Court Opinion

ID: 9465867
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 00:57:56.264064+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:38:31.807982
License: Public Domain

*381OAKES, Circuit Judge
(concurring specially):
I join in Judge Bartels’ opinion in respect to the deprivation of a speedy trial. Although, if this were the only issue in the case, I might as the better part of appellate discretion be agreeable to remand for further findings regarding reasons for delay and resulting prejudice, Judge Bartels does point out that “the burden is on the government or the court to set forth in the record” excludable periods or “at least the operable facts leading to the exclusion.” In any event, at this stage of an already drawn-out proceeding, a remand would be inappropriate.
Moreover, it seems to me that on independent, albeit interrelated, grounds the judgment of conviction cannot stand. The indictment charged transportation of an obscene film “in interstate commerce, by means of common carriers . . from the State of New Jersey to the City of Buffalo . . .” But the Government proved only a shipment from New York, New York, to Buffalo and sought to prove its interstate character by virtue of a Greyhound Lines, Inc., terminal manager’s testimony, made in reliance on Greyhound’s Timetable No. 70 (GX 10), that at the time in question “our service between New York, New York, and Buffalo, New York, operated through the State of New Jersey . [and specifically] the Town of Paramus, New Jersey.”1 This was a variance going to a vital element of the crime under 18 U.S.C. § 1462. A material variance may in and of itself be grounds for reversal, at least if it so modifies the elements of the crime that it creates a different crime, see Stirone v. United States, 361 U.S. 212, 80 S.Ct. 270, 4 L.Ed.2d 252 (1960); Ex parte Bain, 121 U.S. 1, 8, 7 S.Ct. 781, 30 L.Ed. 849 (1887). True, we have said that a material variance occurs only if it “prejudiced the ability of the defendants to make their defense to the charge . . . .” United States v. Knuckles, 581 F.2d 305, 311-12 (2d Cir. 1978); United States v. Somers, 496 F.2d 723, 744 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 832, 95 S.Ct. 56, 42 L.Ed.2d 58 (1974). But what is involved, of course, is the right to be informed of the charges against one. Berger v. United States, 295 U.S. 78, 82, 55 S.Ct. 629, 79 L.Ed. 1314 (1935). Here the charge was that the film was shipped from the state of New Jersey to the city of Buffalo. Appellants were prejudiced by the variance in proof because they might well have disputed more vigorously than they were able, note 1 supra, that they transported the film through Paramus, New Jersey.
True, the Government argues that there could have been no surprise because (a) appellants were aware that “as far as [appellant Levene] knew all of his films since the inception of Aquarius Releasing, Inc. were stored in the New York City Warehouse” (Gov’t Br. 13) and (b) through pretrial discovery appellants learned of Gov’t Ex. 9, the Greyhound Lines bus bill showing that the film went from the New York City *382terminal to the Buffalo, New York, terminal. But armed with this information, appellants were fully prepared to meet the charge of the indictment, that the film had been transported “from the State of New Jersey to the City of Buffalo.” This preparation, however, could hardly have enabled them to meet an amended charge that the film was transported from New York, New York, to the city of Buffalo by way of Paramus, New Jersey. By hindsight one can think of several courses, see note 1 supra, counsel might have pursued to meet such an amended charge; that he did not do so when first confronted by the Greyhound witness’s testimony is to my mind indicative of surprise and prejudice.
I note that we have previously distinguished Stirone on the basis that the indictment in that case alleged “interference by extortion with the importation into Pennsylvania of sand to be used in building a new plant” while the proof showed “interference with the exportation from Pennsylvania of steel to be manufactured in the new plant.” United States v. Colasurdo, 453 F.2d 585, 591 (2d Cir. 1971) (emphasis in original), cert. denied, 406 U.S. 917, 92 S.Ct. 1766, 32 L.Ed.2d 116 (1972); see also United States v. Knuckles, supra, 581 F.2d at 312. But such a distinction cannot be made here, where the charge was shipment from New Jersey and the proof was (somewhat thinly at best) shipment through New Jersey.2 Thus I think Stirone controlling.
Even if I am wrong about the variance issue, however, there was no proof that appellants Levene and Aquarius Releasing, Inc.,3 knowingly4 used interstate commerce for the shipment from New York to Buffalo. The Government contends that the interstate commerce requirement of 18 U.S.C. § 1462 is jurisdictional, citing United States v. Feola, 420 U.S. 671, 95 S.Ct. 1255, 43 *383L.Ed.2d 541 (1975), where the court noted that “the existence of the fact that confers federal jurisdiction need not be one in the mind of the actor at the time he perpetrates the act made criminal by the federal statute,” id. at 676 n.9, 95 S.Ct. at 1260, and thus upheld a conviction for assault even though the defendant did not know that his victim was a federal officer.5 But in Feola the statutory language did not require such knowledge; indeed the defendant conceded that scienter was not a necessary element of the offense. Id. at 677, 95 S.Ct. 1255. And the Court was very careful to hold only that the statute in issue (18 U.S.C. § 111) did not embody “an unexpressed requirement that an assailant be aware that his victim is a federal officer” (emphasis added). Id. at 684, 95 S.Ct. at 1264.6 Although to some it might appear overly technical to construe a statute to require proof of knowing carriage in interstate commerce, when, as the Government argues, “federal [criminal] jurisdiction has broadened in areas requiring a nexus to interstate commerce,” we must remember that 18 U.S.C. § 1462 is a criminal prohibition against conduct that has potential First Amendment protection. Congress has specifically imposed a requirement of “knowingly,” note 4 supra. Con-cededly there was no proof that Aquarius or Levene kpew that the shipment from New York City to Buffalo traveled in interstate commerce. Although it may be argued that appellants were aware of certain contracts with Bonded Film Distributors under which various films would be distributed across the country and even to other countries, I do not see how a jury could infer from this, or from any supposed knowledge of use of a common carrier, that a shipment between two points in one state would pass through another state, especially when it is not at all obvious from a road map that there is any more direct route from New York City to Buffalo than the New York State Throughway (U.S. Interstate Highway 87), which does not cross any state line.
Thus I would reverse the judgment on these two grounds as well, although they are unnecessary to reach if Judge Bartels and I are correct on the speedy trial issue.

