Court Opinion

ID: 9423326
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-02 23:07:09.2392+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:18:51.672367
License: Public Domain

Mr. Chief Justice Warren,
with whom Mr. Justice Fortas concurs,
dissenting in Nos. 68 and 69, and concurring in No. 70.
It seems to me that the only argument made by the Court which might support its disposition of these cases is the amorphous one that this Court should proceed hesitantly in dealing with courtroom procedures which are alleged to violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It attempts to bolster its decision with arguments about the conceded validity of the purpose of recidivist statutes and by pointing to occa*570sions when evidence of prior crimes is traditionally admitted to serve a specific purpose related to finding guilt or innocence. For the reasons which I shall discuss, I do not find in these two arguments support for the decision. Nor am I persuaded by its cautious attitude toward this procedure. I recognize that the criteria for decision in procedural due process cases are necessarily drawn from the traditional jurisprudential attitudes of our legal system rather than from a relatively specific constitutional command. However, this Court has long recognized the central importance of courtroom procedures in maintaining our constitutional liberties. As Mr. Justice Frankfurter often reminded us, the history of individual liberty is largely coincident with the history of observance of procedural safeguards, Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath, 341 U. S. 123, concurring opinion of Frankfurter, J., at 164.
It seems to me that the use of prior-convictions evidence in these cases is fundamentally at odds with traditional notions of due process, not because this procedure is not the nicest resolution of conflicting but legitimate interests of the State and the accused, but because it needlessly prejudices the accused without advancing any legitimate interest of the State. If I am wrong in thinking that the introduction of prior-convictions evidence serves no valid purpose I am not alone, for the Court never states what interest of the State is advanced by this procedure. And this failure, in my view, undermines the logic of the Court’s opinion.
There is much said about the valid purpose of enhanced punishment for repeating offenders, with which I agree, and about the variety of occasions in criminal trials in which prior-crimes evidence is admitted as having some relevance to the question of guilt or innocence. But I cannot find support for this procedure in either the purposes of recidivist statutes or by analogy to the *571traditional occasions where prior-crimes evidence is admitted. And the Court never faces up to the problem of trying to justify this recidivist procedure on the ground that the State would not violate due process if it used prior convictions simply as evidence of guilt because it showed criminal propensity.
Recidivist statutes have never been thought to allow the State to show probability of guilt because of prior convictions. Their justification is only that a defendant’s prior crimes should lead to enhanced punishment for any subsequent offenses. Recidivist statutes embody four traditional rationales for imposing penal sanctions.1 A man’s prior crimes are thought to aggravate his guilt for subsequent crimes, and thus greater than usual retribution is warranted. Similarly, the policies of insulating society from persons whose past conduct indicates their propensity to criminal behavior, of providing deterrence from future crime, and of rehabilitating criminals are all theoretically served by enhanced punishment according to recidivist statutes.' None of these four traditional justifications for recidivist statutes is related in any way to the burden of proof to which the State is put to prove that a crime has currently been committed by the alleged recidivist. The fact of prior convictions is not intended by recidivist statutes to make it any easier for the State to prove the commission of a subsequent crime. The State does not argue in these cases that its statutes are, or constitutionally could be, intended to allow the prosecutor to introduce prior convictions to show the accused’s criminal disposition. But the Court’s opinion seems to accept, without discussion, that this use of prior-crimes evidence would be consistent with due process.
The amended Texas procedure is the nearest demonstration that none of the interests served by recidivist *572statutes is advanced by presentation of prior-crimes evidence before the defendant has been found guilty. Under current statutory law,2 effective since January 1, 1966, and therefore not involved in these cases, in felony cases the jury first decides the question of guilt or innocence of the crime currently charged, and only after the defendant is found guilty of the current crime is evidence presented on the entirely separate question of whether the defendant has been previously convicted of a crime which places him within the scope of a recidivist statute requiring enhanced punishment. Under the old Texas procedure involved in these cases, just as under the new procedure, the fact of prior convictions is relevant only to the question of enhanced punishment. Recidivist statutes have nothing whatever to do with the method by which the State shows that an accused has committed a crime.
