Court Opinion

ID: 9721925
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-26 09:12:49.470883+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T18:24:29.450017
License: Public Domain

YETKA, Justice
(dissenting).
I dissent. The role of this court, the court of last resort for most parties, is to see that justice is done in the courts of this state. When we are of the firm conviction that a mistake has been made or that an injustice has been done to a party, it is our duty to correct the wrong. While I do not think the trial court erred based upon our prior decisions, there are a number of troubling factors in this case which, in my view, warrant reversing the conviction.
The facts of this case are unlike any other case this court has seen. The police were not after Ellis Olkon; they were after Dr. Robert Coifman, who was suspected of issuing fraudulent medical reports. The police had no information nor any suspicion that Olkon was involved in any fraud schemes. They decided to “test” Olkon only after Dr. Coifman referred policeman Walter Powers to Olkon. Thus, the police had no rational justification for setting a trap for Olkon.
*110Olkon received both a police report indicating that an automobile accident had occurred and medical reports indicating that Powers was injured. Some of the medical reports were from Dr. Coifman, whom, as the majority indicates, Olkon may have had reason to doubt. However, Olkon also received a report verifying the injury from Dr. Engel, a physician totally independent of Dr. Coifman and beyond any suspicion.
Of course, Powers told Olkon he had fooled the doctors. Olkon had good reason to disbelieve this assertion due to the medical reports themselves, Powers’ highly unusual behavior, and a medical report indicating that Powers had a character of personality disorder. It is also relevant here that Powers never denied that the accident had occurred. Olkon believed Powers was a “macho” type trying to downplay his injuries.
Moreover, Powers had not really fooled the doctors at all. Powers had previously suffered a real back injury. He disclosed this fact neither to his doctors nor Olkon. Thus, in reality, Powers had not fooled the doctors; the doctors’ reports were correct and Olkon was justified in relying on them. With these facts in mind, we can turn to the troubling issues presented.
Olkon urges that the indictment should have been dismissed because the prosecutor failed to disclose to the grand jury known exculpatory evidence: Dr. Engel’s report verifying the injury and the fact that Powers did in fact have a real back injury. Since the duty of a grand jury “is to clear the innocent, no less than to bring to trial those who may be guilty,” United States v. Dionisio, 410 U.S. 1, 16-17, 93 S.Ct. 764, 773, 35 L.Ed.2d 67 (1975), several courts have held that a prosecutor has a duty to disclose known exculpatory evidence to the grand jury.1 The ABA Standards for Criminal Justice, The Prosecution Function § 3 6(b) (Approved Draft 1971) states, “The prosecutor should disclose to the grand jury any evidence which he knows will tend to negate guilt.” We previously urged prosecutors to follow this standard. See State v. Florence, 306 Minn. 442, 457 n. 19, 239 N.W.2d 892, 902 (1976).
Applying these standards to this case, I would hold that the indictment should have been dismissed. It is specious to argue that these items of evidence were not significant; they were crucial indicators that Ol-kon had good reason to file the insurance claim based upon the medical reports he had received.
For many of the same reasons, I believe the evidence in general was not sufficient to support the verdict of guilty of the crime of attempted theft by swindle. As the majority notes, the key issue is whether the prosecution proved beyond a reasonable doubt that Olkon knew the insurance claim was false. First, however, it must be decided whether the claim was totally false. The insurance claim made essentially two assertions: (a) that Powers had a back injury; and (b) that the injury was caused by the accident in question. As noted previously, assertion (a) was true because Powers did in fact have a back injury which was properly diagnosed by the doctors. Assertion (b) was false because the back injury was pre-existing. However, Powers never disclosed this to Olkon or to the doctors. Thus, there is no way Olkon can be charged with knowledge of the falsity of assertion (b) so the intent element is simply nonexistent.
Even disregarding the pre-existing back injury, Olkon cannot be charged with intent to file a false claim. As noted in the facts above, Olkon was justified in relying on the two independent medical reports. Although Powers tried to downplay his injuries, Olkon knew Powers had psychological problems and felt that he was trying to prove his toughness. Olkon was never given reason to doubt that the accident had occurred. Thus, even if the actual exist*111ence of the back injury is ignored, Olkon was justified in believing the claim to be proper.
As Powers’ attorney, Olkon had a duty to represent him “zealously within the bounds of the law.” Minn.Code of Professional Responsibility, Canon 7. The code also provides:
EC 7-3. * * * In asserting a position on behalf of his client, an advocate for the most part deals with past conduct and must take the facts as he finds them.

