Court Opinion

ID: 9900817
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-11-20 16:01:47.544033+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:21:18.689377
License: Public Domain

USCA11 Case: 20-10373   Document: 154-1    Date Filed: 11/20/2023   Page: 1 of 79

                                                 [DO NOT PUBLISH]
                                  In the
                 United States Court of Appeals
                        For the Eleventh Circuit

                          ____________________

                               No. 20-10373
                          ____________________

        UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
                                                     Plaintiﬀ-Appellee,
        versus
        ANDREW THOMPSON,
        a.k.a. Nico,
        ALFONZO CHURCHWELL,
        a.k.a. Boo Boo,
        JORDAN RODRIGUEZ,
        a.k.a. Big Man,

                                                Defendants-Appellants.

                          ____________________
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        2                      Opinion of the Court               20-10373

                  Appeals from the United States District Court
                        for the Middle District of Florida
                   D.C. Docket No. 8:18-cr-00205-WFJ-TGW-3
                            ____________________

        Before GRANT, LUCK, and HULL, Circuit Judges.
        LUCK, Circuit Judge:
                Jordan Rodriguez, Alfonzo Churchwell, and Andrew
        Thompson were members of a gang called “Third Shift” that sold
        drugs, robbed, fought with rival gangs, and murdered in further-
        ance of the gang’s operations. They were charged with a slew of
        crimes that the gang committed, convicted of most of them, and
        sentenced to life in prison. They now appeal their convictions,
        challenging the sufficiency of the evidence, an evidentiary ruling,
        the jury instructions, the district court’s response to a jury ques-
        tion, and comments the district court made about Rodriguez’s
        counsel’s strategic choices. After careful review, and with the ben-
        efit of oral argument, we affirm their convictions.
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        20-10373                   Opinion of the Court                                3

                                                                  1
                              FACTUAL BACKGROUND

                                    The Third Shift gang

               The Third Shift gang was based in Oneco, a suburb of
        Bradenton, Florida. Rodriguez, Churchwell, and Thompson were
        members of Third Shift. Rodriguez and Thompson were child-
        hood friends. Rodriguez’s sister Maryha—who was also Thomp-
        son’s ex-girlfriend—described the two as “best friends” and said
        Thompson was Rodriguez’s “little do-boy,” meaning Thompson
        “would always choose [Rodriguez], always, even with risking his
        family.” Thompson’s brother-in-law, Johnny Cintron; Cintron’s
        friend, Phillip Uscanga; Uscanga’s friend, Raymy; Rodriguez’s
        brother, Jesse; and a man known as Macho were Third Shift mem-
        bers too.
               Cintron testified to seeing Rodriguez “rep” Third Shift—
        “[t]hrowing up gang signs [and] stuff like that”—“and talk about
        being in the gang.” Cintron said the gang’s sign was “like an A-ok
        sign”; the gang also had a color (black), an “affiliated” or “friendly
        gang[]” (North Side), and a “rival gang[]” (South Side). Cintron saw
        Thompson “throw up the gang sign” and wear the gang’s “flag” (“a
        black bandanna”). And he heard Macho sing a Third Shift song.

        1
           “[W]e recount the facts . . . in the light most favorable to the government
        and draw all reasonable inferences in favor of the jury’s verdict.” United States
        v. Martin, 803 F.3d 581, 585 n.1 (11th Cir. 2015).
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        4                      Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

                                   The trap house

               Third Shift operated a “trap house”—a place where people
        “go[] to purchase drugs and use drugs on [the] premises”—on 11th
        Street East in Oneco. J.R., Churchwell’s “close” friend and a “big
        hitter” drug dealer in the Bradenton area, “opened” the trap house
        and “put[] his man [Rodriguez] in there” to “make some money.”
        Rodriguez lived there, paid rent and utilities, and was “in charge.”
        According to Cintron, Rodriguez ran the trap house from mid-2015
        through late 2016 and had no other job.
               During that time, Rodriguez, Cintron, Jesse, and other Third
        Shift members hung out at the trap house “[a]lmost every day.”
        Pole cameras (installed by local law enforcement in June 2016) cap-
        tured Thompson at the trap house several times, and both Cintron
        and Thompson himself testified that Thompson was there about
        once a week. Cintron saw Churchwell at the trap house “[a] couple
        days,” and Cintron and Jesse’s friend, Quentin Couch, saw Church-
        well there too.
               The members of Third Shift sold drugs from the trap house.
        In fact, Stephanie Brewer—the trap house’s housekeeper—said
        buying and using drugs was “the main thing that went on in th[e
        trap] house.” Rodriguez’s neighbor testified to seeing “a lot of traf-
        fic” coming and going, and a lot of “[p]eople hanging out,” at the
        trap house. Pole camera footage similarly showed “lots of short-
        term traffic”—by car, bicycle, and foot—with people visiting the
        trap house “at all hours of the day and late into the night and the
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        20-10373                Opinion of the Court                          5

        early morning hours,” often for less than four minutes. A law en-
        forcement search on September 11, 2016, revealed drug parapher-
        nalia around and throughout the trap house—including a digital
        scale, syringes, glass pipes, a plastic pill bottle, plastic gloves, and
        plastic baggies—plus containers of cash. A later search turned up
        more syringes, as well as a duffle bag containing “a bunch of pill
        bottles” holding “numerous unidentified pills and also narcotics.”
                J.R. would cook crack cocaine at the trap house a few times
        a week, after which Rodriguez would “break[ the crack cocaine]
        down into small pieces,” “separating them and organizing them”
        on the kitchen table. Rodriguez kept drugs—crack and powder co-
        caine, marijuana, heroin, and pills, “[a]nything that you needed”—
        in a backpack in his bedroom and sold them from the trap house’s
        kitchen or living room multiple times a day. He sold to Cintron a
        few times a week and he twice enlisted Cintron to sell marijuana
        and crack cocaine on his behalf when Rodriguez was busy. Couch
        said he bought marijuana from Rodriguez at the trap house
        “[m]ore than probably like a hundred times,” and Maryha bought
        marijuana from Rodriguez too. Shazlynn Dunton (Thompson’s
        girlfriend) bought marijuana and cocaine from Rodriguez, and
        Brandi Simon admitted both to buying marijuana and crack co-
        caine from Rodriguez and to paying him to use a room at the trap
        house to take pills or shoot Dilaudid.
               Pole camera footage from January 2017 showed Rodriguez
        dealing drugs out of a van parked in front of the trap house. When
        officers initiated a traffic stop of the van shortly after observing the
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        6                        Opinion of the Court                    20-10373

        drug transactions, they discovered marijuana, “several bags of
        crack cocaine,” powder cocaine, narcotics, unlabeled prescription
        pill bottles, baggies, a scale, two rifles, a handgun, a pistol, a holster,
        ammunition, a baton, zip ties, a flashlight, and around $3,700 cash.
        Rodriguez would later tell a cellmate at FCI Coleman Low that he
        had sold marijuana and heroin from the trap house.
              Others, including Churchwell and Thompson, sold drugs
        from the trap house too. Brewer testified that Rodriguez “had men
        underneath him”—“younger boys”—selling drugs at the trap
        house. Cintron admitted he started selling crack that he bought
        from Rodriguez because he “was just there, and [he] would see
        how many people would come[, s]o [he] just started doing it also.”
        Rodriguez knew he was selling from the trap house, Cintron said,
        but Cintron “never had to get [Rodriguez’s] permission.”
               Cintron also saw Churchwell at the trap house “[a] couple
        days” selling crack and heroin. Churchwell received and sent text
        messages arranging sales of heroin and molly too. And when
        Churchwell was arrested in September 2016, multiple baggies con-
        taining heroin were confiscated from him.
               As for Thompson, he admitted to selling drugs for Dunton
        a few times “when it wasn’t available or convenient for her to han-
        dle her business.” But Maryha testified that she saw Thompson sell
        marijuana, Kyle Stackhouse (another drug dealer who knew
        Thompson from the neighborhood) saw him sell crack cocaine,
        and Dunton saw Thompson sell methamphetamine as well.
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        20-10373                     Opinion of the Court                          7

        Thompson and Churchwell sometimes sold drugs they had pur-
        chased from Rodriguez; other times, they sold drugs they’d pro-
        cured elsewhere.
                                             Rodriguez

                Rodriguez flaunted his gang activities on social media. His
        posts regularly referenced “thug life” and “G shit.” In April 2016,
        Rodriguez posted: “im out here tryna grind in each and every way,
        stackin up my paper tryna avoid catching a case.” And a few days
        later, he posted:
                  i been thuggin it since i was 14, i swear i couldnt stay
                  out the court scene . . . . i get out there and thug it
                  cause i aint no ones concern . . . . i aint had a job in
                  so long cause all i know is the streets.

        Rodriguez also posted about using firearms and other forms of vi-
        olence. For example, about a week after a January 2016 drive-by
        shooting we discuss in detail below, Rodriguez posted a status up-
        date declaring:
                  I play this game well I feel like its monopoly, except
                  I’m grinding hard I don’t see nothing stopping me,
                  tossin out that money like I’m some kind of slot ma-
                  chine, keep ya eyes to yaself before u hear that choppa
                  scream, 100 round drum and its fully loaded, take me
                                                           2
                  as a joke but ima shoot it if I tote it.

        2
            “Choppa” (or chopper) is street slang for an assault rifle.
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        8                     Opinion of the Court                20-10373

        A few days later, he updated his status: “It’s time to leave state
        cause [n-words] is gna make me go Rambo dog g shit.” Then, in
        April 2016, he commented: “i been in oneco my whole life and
        these hoes really got shit fucked up talking like they bad cause ill
        make them disapear.”
               Rodriguez used his social media to complain about—and
        even taunt—snitches too. In one status update, he said: “Facebook
        gangster right here [n-word] my adress is 5832 11th street east came
        fade”—that is, “come fight”—“if u want it [n-word] aint nobody
        scared [n-word] but believe me if u pull a gun im killing yo ass [n-
        word], fuck talking run up.” Similarly, a few weeks after the Janu-
        ary 2016 drive-by shooting, he challenged people who “think they
        hard but wna talk to the police and snitch”: “I stay on 11th street
        come my way with that p**** shit dog I know real crips that’ll
        check yaw ass.” Later the same day, he sent a message ranting
        about people “who act gangsta but they wna talk to police when
        gangsta shit goes down bruhh I just needa get out of state before I
        catch a charge for fukin somebody up dog.”
               Apart from posting on social media, Rodriguez protected
        the trap house in numerous ways. The refrigerator—which the
        September 2016 search revealed to contain beer and a drawer of
        money—was secured with a lock. He had Brewer (the house-
        keeper) periodically “go in”—“[e]verybody that was [there] using
        [drugs] had to get out”—and “bleach and clean the whole trap
        house.” She’d “bleach everything down,” “bring out” all the drug
        “paraphernalia,” and collect anything of “monetary value” to “give
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        20-10373              Opinion of the Court                        9

        back to the house man.” Rodriguez or J.R. paid Brewer with
        “[m]aybe just a little spending money but mostly with drugs.”
               Rodriguez also installed security cameras outside the trap
        house, and a TV in the living room displayed a live feed of the sur-
        rounding area. And he supplied countless firearms, teaching Third
        Shift members to wipe ammunition clean of fingerprints before
        loading them. Cintron saw “[a]n AK, a shotgun . . . [i]n the living
        room,” and “a couple pistols” (specifically, a revolver and a “regu-
        lar” 9-millimeter). Couch saw an FN gun, a “mini Draco”—“[a]
        mini chopper, like a mini AK”—and a “little Warthog gun,” all be-
        longing to Rodriguez. The September 2016 search turned up a
        semiautomatic handgun, plus holsters, magazines, ammunition (of
        various calibers, including rifle ammunition and shotgun shells),
        and spent casings throughout the trap house.
                Lots of people handled Rodriguez’s firearms while at the
        trap house. According to Brewer, “whoever was in the[ trap house]
        usually had [Rodriguez’s] guns on them,” and Cintron said he
        “would go in and just pick [the revolver] up” himself. Cintron re-
        called Rodriguez and his brother Jesse holding the firearms; he also
        saw Thompson “grab the [AK-47] and play with it” when he
        stopped by the trap house. Pole camera footage confirmed this,
        showing Rodriguez and Thompson armed—Thompson with a “ri-
        fle-style firearm,” at one point—while around the trap house. And
        Thompson admitted, while testifying, that he “handle[d] assault
        weapons” both at Rodriguez’s house and at his own. Maryha tes-
        tified that Thompson “kept a lot of guns at [their] house” and
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         10                     Opinion of the Court                20-10373

         would “[p]lay with them, . . . [p]oint[ing] the lasers on [the] guns”
         at police vehicles; Stackhouse likewise testified that Thompson
         once “rode by [on a bicycle] and pointed [an AK-38 or 40] at the
         truck [Stackhouse] was sitting in.”
                                  The gang’s murders

                Theft and violence went hand in hand with Third Shift’s
         drug business. Cintron testified that members of Third Shift “reg-
         ularly committed thefts.” A Manatee County deputy described see-
         ing Thompson take a bike—then quickly replace it after noticing
         he was being watched. And Maryha and Dunton both recalled
         Thompson bragging about committing robberies. After one rob-
         bery—during which Third Shift members stole “a TV and a pistol
         and some money”—Rodriguez “threatened to slap the shit out of”
         Cintron’s sister for calling the police.
                Third Shift members also engaged in gun fights. And they
         murdered rival gang members, other drug dealers, and even com-
         plaining customers. Three of those murders are relevant to this
         appeal.
                         Rodriguez’s murder of Julio Tellez
                First, Rodriguez killed Julio Tellez, a rival gang member,
         during a drive-by shooting. On the morning of New Year’s Day,
         2016, two Third Shift members—Cintron and Uscanga—drove
         Uscanga’s red Mustang convertible, top down, to a corner store to
         buy cigars. Members of their rival gang, South Side, were at the
         store. Third Shift was “always in altercations with” South Side, and
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         20-10373              Opinion of the Court                     11

         this New Year’s Day was no different. Two South Side members
         attacked Cintron with a long wooden stick outside the store and
         then fled in a minivan after Cintron overpowered them.
                Cintron and Uscanga chased the minivan all the way back to
         a “South Side gang member’s house,” “telling [them] to pull
         over”—and at one point Cintron threw a water bottle through the
         van’s open window. Cintron recognized the house from “a prior
         time when [he, his brother, Macho, and Jesse] got into an alterca-
         tion over there.” That time, “[a] bunch of dudes came out with
         guns”; so Cintron, unarmed but worried there might again be
         armed South Side members at the house, decided to abandon the
         chase. He and Uscanga instead went to retrieve Uscanga’s gun
         from fellow Third Shift member Raymy, and then the three went
         to the trap house for ammunition.
                The house the minivan fled to, it turns out, belonged to
         Tellez; the South Side members went there because Tellez had told
         them “he would have [their] backs” if they “ever needed anything.”
         When they arrived, though, Tellez sent them away: he didn’t have
         any firearms on hand and “didn’t want nothing to do with what
         they had going on.” But because “he felt like some trouble was
         going to happen,” Tellez summoned help from his friend Eliceo
         Santoyo, who brought over a 9-millimeter Beretta and an SKS.
               Meanwhile, at the trap house, Cintron told Rodriguez and
         Macho about the fight at the corner store and got ammunition
         from Rodriguez (who had supplied him with bullets before). The
         Third Shift members hatched a plan to retaliate for the attack:
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         12                    Opinion of the Court                20-10373

