Court Opinion

ID: 9546206
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-07 17:26:09.735838+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T15:16:08.297621
License: Public Domain

SINGLETON, Judge,
dissenting.
Jimmie Lee Eacker testified that he committed the armed robbery of the Time Saver Grocery. He named defendant, Jackson, as an accomplice who drove the getaway car. The jury was specifically instructed that Eacker was an accomplice,1 that it must view his testimony with distrust2 and that his testimony was insufficient for conviction unless it was corroborated.3 In effect, the jury was told that Eacker was biased or interested in the outcome of Jackson’s case as a matter of law. Despite this overwhelming evidence of “bias” emphasized by the jury instructions, Jackson sought to introduce cumulative evidence on the issue of bias by showing that Eacker was a prime suspect in an unrelated pending murder investigation. The trial court did not foreclose this issue entirely; Judge Cranston permitted Jackson to establish that Eacker had been questioned in a separate, distinct major felony matter. During final argument the prosecutor conceded that Eacker was interested in the outcome and therefore biased and that the jury should consider that other felony in determining whether Eacker truthfully identified Jackson as his accomplice. Despite *234this record and the overwhelming corroborative evidence outlined in the majority opinion, a majority of this court finds that Judge Cranston abused his discretion under A.R.E. 403 and by implication A.R.E. 611(a) by not sua sponte striking Eacker’s testimony and acquitting Jackson.4 The majority errs in overlooking the fundamental distinction between appellate court reaction to trial court restrictions on the cross-examination of admitted accomplices and the same restrictions on cross-examination of nonaccomplice police informers. Restrictions on cross-examination of accomplices to show bias are routinely affirmed on appeal, while the very same eross-examiantion to show a nonaccomplice informer’s bias, if restricted, results in reversal. Eacker was an accomplice. The authority relied upon by the majority addresses no-naccomplice informers. That authority does not justify the result reached in this case.5 I dissent.
A criminal defendant may attack the general credibility of a prosecution witness by showing that the witness has been convicted of a felony involving dishonesty or false statement. A.R.E. 609(a). He may not attack the witness’ general credibility by showing that the witness is suspected of unrelated criminal activity. A.R.E. 608(b). A criminal defendant must, however, be given a reasonable opportunity to show, through cross-examination, that a prosecution witness is not disinterested.6 While jurors are no longer instructed that witnesses are presumed to tell the truth, see Oksoktaruk v. State, 611 P.2d 521, 525-27 (Alaska 1980); Galauska v. State, 532 P.2d 1017, 1018 (Alaska 1975), disinterested witnesses tend to be believed by juries. See State v. Contreras, 674 P.2d 792, 799-802 (Alaska App.1983), petition for hearing granted (Alaska, April 5, 1984). For this reason the trial court has no discretion to absolutely prohibit a defendant from inquiring into a prosecution witness’ possible *235bias or interest in the outcome, even if the evidence of bias is a possible desire to curry favor with the prosecution because of the witness’ unrelated criminal activity. Davis v. Alaska, 415 U.S. 308, 94 S.Ct. 1105, 39 L.Ed.2d 347 (1974); Alford v. United States, 282 U.S. 687, 692, 51 S.Ct. 218, 219, 75 L.Ed. 624, 629 (1931).
Once a defendant has established a witness’ bias or interest, the trial court has substantial discretion to exclude further evidence of bias or interest under its general authority to limit the scope of proof. A.R.E. 403, 611(a). See, e.g., Davis v. Alaska, 415 U.S. at 316, 94 S.Ct. at 1110, 39 L.Ed.2d at 353; Alford v. United States, 282 U.S. at 694, 51 S.Ct. at 220, 75 L.Ed. at 629; United States v. Touchstone, 726 F.2d 1116, 1122 (6th Cir.1984); United States v. Brutzman, 731 F.2d 1449, 1452 (9th Cir.1984); United States v. De Gudino, 722 F.2d 1351, 1354 (7th Cir.1983); United States v. Haimowitz, 706 F.2d 1549, 1558-59 (11th Cir.1983), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 104 S.Ct. 974, 79 L.Ed.2d 212 (1984); United States v. Gambler, 662 F.2d 834, 838-39 (D.C.Cir.1981); United States v. Diecidue, 603 F.2d 535, 550-51 (5th Cir.1979), cert. denied, 445 U.S. 946, 100 S.Ct. 1345, 63 L.Ed.2d 781 (1980); United States v. Lustig, 555 F.2d 737, 748-49 (9th Cir.1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1045, 98 S.Ct. 889, 54 L.Ed.2d 795 (1978); Austin v. United States, 418 F.2d 456, 459 (D.C.Cir.1969).
