Court Opinion

ID: 9960861
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2024-04-17 15:01:39.245571+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T08:19:55.960824
License: Public Domain

(Slip Opinion)              OCTOBER TERM, 2023                                       1

                                       Syllabus

         NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is
       being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.
       The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been
       prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader.
       See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

                                       Syllabus

                  MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR
                 THE SECOND CIRCUIT

   No. 22–7386. Argued February 27, 2024—Decided April 17, 2024
Petitioner Louis McIntosh was indicted on multiple counts of Hobbs Act
  robbery and firearm offenses. The indictment set forth the demand
  that McIntosh “shall forfeit . . . all property . . . derived from proceeds
  traceable to the commission of the [Hobbs Act] offenses.” The Govern-
  ment also later provided McIntosh with a pretrial bill of particulars
  that included as property subject to forfeiture $75,000 in cash and a
  BMW that McIntosh purchased just five days after one of the rob-
  beries. After a jury convicted McIntosh, the District Court imposed a
  forfeiture of $75,000 and the BMW at the sentencing hearing. Alt-
  hough the District Court also ordered the Government to submit an
  order of forfeiture for the court’s signature within a week from the
  hearing, the Government failed to do so. On appeal, the Government
  moved for a limited remand to supplement the record with a written
  order of forfeiture. The Second Circuit granted the unopposed motion.
  Back in District Court, McIntosh argued that the failure to comply
  with Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 32.2(b)(2)(B)—which pro-
  vides that “[u]nless doing so is impractical,” a federal district court
  “must enter the preliminary order [of forfeiture] sufficiently in advance
  of sentencing to allow the parties to suggest revisions or modifications
  before the order becomes final as to the defendant”—meant that the
  District Court could not proceed with forfeiture at all. The District
  Court overruled McIntosh’s objections, finding that the Rule is a time-
  related directive, and that the failure to enter a preliminary order of
  forfeiture before sentencing did not prevent the court from ordering
  forfeiture because the missed deadline did not prejudice McIntosh.
  The Second Circuit affirmed in relevant part.
Held: A district court’s failure to comply with Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B)’s re-
 quirement to enter a preliminary order before sentencing does not bar
2                     MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

                                   Syllabus

    a judge from ordering forfeiture at sentencing subject to harmless-er-
    ror principles on appellate review. Pp. 5–14.
       (a) Although the District Court did not comply with Rule
    32.2(b)(2)(B) when it failed to enter a preliminary order of forfeiture
    before McIntosh’s initial sentencing, the District Court retained its
    power to order forfeiture against McIntosh. Pp. 5–11.
         (1) This Court has identified three types of time limits: (i) juris-
    dictional deadlines; (ii) mandatory claim-processing rules, and (iii)
    time-related directives. See Dolan v. United States, 560 U. S. 605,
    610–611. McIntosh claims that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is a claim-pro-
    cessing rule—a mandatory deadline that regulates the timing of mo-
    tions or claims before the court and that, unlike jurisdictional dead-
    lines, is subject to waiver and forfeiture by the litigant. Id., at 610.
    The Government, on the other hand, argues that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is
    a flexible time-related directive—a deadline that seeks speed by direct-
    ing a public official to act by a certain time and that, if missed, does
    not deprive the official of “the power to take the action to which the
    deadline applies.” Id., at 611. Noncompliance with a mandatory
    claim-processing rule is presumed to be prejudicial, Manrique v.
    United States, 581 U. S. 116, 125 (2017), but noncompliance with a
    time-related directive is, in this context, subject to harmless-error
    principles on appellate review, Fed. Rule Crim. Proc. 52(a). The Court
    agrees with the Second Circuit and the Government that Rule
    32.2(b)(2)(B) establishes a time-related directive. Pp. 5–7.
         (2) The Court in Dolan addressed the proper remedy when a dis-
    trict court misses a statutory deadline to take action related to crimi-
    nal sentencing imposed by a statute that “ ‘d[id] not specify a conse-
    quence for noncompliance.’ ” 560 U. S., at 611. The Court held that
    the provision at issue was a time-related directive, such that, if “a sen-
    tencing court misses the . . . deadline,” it retains the power to act in
    that circumstance. Ibid. Other cases similarly have recognized that
    certain deadlines, if missed, do not deprive a public official of the power
    to take the action to which the deadline applies. See, e.g., Barnhart v.
    Peabody Coal Co., 537 U. S. 149, 171–172; Regions Hospital v. Shalala,
    522 U. S. 448, 459, n. 3; United States v. James Daniel Good Real Prop-
    erty, 510 U. S. 43, 63–65. These cases involved timing provisions that
    did not specify a consequence for the public officials’ noncompliance
    with the prescribed deadlines. Pp. 7–8.
         (3) Several features of Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) lead to the conclusion
    that the Rule is best understood as a time-related directive. First, its
    plain language contemplates flexibility regarding the timing of a pre-
    liminary order’s entry, providing the indeterminate command that a
    preliminary order be entered “sufficiently in advance of sentencing”
                      Cite as: 601 U. S. ____ (2024)                        3