Whether or not a State has recidivist statutes on its books, it is well established that evidence of prior convictions may not be used by the State to show that the accused has a criminal disposition and that the probability that he committed the crime currently charged is increased.3 While this Court has never held *573that the use of prior convictions to show nothing more than a disposition to commit crime would violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, our decisions exercising supervisory power over criminal trials in federal courts,4 as well as decisions by courts of *574appeals5 and of state courts,6 suggest that evidence of prior crimes introduced for no purpose other than to show criminal disposition would violate the Due Process Clause. *575Evidence of prior convictions has been forbidden because it jeopardizes the presumption of innocence of the crime currently charged. A jury might punish an accused for being guilty of a previous offense, or feel that incarceration is justified because the accused is a “bad man,” without regard to his guilt of the crime currently charged. Of course it flouts human nature to suppose that a jury would not consider a defendant’s previous trouble with the law in deciding whether he has committed the crime currently charged against him. As Mr. Justice Jackson put it in a famous phrase, “[t]he naive assumption that prejudicial effects can be overcome by instructions to the jury ... all practicing lawyers know to be unmitigated fiction.” Krulewitch v. United States, 336 U. S. 440, 453 (concurring opinion) (1949). United States v. Banmiller, 310 F. 2d 720, 725 (C. A. 3d Cir. 1962). Mr. Justice Jackson’s assessment has received support from the most ambitious empirical study of jury behavior that has been attempted, see Kalven & Zeisel, The American Jury 127-130, 177-180.
Recognition of the prejudicial effect of prior-convictions evidence has traditionally been related to the requirement of our criminal law that the State prove beyond a reasonable doubt the commission of a specific criminal act. It is surely engrained in our jurisprudence that an accused’s reputation or criminal disposition is no basis for penal sanctions. Because of the possibility that the generality of the jury’s verdict might mask a finding of guilt based on an accused’s past crimes or unsavory reputation, state and federal courts have consistently refused to admit evidence of past crimes except in circumstances where it tends to prove something other than general criminal disposition.
As I have stated, I do not understand the opinion to assert that this Court would find consistent with due process the admission of prior-crimes evidence for no *576purpose other than what probative value it has bearing on an accused’s disposition to commit a crime currently charged. It ignores this issue, and points out that evidence of prior crimes in other contexts has not been thought so prejudicial that it cannot be admitted to serve a particular valid purpose. Thus, past crimes may be used to show a common design between a past crime and one currently charged, to show the distinctive handiwork of the defendant, or to show that the act presently at issue was probably not unintentional.7 We need not disagree with the admission of evidence of prior convictions in cases such as these, because past convictions are directly relevant to the question of guilt or innocence of the crime currently charged. It is admitted because its probative value, going to elements of the current charges, is so strong that it outweighs the prejudice inherent in evidence of prior crimes. Also, as the Court further points out, evidence of prior crimes has traditionally been admitted to either impeach the defendant’s credibility when he testifies in his own behalf, or to counteract evidence introduced by the defendant as to his good character. In each of these situations, the possibility of prejudice resulting from the evidence of prior convictions is thought to be outweighed by the legitimate purposes served by the evidence. When a defendant attempts to convince the jury of his innocence by showing it that he is a person of such character that it is unlikely that he committed the crime charged, the State has a legitimate interest in counteracting this evidence of good character by showing that the accused has been previously convicted. The defendant has initiated the inquiry into his reputation, and the State should be allowed to respond to this general character evidence as best it can.
*577Similarly, when prior convictions are introduced to impeach the credibility of a defendant who testifies, a specific purpose is thought to be served. The theory is that the State should be permitted to show that the defendant-witness’ credibility is qualified by his past record of delinquent behavior. In other words, the defendant is put to the same credibility test as any other witness. A defendant has some control over the State’s opportunity to introduce this evidence in that he may decide whether or not to take the stand. Moreover, the jury hears of the prior convictions following a defendant’s testimony, and it may be thought' that this trial context combined with the usual limiting instruction results in the jury’s actually behaving in accordance with the theory of limiting instructions: that is, that the prior convictions are only taken into account in assessing the defendant’s credibility.