Alford and Davis were cases in which the trial judge precluded all or nearly all inquiry into a key witness’ motive for testifying. Touchstone, 726 F.2d at 1122.
Where a trial court has limited but not totally precluded cross-examination as to motive, “the issue is whether the jury was otherwise in possession of sufficient information concerning formative events to make a ‘discriminating appraisal’ of a witness’ motives and bias.”
Id. at 1123 (citations omitted).
In determining whether a jury has sufficient information to make a “discriminating appraisal” of a witness’ motives and bias, it is necessary to understand the purposes for which the jury should use such information. The majority errs in viewing “bias” as a talisman which when uttered requires trial courts to permit extensive inquiries into otherwise unrelated criminal activity by prosecution witnesses. The majority’s failure to focus on the precise function evidence of bias performs substantially undermines its analysis of the law and the facts. Evidence of bias is offered to show that the witness has a reason for giving less than truthful testimony and that therefore the testimony given must be critically evaluated. Thus, where a witness is an admitted accomplice, subject to criminal sanction, he has a clear interest in the outcome of the criminal prosecution against the defendant and the jury must be instructed: first, that the witness’ testimony must be viewed with distrust, and second, that the defendant cannot be convicted solely on the uncorroborated testimony of the witness. These instructions serve to insure that the jury will not mistake the witness for a disinterested person but will carefully consider his or her testimony in light of the corroborating evidence recognizing the witness’ substantial motivation for dishonesty.
In the instant case Eacker was an admitted accomplice. The jury was instructed that his testimony was to be viewed with distrust and that Jackson’s conviction could not be based upon that testimony unless it was corroborated. Consequently, Davis and Alford were satisfied. The jury had sufficient evidence concerning formative events to make a discriminating appraisal of his motives. Where the defendant has been afforded a reasonable opportunity to establish a witness’ bias or interest in the outcome of a criminal prosecution, whether to permit further cross-examination regarding additional bases for an inference of bias or interest is within the discretion of the trial court. Where the witness in question is an admitted accomplice and the jury is instructed to view his testimony with distrust and only convict on the basis of the testimony if the evidence is corroborated, the constitutional threshold has been crossed; bias has been established, and *236whether to allow additional evidence is a matter within the trial court’s discretion.
Alaska cases dealing with cross-examination for bias consistently affirm restrictions on cross-examination where the reasons for the exercise of discretion are not untenable and unreasonable. See, e.g., Osborne v. State, 623 P.2d 784, 789 (Alaska 1981); Taylor v. State, 600 P.2d 5, 7-8 (Alaska 1979); Robinson v. State, 593 P.2d 621, 623-24 (Alaska 1979); Coffey v. State, 585 P.2d 514, 522-23 (Alaska 1978); Thomas v. State, 522 P.2d 528, 532-34 (Alaska 1974); Gonzales v. State, 521 P.2d 512, 514-15 (Alaska 1974).
The supreme court has reversed convictions for limitations on cross-examination to show bias only in cases where the trial court relied on an untenable reason, i.e., a belief that the evidence of bias or interest was "irrelevant.” See Evans v. State, 550 P.2d 830, 834-41 (Alaska 1976); Hutchings v. State, 518 P.2d 767 (Alaska 1974); Fields v. State, 487 P.2d 831, 845-46 (Alaska 1971); R.L.R. v. State, 487 P.2d 27, 43-44 (Alaska 1971); Doe v. State, 487 P.2d 47, 57-58 (Alaska 1971); Whitton v. State, 479 P.2d 302, 316-18 (Alaska 1970). In none of these cases was the prosecuting witness an admitted accomplice. In R.L.R., Doe, and Whitton the trial court entirely precluded cross-examination to show bias. None of these cases supports a reversal in Jackson’s case.
