.
2004) (“[I]ssues adverted to in a perfunctory manner, unaccompanied by some effort at developed
argumentation, are deemed waived.” (quoting McPherson v. Kelsey, 125 F.3d 989, 995–96 (6th
Cir. 1997))). Indeed, a contrary finding would require us to supply Reed’s Fourth Amendment
argument for him, a practice settled appellate principles caution against. See United States v.
Hendrickson, 822 F.3d 812, 829 n.10 (6th Cir. 2016) (“A party may not raise an issue on appeal
by mentioning it in the most skeletal way, leaving the court to put flesh on its bones.” (cleaned up)
(quoting Robinson, 390 F.3d at 886)).
                                                -4-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

Camacho, 186 F.3d 701, 705 (6th Cir. 1999). We yield to the district court in this context unless

our review of “the entire evidence” leaves us “with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake

has been committed.” United States v. Sanford, 476 F.3d 391, 394 (6th Cir. 2007) (quoting

Navarro-Camacho, 186 F.3d at 705). And because the district court denied Reed’s motion to

suppress, we view the evidence in the light most favorable to the government. United States v.

Hurst, 228 F.3d 751, 757 (6th Cir. 2000). If the district court chose between “two permissible

views of the evidence,” we will not find clear error. United States v. Campbell, 486 F.3d 949, 953

(6th Cir. 2007).

        After hearing testimony from Lockhart and Reyes and viewing the dashboard and body-

worn camera footage, the district court deemed the officers credible and accepted their version of

events, finding that the officers (1) stopped Reed for driving without a license plate, (2) observed

Reed toss a firearm-shaped object towards the backseat, (3) heard the suspected firearm land with

a loud noise, and then, upon opening the rear passenger door, (4) found Reed’s loaded pistol lying

on the vehicle’s floorboard. Although Reed testified to a different version of events, the district

court found his testimony unpersuasive, stating that it “added nothing to support the invalidity of

the stop and search.” DE 57, Op. & Order Denying Mot. to Suppress, Page ID 182. Reed now

challenges the district court’s credibility finding based on four supposed weaknesses in the

officers’ story.

        To begin, Reed argues that the officers were predisposed to detect evidence of a weapon

because Lockhart was, at the time of the stop, participating in a special operations unit tasked with

“get[ting] guns off the street.” DE 67, Suppression Hr’g Tr. Vol. I, Page ID 271. Reed claims the

officers searched his vehicle based on this predisposition rather than their observations. But this

contention cuts both ways, because if the officers indeed “anticipat[ed]” finding weapons, CA6 R.

                                                -5-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

39, Appellant Br., at 26, then they likely approached Reed’s vehicle with heightened awareness

and focus, which would bolster, rather than undercut, the reliability of their observations. See

United States v. McCallister, 39 F.4th 368, 373 (6th Cir. 2022) (noting that an argument that

presents the court with “two permissible views of the evidence” is an “insufficient basis upon

which to reverse a district court’s factual finding”). Even if Lockhart’s participation in the special

operations unit primed the officers to see a weapon (a wholly unsupported proposition), that fact

would not meaningfully undermine the officers’ credibility as to their reasons for the search.

       Reed next argues that the officers could not have seen into his vehicle as they described

because Reyes, upon cross-examination, could not identify his flashlight’s beam among the

multiple light sources that dashcam footage captured shining on Reed’s SUV. But this argument

is minimally probative as to the officers’ credibility, for two reasons. First, Reyes’s difficulty

parsing the various sources of light shown in the dashcam footage tells us nothing about what

activity within Reed’s vehicle the dashcam footage does or does not depict. To put it another way,

the line of cross-examination on which Reed relies is simply beside the point. Second, even if the

dashcam footage failed to corroborate the officers’ recollection of Reed’s movements (a

proposition that Reyes’s cross-examination did not establish), that fact would still not necessarily

undercut the officers’ credibility. The dashcam footage captures a different view of Reed’s SUV

than the views Reyes and Lockhart possessed when they observed Reed toss a firearm-shaped

object toward the SUV’s backseat. Common sense tells us that what can be seen from distinct

vantage points will often differ, and we should therefore expect that what Reyes and Lockhart saw

when approaching Reed’s vehicle differs from what can be seen in the dashcam footage, which

was taken (1) from further away, (2) from below the officers’ eye level, and (3) in Reyes’s case,

from a different angle relative to the vehicle. For both reasons, then, Reyes’s difficulty parsing

                                                -6-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

the dashcam footage does not imply that the officers lied about their visual observations when

approaching Reed’s SUV.

