Court Opinion

ID: 9793284
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-31 02:45:38.708821+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T08:04:15.467747
License: Public Domain

Utter, J.
(concurring in part, dissenting in part) — I disagree with the majority's conclusion that AIDS testing of *99a sex offender is constitutionally valid even when that individual has not engaged in conduct capable of transmitting the virus. I would hold that AIDS testing of sex offenders is only permissible where there is probable cause to believe that an offense has been committed involving the transfer of blood, semen, or other bodily fluid capable of transmitting the AIDS virus.
In this case, the majority abandons one of the core elements of the Fourth Amendment, significantly diminishing the protection afforded by that amendment, on the grounds that sexual offenders are a "high-risk" group for transmission of the AIDS virus. While the majority's recognition of the grave public threat posed by AIDS is admirable, it is precisely when the public need seems most dire that we must most resolutely defend those freedoms which lie at the core of our society. As Justice Thurgood Marshall so aptly reminded us:
History teaches that grave threats to liberty often come in times of urgency, when constitutional rights seem too extravagant to endure. . . . [W]hen we allow fundamental freedoms to be sacrificed in the name of real or perceived exigency, we invariably come to regret it.
(Citations omitted.) Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives' Ass'n, 489 U.S. 602, 635, 103 L. Ed. 2d 639, 109 S. Ct. 1402, 1422 (1989) (Marshall, J., dissenting). Posterity will judge us not only in how effectively we as a society respond to crisis posed by the AIDS virus, but also by the extent to which we respect the liberty and dignity of our citizens as we face the challenge posed by AIDS.
I
The Fourth Amendment
The majority is correct in concluding AIDS testing of sexual offenders should be analyzed under the "special needs" doctrine described by the United States Supreme Court in Skinner. Nonetheless, I disagree with both the majority's interpretation of the "special needs" inquiry and with its application to the facts of the present case.
*100A
The Fourth Amendment to the federal constitution protects the citizens of this country against "unreasonable searches and seizures". U.S. Const, amend. 4. The touchstone of this protection is that "searches conducted outside the judicial process, without prior approval by judge or magistrate, are per se unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment — subject only to a few specifically established and well-delineated exceptions." California v. Acevedo,_U.S._, 114 L. Ed. 2d 619, 111 S. Ct. 1982, 1991 (1991) (quoting Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385, 390, 57 L. Ed. 2d 290, 98 S. Ct. 2408 (1978)).
One of those limited exceptions is the "special needs" test described in Skinner. Under this test, governmental agencies may dispense with the ordinary warrant and probable cause requirements when those requirements impede the pursuit of an important governmental objective. In Skinner, for example, the United States Supreme Court upheld a mandatory drug testing scheme for railroad employees that did not provide for individualized suspicion prior to testing.
In describing this "special needs" analysis, the Skinner Court stated: "When faced with . . . special needs, we have not hesitated to balance the governmental and privacy interests to assess the practicality of the warrant and probable cause requirements". 489 U.S. at 619.11
The "special needs" analysis therefore focuses not only on the need for the government to undertake a particular type of search, but also upon the need for the government to undertake such a search without the ordinary warrant and probable cause requirements. In other words, it is not only the special need to search that is at issue, but also the special need to search without a warrant or probable cause.
*101The holding of Skinner reflects this understanding of the "special needs" analysis. In Skinner, the Court focused its attention on the need to test without a warrant or probable cause, not simply on the need to test in the first place. The mandatory testing program was not upheld merely because of the grave need to ensure public safety, but rather because warrant and probable cause requirements would have been impractical under the circumstances. After identifying the need for safety, the Court described its inquiry: "The question that remains, then, is whether the Government's need to monitor compliance with these restrictions justifies the privacy intrusions at issue absent a warrant or individualized suspicion." 489 U.S. at 621.
In applying the test to the warrant requirement, the Skinner Court balanced the private interests in a warrant requirement against the impact such a requirement would have on the pursuit of public safety. In particular, the Court directed its inquiry to the extent to which a warrant requirement would "frustrate the governmental purpose behind the search.'" 489 U.S. at 623 (quoting Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 533, 18 L. Ed. 2d 930, 87 S. Ct. 1727 (1967)). See also Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 16 L. Ed. 2d 908, 86 S. Ct. 1826 (1966) (warrantless blood test for alcohol permissible because delay would allow alcohol to be physically absorbed, thus destroying evidence). After weighing these interests, the Court concluded the warrant requirement would be impractical under the circumstances.