In this case Judge Cranston clearly recognized the relevance of the evidence of Lister’s murder to show bias on Eacker’s part. He permitted cross-examination as to whether Eacker thought that by cooperating on the “other felony matter,” he was going to get leniency or special treatment in the Time Saver case. Jackson was permitted to pursue this line of inquiry with both Eacker and Lieutenant Mahurin. Ma-hurin was apparently fully informed regarding the progress of the Lister murder investigation. Judge Cranston issued a protective order relative only to mentioning that the major felony in which Eacker was a suspect was the Lister murder. It was certainly a proper exercise of his discretion to exclude such evidence due to the danger of unfair prejudice. A.R.E. 403, 611(a).7 In this context, undue prejudice means “an undue tendency to suggest decision on an improper basis commonly, though not necessarily, an emotional one.” A.R.E. 403, Commentary at 69. Certainly there was a substantial risk in this case that a jury with knowledge of the Lister murder and Eacker’s potential involvement in that murder might acquit Jackson, not because they believed Eacker was untruthful or Jackson innocent, but because of hostility to the state’s using a murderer as a witness. This is clearly not a proper use of evidence of bias or interest.
Evidence that Eacker was the suspect in the Lister murder also raises legitimate concerns about confusion of the issues and prolonging the case. A.R.E. 403. The state’s legitimate fear that the jury would not consider the evidence solely on the issue of Eacker’s credibility, but rather would reject his testimony out of hand because they found him to be an evil person, would no doubt motivate the state to attempt to prove that Eacker did not kill Lister, or at least that there was insufficient evidence to establish that Eacker killed Lister. Thus the jury’s attention would be shifted from Jackson’s responsibility for the Time Saver burglary to Eacker’s responsibility for the death of Lister. In a very real sense the sideshow would swallow up the circus.
In determining whether a restriction on cross-examination constitutes an abuse of discretion, the test is “whether the reasons for the exercise of discretion are clearly untenable and unreasonable.” Osborne v. State, 623 P.2d 784, 789 (Alaska 1981); R.L.R. v. State, 487 P.2d 27, 44 (Alaska 1971); Lewis v. State, 469 P.2d 689, 695 *237(Alaska 1970). A trial judge must make evidentiary decisions within a short compass of time. As the Third Circuit pointed out in interpreting comparable Federal Rule of Evidence 403:
In view of the revision [made in Federal Rule 403 which is substantially identical to Alaska Rule of Evidence 403] it is manifest that the draftsmen intended that the trial judge be given a very substantial discretion in “balancing” probative value on the one hand and “unfair prejudice” on the other, and that he should not be reversed simply because an appellate court believes that it would have decided the matter otherwise because of a differing view of the highly subjective factors of (a) the probative value, or (b) the prejudice presented by the evidence.... The trial judge, not the appellate judge, is in the best position to assess the extent of the prejudice caused to a party by a piece of evidence. The appellate judge works with a cold record whereas the trial judge is there in the courtroom.
A reversal based upon appellate disagreement with the trial judge’s balancing under Rule 403 necessarily must' be founded upon highly subjective reasons, which, experience teaches us, are not always readily recognizable or definable.
United States v. Long, 574 F.2d 761, 767 (3d Cir.1978), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 985, 99 S.Ct. 577, 58 L.Ed.2d 657.
In interpreting Federal Rule of Evidence 403, the Third Circuit adopted the test that the trial judge will be upheld “unless he acts arbitrarily or irrationally.” Id. at 767, quoting United States v. Robinson, 560 F.2d 507, 515 (2d Cir.1977) (en banc). This is precisely the test the Alaska Supreme Court has always applied to restrictions on cross-examination to show bias. Osborne, 623 P.2d at 789. Judge Cranston’s careful consideration of the facts and evidence hardly constitutes an arbitrary or irrational action. The protective order simply did not amount to an unconstitutional violation of Jackson’s confrontation rights under the Sixth Amendment. I would affirm.8

