Court Opinion

ID: 9465224
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 00:39:40.345601+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:39:02.860744
License: Public Domain

JOHN R. BROWN, Chief Judge,
concurring:
I concur in all portions of the Court’s opinion. However, I wish to expand the basis of my concurrence in Part III. In that portion of the opinion, emphasis is placed on United States v. Martinez, 5 Cir., 1973, 481 F.2d 214, cert, denied, 1974, 415 U.S. 931, 94 S.Ct. 1444, 39 L.Ed.2d 489, which has not been overruled. I do not rest my agreement with Part Ill’s extended border search holding simply on the unreversed status of Martinez. Because the ODESSA, the trucks and their cargo were subject to a warrantless Customs search, to seizure for forfeiture and to secure penalties, and as evidence under the respective Customs statutes,1 the entire concept is that constant surveillance from the border to the point of *346ultímate seizure, though removed by time and distance from the border, maintained the truck’s status as subject to a warrant-less Customs seizure and search.2
*347Examination of the record reveals the absolutely constant surveillance of the trucks and marijuana in question. Prior to the arrival of the ODESSA on June 20, 1975, government agents had received information from a confidential and reliable informant that the ODESSA was bringing a cargo of marijuana into the United States from Colombia, South America. Subsequently, through the use of some papers which constituted the ODESSA’S log book and nautical charts taken from the ODESSA, the voyage of the ODESSA from South America to her docking at Coffee Bluff a few miles south of Savannah was later retraced in greater detail. On June 20, 1975, somewhere off the Georgia Coast as she progressed northward in the intracoastal waterway, the ODESSA was spotted from a Customs’ aircraft by Customs’ personnel who had been on the lookout for her. The ODESSA was placed under surveillance until she docked at Coffee Bluff. That night, Customs and other agents stationed themselves 200 to 300 feet from the ODESSA and began their constant land-based surveillance. Through the use of a “Starlight” scope, they watched as packages resembling those ordinarily used in transporting marijuana were off-loaded from the ODESSA and placed into four trucks which left with the contraband. The constant surveillance was continued to the Days Inn in Savannah, Georgia. Shortly before the search of the ODESSA and the two trucks remaining at the Days Inn, the other two trucks proceeded on to Atlanta with several government cars falling in line with them and a surveillance plane circling overhead. At all times from the unloading of the ODESSA until their seizure in the Motel One parking lot in Atlanta these two trucks containing the marijuana which Eldon Thompson seeks to have excluded from evidence were under the constant surveillance of the law enforcement agents participating in this investigation. At the time of the arrest of the Thompsons and the seizure and opening of the trucks which resulted in the seizure of their marijuana cargo, no person other than those already known to have been active participants in this illegal importing scheme were drawn into or implicated in the scheme by the constant surveillance of these vehicles.