The Court analyzed the probable cause requirement in similar fashion by asking whether such a requirement would place the government's interest "in jeopardy". 489 U.S. at 624. Ultimately, the Skinner Court dispensed with the probable cause requirement because "[i]t would be unrealistic, and inimical to the Government's goal of ensuring safety in rail transportation, to require a showing of individualized suspicion in these circumstances." 489 U.S. at 631.
This distinction between policy analysis of the testing itself and analysis of the warrant and probable cause requirements is more than a distinction without a difference. Simply *102because a pressing need for testing exists does not mean that a pressing need for testing without a warrant or probable cause exists. In Barlow v. Ground, 943 F.2d 1132 (9th Cir. 1991), for example, the Ninth Circuit held an otherwise reasonable search invalid for failure to obtain a warrant. The plaintiff, Barlow, had bitten two police officers during his arrest. Concerned about the possibility of AIDS, the police administered a nonconsensual blood test without a warrant. Later, the police attempted to justify the search on safety and health grounds. The Ninth Circuit rebuffed their efforts. It noted that "[i]t makes no difference to the officers' health whether Barlow was tested immediately, without a warrant, or a short time later pursuant to a warrant." 943 F.2d at 1139. Therefore, the police could show no reason for an immediate, warrantless search.
The Skinner framework thus appears clear enough. Even after the identification of a "special need", the Fourth Amendment requires a demonstration that a warrant or probable cause requirement is impractical. The "special needs" balancing should therefore compare the effect of such requirements on both an individual's privacy interests and upon the pursuit of the government's "special need".
B
The majority, however, applies a different version of this analysis. According to the majority, the essence of the "special needs" inquiry is "to balance the individual's interest in avoiding testing against the government’s interest in mandatory testing." Majority opinion, at 92. In stating the inquiry in this fashion, the Skinner analysis of the practicality of the probable cause requirement is mistaken for a policy evaluation of the need for the testing itself.
The majority's analysis of the competing interests at stake tracks its understanding of the "special needs" analysis. After discussing the "minimal Fourth Amendment intrusion" of blood testing, the majority describes the State's interests in testing. These interests are "a compelling interest in combating the spread of AIDS", majority opinion, at *10394, "protecting the rights of victims", majority opinion, at 94, "effective prison and probation management", majority opinion, at 94, and providing assistance to HIV-positive sex offenders, majority opinion, at 95.
As I outline in section C below, I do not believe these interests justify the sort of broad-gauged testing authorized by RCW 70.24.340. At this stage, however, the important analytic point is that none of these interests speak to the impracticality of probable cause. Each of these interests may provide justification for a testing program, even a nonconsensual testing program, but they do not explain a testing program without probable cause.
Following its "special needs" analysis, the majority does attempt to defend the statute's disturbing omission of probable cause. Principally, it argues that "the Legislature has reasonably determined that sexual offenders are a high-risk group for exposing others to the AIDS virus." Majority opinion, at 95. In essence, even if there is no reason to believe that a sexual offender transmitted bodily fluids in this particular instance, it is reasonable to assume they did so in the past (or will do so in the future) and therefore we can force them to undergo a test.
I cannot accept the logical implications of such a view. In essence, the majority has concluded that the Legislature need merely make a "reasonable determination" of risk in order to require mandatory testing. In this case, that determination means the mandatory testing of sex offenders. The majority's rationale, however, could be extended much further. If all the Legislature must do is make a "reasonable determination" of risk in order to require testing, what is to prevent the mandatory testing of other groups whose individual members are not charged and convicted of criminal conduct? Because I perceive no limiting principle to the majority's analysis, I cannot accept its reading of the Fourth Amendment. While the majority does specifically limit its holding, the inescapable implications to be drawn from the holding cannot be so limited.
*104Fourth Amendment "special needs” analysis should be based on the practicality of a probable cause requirement and not our "assumptions" about whether individuals may or may not be dangerous. In Skinner, drug testing without probable cause was allowed because it would have been impractical, not because Congress "reasonably assumed" railway employees to belong to a "high-risk" group.
