Court Opinion

ID: 9461777
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-04 22:24:24.081676+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:37:15.561473
License: Public Domain

.MacKINNON, Circuit Judge
(concurring in part and dissenting in part):
Except as hereafter indicated I join in Judge Wilkey’s opinion in this case, and particularly in his conclusion that Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2510-2520, does not apply to the instant situation. United States v. United States District Court, 407 U.S. 297, 92 S.Ct. 2125, 32 L.Ed.2d 752 (1972), stated that Title III “does not attempt to define or delineate the powers of the President to meet domestic threats to the national security” (Id. at 322, 92 S.Ct. at 2139) .and that the- “standards and procedures” of Title III were not necessarily applicable to the facts of that domestic security case. If Title III does not apply to the exercise of presidential powers in the domestic security field, a fortiori it is even less applicable to the exercise of presidential power in the area of our relations with foreign governments, since the President admittedly is vested with greater freedom of action in foreign affairs than in the domestic field. I readily join in the conclusion that the wiretaps on the Jewish Defense League were placed pursuant to the President’s foreign affairs power, and I do not read the majority opinion as disagreeing with that finding.
At least in the case of collaborators or agents of a foreign power, I believe the national interest requires that the President be free to engage in his information gathering functions without the burden of obtaining prior judicial approval. United States v. Butenko, 494 F.2d 593 (3d Cir.), cert. denied sub nom., Ivanov v. United States, 419 U.S. 881, 95 S.Ct. 147, 42 L.Ed.2d 121 (1974). I concur in Judge Wilkey’s balancing of the interests in the case of agents and collaborators, but as all opinions correctly note, that issue is not presented by the instant facts. I would not through dicta suggest a solution in advance of the problem.
In the case of pure information gathering activities directed against non-collaborators, I recognize that the imposition of a requirement of prior judicial approval of wiretaps may in some instances protect constitutional interests of the targets of the surveillance. However, I have considerable difficulty in applying the probable cause requirements of the Fourth Amendment to such surveillances. The first clause requiring that searches and seizures not be “unreasonable” can be applied, but where evidence of crime is not sought I do not know the rationale for applying the second clause which state's that “no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause . . . .” This traditionally has been interpreted to require a showing of probable cause to believe that a crime has been committed.1 The various statutes and Rules which authorize courts to issue warrants for searches and seizures incorporate this standard. See, e. g., *707Fed.R.Crim.P. 41(b), (c)2; 18 U.S.C. § 2518(3).3 Obviously this criterion is inapplicable to situations where no crime is being investigated and the only purpose of the tap is to gather information relevant to the conduct of foreign affairs. Saying that the standard is merely “probable cause” without defining that term ignores the history of the provision and its interpretation and relegates applicants for wiretaps and judges considering such applications to weighing an amorphous concept with no definite standards.
Judge Wright recognizes the incompleteness of the standard he would impose when he states that the courts could “fashion” a standard of probable cause. Majority Op., 170 U.S.App.D.C. at-, 516 F.2d at 624 — 625. He apparently would fashion this standard by striking out of Title III certain provisions relating to probable cause which he finds inconvenient to reaching his desired result and replacing them with a balancing of “possible factor[s] that judges might consider in determining whether a proposed search would be reasonable.” Majority Op., 170 U.S.App.D.C. at-, 516 F.2d at 657. Congress certainly did not intend the statute to be dissected in this manner. Furthermore, the majority specifically declines to “delineate the exact procedures the Executive must follow in securing warrants” (Majority Op., 170 U.S.App.D.C. at-, 516 F.2d at 658) and thus leaves the area as ambiguous as it found it.
When the Supreme Court encountered this same dilemma in United States v. United States District Court, supra, in the field of domestic security wiretaps, it responded by urging Congress to enact standards governing the approval of applications for informational surveillance. 407 U.S. at 322-23, 92 S.Ct. 2125. Although Congress has not yet acted on this matter, the Court’s approach is still valid. If the standards are to be judicially created, that is more properly done by the Supreme Court which can formulate nationwide standards than by the lower courts whose standards would vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
I therefore dissent from the majority opinion, and I join in Judge Wilkey’s opinion subject to the differences expressed above.

. As Chief Justice Taft said in Steele v. United States, 267 U.S. 498, 504-05, 45 S.Ct. 414, 417, 69 L.Ed. 757 (1925):
In a recent case we have had occasion to lay down what is probable cause for a search. Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 45 S.Ct. 280, 69 L.Ed. 543. “If the facts and circumstances before the officer are such as to warrant a man of prudence and caution in believing that the offense had been committed, it is sufficient.”

. Fed.R.Crim.P. 41(b) and (c) provide:
(b) Grounds for Issuance. A warrant may be issued under this rule to search for and seize any property ■
(1) Stolen or embezzled in violation of the laws of the United States; or
(2) Designed or intended for use or which is or has been used as the means of committing a criminal offense; or
(3) Possessed, controlled, or designed or intended for use or which is or has been used in violation of Title 18, U.S.C., § 957.
(c) Issuance and Contents. A warrant shall issue only on affidavit sworn to before the judge or commissioner and establishing the grounds for issuing the warrant. If the judge or commissioner is satisfied that grounds for the application exist or that there is probable cause to believe that they exist, he shall issue a warrant identifying the property and naming or describing the person or place to be searched. . . .

. 18 U.S.C. § 2518(3) provides:
(3) Upon such application the judge may enter an ex parte order, as requested or as modified, authorizing or approving interception of wire or oral communications within the territorial jurisdiction of the court in which the judge is sitting, if the judge determines on the basis of the facts submitted by the applicant that—
(a) there is probable cause for belief that an individual is committing, has committed, or is about to commit a particular offense enumerated in section 2516 of this chapter;
(b) there is probable cause for belief that particular communications concerning that offense will be obtained through such interception;
(c) normal investigative procedures have been tried and have failed or reasonably appear to be unlikely to succeed if tried or to be too dangerous;
(d) there is probable cause for belief that the facilities from which, or the place where, the wire or oral communications are to be intercepted are being used, or are about to be used, in connection with the commission of such offense, or are leased to, listed in the name of, or commonly used by such person.