Border Customs

Under the Customs statutes, Customs agents are granted significant powers to board, search and seize vessels or vehicles that have or are about to enter into the United States from areas outside its boundaries. One basis of such authority is 19 U.S.C.A. § 1581(a) which grants officers of the Customs authority to
at any time go on board of any vessel or vehicle at any place in the United States or within the customs waters or, as he may be authorized, within a customs-enforcement area established under sections 1701 and 1703-1711 of this title, or at any other authorized place, without as well as within his district, and examine the manifest and other documents and papers and examine, inspect, and search the vessel or vehicle and every part thereof and any person, trunk, package, or cargo on board, and to this end may hail and stop such vessel or vehicle, and use all necessary force to compel compliance.
This Court has interpreted this statutory provision as permitting Customs boardings and searches of certain vessels without warrant, probable cause or any degree of suspicion. United States v. Williams, 5 Cir., 1977, 544 F.2d 807, 811; cf. United States v. Ivey, 5 Cir., 1977, 546 F.2d 139,144. One of those classes of vessels that Customs officers are entitled to search are newly arrived *348ones to determine whether goods requiring entry are aboard. Williams, supra, 544 F.2d at 810; United States v. Ingham, 5 Cir., 1974, 502 F.2d 1287,1291, cert, denied, 1975, 421 U.S. 911, 95 S.Ct. 1566, 43 L.Ed.2d 777.
Thus at the time the ODESSA docked, the Customs agents possessed without the necessity of a warrant sufficient authority within the constraints imposed by the Fourth Amendment to board and search the ODESSA and seize it and any illegal cargo that she had brought into this country. See Williams, supra, 544 F.2d at 810; Ivey, supra, 546 F.2d at 144. Likewise, Customs agents had equal capacity to conduct a warrantless search and seizure of the trucks during the time that they were utilized in the off-loading of the ODESSA. See United States v. Brom, 5 Cir., 1976, 542 F.2d 281; United States v. Flores, 5 Cir., 1976, 531 F.2d 222, cert, denied, 429 U.S. 976, 97 S.Ct. 484, 50 L.Ed.2d 584; United States v. Steinkoenig, 5 Cir., 1973, 487 F.2d 225; United States v. Hill, 5 Cir., 1970, 430 F.2d 129; United States v. Markham, 9 Cir., 440 F.2d 1119.3 The Customs search and seizure of the ODESSA was both appropriate and lawful. Once this point is reached with the accompanying knowledge of the unlawfully imported marijuana, the ODESSA, its cargo, and the trucks used to facilitate its transportation to the ultimate destinations were subject to seizure under the respectively applicable provisions of 19 U.S.C.A. §§ 482, 1581(e), (f), 1594, for forfeiture under 19 U.S.C.A. § 1595a and 18 U.S.C.A. § 545, to secure penalties under 18 U.S.C.A. § 545, and for use at trial under 19 U.S.C.A. § 482.

Borders Of Border Searches

The search and seizure of the ODESSA and the trucks is not of the normal ilk for those persons who with their property are legally present in the United States. In this case, a singular context is created partly by constant surveillance and partly by the border search nature of the contested seizure and search.
From the context of the facts in this case, the constant surveillance procedure has ensured that none of the usual arguments for obtaining a warrant prior to the seizure of the marijuana are applicable. The use of constant surveillance of the vehicles and the Thompsons did not reveal contact with nor draw any individuals into the importing operation other than those already known to be active participants. The search and seizure had its origin in a border crossing where Customs agents watched the actual crossing and knew of the presence of the illegal cargo. It was not one where a border crossing was merely suspected. Also, the search and seizure involved vehicles in an open parking lot, not a private dwelling or similar place. Because a border crossing had taken place, Thompson knew that a Customs search and seizure could be undertaken without a warrant — at least at the dock where the ODESSA was off-loaded. The search and seizure was not one representing a fishing expedition for evidence of crime, rather, the crime was known and continuing to the point of Thompson’s apprehension. More importantly, the use of constant surveillance made unnecessary any interference with legitimate traffic — those lawfully traveling within this country.
