Court Opinion

ID: 9599773
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-22 01:21:22.826135+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:53:34.258164
License: Public Domain

BIRD, C. J.
I respectfully dissent. The application of the conclusive presumption of paternity (Evid. Code, § 621) to deny plaintiff, Donald R., the *366opportunity to prove that he is Michelle’s biological father denies him due process of law. (U.S. Const., 14th Amend.; Cal. Const., art. I, § 7, subd. (a).)
In upholding the presumption here, the majority purport to weigh the competing private and public interests as required by In re Lisa R. (1975) 13 Cal.3d 636, 648-651 [119 Cal.Rptr. 475, 532 P.2d 123, 90 A.L.R.3d 1017] and Estate of Cornelious (1984) 35 Cal.3d 461, 467 [198 Cal.Rptr. 543, 674 P.2d 245]. However, the majority’s weighing of interests proceeds according to a most curious logic.
At the outset, the majority tip the scales in favor of Ronald W. when they label him “the father” (maj. opn., ante, at p. 358) and the “legal father” (id., at p. 363) of Michelle. Those labels beg the question to be decided, since plaintiffs seek a declaration that Donald R. is the legal father. Similarly, the majority suggest that Ronald W.’s relationship with Michelle will be jeopardized unless the presumption is upheld. Yet, they fail to explain how that relationship is threatened by plaintiffs’ attempt to rebut the presumption.
On the other end of the scale is plaintiffs’ interest in establishing that Donald R. is the father. The majority focus narrowly on the apparent security of Donald R.’s current relationship with Michelle and disregard the legal vulnerability of that bond. (See Bartlett, Rethinking Parenthood as an Exclusive Status: The Need for Legal Alternatives when the Premise of the Nuclear Family has Failed (1984) 70 Va. L.Rev. 879, 912-919 [hereafter Rethinking Parenthood].) Having thus limited the scope of inquiry, they conclude without difficulty that plaintiffs have only an “abstract interest in establishing paternity.” (Maj. opn., ante, at p. 362.) According to the majority, this “abstract” interest is outweighed by the public interest in protecting the stability of a family unit which ceased to exist years ago. (See id., at p. 360.) This is a strange sort of weighing indeed.
The state’s interest in preserving the integrity of the family unit (In re Lisa R., supra, 13 Cal.3d at p. 650; Kusior v. Silver (1960) 54 Cal.2d 603, 619 [7 Cal.Rptr. 129, 354 P.2d 657]) is not even implicated here. The family unit formerly composed of Ronald W., Judith W., Michelle, and her sister no longer exists. It was destroyed when Ronald W. and Judith W. divorced. The majority’s assertion that this nonexistent family unit is threatened by plaintiffs’ action to establish paternity is baffling.
Equally baffling is their assumption that Ronald W.’s relationship with Michelle is threatened. Ronald W. currently enjoys rights to regular visitation with Michelle. These rights, which arose from the years in which he *367accepted daily parental responsibility for her, would continue to protect his interest in visitation even if Donald R. were declared the legal father. (See post, at pp. 367-371.) Accordingly, it is not necessary to uphold the conclusive presumption in order to protect Ronald W.’s interest.
Prior to the institution of the proceedings leading to this appeal, Ronald W. was obligated to provide for Michelle’s support by statute (Civ. Code, §§ 196, 196a)1 and by a provision in his marriage settlement agreement with Judith W. Similarly, he was entitled to reasonable visitation with Michelle both by statute (§ 4601)2 and by the terms of the agreement. The majority are unable to explain how these obligations and rights would be altered, much less destroyed, by a decision permitting Donald R. to offer scientific proof that he is Michelle’s biological father.
Let’s assume for the moment that a judgment declaring Donald R. to be Michelle’s biological father would terminate Ronald W.’s status as a “father” under sections 196 and 196a. Nothing in this record or in the authorities cited by the parties suggests that Ronald W.’s support obligation and visitation rights under the marriage settlement agreement would disappear. (Compare § 229 [adoption decree automatically terminates the parents’ duties towards, and rights over, a child who is adopted].)
The argument may be taken a step further. Assume that all of Ronald W.’s rights and obligations, both as a “father” under sections 196 and 196a and as a party to the marriage settlement agreement, would be extinguished upon a judicial declaration that Donald R. is Michelle’s biological father. Ronald W. would then be left with the legal status of a former stepparent. However, even under these circumstances, his relationship with Michelle would not be jeopardized.
The rights of stepparents were persuasively asserted by the Utah Supreme Court in Gribble v. Gribble (Utah 1978) 583 P.2d 64 [1 A.L.R.4th 1263], In that case, a wife filed a divorce action. The husband counterclaimed for visitation rights with the wife’s son by a previous marriage. The husband had not adopted the son. However, he claimed that he had lived with the boy for four years, that he had treated him as his own son, and that he was concerned about the boy’s future. The trial court held as a matter of law that a stepparent was not entitled to a hearing on the issue of visitation. (Id., at p. 65.)
