Court Opinion

ID: 9534600
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-07 04:41:18.78354+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T13:31:58.368387
License: Public Domain

BAKES, Justice
pro tem. (following Retirement on Feb. 1, 1993), concurring in part and dissenting in part:
I
I concur with Part 1 of the Court’s opinion in which it upholds this Court’s determination in Thompson v. Engelking, 96 Idaho 793, 537 P.2d 635 (1975), that Article 9, § 1, of the Idaho Constitution, which provides that “... it shall be the duty of the legislature of Idaho, to establish and maintain a general, uniform and thorough system of public, free common schools,” does not guarantee either that “all services and facilities are equal throughout the state,” or that “equal amounts are expended per pupil.” The Court in Thompson clearly stated:
Neither equal protection, nor Art. 9, Sec. 1, of the Idaho Constitution, require that the public schools be financed so that equal amounts are expended per pupil, subject only to such variables as geographic or demographic location.
In conclusion, we reject the arguments raised by respondents. We hold that the trial court erroneously interpreted the mandate of Art. 9, Sec. 1 of the Idaho Constitution. The record does not demonstrate a failure by the Legislature to comply with its mandate to establish a *587system of basic, thorough and uniform education; nor, does that record demonstrate an inadequacy of funding to maintain that system of education. Therefore, the decision of the trial court is reversed.
96 Idaho at 811, 537 P.2d at 653 (emphasis added). The majority opinion correctly holds that, “We decline the appellants’ invitation to extend the reach of Thompson because we continue to believe the uniformity requirement in the education clause requires only uniformity in curriculum, not uniformity in funding.”3 123 Idaho at 579-80, 850 P.2d at 730-31. Accordingly, the Court is unquestionably correct when it concludes that the Thompson case correctly “disposes of the appellants’ claims based upon the ‘uniformity’ language of Art. 9, § 1,” although the Thompson opinion did not limit its ruling to only the uniformity language in Article 9, § 1.
II
I also concur with that portion of Part 2 of the majority opinion which holds that the Thompson opinion is res judicata on the question of whether the statutory scheme for funding the common schools violates the equal protection clause of either the state or federal Constitution. The majority opinion correctly notes that the argument of the appellants in this case “fails to take into account the fact that where an order of the district court is correct, but based upon an erroneous theory, this Court will affirm upon the correct theory,” citing Andre v. Morrow, 106 Idaho 455, 680 P.2d 1355 (1984). 123 Idaho at 580, 850 P.2d at 731. The majority opinion then points out that had there been another theory upon which the district court’s decision could have been affirmed, such as the equal protection clause theory, the Court in the Thompson case would have applied the “right result-wrong theory” rule and affirmed the district court, albeit on the correct theory. However, the Court in Thompson reversed the district court, and therefore the majority is correct that the Thompson case authoritatively decided the equal protection issue, both based upon the “right result-wrong theory” rule, and upon the merits of the rational basis test analysis of the Thompson Court as recognized in Part 2(b) of the majority opinion.4
Ill
However, I dissent from Part 3 of the Court’s opinion in which the majority concludes that, “Thompson Does Not Hold Whether The ‘Thoroughness’ Requirement of the Education Clause Was Violated in That Case and Thus Does Not Foreclose The Plaintiffs’ Suit.” At 583, 850 P.2d at 734. The majority states that, “To the extent that isolated phrases can be taken out of the Thompson opinion which make it *588appear that we there addressed the thoroughness question, those phrases are taken out of context and are not binding.” At 583, 850 P.2d at 734. That statement misses both the express and implied holding of the Thompson case.