EC 7-19. * * * An adversary presentation counters the natural human tendency to judge too swiftly in terms of the familiar that which is not yet fully known; the advocate, by his zealous preparation and presentation of facts and law, enables the tribunal to come to the hearing with an open and neutral mind and to render impartial judgments. The duty of a lawyer to his client and his duty to the legal system are the same: to represent his client zealously within the bounds of the law.

EC 7-26. The law and Disciplinary Rules prohibit the use of fraudulent, false, or perjured testimony or evidence. A lawyer who knowingly participates in introduction of such testimony or evidence is subject to discipline. A lawyer should, however, present any admissible evidence his client desires to have presented unless he knows, or from facts within his knowledge should know, that such testimony or evidence is false, fraudulent, or perjured.
Unless a lawyer knows that the client’s factual statements are false, his duty is to advocate the client’s position zealously. The attorney is not required to make an independent investigation of his client’s veracity in an effort to impeach him; that is the duty of the other parties in an adversary system. The insurance companies could have investigated the case and had further medical examinations taken. Unfortunately, the protections of the adversary system were wholly lacking since the insurance companies were in collusion with the police. The insurers never questioned the early medical reports and never indicated any doubt as to the claim.
I do not believe that the defendant would ever have been prosecuted were he not a lawyer. The evidence of guilt is simply too flimsy and ambiguous. I believe the prosecution felt compelled to prosecute him out of fear of possible public censure that it was deliberately being easy on a member of the legal profession.
Under the facts of this case, I would hold that Olkon was justified in filing the claim and that intent to file a false claim on his part was not proven beyond a reasonable doubt.
I also believe the defendant was entrapped and that this is a total defense to the charges brought. In State v. Grilli, 304 Minn. 80, 230 N.W.2d 445 (1975), this court adopted the “subjective” test for entrapment. While I believe Grilli should now be overruled and the “objective” test adopted, I also believe the facts show that Olkon was entrapped even under the subjective test.
The subjective test of Grilli focuses on the particular defendant involved, the key question being whether the defendant was predisposed to commit the crime. There is no evidence whatsoever that Olkon was predisposed to commit this crime. The Grilli case stated four specific ways of proving predisposition, but not one of them is true here. The majority states that predisposition can be proven by the willingness of the person to participate in this crime. Neither Grilli nor State v. Poague, 245 Minn. 438, 72 N.W.2d 620 (1955) supports that principle,2 and we should not adopt it now.
*112The subjective test has also been referred to as the “origin of intent” test. See State v. Grilli, 304 Minn, at 88, 230 N.W.2d at 451. In this case, there is no question but that the whole scheme was contrived by the police in order to trap Coifman. In Grilli, we quoted with approval the following from Newman v. United States, 299 F. 128, 131 (4th Cir. 1924):
When the criminal design originates, not with the accused, but is conceived in the mind of the government officers, and the accused is by persuasion, deceitful representation, or inducement lured into the commission of a criminal act, the government is estopped by sound public policy from prosecution therefor.
Since the criminal design here originated with the police and Olkon was lured by numerous deceitful acts into filing the insurance claim, he has a valid entrapment defense even under the subjective test.
In a case with strikingly similar facts, the Illinois Supreme Court held that the attorney had been entrapped under the “subjective” test. In re Horwitz, 360 Ill. 313, 196 N.E. 208 (1935). In that case, as here, the detective had created a fictitious accident but never told the attorney it had not occurred. The detective also had a pre-exist-ing back injury but never disclosed it. The medical reports verified the injury but the detective, when concealed witnesses were listening, made statements such as “You know I am not injured.” The Illinois court concluded:
If this entire record is interpreted most strongly against the respondent, it falls short of sufficient ground for disbarment. He was entrapped by a set of false and carefully arranged circumstances and evidence sufficiently valid, and apparently real, to deceive an experienced practitioner.
360 Ill. 313, 196 N.E. at 213. Although that case was a disciplinary case, it is even less proper to convict such an attorney of a crime because of the higher standard of proof and the necessity of proving intent. I would apply Horwitz and hold that Olkon was entrapped under the Grilli test.
I also believe we should now overrule Grilli and adopt the objective test. The objective test, as formulated in the American Law Institute, Model Penal Code § 2.13(1) (Proposed Official Draft 1962), provides:
A public law enforcement official or a person acting in cooperation with such an official perpetrates an entrapment if for the purpose of obtaining evidence of the commission of an offense, he induces or encourages another person to engage in conduct constituting such offense by

