Court Opinion

ID: 9585095
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-21 22:56:05.138275+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T15:27:40.104615
License: Public Domain

LEVINSON, Judge
dissenting in part and concurring in part.
I concur with the majority’s application of a gross negligence standard to the facts of this case, and with its upholding of the trial court’s dismissal of plaintiff’s claim of simple negligence. However, I believe there are genuine issues of material fact regarding plaintiff’s claim of gross negligence, and dissent from the majority opinion’s reversal of the trial court’s denial of defendant’s motion for summary judgment on that claim. I also dissent from the majority’s holding that plaintiff’s constitutional claim and her claim for obstruction of justice are moot. I would uphold the trial court’s denial of defendants’ summary judgment motion as to obstruction of justice, and reverse for entry of summary judgment for defendants on plaintiff’s claim of violation of her rights to due process and equal protection under N.C. Const, art. 1, § 19. Additionally, I believe that defendants are entitled to assert sovereign immunity at trial, to the extent that they have not waived immunity by the purchase of liability insurance.
The majority concludes the record evidence raises no genuine issues of material fact as to whether defendant Kelly was grossly negligent. I respectfully disagree. “Summary judgment is a drastic measure, and should be approached cautiously.” Neill Grading & Constr. Co. v. Lingafelt, 168 N.C. App. 36, 48, 606 S.E.2d 734, 742 (2005) (citation omitted). “In ruling on a motion for summary judgment, a trial court may not resolve issues of fact and must deny the motion if there is a genuine issue as to any material fact.” RD&J Properties v. Lauralea-Dilton Enters., LLC, 165 N.C. App. 737, 742, 600 S.E.2d 492, 497 (2004) (citation omitted). Thus, “[s]ummary judgment is not appropriate where matters of credibility and determining the weight *444of the evidence exist.” Lee v. R & K Marine, Inc., 165 N.C. App. 525, 527, 598 S.E.2d 683, 684 (2004).
In the instant case, the question is whether the evidence raises any genuine issue of material fact on the issue of gross negligence. Regarding gross negligence by a law enforcement officer, this Court has held:
An officer ‘must conduct a balancing test, weighing the interests of justice in apprehending the fleeing suspect with the interests of the public in not being subjected to unreasonable risks of injury.’ ‘Gross negligence’ occurs when an officer consciously or recklessly disregards an unreasonably high probability of injury to the public despite the absence of significant countervailing law enforcement benefits.
Eckard v. Smith, 166 N.C. App. 312, 319, 603 S.E.2d 134, 139 (2004) (quoting Parish v. Hill, 350 N.C. 231, 236, 513 S.E.2d 547, 550 (1999)) (emphasis added).
Viewed, as it must be, in the light most favorable to the plaintiff, the record evidence would allow a jury to find that: (1) Kelly was not pursuing an escaping felon, but was responding to Officer Fox’s call for assistance with a situation whose nature Kelly knew nothing about; (2) Kelly knew other officers had also responded to the call for backup, so that Officer Fox was not solely dependent on his aid; (3) Kelly was familiar with the street where the accident occurred, and knew it was a densely populated urban area; (4) as Kelly approached the accident site he was driving between 50 and 74 mph, and did not have his blue light and siren activated; (5) Kelly knew that the intersection of Liberty and Elizabeth Streets had been the site of several previous accidents, and that there were “people hanging out” there; (6) Kelly knew from previous experience that the safest maximum speed on the relevant stretch of Liberty Street was 45 mph; (7) Kelly did not apply his brakes when he saw plaintiff in his way; (8) Kelly lost control of his vehicle and struck plaintiff with such force that she suffered serious injuries; and (9) Kelly’s failure to drive at a safe speed for road conditions was a violation of the Basic Law Enforcement Training manual. I conclude that this evidence, if believed by the jury, tended to show a “high probability of injury to the public despite the absence of significant countervailing law enforcement benefits,” id., and thus raises a genuine issue of material fact on the question of gross negligence. Accordingly, I believe the trial court correctly denied defendants’ motion for summary judg*445ment on plaintiff’s claim for damages based on Kelly’s alleged gross negligence, and would submit the case to a jury.
