Court Opinion

ID: 9738055
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-26 19:41:39.016485+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T07:24:03.448091
License: Public Domain

JUSTICE SIMON, dissenting: In the not so distant past a rape victim was forced to undergo an adjudicative ordeal equalling the horror of the original assault in order to bring her attacker to justice. (See Berger, Man’s Trial, Woman’s Tribulation: Rape Cases in the Courtroom, 77 Colum. L. Rev. 1 (1977).) Our legislature is to be commended for enacting a powerful rape shield law (Ill. Rev. Stat. 1985, ch. 38, par. 115 — 7), protecting the victim from humiliating accusations and inquiries into her past sexual history - as the price for testifying in a rape case. To further alleviate the duress of victims of rape, the legislature enacted the statute in issue in this case (Ill. Rev. Stat. 1985, ch. 110, par. 8 — 802.1), absolutely prohibiting disclosure of communications between rape victims and rape counselors unless the victim consents. In its zeal to erase the legal indignities suffered by victims of rape in the past, however, I believe the legislature has gone too far. To deem all communications between victim and counselor absolutely privileged impermissibly impinges upon a defendant’s constitutional rights to due process of law and confrontation of the witnesses against him. A balance must be struck between the rights of the accuser and the rights of the accused, in which the victim is shielded from needless intrusions into the rape-counseling process, without denying the defendant the right to discover and utilize information tending to exculpate him. Allowing, at a minimum, in camera inspection by the trial court of the communications between the rape crisis counselor and the victim would achieve the balance necessary to protect the interests of both parties. Most of the rules governing the conduct of litigation under our system of justice are designed to ensure that all relevant and reliable evidence is presented to the fact finder in an orderly manner so that there may be a true and fair resolution of each case. In contrast, privileges are designed to withhold certain evidence from the trier of fact, for the “protection of interests and relationships which *** are regarded as of sufficient social importance to justify some sacrifice of availability of evidence.” (E. Cleary, McCormick on Evidence §72, at 171 (3d ed. 1984).) As exceptions to the general rule of admissibility of all relevant evidence, privileges should be strictly limited and construed. See 8 J. Wigmore, Evidence in Trials at Common Law §2291, at 554 (1961) (“privilege remains an exception to the general duty to disclose. Its benefits are all indirect and speculative, its obstruction is plain and concrete. *** It ought to be strictly confined within the narrowest possible limits ***”); E. Cleary, McCormick on Evidence §79, at 192 (3d ed. 1984) (“privileges in general *** are inept and clumsy devices for promoting the policies they profess to serve, but are extremely effective as stumbling blocks to obstruct the attainment of justice ***, the movement should be toward restriction of these devices rather than their expansion”); United States v. Nixon (1974), 418 U.S. 683, 41 L. Ed. 2d 1039, 94 S. Ct. 3090 (as exceptions to the general rule of disclosure, privileges “are not lightly created nor construed, for they are in derogation of the search for truth”). In determining which interests and relationships should be protected by privilege, and to what extent they should be protected, courts and legislatures must balance the State’s interest in the privilege against the constraints the privilege places on the fair and effective administration of justice. In the present case, the State’s interest in providing confidential counseling services to the victims of rape must be weighed against the defendant’s constitutional rights to due process of law and to confrontation of witnesses against him. Although the State’s interest in this case is a strong one and undoubtedly justifies a statute conferring some privilege protection on counseling records (such as the prior Illinois statutue providing for in camera review (Ill. Rev. Stat., 1982 Supp., ch. 110, par. 8 — 802.1(c))), it is not strong enough to sustain an absolute privilege which renders meaningless the defendant's constitutional rights. Based on the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment, the United States Supreme Court has repeatedly refused to restrict a criminal defendant’s rights to obtain or introduce potentially exculpatory evidence. (See, e.g., Wardius v. Oregon (1973), 412 U.S. 470, 37 L. Ed. 2d 82, 93 S. Ct. 2208; Chambers v. Mississippi (1973), 410 U.S. 284, 35 L. Ed. 2d 297, 93 S. Ct. 1038; Washington v. Texas (1967), 388 U.S. 14, 18 L. Ed. 2d 1019, 87 S. Ct. 1920.) Where due process rights conflict with claims of privilege, the privilege must yield. In United States v. Nixon (1974), 418 U.S. 683, 41 L. Ed. 2d 1039, 94 S. Ct. 3090, President Richard Nixon sought to quash a subpoena seeking disclosure of certain materials in his possession which he claimed were protected by an