First, the “right result-wrong theory” rule, relied on by the Court, at 583, 850 P.2d at 731 to support its analysis that the Thompson Court did decide the equal protection clause issue, has equal application to the so-called “thoroughness” requirement of Article 9, § 1. The district court in Thompson had held that the Idaho statutory scheme violated Article 9, § 1, and granted relief to the plaintiffs. The Court in Thompson reversed the district court and held that the statutory scheme for financing education did not violate Article 9, § 1, “with its mandate to establish a system of basic, thorough and uniform education.” 96 Idaho at 811, 537 P.2d at 653. As the majority opinion correctly points out, 123 Idaho at 579-580, 850 P.2d at 730-31 by the Thompson Court’s reversal of the district court, it of necessity had to rule not only upon the uniformity grounds, but any other “legal theory” which would have supported the trial court’s ruling. The Court’s opinion states that, “[Ejven though we disagreed with Judge Durtschi’s holding that the school funding scheme violated the uniformity requirement of the education clause, the Court could have still affirmed his order if we thought the scheme violated equal protection.” At 580, 850 P.2d at 731. The majority opinion then concludes that therefore the Thompson Court “needed to address the equal protection issue in order to fully decide the appeal and the equal protection holding in Thompson has full precedential effect.” At 580, 850 P.2d at 731.
By the same parity of reasoning, if the statutory scheme in Thompson had violated the “thoroughness” provision of Article 9, § 1, of the Idaho Constitution, the Court would have affirmed the district court in Thompson, applying the “right result-wrong theory” rule. However, the Court in Thompson reversed the district court’s decision and held that the statutory scheme did not violate Article 9, § 1. The Thompson Court stated that, “The record does not demonstrate a failure by the Legislature to comply with its mandate to establish a system of basic, thorough and uniform education; nor, does the record demonstrate an inadequacy of funding to maintain that system of education. Therefore, the decision of the trial court is reversed.” 96 Idaho at 811, 537 P.2d at 653 (emphasis added).
Given the “right result-wrong theory” rule of Andre v. Morrow, 106 Idaho 455, 680 P.2d 1355 (1984), relied on by the majority opinion, 123 Idaho at 580, 850 P.2d at 731, and given the fact that the Court in Thompson stated, not once but several times, that the statutory scheme does not violate Article 9, § 1, expressly reciting the “thorough” requirement, it is difficult to understand how the Court can state that the references to “thorough” in the Thompson opinion are taken out of context. Thus, even if the Thompson decision had not expressly ruled that the statutory scheme did not violate the thoroughness requirement of Article 9, § 1, the Thompson Court’s decision to reverse the district court’s ruling required the Court to consider the “thoroughness” issue under the “right result-wrong theory” rule, as the majority opinion holds with regard to the equal protection issue. Andre v. Morrow, supra.
However, the Thompson Court referred to the “thorough” requirement in Article 9, § 1, several times. For example, the Court noted the trial court’s findings of fact required the State of Idaho “under the provisions of Art. 9, Sec. 1, of the Idaho Constitution to establish and maintain a general, uniform and thorough system of public, free common schools for all children in the state....” 96 Idaho at 795, 537 P.2d at 637. In answer to that finding, the Court in Thompson stated:
Art. 9, and in particular, Sec. 1, does not guarantee to the children of this state a right to be educated in such a manner that all services and facilities are equal throughout the State. Such a centralized system of education is not required by our Constitution. Our position is supported by an analysis of the circum*589stances surrounding the adoption of our constitution, its language, subsequent legislative and judicial history in connection with the education article, and ample, although conflicting, authority from appellate courts of other states that have dealt with this issue.
96 Idaho at 805, 537 P.2d at 647, emphasis in original.
The Thompson Court’s opinion then quoted from the proceedings of the Idaho Constitutional Convention in determining what the original framers of the Constitution thought that the word “thorough” in Article 9, § 1, meant:
“The duty of the state, Mr. President, is simply the teaching the children of the community the three R’s—to learn to read, to write, and the rules of arithmetic, and the duty of the state ends right there.....”
96 Idaho at 806, 537 P.2d at 648, quoting from 1 Constitutional Proceedings at 695 (emphasis in original). However, the Thompson Court then went on to point out that:
But today, Parker’s statement cannot be given its literal meaning. There is, at least in the context of our present society, more inherent in a thorough system of education than instruction in the three “R’s”. The constitution gives the Legislature plenary responsibility and duty to establish and maintain a uniform and thorough statewide system of education.