       Reed’s third argument, which concerns the officers’ auditory observations, proves

similarly flawed. Reed contends that the officers could not have heard his pistol hitting the

floorboard as they claimed because the sound “would have [been] significantly dampened” by a

towel that Reyes’s body camera footage shows was draped over the vehicle’s passenger seat. CA6

R. 39, Appellant Br., at 27. But this is unfounded speculation. Both Reyes and Lockhart testified

that they were familiar, by way of experience, with the sound a handgun makes when it lands on

a hard surface. Reed makes no effort to refute that testimony. And the record contains no evidence,

testimony or otherwise, to support the contention that a towel draped over a car seat would

meaningfully dampen the sound of a metal firearm hitting the car’s floorboard below. If Reyes

had found the pistol lying on top of the towel, or if he had found the towel lying on the floorboard

next to the pistol, then Reed could plausibly assert that the gun had landed on the towel, potentially

muting any noise it made when hitting the floorboard. But neither Reyes’s testimony nor his body-

camera footage supports that hypothetical contention. The towel’s presence in Reyes’s body-

camera footage thus did not give the district court any reason to disbelieve the officers’ claims

about what they heard.

       Finally, Reed’s assertion that the district court erred by failing to reconcile the

inconsistency between his testimony (claiming that officers found the pistol in a seatback pocket)

and that of the officers (claiming that they found the pistol on the vehicle’s floorboard) is

tautological. Credibility determinations are by their very nature contests between inconsistent

versions of events. See United States v. Ranson, 419 F. App’x 633, 634 (6th Cir. 2011) (describing

the district court’s credibility finding as a choice “between competing accounts” of the facts).

                                                -7-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

The district court, weighing all the evidence before it, chooses to believe one version and

disbelieve the other; once that credibility determination is made, the district court does not err by

failing to square the inconsistent testimonies. Rather, the credibility finding is the squaring. Id. at

635 (again describing the district court’s “ring-side credibility determination,” United States v.

Kimbrel, 532 F.3d 461, 468 (6th Cir. 2008), as the “difficult task [of] sifting through . . . competing

stories”). Because the court found Reed’s retelling lacked credibility, it did not need to explain

how the facts described in the officers’ testimony could co-exist with Reed’s alternative facts; they

simply could not.

       In sum, our review of the record does not leave us with a “definite and firm conviction”

that the district court erred in deeming Reyes and Lockhart credible. Sanford, 476 F.3d at 394

(quoting Navarro-Camacho, 186 F.3d at 705). Because there is no clear error in the district court’s

factual findings, we affirm its denial of Reed’s motion to suppress.

                                                  B.

       We next consider Reed’s challenge to his conviction under the Sixth Amendment’s Speedy

Trial Clause. The principles that guide our analysis are well-settled under the standard set forth in

Barker v. Wingo, 407 U.S. 514 (1972). As a panel of this court recently stated,

       [r]ather than set a fixed time period, Barker selected a ‘balancing test’ that decides
       each speedy-trial claim on an ‘ad hoc basis.’ It identified four questions for courts
       to ask when confronted with such a claim: How long was the delay? What was the
       reason for it? Did the defendant timely assert this speedy-trial right? And what
       prejudice, if any, has the defendant suffered? To resolve the claim, a court must
       ‘engage in a difficult and sensitive balancing’ of these four factors along with any
       other ‘relevant’ circumstance.