*368The Utah Supreme Court reversed and remanded, holding the stepfather entitled under the due process clause of the state constitution to a hearing to determine whether he stood in loco parentis to the boy. The court held that a stepparent who has assumed the status and obligations of a parent without formal adoption is entitled to the same visitation rights as a natural parent. (Gribble, supra, 583 P.2d at pp. 67, 68.) It also noted that divorce does not terminate the stepparent’s in loco parentis status. Only the stepchild or the stepparent may terminate that relationship. (Id., at p. 67.)
Gribble’s application of the in loco parentis doctrine to stepparent visitation rights is cited with approval in Perry v. Superior Court (1980) 108 Cal.App.3d 480, 486 [166 Cal.Rptr. 583] (conc. opn. of Hopper, J.). In this marital dissolution action, the superior court entered an order granting a husband visitation privileges with the wife’s minor child by a former marriage.
The Court of Appeal granted the wife’s petition for a writ of prohibition, holding that in a divorce proceeding a superior court lacks jurisdiction to award visitation privileges to a spouse who is not the natural or adoptive parent of the other spouse’s child. (Perry, supra, 108 Cal.App.3d at pp. 484-485.)3 Dissatisfied with the result it was compelled to reach, the court invited the Legislature to address the “thorny problem of visitation by stepparents.” (108 Cal.App.3d at p. 485.)
In his concurring opinion, Justice Hopper noted that the husband had not alleged that he stood in loco parentis to the child. “[I]f [the] husband had raised the issue and had been found by the superior court to be in loco parentis with regard to Lonnie, one could conclude that Lonnie was a ‘child of the marriage’ within Civil Code section 4351 [citations].” (Perry, supra, 108 Cal.App.3d at p. 486 (conc. opn. of Hopper, J.); see also In re Marriage of Halpern (1982) 133 Cal.App.3d 297, 307 [184 Cal.Rptr. 740].)
The 1982 Legislature, in an apparent response to the Perry court’s invitation, added section 4351.5 to the Civil Code. Subdivision (a) of section 4351.5 gives the superior court in a marriage annulment or dissolution proceeding jurisdiction to award reasonable visitation rights to a stepparent.4 *369The statute provides for mandatory mediation (subd. (c)) and a court hearing if mediation fails to produce a settlement (subd. (h)). Both the stepparent seeking visitation rights and any natural or adoptive parent must be given notice of the mediation (subd. (i)), notice of any subsequent hearing, and an opportunity to appear and be heard at such hearing (subd. (h)). Visitation rights may be awarded to the stepparent if the court determines that such visitation is in the best interests of the child. (Subd. (a); see generally Wit-kin, Summary of Cal. Law (8th ed., 1984 supp. to vol. 6) Parent and Child, § 83A, pp. 217-218.)
The enactment of section 4351.5 did not supplant the alternative method by which a superior court may award stepparent visitation under the in loco parentis doctrine. (Perry v. Superior Court, supra, 108 Cal.App.3d at p. 486 (conc. opn. of Hopper, J.).) The courts of this state have repeatedly held that one standing in loco parentis to a child has the same rights and duties as a natural parent.
“ ‘It is the well-settled law that one standing in loco parentis to those held out as members of his family is entitled to all the rights of a parent. He also incurs the same liability with respect to them that he is under to his own children. The relation being established, the reciprocal rights, duties, and obligations pertaining to it arise between them the same as if he [were] their natural father.’ ” (Trudell v. Leatherby (1931) 212 Cal. 678, 682 [300 P. 7], overruled on another point in Gibson v. Gibson (1971) 3 Cal.3d 914, 923 [92 Cal.Rptr. 288, 479 P.2d 648]; see Loomis v. State of California (1964) 228 Cal.App.2d 820, 823 [39 Cal.Rptr. 820]; cf. Adoption of McDonald (1954) 43 Cal.2d 447, 458-460 [274 P.2d 860] [agency to which child is relinquished for adoption does not acquire the right of a natural parent to withhold consent to adoption; like that of a guardian, an adoption agency’s relationship to a child lacks the “natural affection between parent and child” which is the basis of a natural parent’s rights].)
More recently, this court stated that “[t]he fact of biological parenthood may incline an adult to feel a strong concern for the welfare of his child, but it is not an essential condition; a person who assumes the role of parent, raising the child in his own home, may in time acquire an interest in the ‘companionship, care, custody and management’ of that child. The interest of the ‘de facto parent’ is a substantial one, recognized by the decision of this court in Guardianship of Shannon (1933) 218 Cal. 490 [23 P.2d 1020] and by courts of other jurisdictions and deserving of legal protection.” (In re B. G. (1974) 11 Cal.3d 679, 692-693 [114 Cal.Rptr. 444, 523 P.2d 244], *370fns. omitted; see Goldstein et al., Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973) pp. 17-20.)5