Plaintiff also brought a claim for obstruction of public justice. “Obstruction of justice is a common law offense in North Carolina.” In re Kivett, 309 N.C. 635, 670, 309 S.E.2d 442, 462 (1983). “It is an offense to do any act which prevents, obstructs, impedes or hinders public or legal justice.” Broughton v. McClatchy Newspapers, Inc., 161 N.C. App. 20, 33, 588 S.E.2d 20, 30 (2003) (citing Burgess v. Busby, 142 N.C. App. 393, 408-09, 544 S.E.2d 4, 12 (2001)). In the instant case, the evidence would allow a jury to conclude that a camera in Kelly’s police car had made a videotape recording of the accident, and that the videotape was subsequently misplaced or destroyed. I would affirm the trial court’s denial of defendants’ motion for summary judgment on this claim.
The majority concludes that, upon dismissal of plaintiff’s underlying negligence claims, her constitutional claim is moot. However, as I would vote to allow plaintiff’s underlying claims to proceed for trial, I also address plaintiff’s constitutional claim.
Plaintiff’s complaint alleges that defendant City of Durham (the City) violated her rights under N.C. Const, art. I, § 19 “by their assertion of the defense of governmental immunity to the Plaintiff’s first two claims for relief in this civil action.” She also contends that the City’s “assertion of governmental immunity as a legal defense to the Plaintiff’s first two claims for relief constitutes an unreasonable, arbitrary, and capricious governmental action.” I disagree, and would vote to reverse the trial court and remand for entry of summary judgment in favor of defendants on plaintiff’s constitutional claim. I reach this conclusion for several reasons.
Preliminarily, it is important to note that the trial court’s order mistakenly characterizes plaintiff’s suit as presenting a challenge to the facial constitutionality of the City’s practices for handling claims against it. Plaintiff’s complaint is strictly limited to allegations that defendants violated her state constitutional rights by asserting sovereign immunity “in this cause” as a defense to “Plaintiff’s first two claims.” Thus, plaintiff challenges the manner in which the city’s policies have been applied to her, rather than making the separate and distinct claim that the City’s customs are facially unconstitutional. See Maines v. City of Greensboro, 300 N.C. 126, 130, 265 S.E.2d 155, 158 (1980) (discussing the two types of claims where plaintiff “first contends that the ordinance is unconstitutional on its face . . . alter*446native [ly], plaintiff argues that the ordinance is unconstitutional as applied”). However, the trial court’s order repeatedly refers to plaintiffs having brought claims against the city’s assertion of sovereign immunity “in this and other cases.” This is an erroneous characterization of plaintiff’s complaint, which properly should be analyzed as a challenge to the City’s policies for handling claims,’as the policies have been applied to her.
I conclude that plaintiff failed to present evidence raising a genuine issue of material fact on her constitutional claim. The core of plaintiff’s argument is her allegation that the City has a policy or practice of “waiving” sovereign immunity in some cases but not in others. She further alleges that the City’s determination of when to “waive sovereign immunity” resides in the “unbridled discretion” of certain city employees, and that the City’s waiver of sovereign immunity for certain “similarly situated” claimants violates her rights to due process and equal protection. Plaintiff’s argument rests on the erroneous premise that the City has a practice of selectively “waiving” the defense of sovereign immunity. The uncontradicted record evidence establishes that claims against the City are never denied on the basis of sovereign immunity, and that claims are paid or denied on the basis of their legal merits, based on evaluation of whether (1) the claimant asserts a legally cognizable cause of action; (2) investigation shows the claim to be meritorious; and (3) the damages have been documented. Plaintiff presents no evidence that defendant ever denies a claim based on sovereign immunity. However, if sued by a claimant, the City always raises the defense of sovereign immunity when appropriate. Thus, the City never denies claims based on sovereign immunity, but always asserts the defense if it is sued. Accordingly, there is no evidence that defendants have a practice of “selectively waiving” this defense.
