Court Opinion

ID: 9487593
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 12:21:27.761381+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:52:22.760292
License: Public Domain

COFFEY, Circuit Judge, concurring in part and dissenting in part.
I join with the majority in upholding the convictions and sentences of defendants Ta-deusz Sobiecki, Ewa Brozek-Lukaszuk, Lester Lukaszuk, and Alojzy Sandrzyk, but dissent from the majority’s reversal of the district court’s three-level enhancement of defendant Allan Parmelee’s base offense level *396under U.S.S.G. § 3Bl.l(b) for his managerial/supervisory role in the offense.
In the midst of trial, Parmelee entered a plea of guilty to the seventeen count indictment charging him with unlawfully transporting thirty-three illegal Polish aliens to the United States by air from Canada between February 12, 1991. and April 21, 1991, unlawfully transporting them within the United States, and conspiracy. Parmelee, the pilot of a small Piper Cherokee plane, was at the center of a large-scale, long-term,1 sophisticated smuggling operation whose purpose was to bring Polish aliens illegally into the United States from Canada and convey them to their destination in this country.
Parmelee had the exclusive power and discretion to determine every aspect of his passengers’ journey from Canada to their destination in the United States. Parmelee was responsible for securing and renting a plane and assuring that it was in proper working order for the illicit alien flight conspiracy. Parmelee went so far as to purchase a beeper in order that he and Sobieeki might keep in constant contact concerning flight departures and arrivals. As the pilot of the aircraft,2 Parmelee chose the airfield from which to depart, determined flight departure and arrival times, selected the flight route least likely to attract the attention of immigration officials, and frequently deviated from acceptable altitudes to evade radar detection. Parmelee was vested with the ultimate authority to determine who could board the plane and how much baggage each passenger could bring. It was within Parme-lee’s power to alter the flight route at any time, or even abort a landing if he suspected trouble from or detection by immigration officials. From the time the Piper Cherokee left the runway at Grimsby Airpark to the moment the plane came to rest on the tarmac at DuPage County Airport, the success of the Polish passengers’ journey rested in Parme-lee’s hands. The aliens remained under Par-melee’s supervision and control until he finally delivered them into the hands of Sobieeki.
Despite substantial evidence that Parmelee orchestrated the most critical leg of the Polish aliens’ passage to America, the majority concludes that:
[a]s the pilot, Parmelee certainly was an important player in the smuggling ring, but we cannot find evidence that shows he controlled or coordinated any of his co-defendants’ activities. The government points to Parmelee’s receipt of money from Sobieeki for his services, his purchase of a beeper to inform Sobieeki of flight departures and arrivals, and his upkeep and rental of the plane. These activities, however, may be merely inherent in Parme-lee’s role as a pilot and do not necessarily indicate that Parmelee managed or supervised others. While it could be said that Parmelee managed the illegal aliens he flew across the border, such conduct does not warrant a section 3Bl.l(b) enhancement.
I am forced to disagree with and dissent from the majority’s conclusion that Parmelee was not a manager/supervisor within the meaning of U.S.S.G. § 3Bl.l(b).
I. FACTUAL BACKGROUND
The majority holds that Parmelee’s actions in furtherance of the smuggling ring were “merely inherent in Parmelee’s role as a pilot” and therefore cannot support the three-level sentence enhancement, even though the trial testimony, indictment, pre-sentence report, and sentencing hearing tes*397timony convincingly portray Parmelee as a key player.
At trial, the government presented evidence demonstrating that Parmelee usually carried a group of three to five illegal Polish aliens on each flight. The aliens were driven by an unknown individual to Grimsby Air-park, a small rural airstrip just north of the Canada-United States international border.3 Late in the evening when the airstrip was closed for business and virtually deserted, Parmelee would arrive at Grimsby with the plane, load the passengers and baggage, and depart shortly thereafter hoping to avoid detection or apprehension by the authorities. According to the record, Parmelee would then fly to DuPage County Airport in Illinois, sometimes at dangerously low altitudes to avoid radar detection. After landing at Du-Page, Parmelee would drive the aliens to a meeting place he had pre-arranged with So-biecki. Because Parmelee played such an important role in the alien smuggling conspiracy, Sobiecki rewarded Parmelee handsomely for the transportation of each illegal alien. Parmelee received $700 to $1,000 for each illegal person who boarded his plane— nearly one-third of the average $3,000 each alien paid for passage to the United States. Parmelee’s meetings with Sobiecki generally occurred in the middle of the night and lasted but a few minutes, again to avoid the watchful eyes of immigration officials.4