In summary, the interests of both Ronald W. and Donald R. vis-a-vis Michelle are subject to certain procedural and substantive protections no matter which of them is legally recognized as Michelle’s father. Those protections are based on common law, constitutional, and statutory principles.
Both men have developed a parent-child relationship with Michelle. At different times, each man has willingly assumed full parental responsibilities for her. Each man appears to be entitled to the application of the procedural protections and substantive standards available to a “de facto parent” (In re B. G., supra, 11 Cal.3d at pp. 692-693) or one standing in loco parentis to a child (Trudell v. Leatherby, supra, 212 Cal. at p. 682; Perry v. Superior Court, supra, 108 Cal.App.3d at p. 486 (cone. opn. of Hopper, J.).)
The protections afforded by the common law are consistent with constitutional due process concerns which arise whenever an established parent-child bond is threatened. Such concerns are implicated whether the “parent” is a stepfather (see Gribble v. Gribble, supra, 583 P.2d at pp. 67, 68), a man who claims to be the biological father (In re Lisa R., supra, 13 Cal.3d at p. 649; see Stanley v. Illinois (1972) 405 U.S. 645 [31 L.Ed.2d 551, 92 S.Ct. 1208]), or a foster parent (In re B. G., supra, 11 Cal.3d at p. 693).
In addition to these constitutional and common law rights, each man would have certain statutory rights in future proceedings affecting his relationship with Michelle. Donald R. would be entitled to notice and an opportunity to be heard on the issue of his right to reasonable visitation with Michelle in any proceeding to dissolve his marriage to Michelle’s mother. (§ 4351.5; see ante, at pp. 368-369.) Ronald W., even if the presumption that he is Michelle’s father had been successfully rebutted, could be granted reasonable visitation rights. (§ 4601.)
The majority assume that Donald R.’s interest in establishing his biological paternity of Michelle is outweighed by Ronald W.’s competing interest *371in protecting his developed parent-child relationship with her. The foregoing discussion exposes the fallacy of that assumption. In fact, Ronald W.’s relationship with Michelle is not in jeopardy. Their relationship has been reduced to one of regular visitation as the result of a marital dissolution. A judicial declaration that Donald R. is the legal and biological father of Michelle would not restrict or destroy that relationship.
On the other side of the scale, the majority obscure the nature of Donald R.’s interest by vaguely labeling his relationship with Michelle as an “association.” (See maj. opn., ante, at p. 365, fn. 8.) However the bond between Donald R. and Michelle is labeled, it is clear that they currently enjoy a day-to-day parent-child relationship with all of the practical attributes of legal custody. Maintaining the continuity of that relationship is important to the child’s psychological well-being. (See Rethinking Parenthood, supra, 70 Va. L.Rev. at pp. 902-911.) By denying plaintiffs the opportunity to establish that Donald R. is Michelle’s legal father, the majority assure that their relationship stands on a shaky legal foundation.
For example, if Donald R. and Judith W. were to divorce, Judith W. would be entitled to sole custody of Michelle. (See § 4600, subd. (b)(1).)6 If Judith W. died, Ronald W., not Donald R., would be entitled to sole custody as the legally recognized surviving “parent.” (Ibid.) Donald R. would be entitled to custody only (1) if both Judith W. and Ronald W. had given their consent or died, or (2) if a court found that an award of custody to either of them would be detrimental to Michelle. (See § 4600, subds. (b)(2), (c); see generally, Rethinking Parenthood, supra, 70 Va. L.Rev. at pp. 912-919.)
Thus, Donald R.’s interest in establishing his paternity is far from abstract. If any of the asserted interests in this case is abstract, it is the state’s interest in protecting the integrity of a nonexistent family.7
*372Whenever the conclusive presumption of paternity is challenged on due process grounds, competing interests must be carefully balanced. In this case, the result of that balancing process compels but one conclusion—that Donald R. must be permitted an opportunity to rebut the presumption. The recognized state interests in upholding the presumption are either nonexistent or entitled to no deference under the circumstances of this case. The family unit for which the majority reserve such solicitude ceased to exist long ago. Similarly, plaintiffs’ action poses no danger to the private interests of the “presumed” father, Ronald W.
On the other side of the scale is the emotional and familial bond which has developed between Donald R. and Michelle in their current living situation. Plaintiffs have demonstrated a substantial interest in establishing the legal foundation necessary to protect that bond. The majority have advanced *373no reason that will justify barring plaintiffs from making the attempt. Accordingly, I would reverse.

