Court Opinion

ID: 9845541
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-09-24 03:24:00.967434+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:16:13.279372
License: Public Domain

HAYS, Justice
(dissenting):
I concur in the dissent of Chief Justice Holohan.
SUPPLEMENTAL OPINION
FELDMAN, Justice.
In our original opinion in this case, we held that a witness who had undergone hypnosis should not be permitted to testify. The State moved for a rehearing; that motion was granted by order dated March 2, 1982. This opinion follows the order granting the motion for rehearing.
The hypnosis question first arose in State v. La Mountain, 125 Ariz. 547, 611 P.2d 551 (1980), where we held that in a rape prosecution, the court erred in admitting hypnotically induced recall pertaining to identification; however, we concluded that the error was not prejudicial since the other evidence was sufficient to sustain the conviction. This decision was followed by State v. Mena, 128 Ariz. 226, 624 P.2d 1274 (1981), in which we reversed the conviction, holding that “until hypnosis gains general acceptance in the fields of medicine and psychiatry as a method by which memories are accurately improved without undue danger of distortion, delusion or fantasy, we feel that testimony of witnesses which has been tainted by hypnosis should be excluded in criminal cases.” Id. at 231, 624 P.2d at 1279.
Hypnosis was not so easily to be put beyond us. The issue returned in the case sub judice, and in our original opinion, 131 Ariz. 180, 644 P.2d 1266 (1982) we repeated that because of its unreliability'and the phenomena which interfere with the right of effective cross-examination, post-hypnotic recall testimony would be inadmissible in criminal trials. We extended the rule to the issue of competency, and held that any person who had been hypnotized would not be permitted to testify to hypnotically induced recall, and would also be incompetent to testify to any fact, even those which demonstrably had been recalled prior to hypnosis.
One week later, in Lemieux v. Superior Court, 131 Ariz. 214, 644 P.2d 1300 (1982), we held that these rules would be applicable to civil cases, at least to the extent that persons hypnotized subsequent to the mandate could not testify to matters discussed under hypnosis. Two other cases involving hypnotically induced testimony have been submitted for decision and are under advisement.
Thus, the motion for rehearing in this case has called into question both the holdings in the previous decisions and the hypnosis issues of the pending cases.
PROPRIETY OF REEXAMINATION OF THE ISSUE
In La Mountain and Mena, four justices joined in the majority opinion and one member of the court concurred in the result.1 In this case, three justices, including Justice Struckmeyer, concurred in the majority opinion, and two justices who had concurred only in the result of the previous *194cases dissented. Justice Struckmeyer, who had joined in the majority opinion of the above cases, has retired and has been replaced by the author of this opinion.
The respondents here assert that the motion for rehearing is aimed at the reconstitution of the court and argue cogently that reconstitution by substitution of a judge with a different opinion from his predecessor should not cause the court to overturn an established principle of law.
A decent respect for the doctrine of stare decisis and a realization that the question is difficult, would ordinarily impel me to vote to deny rehearing, even though I might personally disagree with a portion of the original decision. However, where issues of important public policy are involved, each judge must vote his or her conviction, especially where the rule in question is not of long-standing duration and where no property rights have intervened.
Since the time of the rendering of the original opinion and the motion for rehearing, there has been a reconstitution of this court. We do not believe that a mere fortuitous reconstruction of the court should be grounds for a rehearing, nor do we believe that a rehearing should be granted unless there is some cogent reason for so doing. However, in questions involving the public policy of the State of Arizona, re-examination of our previous decision is proper. See, State ex rel. Nelson v. Jordan, 104 Ariz. 193, 450 P.2d 383 (1969), appeal dismissed, Jordan v. Arizona ex rel. Nelson, 396 U.S. 5, 90 S.Ct. 24, 24 L.Ed.2d 4. See also basis for rehearing in State ex rel. Morrison v. Thelberg, 87 Ariz. 318, 350 P.2d 988 (1960).
Caruth v. Mariani, 11 Ariz.App. 188, 189, 463 P.2d 83, 84 (1970) (granting motion for rehearing of Caruth v. Mariani, 10 Ariz.App. 277, 458 P.2d 371 (1969)).
Thus, after consideration of the memoranda submitted on the motion for rehearing, we have reexamined the entire matter, and have granted the motion for rehearing. The facts were set forth in our original opinion and are as follows:
Over a three year period, from August, 1977 to May, 1980, eighteen reported rape incidents occurred in unpopulated areas in west Phoenix. There is some variance among the assaults but essentially they followed a similar pattern. Couples in vehicles were approached by a masked, heavy-set male armed with a pistol and carrying what the state characterizes as a “rape kit,” consisting of ropes, blindfolds, ground cloth, and toilet paper. In each instance the assailant informed the couple he was going to steal their car or take their money and proceeded to tie and blindfold the couple. After using the ground cloth for the rape, the assailant would use the toilet paper to clean the woman, and then untie the victims, return the paraphernalia to his tote bag, and leave the area on foot.
The Phoenix Police Department and the Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office investigated the case for several years, taking statements, analyzing fingerprints, sending hair samples to the F.B.I. lab, and increasing patrols in the area. To obtain additional information on the identification of the assailant seven victims were hypnotized.
On July 1, 1980 defendant Silva was arrested as he approached an undercover decoy vehicle containing a male and female officer in plainclothes. Silva was wearing a mask, armed with a pistol, and carrying the “rape kit.”
Silva was chárged with forty felony counts involving kidnapping, sexual assault (under the new criminal code for the post-October 1,1978 crimes), and rape (under the old criminal code for the preOctober 1,1978 crimes). The charges are contained in two separate cause numbers and have been consolidated for trial.
Silva’s appointed counsel became aware of our decision in State v. Mena, 128 Ariz. 226, 624 P.2d 1274 (1981), and filed a motion in limine to preclude the testimony of the seven previously hypnotized witnesses. Mena, supra, was handed down after the Rule 16.1(b), Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure, deadline *195precluding any further pretrial motions. Judge Brown held an evidentiary hearing and granted defendant’s motion in limine, thereby precluding any testimony of the seven witnesses at trial. The state then filed this Special Action. Necessary additional facts will be related as we address the specific issue.
The decisions in La Mountain, supra, Mena, supra, Lemieux, supra, and the original opinion in this case were based upon the following conclusions:
1. Hypnosis is not generally accepted “in the fields of medicine and psychiatry as a method by which memories are accurately improved without undue danger of distortion, delusion or fantasy .... ” State v. Mena, 128 Ariz. at 231, 624 P.2d at 1279.
2. Hypnotically induced recall testimony is inherently unreliable because the testimony of the hypnotized witness may contain pseudomemory of “facts” which have been implanted due to suggestion by the hypnotist or confabulation by the subject in order to fulfill the implicit demand “received” from the hypnotist. Thus, the hypnotized person may unwittingly create plausible facts to fill gaps in his true recollection, so that his testimony contains as much fantasy as it does actual recall. Additionally, the hypnotized witness usually has as strong a belief in the pseudomemory as in the facts truly recalled, thus making it impossible to separate fact from fancy or to effectively cross-examine the witness. Therefore, evidence of hypnotically induced recall is inadmissible under any circumstances and for any purpose.
3. Because the previously hypnotized witness may be unable to separate unreliable, hypnotically induced recall “fact” from truly reliable, normally recalled “fact,” the mere induction of hypnosis during the investigatory or preparatory phase of the case renders that witness absolutely incompetent to testify, even as to those matters which he or she may have remembered and stated prior to the induction of hypnosis.
Before determining whether to modify our previous decision in this case, we must reexamine each premise of the original opinion.