                                  Syllabus

  “[u]nless doing so is impractical.” This flexibility takes the Rule fur-
  ther away from the category of “rigid” and “ ‘inflexible claim-processing
  rule[s].’ ” Eberhart v. United States, 546 U. S. 12, 13 (per curiam). Sec-
  ond, Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) does not impose a specific consequence for non-
  compliance, in contrast to other parts of Rule 32.2. See, e.g., 32.2(a).
  In the absence of such specification, courts typically “will not in the
  ordinary course impose their own coercive sanction” for noncompliance
  with a timing directive. James Daniel Good, 510 U. S., at 63. Third,
  Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) governs the conduct of the district court, not the lit-
  igants. Mandatory claim-processing rules ordinarily “requir[e] that
  the parties take certain procedural steps at certain specified times,”
  Henderson v. Shinseki, 562 U. S. 428, 435 (emphasis added), and time-
  related directives typically spur public officials to act within a specified
  time. That distinction holds even in the examples that McIntosh iden-
  tifies, and he has not identified a mandatory claim-processing rule that
  is analogous to Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B). Pp. 8–11.
     (b) McIntosh’s contrary arguments are unpersuasive. He points to
  the Rule’s use of the word “must” to highlight its mandatory character,
  but such language standing “alone has not always led this Court to
  interpret statutes to bar judges . . . from taking action to which a
  missed statutory deadline refers.” Dolan, 560 U. S., at 611–612. Con-
  strued in context, the Rule contemplates some flexibility with its im-
  practicality exception and indeterminate command that a preliminary
  order be entered “sufficiently in advance of sentencing.” Nor does it
  “mak[e] sense,” as McIntosh claims, to classify Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) as a
  mandatory claim-processing rule because the Government must move
  the process forward. Although the Government plays an indispensable
  role in the criminal-forfeiture process, the Rule is directed exclusively
  to the sentencing court. McIntosh also contends that an affirmance
  here would deprive the Rule of any effect, but a timely objection likely
  will prompt the district court to enter the preliminary order and, if
  appropriate, postpone sentencing. A timely objection would, at the
  very least, result in harmless-error review of the Rule’s violation. Fi-
  nally, because McIntosh has not shown that reading the requirement
  as a time-related directive would frustrate significantly Rule 32.2’s ef-
  fectiveness, McIntosh’s invocation of the Rule’s purpose—to ensure
  due process and promote judicial economy—falls flat. Pp. 11–13.
     (c) Noncompliance with Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is a procedural error sub-
  ject to harmlessness review. Because McIntosh did not challenge the
  lower courts’ harmlessness analysis in either his certiorari petition or
  his opening brief, this Court need not revisit it. P. 13.
58 F. 4th 606, affirmed.