absolute executive privilege. The President contended the privilege was based on the need for confidentiality of high-level governmental communications and on the doctrine of separation of powers. The Court acknowledged the necessity and validity of executive privilege but held that the policies underlying the privilege could not sustain an absolute immunity from judicial process. In reaching its conclusion, the Court noted that the Constitution “guarantees that no person shall be deprived of liberty without due process of law. It is the manifest duty of the courts to vindicate [this] guarantee[ ], and to accomplish that it is essential that all relevant and admissible evidence be produced. *** [T]he allowance of the privilege to withhold evidence that is demonstrably relevant in a criminal trial would cut deeply into the guarantee of due process of law and gravely impair the basic function of the courts.” Nixon, 418 U.S. at 711-12, 41 L. Ed. 2d at 1066, 94 S. Ct. 3109-10. Moreover, the withholding by the government of evidence “that is both favorable to the accused and material to guilt or punishment” violates a defendant’s due process rights. (Pennsylvania v. Ritchie (1987), 480 U.S. 39, 57, 94 L. Ed. 2d 40, 57, 107 S. Ct. 989, 1001; United States v. Agurs (1976), 427 U.S. 97, 49 L. Ed. 2d 342, 96 S. Ct. 2392; Brady v. Maryland (1963), 373 U.S. 83, 10 L. Ed. 2d 215, 83 S. Ct. 1194.) Evidence is “material to guilt or punishment” only if “ ‘there is a reasonable probability that, had the evidence been disclosed to the defense, the result of the proceeding would have been different. A “reasonable probability” is a probability sufficient to undermine confidence in the outcome.’ ” (Ritchie, 480 U.S. at 57, 94 L. Ed. 2d at 57, 107 S. Ct. at 1001, quoting United States v. Bagley (1985), 473 U.S. 667, 87 L. Ed. 2d 481, 105 S. Ct. 3375.) In Pennsylvania v. Ritehie (1987), 480 U.S. 39, 94 L. Ed. 2d 40, 107 S. Ct. 987, defendant sought review of the contents of a confidential child-abuse file protected by a statutory privilege in order to determine whether there were material facts contained therein which would enable defendant to cross-examine the key witness against him more effectively. A majority of the Court held that due process entitled the defendant to a remand for an in camera review of the file. Although the Court conceded that “the public interest in protecting this type of sensitive information is strong,” it concluded that the interest did not “necessarily prevent[ ] disclosure in all circumstances.” (Ritchie, 480 U.S. at 57, 94 L. Ed. 2d at 57, 107 S. Ct. at 1002.) Accordingly, the Court ordered that the case be remanded for the trial court to review the privileged file to determine whether it contained evidence favorable and material to the guilt of the defendant. The file at issue in Ritchie, however, was not protected by an absolute statutory privilege, but one which contemplated disclosure of the privileged information if so directed under court order. The Court specifically declined to express an opinion on what the result would be in a case where the information sought by the defendant was protected by an absolute statutory privilege. (Ritchie, 480 U.S. at 57 n.14, 94 L. Ed. 2d 57 n.14, 107 S. Ct. at 1002 n.14.) There is no indication, however, that the Court would find that even an absolute privilege would overcome a defendant’s due process rights, at least to an in camera review, under the circumstances of the present case. In both Nixon and Ritchie, the Court found that privileges based on compelling interests — protection of sensitive information concerning top-level affairs of state and abused children — were insufficient to overcome the defendant’s right to due process. The State interest in this case is no more compelling than the interests advanced in those cases. Furthermore, without review of the records, the threshold questions which determine whether a defendant’s due process rights have been violated — whether there is evidence in the file favorable to the defendant and material to his guilt or innocence — cannot be answered. As in Ritchie, “it is impossible to say whether any information in the *** records may be relevant to [the defendant’s] claim of innocence, because neither the prosecution nor defense counsel has seen the information.” (Ritchie, 480 U.S. at 57, 94 L. Ed. 2d at 57, 107 S. Ct. at 1002.) Therefore, like the defendant in Ritchie, defendant should at the very least be given the opportunity to have the trial court review in camera the records in question to determine whether they contain any favorable or material information which the government would be obligated under due process principles to turn over to the defendant. The second constitutional right of the defendant which may be impinged in a criminal proceeding by a witness’ invocation of a privilege against disclosure is the sixth amendment right of confrontation. This right guarantees a criminal defendant the right to confront the witnesses against him. An essential component of this right is the defendant’s right to cross-examine the witness. (Delaware v. Fensterer (1985), 474 U.S. 15, 88 L. Ed. 2d 15, 106 S. Ct. 