Pursuant to a plea agreement with the government, Parmelee agreed to plead guilty to all seventeen counts of the indictment and provide details of the criminal operation to the court. The government, in turn, agreed to recommend a two-point offense level reduction for acceptance of responsibility pursuant to U.S.S.G. § 3E1.1. In exchange for Parmelee’s cooperation, the government also agreed that it would not seek an upward departure from the applicable sentencing guideline range.
At the plea hearing, Judge Zagel ensured that Parmelee understood fully the nature of the charges against him and the rights he would waive by pleading guilty. Parmelee testified that he was lawfully employed as a computer systems analyst and had two years of college education, and confirmed that he had discussed the terms of the plea agreement with his attorney. The following exchange took place at the sentencing hearing:
THE COURT: You are essentially charged in Count 1 with entering into a conspiracy with a variety of other people to knowingly transport persons, illegal aliens into the United States. Do you understand that charge against you?
DEFENDANT PARMELEE: Yes, I do, Your Honor.
THE COURT: And in addition to that general conspiracy charge, there are some specific charges against you that on certain specific dates you did in fact bring a specified number of illegal aliens into the country knowing that they were illegal aliens. Do you understand that charge?
DEFENDANT PARMELEE: Yes, I do.
*398THE COURT: Did you read a copy of the indictment in this case?
DEFENDANT PARMELEE: Yes, I have.
THE COURT: You discussed it with your attorney?
DEFENDANT PARMELEE: Yes.
Judge Zagel then explained the maximum possible penalty for the offenses charged in the indictment:
THE COURT: The maximum possible punishment under the offenses to which you are pleading guilty is a term of 85 years, that is, five years on each count; a maximum fine of $4,250,000; a time of supervised release of three to five years in duration; and there is at least a theoretical possibility I may order restitution if there are sums to be given in restitution in this case. Do you understand that’s the maximum possible punishment you face?
DEFENDANT PARMELEE: I understand.
Judge Zagel explained the sentencing procedures under the Guidelines, and made clear that the court was not bound by the plea agreement and could impose any sentence authorized by law. From this record, I am convinced that Parmelee knowingly and voluntarily pleaded guilty to all charges in the indictment and accordingly waived the right to challenge any of the facts stated therein. See McCarthy v. United States, 394 U.S. 459, 466, 89 S.Ct. 1166, 1171, 22 L.Ed.2d 418 (1969) (“a guilty plea is an admission of all the elements of a formal criminal charge”); United States v. Tolson, 988 F.2d 1494, 1501 (7th Cir.1993) (“a defendant who pleads guilty to an indictment voluntarily and with the assistance of counsel ... may not challenge the facts of the indictment on appeal”). Parmelee, “[hjaving pleaded guilty to membership in the conspiracy as charged in the indictment knowingly and intelligently, and with the advice of counsel, ... has relinquished the right to challenge the conspiracy.” United States v. Savage, 891 F.2d 145, 150 (7th Cir.1989).
After the plea hearing, a probation officer conducted an investigation, interviewed Par-melee, and submitted a Presentence Report to Judge Zagel. The probation officer determined Parmelee’s criminal history category to be III,5 and his base offense level to be nine. The PSR added three points to the base offense level for Parmelee’s managerial/supervisory role in the offense (U.S.S.G. § 3Bl.l(b)), two points for Parmelee’s reckless endangerment of others while transporting the illegal aliens, ie., his flying at dangerously low altitudes and driving at speeds in excess of 95 miles per hour (U.S.S.G. § 3C1.2), and subtracted two points for acceptance of responsibility (U.S.S.G. § 3E1.1). The resulting offense level was twelve, implicating a sentencing range of from fifteen to twenty-one months’ imprisonment.
As justification for the three point increase for Parmelee’s managerial/supervisory role in the offense, the probation officer noted in the PSR that:
Based on information provided to this writer, the defendant had a managerial or supervisory type role in the overall smuggling operation. He had some decision making authority and a high level of participation in planning and organizing, in that he was responsible for renting, maintaining and piloting the airplane used to smuggle in the aliens; he decided when and where to land the craft; and he coordinated with Codefendant Sobiecki the times and dates of the smuggling trips. Pursuant to guideline 3Bl.l(b), a three-level increase is warranted.
The defendant was involved in a large-scale, well-coordinated and sophisticated illegal alien smuggling operation. Although the indictment charges that the conspiracy took place between February and April 1991, by his own admission the defendant was smuggling in illegal Polish aliens *399from Canada as early as the summer of 1988. The defendant made thousands of dollars from his role in the offense and he was essential to the smuggling operation since he piloted the plane and brought the aliens into the United States.