Although the theory justifying admission of evidence of prior convictions to impeach a defendant’s credibility has been criticized,8 all that is necessary for purposes of deciding this case is to accept its theoretical justification and to note the basic difference between it and the Texas recidivist procedure. In the case of impeachment, as in all the examples cited by the Court, the prior convictions are considered probative for a limited purpose which is relevant to the jury’s finding of guilt or innocence. This purpose is, of course, completely different from the purpose for which prior convictions are admitted in recidivist cases, where there is no connection between the evidence and guilt or innocence.
In all the situations pointed out by the Court, the admission of prior-crimes evidence rests on a conclusion that the probative value of the evidence outweighs the *578conceded possibility of prejudice. There is no middle position between the alternatives of admission or exclusion because, if the evidence is to serve the purpose for which it is considered probative, it must be admitted before the jury decides whether the defendant is guilty or innocent. The problem thus becomes the delicate one of balancing probative value against the possibility of prejudice, and the result for most state and federal courts (including this Court in the exercise of its supervisory power over proceedings in federal courts) has been that the trial judge is given discretion to draw the balance in the context of the trial. In view of this uniform tradition, it is apparent that prior-convictions evidence introduced for certain specific purposes relating to the determination of guilt or innocence, other than to show a general criminal disposition, would not violate the Due Process Clause.
From these situations where the probative value of prior convictions evidence is thought to outweigh its prejudicial impact, the Court draws the legitimate conclusion that prior-convictions evidence is not so inherently prejudicial that its admission is invariably prohibited. It combines this premise with the concededly valid purpose of recidivist statutes to produce the following logic: since prior-crimes evidence may be admitted at the guilt phase of a trial where the admission serves a valid purpose and since the purpose of recidivist statutes is valid, prior crimes may be proven in the course of the guilt phase of a trial in order that the jury may also assess whether a defendant, if found guilty, should be sentenced to an enhanced punishment under recidivist statutes. I believe this syllogism is plausible only on the surface, because the Court’s premises do not combine to justify its far-reaching result. I believe the Court has fallen into the logical fallacy sometimes known as the fallacy of the undistributed middle, because it has failed to examine the *579supposedly shared principle between admission of prior crimes related to guilt and admission in connection with recidivist statutes.9 That the admission in both situations may serve a valid purpose does not demonstrate that the former practice justifies the latter any more than the fact that men and dogs are animals means that men and dogs are the same in all respects.
Unlike the purpose for the admission of prior-convictions evidence in all the examples cited by the Court, the admission in connection with enhancing punishment for repeating offenders has nothing whatever to do with the question of guilt or innocence of the crime currently charged. Because of the complete irrelevance of prior convictions to the question of guilt or innocence, the recidivist situation is not one where the trial courts are called upon to balance the probative value of prior convictions against their prejudicial impact. The purpose of admitting prior-convictions evidence should be served and prejudice completely avoided by the simple expedient of a procedure which reflects the exclusive relevance of recidivist statutes to the issue of proper punishment. Only after a defendant has been found guilty does the question of whether he fits the recidivist category become relevant to the sentence, and any issue of fact as to his prior convictions should then be decided by the jury.