Nor does the City’s practice of executing settlement contracts with certain claimants constitute a waiver of sovereign immunity in those cases. “ ‘Whether denominated accord and satisfaction or compromise and settlement, the executed agreement terminating or purporting to terminate a controversy is a contract, to be interpreted and tested by established rules relating to contracts.’ ” Bolton Corp. v. T. A. Loving Co., 317 N.C. 623, 628, 347 S.E.2d 369, 372 (1986) (quoting Casualty Co. v. Teer Co., 250 N.C. 547, 550, 109 S.E.2d 171, 173 (1959)). The representative settlement form in the record makes no mention of sovereign immunity or of a waiver of that or any other defense. Further, it specifically states that:
*447This release expresses a full and complete settlement of a liability claimed and denied, . . . and the acceptance of this release shall not operate as an admission of liability on the part of anyone nor as an estoppel, waiver, or bar with respect to any claim the party or parties released may have against the undersigned.
(emphasis added). Thus, should a tort claimant violate the settlement agreement by suing the City after executing the settlement contract, the City would be entitled to raise any applicable defense, including satisfaction and accord, or sovereign immunity. Plaintiff presents no evidence that the City ever executed a settlement contract waiving the right to assert sovereign immunity in the event that the claimant tried to sue the City after executing the settlement contract.
Moreover, even if we assume, arguendo, that the City has waived sovereign immunity in certain cases, plaintiff has not presented evidence that the City’s practices violated her due process or equal protection rights under the State constitution. “ ‘[T]he touchstone of due process is protection of the individual against arbitrary action of government,’ . . . Arbitrary and capricious acts by government are also prohibited under the Equal Protection Clauses of the United States and the North Carolina Constitutions.” Dobrowolska v. Wall, 138 N.C. App. 1, 14, 530 S.E.2d 590, 599 (2000). Further:
The equal protection ‘principle requires that all persons similarly situated be treated alike.’ Accordingly, to state an equal protection claim, a claimant must allege (1) the government (2) arbitrarily (3) treated them differently (4) than those similarly situated.
Lea v. Grier, 156 N.C. App. 503, 509, 577 S.E.2d 411, 416 (2003) (quoting Dobrowolska, id.). In another case challenging a city’s exercise of discretion, Maines v. City of Greensboro, 300 N.C. 126, 131-32, 265 S.E.2d 155, 158-59 (1980), the North Carolina Supreme Court held that:
[A]n ordinance which vests unlimited or unregulated discretion in a municipal officer is void. ... On the other hand, actions of public officials are presumed to be regular and done in good faith[,] and the burden is on the challenger to show that the actions as to him were unequal when compared to persons similarly situated. The initial question then is whether plaintiff has met his burden of showing that he received treatment different from others similarly situated.
*448In the instant case, plaintiff has failed to show either that (1) similarly situated claimants are not treated equally, or that (2) the determination not to waive sovereign immunity in her case was arbitrary and capricious.
Plaintiff has not shown she was treated differently from “similarly situated” claimants. She has assembled a long list of claimants from a given time period. However, she articulates no “similarity” between her case and those of claimants receiving settlements, other than having brought a claim, which may or may not involve a law enforcement officer, against the City of Durham. There is no information about the relative merits of claims, the similarity or differences in claimant’s background, or other information that would enable us to conclude that plaintiff had been treated differently from similar claimants.
Nor does the evidence raise an issue of fact regarding whether the city’s decision not to settle her particular claim was arbitrary and capricious. “Not every deprivation of liberty or property constitutes a violation of substantive due process granted under article I, section 19. Generally, any such deprivation is only unconstitutional where the challenged law bears no rational relation to a valid state objective.” Affordable Care Inc. v. N.C. State Bd. of Dental Exam’rs, 153 N.C. App. 527, 535, 571 S.E.2d 52, 59 (2002) (citing Rhyne v. K-Mart Corp., 149 N.C. App. 672, 562 S.E.2d 82 (2002), aff'd, 358 N.C. 160, 594 S.E.2d 1 (2004)). In the instant case, defendants presented ample evidence supporting their decision that plaintiff’s claim was not meritorious.