The majority also attempts to defend the breadth of the statute due to the "ambiguity" of the contacts between offender and victim. Majority opinion, at 95-96. In this respect, it is use-fill to remember we are not considering proof, but merely probable cause. To require testing, the authorities would not need to prove transmission, but merely establish probable cause. Furthermore, the type of finding required by probable cause would be no different from a multitude of the factual findings we expect our trial courts to make daily.
C
Even if we accept the majority's view of "special needs" analysis, the interests it identifies are insufficient to justify the broad-gauged mandatory testing it seeks to uphold.
First, the majority argues "the State has a compelling interest in combating the spread of AIDS." Majority opinion, at 94. This argument, like the justification for the statute's lack of probable cause, proves too much. If "combating the spread of AIDS" is compelling and blood tests are only minimally intrusive,12 then conceivably the Legislature can constitutionally choose to require mandatory testing for any individual whether charged and convicted or not.
The majority next argues "[t]he State also has an interest in protecting the rights of victims." Majority opinion, at 94. It points out, appropriately, that victims left to wonder about their attacker's HIV status suffer real mental anguish. This *105concern is completely misplaced, however, in cases where there is no possibility of HIV infection. When there is no possibility of infection, the State's interest in protecting the victim of a sexual offender from AIDS is no greater than its interest in protecting the victim of a mugger or an automobile thief whose offense poses no possibility of HIV infection. Most importantly, such an interest cannot be said to be generally compelling. Such an interest would be compelling where there was a possibility of infection, as in the case where there was probable cause to believe there was a transmission of bodily fluids.
The majority also argues testing can "aid in effective prison and probation management by alerting officials to a sexual offender's HIV status." Majority opinion, at 94. It may be true that knowledge of the HIV status of prison inmates might serve the compelling state interest in prison management; however, the testing authorized by RCW 70.24.340(1)(a) is not associated in any fashion with incarceration.13 In fact, RCW 70.24.340 clearly requires testing when there is no possibility of incarceration.
The majority's concern with probation management is also unpersuasive. The majority does not explain how knowledge that a given individual is HIV positive will substantially assist a probation officer in the performance of his or her duties. While it is true that any information about a probationer may be useful to a probation officer, that alone does not indicate the presence of a compelling state interest.
Lastly, the majority contends "[t]he State has a further interest in aiding a sexual offender who is potentially HIV positive." Majority opinion, at 95. Again, this type of argument proves too much. The State's interest in assisting a sexual offender who is potentially HIV positive is no greater than its interest in assisting any other sort of criminal *106offender. Unless we are prepared to permit the Legislature to demand mandatory testing of all criminal offenders, we cannot accept the state interest put forth by the majority as compelling.
D
I believe an appropriate application of the "special needs" test would require the existence of probable cause to believe that transmission of bodily fluids occurred before nonconsensual HIV testing could take place.
The first step is to evaluate the individual's interest in a probable cause requirement. In doing so, we should be mindful of the invasiveness of an AIDS test. Although the United States Supreme Court has indicated that in some instances extraction of blood is minimally invasive for Fourth Amendment purposes,14 AIDS testing is different. First, the analysis of an individual's blood compromises the individual's privacy interest in his or her medical condition. This court has repeatedly emphasized that individuals have an important privacy interest in medical information. Howell v. Spokane & Inland Empire Blood Bank, 117 Wn.2d 619, 628, 818 P.2d 1056 (1991); Bedford v. Sugarman, 112 Wn.2d 500, 509-10, 772 P.2d 486 (1989).15
More importantly, AIDS testing, unlike blood alcohol or drug testing, can have a devastating impact on an individual's life. See Comment, When Rape Victims’ Rights Meet Privacy Rights: Mandatory HIV Testing, Striking the Fourth Amendment Balance, 67 Wash. L. Rev. 195, 208-09 (1992). The psychological impact on the individual has been com*107pared to a death sentence. People v. Thomas, 139 Misc. 2d 1072, 1075, 529 N.Y.S.2d 429, 431 (Cy. Ct. 1988); see also Glover v. Eastern Neb. Comm'ty Office of Retardation, 686 F. Supp. 243, 248 (D. Neb. 1988) (describing patients' reactions to a positive AIDS test as "devastation" that may lead to suicide), aff’d, 867 F.2d 461 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 932 (1989).