The availability of this procedural alternative, through which the interests of the State as reflected in its recidivist statutes can be fully effectuated while prejudice to the defendant is avoided, means that the only interest the State may offset against the possibility of prejudice to justify introducing evidence of prior crimes in these cases is the inconvenience which would result from postponing a determination that the defendant falls within a recidivist category until after the jury has found him guilty of the crime currently charged. However, for the *580purpose of deciding these cases, it is not necessary to consider whether the State's convenience in not conducting a two-stage trial justifies the prejudice which ensues when prior convictions are presented to a jury before it has decided whether the defendant is guilty of the crime charged. For the fact is that Texas has not even this matter of convenience in the method used to find facts regarding prior convictions to balance against the prejudice which ensues from the admission of this prior-convictions evidence. In No. 68, Spencer v. Texas, the defendant offered to stipulate to the truth of that portion of the indictment which alleged that he had been previously convicted of a crime which put him within the scope of a recidivist statute. The prosecutor refused to accept this stipulation, and the Texas courts allowed proof of the prior conviction to be presented to the jury on the ground that, under the recidivist statute dealing with capital crimes, the jury has a choice between the death penalty and life imprisonment. The courts reasoned that the existence of the prior conviction was information which the jury would find relevant in determining sentence. Of course, the offered stipulation dispensed completely with the need for the State to have the fact of prior crimes found by the jury to determine whether a recidivist statute applied to the defendant. Instead, the State tries to justify the refusal to accept the stipulation on the ground that it was relevant to the jury’s discretion in ordering the death penalty. But this rationale would justify letting the jury hear, before determining guilt or innocence, all kinds of evidence which might be relevant to sentencing but which has traditionally been considered extremely prejudicial if admitted during the guilt phase of a trial. Thus, this argument would justify admitting probation reports, all kinds of hearsay evidence about the defendant’s past, medical and psychiatric reports, and virtually anything else which might seem relevant to the *581broad discretion exercised in sentencing. The Court evidently believes that it is consistent with due process for a State to introduce evidence of a kind traditionally considered prejudicial which is relevant only to sentencing discretion in a single-stage trial before a finding of guilt. This seems to me the only possible ground for affirming No. 68, since it is obvious that the offer of stipulation removes the need for a finding of fact as to the prior conviction in connection with the recidivist statute.
I would reverse No. 68 and remand for a new trial. For me, the State’s refusal to accept the stipulation removes any vestige of legitimate interest it might have to balance against the prejudice to the accused. To nevertheless admit the evidence seems to me entirely inconsistent with the way evidence of prior convictions is traditionally handled in our legal system.
What I have said about the State’s lack of interest in introducing this evidence when the defendant tries to stipulate to the prior conviction seems to me to apply equally to defendants under the Texas procedure who were not offered the opportunity of stipuláting to their prior convictions. Because of the unclear state of the law in Texas as to the right to have such a stipulation accepted, the failure of a defendant to volunteer a stipulation cannot be interpreted as indicative of what would have happened if the State made stipulation a right. The Texas Court, of Criminal Appeals approved a stipulation procedure for felony cases in Pitcock v. State, 367 S. W. 2d 864 (1963), on the convincing ground that, because the recidivist statutes in felony cases provided for automatic sentencing, a stipulation resolved all issues for which the prior convictions were relevant. As the court put it: “[t]o allow its introduction, after such stipulation, resolves no issue and may result in prejudice to the accused.” 367 S. W. 2d, at 865. However, two later cases held that refusal by the prosecutor to accept a *582stipulation, and the introduction of evidence to the jury of prior convictions over an offer of stipulation, was not reversible error. See Sims v. State, 388 S. W. 2d 714 (1965); Ross v. State, 401 S. W. 2d 844 (1966). Thus, the Texas courts reduced the stipulation procedure to an admonition to the prosecutor, and allowed refusal of the stipulation even though in felony cases the only conceivable reason the prosecutor could have for refusing was to have the benefit of the prejudicial impact of presenting prior convictions to the jury.