96 Idaho at 806, 537 P.2d at 648 (emphasis added). Again, the Court in Thompson stated:
[W]e do not interpret [the prior cases] to say that Art. 9, Sec. 1 grants a fundamental right to education, whereby in keeping with some nebulous conceptualization of equal educational opportunities, the Legislature is obligated to establish a statewide system of financing so that each school district receives sufficient funds so that equal sums are expended per student throughout the state.
96 Idaho at 808, 537 P.2d at 650.
In its final pronouncement, the majority opinion in Thompson stated:
The record does not demonstrate a failure by the Legislature to comply with its mandate to establish a system of basic, thorough and uniform education; nor, does that record demonstrate an inadequacy of funding to maintain that system of education.
96 Idaho at 811, 537 P.2d at 653.
Why would the Thompson Court have discussed the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention and Mr. Parker’s reference to “thorough” meaning only the three “R’s,” and then saying that, “Parker’s statement cannot be given its literal meaning,” if the Court was not addressing the “thoroughness” issue? Accordingly, I believe the district court in this case was correct in dismissing the plaintiffs’ complaint because the Court in Thompson v. Engelking had both expressly and impliedly, under the “right result-wrong theory” rule, held that the Idaho statutory scheme does not violate Article 9, § l’s, “mandate to establish a system of basic, thorough and uniform education.”
IV
However, a majority of this Court having concluded that the Thompson case was not dispositive on the question of the “thoroughness” requirement of Article 9, § 1, the Court, in my view, fails to provide sufficient guidance so that the trial courts of this state can determine what the “thoroughness” obligation imposed upon the legislature by Article 9, § 1, is. In answering respondents’ argument that the language in Thompson that this Court is not well equipped to define what a thorough educational system is, and that such a “turbulent field” should be left to the legislative and executive branches of government, the majority states, “[W]e decline to accept the respondents’ argument that the other branches of government be allowed to interpret the constitution for us. That would be an object abdication of our role in the American system of government,” citing Miles v. Idaho Power Co., 116 Idaho 635, 778 P.2d 757 (1989). 123 Idaho at 583, 850 P.2d at 734. However, the Court then seems to do just that, stating that our *590“duty to define the meaning of the thoroughness requirement of art. 9 § 1 ... has been made simpler for this Court because the executive branch of the government has already promulgated educational standards pursuant to the legislature’s directive in I.C. § 33-118.” At 583, 850 P.2d at 734. The Court then adopts that portion of the State Board of Education’s rules and regulations for public school K-12, IDAPA 08.02, dealing with “school facilities, instructional programs and text books, and transportation systems.” The Court then holds that the “thorough” requirement of Article 9, § 1, requires the state to meet those requirements.
For the reasons which the majority opinion itself describes, I have a great deal of difficulty allowing other branches of government to set the standard for determining the meaning of a provision of the Idaho Constitution. However, I have even more difficulty with the Court’s conclusion that the word “thorough” in Article 9, § 1, constitutionalizes the State Board of Education’s regulation requirements for “school facilities, instructional programs and textbooks, and transportation systems....” At 583, 850 P.2d at 734. State Board of Education regulation IDAPA 08.02 was not in the record before the trial court and is not part of the record on appeal. The copy in the Idaho State Law Library comprises nearly 200 pages, a substantial portion of which involves school facilities, instructional programs and text books, and transportation systems.5 While portions of the regulation describe some programs and facilities which no doubt are relevant to the question of “thoroughness,” I believe the Court errs in stating that compliance with IDAPA 08.02 is now constitutionally mandated through the word “thorough” in Article 9, § 1, of the Idaho Constitution. Today’s decision will raise innumerable complex factual issues, some of which will be totally unrelated to what constitutes a “thorough” education.
Today’s opinion leaves unanswered such questions as whether that portion of the regulations dealing with the standards for new school construction must be applied to existing facilities as the result of the constitutionalizing of State Board of Education Regulation No. 08.02. I believe the Court has committed a serious error by first concluding that the Thompson case did not resolve the “thorough” requirement of Article 9, § 1, and then adopting the State Board of Education’s regulations to determine the constitutional thoroughness requirement.
