Court Opinion

ID: 9491986
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-08-05 14:29:34.099989+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T17:55:03.151234
License: Public Domain

BOGGS, Circuit Judge,
dissenting.
I disagree that we should consider this policy language to be ambiguous. I also believe that even if we treat it as ambiguous, Blaine’s interpretation is not a reasonable one. Therefore, I dissent.
I
For some reason, Blaine conceded at oral argument in the district court that the policy was unambiguous and did not attempt to argue otherwise. INA started the discussion with the following statement: “The cases indicate that they’re required to point to an ambiguity. What they’ve given the Court here is a strained interpretation. They haven’t pled an ambiguity; they haven’t proven an ambiguity; they haven’t indicated any evidence of an ambiguity.” (Transcript of oral argument at 11). Blaine’s response to this was as follows: “[W]e’ve not argued that there is an ambiguity, your Honor. Quite often we don’t think the policy is ambiguous. We think the policy clearly says what we say it says.” Id. at 15.
The district court relied on this concession in its opinion. The majority concludes that this reliance was improper. If Blaine wanted to abandon its advantage, however, why should the district court have stopped it? This is not an issue like subject-matter jurisdiction, which we either have or do not have, regardless of concessions or agreement by the parties. A plaintiff must come into court and specify the relief it wishes to receive. When a plaintiff, through counsel, does not ask for all that it is entitled to, it is not the duty of the court to second guess counsel. To be sure, the district court could have refused to accept the parties’ agreement on this matter, but I do not think that we should hold, as we do today, that the district court must do so. To put this another way, Blaine is raising on appeal an issue that it did not raise before the district court, and we should not “reverse” the district court for failing to make a decision that it had no reason to make. Although we often state that we may affirm on grounds different than those relied upon by the district court (an extension of the concept of harmless error), I do not think we can reverse on grounds not presented below.
II
This point is ultimately irrelevant to me, however, because I do not believe that the policy is ambiguous. A policy is ambiguous only when it supports more than one reasonable interpretation, see Smith v. Shelby Ins. Co. of Shelby Ins. Group, 936 *355S.W.2d 261, 263 (Tenn.App.1996), and I do not believe that Blaine’s interpretation is reasonable.
A
This case illustrates the peril of lawyers citing dictionaries. Dictionaries are designed to be comprehensive, but the meaning of words is dependent on context, and individual definitions in a dictionary do not always offer context. To take an extreme analogy to Blame’s technique here, let us assume that I had an insurance policy that excluded coverage for any injury caused by a dog. One day, after being attacked by an irascible pooch, I decide that it would be nice to have the insurance company pay my medical bills. But what of the troublesome exclusion in the policy? No worry. I turn to my dictionary and note that “dog” is defined as an andiron. American Heritage Dictionary 414 (2d ed.1982). Eureka! Being a good lawyer, I search for more support, and find it in the OED. See 4 Oxford ENGlish Dictionary 922 (2d ed.1989) (referred to below as OED). I can now confidently proclaim that there is (to use Blaine’s term) a “consistent and uniform treatment” of the term “dog,” which clearly means “andiron.” I can even cite several cases in which injuries are caused by andirons. See, e.g., People v. DiMarcantonio, 117 A.D.2d 612, 498 N.Y.S.2d 160, 161 (N.Y.App.Div.1986); Vaughn v. State, 52 Ala.App. 377, 292 So.2d 671, 672 (1974), rev’d, 293 Ala. 365, 304 So.2d 6 (Ala.1974); State v. Silva, 153 Me. 89, 134 A.2d 628, 632 (Me.1957), overruled by State v. Brewer, 505 A.2d 774 (Me.1985).
Admittedly, Blaine’s argument is not quite as unreasonable as the hypothetical one I offer here. Indeed, my two brethren think that Blaine’s interpretation is reasonable, and I would not question their sagacity. However, Blaine’s selective quotation of reference sources, purportedly to offer a “consistent and uniform treatment,” is no less illogical than in the andiron example. This attempt to ignore context (indeed, to deny it) is unreasonable. The fact that at least one favorable definition of a word exists should not end an inquiry as to the meaning of that term in a contract. This is true whether we are defining a dog or a damp atmosphere.
B
So what does “dampness of atmosphere” mean?
First, we should consider what Blaine must demonstrate in order to win this appeal. The majority has overlooked something fundamental in this regard. To prevail, Blaine must do more than show us that “dampness of atmosphere” can mean outdoor humidity. It must show us that “dampness of atmosphere” cannot mean indoor humidity. The damage done in this case is covered by the insurance policy only if the latter is a reasonable interpretation. Put another way, if Blaine can reasonably contend that “dampness of atmosphere” means only outdoor humidity, it wins. If all it can do is to reasonably contend that “dampness of atmosphere” also means outdoor humidity, it cannot win.