United States v. Allen, 86 F.4th 295, 304 (6th Cir. 2023) (internal citations omitted) (quoting

Barker, 407 U.S. at 530, 533). In determining whether Reed’s right to a speedy trial was violated,

                                                 -8-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

we review questions of law de novo and questions of fact for clear error. United States v. Schreane,

331 F.3d 548, 553 (6th Cir. 2003).

       Beginning with the first factor, the length of pretrial delay, our inquiry is twofold. First,

as a threshold question, we ask whether the interval between Reed’s arrest and trial surpassed that

which is “ordinary” in criminal litigation and evolved into a “presumptively prejudicial” delay.

Doggett v. United States, 505 U.S. 647, 652 (1992) (quoting Barker, 407 U.S. at 530–31). If the

delay crossed the threshold into “presumptively prejudicial,” then it triggers consideration of the

remaining Barker factors. Id.; see also Barker, 407 U.S. at 530. If not, our examination of Reed’s

speedy trial claim ends. United States v. Robinson, 455 F.3d 602, 607 (6th Cir. 2006). This court

has held that “[a] delay approaching one year is presumptively prejudicial,” id., and here, the

government concedes that the nearly three-year period intervening Reed’s arrest and trial triggers

a full Barker analysis. See United States v. Ferreira, 665 F.3d 701, 705 (6th Cir. 2011) (delay of

“‘nearly three years’ . . . satisfies [Barker’s] threshold requirement” (quoting United States v.

Ferreira, No. 1:05-CR-92-3, 2009 WL 311136, at *3 (E.D. Tenn. Feb. 6, 2009))).

       Given the government’s concession, we next “consider . . . the extent to which the delay

stretches beyond the bare minimum needed to trigger judicial examination of the claim.” Doggett,

505 U.S. at 652. In this case, Reed’s thirty-five-month wait for trial exceeds the time necessary to

trigger a full Barker analysis by a wide margin, and the delay therefore weighs heavily in Reed’s

favor. Id. (“[T]he presumption that pretrial delay has prejudiced the accused intensifies over

time.”); see also Allen, 86 F.4th at 304 (“[T]he four-year holdup in this case looks more like the

‘extraordinary’ delay that the Court confronted in Barker than the ‘customary’ one that it

hypothesized in Doggett.” (first quoting Barker, 407 U.S. at 533; and then quoting Doggett, 505

U.S. at 652)).

                                               -9-
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

       Moving to the second Barker factor, we next examine the reasons underlying the delay,

which are best understood as lying on a spectrum. United States v. Flowers, 476 F. App’x 55, 61

(6th Cir. 2012). At one end of the spectrum are delays contrived by the government to harass the

defendant or hamstring his defense. Robinson, 455 F.3d at 607. Manufactured delays of this

nature weigh heavily against the government. Id. In the middle of the spectrum lie “neutral

reasons” such as governmental negligence or overcrowded courts, which still weigh against the

government, but less so. Id.; Barker, 407 U.S. at 531. And at the other end of the spectrum lie

legitimate delays, including those attributable to the accused or his counsel. Robinson, 455 F.3d

at 607; see also Vermont v. Brillon, 556 U.S. 81, 90–91 (2009) (“Because the attorney is the

defendant’s agent when acting, or failing to act, in furtherance of the litigation, delay caused by

the defendant’s counsel is also charged against the defendant.” (cleaned up) (citing Coleman v.

Thompson, 501 U.S. 722, 753 (1991))). When a valid reason — for example, an unavailable

witness — delays trial, or when the defendant himself slows the proceedings by filing a pretrial

motion or requesting new counsel, the delay “favors the government” and “undercut[s]” the

defendant’s speedy trial claim. Allen, 86 F.4th at 305.