The social consequences can be equally devastating. A positive AIDS test may lead to discrimination in employment, education, housing, and medical treatment. Howell v. Spokane & Inland Empire Blood Bank, 117 Wn.2d 619, 628, 818 P.2d 1056 (1991); Note, Compulsory AIDS Testing of Individuals Who Assault Public Safety Officers: Protecting the Police or the Fourth Amendment?, 38 Wayne L. Rev. 461, 481 (1991-1992). The impact of a positive AIDS test on all aspects of a person's life is severe. Thus, individuals have a strong interest in restricting mandatory government AIDS testing. The probable cause requirement serves to protect this interest by limiting the opportunity for government imposed testing to those circumstances when transmission of the AIDS virus is possible.
The need for the probable cause requirement is not minimized by the provisions for limited disclosure in RCW 70.24-.105. The extent of disclosure does not diminish the psychological shock of a positive AIDS test. The long list of those other than the victim who can obtain the test results — state or local public health officers, claims management personnel, social services workers, and anyone who can demonstrate good cause, only to name a few — indicates that disclosure may not in fact be so limited. Even with limited disclosure, an inherent difficulty in keeping test results confidential remains. See Note, AIDS, Rape, and the Fourth Amendment: Schemes for Mandatory AIDS Testing of Sex Offenders, 43 Vand. L. Rev. 1607, 1633 (1990) (noting that many believe that there are too many opportunities for disclosure even where disclosure is restricted). One leak can have devastating consequences for an individual's privacy. Jane Doe v. Barrington, 729 F. Supp. 376, 378-79 (D.N.J. *1081990) (disclosure of Doe's HIV-positive status by police officer to a neighbor culminated in a maelstrom of public hysteria).
With respect to the government's interest, a probable cause requirement would not be impractical under the circumstances. While I agree the State has a powerful interest in protecting the victims of sexual offenders from AIDS,16 AIDS is transmitted "only by contact of open wounds or body cavities with blood, semen, or vaginal secretions — usually in sexual relations, by infusion or innoculation [sic] of blood in transfusions or intravenous needle-sharing activities or prenatally." Harris v. Thigpen, 727 F. Supp. 1564, 1567 (M.D. Ala. 1990), aff'd in part, vacated in part, 941 F.2d 1495 (11th Cir. 1991); see also Friedland & Klein, Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, 317 New Eng. J. Med. 1125, 1132 (Oct. 29, 1987) (noting that "[o]nly blood and semen have been directly implicated in transmission, and transmission by vaginal fluid and breast milk probably occurs"). Thus, the State's interest in protecting the victim of sexual assaults from AIDS is only implicated where there was a transmission of bodily fluids.
The Eighth Circuit has recognized the limited nature of the State's interest in this regard. In Glover v. Eastern Neb. Comm'ty Office of Retardation, 867 F.2d 461 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 932 (1989), that court held nonconsensual AIDS testing was unconstitutional where the risk of transmission was negligible or nonexistent. A Nebraska administrative agency had created a personnel policy requiring certain employees who serviced the needs of the retarded to submit to mandatory AIDS testing. The Eighth Circuit held that the risk of transmission to the agency's mentally retarded clients was negligible and therefore did not justify requiring employees to submit to an AIDS test. 867 F.2d at 464. Compare Leckelt v. Board of Comm'rs of Hosp. Dist. 1, 909 F.2d 820 (5th Cir. 1990) (mandatory testing permissible where nurse *109that lived with AIDS patient had repeated opportunities to exchange bodily fluids with patients). See also Note, Compulsory AIDS Testing of Individuals Who Assault Public Safety Officers: Protecting Police or the Fourth Amendment?, 38 Wayne L. Rev. 461, 479 (1991-1992) (arguing that AIDS testing only meets constitutional standards when an individual's conduct creates "a genuine risk of AIDS transmission").
Significantly, all of the cases cited by the majority where AIDS testing of sexual offenders has been approved involved the passage of bodily fluids. See People v. Thomas, 139 Misc. 2d 1072, 529 N.Y.S.2d 429 (Cy. Ct. 1988) (ordering blood test where sexual intercourse and oral sodomy); People v. Cook, 143 A.D.2d 486, 532 N.Y.S.2d 940 (ordering AIDS test of convicted rapist), appeal denied, 73 N.Y.2d 786 (1988); Government of V.I. v. Roberts, 756 F. Supp. 898 (D.V.I. 1991) (ordering testing of rapist). A legitimate concern for the psychological and physical well-being of the victims in these cases led to an approval of the test.