  SOTOMAYOR, J., delivered the opinion for a unanimous Court.
                        Cite as: 601 U. S. ____ (2024)                              1

                             Opinion of the Court

     NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the
     United States Reports. Readers are requested to notify the Reporter of
     Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D. C. 20543,
     pio@supremecourt.gov, of any typographical or other formal errors.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
                                   _________________

                                   No. 22–7386
                                   _________________

    LOUIS MCINTOSH, AKA LOU D, PETITIONER v.
                UNITED STATES
 ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF
           APPEALS FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
                                 [April 17, 2024]

  JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR delivered the opinion of the Court.
  In certain criminal cases, Congress has authorized the
Government to seek forfeiture of a defendant’s ill-gotten
gains as part of the defendant’s sentence. Federal Rule of
Criminal Procedure 32.2 sets forth specific procedures for
imposing criminal forfeiture in such cases. In particular,
Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) provides that, “[u]nless doing so is im-
practical,” a federal district court “must enter the prelimi-
nary order [of forfeiture] sufficiently in advance of sentenc-
ing to allow the parties to suggest revisions or modifications
before the order becomes final as to the defendant.”
  The question presented in this case is whether a district
court that fails to comply with Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B)’s require-
ment to enter a preliminary order before sentencing is pow-
erless to order forfeiture against the defendant. In light of
the Rule’s text and relevant precedents, this Court holds
that the failure to enter a preliminary order does not bar a
judge from ordering forfeiture at sentencing subject to
harmless-error principles on appellate review.
2                 MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

                         Opinion of the Court

                                 I
  Between 2009 and 2011, Louis McIntosh committed a se-
ries of violent robberies and attempted robberies in New
York. In one such robbery, McIntosh and two others held a
man at gunpoint, bound and gagged him in his basement,
and then took $70,000 in cash from the man’s house. Five
days later, McIntosh bought a BMW for approximately
$10,000 with cash and money orders and listed his mother
as the buyer.
  In June 2011, McIntosh was indicted along with five oth-
ers on multiple counts of Hobbs Act robbery and firearm of-
fenses. The indictment set forth that, for the Hobbs Act
robbery counts, the defendants “shall forfeit to the United
States . . . all property . . . that constitutes or is derived
from proceeds traceable to the commission of the offenses,
including but not limited to a sum in United States cur-
rency representing the amount of proceeds obtained as a re-
sult of the offenses.” App. 10–11. The Government pro-
vided McIntosh with a pretrial bill of particulars the next
month that listed the BMW as “property subject to forfei-
ture.” Id., at 12, 14.
  A jury convicted McIntosh on all counts.1 On May 23,
2014, the District Court held the sentencing hearing. The
Government had not mentioned the forfeiture in its sen-
tencing memorandum, and the District Court did not enter
a preliminary order of forfeiture prior to the hearing. At
the hearing, however, the Government stated that it was
seeking forfeiture for “$75,000 in a money judgment, as well
as the BMW.” Id., at 54. The Government offered to submit
a proposed order “within the next week.” Ibid. McIntosh
objected to the forfeiture. He argued that there was no “dis-
positive” evidence connecting the BMW to any robbery pro-
ceeds, insisting that a family member had purchased the
——————
  1 The District Court subsequently directed a judgment of acquittal on

two counts of attempted robbery.
                     Cite as: 601 U. S. ____ (2024)                   3

                         Opinion of the Court

car. Id., at 54–55. It is not clear from the record whether
McIntosh’s objection to the forfeiture was also based on the
absence of a preliminary order.
   The District Court overruled McIntosh’s objection to the
forfeiture based on the trial evidence that the Government
presented. As part of the sentence, the District Court im-
posed a forfeiture of “$75,000 and the BMW” as “fruits of
the crime[s],” and ordered the Government to “submit an
order of forfeiture for signature by the Court within a
week.” Id., at 62. The written judgment memorialized
these instructions.2 Notwithstanding the District Court’s
order, the Government failed to submit a proposed order of
forfeiture.
   On appeal, the Government moved for a limited remand
to the District Court to “supplement the record by entering
the formal orde[r] of . . . forfeiture.” Id., at 68. The Govern-
ment conceded that McIntosh could then “contes[t] the
timeliness of [a formal forfeiture] order,” and the District
Court could “make whatever findings it deem[ed] appropri-
ate.” Id., at 71. The Second Circuit granted the Govern-
ment’s unopposed motion and remanded the case.
   Back in the District Court, McIntosh objected to the Gov-
ernment’s newly proposed order. McIntosh argued that the
District Court failed to comply with Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) when
it did not enter a preliminary order prior to his original sen-
tencing, and thus it could not proceed with forfeiture at all.
In McIntosh’s view, the delay prejudiced him because the
BMW lost value while the forfeiture issue was litigated,
which meant he would be credited less money against his
money judgment.
   The District Court again overruled McIntosh’s objections.