THE TEST OF SCIENTIFIC ACCEPTANCE
The present test for admission of evidence obtained from use of a scientific principle, theory or discovery was derived from an early case which held that the results of a lie detector test were inadmissible even though proper foundation had been laid with respect to the training of the “expert” operator.
Just when a scientific principle or discovery crosses the line between the experimental and demonstrable stages is difficult to define. Somewhere in this twilight zone the evidential force of the principle must be recognized, and while courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs.
We think the systolic blood pressure deception test has not yet gained such standing and scientific recognition among physiological and psychological authorities ....
Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013, 1014 (D.C.Cir.1923).
The Frye test has been applied in a variety of situations. See, e.g., United States v. Tranowski, 659 F.2d 750 (7th Cir. 1981) (photograph dating by mathematical and astronomical calculations); United States v. Fosher, 590 F.2d 381 (1st Cir. 1979) (expert testimony on the unreliability of eyewitness identification); United States v. Kilgus, 571 F.2d 508 (9th Cir. 1978) (forward looking infrared system); United States v. Brown, 557 F.2d 541 (6th Cir. 1977) (ion microprobic analysis of human hair); United States v. McDaniel, 538 F.2d 408 (D.C.Cir.1976) (spectrographic voice identification); Ibn-Tamas v. United States, 407 A.2d 626 (D.C.Ct.App. 1979) (methodology for identifying and studying battered women); People v. Monigan, 72 Ill.App.3d 87, 28 Ill.Dec. 395, 390 N.E.2d 562 (1979) (polygraph); State v. *196Stewart, 116 N.H. 585, 364 A.2d 621 (1976) (polygraph); People v. Smith, 110 Misc.2d 118, 443 N.Y.S.2d 551 (1981) (odontological identification of bite marks); State v. Thomas, 66 Ohio St.2d 518, 423 N.E.2d 137 (1981) (expert testimony on “battered wife syndrome”); State v. Washington, 229 Kan. 47, 622 P.2d 986 (1981) (multi-system polymorphic enzyme analysis of blood); State v. Canaday, 90 Wash.2d 808, 585 P.2d 1185 (1978) (breathalyzer); State v. Clawson, W.Va., 270 S.E.2d 659 (1980) (hair analysis).
Arizona has adopted and followed the Frye test. See, e.g., Scales v. City Court, 122 Ariz. 231, 594 P.2d 97 (1979) (breathalyzer); State v. Valdez, 91 Ariz. 274, 371 P.2d 894 (1962) (polygraph). Accordingly, this was the test we considered in Lemieux and Mena.
Under the Frye rule, once the court determines the reliability of the procedure under the test of general acceptance, evidence resulting from use of the particular technique is admissible, subject to a foundational showing that the expert was qualified, the technique was properly used, and the results were accurately recorded.
Frye has been in use for almost 60 years without the development of. any alternative as a general test of reliability. No such alternative has been seriously suggested in the cases or in the literature, nor does any occur to this court.
ANALYSIS OF HYPNOSIS CASES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO THE FRYE RULE
To a large extent, the decision on use of hypnotically induced recall turns on the resolution of a single question of policy. The true issue is whether Frye should be applied to determine the basic reliability of the new technique as a prerequisite for use in the courtroom, thus leaving only foundational questions for the trial court, or whether the trial court should be left free to decide both basic reliability and foundational questions on a case-by-case basis. The cases proceed along two separate lines, based not so much on how the court views hypnosis (there being a general consensus that it presents a great deal of danger), but primarily on whether the court applies the Frye principle in making its determination.
The line of cases holding that recall refreshed by hypnosis is admissible begins with Harding v. State, 5 Md.App. 230, 246 A.2d 302 (1968), cert. denied, 395 U.S. 949, 89 S.Ct. 2030, 23 L.Ed.2d 468 (1969). In Harding, the court held the evidence was admissible on a showing that the previously hypnotized witness was testifying from her refreshed memory. A foundational showing was made by testimony of the psychologist who induced the hypnosis. He stated that there was “no reason to doubt the accuracy of the witness’ recollections.” Id. at 246, 246 A.2d at 311. There was no discussion of different scientific viewpoints or general scientific acceptance; the Frye test was not mentioned. In State v. Temoney, 45 Md.App. 569, 576, 414 A.2d 240, 244 (1980), vacated on other grounds, 290 Md. 251, 429 A.2d 1018 (1981), the Maryland court relied on Harding and again held hypnotically induced recall admissible. The court concluded that the Frye principle, adopted in Reed v. State, 283 Md. 374, 391 A.2d 364 (1978) (a spectrograph case), was inapplicable because the hypnosis issue did not involve expert testimony based upon a scientific procedure, but only the credibility of a witness’ refreshed memory. 45 Md.App. at 577, 414 A.2d at 244.
The cases which followed Harding reached the same result in approximately the same manner. Thus, in State v. Jorgensen, 8 Or.App. 1, 9, 492 P.2d 312, 315 (1971), the court held that recollection refreshed by hypnosis and sodium amytal was admissible, citing Harding, and neither citing Frye nor discussing the test of general scientific acceptance. The same result was reached in Clark v. State, 379 So.2d 372, 375 (Fla.Ct.App.1979). In State v. McQueen, 295 N.C. 96, 119, 244 S.E.2d 414, 427-29 (1978), the North Carolina court relied upon Harding and Jorgensen, and held that the post-hypnotic recall was admissible, with all questions going to the weight of the testimony. The court did not discuss the Frye test, except to indicate that State v. Foye, 254 *197N.C. 704, 120 S.E.2d 169 (1961) (which held lie detector test results inadmissible, in part because of the lack of scientific acceptance) was inapplicable because hypnotic testimony was a simple question of recollection and the question of credibility was for the jury. 295 N.C. at 121-22, 244 S.E.2d at 429. In People v. Smrekar, 68 Ill.App.3d 379, 385-88, 24 Ill.Dec. 707, 712-14, 385 N.E.2d 848, 853-55 (1979), the Illinois court held the testimony was admissible; it did not discuss the Frye rule and merely alluded to a few citations in the medical literature which refer to hypnosis as “a valuable tool” to restore memory.
We make no attempt to cite all the “pro-hypnosis” cases. Suffice it to say that in these cases the Frye test is mentioned tangentially, if at all, and is not applied. It is interesting, however, that when the very court that decided Harding eventually applied the Frye rule to the hypnosis question, it came to a different result. In Polk v. State, 48 Md.App. 382, 427 A.2d 1041, 1048 (1981), the court reversed the lower court’s ruling admitting hypnotically recalled testimony and remanded the case for determination of the procedure’s general scientific acceptance.
Nevertheless, the Harding approach still retains vitality. In its most recent application, Chapman v. State, Wyo., 638 P.2d 1280, 1281-85 (1982), the Wyoming court held the evidence admissible, characterizing the question as one pertaining to the weight to be given to refreshed recollection. Frye was mentioned only by the two dissenters who relied on it as support for their view that hypnotically induced recall should be inadmissible. Id. at 1290.
In the second line of cases — primarily the more recent decisions — the courts have discussed the Frye test and applied it to the issues surrounding admission of hypnotically induced recall. These courts have almost unanimously agreed that the evidence is inadmissible. See State v. Mena, supra; People v. Shirley, 31 Cal.3d 18, 181 Cal.Rptr. 243, 641 P.2d 775 (1982); People v. Gonzales, 108 Mich.App. 145, 161, 310 N.W.2d 306, 314 (1981); State v. Mack, Minn., 292 N.W.2d 764, 771 (1980); State v. Palmer, 210 Neb. 206, 313 N.W.2d 648, 655 (1981); Commonwealth v. Nazarovitch, 496 Pa. 97, 436 A.2d 170, 171-78 (1981). As the New Jersey Supreme Court has noted:
[The Frye standard] has previously been applied only to the results of physical tests such as radar, ... the polygraph, ... and voiceprints .... But we believe that the policy reasons embodied in the general acceptance standard are germane to hypnotically refreshed testimony as well.