(Emphasis added.) The PSR concluded that “/ijhere are virtually no mitigating factors in this case.'” (Emphasis added.) The government recommended a sentence at the high end of the guideline range.
Any lesser sentence would deprecate the seriousness of Parmelee’s ongoing, repeated criminal conduct_ Further, the current Guidelines do not take into account the vast scope of the smuggling operation in which Parmelee was involved. Also, throughout the months of the charged conspiracy, Parmelee displayed great disdain and disrespect for the laws of the United States, for law enforcement, and for the general safety of the public and his passengers in the air and on the road. Finally, Parmelee’s criminal history indicates that throughout the years he has had numerous run-ins with the criminal justice system, and although he has received second chances and breaks every time, he has failed to benefit at all from these breaks. Parmelee is deserving of no similar break this time.
(Emphasis added.)
Judge Zagel adopted the recommendations contained in the PSR. With respect to the three level enhancement of Parmelee’s base offense level for his role in the offense, the Judge stated:
I’m inclined to believe that the probation officer got it right, and I do so find that she got it right; and the reason I do is largely because — the defense makes an argument that essentially all that occurred here was a — was Parmelee’s use of his special skill and because he was the pilot he had to do a variety of things: rent the plane, undertake a variety of administrative duties.
And I think to some extent this accounts for much of what he did and is the reason why manager/supervisor is more appropriate than leader/organizer. It’s inherent in the nature of the job that a certain amount of organizing had to occur.
And that’s essentially the heart of the government’s argument: that Parmelee really organized a lot of things, put them together, and therefore falls within the leader/organizer category.
But the truth is there is inherent in the manager/supervisor category in my view a certain degree of management — a certain degree of organizing is inherent in that as well.
The reason I believe that the defendant’s objection is — the reason I’m rejecting the defendant’s objection is because it’s quite clear to me that what was used here— what Parmelee was using was more than his special skills [as pilot]. The incident with the beeper, the consultation on other related issues having to do with detection and a variety of other aspects of the offense go beyond the use of the special skill as a pilot, and I think he clearly qualifies as a manager/'supervisor.
(Emphasis added.) The district court sentenced Parmelee to twenty-one months’ imprisonment and three years of supervised release, and further ordered a fine of $12,000 and a special assessment of $850.
II. ANALYSIS
The Sentencing Guidelines require a three point offense level enhancement if “the defendant was a manager or supervisor ... and the criminal activity involved five or more participants or was otherwise extensive.” U.S.S.G. § 3Bl.l(b). “The central concern of § 3B1.1 is relative responsibility.” United States v. Brown, 944 F.2d 1377, 1381 (7th Cir.1991). Among the factors to be considered to determine whether a defendant acted as a manager or supervisor are: (1) the defendant’s exercise of decision making authority; (2) the nature of the defendant’s participation in the commission of the offense; (3) if the defendant claimed a right to a larger share of the fruits of the crime; (4) the degree of the defendant’s participation in planning or organizing the offense; (5) the nature and scope of the illegal activity; and (6) the degree of control and authority exercised over others. See U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1, ap*400plication note 4; see also United States v. Young, 34 F.3d 500, 507 (7th Cir.1994). Nonetheless, the proper focus of an inquiry into a § 3Bl.l(b) enhancement is “‘on the relative responsibility for an offense and not exclusively on one of the application note factors_Young, 34 F.3d at 508 (quoting United States v. Skinner, 986 F.2d 1091, 1097 (7th Cir.1993) (emphasis added)).6
The district court’s finding that a defendant played a managerial or supervisory role is a finding of fact,7 that can be overturned only if clearly erroneous. 18 U.S.C. § 3742(d); United States v. Vargas, 16 F.3d 155, 160 (7th Cir.1994). ‘“[I]t is not the function of this [appellate] court to reweigh the evidence or to substitute its judgment for that of the trier of fact.’ ” United States v. Hatchett, 31 F.3d 1411, 1416 (7th Cir.1994) (quoting United States v. Wisniewski, 741 F.2d 138, 144 (7th Cir.1984). The district court’s findings must stand unless we are of the “definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed. ” United States v. Brown, 900 F.2d 1098, 1102 (7th Cir.1990) (quoting Anderson v. Bessemer City, 470 U.S. 564, 573, 105 S.Ct. 1504, 1511, 84 L.Ed.2d 518 (1985) (emphasis added)).