APPENDIX A
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS K-12
Approved
By the Idaho State Board of Education December, 1982
Effective January, 1983
*591Reprinted June, 1992
All Revisions Included to Date
THE IDAHO STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
M. Karl Shurtliff, President..................................................Boise
Keith S. Hinckley, Vice-President.........................................Blackfoot
Roy Mosman, Secretary................................................... Moscow
Diane Bilyeu, Member....................................................Pocatello
Roberta L. Fields, Member..........................................New Meadows
Colleen Mahoney, Member................................................ Lewiston
Joe Parkinson, Member.......................................................Boise
Jerry L. Evans, Ex Officio Member...........................................Boise
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS K-12
INDEX
CHAPTER A............................School District Organization and Operation
CHAPTER B..........................................School District Fiscal Affairs
CHAPTER C....................................District Personnel and Certification
CHAPTER D......................................................School Facilities
CHAPTER E.................................Instructional Programs and Textbooks
CHAPTER F.....................................................Special Programs
CHAPTER G........................................................Transportation
CHAPTER H.................................................. Miscellaneous Items
APPENDIX
Employment of Public School Personnel and Equitable Delivery of Educational Services
Uniform Policy on Teacher Placement Files
Statement by State Board of Education on Corporal Punishment
Fall Statewide Educational Conferences
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS K-12
*592SUBJECT—TITLE INDEX
Subject-Title Chapter-Rule
-A-
Absence, Day of..............................................................A.4
Accounting, Pupil—Definition..................................................A.4
Accreditation, High School.................................................... E.12
Accreditation, Middle/Junior High............................................. E.ll
Accreditation, Personnel Standards.............................................C.32
Accredited Institution, Definition................................................C.l
Activity Busing ............................................................... G.7
ADA, Determination............................................................B.2
ADA, Early Graduation.........................................................B.2
Additions, Alterations/Renovations, (Bldg)......................................D.7
Administrative Exceptional Child Endorsement..................................C.25
Administrator, Vocational Education, Certificates................................C.30
Administrator’s Certificate.....................................................C.21
Advanced Counselor Endorsement..............................................C.22
Advanced K-3 Certificate......................................................C.18
Advanced Elementary Certificate...............................................C.18
Advanced Secondary Certificate................................................C.18
Advanced Standing Examination.................................................E.8
Agreement, Cooperative.........................................................E.8
Altering School District Boundaries............................................H.6
Alternate High School Programs.............................................. E.16
Alternate Route, Certification..................................................C.18
American School..........................................-......................E.7
Ancillary Personnel, Base Salary................................................B.4
Ancillary Personnel Funding....................................................B.5
Appeals to State Board of Education...........................................H.3
Appeals of Certification........................................................C.17
Applicants from Regionally Accredited Institutions...............................C.7
Applied Music, Limited Certificate..............................................C.26
Architects, School District will Require to Provide.............................D.10
Architectural Services .........................................................D.4
Attendance, Average Daily.....................................................A.4
Attendance, Day of, Grades 1-12 ..............................................A.4
Attendance, Day of, Kindergarten.............................................. A.4
Attendance, 90%...............................................................A. 5
Audiology Endorsement, Standard..............................................C.22
Authorization, Letters of........................................................C.9
Authorization for SDE to Approve Special Education Agencies/Contracts ........................................................................B.6
Average Daily Attendance..................................................... A.4
-B-
Bible Instruction, Limited Certificate...........................................C.26
Boards, Commissions/Advisory Councils........................................H.2
Building Account, School District................................................B.8
Bus Drivers, School........................................................... G.4
-C-
Candidate for Public Office....................................................H.l
Capital Investment, Transportation............................................. G.7
Certificate, Administrator’s.....................................................C.21
Certificate, Application Procedures .............................................C.17
Certificate, Applicants from Regionally Accredited Institutions....................C.7
Certificate Changes............................................................C.17
Certificates, Duplicate.........................................................C.17
*593Subject-Title Chapter-Rule
Certificates, Elementary/Secondary.............................................C.18
Certificate, Endorsement of Out-of-State.......................................C.16