Because the stipulation procedure had become merely a matter of prosecutorial discretion, the petitioners in Nos. 69 and 70 cannot be said to have waived any right to stipulate their prior convictions, and it seems to me that, in the absence of a stipulation right, they must be regarded in the same light as the petitioner in No. 68, whose offer of stipulation was refused. If a defendant’s offer of stipulation removes any legitimate interest the State might otherwise have in presenting prior convictions to the jury for recidivist purposes, and makes the introduction inconsistent with due process, then it seems to me that the protection of the Due Process Clause should not be limited according to whether a defendant actually explored the chance that a prosecutor might accept an offer of stipulation. Since a stipulation procedure would completely effectuate the minimal state interest in having facts found under its recidivist statutes without the inconvenience of a two-part trial, while at the same time offering a defendant the chance to prevent the possibility of prejudice, it seems to me that due process requires this safeguard.
If the admission of prior-convictions evidence solely for the purpose of enhancing punishment in the event a defendant is found guilty violates due process when the defendant is not given the right of conceding the prior-convictions evidence to prevent its admission, peti-*583timers’ convictions in Nos. 68 and 69 must be reversed. No. 70, however, raises the question of whether a decision that the old Texas procedure violates due process should be retroactively applied to convictions which are final but which are collaterally attacked in the federal courts by habeas corpus. Considerations of fundamental fairness have led to the opening of final judgments in criminal cases when it has appeared that a conviction was achieved in violation of basic constitutional standards. Thus, in the decisions which have been applied retroactively, Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U. S. 335 (1963); Douglas v. California, 372 U. S. 353 (1963); Griffin v. Illinois, 351 U. S. 12 (1956); and Jackson v. Denno, 378 U. S. 368 (1964), the Court concluded that the constitutional error perceived undermined “the very integrity of the fact-finding process,” Linkletter v. Walker, 381 U. S. 618, 639 (1965) and the fundamental fairness of the resulting conviction. On the other hand, our decisions in Linkletter and Tehan v. Shott, 382 U. S. 406 (1966), demonstrate that practices found to violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment need not necessarily be applied to final convictions. The factors adverted to in those cases for determining whether a constitutional decision should be applied to final cases were the State’s reliance on the conduct newly found unconstitutional, whether the purpose of the new rule would be served by fully retroactive effect, and the effect of retroactivity on the administration of justice.
In my view, these factors justify limiting the application of the decision I propose to nonfinal convictions. Texas came to rely on the constitutionality of the procedure involved in these cases by this Court’s consistent failure to review the practice until the grant of certiorari in these cases. Moreover, there can be no doubt but that application of this rule to final convictions would seriously disrupt the administration of crim*584inal law in Texas as well as the other States which have employed a similar procedure in recidivist eases. Cf. Johnson v. New Jersey, 384 U. S. 719 (1966). Thus, the question becomes whether the procedure which I would hold unconstitutional infected every proceeding of which it was a part with the clear danger of convicting the innocent. See Tehan v. Shott, supra. It seems to me that the prejudicial impact of the Texas procedure is not so great as to justify application to final cases.
In all the cases where the constitutional doctrine has been retroactively applied, the judgment was made that the procedure found erroneous went to the heart of the fairness of the conviction and raised the danger of convicting the innocent. Thus, in Gideon and Douglas, the Court concluded that failure of an indigent defendant to be represented by counsel at trial and on appeal negated the possibility of a fair adversary proceeding. Similarly, the rule of Griffin v. Illinois was retroactively applied because forcing an indigent to forgo a meaningful appeal because he could not pay for a transcript meant that the availability of a basic part of the State’s system for determining guilt or innocence was conditioned on financial resources. This procedure was an obvious and funda-, mental denial of fairness in the process leading to conviction. In the final area where new rulings have been retroactively applied, Jackson v. Denno, the prejudice to the defendant was that he was not assured of a fair procedure in determining the voluntariness of his confession, and, moreover, that a jury might take into account a confession which it believed to be coerced in determining the defendant’s guilt. Obviously, the prejudice which results from the jury’s learning of a confession which is obtained unconstitutionally goes directly to the heart of the finding of guilt; and because one reason the Constitution has been held to outlaw involuntary confessions is their unreliability, Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U. S. 278 (1936) (for *585other reasons see, e. g., Rogers v. Richmond, 365 U. S. 534 (1961); Culombe v. Connecticut, 367 U. S. 568 (1961)), the procedure held unconstitutional in Jackson involved a danger of convicting the innocent.