       Under the foregoing framework, the reasons for the three-year timeline to Reed’s

prosecution cut against his speedy trial claim. From April 2019 to March 2020, Reed triggered

several delays in the district court’s proceedings, twice moving to replace his court-appointed

attorney and thrice moving to continue his trial date.2 Reed also filed the above-discussed motion

2
 The government joined each of Reed’s motions to continue trial. Nonetheless, we assess the bulk
of the responsibility for these jointly sought continuances to Reed, as his repeated hostility towards
court-appointed counsel necessitated his changes in representation, and his changes in
representation in turn necessitated the latter two continuances. As to the first continuance,
responsibility is at best equally shared, as the two reasons cited to justify the continuance included
(1) Reed’s counsel’s need for additional time to review the evidence and (2) the parties’ shared
need for additional time to engage in plea negotiations.
                                                - 10 -
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

to suppress in this interval, which the district court did not resolve until March 2020. Because

these holdups stemmed from Reed himself, the first eleven months of Reed’s pretrial delay weigh

in the government’s favor. Id.

       Over the following two years — March 2020 to March 2022 — pandemic-related delays

converged with Reed’s subsequent pretrial motions to further postpone his trial. In March 2020,

the COVID-19 pandemic struck the United States, and on the same day that the district court

denied Reed’s motion to suppress, the chief judge of the Eastern District of Michigan issued an

administrative order suspending all in-court proceedings indefinitely. E.D. Mich. 20-AO-021.

Four months later, in July 2020, the chief judge extended the suspension. E.D. Mich. 20-AO-039.

In-person jury trials did not resume in the Eastern District of Michigan until September 2021. E.D.

Mich. 21-AO-023.

       Meanwhile, Reed’s third attorney moved for a competency evaluation. The district court

granted the request in June 2020, but pandemic precautions within the Bureau of Prisons prevented

Reed’s transfer to an appropriate B.O.P. facility for nearly nine months, delaying the filing of

Reed’s competency evaluation until April 2021. By that time, Reed had grown dissatisfied with

yet another court-appointed attorney, and after Reed threatened her with violence, she moved to

withdraw from the case. The district court appointed Reed a fourth attorney, and the parties agreed

to continue trial until October 2021, allowing Reed’s newest lawyer time to familiarize himself

with the case and prepare Reed’s defense.

       Then, a handful of additional pandemic-related delays pushed Reed’s trial into 2022. First,

the district court’s limited capacity for jury trials forced it to continue Reed’s trial from October

to mid-December. A few days before the scheduled December date, however, Reyes tested

positive for COVID-19, and the district court pushed trial into 2022. Finally, jury selection

                                               - 11 -
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

occurred on January 25, 2022. But as Reed returned to jail that same day, he was exposed to a

prisoner who later tested positive for COVID-19. Reed’s exposure necessitated yet another

adjournment, and the district court resumed his trial at the earliest available opportunity: March

2022.

        All told, the delays between April 2019 and March 2022 arose from the COVID-19

pandemic and Reed’s numerous pretrial motions, including four seeking replacement or

withdrawal of his attorney. This court has repeatedly recognized that continuances necessitated

by an unavoidable public health crisis that claimed millions of American lives constitute justifiable

delay. See Allen, 86 F.4th at 305 (treating delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic as valid and

weighing them against the defendant); United States v. Jones, No. 21-3252, 2023 WL 1861317, at

*8 (6th Cir. Feb. 9, 2023) (same). Moreover, and as we have already discussed, delays owing to

the defendant’s pretrial motions or requests for new counsel also accrue in the government’s favor.

Allen, 86 F.4th at 305. For these reasons, the second Barker factor weighs against Reed’s speedy

trial claim.