292 (per curiam); Douglas v. Alabama (1965), 380 U.S. 415, 13 L. Ed. 2d 934, 85 S. Ct. 1074; Pointer v. Texas (1965), 380 U.S. 400, 13 L. Ed. 2d 923, 85 S. Ct. 1065.) The right to cross-examine includes the right to test the truth and reliability of a witness’ testimony, and to call into question his motives, biases, and credibility. (United States v. Abel (1984), 469 U.S. 45, 83 L. Ed. 2d 450, 105 S. Ct. 465; Ohio v. Roberts (1980), 448 U.S. 56, 65 L. Ed. 2d 597, 100 S. Ct. 2531; Alford v. United States (1931), 282 U.S. 687, 75 L. Ed. 624, 51 S. Ct. 218; Greene v. McElroy (1959), 360 U.S. 474, 3 L. Ed. 2d 1377, 79 S. Ct. 1400.) Recognizing the critical function cross-examination serves in a criminal defense, the Supreme Court has “scrupulously guarded against ‘restrictions imposed by law or by the trial court on the scope of cross-examination.’ ” (Ritchie, 480 U.S. at 66-67, 94 L. Ed. 2d at 63, 107 S. Ct. at 1007 (Brennan, J., dissenting), quoting Delaware v. Fensterer (1985), 474 U.S. 15, 88 L. Ed. 2d 15, 106 S. Ct. 292.) The confrontation clause does not guarantee, of course, that the defendant’s cross-examination will be effective, but only that defendant will be given “an opportunity for effective cross-examination.” (Emphasis in original.) Fensterer, 474 U.S. at 20, 88 L. Ed. 2d at 19, 106 S. Ct. at 295. In Ritchie a majority of the Court could not agree on the effect of the confrontation clause on a defendant’s right to pretrial discovery of privileged information concerning a government witness. A plurality of the Court thought that so long as a defendant is afforded full cross-examination of the witness at trial, the confrontation clause does not confer upon the defendant any rights to pretrial discovery to aid in that cross-examination. The view of Justices Powell and Brennan, however, was that unless the defendant is afforded pretrial discovery of relevant information pertaining to the witness, the guarantee of the opportunity for effective cross-ex-animation found in the confrontation clause is rendered meaningless. Justice Powell felt that in some cases simply cross-examining the witness at trial, without the benefit of specific information gained through pretrial discovery which could be used for impeachment, would be a useless exercise. In fact, if the defense counsel continued merely cross-examining the witness at length in such a situation, “the jury might well have thought that defense counsel was engaged in a speculative and baseless line of attack on the credibility of an apparently blameless witness,” leaving the defendant in a worse position than if no cross-examination at all were available. Ritchie, 480 U.S. at 64, 94 L. Ed. 2d at 61-62, 107 S. Ct. at 1005 (Blackmun, J., concurring); see also Ritchie, 480 U.S. at 71, 94 L. Ed. 2d at 66, 107 S. Ct. at 1009 (Brennan, J., dissenting) (“The creation of a significant impediment to the conduct of cross-examination thus undercuts the protections of the Confrontation Clause, even if that impediment is not erected at the trial itself. *** [T]he foreclosure of access to prior statements of the testifying victim deprived the defendant of material crucial to the conduct of cross-examination”). Because the plurality’s analysis of the confrontation clause issue in Ritchie does not constitute binding precedent, we must look to the Court’s earlier cases on the clash between the confrontation clause and claims of privilege for guidance. This brings us to the well-known Davis v. Alaska (1974), 415 U.S. 308, 39 L. Ed. 2d 347, 94 S. Ct. 1105, in which the defendant sought to use a government witness’ juvenile record to impeach the witness during cross-examination. The State contended that the State’s interest in protecting the anonymity of juvenile offenders outweighed the defendant’s interest in cross-examination. The Court rejected this argument, holding that the defendant’s sixth amendment right to confrontation outweighed the State’s interest in protecting juvenile offenders, and that to make cross-examination of the witness effective “defense counsel should have been permitted to expose to the jury the facts [from the witness’ privileged records] from which jurors, as the sole triers of fact and credibility, could appropriately draw inferences relating to the reliability of the witness.” (Davis, 415 U.S. at 318, 39 L. Ed. 2d at 355, 94 S. Ct. at 1111.) Even though the State argued that disclosure of juveniles’ records might cause “impairment of rehabilitative goals of juvenile correctional procedures” and juveniles might lose employment opportunities, the Court held that the right of confrontation is paramount. “Whatever temporary embarrassment might result to [the witness] or his family by disclosure of his juvenile record *** is outweighed by petitioner’s right to probe into the influence of possible bias in the testimony of a crucial identification witness. *** [The witness’ right] must fall before the right of the petitioner to seek out the truth in the process of defending himself.” (Davis, 415 U.S. at 319-20, 39 L. Ed. 2d at 355-56, 94 S. Ct. at 1112.) The Court concluded that “[t]he State’s policy interest in protecting the confidentiality of