——————
  2 The judgment instructed McIntosh to forfeit “$95,000” instead of

“$75,000,” App. 50, but the District Court later corrected this conceded
clerical error in the amended judgment.
4                   MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

                           Opinion of the Court

It concluded that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is a time-related di-
rective, rather than a jurisdictional deadline or a manda-
tory claim-processing rule, and thus the court retained the
power to order forfeiture. The failure to comply with the
time-related directive, the court found, did not prejudice
McIntosh. Accordingly, the District Court entered the pro-
posed order of forfeiture and entered an amended judgment
reflecting the order.
   The Second Circuit affirmed in relevant part. Like the
District Court, the Court of Appeals concluded that Rule
32.2(b)(2)(B) is a “ ‘time-related directiv[e],’ ” which does
“ ‘not deprive a judge . . . of the power to take the action to
which the deadline applies if the deadline is missed.’ ” 58
F. 4th 606, 609 (2023) (quoting Dolan v. United States, 560
U. S. 605, 611 (2010)). The Second Circuit also rejected
McIntosh’s prejudice argument. In an accompanying sum-
mary order, the Second Circuit vacated the judgment in
part and remanded for recalculation of the forfeiture
amount because the $75,000 figure reflected the total pro-
ceeds of the robberies rather than the amount McIntosh
personally received. See 2023 WL 382945, *2 (Jan. 25,
2023).
   McIntosh filed a petition for a writ of certiorari, alleging
a split among the Courts of Appeals on the consequences of
failing to adhere to Rule 32.2(b)’s requirements.3 During
the second remand, while the petition was pending, the Dis-

——————
   3 According to McIntosh’s petition, the Eighth Circuit treats Rule

32.2(b)’s deadline as jurisdictional, see United States v. Shakur, 691
F. 3d 979 (2012); the Sixth Circuit treats it as a mandatory claim-
processing rule, see United States v. Maddux, 37 F. 4th 1170 (2022); and
the Fourth Circuit, like the Second Circuit below, treats it as a time-
related directive, see United States v. Martin, 662 F. 3d 301 (2011). See
Pet. for Cert. i; but see United States v. Lee, 77 F. 4th 565, 577 (CA7
2023) (explaining that, while it “appears at first glance that there is con-
flict, . . . a closer look at the decisions suggests that there may be less
difference than meets the eye”).
                  Cite as: 601 U. S. ____ (2024)              5

                      Opinion of the Court

trict Court entered an agreed-upon preliminary order of for-
feiture for $28,000 and the BMW. On September 20, 2023,
the District Court entered its final forfeiture order. Days
later, this Court granted McIntosh’s petition limited to the
question “[w]hether a district court may enter a criminal
forfeiture order outside the time limitations set forth in
Rule 32.2.” Pet. for Cert. i. See 600 U. S. ___ (2023).
                              II
   Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) provides: “Unless doing so is impracti-
cal, the court must enter the preliminary order [of forfei-
ture] sufficiently in advance of sentencing to allow the par-
ties to suggest revisions or modifications before the order
becomes final as to the defendant.” The order becomes final
either at sentencing or before then if the defendant con-
sents. See Fed. Rule Crim. Proc. 32.2(b)(4)(A). It is undis-
puted that the District Court did not comply with Rule
32.2(b)(2)(B) when it failed to enter a preliminary order of
forfeiture before McIntosh’s initial sentencing. Despite
that error, the District Court retained its power to order
forfeiture against McIntosh.
                               A
   This Court has identified three types of time limits: (1) ju-
risdictional deadlines; (2) mandatory claim-processing
rules; and (3) time-related directives. See Dolan, 560 U. S.,
at 610–611. Jurisdictional deadlines are rare. See United
States v. Kwai Fun Wong, 575 U. S. 402, 410 (2015) (“[M]ost
time bars are nonjurisdictional”). If the court misses a ju-
risdictional deadline, it is completely powerless to take any
relevant action, and the “parties cannot waive” the dead-
line. Dolan, 560 U. S., at 610. Put differently, noncompli-
ance with a jurisdictional deadline cannot be excused. No
one contends that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is jurisdictional be-
cause it “does not expressly refer to subject-matter jurisdic-
tion or speak in jurisdictional terms.” Musacchio v. United
6                  MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

