Court Opinion

ID: 9409668
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-07-19 00:00:43.784499+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:20:52.466234
License: Public Domain

Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791         Page: 1     Date Filed: 07/18/2023

           United States Court of Appeals
                for the Fifth Circuit
                                                                      United States Court of Appeals
                                                                               Fifth Circuit

                                                                             FILED
                                                                         July 18, 2023
                                  No. 22-20341                          Lyle W. Cayce
                                                                             Clerk

   Shamarian Austin, Dependent Administrator of the Estate of Jamal Ali
   Shaw, Deceased; Donna Thomas; Cliff Benjamin Mitchell,

                                                           Plaintiffs—Appellants,

                                      versus

   City of Pasadena, Texas; Martin E. Aguirre; Joanna S.
   Marroquin; Darlene McCain, also known as Rita M.
   McCain; Ryan W. Whitehead,

                                                        Defendants—Appellees.

                  Appeal from the United States District Court
                      for the Southern District of Texas
                            USDC No. 4:21-CV-774

   Before Higginbotham, Southwick, and Willett, Circuit Judges.
   Leslie H. Southwick, Circuit Judge:
         Plaintiffs claim law enforcement officers violated the Constitution
   when they responded to a detainee’s epileptic seizure in a jail cell by
   restraining and tasing him several times. The district court either dismissed
   or granted summary judgment on all claims in favor of the Defendants. We
   REVERSE the grant of qualified immunity for the individual Defendant-
   Officers as to the Section 1983 claims, and the grant of summary judgment
Case: 22-20341        Document: 00516824791             Page: 2      Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                         No. 22-20341

   on the claims for bystander liability. We AFFIRM the grant of summary
   judgment on municipal liability and on the claims under the Americans with
   Disabilities Act and Rehabilitation Act.
                FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
           At 2:33 a.m. on March 28, 2019, Pasadena Police Department Officer
   L. Arguetta arrested 32-year-old Jamal Ali Shaw for suspicion of public intox-
   ication. Officer Arguetta booked Shaw into the Defendant City of Pasadena
   jail. At 6:07 a.m., Pasadena Police Service Officer (“PSO”) 1 Joanna Marro-
   quin placed Shaw into detention Cell H without incident. Cell H is a holding
   cell for detainees held on Class-C misdemeanors, typically traffic warrants,
   awaiting a court appearance.
           A video recording 2 shows that, around 6:15 a.m., Shaw fell to the floor
   due to an epileptic seizure. Other detainees in Cell H alerted staff that Shaw
   was having a seizure. At around 6:16 a.m., Marroquin observed Cell H and
   made a call on the police radio requesting emergency medical services
   (“EMS”). PSO Ryan Whitehead and Marroquin then entered Cell H and
   removed all detainees other than Shaw.
           At 6:17 a.m., Marroquin and Whitehead entered Cell H. Shaw initially
   was lying on his side. He was making up and down movements with his head,
   convulsing, and foaming at the mouth. Shaw then rolled onto his back. After
   standing over Shaw’s convulsing body for about a minute, Marroquin and
   Whitehead placed their hands on Shaw’s back and shoulder. The district

           1
             Although Defendant-Officers Whitehead, Marroquin, and McCain have the title
   “Police Service Officer” or “PSO,” they are civilian employees and are neither licensed
   peace officers nor licensed jailers.
           2
            Defendants’ Exhibit 9 collects 15 videos. Most of the relevant events inside Cell
   H, from 6:15:15 to 6:27:50, are captured in a single video.

                                               2
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791            Page: 3    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                      No. 22-20341

   court found that “[i]t is unclear from the Jail Video what they are trying to
   do,” but that Defendants allege “they were trying to keep Shaw away from
   the wall,” while Plaintiffs claim “they [were] trying to ‘restrain him and turn
   him prone.’”
          Shaw then began to roll, kick, and allegedly bite Marroquin and White-
   head. Between 6:18 and 6:21 a.m., Whitehead and Marroquin kept their
   hands on Shaw, at times seeming to move him away from the wall and at other
   times appearing to restrain his limbs, while Shaw continued to move and kick.
   The district court again found that “[a]t times it is unclear from the video
   what the PSOs are attempting to do.”
          At 6:21 a.m., Whitehead attempted to pin and straddle Shaw. When
   the PSOs could not gain control of Shaw, Marroquin removed her Taser from
   her holster. She then deployed her Taser in “drive-stun” mode, which is
   used to force compliance through the pain of the electrical shock, several
   times to Shaw’s left side and leg between 6:21 to 6:22 a.m. 3 A fact question
   exists as to whether the Taser contacted Shaw each time, as he continued to
   move around and kick.
          Shaw then rolled away from the PSOs, got up, and walked toward the
   toilet area of the cell. At 6:22:48 a.m., PSO Supervisor Darlene McCain en-
   tered the cell. Shaw then moved toward Whitehead, who deployed the
   Taser. The Taser contacted Shaw’s chest, and he fell forward, face-first,
   onto the concrete floor. McCain and Marroquin backed up while Shaw
   thrashed on the floor and Whitehead continued to tase Shaw.
          At 6:23 a.m., McCain grabbed Shaw’s right hand and dragged him to
   the center of the cell. At that time, Whitehead tased Shaw again in the chest

          3
             Record evidence shows Marroquin and Whitehead had not received up-to-date
   Taser training.

                                           3
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791          Page: 4   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                    No. 22-20341

   for several seconds as Shaw kicked. All three PSOs attempted to restrain
   Shaw. Also at about 6:23 a.m., the ambulance arrived.
          At 6:24:40 a.m., Pasadena Police Officer Martin Aguirre entered Cell
   H. Aguirre joined the PSOs in restraining Shaw, and Aguirre pressed his
   knee into Shaw’s back. At 6:26:10 a.m., two Emergency Medical Techni-
   cians (“EMTs”) arrived at Cell H with a gurney, but they were denied entry
   and waited outside the cell. At 6:26:30 a.m., Aguirre completed handcuffing
   Shaw behind his back. The officers held Shaw down while Marroquin left
   the cell to retrieve a restraint chair at 6:27:27 a.m. A few seconds later,
   Whitehead and Aguirre grabbed Shaw’s shoulders and stood him up to walk
   him to the door, and Shaw fell. At this time, an EMT asked the officers if
   they wanted to place Shaw on the stretcher, but the officers declined.
          Approximately two minutes passed from when the EMTs first asked
   to help until they were allowed to do so. At 6:28 a.m., the officers strapped
   Shaw into the restraint chair and rolled him to the booking area for evaluation
   by the EMTs. The EMTs then administered Shaw two injections to calm his
   behavior at 6:36 a.m. and 6:44 a.m. Shaw remained in the restraint chair for
   approximately 17 minutes, until 6:47 a.m. While in the restraint chair, Shaw
   yelled, called for his mother, and cried “Help me,” but he could not respond
   to questions. Shaw eventually was moved to a gurney, and Aguirre hand-
   cuffed Shaw again.
          Shaw was placed in the ambulance. As it began to leave the jail at 6:57
   a.m., Shaw suffered cardiac arrest. He died the next day due to cardiopulmo-
   nary arrest.
          In March 2021, Plaintiffs filed suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against
   PSOs Marroquin, Whitehead, and McCain; Officer Aguirre; and the City of
   Pasadena. Plaintiffs filed their first amended complaint in May 2021. The
   district court granted Aguirre’s Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss Plaintiffs’