a juvenile offender’s record cannot require yielding of so vital a constitutional right as the effective cross-examination for bias of an adverse witness.” Davis, 415 U.S. at 320, 39 L. Ed. 2d at 356, 94 S. Ct. at 1112; see also Salazar v. State (Alaska 1976), 559 P.2d 66 (confrontation clause outweighs absolute marital privilege); State v. Hembd (1975), 305 Minn. 120, 232 N.W.2d 872 (confrontation rights outweigh physician-patient privilege). In this case, as in Davis, no amount of cross-examination of the witness could have been effective without access to and use of the privileged records. Without specific information from the records, defendant could not expose any inconsistencies in the witness’ story which may have been reflected in the version of the events she had previously given to the rape-counseling service. Therefore, by denying defendant pretrial access to the record, the defendant was denied even the opportunity for effective cross-examination in violation of the sixth amendment. Also, it is significant that in this case, as in Davis, the witness protected by the privilege was the crucial witness in the trial, upon whose testimony the jury was likely to reach its verdict. Denial of the opportunity for effective cross-examination of this crucial witness unquestionably could have impeded the defendant’s ability to present a defense. The majority makes much of the fact that unlike Davis, where the defendant knew the contents of the privileged record prior to trial, in the present case the defendant cannot specifically state what information in the rape victim’s counseling records would be useful in cross-examination: “The defendant’s request was merely general *** and was not supported by any allegations that material useful to the defense of this case was likely to be found in the files ***. *** [Defendant’s] request for an in camera inspection of the counseling records was merely general; he did not allege that information may exist in counseling files that would be subject to disclosure. *** [There was no] indication by the defendant that the victim’s communications with the counselor would provide a source of impeachment ***. *** [Defendant here has offered no reason to believe that the victim’s counseling records would provide a source of impeaching material ***.” (121 Ill. 2d at 347-50.) This approach locks the defendant into a perfect Catch-22 position: To gain access to the privileged records defendant must specifically allege what useful information may be contained in the records. However, defendant has no way of making these specific allegations until he has seen the contents of the records. Defendant here has advanced as detailed and specific a theory of the case as he is capable of formulating without access to the records. He has explained his version of the facts and his theory as to why the victim’s story differs from his, and has outlined exactly whát type of information he seeks. Defendant seeks only “specific communications recounting the offense itself” — any statements made by the witness explaining her version of the events on the night in question — so that defendant may compare this version with her in-court testimony. Short of using powers of telepathy, defendant has no other method by which to gather more specific information about what might be in the counseling service’s records and how this information could be useful to him. Defendant should not be penalized for not being as lucky as the defendant in Davis, who already knew the contents of the privileged records in issue. Furthermore, the State interest in the asserted privilege which must be weighed against defendant’s constitutional rights is no more compelling in this case than in Davis. In Davis, although the juvenile witness stood to suffer damage to his reputation and employment possibilities through the discovery of the protected juvenile records, the Court found this insufficient to overcome defendant’s right to cross-examination. Here there is even less possibility than in Davis that the witness will be injured by disclosure of the privileged material. If the in camera procedure the defendant suggests were utilized, only the trial court would review the records, and upon review the court might find no information that it deemed necessary to disclose to the defendant. Even if the trial court were to find information that it felt should be disclosed to the defendant for use in cross-examination, it could pertain only to the facts of the incident, not to the witness’ feelings or any part of the counseling process. Similarly, the cross-examination using such information would be limited to impeachment of the witness based on inconsistencies between the facts related to the counseling service and later versions of those same facts. There can be no embarrassing cross-examination about the witness’ past sexual history, as such cross-examination is prohibited by the Illinois rape shield law. Thus, the only likely embarrassment and damage to reputation the witness might suffer as a result of defendant’s cross-examination based on the protected records is damage to the witness’ reputation for veracity or bias. A State