Certificate, Endorsement, Secondary Teachers, Subject Area.....................C.20
Certificate, Exceptional Child...................................................C.25
Certificate, General Endorsements..............................................C.19
Certificate, Initial..............................................................C.17
Certificate, Letters of Authorization.............................................C.9
Certificate, Life................................................................C.4
Certificate, Limited.............................................................C.4
Certificate, No Longer Issued..................................................C.26
Certificate, Out-of-State........................................................C.16
Certificate, Proper Certification Required—Misassignment.......................C.10
Certificate, Pupil Personnel Services, Standard and Advanced....................C.22
Certificate, Renewal...........................................................C.17
Certificate, Retention of Transcripts Submitted for...............................C.5
Certificate, Transcripts..........................................................C.5
Certificate, Vocational Administrator...........................................C.30
Certificate, Vocational Education...............................................C.28
Certificate, Vocational Specialist................................................C.29
Certification, Alternate Route..................................................C.18
Certification, Appeals..........................................................C.17
Certification, Authorizations/Misassignments....................................C.10
Certification of Teachers Trained in Foreign Institutions.........................C.2
Certification Standards/Vocational Educators....................................C.28
Certification, Interstate Compact............................................... D.9
Change Order, School Facilities................................................D.9
Closure, Emergency........................................................... A.3
Code of Ethics................................................................C.33
College, Junior, Credits........................................................C.14
Communicable Diseases.........................................................E.3
Commercial Computerized Routing/Scheduling.................................. G.8
Conference, Fall Teacher ...............................................Appendix 5
Consolidation Feasibility Studies............................................... B.10
Construction Requirements..................................................... D.5
Consultant Specialist, Limited Certificate .......................................C.26
Consultant/Advisory Service to Public Schools..................................H.5
Consulting Teacher Endorsement...............................................C.25
Contract Program Model.......................................................A.6
Contracts......................................................................B.6
Contracts, Special Educ., State Approval.........................................B.6
Contracts, Standard, Deviation from............................................ A.2
Cooperating Teachers..........................................................C.12
Cooperative Agreement........................................................H.4
Core Competency............................................................. E.12
Corporal Punishment...................................................Appendix 4
Correspondence, Private & Trade Schools........................................F.4
Counselor Endorsement........................................................C.22
Courses of Study...............................................................E.2
Credential Files, Policy.................................................Appendix 2
Credits, Non-resident..........................................................C.15
Credits, Junior College.........................................................C.14
Curriculum Materials, Charges for..............................................E.l
-D-
Days in Session...............................................................A.4
Day of Absence............................................................... A.4
Days of Attendance........................................................... A.4
Days of Attendance, Kindergarten............................................. A.4
Defense, Civil..................................................................E.2
Definition of an Accredited Institution...........................................C.l
*594Subject-Title Chapter-Rule
Detention, Juvenile........................................................... E.17
Determination for ADA, Early Graduation.......................................B.2
Development Program Model...................................................A.6
Deviation from Standard Contract Form........................................A.2
Deviation from State Board Standards, School Facilities.........................D.2
Diploma, High School, Rehabilitation Courses....................................E.4
Diseases, Communicable........................................................E.3
Distance Learning............................................................ E.12
District Boundaries, Altering...................................................H.6
District, Local Evaluation Policy...............................................C.35
Driver Education Instructor Qualifications.......................................F.l
Driver Education Programs.....................................................F.l
Driver Education Permits.......................................................F.l
Drivers, School Bus........................................................... G.4
Duties of School Bus Drivers.................................................. G.4
-El-
Early Childhood/Special Education Endorsement................................C.25
Early Graduation.........................................................B.2, E.12
Educational Conferences, Fall...........................................Appendix 5
Educational Program, Principle................................................ E.ll
Educational Services, Delivery of........................................Appendix 1