As indicated previously, the border search-Customs nature of this case allowed Customs officials to search and seize the ODESSA, its cargo, and the trucks on the dock without a warrant. Consequently, during the off-landing, Customs agents could have stopped, searched and seized the trucks without a warrant and obtained the evidence Eldon Thompson desires to have excluded. Instead, they chose to utilize constant surveillance in an attempt to catch the “higher-ups” or other cohorts.
Vis-a-vis Thompson, this is not an instance where Customs agents exercised unfettered discretion in the sense that the Fourth Amendment requires that “the ‘dis*349cretion of the official in the field’ be circumscribed by obtaining a warrant prior to the inspection.” Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 1973, 413 U.S. 266, 270, 93 S.Ct. 2535, 2538, 37 L.Ed.2d 596. Here, Customs agents initially possessed a warrantless privilege and ensured by constant surveillance that none of the conditions that existed at the border changed. Thus, for the marijuana known to have crossed the border, the only difference for Thompson is that both he and the marijuana were removed temporally and spatially from the actual border crossing. Because of constant surveillance, the only discretion that may exist is that caused by temporal and geographical distances from the physical border to the actual seizure and search.4 I do not believe such distances grant governmental agents “unfettered discretion” when because of constant surveillance (i) persons known to have brought an illegal cargo into the United States are still directly involved in transporting the cargo to its inland destination, (ii) nothing interferes with maintenance of the physical integrity of the known contraband, and (iii) at the time of the initial border crossing a warrantless search and seizure could have been undertaken.
These remarks have been directed to those persons in the status of one such as Eldon Thompson. Although different Fourth Amendment questions and resolutions may be required for persons subsequently implicated in an illegal importing operation by the use of constant surveillance, such persons are not present here and need not be considered.5 This is the crux of the issue presented by Thompson. He is complaining because Customs agents waited before conducting the search and seizure. However, that complaint overlooks the unchanged nature of this border search — save for time and distance. As such, this instance is analogous to an international flight under continuous surveillance carrying known contraband touching down in Brownsville, Texas solely for the purpose of refueling with no person or packages coming off or going onto the plane until its arrival at its destination in Chicago.6 *350Where an illegal border crossing has occurred, I believe that the constant surveillance procedure as utilized here for an extended border search is a necessary and legitimate one within the Fourth Amendment’s requirement of reasonableness.7
The essence of the constant surveillance procedure which I advocate here is that for one in Thompson’s position, this procedure has maintained the integrity of the border conditions keeping the search and seizure within the governmental necessities of the border, see United States v. Ingham, supra, without trespassing upon the precious rights of the millions of Americans who scurry to and fro on the nation’s highways and who must park on a motel lot.