The majority stakes its decision on the fact that Parmelee was not in a position to exercise authority or control over his co-conspirators. In Vargas, 16 F.3d at 160, we referred to authority and control over others — one of the application note factors — as “a significant factor to be considered” in determining the defendant’s relative responsibility. Id. (emphasis added). Our focus on this one factor, however, was not meant to obscure that the central concern of § 3B1.1 is relative responsibility, and that this concern requires an examination of all the application note factors. See Young, 34 F.3d at 508; see also Skinner, 986 F.2d at 1097; Brown, 944 F.2d at 1381. The majority reads the statement in Vargas much too broadly.
In Vargas, we concluded that the district court had improperly enhanced Vargas’s sentence based solely on the fact that he had supplied drugs and negotiated the terms of their sale. We expressly emphasized, however, that Vargas “might have earned a Section 3B1.1[ (b) ] increase had he been principally responsible for arranging the logistics of cocaine delivery or payments, because this would have required him to dictate to some extent, or at least coordinate” the actions of his confederates. Vargas, 16 F.3d at 160. We made clear that the mere fact that a defendant does not exercise control and authority over others, “in the sense of having the power to tell others what to do, does not necessarily disqualify the defendant for a Section 3B1.1[ (b) ] increase.... Rather, in some cases it may be enough that the defendant ‘orchestrated’ or simply ‘coordinated’ the activities of others.” Id. (citations omitted).
The extent of a defendant’s supervision of others does not necessarily determine his characterization as a manager/supervisor. For example, in United States v. Carson, 9 F.3d 576 (7th Cir.1993), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 115 S.Ct. 135, 130 L.Ed.2d 77 (1994), a case involving an extensive cocaine distribution network, we upheld the district court’s finding that one defendant served a managerial/supervisory role in the operation, in spite of “slight” evidence of the defendant’s exercise of control over others. Id. at 592. We observed that the defendant and his brother “were partners in distributing sizeable amounts of cocaine, and that [the defendant was the person] most responsible for providing security” to his co-defendants. Id. In Carson, we emphasized that “ ‘although a defendant did not supervise people, his extensive management responsibilities over property, assets, or activities of the criminal organization [can] justiffy] increasing his of*401fense level pursuant to § 3Bl.l(b).’ ” Id. (citation omitted).
The record in this case clearly demonstrates that Parmelee was the one individual principally responsible for arranging the logistics of smuggling the illegal aliens into the United States from Canada. Parmelee was responsible for securing and renting the plane and assuring that it was in proper working condition. Parmelee coordinated the date and time of each illegal flight with Sobiecld. As the pilot, Parmelee made key decisions, such as selecting the airfields from which to depart and arrive with a cargo of illegal aliens.8 Parmelee had the authority to determine flight departure and arrival times, and select the flight route least likely to attract the attention of immigration officials. Parmelee frequently deviated from acceptable altitudes to avoid detection, and had the authority to abort a landing if he feared apprehension by the authorities. Such responsibilities necessarily required Parmelee “to dictate to some extent, or at least coordinate” the actions of Sobieeki, and indirectly, other confederates involved in the transportation of the illegal aliens. Vargas, 16 F.3d at 160.9
Parmelee took special precautions to ensure the security of his co-conspirators and alien cargo. With Sobieeki, he arranged for clandestine meetings for the delivery of the illegal aliens to Sobiecld at various locations in Chicago. Parmelee rented a beeper and gave it to Sobieeki, so that the two could remain in contact without leaving a trail of phone records. Parmelee flew the Piper Cherokee at dangerously low altitudes to avoid radar detection, and, once on the ground in Illinois, drove the aliens at excessive rates of speed to avoid surveillance. Parmelee was solely responsible for the safety and security of all of his passengers during their entire trip from Grimsby to the various delivery locations in Chicago.
Parmelee’s role in the smuggling operation was so critical, it entitled him to nearly one-third of the fees collected from each Polish alien. Parmelee received from $700 to $1,000 — a tidy sum — for each alien he smuggled into the United States. Bank records confirm that Parmelee made substantial sums of money in the course of the operation, during a time when he had virtually no legitimate income. Those records show that during the period from September 1990 through April 1991, Parmelee made regular cash deposits, usually in amounts ranging from $500-$3,000. Over the course of that eight month period Parmelee deposited a total of approximately $60,000 in cash into his bank account.10 All of this evidence clearly shows *402that Parmelee’s “participation in the operation was critical to its success; the operation simply could not have flourished without his [contributions].” Young, 34 F.3d at 508. Parmelee was more responsible than his co-defendants for the commission of the smuggling offense.