In contrast to the unconstitutional procedures involved in the cases discussed above, the admission of prior-convictions evidence in connection with a recidivist statute does not seem to me to justify reversal of final convictions. The fact that prior-convictions evidence has been traditionally admitted when related to guilt or innocence suggests that its prejudice has not been thought so great as to undermine “the very integrity of the fact-finding process” and to involve a “clear danger of convicting the innocent.” See Linkletter v. Walker, 381 U. S., at 639; Tehan v. Shott, 382 U. S., at 416. Consequently, I would not apply a decision in line with this dissent to final convictions, such as No. 70, a habeas corpus proceeding.
The decision I propose is consistent with a large body of judicial thought. Two United States Courts of Appeals have adopted the view that recidivist procedures which authorize admission of prior-convictions evidence before the jury determines that the defendant is guilty violate due process. In Lane v. Warden, 320 F. 2d 179 (C. A. 4th Cir. 1963), the court reasoned that “it is patent that jurors would be likely to find a man guilty of a narcotics violation more readily if aware that he has had prior illegal association with narcotics. . . . Such a prejudice would clearly violate the standards of impartiality required for a fair trial.” 320 F. 2d, at 185. In the same vein, the Third Circuit, in United States v. Banmiller, 310 F. 2d 720 (1962), reasoned that a procedure like the one involved in the three cases at bar would cause the jury to have in mind the defendant’s previous convictions in determining his guilt of the crime currently charged. Both these courts, in fact, went farther than I would, in that they applied their decisions to final *586convictions. In England, the prejudice which results from proof of prior crimes before a finding of guilt has been recognized for more than a century, and the rule has been that a finding as to prior crimes is made in a separate hearing after the finding of guilt.10
The majority of States have adopted procedures which cure the prejudice inherent in the procedure in the cases at bar. In all, some 31 States have recidivist procedures which postpone the introduction of prior convictions until after the jury has found the defendant guilty of the crime currently charged.11 And at least three others *587have substantially mitigated the prejudice of the single-stage recidivist procedure by affording the defendant the right to stipulate to his prior crimes to prevent their introduction at the trial.12 Thus, only 16 States still maintain the needlessly prejudicial procedure exemplified in these three cases. The decision I propose would require only a small number of States to make a relatively minor adjustment in their criminal procedure to avoid the manifest unfairness and prejudice which have already been eliminated in England and in 34 of the United States.
I would reverse the convictions in Nos. 68 and 69 and remand for a new trial. In No. 70, I would affirm this final conviction.

 See generally Note, Recidivist Procedures, 40 N. Y. U. L. Rev. 332 (1965).

 Texas Code Crim. Proc. Art. 36.01, effective January 1, 1966. The new two-stage procedure does not apply in capital cases, the reason for the distinction apparently being because in capital cases the jury has a choice of punishment under the applicable recidivist statute. The validity of this distinction will be discussed below.

 Professor McCormick states:
“The rule is that the prosecution may not introduce evidence of other criminal acts of the accused unless the evidence is substantially relevant for some other purpose than to show a probability that he committed the crime on trial because he is a man of criminal character.” McCormick, Evidence § 157 (1954 ed.).
Dean Wigmore agrees with this statement of the general rule of exclusion, 1 Wigmore, Evidence §§ 193-194 (3d ed. 1940). As Wig-more points out, evidence of prior crimes is objectionable, not because it is not somewhat probative, but because the jury is likely to *573give it more weight than it deserves and might decide that the defendant deserves to be punished because of the past crime without regard to whether he is guilty of the crime currently charged.

 See, e. g., Marshall v. United States, 360 U. S. 310 (1959); Michelson v. United States, 335 U. S. 469 (1948); Boyd v. United States, 142 U. S. 450 (1892).