                         Opinion of the Court

States, 577 U. S. 237, 246 (2016). Instead, the parties’ dis-
pute revolves around the other two types of time limits.
   Mandatory claim-processing rules “regulate the timing of
motions or claims brought before the court.” Dolan, 560
U. S., at 610. That is why, generally speaking, “filing dead-
lines” are the “ ‘quintessential claim-processing rules.’ ”
Sebelius v. Auburn Regional Medical Center, 568 U. S. 145,
154 (2013). If the affected party alerts the court to the dead-
line and invokes its protection, the relevant action cannot
be taken after the deadline has passed. Unlike jurisdic-
tional limits, though, mandatory claim-processing rules are
subject to waiver and forfeiture by a litigant. Dolan, 560
U. S., at 610.
   Time-related directives “see[k] speed” by directing “a
judge or other public official” to act by a certain time. Id.,
at 611. Missing that kind of deadline does not deprive the
official of “the power to take the action to which the dead-
line applies.” Ibid. Moreover, whereas noncompliance with
a mandatory claim-processing rule is presumed to be prej-
udicial, Manrique v. United States, 581 U. S. 116, 125
(2017), the failure to follow a time-related directive is, in
this context, subject to harmless-error principles on appel-
late review, Fed. Rule Crim. Proc. 52(a).
   McIntosh contends that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is a mandatory
claim-processing rule, and thus the District Court could not
order forfeiture once McIntosh objected to the absence of a
preliminary order prior to his initial sentencing. The Gov-
ernment, on the other hand, argues that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B)
is a flexible time-related directive, and thus the absence of
a preliminary order did not bar the District Court from or-
dering forfeiture at sentencing.4

——————
   4 The parties disagree on whether McIntosh timely objected to the

lack of a preliminary order at the initial sentencing and whether he re-
linquished any objection by agreeing to the entry of the revised, now-
operative order of forfeiture during the second remand. The Government
                     Cite as: 601 U. S. ____ (2024)                     7

                          Opinion of the Court

  This Court agrees with the Second Circuit and the Gov-
ernment that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) establishes a time-related
directive. Accordingly, a district judge’s failure to enter a
preliminary order prior to sentencing does not deprive a
judge of the power to order forfeiture.
                                B
   In Dolan v. United States, this Court similarly addressed
the proper remedy for when a district court misses a dead-
line to take action related to criminal sentencing. That case
involved a provision in the Mandatory Victims Restitution
Act of 1996, which states that,“[i]f the victim’s losses are
not ascertainable by the date that is 10 days prior to sen-
tencing, . . . the court shall set a date for the final determi-
nation of the victim’s losses, not to exceed 90 days after sen-
tencing.” 18 U. S. C. §3664(d)(5). This Court noted that the
statute “ ‘d[id] not specify a consequence for noncompliance
with’ ” the deadline. Dolan, 560 U. S., at 611 (quoting
United States v. James Daniel Good Real Property, 510
U. S. 43, 63 (1993)). It then held that the provision was a
time-related directive, such that, if “a sentencing court
misses the statute’s 90-day deadline, even through its own
fault or that of the Government,” the sentencing court re-
tains “the power to order restitution” in that circumstance.
560 U. S., at 611.
   Dolan was just the latest in a line of cases recognizing
that certain deadlines, if missed, do not deprive a public of-
ficial of the power to take the action to which the deadline
applies. See, e.g., Barnhart v. Peabody Coal Co., 537 U. S.