. On cross-examination counsel for appellants did elicit that the witness could not tell what bus carried the film or whether it was detoured on that day, and the witness conceded that “we will alter our routes because of traffic conditions. . . . ” Counsel did not inquire, however, as to Bus No. 3300, the 9:45 westbound, which appears to be express to Rochester, then to Buffalo. Greyhound Timetable No. 70, Table 255, effective Jan. 3, 1973. Nor did he explore the use of the January, 1973, edition of Russell’s Official National Motor Coach Guide which, appellants advise us, indicates several other Greyhound schedules (Nos. 16, 390, 720, 255, 260) showing routes that do not run through Paramus, New Jersey. 1 note these omissions only as they may bear on prejudice to appellant from the variance between the charge in the indictment and the proof.
The Government suggests that the issue of variance was not timely raised. But at the close of the Government’s case and of the defense case and upon the return of verdict appellants moved for dismissal on grounds of insufficiency of the evidence, and in particular failure to prove that the shipment was made in interstate commerce. It appears that the defendant in Stirone v. United States, 361 U.S. 212, 214, 80 S.Ct. 270, 4 L.Ed.2d 252 (1960), did not raise the variance issue any more directly.

. Judge Leventhal has distinguished Stirone by saying that “[i]n Stirone the prosecution was relying at trial on a complex of facts distinctly different from that which the grand jury set forth in the indictment ... In the case before us, there is a single set of facts . . Jackson v. United States, 123 U.S.App.D.C. 276, 279, 359 F.2d 260, 263, cert. denied, 385 U.S. 877, 87 S.Ct. 157, 17 L.Ed.2d 104 (1966). See also United States v. Garguilo, 554 F.2d 59, 63 n.2 (2d Cir. 1977). Here, it would seem, as in Stirone, there is a different “complex of facts” involved, relating to the use of a common carrier, for carriage in interstate commerce, of an obscene film.
My colleague Judge Mansfield believes that United States v. Knuckles, 581 F.2d 305 (2d Cir. 1978), dictates a contrary result. But Knuckles emphasized that a variance as to the narcotics substance is immaterial when “the time, place, people, and object proved at trial are in all respects those alleged in the indictment.” Id. at 311. Here, by contrast, there is a substantial variance as to “place,” that, as in Stirone, goes to jurisdiction of the federal courts. I do not think that we can presume that a grand jury would have indicted for a shipment that, at most, merely passed through New Jersey.

. Assuming that the film was obscene, appellant New Buffalo’s conviction would stand, in my view, if the speedy trial and variance issues were determined against it.

. 18 U.S.C. § 1462 reads in pertinent part:
Whoever . . . knowingly uses any . common carrier, for carriage in interstate or foreign commerce— (a) any obscene . . . motion-picture film, . Shall be fined ... or imprisoned . . .
It is not enough, contrary to the trial court’s charge, that knowledge of use of a common carrier be shown; the statute requires knowing use of such a carrier “for carriage in interstate or foreign commerce.” In Gold v. United States, 378 F.2d 588 (9th Cir. 1967); United States v. Kelly, 398 F.Supp. 1374 (E.D.Mo.1975), rev’d on other grounds, 529 F.2d 1365 (8th Cir. 1976); and United States v. Rubin, 312 F.Supp. 950 (C.D.Cal.1970), cases relied upon by the Government, the sole question was whether there was “use” of a common carrier or whether the defendant was aware of the contents or character of the shipment, not whether the defendant knew that the shipments were in interstate commerce (it was undisputed that the shipments were interstate). Hamling v. United States, 418 U.S. 87, 119-24, 94 S.Ct. 2887, 41 L.Ed.2d 590 (1974), involved 18 U.S.C. § 1461, which proscribes knowing use of the mails for unmailable matter, a statute with a different thrust from the one at bar; the knowledge required under § 1461 relates to the nature, content, and character of the film, and to the knowing use of the mails, not to the *383use of a common carrier “for carriage in interstate . . commerce.” Other cases that the Government cites involve statutes with language different from 18 U.S.C. § 1462.

. We applied Feola in United States v. Viruet, 539 F.2d 295, 297 (2d Cir. 1976) (per curiam) (unnecessary under 18 U.S.C. § 659 to prove knowledge that hijacked truck would be moving in interstate commerce), and in United States v. Green, 523 F.2d 229, 233-34 (2d Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 1074, 96 S.Ct. 858, 47 L.Ed.2d 84 (1976) (same). Both cases, however, involve a statute that does not explicitly require knowledge of the interstate movement of the stolen goods and hence a statute different from the one in issue here.

. The court was also very careful to point out that merely calling a statutory requirement “jurisdictional” does not end the inquiry; a further question is whether it is “jurisdictional only,” or instead an element of the offense. 420 U.S. at 676 n.9, 95 S.Ct. at 1255.