In Michelson, the Court stated:
“Courts that follow the common-law tradition almost unanimously have come to disallow resort by the prosecution to any kind of evidence of a defendant’s evil character to establish a probability of his guilt. Not that the law invests the defendant with a presumption of good character, Greer v. United States, 245 U. S. 559, but it simply closes the whole matter of character, disposition and reputation on the prosecution’s case-in-chief. The state may not show defendant’s prior trouble with the law, specific criminal acts, or ill name among his neighbors, even though such facts might logically be persuasive that he is by propensity a probable perpetrator of the crime. The inquiry is not rejected because character is irrelevant; on the contrary, it is said to weigh too much with the jury and to so overpersuade them as to prejudge one with a bad general record and deny him a fair opportunity to defend against a particular charge. The overriding policy of excluding such evidence, despite its admitted probative value, is the practical experience that its disallowance tends to prevent confusion of issues, unfair surprise and undue prejudice.” 335 U. S., at 475-476.
In Marshall, the Court reversed a conviction where it was shown that newspaper accounts of the defendant’s prior convictions had been seen by a substantial number of jurors. The Court stated:
“. . . We have here the exposure of jurors to information of a character which the trial judge ruled was so prejudicial it could not be directly offered as evidence. The prejudice to the defendant is almost certain to be as great when that evidence reaches the jury through news accounts as when it is a part of the prosecution’s evidence.” 360 U. S., at 312-313.
In Boyd, the defendants were charged with murder following an attempt to rob, and the prosecution introduced evidence that the defendants had committed other robberies before the one involved *574in the crime charged. The Court, in an opinion by the first Mr. Justice Harlan, held the evidence of other crimes inadmissible:
“. . . Those robberies may have been committed by the defendants in March, and yet they may have been innocent of the murder of Dansby in April. Proof of them only tended to prejudice the defendants with the jurors, to draw their minds away from the real issue, and to produce the impression that they were wretches whose lives were of no value to the community, and who were not entitled to the full benefit of the rules prescribed by law for the trial of human beings charged with crime involving the punishment of death.” 142 U. S., at 458.

 See, e. g., Lovely v. United States, 169 F. 2d 386, 389 (C. A. 4th Cir. 1948):
“The rule which thus forbids the introduction of evidence of other offenses having no reasonable tendency to prove the crime charged, except in so far as they may establish a criminal tendency on the part of the accused, is not a mere technical rule of law. It arises out of the fundamental demand for justice and fairness which lies at the basis of our jurisprudence. If such evidence were allowed, not only would the time of courts be wasted in the trial of collateral issues, but persons accused of crime would be greatly prejudiced before juries and would be otherwise embarrassed in presenting their defenses on the issues really on trial.”
Railton v. United States, 127 F. 2d 691, 693 (C. A. 5th Cir. 1942):
. . It is logical to conclude, and very apt to be concluded, that because a man was dishonest once he will steal again. It is certainly ‘more probable’ that a crooked official did steal than if ho were an upright one. Yet our law forbids these very premises. It cannot be shown that the accused has committed other similar crimes to show that it is probable he committed the one charged.”
Cf. also Tedesco v. United States, 118 F. 2d 737 (C. A. 9th Cir. 1941); Swann v. United States, 195 F. 2d 689 (C. A. 4th Cir. 1952); United States v. Jacangelo, 281 F. 2d 574 (C. A. 3d Cir. 1960).

 Texas recognizes this general rule, Seay v. State, 395 S. W. 2d 40. Other typical decisions are People v. Molineux, 168 N. Y. 264, 61 N. E. 286 (1901); State v. Scott, 111 Utah 9, 175 P. 2d 1016 (1947). See also State v. Myrick, 181 Kan. 1056, 317 P. 2d 485 (1957); Scarbrough v. State, 204 Miss. 487, 37 So. 2d 748 (1948).

 See generally exceptions set out in McCormick, Evidence § 157.

 See, e. g., Note, Other Crimes Evidence at Trial: of Balancing and Other Matters, 70 Yale L. J. 763 (1961).