Unless otherwise noted, all statutory references are to the Civil Code.

Section 4601 provides: “Reasonable visitation rights shall be awarded to a parent unless it is shown that such visitation would be detrimental to the best interests of the child. In the discretion of the court, reasonable visitation rights may be granted to any other person having an interest in the welfare of the child.”

In marital dissolution actions, the jurisdiction of the superior court over child custody and visitation matters is restricted to the “ ‘minor children of the marriage.”’ (Perry, supra, 108 Cal.App.3d at p. 484, quoting § 4351; see also § 5151, subd. (2).)

Subdivision (a) of section 4351.5 provides: “Notwithstanding the provisions of Section 4351, in proceedings under Sections 4450 [annulment] and 4503 [dissolution or legal separation], the superior court has jurisdiction to award reasonable visitation rights to a person who is a party to the marriage that is the subject of the proceeding with respect to a minor child of the other party to the marriage, if visitation by that person is determined to be in the best interests of the minor child.”

The term “de facto parent” was used in In re B. G. “to refer to that person who, on a day-to-day basis, assumes the role of parent, seeking to fulfill both the child’s physical needs and his psychological need for affection and care.” (11 Cal.3d at p. 692, fn. 18.) The relationship of the term to the in loco parentis doctrine was not discussed. At least one court has used the two concepts interchangeably. (See In re Marriage of Halpern, supra, 133 Cal.App.3d at p. 310, fn. 3.)
In In re B. G., the foster parents of minors who had been adjudged dependent children of the juvenile court were granted standing to appear as parties in juvenile court proceedings. (11 Cal.3d at p. 693.) The question “[w]hether constitutional principles of due process or equal protection may require that a de facto parent, in some instances, receive rights of notice, hearing, or counsel afforded natural parents or guardians” was expressly left open. (Id., at p. 693, fn. 21.)

Section 4600 sets forth an order of preference to be followed by courts in making custody awards “according to the best interests of the child ....”(§ 4600, subd. (b); see § 4608.) Under the statutory scheme, joint custody is preferred, followed by custody with either parent. (Subd. (b)(1).)
If custody is not awarded to either parent, the next order of preference is for placement with a “person or persons in whose home the child has been living in a wholesome and stable environment.” (Subd. (b)(2).) Custody may not be awarded to a nonparent without the consent of the parents unless the court finds that an award of custody to a parent would be detrimental to the child. (Subd. (c).)
A noncustodial parent is entitled to reasonable visitation rights unless it is shown that visitation will be detrimental to the best interests of the child. (§ 4601.)