        Under the third Barker factor, we examine “whether the defendant effectively asserted his

speedy trial right.” Flowers, 476 F. App’x at 63; see also Barker, 407 U.S. at 528–29. To that

end, we consider how early the defendant asserted the right, how often he did so, and the context

in which those assertions occurred. See United States v. Loud Hawk, 474 U.S. 302, 314 (1986) (a

defendant’s assertions of his speedy trial right “must be viewed in the light of [his] other conduct”);

Allen, 86 F.4th at 305 (under the third Barker factor, “courts consider both how early . . . and how

often” the defendant asserted his speedy trial right). In Reed’s case, the first two considerations

present a mixed bag. On the one hand, Reed waited fifteen months after his indictment to first

assert his speedy trial right, an interval that far exceeds what we think timely. See Robinson,

                                                - 12 -
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

455 F.3d at 608 (assertion of speedy trial right not timely where defendant filed a motion to dismiss

fifteen months after he learned of the criminal complaint against him); Schreane, 331 F.3d at 557

(“[The Defendant]’s four-month and three-week delay in invoking his speedy trial right weighs

against him.”). But on the other hand, Reed raised his speedy trial right on numerous occasions

from that point forward, asserting the right in a response brief, on the record during a hearing, and

in several handwritten letters to the court. These frequent and unmistakable assertions of his

speedy trial right weigh heavily in Reed’s favor. See Maples v. Stegall, 427 F.3d 1020, 1034 (6th

Cir. 2005) (finding that, among other factors, the defendant’s “repeated[] and vigorous assertion

of his speedy trial right weighs strongly in his favor”).

        Given that these first two considerations present something of an equilibrium, we turn to

the final consideration — the context surrounding Reed’s invocation of his speedy trial right. And

in that effort, we find that Reed’s many assertions of his speedy trial right belie his overall dilatory

approach to the litigation. See Loud Hawk, 474 U.S. at 315 (in applying Barker’s third factor,

defendants’ “repetitive and unsuccessful motions” outweighed their repeated assertions of their

speedy trial rights). Reed agreed to continue his trial date several times, including after invoking

his right to a speedy trial, which suggests that his demands for a speedy trial may not have been

wholly sincere. Allen, 86 F.4th at 306 (defendant’s consent to subsequent continuances “cast[]

doubt on the ‘sincerity’” of earlier assertions of his speedy trial right (quoting United States v.

Sutton, 862 F.3d 547, 561 (6th Cir. 2017))). Moreover, Reed “filled the [d]istrict [c]ourt’s docket”

with repeated requests for different representation, imposing significant delays as his new

attorneys familiarized themselves with his case.3 Loud Hawk, 474 U.S. at 315. Thus, although

3
  One point of emphasis: the record overwhelmingly suggests that Reed’s bellicose demeanor and
racist attitudes played an outsized role in his repeated requests for new representation. In other
words, Reed, not his attorneys, bears sole responsibility for his revolving door of representation,
                                                 - 13 -
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

Reed asserted his speedy trial right many times, the repeated delays he either agreed to or

personally caused contradict those assertions to such an extent that the third Barker factor weighs

in the government’s favor.

       Finally, the fourth Barker factor requires that the defendant show “that ‘substantial

prejudice’ has resulted from the delay.” Robinson, 455 F.3d at 608 (quoting Schreane, 331 F.3d

at 557). We assess this factor in light of the three protections that the speedy trial right is meant

to provide: (i) the prevention of “oppressive pretrial incarceration”; (ii) the minimization of the

“anxiety and concern of the accused”; and (iii) the limitation of “the possibility that the defense

will be impaired.” Barker, 407 U.S. at 532. The third is the “most serious,” because a defendant’s

inability to adequately prepare his defense “skews the fairness of the entire system.” Id.

       The only prejudice that Reed claims he suffered is the oppression imposed by his lengthy

pretrial incarceration. But “[w]hen the government prosecutes a case with reasonable diligence”

— as we find it did here — “a defendant who cannot demonstrate how his defense was prejudiced

with specificity will not make out a speedy trial claim no matter how great the ensuing delay.”