                                         4
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791            Page: 5    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                      No. 22-20341

   Section 1983 claims against him based on qualified immunity. The district
   court denied Aguirre’s motion to dismiss Plaintiffs’ claims based on by-
   stander liability and denied the City’s motion to dismiss in full.
          After discovery, all Defendants moved for summary judgment on all
   remaining claims. On June 6, 2022, the district court granted the Defend-
   ants’ motion for summary judgment in full. The district court entered final
   judgment on June 6, 2022. Plaintiffs timely appealed.
                                    DISCUSSION
          We review a grant of summary judgment de novo, applying the same
   standard as a district court. Austin v. Kroger Tex., L.P., 864 F.3d 326, 328
   (5th Cir. 2017). Summary judgment is appropriate if “the movant shows that
   there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact and the movant is entitled
   to judgment as a matter of law.” FED. R. CIV. P. 56(a). Factual disputes are
   material if they “might affect the outcome of the suit under the governing
   law,” and they are genuine “if the evidence is such that a reasonable jury
   could return a verdict for the nonmoving party.” Anderson v. Liberty Lobby,
   Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 248 (1986). Where an individual defendant asserts quali-
   fied immunity, plaintiffs “must rebut the defense by establishing a genuine
   fact issue as to whether the official’s allegedly wrongful conduct violated
   clearly established law.” Vann v. City of Southaven, 884 F.3d 307, 309 (5th
   Cir. 2018) (quotation marks and citations omitted).
          We also review de novo a district court’s order granting a motion to
   dismiss for failure to state a claim under Rule 12(b)(6). Converse v. City of
   Kemah, 961 F.3d 771, 774 (5th Cir. 2020). “To survive a motion to dismiss,
   a complaint must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to ‘state
   a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.’” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662,
   678 (2009) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007)).
   “A claim has facial plausibility when the plaintiff pleads factual content that

                                           5
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791          Page: 6    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                    No. 22-20341

   allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the defendant is liable
   for the misconduct alleged.” Id. at 678. The complaint “must be supported
   by factual allegations,” id. at 679, which must “raise a right to relief above
   the speculative level.” Cuvillier v. Taylor, 503 F.3d 397, 401 (5th Cir. 2007)
   (quotation marks and citation omitted).
          On appeal, Plaintiffs challenge both the district court’s order granting
   summary judgment and the district court’s order granting dismissal of their
   claims against Aguirre based on his own conduct. Plaintiffs contend the dis-
   trict court erred in the following ways: (1) in granting summary judgment for
   the individual officers (Marroquin, Whitehead, and McCain) based on qual-
   ified immunity as to the Section 1983 claims for excessive force and im-
   proper/delayed medical treatment; (2) in dismissing under Rule 12(b)(6) the
   Section 1983 claims against Aguirre based on qualified immunity; (3) in
   granting summary judgment on the bystander claims; (4) in granting sum-
   mary judgment on municipality liability against the City; and (5) in granting
   summary judgment on the claims under the Americans with Disabilities Act
   (“ADA”) and the Rehabilitation Act (“RA”).
          We address the arguments in that order.
          I.     Defendant-Officers’ qualified immunity as to claims for excessive
                 force and for improper/delayed medical treatment
          We begin with the claims against individual Defendant-Officers Mar-
   roquin, Whitehead, and McCain for excessive force and improper/delayed
   medical treatment. “Qualified immunity protects officers from suit unless
   their conduct violates a clearly established right.” Mace v. City of Palestine,
   333 F.3d 621, 623 (5th Cir. 2003). The test for qualified immunity involves
   two steps: “first we ask whether the officer’s alleged conduct has violated a
   federal right; . . . second we ask whether the right in question was ‘clearly
   established’ at the time of the alleged violation, such that the officer was on

                                          6
Case: 22-20341         Document: 00516824791         Page: 7     Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                      No. 22-20341

   notice of the unlawfulness of his or her conduct.” Solis v. Serrett, 31 F.4th
   975, 981 (5th Cir. 2022) (quoting Cole v. Carson, 935 F.3d 444, 451 (5th Cir.
   2019) (en banc)).
          “A clearly established right is one that is sufficiently clear that every
   reasonable official would have understood that what he is doing violates that
   right.” Mullenix v. Luna, 577 U.S. 7, 11 (2015) (quotation marks and citation
   omitted). “[C]ases involving fundamentally similar facts” are not always
   necessary to provide the “fair warning” that officers require. Hope v. Pelzer,
   536 U.S. 730, 741 (2002) (quotation marks omitted). Furthermore, “a gen-
   eral constitutional rule already identified in the decisional law may apply with
   obvious clarity to the specific conduct in question.” Id.
                  a.      Excessive force
          The district court granted qualified immunity for the individual De-
   fendant-Officers as to the excessive force claim because Plaintiffs failed to
   “identify . . . case law on point” that established it is unconstitutional repeat-
   edly to tase someone experiencing a medical seizure. Defendants maintain
   that the caselaw at the time of Shaw’s incarceration does not clearly establish
   the officers’ actions were unlawful. They allege no opinion was discovered
   “where an officer acting under similar circumstances . . . was held to have
   violated the Fourth Amendment.” See White v. Pauly, 580 U.S. 73, 79 (2017).
   Plaintiffs insist it is well established in precedents that using force on a subject
   who is not resisting is unconstitutional.
          Because we may begin our analysis under either qualified immunity
   factor, we start with the merits of the excessive force claim. See Timpa v.
   Dillard, 20 F.4th 1020, 1029 (5th Cir. 2021).