Like the results of a polygraph examination or voiceprint analysis, the credibility of recall stimulated by hypnosis depends upon the reliability of the scientific procedure used. If the procedure is not capable of yielding reasonably reliable results, then its probative value may be outweighed by the risks entailed in its use in a criminal trial.... These risks include prejudice, jury confusion, and consumption of time and trial resources. ... When hypnosis results in an eyewitness identification of the defendant, for example, the defendant is clearly prejudiced if there is not even a reasonable likelihood that the witness’ memory was accurately revived. Because the introduction of hypnotically refreshed testimony will often require additional expert testimony ..., there is a potential for confusion of the issues and a tremendous consumption of trial resources. The potential disadvantages would be even greater if it were necessary to prove the lack of general acceptance of the procedure in every case as well as the unreliability of its use in the particular instance. These disadvantages may be justified by the probative worth of the evidence, as demonstrated by satisfaction of the general acceptance standard, before hypnotically refreshed testimony will be admissible.
State v. Hurd, 86 N.J. 525, 536-37, 432 A.2d 86, 91-92 (1981) (citations omitted).2
*198The other eases in the “anti-hypnosis” line rely on other reasons for applying the Frye test. In Commonwealth v. Nazarovitch, 496 Pa. at 103, 436 A.2d at 173, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court pointed out that one reason for the application of the Frye standard is a fear that the jury may give increased weight to evidence based upon some scientific standard or procedure. Therefore, the court held that evidence developed in that manner should not be admissible without establishing that the technique is reliable and its results trustworthy. Id. at 110, 436 A.2d at 178. This showing is satisfied by general acceptance of the procedure in the relevant scientific community. In Polk, the Maryland Court of Appeals reasoned that induced recall cannot be disassociated from the underlying scientific method of hypnosis. 48 Md.App. at 394, 427 A.2d at 1048. It held, therefore, as we did in State v. Mena, 128 Ariz. at 231, 624 P.2d at 1279, that the Frye test must be applied. Polk v. State, 48 Md.App. at 394, 427 A.2d at 1048. In State v. Mack, the Minnesota Supreme Court reached the same conclusion, 292 N.W.2d at 765. In so holding, the court implied that any other rule would result in a case-by-case battle on the question of admissibility. This would be prohibitively expensive and would result in conflicting decisions.3 Id., 292 N.W.2d at 766.
We find the principles stated in the cases that have applied the Frye standard persuasive. Unlike voiceprints, fingerprints, blood alcohol analyses, and other techniques, the hypnosis issue is not centered upon an expert’s interpretation of data or results obtained from physical tests. Hypnosis involves interrogation of a potential witness in an abnormal state of lessened consciousness and heightened suggestibility. No confession made by a suspect in that condition would be admissible and, indeed, the courts have uniformly held that statements made under hypnosis are inadmissible for substantive purposes. See, e.g., People v. Hangsleben, 86 Mich.App. 718, 728, 273 N.W.2d 539, 544 (1978); Greenfield v. Commonwealth, 214 Va. 710, 715-16, 204 S.E.2d 414, 418-19 (1974); McCormick on Evidence § 208, at 510 (2d ed. 1972); An-not., Admissibility of Hypnotic Evidence, 92 A.L.R.3d 442 (1979). Even the cases that favor admissibility of hypnotic recall concede that this method of refreshing recollection is “unusual,” Kline v. Ford Motor Co., 523 F.2d 1067, 1069-70 (9th Cir. 1975), and “carries a dangerous potential for abuse,” United States v. Adams, 581 F.2d 193, 198 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 1006, 99 S.Ct. 621, 58 L.Ed.2d 683 (1978).
Hypnosis has gained scientific recognition primarily as a therapeutic tool. Its forensic use as a means of ascertaining truth *199presents insurmountable problems of reliability because the hypnotically refreshed “memory” may contain as much fiction as fact. Therefore, there is a substantial threshold question whether the danger of prejudice outweighs the probative value of hypnotically elicited recollection, even when the technique is properly applied. We feel that this question cannot be appropriately handled on a case-by-case basis, with the consequential danger of conflicting decisions and consumption of trial resources. The threshold standard, then, must be the Frye test, which, with all its shortcomings, serves the “salutary purpose of preventing the jury from being misled by unproven and ultimately unsound scientific methods.”4 People v. Shirley, supra, 31 Cal.3d at 53, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 263, 641 P.2d at 795.
If there is a discernible thread distinguishing what is rigorously scrutinized as scientific evidence before admission from what is more generously received as relevant expert opinion, it is that any technique that in its application is likely to have an enormous effect in resolving completely a matter in controversy must be demonstrably reliable. Where, on the other hand, an expert opinion only helps a trier to interpret the evidence or is susceptible to evaluation from the trier’s own knowledge, it will be received on a lesser showing of scientific certainty. Because “science” is often accepted in our society as synonymous with truth, there is a substantial risk of overweighting by the jury. The rules concerning scientific evidence are aimed at that risk.
1 M. Udall & J. Livermore, Law of Evidence § 102, at 212 (2d ed. 1982).
We hold, therefore, that the Frye test is applicable to the question of hypnotically induced recall testimony. We reaffirm our statements to that effect in State v. Mena, 128 Ariz. at 231, 624 P.2d at 1279.
RESULT OF APPLYING THE FRYE TEST TO HYPNOSIS
Applying the Frye test, we must first determine the relevant “scientific community” whose acceptance must be ascertained. Acceptance must be by those experts who are relatively disinterested and impartial and whose livelihood, therefore, is not intimately connected with approval of the technique. People v. Barbara, 400 Mich. 352, 376, 255 N.W.2d 171, 180 (1977). This requirement is not satisfied with testimony from a single expert or group of experts who personally believe the challenged procedure is accepted or is reliable. “[T]he court must be able to find that the procedure is generally accepted as reliable by the larger scientific community in which it originated.” People v. Shirley, supra, 31 Cal.3d at 54, n. 32, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 264, 641 P.2d at 796. We hold, therefore, that the Frye test is satisfied when the court is able to conclude that disinterested and impartial experts, knowledgeable in the scientific specialty which deals with and uses such procedures or techniques, have come to recognize the methodology as having sufficient scientific basis to produce reasonably uniform and reliable results that will contribute materially to the ascertainment of the truth. *200See People v. Shirley, supra, at 54-56, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 264-65, 641 P.2d at 796-97; People v. Barbara, 400 Mich, at 364-65, 255 N.W.2d at 180-81; State v. Hurd, 86 N.J. at 536-37, 432 A.2d at 91-92.
We must then determine how this evaluation is to be made. Obviously, in some cases testimony may be adduced in the trial court with regard to the technique, its nature, method and application. Such testimony may also describe the results in terms of reliability and uniformity. See State v. Mack, supra. “Ideally, resolution of the general acceptance issue would require consideration of the views of a typical cross-section of the scientific community, including representatives, if there are such, of those who oppose or question the new technique.” People v. Shirley, 31 Cal.3d supra, at 55, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 265, 641 P.2d at 797. However, this does not mean that such witnesses must be actually produced to give their testimony. The language of the California Supreme Court on this point is particularly helpful:
Accordingly, for this limited purpose [ascertainment of acceptance in the relevant scientific community] scientists have long been permitted to speak to the courts through their published writings in scholarly treatises and journals .... The courts view such writings as “evidence,” not of the actual reliability of the new scientific technique, but of its acceptance vel non in the scientific community. Nor do the courts “pick and choose” among the writings for this purpose. On many topics — including hypnosis — the scientific literature is so vast that no court could possibly absorb it all. But there is no need to do so, because the burden is on the proponent of the new technique to show a scientific consensus supporting its use; if a fair overview of the literature discloses that scientists significant either in number or expertise publicly oppose that use of hypnosis as unreliable, the court may safely conclude there is no such consensus at the present time.