. It appears that the trial court gave an instruction similar to Alaska Pattern Jury Instructions (Criminal 1.22) which provides:
I instruct you that_was, as a matter of law, an accomplice if the crime charged in this case was committed. The testimony of such witness should be viewed with distrust. This does not mean that you may arbitrarily disregard such testimony, but you should give it the weight to which you find it to be entitled after examining it with care and caution in the light of all the evidence in the case.

. Id.

. It appears that the court gave an instruction similar to form jury instruction Number 1.23 which states:
The defendant cannot be convicted on the testimony of an accomplice unless the testimony is corroborated by other evidence which tends to connect the defendant with the commission of the crime. The requirement of corroboration is based on an assumption that an accomplice might falsely accuse others of a crime in order to purchase for himself immunity from punishment. The corroboration is not sufficient if it merely shows the commission of the crime or the circumstances of the commission.
It is not necessary that the corroboration be sufficient in itself to establish every element of the offense, or that it corroborate every fact to which the accomplice testified.
Evidence corroborates when it induces a rational belief that the narrative of the accomplice is truthful; when it dispels the assumed notion that he is an inventor of facts and incidents. If it does this the credibility of the accomplice’s testimony should be evaluated in the same manner as the testimony of other witnesses.
See AS 12.45.020.

. Without Eacker’s testimony there was insufficient evidence to convict Jackson. It is possible that the state could give Eacker immunity in the murder investigation to preserve his testimony in the event of retrial or that Jackson could explore the Lister murder investigation through Lieutenant Mahurin.

. Men and women who befriend potential criminals and, in league with the police, purchase drugs and then testify against their vendors are not accomplices. Taylor v. State, 600 P.2d 5, 9 n. 16 (Alaska 1979); Evans v. State, 500 P.2d 830, 841 (Alaska 1976); Howard v. State, 496 P.2d 657, 660 (Alaska 1972). The supreme court has recognized, however, that some, but not all, informers may be highly likely to falsely accuse a defendant. In an appropriate case the jury should be instructed to consider such informer’s testimony with greater caution than that of the ordinary witness. Evans, 550 P.2d at 842; Fresneda v. State, 483 P.2d 1011, 1015 (Alaska 1971). There is a substantial distinction, however, between an informer instruction and an accomplice instruction. The jury is informed that the accomplice’s testimony must be viewed with distrust, while police informer’s testimony should be viewed with caution if, but only if, the defendant demonstrates that the witness held a bias or self-interest likely to influence him, i.e., that the informer provides evidence against the defendant: (1) for pay; (2) for immunity from punishment; or (3) for personal advantage or vindication, Evans, 550 P.2d at 843, Fresneda, 483 P.2d at 1015, and it is to qualify for the benefits contained within the informer instruction, namely, to persuade the jury that the witness in question is within the class of informers whose testimony should be viewed with caution and weighed with great care that the defendant must be given broad leeway to engage in cross-examination of police informers to show bias. Cf. Fresneda, 483 P.2d at 1016 n. 17. The distinction between accomplices, whom the jury is instructed to distrust, and informers, whom the defendant must prove to be biased before the jury is told to distrust them, explains why courts consistently affirm trial court restrictions on cumulative evidence to show accomplice bias, while reversing similar restrictions on cumulative evidence to show a nonaccomplice informer's bias.

.For purposes of analysis it is useful to distinguish between bias and interest. "Bias" includes all varieties of hostility or prejudice against the defendant personally or favor to the state personally. In contrast, “interest” means the specific inclination which is apt to be produced by the relationship between the witness and the cause at issue in the litigation, i.e., the benefits or detriments that the witness is likely to incur depending on the outcome of the criminal prosecution under consideration. See United States v. Gambler, 662 F.2d 834, 844 (D.C.Cir. 1981) (Mikva, J., dissenting). In most cases it is the accomplice’s or informer's "interest” rather than "bias" that is in issue.

. Alaska Rule of Evidence 403 provides:
Although relevant, evidence may be excluded if its probative value is outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence.