witness in a criminal trial should never be shielded from this type of damage, as such damage is the very essence of effective cross-examination. It has always been permissible and critical to the defense in a criminal trial to draw into question the witness’ credibility. In summary, when the defendant’s rights to due process and confrontation are weighed against the State’s interest in the absolute confidentiality of the witness’ records, it is clear to me that the State’s interest must yield. The statute enacted by the legislature, cloaking communications between rape victims and rape counselors in an absolute privilege, is unconstitutional. Numerous other courts have reached similar conclusions. (See, e.g., In re Robert H. (1986), 199 Conn. 693, 509 A.2d 475; In re Pittsburgh Action Against Rape (1981), 454 Pa. 15, 428 A.2d 126; Advisory Opinion to the House of Representatives (R.I. 1983), 469 A.2d 1161; Commonwealth v. Two Juveniles (1986), 397 Mass. 261, 491 N.E.2d 234; People v. Pena (1985), 127 Misc. 2d 1057, 487 N.Y.S. 935.) In addition, the Supreme Court has made clear that blanket privileges restricting the admission of relevant evidence, such as the one imposed in this case, are disfavored. See, e.g., United States v. Nixon (1974), 418 U.S. 683, 41 L. Ed. 2d 1039, 94 S. Ct. 3090 (rejecting absolute executive privilege); Trammel v. United States (1979), 445 U.S. 40, 63 L. Ed. 2d 186, 100 S. Ct. 906 (rejecting absolute marital or spousal immunity). This is not to say, however, that defendant should have unlimited access to the counseling records. The rights of both the victim and the defendant can be adequately protected by recognition of a more limited privilege under which records could be reviewed for relevant evidence in camera by the trial court only. Such a procedure ensures continued confidentiality for the victim while protecting defendant’s rights to due process and confrontation. The Supreme Court has repeatedly endorsed the use of in camera proceedings as a means of simultaneously protecting sensitive information and the defendant’s rights. Pennsylvania v. Ritchie (1987), 480 U.S. 39, 57, 94 L. Ed. 2d 40, 57, 107 S. Ct. 989, 1001; United States v. Nixon (1974), 418 U.S. 683, 41 L. Ed. 2d 1039, 94 S. Ct. 3090. The majority rejects in camera review, contending that “to abrogate the privilege in this case would require its abrogation in every case.” (121 Ill. 2d at 349.) This is undoubtedly true, as defendants would be sure to demand an in camera inspection of counseling records in every rape case, in the hope of obtaining information valuable in impeaching the witness. This is a small price to pay, however, to adequately protect the constitutional rights of a defendant whose liberty is at stake. Trial courts utilize in camera proceedings quite frequently, and any additional burden imposed on the trial courts is completely justified when viewed in light of the possible consequences to the defendant resulting from a rape conviction. In addition, the concern that in camera review of the counseling records would negatively affect the therapeutic relationship between the victim and the counselor is not well founded. Neither the thoughts and feelings of the victim, nor the comments of the counselor, would be exposed as a result of an in camera review. The trial court would be looking for, and disclosing to the defendant if necessary, only the facts of the alleged incident as communicated by the victim to the counselor. Such a minimal intrusion should have little, if any, chilling effect on the therapeutic relationship. Finally, although the majority opinion upholds the absolute statutory privilege for rape-counseling communications under the facts of this case, it appears to concede that the privilege is really only a limited one. Emphasizing that defendant failed to allege specific proof that the privileged records would provide a source of impeachment and that the defendant had access to other statements made by the witness which might be used for impeachment, the majority concludes that “the privilege was [not] required to be breached in this case.” (Emphasis added.) (121 Ill. 2d at 349.) The majority’s clear suggestion is that if, like the defendant in Davis, defendant “knew of specific information that could show bias or motive to fabricate on the part of the prosecution witness, and *** had no other means of achieving that end,” defendant would be entitled to access to the privileged records. If, as the majority suggests, access to privileged records would be possible under these circumstances, then it should be equally available to all defendants. Otherwise the privilege would discriminate unfairly against defendants who are not fortunate enough to have access before trial to protected records. For these reasons, I respectfully dissent. I believe that section 8 — 802.1 of the Code of Civil Procedure (Ill. Rev. Stat. 1985, ch. 110, par. 8 — 802.1) is unconstitutional and that defendant is entitled, at a minimum, to an in camera inspection by the trial court of the rape counseling service’s records. If the in camera review revealed pertinent information, defendant would be entitled to a new trial.