The probable cause requirement also does not impede the government's objectives because trial courts are perfectly capable of making a finding as to whether or not bodily fluids passed. See Johnetta J. v. Municipal Court, 218 Cal. App. 3d 1255, 1280, 267 Cal. Rptr. 666, 681 (1990) (holding that testing of a person who assaults a police officer is valid "if there is probable cause to believe the officer has been exposed to the assailant's bodily fluids"). (Italics mine.) Trial courts can make this determination, allowing testing where there is probable cause to believe the assailant committed an act which poses a risk of exposing a victim to the AIDS virus.
Given the strong individual interest in the probable cause requirement, and the absence of important reasons to dispense with that requirement, I do not find such a requirement impractical under the circumstances. Consequently, I would limit mandatory AIDS testing to cases where there is probable cause to believe transmission of bodily fluids took place.
II
Privacy
An analysis of the constitutional privacy issues in this case compels the same result.
*110The majority correctly notes that there are two types of privacy: the right to nondisclosure of personal information and the right to autonomous decisionmaking. Bedford v. Sugarman, 112 Wn.2d 500, 509, 772 P.2d 486 (1989). I disagree with the majority's conclusion that rational basis review is appropriate in evaluating the informational privacy claim. See Thorne v. El Segundo, 726 F.2d 459, 470 (9th Cir. 1983), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 979 (1984); United States v. Westinghouse Elec. Corp., 638 F.2d 570 (3d Cir. 1980); O'Hartigan v. Department of Personnel, 118 Wn.2d 111, 127-28, 821 P.2d 44 (1991) (Utter, J., concurring in part, dissenting in part); see also Note, The Constitutional Protection of Informational Privacy, 71 B.U.L. Rev. 133, 135 (1991) (arguing infringements in informational privacy implicate a fundamental right and should be subjected to intermediate scrutiny). Using rational basis review is particularly inappropriate because an individual's privacy interest in his or her HIV status is great, given the sensitivity of the information. See L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 15-16, at 1394-95 (2d ed. 1988) (noting the devastating consequences of disclosure).
Nonetheless, it is unnecessary to inquire at length as to whether AIDS testing of offenders where no bodily fluids have passed violates informational privacy, because it violates the other aspect of privacy, the right to personal autonomy. The nonconsensual taking of blood for AIDS testing implicates the personal autonomy branch of privacy, which is a fundamental right triggering strict scrutiny. State v. Farmer, 116 Wn.2d 414, 429, 805 P.2d 200 (1991).
Although the majority does acknowledge that strict scrutiny is appropriate for analyzing the autonomy rights of privacy, it fails to apply that test correctly. Therefore, it reaches the erroneous conclusion that AIDS testing is appropriate even where there is no passage of bodily fluids.
The majority correctly notes that where the State invades an individual's privacy, it has the burden of showing a compelling governmental interest that justifies the invasion, that the means used are narrowly tailored to meet that interest. Majority, at 96-97. In addition, the impact on a *111fundamental right cannot be unduly burdensome, i.e., government must use a less intrusive or restrictive method to achieve its interest where possible. See Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S. 753, 766-67, 84 L. Ed. 2d 662, 105 S. Ct. 1611, 1619-20 (1985) (no need to retrieve bullet from defendant's body where other substantial evidence available to convict him); Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374, 389, 54 L. Ed. 2d 618, 98 S. Ct. 673 (1978) (holding restriction on marriage unconstitutional where a state had other, less onerous means to realize its interests); Nixon v. Administrator of Gen. Servs., 433 U.S. 425, 456, 53 L. Ed. 2d 867, 97 S. Ct. 2777 (1977) (holding the Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act represented the least intrusive manner to promote the government's interest).
The State's interest in notifying the victim is compelling, and the means are narrowly tailored to achieve that end. Although it might be argued that testing the victim would be less intrusive than the offender, I reject that argument because of the long latency period before the virus could be detected in the victim.17
If the victims in this case have not suffered a contact that poses a risk of transmitting AIDS, the State's sole residual interest is in limiting the spread of the virus.18 Though this may be a compelling interest, nonconsensual AIDS testing is *112neither narrowly tailored nor the least intrusive means for the State to realize this interest.
