Court Opinion

ID: 9706701
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-26 01:49:42.191509+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T18:22:24.518193
License: Public Domain

Cavanagh, C.J.
(dissenting). Today this Court declares that our state constitution no longer requires either a warrant, probable cause, or even reasonable suspicion to monitor conversations where one party to the conversation consents. Because we have established precedent to the contrary, and because no compelling reasons have been advanced justifying this abandonment of the principle of stare decisis, I dissent.
i
The arguments advanced by the majority are the same as those rejected by the Court when People v Beavers, 393 Mich 554; 227 NW2d 511 *41(1975), was decided. These arguments have not become more persuasive in the last sixteen years and there is no justification for the reversal of a protective constitutional mandate. The basic explanation for overruling Beavers is that the United States Supreme Court has held that there is no violation of the Fourth Amendment posed by participant monitoring without a warrant. This is neither a legal nor a logical reason for departing from established precedent.
In a dissent in the recent Supreme Court case of Payne v Tennessee, 501 US—; 111 S Ct 2597; 115 L Ed 2d 720, 730 (1991), Justice Marshall, joined by Justice Blackmun, focused on stare decisis. In Payne, the Court overruled two recent rulings involving capital punishment and held that juries can consider "victim impact” evidence in the penalty phase of a capital case. Justice Marshall declared that the law and the facts supporting the precedents had remained intact, and that only the personnel of the Court had changed:
Power, not reason, is the new currency of this Court’s decisionmaking. . . . Neither the law nor the facts supporting [overruled opinions] underwent any change in the last four years. Only the personnel of this Court did. [Id., p 748.]
Absent a fundamental change in the law or a difference in the facts of the case, established precedent should prevail. This Court has espoused this position in the past. For example, in Parker v Port Huron Hosp, 361 Mich 1, 10; 105 NW2d 1 (1960), the Court stated:
The rule of stare decisis establishes uniformity, certainty, and stability in the law .... Only in the rare case when it is clearly apparent that an error has been made, or changing conditions result in injustice by the application of an outmoded *42rule, should we deviate from following the established rule.[1] [Emphasis added.]
The majority fails to elaborate on any "changing conditions” beyond the shift in the majority view of the United States Supreme Court. In addition, the majority is unable to point out any "injustice” to demonstrate that the warrant requirement of Beavers is an "outmoded rule.”
In his dissenting opinion in Payne, Justice Marshall also stated that "[i]nevitably, this campaign to resurrect yesterday’s 'spirited dissents’ will squander the authority and the legitimacy of this Court as a protector of the powerless.” Id., p 756. Similarly, our Court has a responsibility to protect the rights of the citizens of this state. To argue that our state should allow the intrusion of searches without warrants without any probable cause or even suspicion, merely because parallel federal constitutional provisions have been interpreted to permit the use of such a procedure, is to abdicate this Court’s responsibility to examine the rationale of that Court and determine whether it is persuasive. The Beavers Court fulfilled its obligation and declared itself unconvinced by the reasoning of the United States Supreme Court. It then ruled that under our state constitution a warrant based on probable cause is required for third-party monitoring of the conversations of others.
In his dissent in Payne, Justice Marshall also cautioned against a rule which allows prior precedent to be overturned on the strength of the personal proclivities of individual justices:
*43This truncation of the Court’s duty to stand by its own precedents is astonishing. . . . [T]he majority sends a clear signal that essentially all decisions implementing the personal liberties protected by the Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment are open to reexamination. . . . [T]he continued vitality of literally scores of decisions must be understood to depend on nothing more than the proclivities of the individuals who now comprise a majority of this Court. [Id., pp 752-753. Emphasis in the original.]
The warrant requirement established in Beavers by a decisive majority of this Court was reached after deliberate examination and should stand. Even though this Court has traditionally examined United States Supreme Court analyses when interpreting parallel provisions under our state constitution, this does not mean that this Court must follow the United States Supreme Court majority’s interpretation of the United States Constitution if that interpretation is unpersuasive on its own merits. This Court is a sovereign, independent judicial body with ultimate authority to interpret Michigan law. We should not endorse the reasoning of a majority of the justices of the United States Supreme Court unless their reasoning is intrinsically persuasive on the merits.
n
Even at the risk of prolixity, a brief overview of the development of this area of the law is helpful in understanding the concepts involved. In Olmstead v United States, 277 US 438; 48 S Ct 564; 72 L Ed 944 (1928), the United States Supreme Court allowed a telephone tap, even where no party to the conversation had consented, on the grounds that there had been no physical trespass. Then, in