                                            7
Case: 22-20341        Document: 00516824791             Page: 8      Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                        No. 22-20341

                           i.      Factor 1: violation of a federal right
           “A pretrial detainee receives the protection of the Due Process Clause
   of the Fourteenth Amendment.” Brothers v. Klevenhagen, 28 F.3d 452, 455–
   56 (5th Cir. 1994). Force against a pretrial detainee is “excessive” and a vi-
   olation of the Fourteenth Amendment when the force was objectively unrea-
   sonable. Kingsley v. Hendrickson, 576 U.S. 389, 396–97 (2015). Courts weigh
   the following factors to determine reasonableness:
           the relationship between the need for the use of force and the
           amount of force used; the extent of the plaintiff’s injury; any
           effort made by the officer to temper or to limit the amount of
           force; the severity of the security problem at issue; the threat
           reasonably perceived by the officer; and whether the plaintiff
           was actively resisting.
   Id. at 397. 4
           “The ‘reasonableness’ of a particular use of force must be judged
   from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene, rather than with the
   20/20 vision of hindsight.” Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386, 396 (1989).
   “The calculus of reasonableness must embody allowance for the fact that po-
   lice officers are often forced to make split-second judgments — in circum-
   stances that are tense, uncertain, and rapidly evolving — about the amount
   of force that is necessary in a particular situation.” Id. at 396–97. “If an

           4
              The Supreme Court explained that the factors governing the “objective
   reasonableness” of an officer’s force for Fourteenth Amendment purposes are the same
   factors that apply in the Fourth Amendment context. See id. (citing Graham v. Connor, 490
   U.S. 386, 396 (1989)). The Supreme Court established the standard governing excessive
   force under the Fourth Amendment in Graham, 490 U.S. at 396–97. Consistent with that
   precedent, this court has treated the standards for Fourth and Fourteenth Amendment
   excessive force claims as interchangeable. See, e.g., Timpa, 20 F.4th at 1029 (quoting
   Kingsley in analysis of Fourth Amendment excessive-force claim); Cole v. Carson, 935 F.3d
   444, 456 (5th Cir. 2019) (en banc) (same).

                                              8
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791           Page: 9     Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                     No. 22-20341

   officer reasonably, but mistakenly, believed that a suspect was likely to fight
   back, for instance, the officer would be justified in using more force than in
   fact was needed.” Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 205 (2001). This court has
   made clear that force which is disproportionate to the need is unreasonable.
   Joseph on behalf of Est. of Joseph v. Bartlett, 981 F.3d 319, 324 (5th Cir. 2020).
          Turning to this case, Plaintiffs maintain that the Defendant-Officers’
   actions constituted excessive force under the Kingsley factors. Defendants
   respond that the officers’ use of force was justified and reasonable because
   Shaw was actively resisting restraint by kicking at and attempting to bite
   them. They assert the officers “used only that force necessary to secure
   Shaw to prevent Shaw from injuring himself, the Appellees and paramedics,
   and to get Shaw medical aid.” Thus, Defendants argue, there is no issue of
   material fact as to whether the officers used excessive force.
          Defendants contend the present situation is analogous to Wagner v.
   Bay City, 227 F.3d 316 (5th Cir. 2000). That case involved the arrest of a
   suspect who initiated a violent physical altercation with the officers, “swing-
   ing his fists[] [and] striking” them. Id. at 318. The officers placed the suspect
   in the prone position with bodyweight force on his back while they applied
   handcuffs. Id. at 319. Once restrained, the officers placed the suspect on his
   stomach in the prone position in their patrol car to be transported to jail,
   where they discovered he was not breathing, and he later died. Id. This court
   held the officers’ use of force was reasonable because the suspect had vio-
   lently continued to resist arrest during the officers’ use of force and “there
   were no apparent physical signs that [the suspect] was substantially at risk”
   of asphyxiation. Id. at 324.
          Defendants contend that, similarly, here, the Defendant-Officers used
   a Taser to respond to a detainee who was actively resisting restraint and on
   whom openhand restraint efforts had failed. They allege that some of the

                                           9
Case: 22-20341       Document: 00516824791         Page: 10      Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                    No. 22-20341

   physical struggle with Shaw was due to the officers’ efforts to place Shaw on
   his side so his breathing would not be inhibited by his body position while the
   officers awaited EMS. Thus, Defendants argue, this court’s precedent at the
   time of Shaw’s arrest authorized the Defendant-Officers’ actions.
          Plaintiffs counter that we should distinguish the present situation
   from Wagner, just as we did in Timpa v. Dillard. See 20 F.4th at 1037–38. In
   Timpa, we reversed a grant of qualified immunity to officers who held a man
   experiencing a mental health episode, known as “excited delirium,” in a
   prone position for nearly 15 minutes, leading to his death. Id. at 1025–26.
   Timpa involved officers responding to a medical emergency, which this court
   emphasized only “sharpen[ed] the excessiveness” of the use of force in light
   of precedents involving arrestees “suspected of serious crimes.” Id. at 1036.
   The officer claimed his use of force was reasonable because the subject con-
   tinued to struggle against him. See id. at 1030–31. The court rejected that
   argument based on record evidence showing that “an objectively reasonable
   officer with [the defendant’s] training would have concluded” that someone
   experiencing excited delirium was prone to asphyxiation and would be
   “struggling to breathe, not resisting arrest.” Id. at 1031.
          The Timpa court found the following factors distinguishing: “Wagner
   did not speak to the use of force at issue here — a prone restraint with body-
   weight force while Timpa was restrained and subdued.” Id. at 1038 (emphasis
   added). Additionally, Timpa never engaged in a violent altercation, officers
   continued kneeling on Timpa and holding him prone after he was subdued,
   and Timpa had characteristics that placed him at risk for asphyxiation. See
   id. at 1037–38.
          It is undisputed that, just as in Timpa, the officers in this case were
   responding only to the medical emergency Shaw was experiencing, not to any

                                         10
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791            Page: 11   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                     No. 22-20341

   purported disturbance or danger to others. The officers stated in police rec-
   ords that they were aware Shaw was experiencing a seizure as reported.
          Additionally, record evidence supports that Shaw was not actively re-
   sisting and that the officers were aware of this. Whitehead testified during
   his deposition that he understood that a person suffering from a seizure typ-
   ically remains confused and disoriented afterwards. Similarly, Marroquin
   testified during her deposition that she understands that “a person having a
   seizure [would have] involuntary movements,” that “they [would do] things
   that they weren’t intentionally doing,” and that such a person was “not in
   control.” In fact, the district court acknowledged Shaw was “experiencing a
   seizure and subsequently [was] in a disoriented postictal state, perhaps lash-
   ing-out out of fear, anxiety, confusion, and agitation.” Indeed, Marroquin
   stated in her deposition that Shaw was “still incoherent” when being treated
   in the booking area. This is further confirmed by the records of EMS person-
   nel who recorded Shaw’s mental status as “Not Normal,” and described
   Shaw as frightened, crying for help, and unable to respond to questions. The
   district court properly found that genuine factual disputes remain as to
   “when exactly Shaw’s seizure end[ed] and when his postictal state [began],
   whether Shaw [was] in fact experiencing a series of seizures, and the extent
   of his consciousness” throughout the incident. A jury could therefore infer
   the officers knew when shocking and restraining Shaw that he was incapable
   of understanding commands or rationally responding to “pain compliance.”
          Moreover, Plaintiffs also presented evidence that the officers knew
   Shaw to be generally “kind and respectful” and not aggressive when sober.
   According to the autopsy, Shaw was sober during the events at issue here.
   This demonstrates that, just as in Timpa, a jury could find that reasonable
   officers in Defendants’ position would not have believed Shaw needed to be
   restrained as if he were actively resisting.