First, the mechanism the State has chosen to further its interest is not narrowly tailored. There is no evidence that the juveniles here are part of a high-risk group. Certainly their conduct prior to the offenses they committed does not so indicate. The majority simply accepts the Legislature's sweeping judgment that all of those who are convicted of committing sex offenses should be tested. The majority's approach is more consistent with rational basis review, not the strict scrutiny we must apply when a fundamental right, such as privacy, is impacted.
In addition, because. AIDS testing infringes on a fundamental right, the State is obliged to use means which are the least destructive of individual liberty to achieve its goal. Other less intrusive means exist for the State to realize its interest in checking the spread of the AIDS virus. For example, the counseling already provided for in RCW 70.24.340(1) is an unintrusive way for the State to achieve its interest. Counseling can teach offenders about the AIDS virus and the risks of contracting or transmitting it.
Therefore, in the absence of a transfer of bodily fluids that poses a risk of transmitting AIDS, the State has failed to demonstrate that AIDS testing is either narrowly tailored or the least intrusive means for realizing its interest.
Ill
Conclusion
I would remand this case to the trial court to determine whether there was probable cause that any of these juvenile offenders passed bodily fluids to their victims that could give rise to the AIDS virus. An AIDS test should only be performed if the trial court determines that such contact did occur.
Johnson, J., concurs with Utter, J.
Reconsideration denied April 29, 1993.

This focus on the warrant and probable cause requirements was echoed in the companion case to Skinner. In National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 489 U.S. 656, 103 L. Ed. 2d 685, 109 S. Ct. 1384 (1989), the Court described the test as follows: ”[W]here a Fourth Amendment intrusion serves special governmental needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement, it is necessary to balance the individual's privacy expectations against the Government's interests to determine whether it is impractical to require a warrant or some level of individualized suspicion". 489 U.S. at 665-66.

"[I]t is 'society's judgment that blood tests do not constitute an unduly extensive imposition on an individual's personal privacy and bodily integrity.'" Majority opinion, at 92 (quoting Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S. 753, 762, 84 L. Ed. 2d 662, 105 S. Ct. 1611 (1985)).

Furthermore, the limitation of the statute to sexual offenders suggests that prison management was not in fact the concern motivating the Legislature in enacting RCW 70.24.340(1)(a).

See, e.g., Skinner, 489 U.S. at 625, 109 S. Ct. at 1417 (blood, breath, and urine tests for drugs and alcohol not intrusive).

Even those incarcerated in prison retain a significant privacy interest in their medical information. See Nolley v. County of Erie, 776 F. Supp. 715, 731 (W.D.N.Y. 1991) (holding prison inmates have a constitutional right to privacy that includes protection from unwarranted disclosure of their HIV status). John Doe v. Coughlin, 697 F. Supp. 1234 (N.D.N.Y. 1988) (prison inmate has a right to privacy in his AIDS diagnosis); Woods v. White, 689 F. Supp. 874 (W.D. Wis. 1988) (individual who had been convicted and imprisoned retains constitutional right to privacy), aff'd, 899 F.2d 17 (7th Cir. 1990).

As I have discussed above, the court upholds the statute on the broader grounds of limiting the spread of AIDS, as well as the "reasonable assumption" that sexual offenders are "high risk” to spread AIDS. As I have already detailed my dissatisfaction with those grounds, I will not repeat my comments here.

A newly infected victim will not test positive until at least 6 to 12 weeks after the date of exposure, and possibly longer. Blumberg, Transmission of the AIDS Virus Through Criminal Activity, 25 Crim. L. Bull. 454, 460 (1989).

The other reasons listed by the majority, the management of correctional facilities and aiding the offender, are not legitimate, and do not merit consideration.
First, because it is unclear from the record that the juveniles are or will be in a correctional facility, this is not a legitimate reason for allowing the test. In addition, the State has not argued that a correctional facility in the state will actually use this information for any valid purpose.
Second, the State’s interest in the offender’s well-being is severely limited, given the degree of intrusion into the individual's right of privacy and right to he free from bodily invasion. See In re Colyer, 99 Wn.2d 114, 120, 660 P.2d 738 (1983) (recognizing a terminally ill patient's constitutional right of privacy that encompasses the right to refuse treatment). In addition, the State can utilize a less intrusive means, through counseling and education, to achieve its interest in assisting the offender.