——————
argues that, if this Court agrees with McIntosh that Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is
a mandatory claim-processing rule, the case should be remanded to de-
termine whether McIntosh forfeited such an objection “under the partic-
ular circumstances of this case.” Brief for United States 17. Because
this Court, however, agrees with the Government’s view of Rule
32.2(b)(2)(B), a remand is not warranted.
8               MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

                      Opinion of the Court

149, 171–172 (2003) (missed deadline for assigning indus-
try retiree benefits did not prevent later award of benefits);
Regions Hospital v. Shalala, 522 U. S. 448, 459, n. 3 (1998)
(missed deadline to submit agency report did not deprive
official of “power to act beyond it”); James Daniel Good, 510
U. S., at 63–65 (missed deadline for civil-forfeiture proceed-
ings did not prevent federal officers from seeking forfeiture
of property used to commit a federal drug offense); United
States v. Montalvo-Murillo, 495 U. S. 711, 717–718 (1990)
(missed deadline to hold bail hearing did not require the
release of pretrial detainee); Brock v. Pierce County, 476
U. S. 253, 266 (1986) (missed deadline to determine misuse
of federal grant funds did not “divest [public official] of ju-
risdiction to act after that time”).
   Each of these cases involved timing provisions that did
not specify a consequence for the public officials’ noncom-
pliance with the prescribed deadlines. Those provisions are
examples of “ ‘requisitions intended for the guide of officers
in the conduct of business devolved upon them [that] do not
limit their power or render its exercise in disregard of the
requisitions ineffectual.’ ” James Daniel Good, 510 U. S., at
63 (quoting French v. Edwards, 13 Wall. 506, 511 (1872)).
In such circumstances, “courts will not in the ordinary
course impose their own coercive sanction,” 510 U. S., at 63,
nor typically attribute “intent to limit an [official’s] power
to get a mandatory job done merely from a specification to
act by a certain time,” Barnhart, 537 U. S., at 160.
                               C
   In this Court’s taxonomy of time limits, Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B)
is best understood as a time-related directive. It functions
“as a spur to prompt action, not as a bar to tardy completion
of . . . business.” Id., at 172. Several features of the Rule
guide this Court’s analysis.
   First, far from imposing “rigid” constraints characteristic
of mandatory claim-processing rules, the plain language of
                      Cite as: 601 U. S. ____ (2024)                     9

                          Opinion of the Court

the Rule contemplates flexibility regarding the timing of a
preliminary order’s entry. Eberhart v. United States, 546
U. S. 12, 13 (2005) (per curiam). It requires that a prelimi-
nary order of forfeiture be entered before sentencing,
“[u]nless doing so is impractical.” Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B). As
such, the Rule anticipates that, in some circumstances, it
may be “impractical” to enter a preliminary order of forfei-
ture before sentencing. Similarly, the Rule contains the in-
determinate command that a preliminary order be entered
“sufficiently in advance of sentencing to allow the parties to
suggest revisions or modifications before the order becomes
final as to the defendant.” Ibid. (emphasis added). Of
course, what is sufficient in one case may not be in another.
Both the impracticality exception and the sufficiently-in-
advance condition take the Rule further away from the cat-
egory of “rigid” and “ ‘inflexible claim-processing rule[s].’ ”
Eberhart, 546 U. S., at 13.5
   Second, Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) “ ‘does not specify a conse-
quence for noncompliance with its timing provisions.’ ” 58
F. 4th, at 610 (quoting Dolan, 560 U. S., at 611). In the ab-
sence of such specification, courts “will not in the ordinary
course impose their own coercive sanction” for noncompli-
ance with a timing directive. James Daniel Good, 510 U. S.,
at 63. Indeed, it would be especially strange to prohibit a
sentencing court from ordering forfeiture for not complying
with Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) where other parts of Rule 32.2 spec-
ify that consequence for noncompliance. Rule 32.2(a), for
example, provides that the Government’s failure to include
——————
  5 Because the District Court ordered the forfeiture at McIntosh’s initial

sentencing, this case does not implicate Rule 32.2(b)(4)(B)’s requirement
that forfeiture be imposed at sentencing. Cf. Lee, 77 F. 4th, at 582 (ex-
plaining that, although “the requirement of a preliminary order is a time-
related directive, . . . [t]he requirement that [a final order] must be in-
cluded in the oral judgment of the court has the character of a claims-
processing rule”); Tr. of Oral Arg. 34–36 (Government counsel stating
that the requirements relating to the final order’s entry raise “a harder
set of issues” for the Government, which are not implicated in this case).
10               MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