Elections, Candidate for Public Office..........................................H.l
Elementary School Approval.................................................. E.10
Elementary Certificates........................................................C.18
Elementary Music Specialist Certificate.........................................C.18
Emergency Closure............................................................A.3
Employment of Public School Personnel/Equitable Delivery of Services.....Appendix 1
Endorsement, Elementary School Principal......................................C.21
Endorsement, Interim School Nurse............................................C.23
Endorsement, Out-of-State Certificates..........................................C.16
Endorsement, Secondary School Principal.......................................C.21
Endorsement, Secondary Teachers, Subject......................................C.20
Endorsement, School Nurse............. C.24
Endorsement, Subject Areas...................................................C.20
Endorsement, Superintendent...................................................C.21
Endorsement, Teaching Certificate, General.....................................C.19
Environmental Design Requirements, Facility...................................D.6
Ethics, Code of................................................................C.33
Evaluation, Local District Policy...............................................C.35
Exceptional Child Certificate, Advanced.........................................C.25
Exceptional Child Certificate, Standard.........................................C.25
Exceptional Child Endorsement, Administrative..................................C.25
-F-
Facilities, Guide for Planning School...........................................D.l
Facilities, School, Deviation....................................................D.2
Facility Environmental Design Requirements....................................D.6
Fall Statewide Educational Conferences..................................Appendix 5
Feasibility Studies.......................................................:----B.10
Federally Funded Programs....................................................A.l
Fifth Year Level of College Work, Qualifications for...........................C.13
Files, Uniform Policy on Teacher Placement....................................A.2
Fire Drills..............................................................E.10, E.12
Foreign Institutions, Certification of Teachers Trained in.........................C.2
Funding, Ancillary Personnel....................................................B.5
Funds Withheld, Late Submission of Records....................................B.l
*595Subject-Title Chapter-Rule
—G—
GED Tests.....................................................................E.5
General Reporting, School Facilities............................................D.8
Gifted/Talented Model.........................................................A.6
Grades 1-12, Days of Attendance..............................................A.4
Graduation Requirements..................................................... E.12
Graduation, Early..............................................................B.2
Guide for Planning School Facilities............................................D.l
-H-
Half-day in Session............................................................A.4
Head Teacher, Small Schools...................................................C.ll
High School Diploma, Rehabilitation Courses ....................................E.4
Home Study Courses...........................................................E.6
Homebound Program Model....................................................A.6
-I-
Idaho State Penitentiary, Special Programs......................................F.4
Idaho Teacher Excellence Program.............................................C.34
Initial Professional Certificate Examination.....................................C.17
Instructional Time, Driver Education............................................F.l
Instructional Time, Required...................................................A.4
Integrated Kindergarten Model.................................................A.6
Interim School Nurse Endorsement.............................................C.23
Interns, Permits................................................................C.6
Interstate Certification Compact................................................C.31
Investment, Capital............................................................ G.8
Itinerant Program Model......................................................A.6
-J-
Junior College Credits.........................................................C.14
Junior High School Accreditation.............................................. E.ll
Juvenile Detention............................................................ E.17
-K-
Kindergarten.............................................................B.3, E.10
Kindergarten, Days of Attendance.............................................A.4
Kindergarten, Double Session Authorized........................................B.3
-1^
Letter of Authorization Proposal................................................C.9
Licensing Commercial Driver Training Schools and Instructors...................F.l
Life Certificates................................................................C.4
Limited Certificates............................................................C.26
-M-
Maintenance Standards ........................................................ G.2
Middle/Junior High School Accreditation....................................... E.ll
Misassignment, Authorization..................................................C.10
Misassignment, Proper Certificate..............................................C.10
Models, Special Education Programs............................................A.6
*596Subject-Title Chapter-Rule
-N-
NASDTEC....................................................................H.7
National Standards Adopted, Transportation.................................... G.l
Ninety Percent Attendance Requirement........................................A.5
Non-resident Credits...........................................................C.15
Nurse, School.................................................................C.24
Nurse, Interim, School, Endorsement...........................................C.23
-0-