The majority’s concern with whether the illegal aliens were participants in the offense for the purpose of U.S.S.G. § 3Bl.l(b) needlessly obfuscates the fact that Parmelee was principally and solely responsible for arranging the logistics of each smuggling trip. Therefore, even if I were to accept the majority’s position, which I do not,11 the evidence would still be sufficient to justify the sentence enhancement imposed by the district court under section 3Bl.l(b).
The majority in summary fashion rejects all of the evidence that Parmelee coordinated the details of the operation with Sobieeki, stating that it “may be merely inherent in Parmelee’s role as pilot” and “do[es] not necessarily indicate that Parmelee managed or supervised others” (emphasis added). To the extent the majority believes this imputation is obligatory — that whenever the evidence of a defendant’s role in the offense is susceptible to more than one interpretation, the district court must select the interpretation most favorable to the defendant — the decision conflicts with our jurisprudence on the clearly erroneous standard. It is well-established that “[w]here there are two permissible views of the evidence, the factfin-der’s choice between them cannot be clearly erroneous.” Brown, 900 F.2d at 1102; United States v. Herrera, 878 F.2d 997, 1000 (7th Cir.1989) (emphasis added). The majority fails to elucidate or give any reason as to why the sentencing judge’s resolution of this issue was beyond the permissible range of options from which the court might have been expected to choose. I fail to understand how the majority can conclude that the trial judge’s finding that Parmelee was acting in a supervisory role was clearly erroneous, especially in light of the significant and compelling evidence that Parmelee was principally responsible for arranging the logistics of each smuggling run.
This court has previously stated that “those who play an aggravating role in the offense are to receive sentences that reflect their greater contributions to the illegal scheme.” Brown, 944 F.2d at 1381. “The reviewing court must give the district court’s findings on this issue due deference because ‘[t]he district court is in the best position to assess the defendant’s relative culpability visa-vis other participants in the offense.’ ” Skinner, 986 F.2d at 1097 (quoting United States v. Tetzlaff, 896 F.2d 1071, 1074-75 n. 4 (7th Cir.1990)). A determination as to the defendant’s managerial or supervisory role in the offense is subject to reversal “only if we have a definite and firm conviction that the district court made a clear mistake in sentencing.” Hatchett, 31 F.3d at 1418 (emphasis added). The majority’s failure to discuss whether the district court made a clear mistake in sentencing suggests that the majority is conducting a de novo review of the record — a path barred by the clearly erroneous standard.
III. CONCLUSION
The record demonstrates that Parmelee was involved in a long-term, large-scale, sophisticated conspiracy, and that his involve*403ment went far beyond the eight instances of alien smuggling and transportation set forth in the indictment. Parmelee showed a willingness to evade law enforcement officials, and used dangerous tactics to further his criminal objectives. Flying at dangerously low altitudes to avoid radar detection, driving at speeds in excess of 95 miles per hour, and weaving in and out of traffic, in an attempt to lose law enforcement surveillance of his activities, Parmelee endangered not only the lives of his passengers but also the lives of others who might have been in the immediate area. Parmelee knew full well that the authorities were chasing him during this time and he deliberately used extremely dangerous tactics in an attempt to evade them.
Parmelee’s role in the offense was clearly more than that of a hired hand or rank and file criminal. Parmelee was not like a city cab driver who simply drives passengers to a requested destination in exchange for a fare. Nor was Parmelee like a commercial airline pilot, who boards an aircraft at a scheduled location and time, follows a pre-determined route, and whose responsibility for the safety and security of the passengers ends the moment they alight from the plane. Parmelee was an integral member of the smuggling conspiracy. He shared significant managerial responsibilities with his co-conspirator So-biecki, and was paid generously for the risks he took. One performing only those duties inherent in the role of a pilot would never realize the profits Parmelee did. His participation in the illegal smuggling ring was critical to its success. The operation simply could not have flourished without his coordination and expertise. Based on the totality of the evidence presented, I fail to understand how the majority can conclude that the trial judge’s finding that Parmelee was acting in a supervisory role was clearly erroneous. In light of Parmelee’s relative responsibility within the overall smuggling operation, the district court did not clearly err in finding that Parmelee played a managerial/supervisory role in the offense.