*44On Lee v United States, 343 US 747; 72 S Ct 967; 96 L Ed 1270 (1952), the Court ruled that there was no Fourth Amendment violation when a police officer listened with a radio receiver to a conversation in the defendant’s office between the defendant and a police informer who wore a concealed transmitter. In Lopez v United States, 373 US 427; 83 S Ct 1381; 10 L Ed 2d 462 (1963), the Court held that recording without a warrant did not offend the Fourth Amendment where an agent of the irs used a concealed device to tape-record a conversation with the defendant in the defendant’s office. The Court stressed that the defendant took the risk that his offer of a bribe would be testified to in court. This rationale was developed further in Hoffa v United States, 385 US 293, 302; 87 S Ct 408; 17 L Ed 2d 374 (1966), where the Court said that it had never expressed the view "that the Fourth Amendment protects a wrongdoer’s misplaced belief that a person to whom he voluntarily confides his wrongdoing will not reveal it.” This "wrongdoer’s belief rationale” was embraced by this Court in People v Catania, 427 Mich 447, 465; 398 NW2d 343 (1986). Justice Harlan’s dissent in United States v White contains the best response to this argument:
By casting its "risk analysis” solely in terms of the expectations and risks that "wrongdoers” or "one contemplating illegal activities” ought to bear, the plurality opinion . . . misses the mark entirely. [This decision] does not simply mandate that criminals must daily run the risk of unknown eavesdroppers prying into their private affairs; it subjects each and every law-abiding member of society to that risk. The very purpose of interposing the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement is to redistribute the privacy risks throughout *45society .... [401 US 745, 789; 91 S Ct 1122; 28 L Ed 2d 453 (1971).][2]
Similarly, this Court in Beavers stated,
The warrant requirement is not a burdensome formality designed to protect those who would engage in illegal activity, but, rather, a procedure which guarantees a measure of privacy and personal security to all citizens. The interests of both society and the individual should not rest upon the exercise of the unerring judgment and self-restraint of law enforcement officials. Our laws must ensure that the ordinary, law-abiding citizen may continue to engage in private discourse, free to speak with the uninhibited spontaneity that is characteristic of our democratic society. [Id. at 566.]
In Katz v United States, 389 US 347; 88 S Ct 507; 19 L Ed 2d 576 (1967), the Court appeared to abandon the trespass rationale and declared that Fourth Amendment interests are implicated when the government infringes upon an individual’s legitimate expectations of privacy. In Katz, federal agents attached a listening device on the outside of a public telephone booth and overheard the defendant’s conversation without knowledge or consent of either party to the telephone conversation. Our Court adopted this "reasonable expectation of privacy” test in People v Smith, 420 Mich 1, 21; 360 NW2d 841 (1984).3 After Katz, it was unclear *46whether the cases which had relied on the absence of physical trespass had been overruled. But, for purposes of the monitoring of conversations where one party to the conversation gave consent, the Court, in United States v White, supra at 749, applied the "assumed risk” analysis and concluded that such monitoring did not require a warrant because the defendant had no "justifiable and constitutionally protected expectation that a person with whom he is conversing will not then or later reveal the conversation to the police.”
Through dissenting opinions, four justices in White expressed the view that, even when one of the parties to the conversation consents to the monitoring, the Fourth Amendment prohibits third-party electronic monitoring without a warrant. In Beavers, this Court adopted this dissenting view and declared that our state constitution requires a warrant for third-party electronic monitoring.
III
A
The first point made by the majority is that eavesdropping was not a concern of the original drafters of the Fourth Amendment. The "original intent” doctrine of constitutional interpretation has been soundly criticized by legal scholars.4 In addition, this argument has surfaced before and Justice Douglas, in his dissent in White, appropriately responded that the change in technology *47since the drafting of the constitution makes this analogy as convincing as "treating] man’s first gunpowder on the same level as the nuclear bomb.” 401 US 756. Surely the common-law nuisance of eavesdropping was not equivalent to the pervasive forms of intrusion possible today. Even though our forefathers could not have foreseen the myriad of listening devices available today, they did foresee the dangers of invading the privacy of the citizenry. The advance of technology makes it imperative that we be more diligent, not less, in the protection of the right of people to be secure "in their persons, houses, papers and effects” against unreasonable searches and seizures. Now that it is a simple matter to intrude into people’s houses without physically entering the walls, eavesdropping is no longer the innocuous form of nuisance that failed to concern the drafters of the Fourth Amendment. The majority declares that the Fourth Amendment was aimed at the general warrants of the British officers who carried on "unlimited searches of private homes.” Ante, p 14. Through the use of high-powered microphones, minuscule bugging devices and undetectable telephone taps, the police officer of today, like the British officer of old, can literally carry on "unlimited searches of private homes.” Indeed, the very concept of a "private home” is in danger.