         Uscanga would drive Cintron and Raymy by Tellez’s house in the
         red Mustang—top up this time, “[s]o [the men] couldn’t be seen”—
         and Cintron (the only one armed in the car) would “just start shoot-
         ing” to lure people out of the house. Then Rodriguez would drive
         his blue Honda by the house, with Macho (unarmed) in the passen-
         ger seat, and “finish the job”—“mean[ing] whoever came out[, Ro-
         driguez] was going to start shooting at.”
                Things went exactly as planned. As Uscanga drove the red
         Mustang past Tellez’s house, Cintron shot into the empty yard.
         Cintron’s shots drew Tellez, Santoyo, and Tellez’s friend Juan
         Montoya outside from the living room; they didn’t return fire be-
         cause the Mustang “was already kind of far down the road” by then
         (and because Santoyo noticed some children playing nearby).
         Then, as the men started heading back inside the house, Rodriguez
         “rolled up and parked [the Honda] in front of the house,” “halfway
         in the road, halfway in the driveway.” Rodriguez reached across
         Macho and fired through the passenger-side window, killing Tellez
         and wounding Montoya. When Santoyo fired back, Rodriguez
         fled. Macho would later complain to Cintron about being burned
         by shell casings when Rodriguez fired over him from the driver’s
         seat.
               After the murder, the Third Shift members returned to the
         trap house. Cintron recalled Rodriguez telling him that the initial
         shots had lured people out of Tellez’s house but “they were fo-
         cused on [the red Mustang], and [Rodriguez] got the upper hand
         on them and started shooting,” after which Rodriguez “saw a body
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                       13

         drop.” Rodriguez admitted to Couch—and later to his cellmate at
         Coleman Low—that he shot Tellez. Rodriguez also bragged to the
         gang members that he had shouted “Fuck South Side” as he shot
         Tellez. And Rodriguez told the others there was a bullet hole in
         his Honda; Cintron saw the hole in the car’s right back fender. Ro-
         driguez eventually told Cintron that he had the Honda fixed at a
         body shop before selling it. DMV records confirmed that Rodri-
         guez sold the car three weeks after the shooting, and officers exam-
         ining the car discovered both visible gunshot damage to the trunk’s
         interior and an area “on the passenger side just above the taillight”
         with “a lighter blue” exterior paint. According to Cintron, Rodri-
         guez disposed of the guns used in the shooting too.
                    Churchwell’s murder of Earnestine Gardner
                Second, Churchwell murdered Earnestine Gardner in the
         front yard of the Third Shift trap house. The morning of Septem-
         ber 11, 2016, Couch saw Churchwell at the house armed with one
         of Rodriguez’s revolvers. Brewer, the trap house’s housekeeper,
         arrived early that morning to find Gardner “arguing with [Church-
         well] out front” about being shorted ten dollars in change after
         Gardner bought cocaine from Churchwell.
                Rodriguez was sleeping at the time. Because Brewer was
         worried the argument would attract the police’s attention, she sent
         someone to wake up Rodriguez in hopes that he’d “diffuse[]” the
         situation. When Rodriguez went outside, Churchwell came inside
         and sat beside Brewer in a pair of chairs near the kitchen. Shortly
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         14                    Opinion of the Court                20-10373

         after, Gardner “came in[side] . . . and walked straight to [Church-
         well] . . . and stood right up over him.” Gardner told Churchwell
         she was “gonna show [him that she] don’t play about [her] money”;
         then she walked back outside.
                “[A]s soon as [Gardner] got through the threshold of the
         door,” Churchwell stood up, went to the doorway, then turned
         back to look at Brewer. He “looked at [Brewer] for three long sec-
         onds,” silent, before “pull[ing] his .45 and turn[ing] around and
         [shooting Gardner] in the back.” According to Brewer, Churchwell
         then “walked up on [Gardner] and he shot her three more times.”
         Pole camera footage showed Churchwell fleeing on foot; he would
         later admit to his cellmate at Coleman Low that he had shot Gard-
         ner. Gardner died at the hospital from her injuries.
                Rodriguez called 911 at 6:38 a.m.—about two minutes after
         Gardner was shot. Even though he was standing close to Church-
         well when Gardner was murdered, Rodriguez told law enforce-
         ment officers that he had been sleeping when he heard gunshots
         outside his house, hadn’t seen the shooter, and didn’t know who
         the victim was. And even though Churchwell and Rodriguez had
         called each other nineteen times on the day of Gardner’s murder,
         Rodriguez later told the police that he didn’t know who Church-
         well was either. Rodriguez texted Churchwell a few times that day
         too, including sending a message at 9:23 a.m. reading “Bruh call me
         u str8.”
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                        15

                Several months after Churchwell was arrested for Gardner’s
         murder, he called Rodriguez several times from jail. In a mid-No-
         vember 2016 call, Rodriguez told Churchwell he got his security-
         camera DVR back from the police. Churchwell said he was “shit-
         ting for a minute,” but Rodriguez assured him that “we straight”
         because the DVR “ain’t have nothing” on it, so “all the[ police] got
         is [Brewer].” Churchwell also said that if he could figure out who
         had been at the trap house the day of Gardner’s murder, then his
         “private investigator” could “talk to people” and “verify” Church-
         well wasn’t there. Rodriguez said “I gotcha[] bro. I’ll have people
         call.” Churchwell later told Rodriguez that his investigator could
         “get everybody . . . [r]ounded up. . . . Boom, boom, boom, you
         know what I’m saying?” Rodriguez responded “Yeah.”
                 “[O]utta everybody,” Churchwell said, Rodriguez “keep[s]
         it the real[e]st”—“when I came . . . back from court, bro, I was like,
         damn, bro showed up for real, baby”—and Churchwell was “gonna
         carry that back to” Rodriguez, telling him: “[Y]ou got a [n-word]
         on your team, boy, that’s gonna ride or die about you now . . . . I’d
         spill my blood for you, boy. . . . I’m fixing to ride for a [n-word],
         bro, that’s what it is, [n-word]. That’s what it is. You ain’t gotta
         worry about nothing now. Straight up.” “I be wanting you to get
         the fuck up outta there,” Rodriguez responded. Rodriguez also
         commented that the police suspected Churchwell of Gardner’s
         murder because “[Churchwell] already got a previous charge . . . so
         they already looking at it, like, yeah, he capable of it ‘cause he al-
         ready did it.”
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         16                    Opinion of the Court                20-10373

                 Later, in January 2017—during what Churchwell warned
         would “be the last time [he] call[ed]”—Churchwell asked Rodri-
         guez whether he “got rid of [Churchwell’s] three-wheeler, you feel
         me, that three-wheeler.” “[N]othing else” was worrying him,
         Churchwell said. Rodriguez assured Churchwell that it was al-
         ready “gone.” In that case, Churchwell said, “don’t worry about
         nothing. You know what I’m saying? My lawyer said we good,
         bro.” A Manatee County Sheriff’s Office detective who listened to
         the jail call testified that the meaning of “three-wheeler” was “un-
         known” but that he “highly doubt[ed]” Churchwell meant a bike.
                        Thompson’s murders of Berry Joseph
                          and Lashawna Stevenson-Weeks
                Third, Thompson murdered Berry Joseph and LaShawna
         Stevenson-Weeks. Joseph was a local drug dealer from whom
         Thompson and his girlfriend Dunton bought cocaine. In January
         2017, Thompson told Dunton he was going to see Joseph to repay
         a debt. Thompson drove off, armed and wearing a hat, in Dunton’s
         Pontiac G6 to meet Joseph. Thompson met Joseph in a parking lot,
         followed him back to Joseph’s house, and parked next to Joseph’s
         Explorer.
                A neighbor across the street saw, from her porch, the two
         vehicles parked in Joseph’s driveway. She reported seeing one per-
         son inside Joseph’s Explorer and two men—one wearing a red
         hat—standing next to it. The neighbor heard a gunshot, saw a per-
         son lying on the ground while the man with the red hat leaned into
         Joseph’s Explorer, and then heard more gunshots. The man in the
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         20-10373              Opinion of the Court                      17

         red hat then drove away in the Pontiac, “[n]onchalant, like nothing
         happened.” The neighbor would later identify Thompson as the
         shooter in a photo line-up, and officers would match prints col-
         lected from the Explorer’s front driver’s side window to Thomp-
         son. The man lying on the ground by the Explorer was Joseph, and
         the person in the vehicle was Stevenson-Weeks; both died from
         gunshot wounds.
                 Starting about forty-five minutes after the murders—and
         continuing throughout the next two and a half hours—Thompson
         and Rodriguez spoke by phone eight times (and a ninth by text).
         During that time, Rodriguez used his own car to drive Thompson
         back to Thompson’s house. Thompson burned his clothes on a
         grill as soon as he got home. While Thompson was showering,
         Dunton went into their living room to inspect the dark-colored
         “men’s toiletry bag or razor bag”—a description matching the bag
         Joseph used to carry his drugs—Thompson had brought into the
         house when he returned. Inside, she found powder cocaine, meth,
         and empty “little dime and nickel bags.”
                A bullet pierced the Pontiac’s windshield during the shoot-
         ing. But when Dunton asked where her car was, Thompson
         claimed it was being fixed because a tree branch fell on the wind-
         shield. A few days after the double-murder, Rodriguez texted and
         called to tell Thompson and Dunton that the Pontiac was fixed and
         ready to be picked up. Thompson testified that Rodriguez directed
         him to the body shop that repaired the damaged windshield.
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         18                     Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

                Thompson confessed to Stackhouse that Thompson ar-
         ranged to meet Joseph, “went to rob him” of his “[d]ope and
         money,” and shot and killed Joseph and Stevenson-Weeks.
         Thompson admitted that, after the murder, he went to a carwash
         “because [the car] had blood speckled on the front fender,” burned
         his clothes—but not his hat, which Thompson told Stackhouse
         “was on the dresser in the house when the police came and got
         him,” but “they didn’t bother the hat, . . . they left it on the
         dresser”—and spray-painted the car’s tire rims a different color “so
         the car wouldn’t match the description.” Thompson also told
         Stackhouse that one of his shots broke the Pontiac’s windshield—
         so “he took it to a shop to get the window fixed”—and another hit
         the car’s door; police would later find a projectile inside the door,
         as well as a “projectile hole” covered with electrical tape.
                             PROCEDURAL HISTORY

               In July 2019, a grand jury returned a twenty-count indict-
         ment against Rodriguez, Churchwell, Thompson, and other code-
         fendants who are not part of this appeal.
                Count one charged Rodriguez, Churchwell, and Thompson
         with conspiracy to conduct and to participate in the affairs of a rack-
         eteering enterprise through a pattern of racketeering activity, in vi-
         olation 18 U.S.C. section 1962(d). As overt acts in furtherance of
         the conspiracy, count one alleged that: (1) Rodriguez, Churchwell,
         and Thompson used the trap house to “maintain, manufacture,
         and distribute controlled substances” and to “maintain firearms”;
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         20-10373                Opinion of the Court                           19

         (2) Rodriguez both “conspired to commit,” and actually commit-
         ted, a drive-by shooting resulting in Tellez’s murder; (3) Rodri-
         guez, Churchwell, and Thompson possessed (and Thompson also
         attempted to possess) with intent to distribute controlled sub-
         stances; (4) Churchwell murdered Gardner; (5) Rodriguez and
         Churchwell conspired to obstruct the investigation into Gardner’s
         murder; and (6) Rodriguez knowingly used and carried a firearm in
         furtherance of his drug trafficking crimes. Count one also gave no-
         tice of a series of “Special Sentencing Factors,” alleging that: (1) Ro-
         driguez killed Tellez “from a premeditated design . . . while at-
         tempting to murder another human being”; (2) Churchwell killed
         Gardner “from a premeditated design”; and (3) Thompson killed
         Joseph and Stevenson-Weeks “from a premeditated design . . .
                                                                           3
         while perpetrating and attempting to perpetrate a robbery.”
                Count two charged Rodriguez, Churchwell, and Thompson
         with conspiracy to distribute and to possess with intent to distrib-
         ute a controlled substance, in violation of 21 U.S.C. sections 846
         and 841(b)(1)(C).
                Counts three through five charged Rodriguez with crimes
         related to Tellez’s murder. In count three, Rodriguez was charged
         with “conspir[acy] to murder rival gang members” in aid of racket-
         eering, in violation of 18 U.S.C. section 1959(a)(5). In count four,

         3
           The indictment also alleged as special sentencing factors that Thompson
         murdered Demetrius Robinson and Florence Randall, but the jury acquitted
         Thompson of these allegations.
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         20                          Opinion of the Court                      20-10373

         he was charged with murdering Tellez in aid of racketeering, in
         violation of 18 U.S.C. sections 1959(a)(1) and 2. And in count five,
         Rodriguez was charged with using and discharging a firearm dur-
         ing Tellez’s murder, in violation of 18 U.S.C. sections 2,
         924(c)(1)(A)(iii), and 924(j)(1).
                                 4
                Count eight charged Thompson with possession of a con-
         trolled substance with intent to distribute, in violation of sec-
         tions 841(a)(1) and 841(b)(1)(C).
                Counts nine through twelve charged Churchwell and Rodri-
         guez with crimes related to Gardner’s murder. Count nine charged
         Churchwell with murder in aid of racketeering, in violation of sec-
         tion 1959(a)(1). Count ten charged him with using and discharging
         a firearm during and in relation to (1) the drug trafficking conspir-
         acy, (2) Gardner’s murder in aid of racketeering, and (3) maintain-
         ing a drug distribution house, in violation of 18 U.S.C. sections
         924(c), 924(c)(1)(A)(iii), and 924(j)(1). As a sentencing enhance-
         ment under section 924(j)(1), count ten also alleged that Church-
         well caused Gardner’s death “by murder as defined in 18 U.S.C.
         [section] 1111, through the use of a firearm.” Count eleven
         charged Churchwell with possession of ammunition by a felon, in
         violation of 18 U.S.C. sections 922(g)(1) and 924(a)(2). And count
         twelve charged Rodriguez as an accessory after the fact to Church-
         well’s offenses charged in counts nine through eleven, in violation
         of 18 U.S.C. section 3.