Further, I strongly disagree with plaintiff that the holding of Dobrowolska controls the result in the instant case. The defendant in Dobrowolska, the City of Greensboro, customarily responded to all claims for damages by asserting the defense of sovereign immunity. Thereafter, the City would sometimes waive the defense and enter into a settlement agreement:
[A]t the same time the City has asserted governmental immunity towards plaintiffs ... it has asserted such immunity against injured individuals similar to plaintiffs, but then waived immunity by paying damages to those injured individuals. . . . The City has opted to pay damages to some claimants after asserting governmental immunity; therefore, it must carry out this custom, or ‘unwritten’ policy in a way. which affords due process to all similarly situated tort claimants . . . [The City] classifies claims . . . into two different categories — (1) immunity is *449asserted with no exception, or (2) immunity is asserted but the claim is paid in settlement.
Dobrowolska, 138 N.C. App. at 12-13 and 17, 530 S.E.2d at 598-99 and 601 (emphasis added). This contrasts sharply with Durham’s policy of never asserting sovereign immunity as a basis for denial of a claim, and of always asserting it in response to a lawsuit. Further, unlike defendant City in Dobrowolska, Durham does not leave decisions about settlement of cases to the unfettered discretion of city employees. As discussed above, the uncontroverted evidence is that claims against the City are resolved by determination of whether the claimant (1) presents a legally cognizable claim, that (2) is meritorious, as shown by investigation into the facts, and (3) has documented injuries.
“[Plaintiff’s] position results from the assumption that the [City of Durham] may purposely and wilfully abuse the discretion with which the law invests it. It is hard to see how any administrative body can function without exercising discretion; but even then the discretion must not be whimsical, or capricious, or arbitrary, or despotic.” North Carolina State Highway Com. v. Young, 200 N.C. 603, 607, 158 S.E. 91, 93 (1931) (emphasis added). A party’s determination of whether to settle a claim will always require exercise of discretion and the weighing and assessment of largely subjective factors, such as the credibility and demeanor of prospective witnesses, or the likely response of a jury to certain evidence. It also requires evaluation of legal issues such as a claim’s validity, the impact of relevant precedent on trial issues, or the availability of affirmative defenses. Accordingly, the determination of how to respond to a claim brought against the City is akin to other discretionary judgments that cannot be reduced to a mathematical formula, such as decisions about hiring, firing, or resource allocation. The process is very different from that involved in decisions about zoning, permitting, or eligibility for public services, because such determinations can be reduced to an objective set of criteria.
Indeed, the gravamen of plaintiff’s claim is in reality a challenge to the inequality in bargaining strength between a tort claimant and the City. Ordinarily, if parties cannot settle a civil dispute, a plaintiff has the option of filing suit. However, if sovereign immunity is available as a defense, then the plaintiff has no recourse if a settlement cannot be reached. Thus, plaintiff seeks to redress the reality that the City can decide whether or not to settle claims, while plaintiff lacks the usual power to bring suit if the claim is not settled.' During the *450hearing on these motions, plaintiffs counsel conceded as much, stating to the trial court that:
. . . [0]ur purpose in bringing these declaratory and injunctive claims is to stop [the City] from having the ability to ... pay some claims, but also to unilaterally assert immunity].]
Because they have immunity, they can browbeat citizens into taking whatever it is they’re willing to offer.
.... That’s our reason for bringing this case, ... to put everybody on equal footing.
“The plaintiff asks us either to abolish governmental immunity or to change the way it is applied. . . . [A]ny change in this doctrine should come from the General Assembly.” Blackwelder v. City of Winston-Salem, 332 N.C. 319, 324, 420 S.E.2d 432, 435-36 (1992). “It may well be that the logic of the doctrine of sovereign immunity is unsound and that the reasons which led to its adoption are not as forceful today as they were when it was adopted. However, despite our sympathy for the plaintiff in this case, we feel that any further modification or the repeal of the doctrine of sovereign immunity should come from the General Assembly, not this Court.” Steelman v. City of New Bern, 279 N.C. 589, 595, 184 S.E.2d 239, 243 (1971).