                                          11
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791             Page: 12   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                      No. 22-20341

          Plaintiffs also contend the Kingsley factors weigh in their favor here,
   just as they did in Fairchild v. Coryell County, 40 F.4th 359 (5th Cir. 2022).
   Fairchild concerned an excessive-force claim brought by the parents of a pre-
   trial detainee who died after “jailers continued to apply pressure to [the de-
   tainee’s] neck, back, and legs for more than two minutes” after she had
   stopped resisting. Id. at 368. It was undisputed that the detainee actively
   resisted the jailers at the beginning of the encounter, including grabbing their
   handcuffs and “kick[ing] and bit[ing]” one of the jailers. Id. at 363. Relying
   on Timpa, among other cases, the court held that the “continued use of bod-
   yweight force to hold [the detainee] in the prone restraint position after [she]
   was subdued” was unreasonable. Id. at 368 (quoting Timpa, 20 F.4th at 1036)
   (second alteration in original).
          The Fairchild court found the detainee’s “nonviolent noise disturb-
   ance” — “tapping her hairbrush against the window and knocking her hips
   against the door of her cell” — to be a “low security threat.” Id. at 365–66.
   Similarly, here, the security threat here was low or nonexistent. Shaw fell ill
   and threatened no one; other detainees were promptly transferred to another
   cell; and Shaw remained confined.
          Additionally, in both cases, fact issues exist as to whether the jailers
   responded to the situations reasonably pursuant to their training. See id.
   Marroquin testified during her deposition that she learned, through her job
   as a PSO, that in responding to a seizure, officers should “place the person
   on their side, place something under their head so they don’t hurt them-
   selves, and obviously [] call ambulance right away.” She also testified that
   she was trained to avoid causing someone to suffer positional asphyxiation,
   which is “[p]lacing someone in a compromising position that can stop them
   from breathing.” As such, she was trained not to place detainees face-down
   on their chests.    Also, according to Plaintiffs’ corrections expert, law

                                           12
Case: 22-20341        Document: 00516824791               Page: 13        Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                           No. 22-20341

   enforcement officers typically are taught to avoid shooting Tasers at the chest
   because of the significantly increased risk of causing a heart attack.
           Based on this record, nothing prevented the officers from deescalat-
   ing, leaving the cell, and waiting for EMS to arrive. Plaintiffs’ corrections
   expert stated no reasonable jailer would enter the cell to initiate force against
   Shaw before the arrival of EMS; jailers should know not to restrain persons
   suffering an epileptic seizure; and jailers should recognize that any flailing of
   the victim’s limbs is not directed toward the jailers but is a result of the sei-
   zure. A jury could find that a reasonable officer in the Defendant-Officers’
   position would have done little more than cushion Shaw’s head as they were
   trained to do.
           Furthermore, the video evidence both in Fairchild and here does not
   conclusively refute the plaintiffs’ reasonable views of the evidence that the
   detainees only passively (or involuntarily, in Shaw’s case) resisted before the
   officers initiated and escalated force. See id. at 363–64, 366 n.6. The videos
   in both cases also do not conclusively refute the plaintiffs’ views that the of-
   ficers continued to unnecessarily apply force after the detainees were sub-
   dued. See id. In both cases, a jury could conclude that the force employed
   was disproportionate to the need 5 and that “the jailers engaged in excessive
   force at various periods once they entered [the detainee’s] cell.” See id. at
   367. Plaintiffs assert that if “the individual cannot understand why he is be-
   ing shocked, is unable to control his body, and cannot understand and

           5
              Defendants contend that force was necessary to “help” Shaw. As this court
   discussed in an unpublished case, “where a seizure’s sole justification is preventing harm
   to the subject of the seizure, the government has little interest in using force to effect that
   seizure. Rather, using force likely to harm the subject is manifestly contrary to the
   government’s interest in initiating that seizure.” Pena v. City of Rio Grande City, 816 F.
   App’x 966, 972 n.9 (5th Cir. 2020) (quotation marks and citation omitted) (emphasis in
   original).

                                                 13
Case: 22-20341       Document: 00516824791              Page: 14       Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                         No. 22-20341

   respond to commands even if they were given, repeatedly inflicting pain re-
   sults in nothing but torture” and “does so at the extreme risk of causing as-
   phyxiation and a heart attack.”
           Moreover, “we have placed weight on the quickness with which law
   enforcement personnel have escalated from negotiation to force.” Brothers
   v. Zoss, 837 F.3d 513, 520 (5th Cir. 2016). Here, only three minutes elapsed
   between when two of the officers initially “place[d] their hands on” Shaw
   and when they first attempted to tase him — a rapid escalation, given that
   the only justification for using force at all was to help Shaw, who had just
   experienced (or was still experiencing) a seizure.
           Therefore, viewing the record in the light favorable to Plaintiffs, a jury
   could find that a reasonable officer would have concluded that Shaw was con-
   tinuing to experience a seizure or was in a postictal state, not actively resisting
   the officers, and that the physical restraint used here — particularly tasing
   Shaw multiple times — constituted excessive force in violation of his Four-
   teenth Amendment rights. 6 “Ultimately, it is the job of the factfinder, not of
   this court, to resolve those factual disputes for itself. A jury’s interpretation
   ensures that legal judgments of reasonableness hew closely to widely shared
   expectations of the use of force by our police officers.” Timpa, 20 F.4th at
   1032.
                   ii.     Factor 2: clearly established law
           To repeat, the district court determined Plaintiffs had not identified
   on-point authority establishing that repeatedly tasing someone who is

           6
             Although a court must consider the separate acts of each defendant, it need not
   perform a separate analysis for each. Meadours v. Ermel, 483 F.3d 417, 422 n.3 (5th Cir.
   2007). Defendants assert, “the district court here properly conducted its evaluation of the
   four Officer Defendants together because the analysis as to each individual officer is not
   materially different in light of video evidence.” We agree.