         4
             Counts six and seven involved coconspirators who are not part of this appeal.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                        21

                Counts thirteen through nineteen charged Thompson and
         Rodriguez with crimes related to the murders of Joseph and Ste-
         venson-Weeks. Count thirteen charged Thompson with attempt
         to possess with intent to distribute a controlled substance, in viola-
         tion of sections 841(b)(1)(C) and 846. Counts fourteen and sixteen
         charged him with murdering Stevenson-Weeks and Joseph in aid
         of racketeering, in violation of section 1959(a)(1). Counts fifteen
         and seventeen charged Thompson with using and discharging a
         firearm during and in relation to (1) the drug trafficking conspiracy,
         (2) the attempt to possess and distribute a controlled substance
         charged in count thirteen, and (3) Stevenson-Weeks’s and Joseph’s
         murders in aid of racketeering, in violation of sections 924(c),
         924(c)(1)(A)(iii), and 924(j)(1). As sentencing enhancements,
         counts fifteen and seventeen also alleged that Thompson caused
         Stevenson-Weeks’s and Joseph’s deaths “by murder as defined in
         18 U.S.C. [section] 1111, through the use of a firearm.” Count
         eighteen charged Thompson with possession of a firearm while
         subject to a domestic violence restraining order, in violation of 18
         U.S.C. sections 922(g)(8) and 924(a)(2). And count nineteen
         charged Rodriguez as an accessory after the fact to Thompson’s of-
         fenses charged in counts fourteen through eighteen, in violation of
         18 U.S.C. section 3.
               Finally, count twenty charged Rodriguez, Churchwell, and
         Thompson with aiding and abetting each other in the maintenance
         of a drug distribution house (the trap house), in violation of 18
         U.S.C. section 2 and 21 U.S.C. sections 856(a)(1) and 856(b).
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         22                     Opinion of the Court                20-10373

               Rodriguez, Churchwell, and Thompson pleaded not guilty
         and proceeded to a thirteen-day jury trial in October 2019.
                      Deputy Taylor’s testimony about Thompson

                On day four of the trial, the government called Manatee
         County Sheriff’s Deputy Austin Taylor to describe his interactions
         with Thompson. Before Deputy Taylor took the witness stand,
         Thompson argued that his expected testimony—which Thompson
         characterized as “generally” about “Thompson’s disrespect for law
         enforcement”—was “excludable under [Federal Rule of Evi-
         dence] 403.” The government argued that Thompson’s lack of fear
         of, and “disrespect for[,] law enforcement” was probative of his
         “knowledge and intent to participate in the [racketeering] conspir-
         acy.” Observing that “[t]here’s a fine line between . . . marking out
         your turf and screaming at the cops to protect your turf and having
         some free speech rights,” the district court decided to “take it on
         the fly.”
                 Deputy Taylor then testified that he saw Thompson with a
         rifle on two occasions. The first time, Thompson fired an AK-47 at
         pots and pans in a ditch near his house. The second time, Deputy
         Taylor responded to a “random shooting call” and saw “Thompson
         standing on his front porch with an AK-47 leaning up against [a]
         couch” a few feet away from him.
                Deputy Taylor told the jury that he had “numerous encoun-
         ters” with Thompson after the AK-47 incidents. When the govern-
         ment asked Deputy Taylor to describe Thompson’s “behavior to-
         wards [him]” during these encounters, Thompson again objected
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         20-10373                 Opinion of the Court                            23

         on rule 403 grounds. The district court overruled the objection
         “for now,” and Deputy Taylor said that Thompson “initially tried
         to be polite” but, as the encounters progressed, Thompson’s “de-
         meanor tended to become more aggressive, basically like he didn’t
         want to talk to us. And it was F this, F that, I don’t need to talk to
         you type of thing.” On cross-examination, Deputy Taylor couldn’t
         recall Thompson ever threatening him; instead, he said, Thomp-
         son “was more so just belligerently speaking, upset with the situa-
         tion type of discussion.” Deputy Taylor also testified that he didn’t
         arrest Thompson for any of the behavior he described.
                          The motions for a judgment of acquittal

                After the government rested, Rodriguez, Churchwell, and
                                                               5
         Thompson moved for judgments of acquittal. We discuss here
         only the arguments relevant to this appeal.
                 Starting with Rodriguez, as to the racketeering-conspiracy
         charge (count one), he argued that the government failed to estab-
         lish either the existence of an agreement to engage in a pattern of
         racketeering or two predicate racketeering acts. As to the drug
         conspiracy charge (count two), Rodriguez argued that there was
         insufficient evidence of a conspiracy because “everybody was do-
         ing their own thing,” with the Third Shift members “all s[elling]
         their own stuff.”

         5
           In addition to making their own arguments, Rodriguez and Thompson
         adopted the other defendants’ challenges to the sufficiency of the evidence.
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         24                    Opinion of the Court                20-10373

                As to the charges related to Tellez’s murder (counts three
         through five), Rodriguez argued that there was no evidence he
         conspired to murder anyone (the plan was “to go over there and to
         have a fight”), he shot Tellez in self-defense, and Tellez’s friend
         Santoyo didn’t identify him as the shooter (when shown a lineup
         or in court).
                As to the accessory after the fact charges (counts twelve and
         nineteen), Rodriguez argued that neither his jail calls with Church-
         well nor evidence that he gave Thompson “a particular ride” home
         after the shooting of Joseph and Stevenson-Weeks showed that he
         was an accessory. Finally, as to the charge for maintaining a drug
         distribution house (count twenty), Rodriguez argued that the gov-
         ernment failed to prove he “maintain[ed] a drug premises.”
                Turning to Churchwell, as to the racketeering-conspiracy
         charge (count one), he argued that the government failed to prove
         that he was a member of a racketeering enterprise. Churchwell
         also argued that the government failed to prove that he committed
         a second racketeering predicate act (in addition to Gardner’s mur-
         der).
                As to the drug conspiracy charge (count two), Churchwell
         argued that the government failed to prove that he conspired with
         Rodriguez and Thompson to possess and distribute drugs or that
         he was involved with them in selling drugs. As to count ten—the
         charge for using a firearm in relation to counts two (the drug traf-
         ficking conspiracy), nine (Gardner’s murder), and twenty (main-
         taining a drug distribution house)—Churchwell conceded that the
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         20-10373              Opinion of the Court                        25

         government could proceed with respect to the murder predicate
         but disputed the sufficiency of the evidence proving counts two or
         twenty. Finally, as to the charge for maintaining a drug distribu-
         tion house (count twenty), Churchwell argued the evidence
         showed he was only at the trap house “two or three times”—not
         enough for a “prima facie case regarding aiding and abetting.”
                Lastly, Thompson argued—as to the racketeering-conspir-
         acy charge (count one)—that the government failed to prove the
         existence of a racketeering enterprise, that Thompson was a mem-
         ber of the enterprise, or that he committed any acts in furtherance
         of the enterprise.
               The district court denied all three defendants’ motions.
                 The jury instruction for count twenty—maintaining a
                                drug distribution house

                 As part of its instruction for count one—the racketeering-
         conspiracy charge—the district court instructed the jury as to each
         “charged [predicate] racketeering activity,” including the predicate
         act of “knowingly using or maintaining a place for the purpose of
         manufacturing or distributing any controlled substance.” The dis-
         trict court specifically instructed the jury that,
               [t]o prove that a [d]efendant or another member of
               the enterprise committed this racketeering act, the
               [government] must prove that the [d]efendant know-
               ingly and intentionally used or maintained a place for
               the purpose of manufacturing or distributing a con-
               trolled substance. The [government] is not required
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         26                      Opinion of the Court                      20-10373

                to prove that the drug activity was the [d]efendant’s
                primary purpose[,] only that drug activity was a sig-
                niﬁcant reason why the [d]efendant used or main-
                tained the place.

         The district court elsewhere instructed the jury as to “which sub-
         stances are controlled substances” and as to the meaning of “know-
         ingly.”
                After completing its instructions for count one, the district
         court “address[ed] the counts of the superseding indictment that
         charge[d] crimes other than racketeering conspiracy.” “Some of
         these crimes,” the district court instructed, “[we]re also charged as
         racketeering acts, which I explained above.” Then, when it in-
         structed the jury on count twenty—maintaining a drug distribution
         house—the district court told the jury: “I also previously instructed
         you that it is a federal crime for anyone knowingly to use or main-
         tain any place for the purpose of manufacturing or distributing any
         controlled substance.” The defendants did not object to the in-
         structions for count one or count twenty.
                    The justifiable use of deadly force jury instruction

                Rodriguez moved the district court to instruct the jury on
         the justifiable use of deadly force. Rodriguez argued he was enti-
         tled to the instruction based on evidence that he killed Tellez in
         self-defense, including: (1) testimony that there were multiple
         weapons at Tellez’s home; (2) physical evidence at the scene (like
         the spent shell casings) “suggest[ing] . . . a multitude of discharges
         of ammunition”; and (3) proof that Rodriguez’s blue Honda had a
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         20-10373              Opinion of the Court                        27

         bullet hole in it after the drive-by shooting. Rodriguez proposed
         an instruction based on Florida’s standard jury instruction govern-
         ing the justifiable use of deadly force:
               It is a defense to the crime of First Degree Premedi-
               tated Murder in violation of Florida law, including
               lesser-included oﬀenses of First Degree Premeditated
               Murder[,] if the actions of the accused constituted the
               justiﬁable use of deadly force. “Deadly force” means
               force likely to cause death or great bodily harm.

               The use of deadly force is justiﬁable if the accused
               reasonably believed that the force was necessary to
               prevent imminent death or great bodily harm to [the]
               accused while resisting:

               1. another’s attempt to murder [the] accused, or

               2. any attempt to commit murder upon the accused.

                The government objected to Rodriguez’s proposed jury in-
         struction, pointing out that Rodriguez omitted the part of Florida’s
         standard instruction “that says . . . you can’t start the fight”:
               If the defendant was otherwise engaged in criminal
               activity, or was not in a place he or she had a right to
               be, then use or threatened use of deadly force was not
               justiﬁed unless he used every reasonable means
               within his power consistent with his own safety to
               avoid it.
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         28                     Opinion of the Court                    20-10373

         Rodriguez responded that the “duty to retreat” portion of the in-
         struction didn’t apply because “he ha[d] a right to be in his car”
         during the drive-by shooting.
                After reviewing Florida’s standard instruction, the district
         court said that it would only give the instruction if the additional
         “engaged in criminal activity” language “com[es] in along with [Ro-
         driguez’s requested] part.” Rodriguez decided he would rather
         “forego” the instruction.
                    The jury’s question about the racketeering charge

                 During deliberations, the jury asked in a note: “Can the de-
         fendant be charged guilty of murder if they are not found guilty of
         racketeering? [O]r vice versa[?]” The district court interpreted the
         question as asking whether a defendant could be convicted of mur-
         der if he were not found guilty of racketeering.
                The district court told the parties that, “[p]utting aside the
         vice versa thing,” it believed the answer to the jury’s question was
         no. The district court explained that, “as charged” in counts four,
         nine, fourteen, and sixteen (the murder in aid of racketeering
         charges),
               the government must prove that the defendant under
               consideration[,] for the purpose of maintaining an[d]
               increasing position in the enterprise engaged in rack-
               eteering activity, unlawfully and knowingly murdered
               the victim under consideration. So that would inher-
               ently require that the[ jury] ﬁnd that there was an en-
               terprise and the defendant’s participation therein.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                       29

                The government conceded that “certainly the [murders in
         aid of racketeering counts] do reference the racketeering enter-
         prise” but objected to the district court’s proposed answer because
         the defendants had “also [been] charged [with] murder under [sec-
         tion] 924(j)” in counts ten, fifteen, and seventeen. The government
         explained that murder in aid of racketeering was only one of three
         predicate acts charged in the section 924(j) counts, that each of
         those counts also included two drug trafficking offenses as predi-
         cates, and that the jury “c[ould] find one or more of those offenses
         apply to find guilt on th[e section 924(j)] count.” The government
         also said that the jury’s question was “ambiguous” about whether
         it meant “every count that references murder” or just the murder
         in aid of racketeering counts.
                The district court agreed that the government had incorpo-
         rated the 18 U.S.C. section 1111 enhancement into the sec-
         tion 924(j) firearm counts—charging that the defendants, “in the
         course of said [section 924(j)] violation[,] caused the death as mur-
         der”—and the section 1111 enhancement “does not require a find-
         ing of racketeering.” But the district court decided not to address
         the firearms counts because, in its opinion, the jury was “asking
         [the district court] about convicting [the defendants] of murder,”
         not firearms charges. The district court responded to the jury’s
         question by telling it:
               Please consider the instructions as a whole and do not
               single out one part alone. The answer to your ques-
               tion is as follows:
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         30                      Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

               As to the murder in aid of racketeering counts
               (counts 4, 9, 14, and 16), the government must prove
               beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant under
               consideration, for the purpose of maintaining and in-
               creasing position in the enterprise, an enterprise en-
               gaged in racketeering activity, unlawfully and know-
               ingly murdered the victim under consideration. So
               on those four counts the existence of the enterprise
               and the defendant’s participation in it must be proven
               beyond a reasonable doubt.

                Rodriguez didn’t object to the district court’s response to the
         jury. But two days later, he filed a motion “adopting” the govern-
         ment’s position regarding the jury question. “[I]n short,” Rodri-
         guez argued, “a defendant can be found guilty of murder without
         the finding of racketeering.” Then, the next day, Rodriguez with-
         drew his motion to adopt the government’s position. Rodriguez
         “concede[d] that the [district court’s] response to the jury’s ques-
         tion [wa]s correct—although it d[id] not answer (as it should) part
         two of the jury’s question as to whether a person can be guilty of
         racketeering but not guilty of murder.”
              The district court’s comment on Rodriguez’s counsel’s strategy

                While the jury was still deliberating—after Rodriguez filed
         his motion adopting the government’s position on the jury ques-
         tion, but before he withdrew that motion—the district court held
         a phone status conference regarding a juror’s request to be excused.
                During the call, Rodriguez’s counsel said that the district
         court’s “note” in response to the jury’s question about racketeering
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                        31

         and murder “need[ed] to be removed” if an alternate juror was
         seated. The district court said it was “not going to be removing the
         note,” and then added:
                And we won’t talk about it now . . . , but your strategy
                on this murder thing eludes me. There is nothing
                worse than judges playing lawyers because judges
                don’t see the whole radar scope. I got that. I don’t
                have 360 degrees of vision on this case.

                But one thought is if you say, and I think you have,
                that—well, you say now, you said today anyway that
                you don’t need the racketeering ﬁnding for those
                murder counts. Okay, that’s ﬁne for some strategic
                reason that eludes me, but if you get convicted of one
                of those, are you then on appeal judicially estopped
                from saying well, gee, Judge in Atlanta, appellate
                panel, they never proved the racketeering. I don’t
                know. Because you just basically now said, well, it’s
                not needed to convict them of the murder. But I
                don’t know whether—anyway.