Id. at 56, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 265, 641 P.2d at 797 (citations omitted).
The technique described by the California Supreme Court is the method this court followed in Mena and in the original opinion in this case. There is no need to repeat here the exhaustive summary of articles on the use of hypnosis to refresh recollection. The reader is free to consult those opinions and the opinions in People v. Shirley, supra, and Commonwealth v. Nazarovitch, supra, for a review of the literature on the subject.
At this point, we need make only the following observations by way of summary:
1. The nature of hypnosis
Although experts disagree about the many aspects of hypnosis, all concur that hypnosis is a sleeplike state whereby response to stimuli is more easily achieved than in a waking state.... Categorized as a state of heightened concentration, hypnosis is achieved by creating a passiveness in the subject .... The subject, with increased receptivity to instruction, is guided into a trance-like state through a series of suggestions from 5 the hypnotist. The hypnotized subject can be regressed to past times and places and recount the emotions and events experienced then. For this purpose, hypnosis has been utilized by prosecution and defense alike to stimulate recall ....
Commonwealth v. Nazarovitch, 496 Pa. at 108, 436 A.2d at 173.
*2012. There are serious problems inherent in the use of the procedure. For example,
Two salient conditions that usually characterize the person who is in a hypnotic state or trance are hyper,suggestibility and hypercompliance.... Thus, the hypnotized individual is not only more easily influenced but is also more highly motivated to please others, most especially the hypnotist and those who are seen as associated with the hypnotist. Levitt, The Use of Hypnosis to “Freshen” the Memory of Witnesses or Victims, Trial, April 1981, at 56.
Thus, the hypnotized subject may not only have heightened recall of events he did experience, but may have pseudomemories of facts he did not experience but which were consciously or unconsciously suggested to him by the hypnotist or which he has actually fantasized or confused and transferred from other events and memories. These become part of his “recall” in an effort to satisfy his desire to fulfill the implied “demand” of the hypnotist to answer the questions asked during the hypnotic trance. This latter phenomenon is known as “confabulation.” Thus, the more closely the hypnotized subject is questioned, the greater the danger that information produced will be inaccurate.
3. Once a person has been hypnotized, he becomes absolutely confident in the events as “recalled” during the hypnotic trance.
4. The most dangerous aspect of all is that
During the hypnotic session, neither the subject nor the hypnotist can distinguish between true memories and pseudo memories of various kinds in the reported recall; and when the subject repeats that recall in the waking state (e.g., in a trial) neither an expert witness nor a lay observer (e.g., the judge or jury) can make a similar distinction. In each instance, if the claimed memory is not or cannot be verified by wholly independent means, no one can reliably tell whether it is an accurate recollection or mere confabulation. Because of the foregoing pressures on the subject to present the hypnotist with a logically complete and satisfying memory of the prior event, neither the detail, coherence, nor plausibility of the resulting recall is any guarantee of its veracity.
People v. Shirley, supra, 31 Cal.3d at 65, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 271, 641 P.2d at 803 (citing Diamond, Inherent Problems in the Use of Pretrial Hypnosis on a Prospective Witness, 68 Cal.L.Rev. 313, 333-35, 337-38, 340 (1980); Orne, The Use and Misuse of Hypnosis in Court, 27 Int’l J. Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis 311, 317-18, 320 (1979)).
These problems and the resulting ramifications were more completely discussed with complete citation to the medical literature in our opinion in Mena and in the original opinion in this case. Reexamination of the literature originally cited and examination of the most recent publications lead us to reaffirm our original conclusion that the threshold question of reliability must be resolved by precluding courtroom use of hypnotically recalled testimony.
This conclusion is reinforced by the trend in the most recent cases to refuse to follow Harding and its progeny. The cases, after exhaustive analysis, hold that hypnotically refreshed testimony is not per se admissible, rejecting the Harding proposition that the problems inherent to hypnosis go only to the weight rather than the admissibility of the evidence. See People v. Shirley, supra; Polk v. State, supra; People v. Gonzales, supra; State v. Mack, supra; State v. Palmer, supra; Commonwealth v. Nazarovitch, supra.
Thus, we reaffirm our previous determination that hypnosis has not received sufficient general acceptance in the scientific community to give reasonable assurance that the benefit of the results produced under even the best of circumstances will be sufficiently reliable to outweigh the risks of abuse or prejudice. We reject the Harding rule that hypnotically induced recall is admissible as a general matter and that the problems inherent in the use of the technique go to weight rather than admissibility-
*202Our previous decisions, however, went further and held that hypnotically induced testimony was inadmissible in any circumstance and for any reason. At this point, recent developments in the use of this evidence with appropriate “safeguards” deserve mention.
THE USE OF HYPNOSIS WITH “SAFEGUARDS”
Several of the recent cases which have applied the Frye test have found insufficient acceptance in the relevant scientific community to permit application of a per se rule of admissibility, but have nevertheless adopted a rule involving limited admissibility under “safeguards.” The nature of the limitations and of the safeguards varies from case to case, but is basically similar. The reason for the similarity is probably attributable to Dr. Martin T. Orne. Dr. Orne is referred to in many of the cases and in the hypnosis literature, and is the co-author of much of it. His stature and credentials in the field are rather remarkable.6
It is Dr. Orne’s writings which are largely responsible for developing the techniques involved in the forensic use of hypnosis. In his initial and widely cited article, Dr. Orne reviewed much of the scientific literature and concluded that hypnosis could be a valuable tool for interrogation of witnesses to provide leads for the investigation of crimes. Orne, supra, at 85-86. He also stated that despite the considerable danger of production of pseudomemory, if trained mental health professionals used the technique properly on an appropriate subject, hypnotically induced recall testimony could be of aid in the truth-seeking aspects of the case. Id. at 99-100. However, he urged that only testimony obtained in such a carefully applied procedure should be admitted. Id. at 99.
As a result of his original article and his testimony or affidavits in various cases, several courts concluded that the use of hypnosis as a procedure to increase recall had achieved such a degree of acceptance in the scientific community that, despite its inherent dangers, the testimony could be admitted. In each of these cases, the court imposed certain safeguards on the hypnotic procedure as a condition precedent to admissibility. In each of the cases, the safeguards are quite similar, primarily because directly or indirectly the safeguards were derived from Dr. Orne’s outline of the conditions under which hypnosis should be performed and without which its results should be deemed unreliable. These safeguards are well outlined by the New Jersey Supreme Court:
Whenever a party in a criminal trial seeks to introduce a witness who has undergone hypnosis to refresh his memory, the party must inform his opponent of his intention and provide him with the recording of the session and other pertinent material. The trial court will then rule on the admissibility of the testimony either at a pretrial hearing or at a hearing out of the jury’s presence. In reviewing the admissibility of hypnotically refreshed testimony, the trial court should evaluate both the kind of memory loss *203that hypnosis was used to restore and the specific technique employed, based on expert testimony presented by the parties. The object of this review is not to determine whether the proffered testimony is accurate, but instead whether the use of hypnosis and the procedure followed in the particular case was a reasonably reliable means of restoring the witness’ memory.