                                               14
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791            Page: 15    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                     No. 22-20341

   experiencing a seizure is unconstitutional. Qualified immunity is appropriate
   “unless existing precedent squarely governs the specific facts at issue.”
   Kisela v. Hughes, 138 S. Ct. 1148, 1153 (2018) (quotation marks and citation
   omitted). Even so, it is not necessary that “the very action in question has
   previously been held unlawful.” Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 640
   (1987). Instead, there can be “notable factual distinctions between the prec-
   edents relied on . . . so long as the prior decisions gave reasonable warning
   that the conduct then at issue violated constitutional rights.” Hope, 536 U.S.
   at 740 (quotations marks and citation omitted).
          “In the excessive force context, a constitutional violation is clearly es-
   tablished if no reasonable officer could believe the act was lawful.” Darden
   v. City of Ft. Worth, 880 F.3d 722, 727 (5th Cir. 2018). We recently held that
   in this circuit, “the law has long been clearly established that an officer’s con-
   tinued use of force on a restrained and subdued subject is objectively unrea-
   sonable.” Timpa, 20 F.4th at 1034 (collecting cases). For instance, in Bush
   v. Strain, 513 F.3d 492 (5th Cir. 2008), this court held that an officer who
   slammed an arrestee’s face into a car after she was “handcuffed and sub-
   dued,” id. at 501, was not entitled to qualified immunity. Notably, in that
   case the officer claimed the arrestee “continued resisting arrest while he at-
   tempted to cuff her.” Id. at 496. We determined, though, the duration of the
   arrestee’s resistance was a disputed fact which precluded qualified immunity
   at the summary judgment stage. Id. at 502. This court has clarified that
   “‘subdued’ does not mean ‘handcuffed.’ If the suspect lacks any means of
   evading custody — for example, by being pinned to the ground by multiple
   police officers — force is not justified.” Joseph, 981 F.3d at 335.
          Furthermore, in Darden v. City of Fort Worth, we held that “a consti-
   tutional violation occurs when an officer tases, strikes, or violently slams” a
   subject who “is not actively resisting.” 880 F.3d at 731. In that case, we
   reversed the grant of qualified immunity to officers who physically restrained

                                           15
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791            Page: 16    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                     No. 22-20341

   and repeatedly tased a man they suspected of dealing cocaine. Id. at 725–26.
   While the officers claimed the arrestee was not complying with their com-
   mands and struggled against their restraint, the court determined a factual
   dispute remained as to whether the arrestee, who was asthmatic and told the
   officers he could not breathe, was “merely trying to get into a position where
   he could breathe and was not resisting arrest.” Id. at 730.
          In addition to Darden, we have reversed the grant of qualified immun-
   ity to officers in several other cases involving excessive force with Tasers.
   See, e.g., Ramirez v. Martinez, 716 F.3d 369, 379 (5th Cir. 2013) (tasing a re-
   strained, subdued subject in prone position); Newman v. Guedry, 703 F.3d
   757, 764 (5th Cir. 2012) (tasing a subdued subject); Anderson v. McCaleb, 480
   F. App’x 768, 773 (5th Cir. 2012) (tasing a subject who was no longer resist-
   ing); Massey v. Wharton, 477 F. App’x 256, 263 (5th Cir. 2012) (tasing a sub-
   ject who was not resisting, was not a threat to the officers or others, and was
   not attempting to flee); Autin v. City of Baytown, 174 F. App’x 183, 186 (5th
   Cir. 2005) (tasing a subdued subject who was not resisting).
          These cases clearly established the alleged unreasonableness of the
   Defendant-Officers’ continued tasing and use of force to restrain Shaw after
   he was subdued and restrained and when he was not actively resisting due to
   a medical emergency. Genuine fact disputes exist as to whether the Defend-
   ant-Officers restrained and subdued Shaw before they continued to tase him,
   hold him in prone position on his chest with an officer’s knee pressed to his
   back, and handcuff him in a restraint chair. Similarly, factual disputes remain
   regarding whether Shaw was actively resisting restraint or was merely pas-
   sively/involuntarily resisting due to the effects of his seizure.
          This conclusion comports with a recent decision of another circuit
   that has considered similar facts. See Helm v. Rainbow City, 989 F.3d 1265
   (11th Cir. 2021). There, police officers repeatedly tased a young woman

                                          16
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791           Page: 17   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                     No. 22-20341

   while she was experiencing a seizure. Id. at 1269. “Tasing an individual once
   (let alone three times) when the individual poses no threat to the officers or
   others and is experiencing a medical emergency” is so “patently excessive
   that the constitutional violation was clearly established,” “even in the ab-
   sence of case law.” Id. at 1276 (quotation marks and citation omitted).
           Because at the time of this incident it was clearly established that the
   continued use of force, particularly tasing, against a restrained and subdued
   subject who was not actively resisting due to a medical emergency violates
   the Fourteenth Amendment, the Defendant-Officers are not entitled to qual-
   ified immunity, as fact issues remain.
           b.     Deprivation of essential medical care
           The district court also granted the Defendant-Officers qualified im-
   munity as to the claim for deprivation of essential medical care, finding that
   Plaintiffs did not show the officers violated Shaw’s right to medical care. The
   Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees pretrial de-
   tainees the right “not to have their serious medical needs met with deliberate
   indifference on the part of the confining officials.” Thompson v. Upshur Cnty.,
   245 F.3d 447, 457 (5th Cir. 2001). “Deliberate indifference is an extremely
   high standard to meet.” Domino v. Tex. Dep’t of Crim. Just., 239 F.3d 752,
   756 (5th Cir. 2001). To succeed on a deliberate-indifference claim, plaintiffs
   must show (1) the official was “aware of facts from which the inference could
   be drawn that a substantial risk of serious harm exists,” and (2) the official
   actually drew that inference. Id. at 755 (quotation marks and citation omit-
   ted).
           Deliberate indifference may be established through inferences arising
   from circumstantial evidence, and a factfinder may infer the requisite
   knowledge from the fact that the risk of harm was “obvious.” See Farmer v.
   Brennan, 511 U.S. 825, 842 (1994); Dyer v. Houston, 964 F.3d 374, 385 (5th

                                            17
Case: 22-20341        Document: 00516824791              Page: 18       Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                          No. 22-20341

   Cir. 2020) (reasonable juror could conclude officer was deliberately indiffer-
   ent where unjustifiably high risk to detainee’s health was obvious). An officer
   acts with deliberate indifference to a detainee’s serious medical needs if the
   officer “refuse[s] to treat him, ignore[s] his complaints, intentionally treat[s]
   him incorrectly, or engage[s] in any similar conduct that would clearly evince
   a wanton disregard for any serious medical needs.” Sims v. Griffin, 35 F.4th
   945, 951 (5th Cir. 2022) (quotation marks and citation omitted). A prison
   guard is deliberately indifferent if he intentionally denies or delays access to
   medical care or intentionally treats the detainee incorrectly. Estelle v. Gam-
   ble, 429 U.S. 97, 104–05 (1976).
           A delay in medical care violates the Constitution “if there has been
   deliberate indifference [that] results in substantial harm.” Easter v. Powell, 467
   F.3d 459, 464 (5th Cir. 2006) (quotation marks and citation omitted) (em-
   phasis and alternation in original). “[P]romptly failing to call for emergency
   assistance when a detainee faces a known, serious medical emergency . . .
   constitutes unconstitutional conduct.” Cope v. Cogdill, 3 F.4th 198, 209 (5th
   Cir. 2021), cert. denied, 142 S. Ct. 2573 (2022). The detainee need not die, or
   be permanently impaired, before an actionable claim arises for delayed emer-
   gency treatment; rather, a plaintiff may recover for pain suffered during a de-
   lay in treatment caused by deliberate indifference. Alderson v. Concordia Par.
   Corr. Facility, 848 F.3d 415, 422–23 (5th Cir. 2017). 7

