Court Opinion

ID: 9474203
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 04:50:37.203346+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:43:57.375309
License: Public Domain

FAIRCHILD, Senior Circuit Judge,
concurring in part, dissenting in part.
I concur in Part I, but respectfully dissent from Parts II and III. Even if we assume the adherence of this Circuit to the doctrine of United States v. Whitaker, 447 F.2d 314 (D.C.Cir.1971), relaxing the traditional concept of a lesser included offense, I do not find an inherent relationship between odometer alteration and mail fraud.
The elements of mail fraud, 18 U.S.C. § 1341, relevant to this case are (1) having devised a scheme to defraud and (2) knowingly causing mail delivery of matter for the purpose of executing the scheme. No particular fraudulent act need have been accomplished, although as in the present case, the devising of the scheme is very commonly proved by showing particular in*1374stances of fraudulent conduct and inferring the scheme from the conduct. Such conduct may be criminal under state or federal law but need not be. In the present case it happens to be a federal offense. Defendant’s devising a scheme to defraud was established by proof that he had caused odometers to be altered on many automobiles he had acquired and later sold including those to which the twelve mailings related. Under the traditional test of comparing statutory elements, knowing and willful alteration of an odometer is not an element necessarily included in mail fraud.
Moreover, one cannot spell out of the present indictment a charge that defendant knowingly and willfully caused the alteration of the odometer on any particular automobile. Any implication to that effect arises from the fact that each count alleges the mailing, by a dealer, of an application for title for a specified automobile, and charges that defendant caused each mailing for the purpose of executing the scheme.
At trial, in order to prove the creation of the scheme and the relationship of each mailing, the Government proved that the odometer on the particular vehicle was one of those which defendant had caused to be altered. It is this evidence which affords the basis for defendant’s claim that the jury should have been told that on each count it could convict him of odometer alteration if not convinced that the mailings furthered the scheme.
The leading case relaxing the traditional test for a lesser included offense is United States v. Whitaker, 447 F.2d 814. That opinion, at page 319, states the rule as follows:
A more natural, realistic and sound interpretation of the scope of “lesser included offense,” in line with our own views on the subject, is that defendant is entitled to invoke Rule 31(c) when a lesser offense is established by the evidence adduced at trial in proof of the greater offense, with the caveat that there must also be an “inherent” relationship between the greater and lesser offenses, i.e., they must relate to the protection of the same interests, and must be so related that in the general nature of these crimes, though not necessarily invariably, proof of the lesser offense is necessarily presented as part of the showing of the commission of the greater offense. This latter stipulation is prudently required to foreclose a tendency which might otherwise develop towards misuse by the defense of such rule. In the absence of such restraint defense counsel might be tempted to press the jury for leniency by requesting lesser included offense instructions on every lesser crime that could arguably be made out from any evidence that happened to be introduced at trial.
(Footnote omitted.) The part of the Whitaker test which is so clearly lacking in the present case is that the two offenses “must be so related that in the general nature of these crimes, though not necessarily invariably, proof of the lesser offense is necessarily presented as part of the showing of the commission of the greater offense.”
I think that no such close relationship exists between the offenses of odometer alteration and mail fraud.
In Whitaker, itself, the offense charged was burglary and the court found that unlawful entry was an included offense where proved even though burglary could occur after an authorized entry.
In United States v. Pino, 606 F.2d 908 (10th Cir.1979), the offense charged was involuntary manslaughter while driving a motor vehicle in an unlawful manner without due caution and the court held that careless operation of a vehicle was an included offense where proved.
In United States v. Johnson, 637 F.2d 1224 (9th Cir.1980), the offense charged was assault resulting in serious bodily injury and the court held that assault with a dangerous weapon with intent to do bodily harm was an included offense where proved.
In United States v. Stolarz, 550 F.2d 488 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 851, 98 *1375S.Ct. 162, 54 L.Ed.2d 119 (1977), the offense charged was assault with intent to commit murder and the court held that assault with a dangerous weapon with intent to do bodily harm was an included offense where proved.
In United States v. Cova, 755 F.2d 595 (7th Cir.1985), the offense charged was conspiracy to distribute cocaine and this court held that conspiracy to possess cocaine was an included offense.
The facts of all these cases demonstrate a much closer relationship between the offense not charged but proved in the course of trial and the offense charged than can be discerned between odometer alteration and mail fraud. It seems fair to say that in each ease the offense found to be lesser included comes within a hair’s breadth of fulfilling the traditional test of comparing statutory elements.
In United States v. Zang, 703 F.2d 1186 (10th Cir.1983), the Tenth Circuit held that there was no inherent relationship between the offense incidentally proved and the offense charged. The defendant had sought a lesser included offense instruction as to violation of EPA Certification Regulations. The charged offenses were conspiracy, mail fraud and racketeering.
There is apparently no case holding that fraudulent conduct which happens to constitute a federal offense and is proved in. establishing the elements of mail fraud is included within mail fraud. Indeed, I would suppose that if properly charged, a defendant could be convicted of both odometer alteration and mail fraud and the punishments could be cumulative.
Going on to another point, even if the lesser offense is included in the greater, the evidence must “permit a jury rationally to find [the defendant] guilty of the lesser offense and acquit him of the greater” before defendant is entitled to an instruction on the point. Keeble v. United States, 412 U.S. 205, 208, 93 S.Ct. 1993, 1995, 36 L.Ed.2d 844 (1973); United States v. Basic, 592 F.2d 13, 24-25 (2nd Cir.1978). With all respect, I do not believe that the evidence and concessions made by defendant in this case leave open any issue of fact as to mailings furthering the scheme. The scheme proved was clearly an ongoing course of business. There was proof that defendant admitted altering odometers on a great many cars over a substantial period of time. In the proof of the twelve counts it was shown that one dealer who bought from defendant made four successive purchases and mailed applications for each of them in order to obtain titles in the names of his customers. Another dealer made five successive purchases and similar mailings. Beyond any doubt, the mailings not only furthered, but were essential to the continued success of the scheme.