(b) employing methods of persuasion or inducement which create a substantial risk that such an offense will be committed by persons other than those who are ready to commit it.
This test deals squarely with the problem of this case: the fact that many attorneys, not out to commit fraud but to serve their clients diligently, would file a claim if presented with the tactics used and facts of this case. If that is so, then the police have not proven that Olkon is more guilty than other innocent persons. This court should not stand by and allow police to use tactics which do not separate the guilty from the innocent.
The objective test is supported by many of the United States Supreme Court justices in their various concurring and dissenting opinions.3 The states are clearly free to adopt a stricter test than the federal rule, and many states have done so. In addition to the five state courts which had *113adopted the objective test noted in GrM,4 another eleven states have now adopted the objective test by statute.5 The objective test is also supported by the overwhelming majority of scholarly writing on the subject.6
I propose that we now adopt this test. Since the tactics used by the police under the facts of this ease created a substantial risk that innocent persons would have been trapped, I would hold that the defendant has made out the defense in this case.
One of the vices of entrapment is that the police must themselves break the law to catch supposed criminals. The illegalities in this case include issuing a false driver’s license, issuing a false welfare card, writing a phony accident report, issuing a phony receipt for a copy of the report, and writing a false auto repair bill. We know from United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, 94 S.Ct. 3090, 41 L.Ed.2d 1039 (1974), that even the President of the United States is not above the law. Where is the authority in the Constitutions of the United States or the State of Minnesota or by statute which permits the police in this state to break the law in order to enforce the law? There is the ancient common law rule of fresh pursuit of a lawbreaker, but that is inapplicable to this case. We are not a police state yet.
Entrapment is not even a necessary technique as to this kind of crime. Doctors, lawyers, and insurance companies all keep thorough records on cases. If the police had reason to suspect Coifman or Olkon, they could have used their investigatory skills and powers to find and solve any crimes which had been committed rather than creating new crimes and committing crimes themselves in the process.
The Illinois Supreme Court in Horwitz stated:
For the lawyer in active practice real temptations are plentiful and sufficient without their artificial multiplication by private parties whose real motives can with certainty be known only to themselves. The lawyer must deal with exaggerations, fraud, and actual perjury day after day, and occasionally these things come from his own clients without his knowledge or consent. His path is hazardous at best, and if he can so far avoid its natural pitfalls as to maintain and be able to prove a good reputation, it should be sufficient to protect him against plots and schemes.
360 Ill. 313, 196 N.E. at 214. Therefore, even if the federal courts would allow this form of entrapment under the United States Constitution, I would hold the procedure herein used as violative of our Minnesota Constitution.
Finally, there was evidence submitted to the trial judge that antiSemitic remarks were made during jury deliberations. Rule 26.03, subd. 19(6), of the Rules of Criminal Procedure states that if there is a question about extraneous matters affecting the verdict, “the jurors shall be interrogated.” This court has never said whether this rule *114requires all jurors to be questioned and therefore the trial court was within its rights in questioning only a part of the jury. However, I would think that we ought to interpret the rule to provide that where religious or racial discrimination may have affected the deliberations, all jurors that are available ought to be questioned, particularly in a criminal case.
For all of these reasons, I would reverse the conviction.