           7
             Plaintiffs also cite Eleventh Circuit caselaw that further fleshes out the standard
   for deliberate indifference in this context. The tolerable length of delay in providing
   medical attention depends on the nature of the medical need and the reason for the delay.
   Harris v. Coweta Cnty., 21 F.3d 388, 393–94 (11th Cir. 1994). Evaluating a delay in
   providing medical attention for life-threatening injuries such as asphyxiation “is especially
   time-sensitive and must ordinarily be measured not in hours, but in a few minutes.” See
   Valderrama v. Rousseau, 780 F.3d 1108, 1120 (11th Cir. 2015) (quotation marks and citation
   omitted). “[W]hen officers intentionally delay seeking treatment for a life-threatening
   injury, they act with deliberate indifference.” Id. at 1121. A jury can infer deliberate

                                                18
Case: 22-20341       Document: 00516824791              Page: 19       Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                         No. 22-20341

            In this case, it is undisputed that Marroquin called for EMS immedi-
   ately upon realizing Shaw was experiencing a seizure. The district court con-
   cluded Plaintiffs did not show deliberate indifference because the officers’
   “response of immediately calling an ambulance and attempting to restrain
   Shaw before putting him in the gurney was appropriate in light of his contin-
   ued resistance and Defendants’ concern for the safety of Shaw, themselves,
   and the EMTs.” Defendants assert the district court properly granted sum-
   mary judgment on this claim, as the Defendant-Officers promptly and ade-
   quately provided Shaw access to essential medical care consistent with this
   court’s holding in Hare v. City of Corinth, 74 F.3d 633, 650 (5th Cir. 1996) (en
   banc).
            In response, Plaintiffs maintain the Defendant-Officers acted with de-
   liberate indifference in improperly treating Shaw. The Defendant-Officers
   were trained to do the following in response to a detainee’s seizure: “place
   the person on their side, place something under their head so they don’t hurt
   themselves, and obviously [] call ambulance right away.” Additionally, in
   order to avoid someone suffering positional asphyxiation, they were trained
   to “[o]bviously not have [a detainee] on their chest.” As Plaintiffs’ correc-
   tions expert stated, law enforcement officers typically are taught to avoid
   shooting Tasers at the chest because of the significantly increased risk of
   causing a heart attack.
            The officers also understood that a person suffering from a seizure
   typically remains confused and disoriented afterwards and experiences invol-
   untary movements. The Defendant-Officers, however, seemingly responded
   counter to the training and arguably exacerbated Shaw’s condition. They did

   indifference when an officer fails to justify or explain a delay in medical treatment. Wade
   v. Daniels, 36 F.4th 1318, 1327–28 (11th Cir. 2022).

                                               19
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791           Page: 20    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                    No. 22-20341

   not cushion Shaw’s head but, instead, applied force while he likely was in a
   confused state and unable to understand what the officers expected of him.
   They dragged Shaw across the concrete floor; tased him in the chest, causing
   him to fall to the floor and hit his head; held him in prone position on his
   chest; and again repeatedly tased him.
          Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to Plaintiffs, we find
   that this is “obviously” wrong treatment for a seizure and that the officers
   either “intentionally treat[ed] him incorrectly, or engage[d] in [] similar con-
   duct that [] clearly evince[d] a wanton disregard for any serious medical
   needs.” See Sims, 35 F.4th at 951 (quotation marks and citation omitted).
   Accordingly, a jury could find that each Defendant-Officer knew they were
   intentionally treating Shaw incorrectly for a seizure, thereby violating his
   constitutional right to protection. See Estelle, 429 U.S. at 104–05; Domino,
   239 F.3d at 755–56; Dyer, 964 F.3d at 382.
          Further, Plaintiffs insist the Defendant-Officers acted with deliberate
   indifference in delaying Shaw’s access to emergency care. Plaintiffs’ medical
   expert concluded the cumulative effect of the officers’ sustained force se-
   verely restricted Shaw’s breathing and ultimately led to his fatal heart attack
   from mechanical and electrical asphyxiation. Plaintiffs assert Shaw was in
   need of immediate emergency treatment and transfer to a hospital after ex-
   periencing a seizure, being tased up to 10 times, falling and hitting his head
   on the concrete floor, and being restrained for several minutes.
          When EMTs arrived at Shaw’s cell, the officers denied the EMTs en-
   try. The EMTs waited outside of the cell for about two minutes until the
   officers brought Shaw out, at which time an EMT “asked if they wanted
   them to put Shaw on the stretcher.” The officers declined to do so and in-
   stead confined Shaw to a restraint chair with his arms handcuffed behind his
   back for at least 17 minutes. According to Plaintiffs’ medical expert, this

                                         20
Case: 22-20341       Document: 00516824791           Page: 21   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                      No. 22-20341

   double restraint significantly compounded the effects of physical and electri-
   cal asphyxiation Shaw had already suffered. Utilizing the restraint chair also
   seemingly delayed his transport to a hospital. Shaw flatlined in the ambu-
   lance before it left the jail.
           Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to Plaintiffs, we find
   that a jury could decide it should have been obvious to each Defendant-Of-
   ficer that Shaw was in need of immediate emergency treatment; that a differ-
   ent medical emergency existed than when EMS was called for the seizure;
   and that Shaw’s breathing and heart had been compromised from being held
   in stress positions and tased. A jury could determine that, by improperly de-
   laying emergency medical treatment, the Defendant-Officers increased
   Shaw’s pain and likelihood of death and were therefore deliberately indiffer-
   ent to his serious medical needs. See Easter, 467 F.3d at 464; Alderson, 848
   F.3d at 422–23. A genuine dispute of material fact exists as to whether the
   officers intentionally treated Shaw incorrectly in responding to his seizure
   and whether the officers’ actions constituted a harmful delay in Shaw’s ac-
   cessing emergency medical care.
           Accordingly, we reverse the district court’s grant of qualified immun-
   ity for the individual Defendant-Officers as to the claims of excessive force
   and improper/delayed medical treatment.
           II.     Section 1983 claims against Aguirre for his own conduct
           The district court dismissed under Rule 12(b)(6) Plaintiffs’ Section
   1983 claims against officer Aguirre for excessive force and delay/denial of
   medical care, reasoning he was entitled to qualified immunity. The district
   court determined that Plaintiffs “produce[d] no controlling authority sup-
   porting the contention Aguirre’s conduct violated Shaw’s clearly established
   constitutional rights.”