                Counsel for Thompson then said that he couldn’t “express
         the level of [his] objections to [Rodriguez]’s motion that he filed in
         reference to the jury note.” The district court responded:
               So noted. So noted. So it’s okay. And if there were
               such a judicial estoppel on appeal, it certainly
               wouldn’t bind you. I don’t know if that doctrine even
               exists. But it seems to me if somebody gets convicted
               of murder, their best argument might be, well, there’s
               a dead body but there’s no racketeering. As I said,
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         32                     Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

                there’s nothing more dangerous than judges trying to
                play lawyers because we don’t have a full 360-degree
                view of all the facts.
                                   The jury’s verdict

                Four days later, the jury found Rodriguez, Churchwell, and
         Thompson guilty as charged, with only two exceptions. First, alt-
         hough the jury found Thompson guilty in count one of a racket-
         eering conspiracy, and of murdering Joseph and Stevenson-Weeks
         as predicate acts, it did not find him guilty of murdering two other
         victims (Robinson and Randall) as predicate acts. Second, the jury
         acquitted Churchwell in count nine of murdering Gardner in aid of
         racketeering—and likewise rejected count nine as a predicate (1) in
         convicting Churchwell of using a firearm in furtherance of a crime
         of violence in count ten and (2) in convicting Rodriguez of being
         an accessory after the fact to Churchwell’s crimes in count twelve.
         But the jury specifically found in count one that Churchwell mur-
         dered Gardner, that Rodriguez murdered Tellez, and that Thomp-
         son murdered Joseph and Stevenson-Weeks.
                After the verdict, Thompson filed a renewed motion for
         judgment of acquittal arguing that his racketeering-conspiracy con-
         viction was legally insufficient because Brown v. United States, 942
         F.3d 1069, 1075 (11th Cir. 2019) (holding that conspiracy to commit
         robbery isn’t a section 924(c) “crime of violence”), and United States
         v. Davis, 139 S. Ct. 2319, 2336 (2019) (holding that section 924(c)’s
         residual clause is unconstitutionally vague), required that “the cat-
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         20-10373                   Opinion of the Court                       33

         egorical approach . . . be used when determining whether an of-
         fense qualifies [as a ‘crime of violence’] under the [section 924(c)]
         elements clause.” Thompson argued that his conviction in count
         one must be vacated because it’s impossible to determine whether
         the jury’s verdict “was based on a crime of violence that is uncon-
         stitutionally vague under Davis or inapplicable under Brown.” The
         district court denied Thompson’s renewed motion because “[i]t
         [wa]s clear that [section] 924(c) was not a predicate of the [c]ount
         [one] racketeering conspiracy, nor was the jury so charged.”
                  The district court sentenced each defendant to multiple
                                                                          6
         terms of life imprisonment, and each timely appealed.
                                        DISCUSSION

                 Rodriguez, Churchwell, and Thompson challenge the suffi-
         ciency of the evidence underlying many, but not all, of their con-
         victions. Thompson maintains that Deputy Taylor improperly
         commented on his silence. Churchwell contends that the district
         court failed to properly instruct the jury as to the charge for main-
         taining a drug distribution house. And Rodriguez argues that the
         district court erred in not giving his proposed justifiable use of
         deadly force instruction, in responding to the jury’s question about
         murder and racketeering, and in commenting on his trial counsel’s
         strategy. We consider each argument below.

         6
             The defendants do not challenge their sentences on appeal.
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         34                     Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

                               Sufficiency of the evidence

                 “We review de novo the denial of a motion for judgment of
         acquittal, viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to the
         government and drawing all reasonable inferences in favor of the
         jury’s verdict.” Martin, 803 F.3d at 587 (emphasis omitted). “[T]he
         issue is not whether a jury reasonably could have acquitted but
         whether it reasonably could have found guilt beyond a reasonable
         doubt.” United States v. Thompson, 473 F.3d 1137, 1142 (11th Cir.
         2006), abrogated on other grounds as recognized in United States v. Di-
         Falco, 837 F.3d 1207, 1216 (11th Cir. 2016). “The evidence need not
         be inconsistent with every reasonable hypothesis except guilt, and
         the jury is free to choose between or among the reasonable conclu-
         sions to be drawn from the evidence presented at trial.” United
         States v. Poole, 878 F.2d 1389, 1391 (11th Cir. 1989). Where “any
         reasonable construction of the evidence would have allowed the
         jury to find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt,” we
         will not overturn a jury’s verdict. United States v. Friske, 640 F.3d
         1288, 1291 (11th Cir. 2011) (citation omitted).
               With these principles in mind, we now address Rodriguez’s,
         Churchwell’s, and Thompson’s challenges to the sufficiency of the
         evidence.
                Racketeering conspiracy (count one—all defendants)
                 It is “unlawful for any person . . . associated with any enter-
         prise engaged in . . . interstate or foreign commerce[] to conduct or
         participate, directly or indirectly, in the conduct of such enter-
         prise’s affairs through a pattern of racketeering activity.” 18 U.S.C.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                         35

         § 1962(c). It is likewise “unlawful for any person to conspire to vi-
         olate” section 1962(c). Id. § 1962(d). “Racketeering activity” in-
         cludes “any act or threat involving murder, . . . robbery, . . . or
         dealing in a controlled substance . . . which is chargeable under
         [s]tate law and punishable by imprisonment for more than one
         year.” Id. § 1961(1)(A).
                 “To establish a [racketeering-]conspiracy violation under 18
         U.S.C. [section] 1962(d), the government must prove that the de-
         fendants ‘objectively manifested, through words or actions, an
         agreement to participate in the conduct of the affairs of the enter-
         prise through the commission of two or more predicate crimes.’”
         United States v. Starrett, 55 F.3d 1525, 1543 (11th Cir. 1995) (quoting
         United States v. Russo, 796 F.2d 1443, 1455 (11th Cir. 1986)). “The
         government may prove a defendant’s agreement in two ways:
         (1) by showing an agreement on an overall objective, or (2) by
         showing that a defendant agreed personally to commit two predi-
         cate acts and therefore to participate in a ‘single objective’ conspir-
         acy.” Id. (cleaned up). “The government can prove an agreement
         on an overall objective by circumstantial evidence showing that
         each defendant must necessarily have known that others were also
         conspiring to participate in the same enterprise through a pattern
         of racketeering activity.” Id. (cleaned up). “If the government can
         prove an agreement on an overall objective, it need not prove a
         defendant personally agreed to commit two predicate acts.” United
         States v. Abbell, 271 F.3d 1286, 1299 (11th Cir. 2001).
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         36                      Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

                 “Regardless of the method used to prove the agreement, the
         government does not have to establish that each conspirator ex-
         plicitly agreed with every other conspirator to commit the substan-
         tive [racketeering] crime described in the indictment, or knew his
         fellow conspirators, or was aware of all the details of the conspir-
         acy.” Starrett, 55 F.3d at 1544 (cleaned up). The government also
         “need not prove that the defendants . . . participated in every aspect
         of the conspiracy”; instead, it is enough to prove that the defend-
         ants “knew the essential nature of the conspiracy.” United States v.
         Garcia, 405 F.3d 1260, 1269–70 (11th Cir. 2005) (citation omitted).
              1. Rodriguez
                Rodriguez argues that the evidence was legally insufficient
         to convict on count one because the government failed to establish
         (1) the existence of a criminal enterprise or (2) Rodriguez’s agree-
         ment to participate in a pattern of racketeering activity. He main-
         tains that the evidence “[a]t best . . . established a loose affiliation
         of persons that some might . . . consider a loose ‘group of thugs.’”
         We disagree.
                First, the government established that Third Shift was a
         criminal enterprise. A racketeering “enterprise includes any union
         or group of individuals associated in fact” and “a group of persons
         associated together for a common purpose of engaging in a course
         of conduct.” Boyle v. United States, 556 U.S. 938, 944 (2009) (quoting
         United States v. Turkette, 452 U.S. 576, 580, 583 (1981)). “The gov-
         ernment may prove a [racketeering] enterprise ‘by evidence of an
         ongoing organization, formal or informal, and by evidence that the
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                         37

         various associates function as a continuing unit.’” Starrett, 55 F.3d
         at 1545 (quoting Turkette, 452 U.S. at 583).
                 In Boyle, the Supreme Court explained that “an association-
         in-fact enterprise must have at least three structural features: a pur-
         pose, relationships among those associated with the enterprise, and
         longevity sufficient to permit these associates to pursue the enter-
         prise’s purpose.” 556 U.S. at 946. “[P]roof of an association’s de-
         votion to ‘making money from repeated criminal activity’ demon-
         strates an enterprise’s ‘common purpose of engaging in a course of
         conduct,’ regardless of whether the criminal activity is diverse.”
         United States v. Church, 955 F.2d 688, 698 (11th Cir. 1992) (citations
         omitted).
                Here, there was sufficient evidence for a reasonable jury to
         conclude that Third Shift was an association-in-fact enterprise.
         Cintron testified that he, Rodriguez, and other Third Shift mem-
         bers spent time at the trap house “[a]lmost every day” from mid-
         2015 until the end of 2016. According to Cintron, Rodriguez sold
         drugs from the trap house “[e]very day,” and pole camera footage
         (corroborated by Rodriguez’s neighbor’s testimony) showed lots of
         people making “short-term” (less than four-minute) visits at all
         hours of the day. The pole camera even captured Rodriguez deal-
         ing drugs from a van parked in front of the trap house—and police
         searches revealed drug paraphernalia, pills, and cash throughout
         the house. Indeed, Brewer (the housekeeper) testified that “the
         main thing that went on in that house” was “buying the drugs, us-
         ing the drugs.” Rodriguez bragged on social media about making
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         38                      Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

         money from his crimes, using the phrases “thug life” and “G shit”
         and declaring: “im out here tryna grind in each and every way,
         stackin up my paper tryna avoid catching a case.” He also bragged
         that he’d “been thuggin it since [he] was 14.”
                Other Third Shift members participated in the drug dealing
         too. Brewer told the jury that Rodriguez had “men underneath
         him” selling drugs at the trap house. Cintron, Thompson, and
         Churchwell all bought drugs from Rodriguez to sell, and Cintron
         sold drugs on Rodriguez’s behalf a “couple times.”
                Rodriguez also provided guns for Third Shift members to
         use to protect the trap house—witnesses saw an AK, a mini AK, a
         shotgun, several pistols, an “FN gun,” and a “little Warthog gun”—
         and taught them to wipe bullets clean of their prints before loading
         them. Cintron said he, Thompson, and others were permitted to
         handle Rodriguez’s weapons, and pole cameras captured Thomp-
         son armed while around the trap house. In fact, Brewer testified
         that “whoever was in the[ trap house]” was armed.
                 Together, this evidence showed that Third Shift had a crim-
         inal purpose, relationships among those associated with it, and suf-
         ficient longevity for its members to pursue its purpose. See Boyle,
         556 U.S. at 946. It also established Third Shift’s common purpose
         of making money from repeated criminal activity. See Church, 955
         F.2d at 698.
                 But that’s not all. Third Shift had its own “rules and rituals,”
         which also showed that it was a racketeering enterprise. See Star-
         rett, 55 F.3d at 1545 (explaining that “rules and rituals may help
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                        39

         prove the existence of a group of individuals associated for a com-
         mon purpose of engaging in a course of conduct”). Cintron testi-
         fied that Third Shift was a “gang” that had its own color (black),
         hand sign (“an A-ok sign”), song, flag (“a black bandanna”),
         “friendly” gang (“North Side”), and rival gang (“South Side”) that
         Third Shift was “always in altercations with.” Rodriguez was a
         member of Third Shift, Cintron said, and Rodriguez and others
         “rep[ped] it” by “[t]hrowing up gang signs [and] stuff like that.” All
         of Third Shift’s “rituals” were further evidence of an association-in-
         fact. See id.
                Second, a reasonable jury could conclude that Rodriguez
         agreed to participate in Third Shift’s pattern of racketeering activi-
         ties—primarily, selling drugs out of the Third Shift trap house. Ro-
         driguez lived at the trap house, was “in charge” of its operations,
         and took steps to protect the trap house. He locked the refrigerator
         (where money was kept); he retained a housekeeper to clean up
         and “bring out” drug paraphernalia left behind by users; he set up
         exterior security cameras connected to a video feed inside the
         house; and he provided guns for Third Shift gang members to use
         to guard the house. And although “[a] variety of boys” sold drugs
         out of the trap house, according to Brewer, it was “[m]ostly” Ro-
         driguez. Rodriguez kept drugs in a backpack in his bedroom and
         sold “[a]nything that you needed”—marijuana, powder cocaine,
         crack cocaine (cooked by J.R. and packaged by Rodriguez), heroin,
         and pills—from the house “every day.” He sold to his sister
         Maryha, to Cintron several times a week, to Couch (Rodriguez’s
         brother’s friend) “[m]ore than probably like a hundred times,” and
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         40                     Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

         to Thompson’s girlfriend Dunton. Evidence of Rodriguez’s efforts
         to oversee the trap house, to lead the drug trafficking business that
         operated out of it, and to provide other Third Shift members with
         drugs (for sale) and guns (for protection) was sufficient for a jury to
         find beyond a reasonable doubt that Rodriguez agreed with Third
         Shift’s purpose to make money by selling controlled substances
         from the trap house. See United States v. Calderon, 127 F.3d 1314,
         1326 (11th Cir. 1997) (“[T]he conclusion that appellants had a com-
         mon purpose and plan with the other coconspirators may be in-
         ferred from a ‘development and collocation of circumstances,’” in-
         cluding “repeated presence at the scene of the drug trafficking.” (ci-
         tations omitted)).
                There was also sufficient evidence from which a reasonable
         jury could find that Rodriguez agreed to participate in Third Shift’s
         crimes of violence. Cintron testified that Rodriguez taught him to
         wipe his fingerprints off shell casings to avoid getting caught. And
         Rodriguez planned and participated in Third Shift’s retaliatory
         drive-by shooting of rival gang member Julio Tellez. After plan-
         ning the crime and giving Cintron bullets, Rodriguez drove one of
         the two cars and “finish[ed] the job” by shooting Tellez while yell-
         ing “Fuck South Side.”
                 In short, there was more than enough evidence for a reason-
         able jury to conclude that Third Shift was a criminal enterprise and
         that Rodriguez conspired to participate in Third Shift’s racketeer-
         ing activities. The district court didn’t err in denying his motion
         for a judgment of acquittal as to count one.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                         41