The first question a court must consider is the appropriateness of using hypnosis for the kind of memory loss encountered. The reason for a subject’s lack of memory is an important factor in evaluating the reliability of hypnosis in restoring recall. According to defendant’s expert, Dr. Orne, hypnosis often is reasonably reliable in reviving normal recall where there is a pathological reason, such as a traumatic neurosis, for the witness’ inability to remember. Orne, supra, at 325. On the other hand, the likelihood of obtaining reasonably accurate recall diminishes if hypnosis is used simply to refresh a witness’ memory or concerning details where there may be no recollection at all or to “verify” one of several conflicting accounts given by a witness. Id. at 324, 332. A related factor to be considered is whether the witness has any discernible motivation for not remembering or for “recalling” a particular version of the events. In either case, the possibility of creating self-serving fantasy is significant ....
Once it is determined that a case is of a kind likely to yield normal recall if hypnosis is properly administered, then it is necessary to determine whether the procedures followed were reasonably reliable. Of particular importance are the manner of questioning and the presence of cues or suggestions during the trance and the post-hypnotic period.... [citing Orne and others] An additional factor affecting the reliability of the procedure is the amenability of the subject to hypnosis .....
To provide an adequate record for evaluating the reliability of the hypnotic procedure, and to ensure a minimum level of reliability, we also adopt several procedural requirements based on those suggested by Dr. Orne and prescribed by the trial court .... Before it may introduce hypnotically refreshed testimony, a party must demonstrate compliance with these requirements.
First, a psychiatrist or psychologist experienced in the use of hypnosis must conduct the session....
Second, the professional conducting the hypnotic session should be independent of and not regularly employed by the prosecutor, investigator or defense.
Third, any information given to the hypnotist by law enforcement personnel or the defense prior to the hypnotic session must be recorded, either in writing or in other suitable form....
Fourth, before inducing hypnosis the hypnotist should obtain from the subject a detailed description of the facts as the subject remembers them....
Fifth, all contacts between the hypnotist and the subject must be recorded. This will establish a record of the preinduction interview, the hypnotic session, and the post-hypnotic period, enabling a court to determine what information or suggestions the witness may have received ....
Sixth, only the hypnotist and the subject should be present during any phase of the hypnotic session, including the prehypnotic testing and the post-hypnotic interview....
Once compliance with these safeguards is shown, the trial court can determine the reliability and therefore the admissibility of hypnotically refreshed testimony, according to the standards set forth above.
State v. Hurd, 86 N.J. at 543-46, 432 A.2d at 95-97 (emphasis added)! Similar tests, some as complicated, some considerably shorter, but all based on Dr. Ome’s suggestions, have been adopted in other cases. See, e.g., Polk v. State, supra (Maryland Court of Appeals remanded to the trial court for determination of general acceptance under Frye, stating that if it was *204determined that the Frye requirement is satisfied, the trial court should then make a determination of other factors (most of which are similar to Orne’s safeguards) which would determine the issue of admissibility, not merely weight; State v. Mack, supra (Minnesota Supreme Court reversed admission of hypnosis testimony but did not foreclose the “use of hypnosis as an extremely useful investigative tool” in providing new leads for solving crimes. The court further noted but did not adopt Orne’s safeguards.); People v. McDowell, 103 Misc.2d 831, 427 N.Y.S.2d 181 (1980).
Thus, we are faced with three lines of authority. The first one is exemplified by Harding7 and its progeny, holding that recall aided by hypnosis is admissible, and all problems inherent in its use go to the weight of the evidence. As noted above, we reject this approach to resolve the question before us. The second line of cases adopts a rule of total exclusion, and is exemplified by the following decisions from California, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Pennsylvania: People v. Shirley, supra; People v. Gonzales, supra; State v. Mack, supra; State v. Palmer, supra; Commonwealth v. Nazarovitch, supra. This is the rule we adopted in Mena and in the original opinion in this case. The third line of cases adopts a middle road, finding that there is general acceptance in the relevant scientific community provided certain safeguards are followed. By and large, these courts have enumerated safeguards based on the Orne formulation and have held that if such safeguards are followed, the testimony may be admitted, leaving the jury free to hear and weigh all evidence the opponent of the testimony may offer regarding possibilities of pseudomemory resulting from suggestion, confabulation, or deliberate untruthfulness. People v. McDowell, supra; State v. Hurd, supra.
We must, then, determine which of these two remaining paths we should take. Before making this decision, we must turn to the literature and examine the current state of acceptance by the relevant scientific community. We note a recent article by Warner, The Use of Hypnosis in the Defense of Criminal Cases, 27 Int’l J. Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis, 417 (1979), advocating the admission of such testimony providing the “safeguards” are followed. In contrast, Dr. Diamond argues that the process is so unreliable that it has no scientific acceptance by knowledgeable psychiatrists and psychologists, so that recall testimony should not be admitted no matter what safeguards are applied and any witness who has been hypnotized should be declared incompetent for all purposes. See People v. Shirley, supra (citing Dr. Diamond extensively). Dr. Ome’s position is of some interest:
Hypnosis may be helpful in the context of criminal investigation and under circumstances involving functional memory loss. Hypnosis is not useful in assuring truthfulness since, particularly in a forensic context, subjects may simulate hypnosis and are able to lie wilfully even in deep hypnosis; [additionally and] most troublesome, actual memories cannot be distinguished from confabulations — pseudo-memories where plausible fantasy has replaced gaps in recall — either by the subject or by the hypnotist without full and independent corroboration. While potentially useful to refresh witnesses’ and victims’ memories to facilitate eyewitness identification, the procedure is relatively safe and appropriate only when neither the subject nor the authorities nor the hypnotist has any preconceptions about the events under investigation. If such preconceptions do exist, hypnosis may readily cause the subject to confabulate the person who is suspected into his “hypnotically enhanced memories.” These pseudo memories, originally developed in hypnosis, may come to be accepted by the subject as his actual recall of the original events; they are then remembered with great subjective certainty and reported *205with conviction. Such circumstances can create convincing, apparently objective “eyewitnesses” rather than facilitating actual recall. Minimal safeguards are proposed to reduce the likelihood of such an eventuality and other serious potential abuses of hypnosis.
Orne, supra, Abstract at 61 (emphasis in original). Dr. Orne specifically points out that:
As a consequence of [its] limitations, hypnosis may be useful in some instances to help bring back forgotten memories following an accident or a crime while in others a witness might, with the same conviction, produce information that is totally inaccurate.... As long as this material is subject to independent verification, its utility is considerable and the risk attached to the procedure minimal. There is no way, however, by which anyone — even a psychologist or psychiatrist with extensive training ... can for any particular piece of information determine whether it is an actual memory or a confabulation unless there is independent verification.
Id. at 72-73 (emphasis in original). Dr. Orne also notes that the type of induced recall most likely to lead to accurate revival of memory is that which is least useful in the forensic process: “[f]ree narrative recall [under hypnosis] will produce the highest percentage of accurate information but also the lowest amount of detail. Conversely, the more an eyewitness is questioned about details [while under hypnosis] the more details will be obtained — but with a marked decrease in accuracy.” Id. at 77 (citing Hilgard & Loftus, Effective Interrogation of the Eyewitness, 21 Int’l J. Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis, 342 (1979).
One conclusion reached by Orne bears further mention: “We will show that as emphasis shifts away from the search for clues that will lead to reliable independent evidence and focuses more on helping to prepare witnesses to give eyewitness testimony, the difficulties that hypnosis creates for the administration of justice become increasingly greater.” Id. at 85.