Finally, even if we were to hold that the City’s policies governing its decisions of when to waive sovereign immunity were constitutionally infirm, defendants would nonetheless be entitled to assert sovereign immunity in this case. “A police officer in the performance of his duties is engaged in a governmental function.” Galligan v. Town of Chapel Hill, 276 N.C. 172, 175, 171 S.E.2d 427, 429 (1970). “In general, municipalities in North Carolina are immune from liability for their negligent acts arising out of governmental activities unless the municipality waives such immunity by purchasing liability insurance.” Anderson v. Town of Andrews, 127 N.C. App. 599, 600, 492 S.E.2d 385, 386 (1997). Under N.C.G.S. § 160A-485(a) (2003), “[a]ny city is authorized to waive its immunity from civil liability in tort by the act of purchasing liability insurance. . . . Immunity shall be waived only to the extent that the city is indemnified by the insurance contract from tort liability.” However, the statute also provides that “no city shall be deemed to have waived its tort immunity by any action other than the purchase of liability insurance.” (emphasis added). Our appellate courts have consistently held that “N.C.G.S. § 160A-485 provides that *451the only way a city may waive its governmental immunity is by the purchase of liability insurance.” Blackwelder v. City of Winston-Salem, 332 N.C. 319, 324, 420 S.E.2d 432, 435 (1992) (emphasis added). In Blackwelder, defendant City formed a corporation to handle claims against the City of less than $1,000,000. The North Carolina Supreme Court held that this corporation (RAMCO), was not liability insurance and therefore did not constitute a waiver of sovereign immunity. The Court also held that:
Finally, the plaintiff contends that the City has violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . . . and Article I, Section 19 of the Constitution of North Carolinaf,] . . . because the City, through RAMCO, can pick and choose what claims it will pay, thus depriving the plaintiff of the equal protection of the law. ... If we were to hold the City has acted unconstitutionally ... it would not mean, the City had waived its governmental immunity. The most we could do is strike down RAMCO. A decision involving this constitutional question would not resolve this case and we do not consider it.
Blackwelder 332 N.C. 325-26, 420 S.E.2d at 436-37 (emphasis added).
Similarly, in Ripellino v. N.C. School Bds. Ass’n, 158 N.C. App. 423, 581 S.E.2d 88 (2003), cert. denied, 358 N.C. 156, 592 S.E.2d 694 (2004), plaintiffs were injured while driving through a traffic control gate on school property. Defendant school board paid plaintiffs for their property damage, but would not pay medical expenses or other compensation. Plaintiffs argued that, because defendants compensated them for property damage, they should be estopped from asserting sovereign immunity on their other claims. This Court held:
A waiver of sovereign immunity must be established by the General Assembly. “Our Supreme Court has stated that ‘it is for the General Assembly to determine when and under what circumstances the State [and its political subdivisions] may be sued.’ ”... [Sovereign immunity] ‘should not and cannot be waived by indirection or by procedural rule. ... If a court could estop the Board from asserting an otherwise valid defense of sovereign immunity, ‘then, effectively, that court, rather than the General Assembly, would be waiving [the Board’s] sovereign immunity.’
Id. at 429, 581 S.E.2d at 93 (quoting Wood v. N.C. State Univ., 147 N.C. App. 336, 338 and 347, 556 S.E.2d 38, 40 and 45 (2001) (quoting *452Guthrie v. State Ports Authority, 307 N.C. 522, 534, 299 S.E.2d 618, 625)) (emphasis added).
In sum, plaintiff has raised genuine issues of material fact in her claims for obstruction of justice and gross negligence, and I would remand for jury trial on these substantive claims. At trial, defendants are entitled to assert sovereign immunity to the extent that they have not waived the defense by purchase of liability insurance. Plaintiff has failed to present evidence that the City’s decision not to pay her claim violated her constitutional rights, and has failed to present evidence that defendant City of Durham selectively waives the defense of sovereign immunity, or that its handling of claims against the city is arbitrary and capricious. Moreover, even if the City were required to change its policies for settling cases, it would still be able to assert sovereign immunity in this case. Accordingly, I would vote to affirm the trial court’s denial of defendants’ summary judgment motion with respect to plaintiff’s negligence and obstruction of justice claims, and remand for entry of summary judgment for defendants on plaintiff’s constitutional claims.