United States v. Young, 657 F.3d 408, 418 (6th Cir. 2011) (quoting United States v. Howard, 218

F.3d 556, 564 (6th Cir. 2000)); see also Allen, 86 F.4th at 306 (defendants’ failure to show a

“‘specific’ harm to their defense” doomed their Sixth Amendment claims where the defendants

“requested many of the delays themselves and . . . the government had a valid pandemic-related

reason for the other continuances” (quoting Howard, 218 F.3d at 564)). Reed fails to assert, much

less explain, how his lengthy prosecution prejudiced his defense. Because the delays in Reed’s

as he chased four court-appointed lawyers away through personal insults, race-based attacks, and
threats of violence.
                                               - 14 -
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

prosecution owed to either the COVID-19 pandemic or to Reed himself, this failure proves

sufficient by itself to weigh the fourth factor in the government’s favor. Allen, 86 F.4th at 306.

        In sum, we find that while the duration of Reed’s prosecution weighs in his favor, the

remaining three Barker factors militate against his speedy trial claim. Reed bears much of the

responsibility for the pretrial delay, and the remainder of the blame lies not with the government,

but with the difficult realities imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Although Reed asserted his

Sixth Amendment right many times, his conduct belied his words. And most critically, Reed

cannot demonstrate that his defense was impaired by the protracted pretrial period, indicating that

any prejudice he suffered fails to rise to the level of constitutional concern. Under the totality of

the circumstances, Reed was not deprived of his speedy trial right, and his Sixth Amendment claim

therefore fails.

                                                  C.

        We end our analysis with Reed’s claim that the delay between his indictment and trial

violated the Speedy Trial Act, 18 U.S.C. § 3161 et seq. Generally speaking, the Speedy Trial Act

requires that a defendant’s trial begin within seventy days of the later of his arraignment or the

filing of the indictment. Id. § 3161(c)(1). But the Act also enumerates several exceptions to this

general rule. Id. § 3161(h). Excluded from the seventy-day running tally, for example, is “[a]ny

period of delay resulting from a continuance granted by [the district court] . . . on the basis of [its]

findings that the ends of justice served by taking such action outweigh the best interest of the

public and the defendant in a speedy trial.” Id. § 3161(h)(7)(A). We review the district court’s

legal rulings under the Speedy Trial Act de novo, and we review its factual findings for clear error.

United States v. Sobh, 571 F.3d 600, 602 (6th Cir. 2009). The district court’s decision to grant an

                                                 - 15 -
No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

ends-of-justice continuance survives our review unless it amounts to an abuse of discretion. United

States v. Williams, 753 F.3d 626, 635 (6th Cir. 2014).

       The parties agree that fifty non-excludable days passed in the beginning stages of Reed’s

prosecution. They further agree that the bulk of the remaining days preceding Reed’s 2022 trial

are excludable under the Act. Where they disagree is with respect to an approximately month-

long period straddling January and February 2021.4 Reed claims that the government lacks a

§ 3161(h) exclusion to justify this thirty-two-day delay. The government argues that three

§ 3161(h) exclusions — including the district court’s ends-of-justice finding related to the

COVID-19 pandemic — cover the disputed period.

       Before we reach the merits, we take up the threshold question of waiver. While neither

party briefs the issue, we perceive a compelling argument that Reed waived his Speedy Trial Act

rights through his failure to move for dismissal before the district court. 18 U.S.C. § 3162(a)(2).

The Act provides, in no uncertain terms, that the “failure of the defendant to move for dismissal

prior to trial . . . shall constitute a waiver of the right to dismissal.” Id. And here, although Reed

raised his Speedy Trial Act rights in handwritten letters to the court and in opposition to one of the

government’s motions to adjourn, he never moved to dismiss pursuant to the Act. Under a

straightforward interpretation of § 3162(a)(2), and as several unpublished decisions of this court

have held, a defendant in Reed’s shoes has waived his right to dismissal under the Act.5 See United

4
  The parties also dispute the status of a six-day period in July 2021. Given its brevity, however,
resolving whether this period proves excludable or non-excludable is immaterial to deciding
whether the district court upheld Reed’s rights under the Act. We therefore refrain from addressing
it.
5
  Even if we charitably interpreted Reed’s interjection at the October 2021 motion hearing as an
oral motion to dismiss under the Speedy Trial Act (an interpretation that his attorney’s subsequent
clarification unequivocally contradicts), that motion would still prove insufficient to preserve
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No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

States v. Coleman, 835 F. App’x 73, 75 (6th Cir. 2020); United States v. Dunn, No. 09-5837, 2011

WL 11533293, at *2 (6th Cir. Dec. 15, 2011); United States v. Obi, 85 F. App’x 440, 444–45 (6th

Cir. 2003); United States v. Pike, No. 94-5104, 1995 WL 234667, at *2 (6th Cir. Apr. 20, 1995).