Official Vehicle for Approval of Existing Teacher Education Programs............H.7
Organization Patterns, School..................................................A.7
Out-of-State Certificates, Endorsements.........................................C.16
Out-of-State Tuition.............................................................B.9
-P-
Penitentiary, Idaho State, Special Programs .....................................F.3
Permits, Interns................................................................C.6
Personnel, Accreditation Standards.............................................C.32
Personnel, Ancillary, Base Salary...............................................B.4
Personnel Standards for Accreditation and Approval............................C.32
Plans, Submission of (School Facility) ..........................................D.3
Policy (Transportation)......................................................... G.6
Professional Standards Commission, Reimbursement, Substitute Teachers ..........................................................................B.7
Programs, Federally Funded...................................................A.l
Provisional Early Childhood, Limited Certificate.................................C.26
Psychological Examiner Endorsement...........................................C.22
Public Office, Candidate for ...................................................H.l
Pupil Accounting..............................................................A.4
Pupil Personnel Certificate.....................................................C.22
Pupil/Counselor Ratios ....................................................E.10-12
-R-
Reeords, Late Submissions, Funds Withheld.....................................B.l
Regional Institutions, Certificates ...............................................C.7
Rehabilitation Courses for High School Diploma.................................E.4
Reimbursement to Districts for Substitute Costs.................................B.7
Reimbursement to Districts for Feasibility Study for High School/District Consolidation.......................................................... B.10
Release Time Programs.........................................................E.9
Religion, Release Time .........................................................E.9
Renewal of Certificates........................................................C.17
Reporting, General (Facilities Construction).....................................D.8
Required Instructional Time....................................................A.4
Resource Program Model......................................................A.6
Retention of Transcripts Submitted with Applications or Teachers Certificates ......................................................................C.5
Routing and Scheduling, Computerized......................................... G.9
-S-
Safety Busing................................................................. G.7
Salary, Ancillary Personnel.....................................................B.4
Scheduling and Routing, Computerized......................................... G.9
School Bus Depreciation.....................................................G.8, 6
School Bus Drivers............................................................ G.4
School Bus Inspection.......................................................G.2, 1
*597Subject-Title Chapter-Rule
School District Boundaries, Altering............................................H.6
School District Building Account................................................B.8
School District Organization and Operation.......................................A
School Facilities, Architectural Services......................................... D.4
School Facilities, Construction Requirements....................................D.5
School Facilities, Deviation.....................................................D.2
School Facilities, Environmental Design Requirements...........................D.6
School Facilities, Planning.....................................................D.l
School Facilities, Submission of Plans.......................................... D.3
School Nurse..................................................................C.24
School Organization Patterns................................................... A.7
School Psychologist Endorsement...............................................C.22
School Schedules..............................................................A.4
School Week, Definition .......................................................A.4
Schools, American..............................................................E.7
Secondary Certificates.........................................................C.18
Secondary Field Centered Teacher Training Program............................C.18
Self-Contained Program Model.................................................A.6
Services, Withholding.......................................................... A.3
Small Schools, Head Teacher...................................................C.ll
Social Worker Endorsement, School............................................C.22
Special Design Model.......................................................... A.6
Special Education Agencies and Contracts Authorization for SDE Approval .......................................................................E.6
Special Education Contracts, Approval...........................................B.6
Special Education Program Models............................................. A.6
Special Programs, Idaho State Penitentiary......................................F.3
Speech Language Pathologist Endorsement.....................................C.22
Standard K-3 Certificate.......................................................C.18
Standard Elementary Certificate................................................C.18
Standard Secondary Certificate.................................................C.18
Standard Counselor Endorsement...............................................C.22
Standards Adopted, National (Transportation)................................... G.l
State Department of Education Approval........................................E.6
State Support Program Allowance...............................................B.9
Statement by State Board of Education on Corporal Punishment.........Appendix 4
Strike, Teacher................................................................A.3
