Court Opinion

ID: 9755778
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-28 20:50:06.772208+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:56:03.082929
License: Public Domain

O’HERN, J.,
dissenting.
I agree with the majority that public employees in safety-sensitive positions may be subjected to drug testing on the basis of an individualized reasonable suspicion that the employee may have ingested or may be under the influence of drugs. That doctrine reflects a reasonable balance of the public’s interest in safety and the individual’s interest in the personal freedom to be free from bodily intrusions. I disagree that when the employer is a law-enforcement agency, it may invoke its rights as an employer to obtain evidence for a criminal prosecution that would otherwise be inadmissible because obtained in violation of the employee’s Fourth Amendment rights.
I
The majority mischaracterizes this case as one involving only a departmental disciplinary proceeding when in fact it also involves urine testing in the criminal context. The Jersey City Police Department had Rawlings locked up on criminal charges when it invoked its administrative procedures to force Officer Rawlings to provide a urine sample, which could have provided evidence in support of the criminal charges. Without an offer of immunity *199ensuring that the test results would not be used in a criminal trial, the drug testing procedures are flawed for employment purposes. A criminal defendant who is also subject to disciplinary proceedings should not be required to choose between submitting without probable cause to the test that may provide evidence in a criminal trial or refusing to submit to the test under penalty of dismissal from employment.
“A drug test, whether administered by the government either for law-enforcement or employment purposes, is subject to the [search and seizure] requirements of the Fourth Amendment.” O’Keefe v. Passaic Valley Water Comm’n, 132 N.J. 234, 242, 624 A.2d 578 (1993). A search and seizure is ordinarily unreasonable unless a warrant is issued based on probable cause. State v. Marshall, 123 N.J. 1, 67, 586 A.2d 85 (1991). The New Jersey Constitution sometimes “ ‘affords our citizens greater protection against unreasonable searches and seizures than does the fourth amendment.’ ” State v. Hempele, 120 N.J. 182, 195, 576 A.2d 793 (1990) (quoting State v. Novembrino, 105 N.J. 95, 145, 519 A.2d 820 (1987)). In this case the Court misperceives the two functions of government involved here. In one capacity the search is valid, in another it is not. As the Court noted in Hempele: “The constitutional prohibition on unreasonable government searches “ ‘does not disappear merely because the government has the right to make reasonable intrusions in its capacity as employer.’ ” ” Id., 120 N.J. at 205, 576 A.2d 793 (quoting O’Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709, 717, 107 S.Ct. 1492, 1497, 94 L.Ed.2d 714, 723 (1987) (quoting Ortega, supra, 480 U.S. at 731, 107 S.Ct. at 1505, 94 L.Ed.2d at 732 (Scalia, J., concurring in the judgment))) (emphasis supplied).
In Hempele the Court determined that a warrant based on probable cause is required to search garbage for evidence of crime. The Court rejected the argument that the “garbage regulations reduce the level of cause necessary for a search,” 120 N.J. at 219, 576 A.2d 793, because the search was designed to enforce “the drug laws, not [the] garbage regulations.” Ibid. The analogy is comparable. The police department’s urine test is *200designed to enforce personnel laws and protect the safety and welfare of the public, not to enforce the criminal drug laws. Although an individualized reasonable-suspicion standard allows the police department to test an officer for disciplinary reasons, the department cannot use the disciplinary regulations to enforce the criminal drug laws without probable cause.
“[T]he probable cause standard “ ‘is peculiarly related to criminal investigations.’ ” ” S.S. v. E.S., 243 N.J.Super. 1, 11-12, 578 A.2d 381 (App.Div.1990) (quoting Colorado v. Bertine, 479 U.S. 367, 371, 107 S.Ct. 738, 741, 93 L.Ed.2d 739, 745 (1987) (quoting South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364, 370 n. 5, 96 S.Ct. 3092, 3097 n. 5, 49 L.Ed.2d 1000, 1006 n. 5 (1976))), aff'd, 124 N.J. 391, 590 A.2d 1188 (1991). The majority also acknowledges that “[pjrobable cause is appropriate in criminal cases, in which the State seeks to deprive defendants of their life or liberty.” Ante at 191, 627 A.2d at 606. In analyzing a court-ordered blood test to determine parentage the S.S. v. E.S. court distinguished probable cause in the criminal context from reasonable individualized suspicion in the civil context. 243 N.J.Super. at 12, 578 A.2d 381; see also Allen v. County of Passaic, 219 N.J.Super. 352, 373, 530 A.2d 371 (Law Div.1986) (stating that “[wjhether the urinalysis is conducted as part of a criminal investigation or for some other reason such as employment is a very significant factor of consideration”). In Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Association, 489 U.S. 602, 109 S.Ct. 1402, 103 L.Ed.2d 639 (1989), the Court allowed drug tests of safety-sensitive railroad employees without a warrant or reasonable suspicion. The Court noted that the drug tests were facially designed for administrative purposes. The Court stated: “We leave for another day the question whether routine use in criminal prosecutions of evidence obtained pursuant to the administrative scheme would give rise to an inference of pretext, or otherwise impugn the administrative nature of the FRA’s program.” Id. at 621 n. 5, 109 S.Ct. at 1415 n. 5, 103 L.Ed.2d at 662 n. 5.