Orne concludes his article by warning that if there is even the “vaguest possibility” of using hypnotically enhanced recall at trial, certain safeguards must be followed. Since the use of hypnosis “can profoundly affect the individual’s subsequent testimony” in a manner which is “not reversible,” Orne concludes that “[i]f individuals are to be allowed to testify after having undergone hypnosis to aid their memory, a minimum number of safeguards are absolutely essential.” Id. at 99. He then proposes the “Orne safeguards” which in one form or another have been adopted in those cases following the middle road.
In a recent symposium presented at the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D. C., Dr. Orne stated:
There is an erroneous belief that hypnosis will tend to produce truth, though subjects can in fact lie under hypnosis, and much more importantly, may confabulate and believe the counter factual statements they have been led to “remember” by the hypnotic process.
******
Good research will ultimately delineate those circumstances when hypnosis may be of use and indicate those instances when it is always dangerous. I have tried to take the best available data to formulate a series of safeguards which, if properly applied and enforced by the courts, will allow independent experts to assess whether a given witness has been tainted or permanently altered by the hypnotic process. There seems no doubt that without such safeguards individuals who have been hypnotized must not be allowed to testify in regard to those matters where the hypnotic session would have been relevant. Proper use of safeguards may demonstrate that in a given instance the individual should be allowed to testify despite the fact that he has been hypnotized, but all the safeguards can ever do is provide the information necessary to make such a determination in a rational way.
*206Orne, The Effect of Demand Characteristics in the Context of the Forensic Use of Hypnosis, 15, 18, in Influence of Hypnosis and Related States on Memory: Forensic Implications (January 1982) (symposium presented at the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D. C.) (emphasis added).
Another leading authority in the field is Dr. Herbert Spiegel of the Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University. In a recent article, Dr. Spiegel stated:
[T]he following conclusion is inevitably clear. All data obtained under hypnosis are vulnerable to the counterclaim of memory contamination or coercion (innocent or designed), even though incredibly accurate information can at times emerge. It is thus imperative to document all prehypnosis data as separate and distinct from information obtained during and after hypnotic interrogation. If this is not done, the prehypnosis testimony also risks losing its credibility. The most one can legitimately expect from hypnotic interrogation is further data, which may serve as leads for more conventional evidence gathering. Data elicited through hypnosis by itself deserve low or no priority until they are supported by other data. Even confessions of guilt made under hypnosis are vulnerable to counterclaims of coercion and deception, especially in demonstrably highly hypnotizable persons. This certainly does not hold for persons who are not hypnotizable and probably does not apply to those who test low on hypnotizability assessment tests.
Spiegel, Hypnosis and Evidence; Help or Hindrance?, 347 Annals N.Y.Acad.Sci. 73, 79 (1980) (emphasis added).
To summarize, then:
1. There is general support for the proposition that hypnotically aided recall is accepted and is valuable in the investigation of crimes and other events. Used for this purpose, it may provide clues which, when checked and verified, may lead to admissible evidence.
2. Hypnotically induced recall evidence should never be allowed unless the hypnotic session was performed under appropriate safeguards. Even then, such evidence may contain an inextricable mix of factual recall and pseudomemory in which the witness will have complete and sincere belief.
3. No matter how carefully the safeguards are followed, the risk of producing “recall” containing a mix of fact and fancy is high and to some extent unavoidable, while the finder of fact will have been deprived of the most important tools on which to base its judgment of credibility because the demeanor of the witness will have been irreversibly altered. The posthypnotic witness will provide testimony which is plausible, consistent and sincere, and in which he has absolute faith. There is no method by which even the best trained expert, the jury or even the witness himself can separate actual memory from pseudo-memory. The effective use of cross-examination is impaired in violation of the rights guaranteed by the sixth and fourteenth amendments of the Constitution of the United States. See State v. Mena, 128 Ariz. at 232, 624 P.2d at 1280.
Viewed from the perspective afforded us by the foregoing analysis of the case law and review of the literature describing the present state of the art, the questions remaining are easily identified. The first question is whether, having rejected the Harding rule of per se admissibility, we should retreat from our previous position and follow the “middle road,” adopting the New Jersey rule (State v. Hurd, supra) that hypnotically induced recall testimony may be admitted providing there has been strict compliance with court-formulated standards which will, hopefully, minimize the danger of pseudomemory. The second question is whether we should modify the rule announced in our original opinion in this case, that when a witness’ memory of any part of an event has been “tainted” by the hypnotic procedure, that witness is rendered incompetent to testify for any purpose and with respect to any fact, even those remembered and related prior to hyp*207nosis. We answer the first question in the negative and the second in the affirmative.
HYPNOTICALLY INDUCED RECALL TESTIMONY IS PER SE INADMISSIBLE
In deciding whether to depart from our rule of per se inadmissibility, we are faced with some of the same considerations of benefit vs. risk that we faced in connection with our rejection of the Harding doctrine of per se admissibility. We feel that the value of adopting a set of safeguards which, if followed, may permit the hypnosis procedure to cross the Frye threshold is minimal. This is acknowledged in the leading “safeguard case,” State v. Hurd, supra. After setting forth the “Orne standards,” the New Jersey court stated:
Once compliance with these safeguards is shown, the trial court can determine the reliability and therefore the admissibility ..., according to the standards set forth above.
... We recognize that this standard places a heavy burden upon the use of hypnosis for criminal trial purposes. This burden is justified by the potential for abuse of hypnosis, the genuine likelihood of suggestiveness and error, and the consequent risk of injustice.... The burden of proof we adopt here will assure strict compliance with the procedural guidelines set forth in this opinion. It will also limit the admissibility of this kind of evidence to those cases where a party can convincingly demonstrate that hypnosis was a reasonably reliable means of reviving memory comparable in its accuracy to normal recall.
State v. Hurd, 86 N.J. at 546-47, 432 A.2d at 97 (footnotes omitted). The New York court also uses a version of the Orne standards, specifying nine safeguards which must be met, acknowledging the difficulty of meeting them, but stating that “hypnosis should be used only in rare instances and under the best possible conditions.” People v. McDowell, 103 Misc.2d at 837, 427 N.Y.S.2d at 184. The State’s position here is that standards such as those adopted in Hurd should not be adopted in Arizona, but that the trial courts should be permitted to apply those or other proper standards to determine reliability of the proffered testimony on a case-by-case basis. This approximates the Hurd rule, but we are not persuaded that it is a wise practice.
To require the admissibility of hypnotically induced testimony to be determined on a case-by-case basis based on the testimony of expert witnesses produced by the parties, as required by Hurd, is neither sound nor practical. To compare the “recollections” of a witness whose testimony has been hypnotically induced to the “recollections” of an “ordinary” witness, and to determine whether the use of hypnosis was a feasibly reliable means of restoring memory comparable to normal recall in its accuracy, is virtually impossible.
The requirements for determining a minimum level of reliability for hypnotically induced testimony set out in Hurd - are grounded upon the opinions and testimony of an eminent expert in the field of hypnosis. The same expert testified to essentially the same conclusions in the Mack case [State v. Mack, supra], and also testified that, in his opinion, a witness’ testimony to a “memory” retrieved under hypnosis was infinitely less reliable as an indicator of truth than the results of a polygraph test. To base the admissibility of evidence in a given case on the testimony of competing expert witnesses imposes unjustified burdens on the criminal justice system in the field of hypnosis where the consensus of expert testimony indicates that no expert can determine whether memory retrieved by hypnosis or any part of that memory is truth, falsehood, or fantasy.
State v. Palmer, 210 Neb. at 217-18, 313 N.W.2d at 654-55.