The majority properly reject Ronald W.’s argument that the conclusive presumption of paternity should be upheld to protect Michelle from being branded an illegitimate. (Maj. opn., ante, at fn. 5.) I would go further and expressly disapprove the cases which have cited avoidance of the stigma of illegitimacy as a policy consideration supporting a conclusive *372presumption. (Estate of Cornelious, supra, 35 Cal.3d at p. 465; In re Madalina (1917) 174 Cal. 693, 697 [164 P. 348, 1 A.L.R. 1629]; Vincent B. v. Joan R. (1981) 126 Cal.App.3d 619, 623 [179 Cal.Rptr. 9]; In re Marriage of B. (1981) 124 Cal.App.3d 524, 529-530 [177 Cal.Rptr. 429]; People v. Thompson (1979) 89 Cal.App.3d 193, 198 [152 Cal.Rptr. 478]; County of San Diego v. Brown (1978) 80 Cal.App.3d 297, 303 [145 Cal.Rptr. 483]; cf. In re Lisa R., supra, 13 Cal.3d at p. 650; People v. Sorensen (1968) 68 Cal.2d 280, 288-289 [66 Cal.Rptr. 7, 437 P.2d 495, 25 A.L.R.3d 1093]; Estate of Lund (1945) 26 Cal.2d 472, 480-482 [159 P.2d 643, 162 A.L.R. 606]; Estate of McNamara (1919) 181 Cal. 82, 95 [183 P. 552, 7 A.L.R. 313]; Estate of Walker (1917) 176 Cal. 402, 410 [168 P. 689]; Cramer v. Morrison (1979) 88 Cal.App.3d 873, 885 [153 Cal.Rptr. 865].)
Disapproval of these decisions to the extent that they rely on avoidance of the stigma of illegitimacy is supported by constitutional considerations. In this regard, the recent decision of the United States Supreme Court in Palmore v. Sidoti (1984) 466 U.S. 429 [80 L.Ed.2d 421, 104 S.Ct. 1879] is instructive. In that case, the court unanimously reversed the order of a Florida trial court which had awarded custody of a child to the father on the ground that the mother was cohabiting with a black man. The mother and the child were white. The trial court’s decision had turned solely on “what it regarded as the damaging impact on the child from remaining in a racially-mixed household.” (Id., at p. 432 [80 L.Ed.2d at p. 425, 104 S.Ct. at p. 1881].) The trial court had stated that “despite the strides that have been made in bettering relations between the races in this country,”, the child would inevitably “suffer from the social stigmatization that is sure to come.” (Ibid., italics omitted.)
In reversing, the high court held that the possibility of stigmatization due to racial biases and stereotypes was not a legitimate basis for the custody determination. “The Constitution cannot control such prejudices but neither can it tolerate them. Private biases may be outside the reach of the law, but the law cannot, directly or indirectly, give them effect.” (Palmore v. Sidoti, supra, 466 U.S. at p. 433 [80 L.Ed.2d at p. 426, 104 S.Ct. at p. 1882].)
The court left no doubt that the constitutional imperative governed the actions of judicial officers. (Palmore v. Sidoti, supra, 466 U.S. at p. 432, fn. 1 [80 L.Ed.2d at p. 425, 104 S.Ct. at p. 1881]; Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) 334 U.S. 1 [92 L.Ed. 1161, 68 S.Ct. 836, 3 A.L.R.2d 441]; Ex Parte Virginia (1880) 100 U.S. 339, 346-347 [25 L.Ed. 676, 679].) “ ‘Public officials sworn to uphold the Constitution may not avoid a constitutional duty by bowing to the hypothetical effects of private racial prejudice that they assume to be both widely and deeply held.’” (Palmore v. Sidoti, supra, 466 U.S. at p. 433 [80 L.Ed.2d at p. 426, 104 S.Ct. at p. 1882], quoting Palmer v. Thompson (1971) 403 U.S. 217, 260-261 [29 L.Ed.2d 438, 464-465, 91 S.Ct. 1940] (dis. opn. of White, J.).) Private prejudice based on illegitimacy should be accorded no greater judicial deference.