                       Opinion of the Court

a forfeiture allegation in the indictment means that the
“court must not enter a judgment of forfeiture.” The use of
“ ‘explicit language’ ” specifying a sanction in Rule 32.2(a)
but not in Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) “ ‘cautions against inferring’
the same limitation” in Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B). State Farm Fire
& Casualty Co. v. United States ex rel. Rigsby, 580 U. S. 26,
34 (2016).
    Third, “Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) governs the conduct of the dis-
trict court, not the litigants.” 58 F. 4th, at 611. Recall that
time-related directives typically spur public officials to act
within a specified time. Mandatory claim-processing rules,
by contrast, ordinarily “requir[e] that the parties take cer-
tain procedural steps at certain specified times.” Hender-
son v. Shinseki, 562 U. S. 428, 435 (2011) (emphasis added).
That distinction holds even in the examples that McIntosh
identified of claim-processing rules addressed to courts.
Take Santos-Zacaria v. Garland, 598 U. S. 411 (2023), and
Gonzalez v. Thaler, 565 U. S. 134 (2012), for example. See
Brief for Petitioner 34–35; Tr. of Oral Arg. 13. The claim-
processing rules in those cases conditioned the court’s au-
thority to act on the parties’ adherence to a certain proce-
dure, and not on the court’s compliance with a deadline.
See Santos-Zacaria, 598 U. S., at 416 (analyzing provision
stating that “ ‘[a] court may review a final order of removal
only if . . . the alien has exhausted all administrative reme-
dies available to the alien as of right’ ”); Gonzalez, 565 U. S.,
at 140 (analyzing provision stating that a court of appeals
“ ‘may issue’ ” a certificate of appealability “ ‘only if the ap-
plicant has made a substantial showing of the denial of a
constitutional right’ ”). McIntosh has not identified a man-
datory claim-processing rule that is analogous to Rule
32.2(b)(2)(B).
    In sum, Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is a time-related directive that,
if missed, does not deprive the judge of her power to order
forfeiture against the defendant.
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                       Opinion of the Court

                               III
    McIntosh’s arguments to the contrary are unpersuasive.
He first points to Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B)’s use of the word “must”
to highlight its mandatory character. Yet this kind of man-
datory language standing “alone has not always led this
Court to interpret statutes to bar judges (or other officials)
from taking action to which a missed statutory deadline re-
fers.” Dolan, 560 U. S., at 611–612; see also id., at 607–608
(concluding that statute providing that a sentencing court
“ ‘shall set a date’ ” within a specified time period to deter-
mine restitution amount was a time-related directive);
Barnhart, 537 U. S., at 152 (“ ‘shall’ . . . assign ”); Regions
Hospital, 522 U. S., at 459, n. 3 (“ ‘shall report’ ”); Montalvo-
Murillo, 495 U. S., at 717 (“ ‘shall hold a hearing’ ”); Brock,
476 U. S., at 256 (“ ‘shall’ determine ”). Additionally, Rule
32.2(b)(2)(B)’s use of “must” has to be construed in context
to determine whether its time limit is a mandatory claim-
processing rule or a time-related directive. That context, as
discussed above, demonstrates that the Rule contemplates
some flexibility by specifying that the preliminary order be
entered “sufficiently in advance of sentencing,” “[u]nless do-
ing so is impractical.” Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B); see supra, at 8–9.
    McIntosh also argues that it “makes sense” to classify
Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) as a mandatory claim-processing rule be-
cause Rule 32.2 requires the Government to take specific
steps “to move the criminal forfeiture process forward.”
Brief for Petitioner 11. For example, the Government must
provide notice in the indictment that it “will seek the forfei-
ture of property as part of any sentence,” “establis[h] the
requisite nexus between the property and the offense,” and
“publish . . . and send notice” of the forfeiture order to po-
tential claimants. Fed. Rules Crim. Proc. 32.2(a), (b)(1)(A),
(b)(6)(A). Although McIntosh is correct that the Govern-
ment plays an indispensable role in the criminal forfeiture
process, Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is directed exclusively to the sen-
tencing court. It does not even mention the Government.
12                  MCINTOSH v. UNITED STATES