. See, e.g., Frink v. State, 577 P.2d 154 (Alaska 1979); Johnson v. Superior Court, 15 Cal.3d 248, 539 P.2d 792, 124 Cal.Rptr. 32 (1975); State v. Hall, 235 N.W.2d 702 (Iowa 1975); State v. Herrera, 93 N.M. 442, 601 P.2d 75 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 683, 604 P.2d 821 (1979).

. In State v. Poague, 245 Minn. 438, 72 N.W.2d 620 (1955), the woman charged with being a prostitute ran a “dating service” which could have been a front for a prostitution service and the police were acting on a complaint received. In State v. Grilli, 304 Minn. 80, 230 N.W.2d 445 (1975), the defendant approached the undercover agent with regard to selling him drugs and there was also evidence of prior possession of illegal drugs.

. See Sorrels v. United States, 287 U.S. 435, 453, 53 S.Ct. 210, 216, 77 L.Ed. 413 (1932) (Roberts, Brandeis & Stone, JJ., concurring); Sherman v. United States, 356 U.S. 369, 378, 78 S.Ct. 819, 823, 2 L.Ed.2d 848 (1958) (Frankfurter, Douglas, Harlan & Brennan, JJ., concurring); United States v. Russell, 411 U.S. 423, 436, 93 S.Ct. 1637, 1645, 36 L.Ed.2d 366 (1973) (Douglas & Brennan, JJ., dissenting); id. at 439, 93 S.Ct. at 1646 (Stewart, Brennan & Marshall, JJ., dissenting). Hampton v. United States, 425 U.S. 484, 496, 96 S.Ct. 1646, 1653, 48 L.Ed.2d 113 (1976) (Brennan, Stewart & Marshall, JJ., dissenting).

. Grossman v. State, 457 P.2d 226 (Alaska 1969); People v. Barraza, 23 Cal.3d 675, 591 P.2d 947, 153 Cal.Rptr. 459 (1979); State v. Mullen, 216 N.W.2d 375 (Iowa 1974); People v. Turner, 390 Mich. 7, 210 N.W.2d 336 (1973); State v. Sainz, 84 N.M. 259, 501 P.2d 1247 (1972).

. See Alaska Stat. § 11.81.450 (1979); Ark. Stat. Ann. § 41-209 (1977); Colo. Rev. Stat. § 18-1-709 (1978); Fla. Stat. Ann. § 812.028(4) (West Supp. 1980); Haw. Rev. Stat. § 702-237 (1976); N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:2-12 (West 1980 Special Pamphlet); N.Y. Penal Law § 40.05 (McKinney 1975); N.D. Cent. Code § 12.1-05-II (1976); 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 313 (Purdon 1973); Tex. Penal Code Ann. tit. 2, § 8.06 (Vernon 1974); Utah Code Ann. § 76-2-303 (1978).

.See, e.g., W. LaFave & A. Scott, Handbook on Criminal Law 371 (1972); Donnelly, “Judicial Control of Informants, Spies, Stool Pigeons, and Agent Provocateurs,” 60 Yale L.J. 1091 (1951); Comment, 31 U. Chi. L. Rev. 137 (1963). Other articles favoring the objective test are cited in Park, “The Entrapment Controversy,” 60 Minn. L. Rev. 163, 167 n. 13 (1976).
Only two law review articles in the last 25 years have favored the subjective test, one of which favored abolishing the entrapment defense entirely. Y. Kamisar, W. LaFave and J. Israel, Modern Criminal Procedure 135 (4th ed.) (Supp. 1979).