In National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 489 U.S. 656, 666, 109 S.Ct. 1384, 1390, 103 L.Ed.2d 685, 702 (1989), the *201Court established a relaxed standard for a warrantless search without probable cause when the “[t]est results may not be used in a criminal prosecution.” As in Skinner, the Von Raab Court emphasized that the “drug-testing program is not designed to serve the ordinary needs of law enforcement.” Ibid. The only way the test results could be used in criminal prosecution was with the employee’s permission. Ibid.
The history of the federal drug-testing program was recently described by one Court:
[On] September 15, 1986, President Reagan signed Executive Order No. 12,564, “Drug-Free Federal Workplace,” 3 C.F.R. 224 (1987), directing all agency heads to develop programs to test “for the use of illegal drugs by employees in sensitive positions,” id. at 226, and condemning the use of illegal drugs “on or off duty.” Id. at 225. The President stated that drug testing “shall not be conducted pursuant to this Order for the purpose of gathering evidence for use in criminal proceedings.” Id. at 228. He added: “Agencies are not required to report to the Attorney General for investigation or prosecution any information, allegation, or evidence relating to violations of Title 21 of the United States Code received as a result of the operation of drug testing programs established pursuant to this Order.” Id. (emphasis added.)
[National Fed’n of Fed, Employees v. Carlucci, 680 F.Supp. 416, 421 (D.D.C. 1988).]
“Congress limited the use that can be made of drug test results. For example, no disclosure to law enforcement officials is permitted without the employee’s consent.” Id. at 421 n. 7 (citing Supplemental Appropriations Act of 1987, Pub.L. No. 100-71, § 503(e), 101 Stat. 391, 471 (1987)). Thus, “drug testing must serve some ‘special needs’ of the employing governmental body, rather than being designed to gather evidence for a criminal prosecution.” International Fed’n of Professional & Technical Eng’rs, Local 194A v. Burlington County Bridge Comm’n, 240 N.J.Super. 9, 22, 572 A.2d 204 (App.Div.), certif. denied,. 122 N.J. 183, 584 A.2d 244 (1990). In fact, the assurance that the drug-test results will not apply in criminal proceedings is an important factor in upholding warrantless drug testing with less than probable cause. See, e.g., International Bhd. of Teamsters v. Dep’t of Transp., 932 F.2d 1292, 1299 (9th Cir.1991) (noting regulations “preclude the tests’ use for law enforcement purposes by protecting the confidentiality of test results”); Burka v. New York City *202Transit Auth., 739 F.Supp. 814, 828 (S.D.N.Y.1990) (noting that probable-cause standard governs criminal investigations and that enforcement of criminal code is not goal of drug-testing program); Amalgamated Transit Union, Local 993 v. City of Oklahoma City, 710 F.Supp. 1321, 1332 (W.D.Okl.1988) (highlighting that drug-test results “would not lead to criminal charges”).
In exigent circumstances a warrantless search when based on probable cause is constitutional. See, e.g., Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 86 S.Ct. 1826, 16 L.Ed.2d 908 (1966) (authorizing blood test for alcohol after accident when police officer smelled liquor, and subject’s eyes bloodshot and glassy); State v. Dyal, 97 N.J. 229, 239, 478 A.2d 390 (1984) (authorizing blood test for “apparently intoxicated automobile operator”); State v. Malik, 221 N.J.Super. 114, 534 A.2d 27 (App.Div.1987) (allowing warrantless extraction of urine sample when open can of beer, green vegetation, yellow pills, rolling paper, “coke spoon,” and pipe found in car and defendant had “watery” and “bloodshot” eyes, slurred speech, and was belligerent). But see United States v. Pond, 36 M.J. 1050, 1058-59 (AFCMR 1993) (finding no exigent circumstances when methamphetamine use can be detected by a urine test “some 24 to 48 hours after consumption of the drug”). The supervising officer who requested that Rawlings submit to a drug test, testified that Officer Rawlings “was not obviously under the influence of cocaine” and lacked the normal signs associated with drug use such as general nervousness, rapid hand movements, rapid speech, and twitching. Therefore, no probable cause existed justifying the drug test. In addition, unlike with alcohol, no exigent circumstance exists to justify a warrantless search for cocaine because cocaine can be detected in urine from two to five days. See Kurt M. Dubowski, Drug-Use Testing: Scientific Perspectives, 11 Nova L.Rev. 415, 530 (1987) (containing table of “Typical Duration of Drug Detectability in Urine After Last Use” of several drugs); cf. United States v. Miller, 34 M.J. 598, 600 (ACMR 1992) (discussing study published in toxicology journal indicating detectability of cocaine for at least forty-eight hours after ingestion); Green v. State, 260 Ga. 625, 398 S.E.2d 360, 361 (1990) (discussing “testimo*203ny of a certified urinalysis field technician that cocaine metabolites are detectable in an individual’s urine 2-4 days after the individual ingests cocaine”), cert. denied, — U.S.-, 111 S.Ct. 2059, 114 L.Ed.2d 464 (1991).