The California court also considered the same question and “decline[d] to join in the foregoing effort to develop a set of ‘safeguards’ sufficient to avoid the risk inherent in admitting hypnotically induced testimony.” People v. Shirley, supra, 31 Cal.3d at *20839, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 254-55, 641 P.2d at 786-87. The court reasoned that not even the Hurd standards would forestall the dangers at which they were directed, that other dangers exist — such as causing the witness to lose his “critical judgment” and therefore to become certain of “memories” that before hypnosis he, himself, viewed as unreliable. The court commented:
[I]t takes little prescience to foresee that [the issue of whether the multiple safeguards had been complied with] ... would provide a fertile new field for litigation. There would first be elaborate demands for discovery, parades of expert witnesses, and special pretrial hearings, all with concomitant delays and expense. Among the questions our trial courts would then be expected to answer are scientific issues so subtle as to confound the experts.... Their resolution would in turn generate a panoply of new claims that could be raised on appeal .... And because the hypnotized subject would frequently be the victim, the eyewitness, or a similar source of crucial testimony against the defendant, any errors in ruling on the admissibility of such testimony could easily jeopardize otherwise unimpeachable judgments of conviction. In our opinion, the game is not worth the candle.
Id. at 40, 181 Cal.Rptr. at 255, 641 P.2d at 787.
The Michigan court sums it up well: Nonetheless, we do not believe that even the Hurd standards provide sufficient safeguards. While [they] would have the tendency to minimize distortion due to hypnotic suggestibility, our examination of the literature convinces us that, even following these criteria, substantial problems with confabulation, fantasy, and distortion would remain. Consequently, in individual cases, the Hurd standards might have an affirmatively detrimental effect. The standards, themselves, would give the hypnotic process an aura of reliability which, in actuality, it does not possess. It is far too likely that a jury would be even less critical of the testimony because of the indicia of reliability provided by such standards. We find nothing in the literature indicating in what percentage of the cases — under the most rigorous clinical standards — a subject’s hypnotic memory later proves to be faulty.
People v. Gonzales, 108 Mich.App. at 159-60, 310 N.W.2d at 313-14.
We agree with these analyses. We feel that the case-by-case determination under a set of safeguards will consume too much in the way of judicial resources, will produce conflicting results in different trial courts, and will produce few situations in which hypnotic recall testimony is ever admitted;8 even when admitted, there will still be substantial dangers of injustice because of the unavoidable risks attendant to the procedure and the present inability of even the most qualified expert to separate truth from fiction in such testimony. The problems inherent in separating truth from fiction and fact from fantasy in “ordinary recall” are already great enough that we see very little to be gained and much to be lost by adding to them. We see no way of avoiding, in some cases, infringement upon the constitutional right to cross-examination. We concur, therefore, with the courts in Minnesota, Michigan, Nebraska and Pennsylvania and adopt the words of the California court: “The game is not worth the candle.” We reaffirm our previous holdings that hypnotically induced recall testimony is inadmissible. This is a rule of per se inadmissibility based on what we *209conceive to be sound public policy in the administration of the judicial system and in the oversight of the constitutional rights of litigants. To this extent, we reaffirm Mena and the original opinion in this case. However, the reexamination which we have undertaken has led us to reconsider the rule of outright incompetency adopted in our prior decisions.
HYPNOSIS DOES NOT RENDER THE WITNESS INCOMPETENT TO TESTIFY TO THOSE FACTS DEMONSTRABLY RECALLED PRIOR TO HYPNOSIS
In its motion for rehearing, the State argues persuasively that hypnosis has received general acceptance in the scientific community as an investigative tool, that the effect of the incompetency rule is to render hypnosis useless for even investigatory purposes and to foster injustice by disqualifying witnesses from testifying for the purpose of establishing the very elements of the crime, even though there is no danger that such testimony was produced or influenced by the subsequent hypnotic session. For example, the State points out that there is no valid public policy for not allowing a rape victim to testify to the fact of rape even though she was subsequently hypnotized for the purpose of providing identifying “facts” which, after verification, might lead the police to apprehension of the criminal. Upon reexamination, we agree with this position.
We recognize that there are conflicting views on this problem. Dr. Diamond argues in his article (cited previously) for the rule of outright incompetency because of the “contamination” of the witness by the hypnotic process. However, our review of the literature and the position of law enforcement experts, lead us to conclude that hypnosis is generally accepted as a reliable investigative tool by the relevant scientific community. When used for prompting recall in order to provide valuable leads for investigation, hypnosis has less serious risks than the problems the technique presents when courtroom testimony is involved. Unlike a jury, an investigator need not make subjective evaluations of the truth or falsity of the hypnotic recall. He need only obtain leads for the purpose of subsequent investigation and verification.9
As a practical matter, if we are to maintain the rule of incompetency, the police will seldom dare to use hypnosis as an investigatory tool because they will thereby risk making the witness incompetent if it is later determined that the testimony of that witness is essential. Thus, applying the Frye test of general acceptance and weighing the benefit against the risk, we modify our previous decision and hold that a witness will not be rendered incompetent merely because he or she was hypnotized during the investigatory phase of the tase. That witness will be permitted to testify with regard to those matters which he or she was able to recall and relate prior to hypnosis. Thus, for example, the rape victim would be free to testify to the occurrence of the crime, the lack of consent, the injury inflicted and the like, assuming that such matters were remembered and related to the authorities prior to use of hypnosis.
This position is supported by authority from those states which, like Arizona, have adopted the rule of per se inadmissibility of hypnotically induced recall testimony. *210Thus, although Pennsylvania followed our previous rule, People v. Nazarovitch, supra, the recent case of Commonwealth v. Taylor, - Pa.Super. -, 439 A.2d 805 (1982) held that notwithstanding the Nazarovitch rule, the victim might testify to the fact that she identified both defendants as those who had raped her and that such identification occurred prior to the hypnosis session. The victim would not be allowed, however, to testify to the recollection produced by and through the subsequent hypnosis session. In State v. Palmer, supra, after adopting the rule of per se inadmissibility, the Nebraska court stated:
If, for example, on remand it can be reliably determined what the witness ... remembered previous to and independently of the hypnotic session, then that testimony, in my judgment, would be admissible. If it cannot be reliably determined, then all testimony concerning the “subject matter” of the hypnotic interview must be barred.
313 N.W.2d at 655. Similar results were reached in Michigan and Minnesota. State v. Wallach, 110 Mich.App. 37, 312 N.W.2d 387 (1981) and State v. Koehler, Minn., 312 N.W.2d 108 (1981). In these cases, the courts allowed witnesses to testify to prehypnotic recall, even though each state had previously adopted a rule excluding posthypnotic recall testimony. See State v. Gonzales, supra, and State v. Mack, supra.
We recognize, however, that there is danger even in allowing testimony of facts recalled prior to hypnosis, because the subsequent hypnosis does have an effect upon the witness’ confidence in those facts. It is for this reason that we originally adopted Dr. Diamond’s suggestion that any witness who had been hypnotized would be incompetent to testify for any purpose. We are persuaded, however, that with respect to investigatory use of hypnosis, the benefit does outweigh the danger. We also recognize that none of the other states which have adopted the rule of per se admissibility have gone as far as Mena. They allow a witness to testify to those facts which were demonstrably recalled prior to hypnosis. One has but to read the facts of Wallach, supra, and Koehler, supra, to conclude that such a rule is necessary. Some of the attendant risks may be minimized by allowing cross-examination of the previously hypnotized witness in order to permit the opposing party to establish the fact of hypnosis and to introduce expert evidence showing the inherent possibility that the witness might have become subjectively certain of events only tentatively recalled before hypnosis.