            2. Churchwell
                 Churchwell argues that the evidence supporting his convic-
         tion on count one was legally insufficient because the government
         failed to prove that he agreed to participate in a racketeering con-
         spiracy. And, he contends, the government failed to prove two
         predicate racketeering acts because the government didn’t present
         evidence that Gardner’s murder was premeditated.
                 As to Churchwell’s first argument, a reasonable jury could
         find that he agreed to participate in a racketeering conspiracy.
         Again, the government can establish a defendant’s agreement by
         showing that he “agreed personally to commit two predicate acts
         and therefore to participate in a ‘single objective’ conspiracy.” Star-
         rett, 55 F.3d at 1544 (citation omitted). That’s the case here—the
         evidence showed that Churchwell agreed to commit at least two
         of the predicate acts charged in count one of the indictment.
                 First, count one’s list of predicate acts included Churchwell’s
         “possess[ion] with intent to distribute controlled substances.” Suf-
         ficient evidence supported a jury finding that Churchwell commit-
         ted this predicate act. Both Cintron and Couch saw Churchwell
         repeatedly at the trap house, and Churchwell’s “repeated presence”
         at the trap house was “a material and probative factor that the jury
         [could] consider in reaching its verdict.” See Calderon, 127 F.3d at
         1326; see also United States v. Hernandez, 433 F.3d 1328, 1333 (11th
         Cir. 2005) (“Although mere presence at the scene of a crime is in-
         sufficient to support a conspiracy conviction, presence nonetheless
         is a probative factor which the jury may consider in determining
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         42                     Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

         whether a defendant was a knowing and intentional participant in
         a criminal scheme.” (citation omitted)).
                But Churchwell wasn’t just a repeat presence at the trap
         house; he sold crack and heroin there that he purchased from Ro-
         driguez. Proof that Rodriguez sold drugs to Churchwell—and,
         more importantly, that he permitted Churchwell to sell those
         drugs out of the trap house—“rebuts [Churchwell’s] argument”
         that he merely possessed drugs with the intent to distribute at the
         trap house without joining Third Shift’s racketeering conspiracy.
         See United States v. Dixon, 901 F.3d 1322, 1337 (11th Cir. 2018) (ex-
         plaining, in a drug trafficking conspiracy case, that “[t]he evidence
         of frequent, coordinated drug sales rebuts each defendant’s argu-
         ment that he merely ‘decided to sell drugs by himself, for his own
         account, in front of the same areas where some of the people he
         knew were also selling’”). As in Dixon, a jury could find beyond a
         reasonable doubt that Churchwell agreed with Rodriguez to pos-
         sess with intent to distribute controlled substances. See id. And
         because Churchwell sold drugs from the trap house a couple of
         days one week, Churchwell agreed to possess with intent to distrib-
         ute controlled substances at least two times. Thus, a reasonable
         jury could find beyond a reasonable doubt that Churchwell
         (1) agreed to Third Shift’s “overall objective,” and (2) agreed to per-
         sonally commit two predicate acts of possession with intent to dis-
         tribute controlled substances to participate in a “single objective”
         conspiracy. See Starrett, 55 F.3d at 1544.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                        43

                 Second, count one’s list of predicate acts included Church-
         well’s use of the trap house “to acquire, maintain, manufacture,
         and distribute controlled substances, maintain firearms, facilitate
         prostitution, and conduct [e]nterprise meetings.” There was suffi-
         cient evidence to support a jury finding that Churchwell commit-
         ted this predicate act too. As we discussed above, the evidence
         showed that Churchwell bought drugs from Rodriguez for the pur-
         pose of selling those drugs out of the trap house. The evidence also
         showed that Rodriguez supplied guns at the trap house, and that
         Churchwell carried one of Rodriguez’s revolvers there. This was
         sufficient to support a jury finding that Churchwell “maintained”
         the trap house. See United States v. Clavis, 956 F.2d 1079, 1091 (11th
         Cir.) (concluding that evidence that defendant distributed drugs
         from a stash house, coupled with “[h]is possession of a firearm, plus
         presence of firearms in the house and his discussion of firearms
         with [a government informer], permitted the jury to infer that he
         was protecting the stash house and its inventory”), modified on other
         grounds on reh’g, 977 F.3d 538 (11th Cir. 1992).
                 And third, count one listed as a predicate act Churchwell’s
         conspiracy with Rodriguez to “obstruct the investigation into the
         murder of Earnestine Gardner by . . . threatening and causing oth-
         ers to threaten witnesses, destroying evidence, and providing false
         and incomplete information to law enforcement.” There was suf-
         ficient evidence to support a jury finding that Churchwell commit-
         ted this predicate act. After Churchwell was arrested for Gardner’s
         murder, Churchwell called Rodriguez several times from jail.
         Based on the November 2016 conversation, a reasonable jury could
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         44                     Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

         find that Churchwell conspired with Rodriguez to threaten wit-
         nesses. Churchwell asked Rodriguez to figure out who was at the
         trap house on the day of the murder so his “private investigator”
         could talk to them, “verify” Churchwell wasn’t there, and “get eve-
         rybody . . . [r]ounded up. . . . Boom, boom, boom, you know what
         I’m saying?” Rodriguez promised to figure out who was at the
         house. And during the January 2017 conversation, Churchwell
         asked Rodriguez whether he “got rid of [Churchwell’s] three-
         wheeler, you feel me, that three-wheeler.” Rodriguez assured
         Churchwell that it was “gone.” A jury could reasonably infer that
         Churchwell was asking if Rodriguez got rid of the gun that he used
         to kill Gardner.
                Turning to Churchwell’s second argument—that the district
         court should’ve granted his motion for judgment of acquittal as to
         count one because the government didn’t present evidence that
         Gardner’s murder was premeditated—it fails for two reasons.
                First, even if the district court erred by submitting Gardner’s
         murder to the jury as a possible racketeering predicate, Churchwell
         invited the error. “The doctrine of invited error is implicated when
         a party induces or invites the district court into making an error.”
         United States v. Stone, 139 F.3d 822, 838 (11th Cir. 1998). And when
         the doctrine applies, “we are precluded from addressing [the in-
         vited] error[].” Id. Here, Churchwell conceded to the district court
         that the government “presented enough evidence to get past a
         [r]ule 29 [motion]” with respect to Gardner’s murder as a racket-
         eering predicate. In other words, he told the district court that
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                       45

         there was sufficient evidence of premeditation. That is invited er-
         ror and “we are precluded from addressing” it on appeal. Id. (“[A]
         defendant should not benefit from introducing error at trial with
         the intention of creating grounds for reversal on appeal.”).
                Second, even taking Gardner’s murder out of the equation,
         the government still proved that Churchwell committed at least
         two predicate acts. As we discussed above, sufficient evidence es-
         tablished that Churchwell possessed “with intent to distribute con-
         trolled substances” on multiple occasions, used the trap house “to
         acquire, maintain, manufacture, and distribute controlled sub-
         stances, maintain firearms, facilitate prostitution, and conduct
         [e]nterprise meetings,” and conspired with Rodriguez to obstruct
         the investigation into Gardner’s murder. That, in turn, was
         enough to infer his agreement. See Starrett, 55 F.3d at 1543.
                 In sum, because a reasonable jury could conclude that
         Churchwell “agreed personally” to commit (at least) two predicate
         acts, sufficient evidence established his agreement to participate in
         Third Shift’s racketeering conspiracy. See id. at 1544.
            3. Thompson
                Thompson argues that his racketeering-conspiracy convic-
         tion on count one was legally insufficient for the same reason he
         raised in his post-verdict renewed motion for judgment of acquit-
         tal. Specifically, Thompson cites the Supreme Court’s holding in
         Davis that section 924(c)’s residual clause is unconstitutionally
         vague—plus our holdings in Brown and United States v. Green, 981
         F.3d 945, 950 (11th Cir. 2020), that neither Hobbs Act robbery nor
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         46                     Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

         racketeering conspiracy are section 924(c) crimes of violence—as
         “preclud[ing] the conviction obtained on [c]ount [one] because the
         categorical approach must be used when determining whether an
         offense qualifies under the elements clause.” As he argued in his
         post-verdict motion, Thompson argues on appeal that his racket-
         eering-conspiracy conviction must be vacated because of “the pos-
         sibility that the jury’s verdict was based on a crime of violence that
         is unconstitutionally vague under Davis.”
                Thompson’s argument is unavailing. Although he was con-
         victed of section 924(c) offenses in counts fifteen and seventeen, on
         appeal, he only challenges the sufficiency of the evidence support-
         ing his conviction on count one. But count one was a section
         1962(d) racketeering-conspiracy count—not a section 924(c) fire-
         arm count. There is nothing vague about the racketeering-conspir-
         acy statute, and Davis, Brown, and Green had nothing to do with
         section 1962(d). We agree with the district court that Thompson’s
         argument fails.
              Drug conspiracy (count two—Rodriguez and Churchwell)
                 Rodriguez and Churchwell challenge the sufficiency of their
         convictions for conspiracy to distribute and to possess with intent
         to distribute a controlled substance, in violation of sections 846
         and 841(b)(1)(C). Section 841(b)(1)(C) prohibits possessing with
         the intent to distribute a controlled substance, and section 846 pro-
         hibits conspiring to do so. “To support a conspiracy conviction un-
         der [section] 846, the government must prove that there is an
         agreement by two or more persons to violate the narcotics laws.”
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         20-10373                   Opinion of the Court                           47

         United States v. Parrado, 911 F.2d 1567, 1570 (11th Cir. 1990). The
         elements of a section 846 conspiracy are: “(1) an agreement be-
         tween the defendant and one or more persons, (2) the object of
         which is to do either an unlawful act or a lawful act by unlawful
         means.” United States v. Toler, 144 F.3d 1423, 1426 (11th Cir. 1998).
             1. Rodriguez
                Rodriguez argues that there was insufficient evidence that
         he agreed with Churchwell or Thompson, or anyone else, to pos-
         sess and distribute controlled substances. No one disputes that Ro-
         driguez and other Third Shift members possessed and sold drugs.
         Rodriguez doesn’t contest that he sold drugs and concedes that
         Churchwell and Thompson “had their own drug-dealing operation
         going, with multiple sources of supply, and multiple distribution
         points.” The narrow question for us is whether a reasonable jury
         could find that Rodriguez had an agreement with the others to pos-
                                7
         sess and sell drugs.
               A reasonable jury could make that finding because the gov-
         ernment presented sufficient evidence of an agreement between
         Rodriguez and other Third Shift members to possess and sell drugs.
         Rodriguez, Churchwell, Thompson, and Cintron all regularly sold
         drugs from the trap house. Rodriguez also supplied weapons for

         7
           Rodriguez also raises the same arguments he made to challenge the suffi-
         ciency of the evidence supporting his racketeering-conspiracy conviction. Be-
         cause we already rejected those arguments in affirming his conviction on
         count one, we won’t address them again here.
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         48                       Opinion of the Court             20-10373

         Churchwell, Thompson, Cintron, and other Third Shift members
         to use to defend the trap house, as well as surveillance cameras for
         additional protection. From the evidence, a reasonable jury could
         infer an “overlap of participants” (Rodriguez and the other Third
         Shift members) and that they “had a common goal: to deal in [con-
         trolled substances] and to provide a marketplace for [controlled
         substances].” See Dixon, 901 F.3d at 1336 (citation omitted); id. at
         1337 (observing that “evidence of frequent, coordinated drug sales
         rebuts” any argument that each defendant was selling by himself,
         for himself, in the same place as other defendants).
                Critically, Rodriguez provided not only a place where his as-
         sociates could sell drugs—the trap house—but also many of the
         drugs that other Third Shift members sold. At the trap house,
         Churchwell sold drugs that he bought from Rodriguez. Thompson
         likewise obtained from Rodriguez some of the drugs that he sold.
         And Cintron both sold drugs he’d bought from Rodriguez—with
         Rodriguez’s knowledge and without needing to ask permission—
         and sold on Rodriguez’s behalf a “couple times.” The fact that
         other Third Shift members sold drugs provided to them by Rodri-
         guez is proof that Rodriguez had an agreement with them to pos-
         sess and distribute drugs. See Toler, 144 F.3d at 1426.
              2. Churchwell
                Churchwell argues that there was no evidence of an agree-
         ment to distribute controlled substances, no evidence that Church-
         well knew of the unlawful purpose of the plan, and no evidence
         that he willfully joined the plan.
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         20-10373              Opinion of the Court                     49

                A reasonable jury could find that Churchwell willfully
         agreed to sell drugs with other Third Shift members. Cintron was
         at the trap house “[a]lmost every day” and saw Churchwell there
         several times. Other witnesses confirmed Churchwell’s presence
         at the trap house. Once again, Churchwell’s regular presence at
         Third Shift’s trap house is evidence of whether he “was a knowing
         and intentional participant in [the] criminal scheme.” See Hernan-
         dez, 433 F.3d at 1333 (citation omitted).
                And the evidence showed that Churchwell wasn’t an inno-
         cent bystander merely present at the trap house. Cintron testified
         that Churchwell “would hang out and try to sell drugs”—crack and
         heroin—while there. Indeed, Churchwell murdered Gardner at
         the trap house after she complained about being shorted change
         when Churchwell sold her cocaine. The jury also saw evidence
         that Churchwell arranged sales of heroin and molly through text
         messaging, and they heard testimony that multiple baggies con-
         taining heroin were confiscated from him during his September
         2016 arrest. And although Churchwell sometimes brought his own
         drugs to the trap house to sell, other times he’d buy the drugs he
         sold from Rodriguez. The fact that Churchwell routinely sold
         drugs provided to him by Rodriguez at Rodriguez’s trap house al-
         lowed the reasonable inference that he had willfully entered into
         an agreement with Rodriguez to possess and sell drugs. See Dixon,
         901 F.3d at 1336–37.
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         50                       Opinion of the Court                    20-10373

                         Violent crimes in aid of racketeering
                         (counts three and four—Rodriguez)
                The jury found that Rodriguez committed two violent
         crimes in aid of racketeering under section 1959(a): conspiring to
         murder rival gang members (count three), and actually murdering
         Tellez (count four). Rodriguez argues there was insufficient evi-
         dence to convict on either count, contending that the government
         didn’t prove (1) that he knowingly conspired to murder rival gang
         members to maintain and increase his position in a racketeering
         enterprise, and (2) that Tellez was a rival gang member. But we
         conclude that a reasonable jury could find that Rodriguez con-
                                                                                 8
         spired to murder, and actually murdered, in aid of racketeering.
                Section 1959(a) provides that “[w]hoever . . . for the purpose
         of gaining entrance to or maintaining or increasing position in an
         enterprise engaged in racketeering activity, murders . . . any indi-
         vidual in violation of the laws of any State or the United States, or
         attempts or conspires so to do, shall be punished . . . by death or
         life imprisonment.” 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a)(1). “A person commits a
         violent crime in aid of racketeering” under section 1959(a) “when
         he commits,” or conspires to commit, “a particular kind of violent
         crime—such as ‘murder’—‘for the purpose of gaining entrance to
         or maintaining or increasing position in an enterprise engaged in
         racketeering activity.’” Alvarado-Linares v. United States, 44 F.4th