. Jackson did not move to strike Eacker’s direct testimony based upon Eacker’s invocation of his fifth amendment rights. It is therefore unnecessary for us to reach that issue unless the failure to strike constituted plain error. Alaska R.Crim.P. 47(b). Under the circumstances it was not error at all, let alone plain error. Nevertheless, since the majority raises the issue, a few additional comments are in order.
Judge Cranston certainly exercised adequate care to determine that Eacker’s claim of fifth amendment rights was well-founded. See Evans v. State, 550 P.2d 830, 846 (Alaska 1976) (the privilege against self-incrimination is in constant conflict with the accused’s right to present an effective defense; hence the trial judge should endeavor to accommodate those rights to the fullest extent possible and should explore the basic validity of the witness’ claim out of the presence of the jury).
In Davis v. Alaska, 415 U.S. 308, 94 S.Ct. 1105, 39 L.Ed.2d 347 (1974), the United States Supreme Court held that a court could not, on policy grounds, preclude a defendant from cross-examining a key prosecution witness regarding the witness’ juvenile probationary status where the cross-examination was relevant to show bias or interest. There was no other evidence in the case showing that the prosecuting witness had a bias or interest in the outcome of the case, and the sole ground for precluding cross-examination was a state policy interest in protecting the confidentiality of a juvenile offender’s records. Davis did not involve a limitation of cross-examination based upon the prosecuting witness’ invocation of his or her constitutional privilege against self-incrimination. See Thomas v. State, 522 P.2d 528, 533 (Alaska 1974). In the intervening years, federal and state courts have resolved the dilemma posed by a conflict between the witness' fifth amendment rights and the defendant’s confrontation rights by holding that, where a witness properly asserts his fifth amendment rights in response to cross-examination, the privilege should be upheld but the court may be required to strike the witness’ testimony on direct if, and only if, assertion of the privilege prevents the jury from having a fair basis for evaluating the credibility of the witness and the truth of his testimony. See, e.g., United States v. Pelusio, 725 F.2d 161, 169 (2d Cir.1983); United States v. Gullett, 713 F.2d 1203, 1208-09 (6th Cir.1983), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 104 S.Ct. 973, 79 L.Ed.2d 211 (1984); United States v. Brown, 634 F.2d 819, 824 and n. 2 (5th Cir.1981); United States v. Seifert, 648 F.2d 557, 561-62 (9th Cir.1980); Dunbar v. Harris, 612 F.2d 690, 692-94 (2d Cir.1979); United States v. Diecidue, 603 F.2d 535, 551-52 (5th Cir.1979), cert. denied, 445 U.S. 946, 100 S.Ct. 1345, 63 L.Ed.2d 781 (1980); United States v. Lipton, 467 F.2d 1161, 1166-67 (2d Cir.1972), cert. denied, 410 U.S. 927, 93 S.Ct. 1358, 35 L.Ed.2d 587 (1973); Fountain v. United *238States, 384 F.2d 624, 628 (5th Cir.1967), cert. denied, 390 U.S. 1005, 88 S.Ct. 1246, 20 L.Ed.2d 105 (1968); United States v. Cardillo, 316 F.2d 606, 611 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 375 U.S. 822, 84 S.Ct. 60, 11 L.Ed.2d 55 (1963).
The analysis in these cases is marred by the attempt to distinguish between cross-examination into direct and collateral matters without first reaching an agreement as to the meaning of the terms collateral and direct. Some of the cases do appear to use the term collateral by reference to the general rules governing impeachment by contradiction through extrinsic evidence. See Babcock v. State, 685 P.2d 721, 727 n. 1 (Alaska App.1984). Other courts appear to use the terms in a more general sense to distinguish between cross-examination relating to the details of the direct examination on the one hand which are deemed direct matters and cross-examination regarding credibility, including bias, which are deemed collateral matters. See Annot., 55 A.L.R.Fed. 742 (1981). Illustrative of the former use of the term "collateral" is United States v. Gambler, 662 F.2d 834 (D.C.Cir. 1981). Illustrative of the latter interpretation of the term “collateral” are United States v. Brutzman, 731 F.2d 1449, 1452 (9th Cir.1984) (upholding trial court limitation on cross-examination to show witness bias by evidence of civil law suit between witness and defendant and deeming issue "collateral”), and Robinson v. State, 593 P.2d 621, 624 (Alaska 1979) (upholding trial court limitation of cross-examination to show bias resulting from pending charges against a prosecution witness out of state and deeming matter “collateral”).
Evidence regarding Lister’s murder would certainly be collateral in the second sense since Eacker did not testify about it on direct examination and it is certainly possible for Eacker to have both killed Lister and participated in a robbery with Jackson. Since Jackson sought to use the evidence to show 'bias,” it is arguable that the evidence is not collateral in the first sense of the term since it would be independently provable at trial. Babcock, 685 P.2d at 727 n. 1.
Focusing on whether the evidence was "collateral" or "direct" obscures rather than advances analysis, in my view, however, since the fact that impeachment goes to a collateral fact should be merely one circumstance that the trial court should consider in exercising its discretion under Evidence Rule 403. This is, in effect, what all the courts considering the matter have done. Where a witness would appear to the jury as totally disinterested in the outcome but for a specific inquiry into a matter suggesting "bias” or "interest," the inquiry is not collateral and if precluded by a proper invocation of the witness' fifth amendment rights, then the witness’ testimony must be stricken. Where, however, there is other evidence in the record from which the jury could infer bias or interest and, a fortiori, where the jury is instructed that the witness is an accomplice and therefore biased, as a matter of law then the inquiry is "collateral” and invocation of the privilege does not require striking the testimony. The trial court should evaluate it in light of Evidence Rules 403 and 611(a). In reaching an appropriate balance the trial court should consider the evidence already in the record suggesting the witness’ bias or interest and the extent to which the prosecution has successfully deprived that evidence of its probative force. Ultimately the question must be: Is there a substantial risk that the jury will uncritically accept false accusations by the witness against the defendant if additional evidence of bias is not put before the jury. In this case the trial court applied the proper procedures and, in the exercise of its discretion, accepted Eacker’s invocation of the fifth amendment and did not, sua sponte, strike Eacker’s testimony.
Given the record, the trial court’s conclusions were not an abuse of discretion and we should affirm the judgment. If the trial court’s ruling was error, it was harmless beyond reasonable doubt for the reasons set out in Braham v. State, 571 P.2d 631, 645-48 (Alaska 1977).