. Some of the more directly applicable are 19 U.S.C.A. §§ 482, 1581, 1582, 1594, 1595a and 18 U.S.C.A. § 545.
19 U.S.C.A. § 482:
Any of the officers or persons authorized to board or search vessels may stop, search, and examine, as well without as within their respective districts, any vehicle, beast, or person, on which or whom he or they shall suspect there is merchandise which is subject to duty, or shall have been introduced into the United States in any manner contrary to law, whether by the person in possession or charge, or by, in, or upon such vehicle or beast, or otherwise, and to search any trunk or envelope, wherever found, in which he may have a reasonable cause to suspect there is merchandise which was imported contrary to law; and if any such officer or other person so authorized shall find any merchandise on or about any such vehicle, beast, or person, or in any such trunk or envelope, which he shall have reasonable cause to believe is subject to duty, or to have been unlawfully introduced into the United States, whether by the person in possession or charge, or by, in, or upon such vehicle, beast, or otherwise, he shall seize and secure the same for trial.
19 U.S.C.A. § 1581:
(a) Any officer of the customs may at any time go on board of any vessel or vehicle at any place in the United States or within the customs waters or, as he may be authorized, within a customs-enforcement area established under sections 1701 and 1703-1711 of this title, or at any other authorized place, without as well as within his district, and examine the manifest and other documents and papers and examine, inspect, and search the vessel or vehicle and every part thereof and any person, trunk, package, or cargo on board, and to this end may hail and stop such vessel or vehicle, and use all necessary force to compel compliance.
(b) Officers of the Department of the Treasury and other persons authorized by such department may go on board of any vessel at any place in the United States or within the customs waters and hail, stop, and board such vessel in the enforcement of the navigation laws and arrest or, in case of escape or attempted escape, pursue and arrest any per*346son engaged in the breach or violation of the navigation laws.
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(e) If upon the examination of any vessel or vehicle it shall appear that a breach of the laws of the United States is being or has been committed so as to render such vessel or vehicle, or the merchandise, or any part thereof, on board of, or brought into the United States by, such vessel or vehicle, liable to forfeiture or to secure any fine or penalty, the same shall be seized and any person who has engaged in such breach shall be arrested.
(f) It shall be the duty of the several officers of the customs to seize and secure any vessel, vehicle, or merchandise which shall become liable to seizure, and to arrest any person who shall become liable to arrest, by virtue of any law respecting the revenue, as well without as within their respective districts, and to use all necessary force to seize or arrest the same.
(g) Any vessel, within or without the customs waters, from which any merchandise is being, or has been, unlawfully introduced into the United States by means of any boat belonging to, or owned, controlled, or managed in common with, said vessel, shall be deemed to be employed within the United States and, as such, subject to the provisions of this section.
(h) The provisions of this section shall not be construed to authorize or require any officer of the United States to enforce any law of the United States upon the high seas upon a foreign vessel in contravention of any treaty with a foreign government enabling or permitting the authorities of the United States to board, examine, search, seize, or otherwise to enforce upon said vessel upon the high seas the laws of the United States except as such authorities are or may otherwise be enabled or permitted under special arrangement with such foreign government.
19 U.S.C.A. § 1582:
The Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe regulations for the search of persons and baggage and he is authorized to employ female inspectors for the examination and search of persons of their own sex; and all persons coming into the United States from foreign countries shall be liable to detention and search by authorized officers or agents of the Government under such regulations.
19 U.S.C.A. § 1594:
Whenever a vessel or vehicle, or the owner or master, conductor, driver, or other person in charge thereof, has become subject to a penalty for violation of the customs-revenue laws of the United States, such vessel or vehicle shall be held for the payment of such penalty and may be seized and proceeded against summarily by libel to recover the same: Provided, That no vessel or vehicle used by any person as a common carrier in the transaction of business as such common carrier shall be so held or subject to seizure or forfeiture under the customs laws, unless it shall appear that the owner or master of such vessel or the conductor, driver, or other person in charge of such vehicle was at the time of the alleged illegal act a consenting party or privy thereto.
19 U.S.C.A. § 1595a:
(a) Except as specified in the proviso to section 1594 of this title, every vessel, vehicle, animal, aircraft, or other thing used in, to aid in, or to facilitate, by obtaining information or in any other way, the importation, bringing in, unlading, landing, removal, concealing, harboring, or subsequent transportation of any article which is being or has been introduced, or attempted to be introduced, into the United States contrary to law, whether upon such vessel, vehicle, animal, aircraft, or other thing or otherwise, shall be seized and forfeited together with its tackle, apparel, furniture, harness, or equipment.
18 U.S.C.A. § 545:
Whoever knowingly and willfully, with intent to defraud the United States, smuggles, or clandestinely introduces into the United States any merchandise which should have been invoiced, or makes out or passes, or attempts to pass, through the customhouse any false, forged, or fraudulent invoice, or other document or paper; or
Whoever fraudulently or knowingly imports or brings into the United States, any merchandise contrary to law, or receives, conceals, buys, sells, or in any manner facilitates the transportation, concealment, or sale of such merchandise after importation, knowing the same to have been imported or brought into the United States contrary to law—
Shall be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both.
Proof of defendant’s possession of such goods, unless explained to the satisfaction of the jury, shall be deemed evidence sufficient to authorize conviction for violation of this section.
Merchandise introduced into the United States in violation of this section, or the value thereof, to be recovered from any person described in the first or second paragraph of this section, shall be forfeited to the United States.
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. The constant surveillance procedure has been utilized to preserve the extended border search *347status of a search or seizure, but generally in instances with somewhat more limited geographical distances from the border involved. See generally United States v. Kessler, 9 Cir., 1974, 497 F.2d 277; United States v. Markham, 9 Cir., 1971, 440 F.2d 1119; United States v. Weil, 9 Cir., 1970, 432 F.2d 1320, cert, denied, 1971, 401 U.S. 947, 91 S.Ct. 933, 28 L.Ed.2d 230; United States v. Alexander, 9 Cir., 1966, 362 F.2d 379, cert, denied, 385 U.S. 977, 87 S.Ct. 519, 17 L.Ed.2d 439.