. Although the indictment sets forth only those incidents that occurred between February and April 1991, Parmelee admitted that he had been coordinating the unlawful transportation of Polish aliens from Canada with Sobieeki since the summer of 1988. He admitted that his involvement in the criminal operation continued through the time of the indictment and that he was smuggling illegal aliens from Canada at least once every three months and as frequently as several times per week. Phone records introduced at trial demonstrated that Parmelee made calls to Sobieeki from Grimsby Airpark in Ontario as early as September 1990. Moreover, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police began receiving reports of suspicious activity at Grimsby Airpark involving Parmelee’s aircraft as early as November 1990.

. "The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.” 14 C.F.R. § 91.3 (1994).

. According to the Presentence Report ("PSR”), Parmelee's initial flights departed from an airport in Welland, Ontario, a port of entry. Par-melee later decided that Welland was not a safe location from which to depart with illegal aliens because immigration officials were more likely to be present at a port of entry. Parmelee, thus vested with the authority to choose another airport, changed the point of embarkation to Grims-by Airpark, a small airstrip which was not a port of entry, and arrived and departed from Grimsby when the airstrip was closed.

. Eight smuggling trips formed the basis of the indictment. On February 12, 1991, Parmelee flew three illegal Polish aliens from Grimsby to DuPage, and delivered them by car to Sobiecki in Chicago. On March 13, 1991, Parmelee flew to Grimsby with a passenger who previously had been convicted of smuggling illegal Polish aliens from Canada into the United States. Parmelee returned to DuPage with his original passenger and four additional Polish aliens. On March 19, 1991, Parmelee flew four illegal aliens from Grimsby to DuPage, and once again drove the four to a rendezvous with Sobiecki. On March 25, 1991, Parmelee transported three more aliens from Grimsby to DuPage. On March 26, 1991, Parmelee flew five Polish aliens from Grimsby to DuPage, and drove them to meet Sobiecki in Chicago. Once on April 10, 1991 and again on April 15, 1991, Parmelee flew to Grimsby, returning to DuPage with five illegal aliens on each flight. Finally, on April 21, 1991, Parmelee flew three aliens from Grimsby to Du-Page and delivered them to Sobiecki. Later that evening, Parmelee and Sobiecki were arrested at their respective residences.