                                           21
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791            Page: 22   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                     No. 22-20341

          At the time Aguirre entered Cell H, Shaw had been restrained,
   dragged across the concrete floor, tased up to 10 times, and pinned to the
   floor by three officers. Plaintiffs contend this force was neither necessary nor
   reasonable, and certainly no further force was necessary at the time Aguirre
   entered the cell. “If the suspect lacks any means of evading custody — for
   example, by being pinned to the ground by multiple police officers — force is
   not justified.” Joseph, 981 F.3d at 335. Yet, when Aguirre entered the cell,
   he immediately assisted the officers in restraining Shaw in a prone position
   on his chest, with Aguirre’s knee pressed to Shaw’s back for several minutes.
   Aguirre then assisted the officers in moving Shaw to the restraint chair —
   instead of the gurney as recommended by EMS — and handcuffing Shaw’s
   arms behind his back for at least 17 minutes.
          As discussed above in Section I, Aguirre’s actions arguably delayed
   Shaw’s access to critical medical care. Furthermore, a reasonable inference
   could be made that, when Aguirre approached the cell, he knew Shaw was
   suffering from an epileptic seizure and was not attempting to attack or
   threaten anyone. Multiple officers were familiar with Shaw, and Shaw’s fam-
   ily had taken seizure medication to the jail for him more than once. Also, the
   other detainees in the cell immediately recognized Shaw was experiencing a
   seizure. Hence, one could infer that Aguirre acted unreasonably in applying
   force to, and doubly restraining, Shaw — a known seizure victim — when
   Shaw was already restrained or subdued, presented no threat to himself or
   others, and was not actively resisting restraint.
          For the reasons explained above in Section I, we find that Plaintiffs
   have identified clearly established law that Aguirre’s actions constituted ex-
   cessive force and delay/denial of emergency medical care. Accordingly, we
   reverse the district court’s dismissal of the Section 1983 claims against
   Aguirre.

                                          22
Case: 22-20341        Document: 00516824791            Page: 23   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                        No. 22-20341

          III.      Claims for bystander liability
          Defendants assert that because Shaw’s rights were not violated, the
   district court properly granted summary judgment on Plaintiffs’ bystander
   claims. “An officer is liable for failure to intervene when that officer: (1)
   knew a fellow officer was violating an individual’s constitutional rights, (2)
   was present at the scene of the constitutional violation, (3) had a reasonable
   opportunity to prevent the harm but nevertheless, (4) chose not to act.” Jo-
   seph, 981 F.3d at 343. We have held that officers have a reasonable oppor-
   tunity to intervene if they are present at the scene and that they violate their
   duty to intervene if their conduct demonstrates they acquiesced to the un-
   constitutional conduct engaged in by others. Hale v. Townley, 45 F.3d 914,
   919 (5th Cir. 1995). Hale is clearly established law that provides fair notice to
   officers of their duty to intervene, rather than to acquiesce, in the unconsti-
   tutional conduct of others. See Timpa, 20 F.4th at 1039 (applying Hale to
   bystander claims).
          As discussed in the previous sections, a reasonable jury could find that
   the individual Defendant-Officers violated Shaw’s constitutional rights.
   Similarly, Plaintiffs plausibly pled that Aguirre violated Shaw’s constitu-
   tional rights.
          Evidence at the summary judgment stage could support a jury finding
   that each of the individual Defendant-Officers acquiesced in the constitu-
   tional violations, both by not objecting and by participating in similar con-
   duct. Marroquin, Whitehead, and McCain were all present during the en-
   counter, and each participated in the use of force and in responding to Shaw’s
   medical emergency. Marroquin and Whitehead each deployed the Taser on
   Shaw several times, and McCain helped restrain Shaw in prone position dur-
   ing the Taser shocks. A reasonable jury could find that the three officers had
   sufficient time and opportunity to intervene and stop one another (1) from

                                             23
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791           Page: 24    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                    No. 22-20341

   tasing, doubly restraining, and using force on Shaw when he was subdued,
   restrained, and not actively resisting; and (2) from delaying/denying Shaw
   essential medical treatment.
          As to Aguirre, upon entering Cell H, he immediately began assisting
   the officers in restraining Shaw in a prone position, which continued for sev-
   eral minutes. Plaintiffs argue Aguirre instead should have voiced dissent to
   the officers’ use of force, alerted a law enforcement supervisor of the offic-
   ers’ use of force, or physically pulled the officers away from Shaw since
   Aguirre was a licensed peace officer. We agree that even if Aguirre did not
   know Shaw had suffered a seizure, a jury could determine Aguirre should not
   have immediately participated in using force without first determining the
   facts from supervisor McCain. A jury could also find that Aguirre acquiesced
   in the officers’ delay of medical attention by assisting Whitehead in strapping
   Shaw into the restraint chair and handcuffing Shaw’s arms behind his back.
   A jury could determine that, instead, Aguirre should have assisted EMTs in
   transferring Shaw to the ambulance gurney as EMTs requested.
          Accordingly, because there are factual disputes as to whether each in-
   dividual defendant witnessed fellow officers violate Shaw’s constitutional
   rights and failed to act despite a reasonable opportunity, the district court
   erred in granting summary judgment on the bystander claims. See Whitley v.
   Hanna, 726 F.3d 631, 646–47 (5th Cir. 2013). This conclusion is consistent
   with the Eleventh Circuit’s reasoning in Helm v. Rainbow City, in which the
   court determined that the officers holding down the seizure victim during the
   Taser shocks could be subject to bystander liability for their failure to inter-
   vene in the tasing officer’s use of excessive force. 989 F.3d at 1277–78.
          IV.    Municipal liability against the City of Pasadena
          The district court granted summary judgment to the City, concluding
   there was no evidence that the City’s use-of-force policy constituted the

                                         24
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791           Page: 25    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                     No. 22-20341

   moving force behind any alleged constitutional violation. Local governments
   are liable for a policy or custom that causes a constitutional injury under Sec-
   tion 1983. Monell v. Dep’t of Soc. Servs. of City of New York, 436 U.S. 658, 694
   (1978). To succeed on a Monell claim, plaintiffs “must show (1) an official
   policy (or custom), of which (2) a policy maker can be charged with actual or
   constructive knowledge, and (3) a constitutional violation whose moving
   force is that policy (or custom).” Newbury v. City of Windcrest, 991 F.3d 672,
   680 (5th Cir. 2021) (quotation marks and citation omitted).
           The parties dispute each Monell element. Defendants urge affirming
   the district court based on any of the elements, while Plaintiffs request the
   Monell claim be remanded for reconsideration since the district court con-
   cluded the individual defendants committed no constitutional violations.
           The first element, the existence of a policy or custom, is satisfied if a
   practice is “so persistent and widespread as to practically have the force of
   law.” Connick v. Thompson, 563 U.S. 51, 61 (2011). “Allegations of an iso-
   lated incident are not sufficient to show the existence of a custom or policy.”
   Fraire v. City of Arlington, 957 F.2d 1268, 1278 (5th Cir. 1992). What must be
   shown is “that the policy itself violated federal law or authorized or directed
   the deprivation of federal rights.” Johnson v. Deep E. Tex. Reg’l Narcotics
   Trafficking Task Force, 379 F.3d 293, 309 (5th Cir. 2004) (emphasis in origi-
   nal).
           We have recognized that a municipality may be liable for failing to
   adopt policies. Rhyne v. Henderson Cnty., 973 F.2d 386, 392 (5th Cir. 1992)
   (citing City of Canton v. Harris, 489 U.S. 378, 387 (1989)). “While the mu-
   nicipal policy-maker’s failure to adopt a precaution can be the basis for § 1983
   liability, such omission must amount to an intentional choice, not merely an
   unintentionally negligent oversight.” Id. “[M]unicipal failure to adopt a pol-
   icy does not constitute such an intentional choice unless it can be said to have