Nevertheless, the published precedent of this court dictates that Reed’s objections, though not

articulated in a motion to dismiss, suffice for purposes of § 3162(a)(2)’s motion requirement. See

United States v. Brown, 819 F.3d 800, 822–26 (6th Cir. 2016) (finding that a defendant’s “oral

objection to an alleged STA violation” without a motion to dismiss satisfies § 3162(a)(2)’s motion

requirement “so long as the defendant brings to the court’s attention his belief that his STA rights

have been violated”). Although some might question the wisdom of this holding, United States v.

Tolliver, 949 F.3d 244, 250 (6th Cir. 2020) (Thapar, J., concurring), we are not at liberty to ignore

it, Rutherford v. Columbia Gas, 575 F.3d 616, 619 (6th Cir. 2009). Accordingly, we find that

Reed preserved his Speedy Trial Act rights for appeal.

       Waiver aside, Reed’s Speedy Trial Act claim nevertheless fails on the merits. In its

November 2021 Order granting the government’s motion to adjourn trial, the district court found

that the disputed thirty-two-day period was excludable pursuant to the ends-of-justice findings in

the Eastern District of Michigan’s March 2020 administrative order. And “the Sixth Circuit has

already held that a district court does not abuse its discretion in finding that the ends of justice

served by postponing or limiting jury trials during the pandemic under the General Orders

outweigh a defendant’s right to a speedy trial.” United States v. Caldwell, Nos. 22-3547/3931,

2023 WL 5021548, at *3 (6th Cir. Aug. 7, 2023) (quoting Jones, 2023 WL 1861317, at *7).

Reed’s rights under the Act, as Reed failed to secure a ruling on the supposed motion. United
States v. Hagar, 822 F. App’x 361, 368–69 (6th Cir. 2021).
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No. 22-1573, United States v. Reed

       Moreover, while the district court issued its ends-of-justice finding nearly eight months

after the disputed period came and went, “the findings upon which an ‘ends of justice’ continuance

is granted need not be included in the record at the time of the granting of the continuance[.]”

Brown, 819 F.3d at 814 (quoting United States v. Richmond, 735 F.2d 208, 215 (6th Cir. 1984)).

So long as the district court relies on “permissible factors” and does not traffic in post-hoc

rationalizations, its later explanation for an earlier continuance will suffice.6       Id. (quoting

Richmond, 735 F.3d at 215–16). Here, nothing in the district court’s explanation for its earlier

ends-of-justice continuance approached a fabricated, after-the-fact rationalization. The Eastern

District of Michigan did not conduct jury trials in January and February 2021 due to COVID-19.

E.D. Mich. 21-AO-023 (noting that the Eastern District’s courthouses reopened to the public in

September 2021). The district court’s reliance on the chief judge’s administrative order, which

itself cited COVID-19 as necessitating the suspension of in-person proceedings, is therefore not a

post-hoc rationalization. Accordingly, the district court did not abuse its discretion, and the

disputed period was properly excluded from its tally under the Act. See Sobh, 571 F.3d at 602–

04. Reed’s Speedy Trial Act claim fails.

                                                III.

       For the foregoing reasons, we affirm Reed’s conviction.

6
 Of course, a district court’s ends-of-justice explanation for an earlier continuance “must be put
on the record by the time a district court rules on a defendant’s motion to dismiss under [the Act].”
Zedner v. United States, 547 U.S. 489, 506–07 (2006). But as already discussed, Reed never
moved to dismiss under the Act, so that timing requirement is irrelevant here.
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