In discussing Beavers, the majority states that the Court
rationalized its decision by focusing exclusively on federal case law. Its analysis cited no Michigan authority, it made no reference to the history of the adoption of art 1, § 11 of the Michigan Constitution, and it placed no reliance on textual differences between the state and federal constitutions. Nevertheless, the Court stated that "[w]hile the result reached today reflects an analysis of Federal *48case authority, our conclusion is based upon the Michigan Constitution . . . [Ante, p 22.]
The majority disparages Beavers because the opinion in that case focused on federal case law. But it is logical to examine the rationale of the Supreme Court since the search and seizure provision of our state constitution is closely parallel to the Fourth Amendment. It does not follow, however, that this Court is bound by federal precedent it finds unpersuasive. The Court in Beavers examined the reasoning in White and simply found it unpersuasive:
[W]e are persuaded by the logic of Justice Harlan [in dissent] which recognizes a significant distinction between assuming the risk that communications directed to one party may subsequently be repeated to others and the simultaneous monitoring of a conversation by the uninvited ear of a third party functioning in cooperation with one of the participants yet unknown to the other. . . . We choose not to extend the constitutional bounds of misplaced confidence to encompass the threat of warrantless third-party monitoring of conversations between an unsuspecting speaker and one who knowingly transmits the communication to another. A party speaking in private conversation with another, particularly where the conversation occurs in the speaking party’s residence, has not "knowingly expose[d] [this conversation] to the public” .... [Beavers at 565-566.]
Beavers also recognized that surveillance is a vital component of law enforcement, but felt that privacy concerns justified the minimal inconvenience of getting a warrant to perform this surveillance. In short, Beavers addressed all of the arguments put forth today, and there are no new arguments to justify the retreat from Beavers. The *49majority spends most of its energy demonstrating that the Fourth Amendment does not require a warrant in this situation. But to reiterate, this misses the point. Under White, the Fourth Amendment did not require a warrant in 1975 either, but the Michigan Constitution, as interpreted by this Court in Beavers, did require a warrant. A change in personnel, either on the United States Supreme Court or on this Court should not result in a fundamental shift in Michigan constitutional law. When the Beavers Court rejected the reasoning of the plurality in White, it demonstrated the independence of this Court and renounced rote conformity to the reasoning of the justices on the United States Supreme Court.
B
The majority quotes Justice Brickley from People v Nash, 418 Mich 196, 213; 341 NW2d 439 (1983):
"There is no indication that in readopting the language [of art 1, § 11] the people of this state wished to place restrictions on law enforcement activities greater than those required by the federal constitution. In fact, the contrary intent is expressed.” [Ante, p 28.][5]
And yet, when Beavers was decided, this Court did not feel constrained by this "contrary intent.” The Court in Beavers, chose not to follow the prevailing interpretation of the United States Supreme Court. This history of the provision does not support a withdrawal from Beavers. The majority again cites Nash for a disapproval of expanding *50rights under this provision: "The history of Const 1963, art 1, § 11 . . . suggests] that its further expansion, with the concomitant expansion of the exclusionary rule to enforce it, should occur only when there is a compelling reason to do so.” 418 Mich 214. Preserving the Beavers warrant requirement is not an expansion, but rather the preservation of the status quo. It is the majority position which performs the expansion, expanding the rights of the police force to invade the privacy of the people without warrant or probable cause. I would argue that this Court should require a "compelling reason” to justify this departure from our prior holding.
The majority fails to offer any such compelling reason. The majority declares that although we rejected the plurality view in White at the time of the Beavers case, this Court later adopted the Hoffa principle upon which that reasoning rested. But the Hoffa principle of assuming the risk that associates may be government informants does not resolve this issue. I disagree with the majority that "there is no significant constitutional distinction between participant monitoring and participant recording.” Ante, p 24, n 25. In Beavers, the Court recognized a distinction and declared that in the use of the phrase "participant monitoring” the Court meant to "specifically refer to the use of an electronic device by a participant of a conversation which transmits the exchange to a third party. We do not address those situations which include a participant himself recording the conversation . . . .” Id. at 562, n 2. (Emphasis added.) The Court recognized that it is more intrusive when a third party, unknown to one party to the conversation, listens in on a conversation — a conversation whose content is unknown, even to *51the consenting party, at the time consent is given.6 The "assumption of the risk” argument ignores the opposite expectation that the person with whom he is conversing may not reveal it later; this possibility is completely obliterated by third-party monitoring whose simultaneous nature removes any time for reflection on the part of the consenting party. Removing this possibility tips the scales in favor of the police. This distinction between third-party monitoring and participant monitoring provided much of the justification for the Beavers decision. Without a warrant requirement there is no limit to the police officer’s discretion, and free and open discourse is no longer a reasonable risk; instead, the risk becomes an inordinate one in which even the person to whom you are speaking forfeits the option of keeping the discourse private. With third-party monitoring, the option is bargained away in advance before the content of the conversation is even ascertained.