                                          25
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791           Page: 26   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                    No. 22-20341

   been deliberately indifferent.” Id. (quotation marks and citation omitted).
   “A failure to adopt a policy can be deliberately indifferent when it is obvious
   that the likely consequences of not adopting a policy will be a deprivation of
   constitutional rights.” Id.
          The Pasadena Police Department’s use-of-force policy declares:
           It is the policy of the Pasadena Police Department that officers
          use only the force that is reasonably necessary to bring an inci-
          dent under control, while protecting the life of the officer and
          others. The use of force must be objectively reasonable. The
          officer must only use that force which a reasonably prudent of-
          ficer would use under the same or similar circumstances.
   The use-of-force policy contains a duty to intervene:
          a) Any officer present and observing another officer using force
          that is clearly beyond that which is objectively reasonable under
          the circumstances shall, when in a position to do so, intervene
          to prevent use of such force.
          b) Officers shall promptly report these observations to a super-
          visor.
   The policy also provides a reporting requirement when force is used so that
   supervisory review can occur.
          Additionally, all Pasadena police officers and PSOs who carry an Elec-
   tronic Control Weapon (“ECW”) receive training prior to being issued an
   ECW. The ECW policy states that an ECW “is considered a compli-
   ance/control weapon and consequently an intermediate level of force.” Un-
   der that policy, “ECWs will be issued, handled, and deployed only by officers
   who have successfully completed the department’s ECW Training Program
   and only in accordance with department policy and state law.” The Depart-
   ment’s policies provide:

                                         26
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791            Page: 27    Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                      No. 22-20341

          The use of an ECW on certain individuals should generally be
          avoided unless the totality of the circumstances indicates that
          other available force options reasonably appear ineffective or
          would present a greater danger to the officer, the subject or oth-
          ers, and the officer reasonably believes the need to control the
          individual outweighs the risk of using the device.
          In addition to these policies, Texas criminal law prohibits officers
   from using unnecessary or excessive force. See TEX. PENAL CODE §§ 9.51–
   9.54. Pasadena police officers and PSOs are trained and supervised to assure
   officers are appropriately guided to follow the law, City policy, and police
   department regulations. All individual Defendant-Officers received training
   via an academy and field training officer program. The City has no policy
   that directs, or authorizes, officers to violate federal law or constitutional pro-
   tections. The City demands through its policies — including the police Oath
   of Office and police department regulations — that the City’s officers com-
   ply with the requirements of the Constitutions and laws of both the United
   States and Texas.
          Plaintiffs assert the City’s formal use-of-force and ECW policies are
   “so vague and general that they amounted to no policy at all that meaning-
   fully restrained an individual officer’s use of force.” Rather, allegedly, the
   City’s “actual policy, custom, or practice was to tolerate and encourage ex-
   cessive force.” Such customs and practices are said to include “the failure
   to adopt any policy limiting the use of force against detainees suffering from
   an epileptic seizure; the failure to utilize pepper spray as a lesser means of
   force than Tasers; the failure to forbid shooting a Taser into a detainee’s
   chest; and using unlicensed PSOs as jailers.” Plaintiffs rely on the fact that
   multiple jailers — including a supervisor, as well as a police officer — all
   acted similarly, and none objected to the unconstitutional actions of the oth-
   ers, to demonstrate the existence of a widespread custom that shows this

                                           27
Case: 22-20341      Document: 00516824791               Page: 28   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                         No. 22-20341

   “was accepted as the way things are done and have been done” in the City of
   Pasadena. See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, 767 F.2d 161, 171 (5th Cir. 1985).
          Defendants respond that the City’s use-of-force and ECW policies are
   typical and in line with Texas law. We find that the record is insufficient to
   support a jury question that the use-of-force and ECW policies were so vague
   that they amounted to no policy at all. These policies “may have been inad-
   equate,” and while a jury might conclude that the City was negligent in not
   requiring Plaintiffs’ specified actions, “that, of course, is not enough under
   § 1983.” See Rhyne, 973 F.2d at 393. “Without evidence showing that the
   higher level of care was obviously necessary, we cannot see how the jury
   could conclude” that the use-of-force and ECW policies were deliberately
   indifferent. Id. “[T]here was no substantial evidence that such a policy
   would obviously lead to the violation of pre-trial detainees’ constitutional
   right[s].” Id. at 394.
          We affirm the district court’s grant of summary judgment as to mu-
   nicipal liability against the City.
          V.      Claims under the ADA and RA
          The district court concluded Plaintiffs did not show the officers’ treat-
   ment of Shaw amounted to intentional discrimination against him by reason
   of his epilepsy. Rather, the evidence demonstrated the officers’ “handling
   of Shaw’s epileptic seizure and subsequent postictal state arose from their
   desire to establish physical control over Shaw in order to achieve a safe envi-
   ronment for emergency medical personnel to provide necessary care.”
          To survive a motion for summary judgment on a claim under the
   ADA, a plaintiff must show evidence that (1) he was a qualified individual
   under the ADA; (2) he was denied benefits by the City or otherwise being
   discriminated against by the City; and (3) such denial of benefits or discrimi-
   nation is by reason of his disability. Windham v. Harris Cnty., 875 F.3d 229,

                                             28
Case: 22-20341     Document: 00516824791          Page: 29   Date Filed: 07/18/2023

                                   No. 22-20341

   235 (5th Cir. 2017). Discrimination, if any, must be intentional rather than
   deliberately indifferent for a plaintiff to recover compensatory damages.
   Delano-Pyle v. Victoria Cnty., 302 F.3d 567, 575 (5th Cir. 2002). “The prima
   facie case of discrimination under the [RA] is operationally identical to the
   test under the ADA.” Melton v. Dallas Area Rapid Transit, 391 F.3d 669, 676
   n.8 (5th Cir. 2004).
          Plaintiffs cite to no binding caselaw in which liability under the ADA
   and RA has been extended to a context similar to this one. Because they do
   not make a compelling case for doing so here, we consequently affirm the
   district court’s grant of summary judgment.
          REVERSED in part, AFFIRMED in part, and REMANDED.

                                        29