. In United States v. Ramsey, 1977, 431 U.S. 606, 615 n.11, 97 S.Ct. 1972, 52 L.Ed.2d 617, the Supreme Court avoided consideration of the validity of a search under 19 U.S.C.A. §§ 482, 1581.

. Nonetheless, this discretion, as bounded by constant surveillance, is less broad than the authority granted Customs officers under 19 U.S.C.A. § 1581(a) which allows searches and seizures “ . . .at any place in the United States . . . In this instance, constant surveillance allows this statute to avoid the pitfalls found to exist in those considered in Almeida-Sanchez, supra, and its progeny.

. When others are implicated, their Fourth Amendment protections may necessitate different considerations and outcomes to the issues presented. See, e. g., United States v. Warren, 1978, 578 F.2d 1058 (en banc, reversing 5 Cir., 1977, 550 F.2d 219). However, when the Fourth Amendment’s “reasonableness” requirement is viewed from the context of a case by case examination and the differing individuals seeking to challenge the reasonableness, those differing considerations need not necessarily apply for one in a position similar to Thompson’s. To allow Thompson or one similarly situated to take advantage of the considerations presented by one subsequently apprehended by constant surveillance misreads the “reasonableness” criterion of the Fourth Amendment. Likewise, for purposes of the exclusionary rule which was designed to protect against governmental abuses in the Fourth Amendment area, that protection can be afforded just as adequately by its application — -if necessary — to those previously unknowns apprehended by the constant surveillance technique rather than its blanket application to the entire governmental operation.

. This case may also be analogous to United States v. King, 5 Cir., 1975, 517 F.2d 350, in which customs officers in Birmingham, Alabama, opened letters mailed from abroad with Army and Air Post Office (A.P.O.) return addresses. The envelopes had entered the United States at San Francisco, California, and the defendant argued that the customs statute, 19 U.S.C.A. § 482, authorized searches only in border areas. This Court rejected that argument:
It is true, of course, that most customs searches take place in such areas, but the very words of the statute negate an interpretation that would deny to agents the authority “to search any trunk or envelope, wherever found . . ”, assuming of course that the other requisites for a valid customs search are met (emphasis supplied). Additionally, the statute specifically empowers customs officers to make such a search, “as well without as within their respective districts. . . . ”
Id. at 352. The Court also considered the constitutional implications of the search:
No court, however, has yet confronted the situation posed by this case, in which the *350search does not take place at a port of entry or border area. The question for decision is thus whether, given that the search would have been reasonable by Fourth Amendment standards if it had taken place in the San Francisco post office, it became unreasonable as a result of being conducted in Birmingham.
Id. at 353. But we held that no Fourth Amendment rights were violated:
Here, the envelopes had passed an initial stage in the customs process when they were routed to Alabama, but they were still in the process of being delivered, and still subject to customs inspection. Therefore, the search did not violate appellants’ Fourth Amendment rights.
Id. at 354.

. While emphasizing that the border search exception to the Fourth Amendment is not based on the doctrine of exigent circumstances, the Supreme Court indicated a distinction for the Almeida-Sanchez line of authority which involved searches within the interior of the continental United States.
“The Court of Appeals also relied upon what it described as this Court’s refusal in recent years twice ‘to take an expansive view of the border search exception or the authority of the Border Patrol. See United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 [95 S.Ct. 2574, 45 L.Ed.2d 607], (1975); Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266, [93 S.Ct. 2535, 37 L.Ed.2d 596] (1973).’ 176 U.S.App.D.C. 67 at 72, 538 F.2d, 415 at 420. But as the language from each of these opinions suggests, 422 U.S., at 876, 884 [95 S.Ct. 2574]; 413 U.S., at 272-273, [93 S.Ct. 2535], plenary border search authority was not implicated by our refusal to uphold searches and stops made at places in the interior of the country; the express premise for each holding was that the checkpoint or stop in question was not the border or its ‘functional equivalent”’ United States v. Ramsey, supra, 431 U.S. at 622, 97 S.Ct. at 1982. (Emphasis added).