IV
Although not argued by the people, the majority does present one consideration that was only implicitly considered by Beavers, but it is not nearly substantial enough to support a departure from stare decisis. The majority declares that "strict adherence to warrant requirements may be impossible in the context of participant monitoring.” Ante, p 37. As evidence of this "impossibility” the majority offers two arguments. The first argument revolves around MCL 780.655; MSA 28.1259(5), requiring the officer executing the warrant to give the individual from whom the property or things *52are seized a copy of the warrant "forthwith.” The majority then declares that such a requirement cannot be met without alerting the suspect, thereby defeating the purpose of the monitoring. Ante, p 37. This argument is specious. The statute does not expressly require the warrant to be given until after the items are seized. The statute declares that "[t]he officer taking property or other things under the warrant shall forthwith give to the person from whom or from whose premises the property was taken a copy of the warrant . . . .” The statute uses the past tense; after the search, and after items are seized, the warrant is given "forthwith” to the person who was searched. This requirement would not frustrate the purpose of the monitoring in any way. In addition, the statute allows for "leaving] a copy of the warrant and tabulation at the place from which the property or thing was taken.” MCL 780.655; MSA 28.1259(5). (Emphasis added.) In other words, if no one is present when the search occurs, the copy is clearly given after the search takes place. The statute does not expressly require prior notification of a search. Advance notice of any search would frustrate the purpose of the search in question.
The second argument discussed by the majority opinion is the requirement of "describing with particularity” the items to be seized. "Of course, future conversations are nonexistent until they take place . . . '[h]ow does one specifically describe the conversation to be seized?’ ” Ante, p 38. Obviously, this "problem” would apply to all forms of wiretaps and surveillance. The topic of the conversation to be seized and the parties to the conversation can be described with sufficient particularity to obtain a warrant. The "problem” is contrived, particularly since a warrant indeed was obtained in this case and neither side argued that *53it did not "describe with sufficient particularity.”7 Additionally, if the item to be seized cannot be described with "sufficient particularity” it is probably a mere fishing expedition and should be barred by the constitution. See Berger v New York, 388 US 41, 63; 87 S Ct 1873; 18 L Ed 2d 1040 (1967) ("It is said that neither a warrant nor a statute authorizing eavesdropping can be drawn so as to meet the Fourth Amendment’s requirements. If that be true then the 'fruits’ of eavesdropping devices are barred under the Amendment”). The Court in Berger also declared that
it is not asking too much that officers be required to comply with the basic command of the Fourth Amendment before the innermost secrets of one’s home or office are invaded. Few threats to liberty exist which are greater than that posed by the use of eavesdropping devices. Some may claim that without the use of such devices crime detection in certain areas may suffer some delays since eavesdropping is quicker, easier, and more certain. However, techniques and practices may well be developed . . . without attending illegality.
Mere expediency in law enforcement should not justify trampling on the rights of the citizenry. See Mincey v Arizona, 437 US 385, 393; 98 S Ct 2408; 57 L Ed 2d 290 (1978) ("[T]he mere fact that law enforcement may be made more efficient can never by itself justify disregard of the Fourth Amendment”).
v
The final argument of the majority is that participant monitoring often serves " 'to protect the *54life of the agent or informant.’ ” Ante, p 39. There is nothing in the exclusionary rule that prohibits the use of participant monitoring for safety purposes; the exclusionary rule operates merely to prevent the admission of evidence at trial. The police would remain free to use participant monitoring to protect their officers.
VI
There have been no changing conditions or evidence of injustice which would justify this retreat from the established precedent in Beavers. As I have stated before,
Adherence to sound judicial precedent gives continuity and predictability to the law. It assures that judicial decisions will be the result of reason rather than the whim of the judge before whom a case is tried. Only compelling reasons justify a court in disregarding longstanding precedent. [People v Cipriano, 431 Mich 315, 352; 429 NW2d 781 (1988) (Cavanagh, J., dissenting).]
I continue to hold this view and the majority has not put forth any compelling reasons to justify this Court in disregarding this longstanding precedent.
I dissent.
Levin, J., concurred with Cavanagh, C.J.
Mallett, J., took no part in the decision of this case.