We further minimize the risk by requiring that before hypnotizing a potential witness for investigatory purposes, the party intending to offer the prehypnotic recall appropriately record in written, tape recorded or, preferably, videotaped form the substance of the witness’ knowledge and recollection about the evidence in question so that the prehypnotic recall may be established. Such recordation must be preserved so that at trial the testimony of that witness can be limited to the prehypnotic recall. If such steps are not taken, admission of the prehypnotic recall will be error, which, if prejudicial, will require reversal.
Further, parties intending to use hypnosis for investigatory purposes should make sure that the hypnosis procedure is performed in a manner designed to minimize the danger of contamination of both prehypnotic and posthypnotic recall. A record of that procedure should be made and retained. While we do not impose any particular set of standards for that purpose, we suggest that litigants adopt some, if not all of the Orne standards referred to above. Any litigant intending to offer testimony of a witness who has been hypnotized must make timely disclosure of such information to the court and to opposing counsel.
To those who may feel that we are overly apprehensive and cautious on the subject of hypnosis, we can only state that the law has long recognized that there are few dangers so great in the search for truth as man’s propensity to tamper with the memory of others. The prevention of such an evil is necessary for the benefit of all, since hypnosis and other techniques are perhaps as *211widely used by criminal defendants as by prosecutors. It is in the interest of the judicial system and of society as a whole that such risks be minimized. We are not unaware of Orwell’s warning that control of the future depends above all on the training of memory to induce men to “remember” a doctored view of the past. G. Orwell, 1984 (1971). As Dr. Loftus points out, there is more harm than good to come from the “memory doctor.” See Loftus, supra, at xiv.
The prayer for relief is granted and the case is remanded to the trial court to proceed in accordance with the original opinion as modified by this opinion on rehearing.

. The composition of the majority was different in both cases.

. The New Jersey court, in State v. Hurd, 86 N.J. at 538-46, 432 A.2d at 94-97, applied Frye to the hypnosis problem, recognized the serious *198dangers involved, and held the Frye test was satisfied only if use of hypnotically induced recall is limited to situations where strict standards are applied to the hypnosis procedure. These standards will be discussed at pp. 1287-1292 infra.

. It is important to keep the Frye test in perspective. In any case involving the admissibility of expert opinion based on some technical or scientific method or procedure, there will be dispute over the conclusions to be reached, the competence of the respective experts and the method by which the scientific principles were applied. If hypnotically induced recall were to be admissible in Arizona, that problem would still have to be resolved. However, the threshold question with which we are dealing here is whether the procedure has gained sufficient acceptance in the scientific community to warrant an overall conclusion that when properly utilized it will give results which are sufficiently reliable so that the probative value outweighs the admitted dangers and resultant possibilities of prejudice.
The question of the reliability of a scientific technique or process is unlike the question, for example, of the helpfulness of particular expert testimony ... in a specific case. The answer to the question [of] reliability ... does not vary according to the circumstances of each case. It is therefore inappropriate to view this threshold question of reliability as a matter within each trial judge’s individual discretion. Instead, considerations of uniformity and consistency of decision-making require that a legal standard or test be articulated by which the reliability of a process may be established____
[B]efore a scientific opinion will be received as evidence at trial, the basis of that opinion must be shown to be generally accepted as reliable within the expert’s particular scientific field.
Reed v. State, 283 Md. 374, 381, 391 A.2d 364, 367-68 (1978).

. McCormick suggests that the courts should abandon the Frye test and instead use the test formulated by the Federal Rules of Evidence and adopted in Rule 403, Arizona Rules of Evidence, 17A A.R.S. McCormick states:
“General scientific acceptance” is a proper condition for taking judicial notice of scientific facts, but not a criterion for the admissibility of scientific evidence. Any relevant conclusions which are supported by a qualified expert witness should be received unless there are other reasons for exclusion. Particularly, probative value may be overborne by the familiar dangers of prejudicing or misleading the jury, and undue consumption of time. If the courts used this approach, instead of repeating a supposed requirement of “general acceptance” not elsewhere imposed, they would arrive at a practical way of utilizing the results of scientific advances.
McCormick on Evidence § 203, at 491 (2d ed. 1972). This proposal, like the Frye standard, recognizes that the ultimate criterion in determining admissibility is the perceived probative value of the proffered evidence weighed against its likelihood of undue prejudice. Unlike the Frye standard, however, McCormick urges that the decision be made by each trial judge on a case-by-case basis. Our rejection of this suggestion is set forth fully in the body of this opinion.

. Use of hypnosis to revive or refresh memory necessarily involves age regression. The subject is asked to put himself back to some earlier time, to visualize the events which transpired at that time and relate them to the hypnotist. It is then suggested to the subject that upon awakening he will recall that which he has been able to see, remember and relate to the hypnotist during the regressed state. An interesting aspect of the problem presented by hypnosis is that while the subject of age regression is often able to give a convincing description of that which allegedly occurred during the past event, experiments have shown that the technique of age progression can also be used during hypnosis. This technique involves telling the hypnotized subject that he is being transported to some specific time in the future. He is then asked to relate what he sees. Many subjects are able to give a very convincing description of what they “see” during such age progression. See Ome, The Use and Misuse of Hypnosis in Court, in 3 Crime & Justice 61, 77 (M. Tonry & N. Morris eds. 1981).

. Dr. Ome is a Doctor of Medicine, Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania, Director of the Unit for Experimental Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania Hospital and Senior Attending Psychiatrist at that hospital. He also holds a Ph.D. in Psychology. He is Past-President of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Past-President of the International Society for Hypnosis, and has been Editor of the International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. He has served as a reviewer of research proposals on hypnosis for the National Science Foundation, the National Institute of Mental Health, the Office of Scientific Research of the United States Air Force and the Office of Naval Research. He has been a consultant for a number of law enforcement agencies. He has been principal investigator of a major research group working on the nature of hypnosis and related phenomena since 1960. He has been a member of the editorial boards of various journals of psychiatry and psychology and has, himself, published over one hundred scientific articles. In addition, he has used hypnosis in clinical practice, has taught the subject and has carried out research on the nature of hypnosis. He wrote the article on hypnosis for the Encyclopedia Brittanica and has served as a witness on the nature of hypnosis, its acceptance in the scientific community and its reliability in many of the cases cited in this opinion.

. As indicated previously, the validity of Harding is now put in doubt by Polk v. State, supra.

. One of the safeguards implicit in the Ome view is independent corroboration of the “facts” produced by the hypnotic procedure. Of course, in the great majority of cases the corroborating evidence will be independently admissible. It will be only the very unusual case where the hypnotically induced recall is necessary to establish the relevancy of the independent evidence. We deem it unwise to establish a rule of evidence, replete with cumbersome procedural safeguards in order to provide for the admission of foundational evidence useful in only the very rare case. In addition, the very imposition of such safeguards would be a substantial deterrent to the use of hypnosis for investigative purposes, a purpose which we think is the most beneficial to which the procedure can be put.

. Another authority cited to us by the State is Elizabeth Loftus. In her recent book, E. Loftus, Memory 37 (1980), Loftus points out that memory is not akin to the operation of a computer where input is stored in some electronic circuit and can be reproduced intact. Memory does not remain in the brain in the same manner it was recorded. It is affected by the passage of time, by motivation, by confusion with memories of other events, and by self-delusion. False information becomes part of recollection. Memory is no more than a person’s “current picture of the past.” Thus, Loftus acknowledges that the “memory” produced by hypnosis produces a mixture of new, important facts and, all too often, “totally false information.” Id at 57. Nevertheless, Loftus indicates that occasionally the hypnotically produced recall can provide a valuable lead for investigation. Many examples of the use of hypnosis to uncover missing pieces of evidence for subsequent use in court are provided. Id at 7, 55-59.