 See Stebbing, A Modern Introduction to Logic 88 (6th ed. 1948).

 Coinage Offences Act, 1861, 24 & 25 Vict., c. 99; Act of 6 & 7 Will. 4, c. 111; Reg. v. Shuttleworth, 3 Car. & K. 375.

 The States which have adopted a procedure either by legislation or judicial decision which separates the determination of prior convictions from the determination of guilt of the crime currently charged are: Alaska, Alaska Stat. § 12.55.060 (1962); Arkansas, Miller v. State, 239 Ark. 836, 394 S. W. 2d 601 (1965); Colorado, Heinze v. People, 127 Colo. 54, 253 P. 2d 596 (1953); Connecticut, State v. Ferrone, 96 Conn. 160, 113 A. 452 (1921); Delaware, Del. Code Ann. Tit. 11, § 3912 (b) (Supp. 1964); Florida, Fla. Stat. Ann. §775.11 (1965), Shargaa v. State, 102 So. 2d 814 (1958); Idaho, State v. Johnson, 86 Idaho 51, 383 P. 2d 326 (1963); Illinois, Ill. Rev. Stat. c. 38, §§603.1-603.9 (1963), Ill. Rev. Stat. c. 38, § 22-43 (1965); Kansas, Kan. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 21-107a (1949); Louisiana, La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 15:529.1 D (Supp. 1962); Maryland, Md. Rule of Proc. 713; Michigan, Mich. Stat. Ann. §28.1085 (1954); Minnesota, Minn. Stat. Ann. §609.16; Missouri, Mo. Rev. Stat. § 556.280 (1959); Nebraska, Neb. Rev. Stat. § 29-2221 (1964); New York, N. Y. Pen. Law § 1943; New Mexico, Johnson v. Cox, 72 N. M. 55, 380 P. 2d 199 (1963); North Dakota, N. D. Cent. Code § 12-06-23 (1960); Ohio, Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2961.13 (1954); Oklahoma, Okla. Stat. Ann. Tit. 22, § 860 (Supp. 1964), Harris v. State, 369 P. 2d 187 (1962); Oregon, Ore. Rev. Stat. § 168.065 (1961); Pennsylvania, Pa. Stat. Ann. Tit. 18, §5108 (1963); South Dakota, S. D. Code § 13.0611 (3) (1939); Tennessee, Tenn. Code Ann. §40-2801 (1955), Harrison v. State, — Tenn. —, 394 S. W. 2d 713 (1965); Texas, Texas Code Crim. Proc. Art. *58736.01 (1966); Utah, Utah Code Ann. §76-1-19 (1953), State v. Stewart, 110 Utah 203, 171 P. 2d 383 (1946); Virginia, Va. Code Ann. §53-296 (1958); Washington, State v. Kirkpatrick, 181 Wash. 313, 43 P. 2d 44 (1935); West Virginia, W. Va. Code Ann. § 6131 (1961). In addition to these 29 States, two States take prior convictions into account in the determination of when a convict is eligible for parole, and entrust the fact-finding determination to parole boards: Mississippi, Miss. Code Ann. §4004-03 (Supp. 1964), as amended, Miss. Laws 1964, c. 366; New Jersey, N. J. Stat. Ann. §30:4-123.12 (1964), N. J. Rev. Stat. §2A:85-13 (Supp. 1966). Thus, 31 States in all have adopted wholly nonprejudicial procedures in connection with their recidivist statutes.

 The three States which have adopted a stipulation procedure are: Arizona, Ariz. Rule Crim. Proc. 180, Ariz. Code Ann. § 44-1004 (1939), Montgomery v. Eyman, 96 Ariz. 55, 391 P. 2d 915 (1964); California, Cal. Penal Code § 1025, People v. Hobbs, 37 Cal. App. 2d 8, 98 P. 2d 775 (1940); and Wisconsin, State v. Meyer, 258 Wis. 326, 46 N. W. 2d 341 (1951).