         8
          In addition, Rodriguez repeats the same arguments challenging his count-
         one conviction for a racketeering conspiracy that we have already rejected.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                         51

         1334, 1339 (11th Cir. 2022) (quoting 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a)); see also
         United States v. McClaren, 13 F.4th 386, 403 (5th Cir. 2021) (the gov-
         ernment must prove that (1) “a criminal organization exist[ed],” (2)
         the “organization [wa]s a racketeering enterprise,” and (3) “the de-
         fendant committed a violent crime” (4) “for the purpose of promot-
         ing his position in [the] racketeering enterprise” (citation omitted)).
                Sufficient evidence showed Rodriguez knowingly conspired
         to murder rival gang members—specifically, the South Side gang
         members at Tellez’s house. After Cintron and Uscanga chased the
         South Side members back to Tellez’s house from the corner store,
         Cintron retrieved a gun, then drove to the trap house, told Rodri-
         guez and Macho about the corner store fight, and got ammunition
         from Rodriguez. At the trap house, Rodriguez helped plan the fatal
         attack: Cintron, Rodriguez, and other Third Shift members de-
         cided to use two cars, with Cintron in the first car acting as a lure
         to “bring [the South Side gang members] out” and Rodriguez in the
         second car to “finish the job” (“mean[ing] whoever came out[ of
         Tellez’s house, Rodriguez] was going to start shooting at”). He
         then helped carry out the plan, knowing that the goal was to kill
         South Side members—when the men attacked Tellez, Santoyo,
         and Montoya, Rodriguez shouted “Fuck South Side.” And Rodri-
         guez doesn’t dispute that he actually murdered Tellez during the
         attack.
               Sufficient evidence also showed that Rodriguez’s motive for
         conspiring to murder South Side members and murdering Tellez
         was to “maintain[] or increas[e his] position in” Third Shift. See
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         52                    Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

         Alvarado-Linares, 44 F.4th at 1339 (quoting 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a)).
         “The government can establish the motive element” in section
         1959(a) “with evidence that the defendant committed the violent
         crime because he knew it was expected of him by reason of his
         membership in the gang or that he committed the violent crime in
         furtherance of that membership.” Dixon, 901 F.3d at 1342–43
         (cleaned up). “[E]vidence that ‘violence was a part of the group’s
         culture,’ ‘that the group expected its members to . . . engag[e] in
         violent acts,’ or that the defendant reported his actions to prove
         himself or ‘to brag’ supports the inference that the defendant ‘was
         motivated’ by his membership.” Id. at 1343 (citations omitted).
         “What matters is whether the [evidence] supports the inference
         that [the defendant], at the time of the murder[], was motivated to
         kill others in order to bolster his credibility as a member of the
         group.” United States v. Robertson, 736 F.3d 1317, 1331 (11th Cir.
         2013).
               Here, Rodriguez bragged to Cintron that he said “Fuck
         South Side” as he shot Tellez. And eight days after the murder,
         Rodriguez posted on social media that
               I play this game well I feel like its monopoly, except
               I’m grinding hard I don’t see nothing stopping me,
               tossin out that money like I’m some kind of slot ma-
               chine, keep ya eyes to yaself before u hear that choppa
               scream, 100 round drum and its fully loaded, take me as a
               joke but ima shoot it if I tote it.

         A few days later, Rodriguez updated his status: “It’s time to leave
         state cause [n-words] is gna make me go Rambo dog g shit.” Then,
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                        53

         after a friend told Rodriguez that someone had “snitched” on him,
         Rodriguez replied that he hated people “who act gangsta but they
         wna talk to police when gangsta shit goes down.” This reply fol-
         lowed a status update earlier the same day challenging people who
         “think they hard but wna talk to the police and snitch”: “I stay on
         11th street come my way with that p**** shit dog I know real crips
         that’ll check yaw ass.” And that wasn’t the only time Rodriguez
         publicly challenged a snitch; he also posted a status update declar-
         ing: “Facebook gangster right here [n-word] my adress is 5832 11th
         street east came fade”—meaning “come fight”—“if u want it [n-
         word] aint nobody scared [n-word] but believe me if u pull a gun
         im killing yo ass [n-word], fuck talking run up.”
                Rodriguez’s boast to Cintron that he yelled “Fuck South
         Side” during the attack, his social media posts bragging shortly after
         the attack—that he was “play[ing] th[e] game,” ready to “shoot” his
         “choppa,” and about to “go Rambo dog g shit”—and his exaspera-
         tion with people who only wanted to “act gangsta” allowed a rea-
         sonable jury to find that Rodriguez’s motive was to bolster his
         standing or credibility with Third Shift. See Dixon, 901 F.3d at 1342–
         43; Robertson, 736 F.3d at 1331.
                Rodriguez argues that the evidence was insufficient because
         the government didn’t prove Tellez was actually a rival gang mem-
         ber. But this argument fails—the government didn’t have to prove
         Tellez was a rival gang member to show Rodriguez violated sec-
         tion 1959(a).     Section 1959(a) prohibits “murder[ing],” or
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         54                    Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

         “conspir[ing]” to murder, “any individual” to promote one’s posi-
         tion in a racketeering enterprise. 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a) (emphasis
         added). There was sufficient evidence here that Rodriguez con-
         spired to murder South Side members and actually murdered
         Tellez—all to promote his position in Third Shift.
                     Use of a firearm during and in relation to a
                     crime of violence (count five—Rodriguez)
                On count five, the jury found that Rodriguez violated sec-
         tion 924(c)(1)(A) by using a firearm during and in relation to a
         crime of violence—the murder of Tellez as charged in count four.
         Rodriguez repeats the same argument he made for the other
         counts—that no reasonable jury could find he acted for the purpose
         of maintaining or increasing his position in an enterprise. That ar-
         gument fails for the same reasons we’ve already discussed.
          Use of a firearm during and in relation to drug trafficking crimes
                  and a crime of violence (count ten—Churchwell)
                 Count ten alleged that Churchwell violated sec-
         tion 924(c)(1)(A) by using a firearm during and in relation to the
         drug trafficking conspiracy alleged in count two, maintaining a
         drug distribution house as alleged in count twenty, and murdering
         Gardner in aid of racketeering as alleged in count nine. The jury
         declined to find that Churchwell used a firearm to murder Gardner
         in aid of racketeering. But it still found him guilty on count ten,
         finding that he used a firearm during and in relation to the drug
         trafficking conspiracy and maintaining the trap house—and that he
         caused Gardner’s death in the process. Churchwell argues that
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         20-10373                 Opinion of the Court                             55

         there was insufficient evidence that he committed either of the two
         predicate crimes. And he contends there was no evidence he used
         a firearm during and in relation to those crimes.
                As we explained above, the evidence was sufficient to con-
         vict Churchwell of conspiring to possess and sell drugs. And, as we
         explain later as to count twenty, the evidence was also sufficient to
         convict Churchwell of maintaining a drug distribution house.
         Thus, the only remaining question is whether a reasonable jury
         could find that Churchwell used a firearm during and in relation to
         the drug crimes alleged in counts two and twenty.
                 There was. Rodriguez always kept weapons in the trap
         house for other Third Shift members, like Churchwell, to “pick up”
         and “hold” to “protect [the] house.” The housekeeper, Brewer,
         testified that “whoever was in the[ trap house] usually had [Rodri-
         guez’s] guns on them,” and witnesses saw Churchwell armed with
         Rodriguez’s revolver the morning that he murdered Gardner at the
         trap house.
                  The “in relation to” element requires that the firearm “at
         least . . . facilitate, or have the potential of facilitating, the drug traf-
         ficking offense.” Smith v. United States, 508 U.S. 223, 237–38 (1993)
         (cleaned up) (explaining that “in relation to” is “expansive”). Here,
         a reasonable jury could find that Churchwell’s use of a firearm at
         least “facilitate[d]” or had “the potential of facilitating” the drug
         crimes. Id. Again, Rodriguez provided Third Shift members like
         Churchwell with guns to “protect [the] house,” and Cintron saw
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         56                        Opinion of the Court                      20-10373

         Churchwell selling crack and heroin there. Cf. United States v. No-
         vaton, 271 F.3d 968, 1013 (11th Cir. 2001) (reasoning that defend-
         ant’s use of weapon to protect drug distribution duplex was “in re-
         lation to” drug trafficking); United States v. Young, 131 F.3d 1437,
         1439 (11th Cir. 1997) (reasoning that loaded guns’ “close proximity
         to the drugs” supported a “relation to” drug trafficking). And just
         before Churchwell shot Gardner, he told Brewer he’d been arguing
         with Gardner about a drug sale. This evidence supports that
         Churchwell’s use of the gun at a drug distribution house was not
         merely “the result of accident or coincidence.” Smith, 508 U.S. at
         238.
                  Accessory after the fact (count twelve—Rodriguez)
               On count twelve, the jury found that Rodriguez was an ac-
         cessory after the fact to Churchwell’s (1) use of a firearm in further-
         ance of drug trafficking crimes and a crime of violence (count ten)
                                                                                 9
         and (2) possession of ammunition by a felon (count eleven). Ro-
         driguez argues that there was no evidence he knew that Church-
         well committed these offenses. Rodriguez also argues there was
         insufficient evidence that he “assisted Churchwell in order to hin-
         der or prevent [his] apprehension.” He contends that he “did not
         assist Churchwell in fleeing” and emphasizes that Churchwell was
         already in jail during the recorded calls.

         9
          Count twelve also charged Rodriguez with being an accessory to Gardner’s
         murder in aid of racketeering (count nine), but the jury found that the govern-
         ment didn’t prove this predicate.
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         20-10373                Opinion of the Court                         57

                 The accessory statute provides that “[w]hoever, knowing
         that an offense against the United States has been committed, re-
         ceives, relieves, comforts[,] or assists the offender in order to hinder
         or prevent his apprehension, trial[,] or punishment, is an accessory
         after the fact.” 18 U.S.C. § 3. To establish a section 3 violation, the
         government had to prove that Rodriguez knew that Churchwell
         committed a federal offense and, “with such knowledge[,] . . . ren-
         dered assistance in order to hinder or prevent [Churchwell’s] ap-
         prehension, trial[,] or punishment.” See United States v. Norton, 464
         F.2d 85, 86 (5th Cir. 1972).
                A reasonable jury could find Rodriguez knowingly assisted
         Churchwell’s use of a firearm in furtherance of drug trafficking
         crimes and a crime of violence (count ten). On the first element—
         knowledge—there was evidence that Rodriguez knew about
         Churchwell’s illegal use of a firearm in furtherance of the drug traf-
         ficking crimes. Churchwell was repeatedly at the trap house and
         sold drugs there; indeed, Churchwell got some of the drugs he sold
         from Rodriguez. And Rodriguez kept guns at the trap house for
         Third Shift members—like Churchwell—to handle and carry to
         protect the house. Earlier in the morning of the day that he mur-
         dered Gardner, Churchwell had Rodriguez’s revolver.
                 Rodriguez also knew Churchwell used a firearm to kill Gard-
         ner over a drug-related dispute at the trap house. Rodriguez was
         initially asleep when Gardner arrived, but Brewer sent someone to
         wake him up to “diffuse[]” the situation. Rodriguez then went out-
         side in front of the trap house. And while Rodriguez was standing
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         58                    Opinion of the Court                20-10373

         outside, Churchwell shot Gardner as she walked outside the trap
         house through the front door.
                As for the second element, there was sufficient evidence Ro-
         driguez “rendered assistance in order to hinder or prevent [Church-
         well’s] apprehension, trial[,] or punishment” for Churchwell’s drug
         crimes and murder. See Norton, 464 F.2d at 86. After Churchwell
         murdered Gardner, Rodriguez lied to investigators that he’d awak-
         ened to the sound of gunshots outside his house but didn’t know
         who the victim was and hadn’t seen the shooter. Then, when the
         police later interviewed Rodriguez about the murder, Rodriguez
         lied that he didn’t know Churchwell—even though he and Church-
         well had exchanged nineteen calls and several texts on the day of
         Gardner’s murder. A reasonable jury could conclude that Rodri-
         guez told these lies to assist Churchwell and hinder or prevent his
         apprehension. See id. at 85–86 (affirming defendant’s conviction as
         accessory after the fact to bank robbery where the defendant “lied
         to FBI agents as to the whereabouts of the robbers”).
                Also, following Churchwell’s arrest, Rodriguez assured
         Churchwell that his security-camera DVR “ain’t have nothing” on
         it and promised he’d figure out who was at the trap house the day
         of Gardner’s murder so that Churchwell’s private investigator
         could “verify” that Churchwell wasn’t there, “plain and simple.”
         When Churchwell praised Rodriguez for “show[ing] up for real”—
         telling Rodriguez that Churchwell was “ride or die about [him]
         now”—Rodriguez explained his motive for helping Churchwell.
         Rodriguez said “[he] be wanting [Churchwell] to get the fuck up
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         20-10373                Opinion of the Court                         59

         outta there.” Indeed, in a later call, Rodriguez assured Churchwell
         that he had taken care of the “three-wheeler”—which, as we’ve al-
         ready explained, a reasonable jury could infer meant the gun
         Churchwell had used to kill Gardner. Rodriguez’s promise to track
         down witnesses to provide false testimony about Churchwell’s
         whereabouts, Rodriguez’s statement that he “be wanting” to get
         Churchwell “the fuck up outta there,” and evidence that Rodriguez
         disposed of the murder weapon, was sufficient evidence that he
         tried to hinder or prevent Churchwell’s trial or punishment. See
         United States v. Bell, 819 F.3d 310, 323 (7th Cir. 2016) (affirming con-
         viction as accessory after the fact to murder where the defendant
         tried to dispose of the murder weapon and “made inconsistent and
         demonstrably false statements to investigators”).
                 A reasonable jury could separately find Rodriguez was an
         accessory after the fact to Churchwell’s possession of ammunition
         as a felon (count eleven). There was evidence that Rodriguez knew
         about Churchwell’s prohibited status. After Churchwell’s arrest,
         Rodriguez said, in a recorded jail call, that law enforcement sus-
         pected Churchwell of Gardner’s murder because Churchwell “al-
         ready got a previous charge.” Rodriguez also knew Churchwell
         possessed ammunition—again, Rodriguez kept guns at the house
         for Third Shift members to protect the trap house and he was at
         the house when Churchwell shot Gardner. And there was evi-
         dence that Rodriguez taught Third Shift members how to wipe
         bullets clean of their prints before loading them.
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         60                     Opinion of the Court                20-10373