. Parmelee has had significant experience with the criminal justice system. Between 1975 and 1990, he was arrested seventeen times, nine of which resulted in convictions. The PSR notes that the vast majority of his prior arrests were for passing worthless checks, but his convictions also resulted from offenses ranging from larceny to assault. Parmelee was serving a two-year term of probation when he was arrested for his participation in the alien smuggling scheme.

. Although application note 4 to § 3B 1.1 of the Sentencing Guidelines lists these factors to aid the court in "distinguishing a leadership and organizational role from one of mere management or supervision,” this court has employed these factors " ‘to determine whether a defendant qualifies as a supervisor at all.’ " Young, 34 F.3d at 507 (quoting Brown, 944 F.2d at 1380 n. 1).

. This is true even though "the fact of manager status may be more difficult to ascertain than purely physical facts ... and may depend on an assessment of the broad context of the crime." United States v. Mejia-Orosco, 867 F.2d 216, 221 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 492 U.S. 924, 109 S.Ct. 3257, 106 L.Ed.2d 602 (1989).

. Parmelee argues that his decision-making authority regarding when and where to land the plane was limited to his responsibilities as pilot. This argument is without merit. Parmelee's first smuggling flight departed from an airport in Welland, Ontario, a port of entry. Parmelee later decided that Welland was not a safe point of departure because it was a port of entry, where immigration officials were more likely to be present. Parmelee substituted Grimsby Air-park, a small airport which is not a port of entry, and arrived and departed from Grimsby when the airstrip was closed. Parmelee further admitted that he suspected that an investigation of his activities had been launched and he had discussed the possibility of using other airports to avoid surveillance. Although his co-conspirators declined to implement these suggestions themselves, they told Parmelee that he was free to use other airports at his own expense. Thus it is quite clear that Parmelee, as the pilot, had the authority to decide when and where to land the plane, and that his authority far exceeded that of a mere rank and file criminal.

. Five individuals were indicted for their participation in the alien smuggling operation. Even though Parmelee may not have had dealings with all five of his co-conspirators, he must still be characterized as a manager/supervisor. "[Tlhe plain language of § 3B1.1 (b) requires only that a defendant was a manager ‘and the criminal activity involved five or more participants' — not that a defendant managed, or controlled, the five or more participants.” United States v. McGuire, 957 F.2d 310, 316 (7th Cir.1992) (quoting U.S.S.G. § 3B 1.1(b)); see also United States v. Cantero, 995 F.2d 1407, 1414 (7th Cir.1993); United States v. Barnes, 993 F.2d 680, 685 (9th Cir.1993), cert. denied, - U.S. -, 115 S.Ct. 96, 130 L.Ed.2d 46 (1994) ("[w]hile an enhancement under section 3Bl.l(a) or (b) is proper only in a criminal activity involving more than five participants, there is no requirement ... that the defendant exercise authority over at least five participants before the enhancement can be applied”) (emphasis in original).

.Each illegal alien paid an average of $3,000 to be smuggled from Poland to the United States, of which Parmelee was paid $700 to $1,000 per alien. The short term cost of operating the plane was as little as $800 per trip. (Plea Synopsis at *4022). Parmelee argues that after paying the short-term and long-term costs of operating the plane, he received "only" $3,000 to $5,000 monthly as his share of the proceeds from the criminal operation. Nevertheless, this is a very substantial sum of money. Moreover, it must be kept in mind that Parmelee’s professed motive for joining the conspiracy was the chance to log flight time and thereby increase his pilot's rating. Consequently, the financial benefits Parmelee received from the criminal operation included not only his net earnings from each smuggling trip, but also the opportunity to log a large quantity of flying hours.

. I have serious doubts as to the validity of the majority's position. In Carson, we held that a defendant’s “ 'extensive management responsibilities over property, assets, or activities of the criminal organization [can] justiffy] increasing his offense level pursuant to § 3Bl.1(b),’" even if evidence that the defendant controlled others is slight. Carson, 9 F.3d at 592 (citation omitted). The majority’s position would permit the sentencing judge to take into account a defendant’s responsibility for managing things (e.g., a cargo of marijuana), but deny the judge any opportunity to consider the defendant’s responsibility for managing people (e.g., a cargo of illegal aliens).