                          Opinion of the Court

That the instruction to the court may in turn push the Gov-
ernment to take certain steps as a practical matter does not
change the Rule’s addressee.6
  McIntosh further contends that an affirmance here would
deprive Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) of any effect such that it “might
as well not exist.” Brief for Petitioner 3. Not so. In most
cases, a timely objection required to preserve a claim of er-
ror likely will prompt the district court to enter the prelim-
inary order and, if appropriate, postpone sentencing. As
counsel for McIntosh conceded at argument, defendants re-
ceive the benefit of the Rule in that situation. See Tr. of
Oral Arg. 11–12. If a timely objection is raised and no pre-
liminary order is entered, at the very least, the violation of
Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) would be reviewed for harmlessness. See
Fed. Rule Crim. Proc. 52(a); see also United States v. Lee,
77 F. 4th 565, 583 (CA7 2023) (reviewing a Rule
32.2(b)(2)(B) violation for harmless error); United States v.
Farias, 836 F. 3d 1315, 1330 (CA11 2016) (same).
  Finally, McIntosh falls back on the general purpose of
Rule 32.2, which he describes as “ensur[ing] criminal de-
fendants receive due process before their property is perma-
nently taken by the government” and “promot[ing] judicial

——————
   6 The Government explains that the Department of Justice instructs

its prosecutors to recommend a preliminary order of forfeiture prior to
sentencing to assist judges at sentencing. See Brief for United States 26
(citing Dept. of Justice, Money Laundering and Asset Recovery Section,
Asset Forfeiture Policy Manual 5–22 (2023)). Here, in circumstances
that this Court expects are a rare occurrence, the Government admits
that McIntosh’s prosecutors failed to adhere to this guidance multiple
times over. The prosecutors failed to: (1) remind the court of its Rule
32.2(b)(2)(B) obligation; (2) prepare a proposed preliminary order prior
to sentencing; (3) comply with the District Court’s instruction at sentenc-
ing to submit a proposed order of forfeiture within a week from the hear-
ing; and (4) comply with the District Court’s instruction in the judgment
to submit a written order within one week of issuance of the judgment.
Notwithstanding these failures, Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B)’s plain terms require
a district court, and not the prosecutors, to enter a preliminary order.
                  Cite as: 601 U. S. ____ (2024)            13

                      Opinion of the Court

economy.” Brief for Petitioner 11. That is all true. McIn-
tosh does not explain, though, how it promotes judicial
economy to treat Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) as an inflexible claim-
processing rule. If anything, judicial economy is better
served by allowing courts some flexibility to ensure the ac-
curacy and completeness of the final forfeiture order and
address an inadvertent failure to enter a preliminary order
in advance of sentencing. Because McIntosh has not shown
that reading the requirement as a time-related directive
would frustrate significantly Rule 32.2’s effectiveness,
McIntosh’s invocation of purpose falls flat.
                              IV
  Noncompliance with Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B)’s timing require-
ment is a procedural error subject to harmlessness review.
Here, the Second Circuit agreed with the District Court
that McIntosh failed to show “prejudice sufficient to void
the forfeiture order.” 58 F. 4th, at 611. Both courts noted
McIntosh knew from the time of his indictment in 2011 and
from the pretrial bill of particulars that the Government
sought forfeiture. Both courts also rejected the argument
that the absence of a timely preliminary order prejudiced
McIntosh by causing the BMW to lose value. They ex-
plained that McIntosh “could have sought an interlocutory
sale of the car if he had wished to preserve its value” and
could have done so without a preliminary order. Ibid.
  McIntosh did not challenge the lower courts’ harmless-
ness analysis in either his certiorari petition or his opening
brief, so this Court need not revisit it.
                          *   *     *
  Because Rule 32.2(b)(2)(B) is a time-related directive
that, if missed, does not deprive a district court of its power
to order forfeiture, the judgment of the Court of Appeals for
the Second Circuit is
                                                     Affirmed.