                Rodriguez argues that he wasn’t an accessory after the fact
         to either of Churchwell’s crimes because Churchwell was already
         apprehended when the jail calls were made. This argument fails
         for two reasons.
                First, Rodriguez falsely told the police prior to Churchwell’s
         arrest that he didn’t see who shot Gardner. These statements—
         made before Churchwell’s apprehension—were made to hinder or
         prevent apprehension.
                 Second, Rodriguez’s reading of the accessory after the fact
         statute is too cramped. Section 3 doesn’t just prohibit assisting an
         offender to hinder or prevent an apprehension; it also prohibits as-
         sisting an offender to hinder or prevent “trial or punishment.” 18
         U.S.C. § 3. In helping Churchwell locate witnesses who could pro-
         vide false testimony about his whereabouts and disposing of the
         murder weapon, Rodriguez assisted Churchwell and hindered his
         trial and punishment. Because this assistance made Rodriguez an
         accessory after the fact to Churchwell’s crimes, we affirm his con-
         viction in count twelve.
               Accessory after the fact (count nineteen—Rodriguez)
                On count nineteen, the jury found that Rodriguez was an
         accessory after the fact to Thompson’s murders of Joseph and Ste-
         venson-Weeks in aid of racketeering (charged in counts fourteen
         and sixteen). Rodriguez argues that no reasonable juror could have
         found that he knew that Thompson had committed murder in aid
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         20-10373                    Opinion of the Court                               61

                            10
         of racketeering.        We conclude that the evidence was legally suffi-
         cient.
                Rodriguez doesn’t contest that Thompson murdered Joseph
         and Stevenson-Weeks, that the murders were in furtherance of
         racketeering, or that he aided Thompson to avoid his apprehension
         for these murders. He only challenges his knowledge of Thomp-
         son’s crime. But for two reasons, a reasonable jury could find be-
         yond a reasonable doubt that, in assisting Thompson, Rodriguez
         knew both that Thompson had murdered Joseph and Stevenson-
         Weeks and that he’d done so in aid of racketeering.
                 First, sufficient evidence established that Rodriguez knew
         Thompson had committed the murders when he helped Thomp-
         son conceal the crime. Thompson and Rodriguez spoke by phone
         eight times (and a ninth by text) that day, beginning within an hour
         of the murders. Rodriguez also drove Thompson back to Thomp-
         son’s house shortly after the murders.
                Also, Thompson told Stackhouse (another neighborhood
         drug dealer) that Dunton’s car’s window was pierced by a bullet
         during the shooting, so he “took it to a shop to get the window
         fixed.” Indeed, street camera footage taken a few minutes after the

         10
            Rodriguez also argues that no reasonable jury could have convicted him of
         aiding Thompson’s use of a firearm in furtherance of a drug trafficking crime
         and a crime of violence, or his possession of a firearm in violation of a domestic
         violence restraining order. But the jury specifically found that Rodriguez was
         guilty in count nineteen only for aiding Thompson’s murders of Joseph and
         Stevenson-Weeks.
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         62                     Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

         murders showed a bullet hole in the Pontiac’s windshield that
         wasn’t there before the shootings. Thompson testified that Rodri-
         guez told him where to get the windshield repaired. A few days
         after the murders, when the windshield was fixed, Rodriguez called
         and texted Thompson and Dunton to let them know the car was
         ready to be picked up. A reasonable jury could conclude from this
         evidence that Rodriguez knew about the bullet hole (and therefore
         the murders) and played a role in repairing the bullet hole to help
         Thompson avoid arrest for the murders.
                 Second, a reasonable jury could conclude beyond a reason-
         able doubt that Rodriguez knew Thompson had committed the
         murders in aid of racketeering. Rodriguez knew that Thompson—
         Rodriguez’s childhood “best friend[]” and “little do-boy,” who Ro-
         driguez “took care of . . . a lot”—was part of Third Shift’s conspir-
         acy to sell drugs and commit violent crimes. As a member of Third
         Shift, Thompson would “throw up the gang sign” and wear Third
         Shift’s black bandanna “flag.” Thompson was at the trap house
         about once a week, and he handled Rodriguez’s assault weapons
         while there.
               Rodriguez’s knowledge of Thompson’s involvement in
         Third Shift is key. In addition to selling drugs, murdering people
         to protect the trap house, and murdering rival gang members,
         Third Shift’s criminal activity included theft. Cintron testified that
         Third Shift members “regularly committed thefts”—including the
         robbery of a TV, cash, and a pistol, after which Rodriguez “threat-
         ened to slap the shit out of” Cintron’s sister for calling the police.
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         20-10373                Opinion of the Court                         63

         Both Maryha—Rodriguez’s sister and Thompson’s ex-girlfriend—
         and Dunton recalled Thompson bragging about committing rob-
         beries. And a police officer testified to seeing Thompson steal a
         bike.
                Because Rodriguez knew that Thompson was a member of
         Third Shift, and that Third Shift members committed robberies as
         part of their criminal activities, a jury could reasonably infer that
         Rodriguez knew that Thompson had murdered Joseph and Steven-
         son-Weeks to steal Joseph’s drugs—in other words, in furtherance
         of the racketeering enterprise. Thompson told Stackhouse that he
         went to see Joseph to rob him and came away from the murders
         with “dope and money.” The government elicited evidence that
         Joseph kept his drugs in a small black shaving kit. And when
         Thompson returned home from murdering Joseph and Stevenson-
         Weeks, he was carrying a dark-colored “men’s toiletry bag or razor
         bag” that contained powder cocaine, meth, and small baggies. A
         reasonable jury could infer that Rodriguez knew about the drugs
         Thompson stole from Joseph because of their friendship, because
         of Rodriguez’s knowledge of other robberies committed by Third
         Shift members, because of their multiple conversations after the
         murder, and—mostly importantly—because Thompson would’ve
         had Joseph’s toiletry bag, containing Joseph’s drugs, in his posses-
         sion when Rodriguez drove him home after the murders.
                In sum, a reasonable jury could infer that Rodriguez knew
         that Thompson had murdered Joseph and Stevenson-Weeks in aid
         of Third Shift’s drug distribution, theft, and violent-crime activities.
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         64                     Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

         Because sufficient evidence established that Rodriguez was an ac-
         cessory after the fact to Thompson’s murder of Joseph and Steven-
         son-Weeks in aid of racketeering, we have no basis to disturb his
         conviction in count nineteen.
                    Maintaining a drug distribution house (count
                       twenty—Rodriguez and Churchwell)
                On the final count—count twenty—the jury found that Ro-
         driguez and Churchwell aided and abetted the use and mainte-
         nance of a place for the purpose of manufacturing and distributing
         controlled substances, in violation of 18 U.S.C. section 2 and
         21 U.S.C. sections 856(a)(1) and 856(b). Section 856(a)(1) makes it
         unlawful to “knowingly open, lease, rent, use, or maintain any
         place, whether permanently or temporarily, for the purpose of
         manufacturing, distributing, or using any controlled substance.”
         21 U.S.C. § 856(a)(1).
                A section 856(a)(1) prosecution requires the government to
         prove “that the defendant (1) knowingly, (2) operated or main-
         tained a place, (3) for the purpose of manufacturing, distributing,
         or using any controlled substance.” Clavis, 956 F.2d at 1090. “Acts
         evidencing such matters as control, duration, acquisition of the site,
         renting or furnishing the site, repairing the site, supervising, pro-
         tecting, supplying food to those at the site, and continuity are . . .
         evidence of knowingly maintaining the place[,] considered alone or
         in combination with evidence of distributing [controlled sub-
         stances] from that place.” Id. at 1091.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                       65

            1. Rodriguez
                Rodriguez argues that the trap house was maintained by an-
         other drug dealer—J.R.—and by Brewer at the direction of J.R., ra-
         ther than by him. He contends that the government’s theory that
         he maintained the trap house “for J.R.” was outside the scope of
         the indictment. We disagree.
                Rodriguez lived at the trap house and paid rent and utilities
         there. Brewer testified that J.R. “put[] his man” Rodriguez “in
         charge” of the trap house and instructed her to “deal with [Rodri-
         guez] and help him make some money.” And Rodriguez took steps
         to protect the trap house—and the drugs and money it contained—
         by locking the refrigerator, bringing Brewer in to clean up after the
         drug users, setting up security cameras, and supplying numerous
         firearms for Third Shift members to use. We have no difficulty
         concluding that paying rent and utilities at the house, “supervising”
         its operations, and “protecting” the trap house by installing locks
         and cameras, retaining a housekeeper, and providing weaponry to
         other gang members constitute “maintaining” the trap house un-
         der section 856(a)(1). See id.
                Moreover, we consider evidence that the defendant know-
         ingly maintained the premises “in combination with evidence of
         distributing [controlled substances] from that place.” Id. There
         was ample evidence that Rodriguez distributed drugs from the trap
         house. Rodriguez kept drugs in a backpack in his bedroom, and he
         sold “[a]nything that you needed”—crack and powder cocaine, ma-
         rijuana, heroin, pills—from the trap house “every day.” According
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         66                       Opinion of the Court                 20-10373

         to Brewer, it was “[m]ostly” Rodriguez who sold the drugs from
         the trap house. Cintron bought from him a few times a week,
         Maryha, Dunton, and Brandi Simon bought from him too, and
         Couch estimated that he’d bought marijuana from Rodriguez at
         the trap house “[m]ore than probably like a hundred times.”
                In short, a reasonable jury could conclude that Rodriguez
         knowingly maintained the trap house for purposes of drug distri-
         bution. Even if another drug dealer (J.R.) initially placed Rodriguez
         in charge of the trap house, Rodriguez nevertheless maintained it
         by paying rent and utilities, supervising it, defending it, and selling
         drugs out of it. See id.
              2. Churchwell
                Churchwell argues that there was insufficient evidence that
         he aided and abetted the maintenance of the trap house.
                 To prove that Churchwell aided and abetted maintenance
         of the trap house, the government had to show that he: (1) took
         “an affirmative act in furtherance of th[e] offense,” and (2) did so
         “with the intent of facilitating the offense’s commission.” United
         States v. Coats, 8 F.4th 1228, 1248 (11th Cir. 2021) (citation omitted).
         That standard is satisfied here. Churchwell wasn’t a casual visitor
         to Rodriguez’s house; he was a knowing participant in maintaining
         Third Shift’s trap house.
                 The evidence showed that Churchwell “would hang out and
         try to sell” crack and heroin at the trap house. His sale of drugs to
         Gardner at the trap house set in motion the events that led to her
         death. Thus, Churchwell was well aware that the purpose of the
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                         67

         trap house was drug distribution and he participated in that distri-
         bution.
                And Churchwell aided the maintenance of the trap house.
         Rodriguez stored weapons in the trap house and allowed other
         Third Shift members, like Churchwell, to “pick up” and “hold” the
         guns to “protect [the] house.” Brewer testified that Third Shift
         members at the trap house “usually” had guns on them, and
         Churchwell’s murder of Gardner confirmed that Churchwell was
         armed when he sold drugs at the trap house. Because Churchwell
         sold drugs at the trap house and handled guns provided by Rodri-
         guez for the protection of the trap house, a reasonable jury could
         conclude that Churchwell aided and abetted the maintenance of
         the trap house for purposes of selling controlled substances. See id.
                                    *      *       *
                In sum, sufficient evidence supported Rodriguez’s, Church-
         well’s, and Thompson’s convictions. We turn now to their argu-
         ments challenging various other trial matters.
                       Deputy Taylor’s testimony about Thompson

                Thompson argues that Deputy Taylor improperly com-
         mented on his Fifth Amendment right to silence by testifying that
         Thompson “didn’t want to talk to” the police. When Thompson
         raised a rule 403 objection before the government called Deputy
         Taylor, the district court ruled that it would “take [the issue] on the
         fly.” Then, when Thompson objected on rule 403 grounds again
         during Deputy Taylor’s testimony, the district court overruled
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         68                      Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

         Thompson’s objection “for now.” But Thompson never raised a
         Fifth Amendment objection at any point before or during trial.
         And he didn’t argue, in asserting his rule 403 objections, that Dep-
         uty Taylor’s anticipated response would comment on his right to
         silence.
                 A defendant must “clearly state the grounds for an objection
         in the district court.” United States v. Zinn, 321 F.3d 1084, 1087 (11th
         Cir. 2003). The objection must be “sufficient to apprise the trial
         court and the opposing party of the particular grounds upon which
         appellate relief will later be sought.” United States v. Straub, 508
         F.3d 1003, 1011 (11th Cir. 2007) (citation omitted). And so, “[t]o
         preserve an issue for appeal, a general objection or an objection on
         other grounds will not suffice.” United States v. Gallo-Chamorro, 48
         F.3d 502, 507 (11th Cir. 1995) (citation omitted). Thompson, at
         best, preserved a rule 403 objection at trial but now seeks to bring
         a constitutional claim on appeal. Because raising one objection
         does not preserve a completely separate objection for appeal, see
         id., we review Thompson’s unpreserved Fifth Amendment objec-
         tion for plain error. That means Thompson must show that the
         district court made an error, that the error was plain, and that it
         affected his substantial rights. United States v. Rodriguez, 398 F.3d
         1291, 1298 (11th Cir. 2005).
                Thompson failed to establish error, let alone plain error, be-
         cause he failed to establish that his silence occurred in a custodial
         setting. We have said that “a defendant’s silence in response to a
         question in a non-custodial interview by a law-enforcement officer
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         [i]s admissible as substantive evidence of his guilt” where “the de-
         fendant did not ‘expressly invoke the privilege against self-incrimi-
         nation in response to the officer’s question.’” United States v. Wilch-
         combe, 838 F.3d 1179, 1191 (11th Cir. 2016) (quoting Salinas v. Texas,
         570 U.S. 178, 181 (2013)). We’ve also said that “[t]he government
         may comment on a defendant’s silence if it occurred prior to the
         time that he is arrested and given his Miranda warnings.” United
         States v. Rivera, 944 F.2d 1563, 1568 (11th Cir. 1991).
               Here, there was no indication from Deputy Taylor’s testi-
         mony that Thompson’s refusal to talk was in response to a question
         during a custodial interview or after his arrest. Rather, Deputy
         Taylor testified that he didn’t arrest Thompson “for any of []his be-
         havior.” Because the record establishes that Thompson wasn’t
         subjected to a custodial interview when he refused to talk to Dep-
         uty Taylor, the district court didn’t plainly err in allowing the gov-
         ernment to elicit this testimony. See id.; Wilchcombe, 838 F.3d at
         1191.
                  The jury instruction for count twenty—maintaining a
                                 drug distribution house

                 Churchwell argues that the district court plainly erred by
         failing to instruct the jury on the elements of count twenty, main-
         taining a drug distribution house. This error violated his due pro-
         cess right to have the jury instructed on the elements, Churchwell
         argues, and wasn’t cured by the instruction in count one, which
         provided the elements of maintaining a drug distribution house as
         a predicate act for the racketeering-conspiracy charge. Because
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         70                      Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