Student Busing, Duties and Responsibilities..................................... G.5
Study, Courses of..............................................................E.2
Submission of Plans, School Facilities..........................................D.3
Substitute Teacher Authorization................................................C.8
Substitute Teacher, Reimbursement .............................................B.7
-T-
Teacher Conferences....................................................Appendix 5
Teacher Education Programs, Approval.........................................H.7
Teacher Excellence in Idaho...................................................C.34
Teacher, Head, Smaller Schools................................................C.ll
Teacher, Idaho, Excellence Program............................................C.34
Teacher Inservice Activities.................................................... A.4
Teacher-Parent Conferences ................................................... A.4
Teacher Placement Files, Uniform Policy................................Appendix 2
Teacher Strike ................................................................A.3
Teachers, Cooperating.........................................................C.12
Teachers, Homebound..........................................................B.5
Teachers, Substitute............................................................C.8
Teaching Certificate, Application Procedures....................................C.17
Testing in the Public Schools................................................. E.13
Tests, General Educational Development (GED)..................................E.5
Textbook Adoptions .......................................................... E.14
Textbook and Improvement of Instruction Committee.......................... E.14
*598Subject-Title Chapter-Rule
Trade Schools, Private Correspondence..........................................F.4
Transcripts Submitted with Certification Applications, Retention of...............C.5
Transitional, Limited Certificate................................................C.26
Transportation, Activity Busing................................................ G.7
Transportation, Capital Investment............................................. G.8
Transportation, Commercial Computerized Routing.............................. G.9
Transportation, Field Trip Busing.............................................. G.7
Transportation, Maintenance Standards......................................... G.2
Transportation, National Standards Adopted.................................... G.l
Transportation, Policy ......................................................... G.6
Transportation, Program....................................................... G.6
Transportation, Program Costs................................................. G.7
Transportation, Safety Busing.................................................. G.7
Transportation, School Bus Drivers............................................. G.4
Transportation, Student Duties and Responsibilities............................. G.5
Transportation, Vehicle Operation.............................................. G.3
Tuition, Out-of-state............................................................B.9
-U-
Uniform Policy on Teacher Placement Files..............................Appendix 2
Use of Life Certificates ........................................................C.4
-V-
Vehicle Operation ............................................................. G.3
Vehicles, Driver Education......................................................F.l
Veterans Education Program, Approval of Schools...............................F.2
Vocational Education, Administrator Certificate.................................C.30
Vocational Education, Specialist Certificate......................................C.29
Vocational Education Certificates...............................................C.28
Vocational Endorsement.......................................................C.28
-W-
Withheld, Funds—Late Submission of Records...................................B.l
Withholding of Service.........................................................A.3

. The Thompson Court had quoted approvingly from the California Supreme Court to the effect that, " '[W]e have ruled only that the education system must be uniform in terms of the prescribed course of study and educational progression from grade to grade.'” 96 Idaho at 809, 537 P.2d at 651, quoting Serrano v. Priest, 5 Cal.3d 584, 96 Cal.Rptr. 601, 487 P.2d 1241 (1971).

. However, in its equal protection analysis, the Court states: "We have determined that it is time to partially abandon our case by case determination of whether a particular right asserted is fundamental.” At 581, 850 P.2d at 732. Although dicta, that statement is troubling, particularly given the fact that the Court does not indicate how future determinations of whether a particular right asserted is fundamental will be made. The statement that "rights which are not directly guaranteed by the state constitution may be considered to be fundamental if they are implicit in our State’s concept of ordered liberty," at 582, 850 P.2d at 733 suggests that there is a law higher than even the Constitution of the State of Idaho which protects the "concept of ordered liberty.” Such a higher law, by its very nature, would be known only to judges, and then only after the fact. This Court in numerous prior cases has held that the legislature has plenary power, subject only to those limitations expressly, or by clear implication, contained in the Idaho Constitution. State v. Dolan, 13 Idaho 693, 92 P. 995 (1907); Idaho Power Co. v. Blomquist, 26 Idaho 222, 141 P. 1083 (1914); Independent School Dist. v. Pfost, 51 Idaho 240, 4 P.2d 893 (1931); Koelsch v. Girard, 54 Idaho 452, 33 P.2d 816 (1934); Electors of Big Butte Area v. State Bd. of Education, 78 Idaho 602, 308 P.2d 225 (1957); Rich v. Williams, 81 Idaho 311, 341 P.2d 432 (1959). The foregoing statements in the majority opinion are contrary to our prior case law and, furthermore, are dicta.

. While the regulations are much too voluminous to describe, much less set out in this opinion, attached as Appendix "A" is the table of contents for those regulations which indicates the vast scope of the material which today's opinion constitutionalizes.