 See also People v Jamieson, 436 Mich 61, 79; 461 NW2d 884 (1990) ("It is not necessary for us to announce today what we would do if we were operating on a clean slate, because we are not. Under the doctrine of stare decisis, principles of law deliberately examined and decided by a court of competent jurisdiction become precedent which should not be lightly departed”).

 Today’s majority opinion again incorporates the wrongdoers’ risk analysis rationale. Ante, p 40.

 Interestingly, if we applied this reasonable expectation of privacy test per se to the phone conversation of the defendant in the case at bar, the defendant should prevail. One of the monitored telephone calls was placed to the defendant in his home. Being in one’s own home should give rise to legitimate expectations of privacy which society is willing to recognize as reasonable.
But, unfortunately, this Court, in Catania, employed the wrong*46doer’s assumption of risk analysis in determining whether there is a "reasonable expectation of privacy.” Therefore, under Catania, the defendant’s misplaced belief that the informant would not reveal his speech destroys any reasonable expectation of privacy.

 See Chemerinsky, Foreword: The vanishing constitution, 103 Harv L R 43, 91, n 209 (1989) (citing Levy, Original Intent and the Framers’ Constitution).

 I reiterate my view, as expressed in Nash, that the state standard for a constitutional violation has no relation to the rule imposed to deter violations of the standard.

 Justice Harlan in his dissent in White also expressed the view that the effect on privacy is far greater with third-party eavesdropping and that this effect on privacy results in a warrant requirement. See White, 401 US 786-789.

 The warrant in this case was challenged as statutorily defective, but the invalidity was related to the credibility of the informant and not to the description of the conversation to be seized.