         Churchwell didn’t raise this argument before the district court, we
         also review it for plain error.
                 “When we apply the plain error rule to jury instructions,
         we . . . consider the totality of the charge as a whole and determine
         whether the potential harm caused by the jury charge has been
         neutralized by the other instructions given at the trial such that rea-
         sonable jurors would not have been misled by the error.” United
         States v. Iriele, 977 F.3d 1155, 1178 (11th Cir. 2020) (cleaned up).
         “Jury instructions will not be reversed for plain error unless the
         charge, considered as a whole, is so clearly erroneous as to result
         in a likelihood of a grave miscarriage of justice.” United States v.
         Pepe, 747 F.2d 632, 675 (11th Cir. 1984) (citation and quotation
         marks omitted). “If another instruction the court gave neutralized
         the error, then it was not an error at all, let alone a reversible plain
         error,” “because the charge as a whole d[id] not misinform the jury
         or prejudice the defendant.” Iriele, 977 F.3d at 1178 & n.12 (citation
         omitted).
                We conclude that the district court didn’t err in instructing
         the jury on the elements of maintaining a drug distribution house.
         In the racketeering-conspiracy instruction, the district court listed
         the maintenance offense as a predicate racketeering act and pro-
         vided the offense’s elements. Then, before “address[ing] the
         counts of the superseding indictment that charge[d] crimes other
         than racketeering conspiracy,” the district court informed the jury
         that “[s]ome of these crimes [we]re also charged as racketeering
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         20-10373                Opinion of the Court                         71

         acts, which [the district court] explained above.” Finally, in the sep-
         arate instruction for count twenty, the district court told the jury
         to refer back to its predicate-act instruction to determine whether
         Churchwell was guilty of maintaining a drug distribution house.
                 The district court’s approach to the jury instructions—refer-
         ring back to other instructions to avoid duplication, and twice ex-
         plicitly signaling to the jury (once generally before starting the non-
         racketeering-conspiracy instructions, and again during the count-
         twenty instruction) that some charged crimes had been “explained
         above” or “previously instructed”—was not “so clearly erroneous
         as to result in a likelihood of a grave miscarriage of justice.” See
         Pepe, 747 F.2d at 675. Nothing in the law required the district court
         to repeat itself. To the contrary, “district courts have wide discre-
         tion in the phrasing of instructions.” United States v. Akwuba, 7
         F.4th 1299, 1312 (11th Cir. 2021). And the district court told the
         jury to “follow all of [its] instructions as a whole.” [Id. at 2] “[W]e
         presume that the jury followed its instructions.” See United States
         v. Stone, 9 F.3d 934, 940 (11th Cir. 1993). Because the district court’s
         instructions for counts one and twenty, taken together, accurately
         instructed the jury on the elements of maintaining a drug distribu-
         tion house, we conclude that there “was not an error at all, let alone
         a reversible plain error.” Iriele, 977 F.3d at 1178.
                    The justifiable use of deadly force jury instruction

                The racketeering charges against Rodriguez in counts one,
         three, and four alleged that he conspired to murder, and did in fact
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         72                     Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

         murder, Tellez, in violation of Florida Statutes section 782.04. Ro-
         driguez contends that the district court abused its discretion in fail-
         ing to instruct the jury on the justifiable use of deadly force, his
         affirmative defense to Tellez’s murder. He argues his proposed in-
         struction was correct and Florida’s self-defense law didn’t require
         that a “duty to retreat instruction be given” where “there was no
         duty on the part of Rodriguez to retreat from his own car or from
         a public street.”
                 “A criminal defendant has the right to a jury instruction on
         a proposed theory of defense, provided it is a valid defense and
         there is some evidence at trial to support the instruction.” United
         States v. Lanzon, 639 F.3d 1293, 1302 (11th Cir. 2011) (citation omit-
         ted). “We consider three factors when determining whether the
         district court’s refusal to give a requested jury instruction warrants
         reversal: ‘(1) whether the requested instruction is a substantially
         correct statement of the law; (2) whether the jury charge given ad-
         dressed the requested instruction; and (3) whether the failure to
         give the requested instruction seriously impaired the defendant’s
         ability to present an effective defense.’” United States v. Hill, 799
         F.3d 1318, 1320 (11th Cir. 2015) (citation omitted). We conclude
         that Rodriguez’s proposed instruction was not a substantially cor-
         rect statement of Florida law.
               Under Florida common law, “a person [could] not resort to
         deadly force without first using every reasonable means within his
         or her power to avoid the danger, including retreat,” even if the
         person “reasonably believe[d] that deadly force [wa]s necessary”
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         20-10373                Opinion of the Court                         73

         for self-defense. Weiand v. State, 732 So. 2d 1044, 1049 (Fla. 1999)
         (citations omitted). But the Florida Legislature modified the com-
         mon law rule by enacting Florida Statutes section 776.012(2). Sec-
         tion 776.012(2) codifies justifiable use of deadly force as an affirma-
         tive defense to murder. Fla. Stat. § 776.012(2) (“A person is justified
         in using or threatening to use deadly force if he or she reasonably
         believes that using or threatening to use such force is necessary to
         prevent imminent death or great bodily harm to himself or herself
         or another or to prevent the imminent commission of a forcible
         felony.”). And it “suspends the common[ ]law duty to retreat . . .
         in limited, defined circumstances.” State v. Wagner, 353 So. 3d 94,
         101 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2022).
                 Specifically, under section 776.012(2), a person who “us[es]
         or threaten[s] to use . . . deadly force” in reasonable self-defense has
         no duty to retreat “if the person . . . is not engaged in a criminal
         activity and is in a place where he or she has a right to be.” Fla.
         Stat. § 776.012(2). But if the person who uses, or threatens to use,
         deadly force is engaged in criminal activity when attacked, the
         common law duty to retreat still applies. See State v. Kirkland, 276
         So. 3d 994, 997 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2019) (holding that trial court
         erred in dismissing defendant’s charge for shooting at a building
         because, although “he was in a place he had a right to be,” the de-
         fendant “was engaged in [uncharged] illegal activity,” specifically
         “open carry of a firearm,” Fla. Stat. § 790.053(1), “improper exhibi-
         tion of a firearm,” id. § 790.10, and “aggravated assault with a fire-
         arm,” id. § 784.021(1)(a)).
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         74                      Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

                Consistent with section 776.012(2), the standard Florida jury
         instruction governing the justifiable use of deadly force provides
         that a trial court should “[g]ive the paragraph below when there is
         evidence that the defendant was engaged in criminal activity”:
                If (defendant) was otherwise engaged in criminal ac-
                tivity or was not in a place he had a right to be, then
                the use of deadly force was not justiﬁed unless he
                used every reasonable means within his power and
                consistent with his own safety to avoid the danger be-
                fore resorting to the use of deadly force. The fact that
                the defendant was wrongfully attacked cannot justify
                his use of deadly force, if, by retreating, he could have
                avoided the need to use deadly force. However, if (de-
                fendant) was placed in a position of imminent danger
                of death or great bodily harm and it would have in-
                creased his own danger to retreat, then his use of
                deadly force was justiﬁable.

         Fla. Standard Instr. (Crim.) 3.6(f) (cleaned up) (citing Morgan v.
         State, 127 So. 3d 708 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2013)); see also Morgan, 127
         So. 3d at 716 (“[T]he ‘no duty to retreat’ rule,” as originally codified
         in Florida Statutes section 776.013(3), “applies only when a person
         ‘is not engaged in an unlawful activity.’” (citation omitted)).
                Here, there was evidence that Rodriguez was “engaged in”
         multiple “criminal activit[ies]” when he sprayed Tellez’s house
         with bullets during a retaliatory drive-by shooting. Fla. Stat.
         § 776.012(2). Rodriguez, along with other Third Shift members,
         devised an elaborate plan to kill South Side gang members. Cf. id.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                         75

         § 777.04(3) (“A person who agrees . . . [or] combines . . . with an-
         other person . . . to commit any offense commits the offense of
         criminal conspiracy . . . .”). Rodriguez doesn’t dispute that he “dis-
         charge[d] a firearm . . on . . . a[] paved public road”—a crime un-
         der Florida law—when executing that plan. Id. § 790.15(1). [Ro-
         driguez Br. at 51–52] There was also evidence that Rodriguez was
         “shoot[ing] at” persons from a car and toward a “private building”
         (Tellez’s house)—separate crimes under Florida law. Id. § 790.19;
         see also id. § 790.10 (exhibiting a firearm “in the presence of one or
         more persons . . . in a . . . threatening manner” is a crime); id.
         § 790.15(2) (firing a gun while an “occupant of any vehicle” and
         “within 1,000 feet of any person” is a crime); id. § 790.07(1) (using
         or attempting to use “any weapon” “while committing or attempt-
         ing to commit any felony” is itself a felony); cf. Kirkland, 276 So. 3d
         at 997 (reasoning that similar firearms offenses qualified as “crimi-
         nal activity”).
                 If the jury found that Rodriguez was engaged in criminal ac-
         tivity, then section 776.012(2)’s limited suspension of the common
         law duty-to-retreat rule could not apply even if Rodriguez had a
         right to be on the public road. See Kirkland, 276 So. 3d at 997; Mor-
         gan, 127 So. 3d at 716. That would mean Rodriguez’s use of deadly
         force was justified only if he “first us[ed] every reasonable means
         within his . . . power to avoid the danger, including retreat,” even if
         he “reasonably believe[d] that deadly force [wa]s necessary” for his
         self-defense. Weiand, 732 So. 2d at 1049; see also Fla. Standard Instr.
         (Crim.) 3.6(f). But Rodriguez’s proposed self-defense instruction
         didn’t tell the jury to consider whether he was engaged in criminal
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         76                     Opinion of the Court                    20-10373

         activity, so it would’ve allowed the jury to find justification with-
         out considering whether he could have first retreated.
                 That omission made Rodriguez’s proposed instruction “in-
         complete” and “misleading.” See United States v. Silverman, 745 F.2d
         1386, 1396 (11th Cir. 1984) (explaining that a district court “is
         bound to refuse a requested instruction that is incomplete, errone-
         ous, or misleading”). And, because his proposed instruction was
         misleading and incomplete, the district court didn’t abuse its dis-
         cretion in refusing to give Rodriguez’s self-defense instruction un-
         less it also told the jury to consider whether Rodriguez was en-
         gaged in criminal activity (an offer Rodriguez rejected).
                    The jury’s question about the racketeering charge

                Rodriguez argues that the district court erred in answering
         the jury’s question about whether it could find a defendant guilty
         of murder if he were found not guilty of racketeering. Rodriguez
         argues that the district court should have instructed the jury con-
         sistent with the government’s position: that the jury could have
         found the section 1111 murder enhancement to the section 924(c)
         charge without “determin[ing] that the perpetrator was also a part
         of a racketeering organization.” We conclude that Rodriguez in-
         vited any error.
                Again, “[w]here a party invites error,” we are “precluded
         from reviewing that error on appeal.” United States v. Harris, 443
         F.3d 822, 823–24 (11th Cir. 2006) (citation omitted). “[F]ailing to
         object does not trigger the doctrine,” United States v. Dortch, 696
         F.3d 1104, 1112 (11th Cir. 2012), overruled in part on other grounds by
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         Alleyne v. United States, 570 U.S. 99 (2013), but “when a party agrees
         with a court’s proposed instructions, the doctrine of invited error
         applies, meaning that review is waived,” United States v. Frank, 599
         F.3d 1221, 1240 (11th Cir. 2010).
                 Here, Rodriguez didn’t initially adopt the government’s po-
         sition on answering the jury’s question, and he didn’t object to the
         district court’s answer. Two days later, Rodriguez moved to adopt
         the government’s position that “a defendant can be found guilty of
         murder without the finding of racketeering.” But he changed his
         mind the next day, withdrew his motion adopting the govern-
         ment’s position, and, critically, “concede[d] that the [district
         court’s] response to the jury’s question [wa]s correct.”
                 Because Rodriguez ultimately agreed with the district
         court’s instruction, the invited error doctrine applies and precludes
         our review of the district court’s response to the jury’s question.
         Id.; United States v. Feldman, 931 F.3d 1245, 1260 (11th Cir. 2019)
         (“Under our precedent, when a party agrees with a court’s pro-
         posed instructions, the doctrine of invited error applies, meaning
         that review is waived even if plain error would result.” (cleaned
         up)); United States v. Silvestri, 409 F.3d 1311, 1337 (11th Cir. 2005)
         (“When a party responds to a court’s proposed jury instructions
         with the words ‘the instruction is acceptable to us,’ such action con-
         stitutes invited error.” (citation omitted)); accord United States v. Ful-
         ford, 267 F.3d 1241, 1246–47 (11th Cir. 2001).
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         78                      Opinion of the Court                  20-10373

              The district court’s comment on Rodriguez’s counsel’s strategy

                Finally, Rodriguez argues that the district court abused its
         discretion by commenting in his presence on his counsel’s motion
         to adopt the government’s position regarding the jury question.
         Rodriguez argues that the district court’s comments left him “ques-
         tioning his attorney’s allegiance,” “adversely impacted” the attor-
         ney-client relationship by suggesting his counsel was ineffective,
         and “eroded” his confidence in his attorney. Because Rodriguez
         didn’t object to the district court’s comment, we again review for
         plain error. See Rodriguez, 398 F.3d at 1298.
                The district court’s isolated questioning of a strategic choice
         that Rodriguez’s counsel later abandoned wasn’t plain error be-
         cause it didn’t affect Rodriguez’s substantial rights. See id. at 1299.
         To show the comments affected his substantial rights, Rodriguez
         had to “show a ‘reasonable probability’ that the error affected the
         outcome of the district court proceedings.” Iriele, 977 F.3d at 1177
         (quoting Rodriguez, 398 F.3d at 1299). But Rodriguez hasn’t shown
         any reasonable probability that the district court’s comments af-
         fected the outcome. The district court’s comments came during
         deliberations and after the jury had heard all of the evidence and
         argument in the case. Because the district court’s comments
         weren’t made in the jury’s presence, they couldn’t have led the jury
         to conclude that the district court favored the government or dis-
         favored Rodriguez and his counsel.
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         20-10373               Opinion of the Court                       79

                                   CONCLUSION

                 The evidence against Rodriguez, Churchwell, and Thomp-
         son was legally sufficient. The district court didn’t plainly err in
         allowing Deputy Taylor to comment on Thompson’s behavior
         during their encounters. Nor did it plainly err in instructing the
         jury as to maintaining a drug distribution house. And we find no
         reversible error in the district court’s refusal to give Rodriguez’s
         proposed justifiable use of deadly force instruction, in its response
         to the jury’s question, or in its comments on Rodriguez’s trial coun-
         sel’s strategy. Because there is no reversible error, we affirm the
         defendants’ convictions.
               AFFIRMED.