Rawlings was given an unacceptable choice: he could either take the drug test and if positive have the result used in both a criminal and administrative proceeding, or refuse to take the test and face dismissal for failing to obey a direct order. Even the implied consent statute in South Dakota v. Neville, 459 U.S. 553, 103 S.Ct. 916, 74 L.Ed.2d 748 (1983), requires a careful explanation to the accused. In Pond, supra, 36 M.J. 1050, the government argued that a urine test administered to a driver is admissible under California’s implied consent statute. However, the court determined that the test was not valid under the implied consent statute because the police officer did not provide Pond with any of the “advice the statute required concerning the consequences of refusing to consent.” Id. at 1057. As expressed in President Reagan’s Executive Order No. 12,564, results of an employee-drug-testing program should not be used in criminal proceedings. A valid drug-testing program would have assured Rawlings that the drug-test results would not be used in a criminal proceeding. Without immunity and probable cause the police department’s desire to conduct a warrantless search for evidence of crime based on individual reasonable suspicion is unconstitutional.
In Skinner the Court specifically left open the question of whether a drug-testing program based on a warrantless search without probable cause would be unconstitutional if the results were used in a criminal proceeding. No State or federal case in this jurisdiction has upheld an administrative drug-testing program that automatically results in criminal prosecution. Rawlings’ refusal to submit to a drug test without probable cause when the results would be used in a criminal proceeding constitutes nothing more than an assertion of a constitutional right. A police-drug testing program, justified by safety concerns and designed for administrative purposes, may not be used to force a person to *204submit to a warrantless drug test for criminal evidence absent probable - cause.
In Banca v. Phillipsburg, 181 N.J.Super. 109, 436 A.2d 944 (App.Div.1981), the court addressed whether a police officer can be disciplined for failing to cooperate in a criminal investigation if the officer is the target of the investigation and has not been offered use immunity. The court recognized
that when a public employee makes a self-incriminatory statement in response to a threat of discharge, that statement must necessarily be regarded as coerced and, therefore, as secured in violation of the employee’s constitutional privilege not to incriminate himself. If, however, he is protected from the normal consequences of a self-incriminatory statement, that is, if the statement may not be used against him in a subsequent criminal proceeding, then the choice he must make between loss of his employment and the giving of the statement, however much a Hobson’s choice it may be, does not offend his constitutional privilege. The offer, therefore, of use immunity when the statement is solicited is constitutionally prerequisite to the imposition of the disciplinary sanction for failing to give it.
[Id. at 113, 436 A.2d 944.]
See also Garrity v. New Jersey, 385 U.S. 493, 509, 87 S.Ct. 616, 620, 17 L.Ed.2d 562, 567 (1967) (holding that “the protection of the individual under the Fourteenth Amendment against coerced statements prohibits used [sic] in subsequent criminal proceedings of statements obtained under threat of removal from office, and that it extends to all, whether they are policemen or other members of our body politic”).
In this field “[w]e are on the cutting edge of new law.” Tanks v. Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Auth., 739 F.Supp. 1113, 1123 (N.D.Ohio 1990), aff'd, 930 F.2d 475 (6th Cir.1991). Police officers, although surrendering some expectations of privacy, do not surrender their constitutional rights. Taking bodily fluids from a person may not violate the Fifth Amendment but it does violate the Fourth Amendment if it is unreasonable. I find the Fifth Amendment use-immunity analysis equally persuasive in the Fourth Amendment context. Drug testing is a new form of compulsory evidence-gathering.
“There are few activities in our society more personal or private than the passing of urine. Most people describe it by euphemisms if they talk about it at all. It is a *205function traditionally performed without public observation; indeed, its performance in public is generally prohibited by law as well as social custom.”
[Skinner, supra, 489 U.S. at 617, 109 S.Ct. at 1413, 103 L.Ed.2d at 660 (quoting National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 816 F.2d 170, 175 (1987).]
Validation of governmental intrusions into the dignity and privacy of public employees deserves the considered analysis of this Court rather than the avoidance of the issue, as the majority does. Ante at 193-194, 627 A.2d at 607-608. We have never decided what is a valid drug-testing program. See, In re Carberry, 114 N.J. 574, 556 A.2d 314 (1989) (remanding to Superintendent of Division of State Police constitutional challenge to drug-testing program). Before discharging Officer Rawlings the Court should decide whether the police department’s drug-testing program met all constitutional requirements. I do not believe that the program met those requirements. Officer Rawlings should have known whether the results of the test could be used in both the administrative and the criminal proceedings. As in Banca and Garnty, no public employee, even a police officer, should have to choose between losing a job or submitting to an unconstitutional action. Therefore, I respectfully dissent.
Justice STEIN joins in this opinion.
For affirmance — Chief Justice WILENTZ and Justices CLIFFORD, HANDLER, POLLOCK and GARIBALDI — 5.
For reversal — Justices O’HERN and STEIN-2.