Consider the dog/andiron example. Anyone making that argument would deserve to be laughed out of court, but not because “dog” cannot mean “andiron.” Even though that interpretation is probably not contextually “reasonable,” this tells us nothing about what the policy does mean. Being bitten by a neighborhood mutt is excluded from the hypothetical policy because any reasonable interpretation of the word “dog” in the policy must include members of the species Cams fami-liaris. Furthermore, if I am bitten by a mutt, I cannot prevail by saying that among the things that are called “dog” are Dandie Dinmont Terriers, a breed of which the mutt was not a member. Nor can I reasonably say that since “dog” is also used to mean a male dog, in distinction to a bitch, see 4 OED 921, def. 2, that I am still covered by the policy so long as the *356dog that damages me is a female (unless of course the policy gives us a contextual basis to so interpret the word “dog”). Rather, I must show that it is reasonable to interpret the insurance exclusion so as to exclude mutts or bitches. A mutt may not be a Dandie Dinmont, and a bitch may be female, but it is unreasonable to say that either of these is not a dog. Similarly, indoor humidity may not be outdoor humidity, but it is unreasonable to say that it is not “dampness of atmosphere.”
C
My last statement requires proof. Luckily, there is ample evidence not just that no reasonable definition of “dampness of atmosphere” may exclude indoor humidity, but furthermore that indoor humidity is the most common meaning of the term. More exactly, the most common use of “atmosphere,” when used in conjunction with a term like “dampness,” is to refer to the air in an particular place, whether outdoors or indoors. The distinction Blaine draws is thus not supported by typical usage.
My earlier attack regarding the use of dictionaries in cases such as this should not be taken to mean that I find dictionaries useless in interpreting insurance contracts. Rather, I am frustrated with their mis-use, through selective quotation. What follows is my attempt to undo this insult, and thus to do right by the dictionary.
The most definitive dictionary of the English language is the Oxford English Dictionary. Not only does the OED attempt to list every word used in the English language in the last thousand years, it attempts to provide every definition that each word has had. More importantly, for our purposes, it also offers quotations, using each definition in context.
“Atmosphere” has two relevant definitions, among the many listed in order of their entry into the language:
lb. The mass of aeriform fluid surrounding the earth; the whole body of terrestrial air [first listed use 1677].
5. The air in any particular place, esp. as affected in its condition by heat, cold, purifying or contaminating influences, etc.; = AIR sb. 4 [first listed use 1767],
1 OED 750 (2d ed.). Definition 5, which is clearly the better of the two, given the context of the insurance policy and its reference to “dampness,” draws no distinction between outdoor and indoor air. It is thus unreasonable to define “dampness of atmosphere” so as to exclude indoor air.
In determining the meaning of “atmosphere” in the context of dampness, I turn again to the OED for several helpful quotations. “What follows are all of the places in the OED where some form of the word “damp” is used with some form of the word “atmosphere” in a quotation, reproduced as they appear in the OED [year of the citation in bold]:
1887 H.E.F. Garnsey tr. A. de Bary’s Compar. Morphol. & Biol. Fungi iii. 89 As long as the Fungus remains shut up in the damp atmosphere no amount of shaking will cause it to puff. [12 OED 796; puff, v., Id.]
1882 Garden 11 Mar. 168/2 A damp, cool atmosphere, with little artificial heat, causes the flowers to spot. [16 OED 324; spot, v., I.3.]
cl900 Buck’s Handbk. Med. Sci. III. 265 (Cent.Dict.Suppl.) Damp soil serves to keep the super-ambient atmosphere damp. [17 OED 206; super-ambient, prefix, I.2.]
1934 E. Little Mod. Rhythmic Drumming (rev. ed.) 26 No outfit is complete without at least one tomtom. The ‘tune-able’ models are the best, because any dampness in the atmosphere can be counteracted by the use of the tension-ing handles. [18 OED 668; tunable, a., 2.]
*3571855 Orr’s Circ. Sci, Inorg. Nat. 215 The resulting lime..sets rapidly in a damp atmosphere, and even under water. [18 OED 948; under, prep., I.4e.] 1766 Smollett Trav. xi. I. 174, I have always found a cold and damp atmosphere the most unfavorable of any to my constitution. [19 OED 15; unfavorable, a., lb.]
All of these quotations use “atmosphere” in the sense of Definition 5 rather than Definition lb. None of them imply that there is any per se distinction between indoor and outdoor air in the use of the term “atmosphere,” as though the word could mean the latter but not the former. Four of the six quotations can be read as discussing indoor air, and at least two definitely are.
Its definitiveness notwithstanding, the OED is not the last place to look in understanding how a term is used. Indeed, modern databases offer a good opportunity to do exhaustive and comprehensive research in this regard. What follows is the result of a search of-all of the American cases contained in Westlaw (fifty-four in total) in which some form of the word “damp” appears within five words of some form of the word “atmosphere,” and there is some hint as to the meaning of the phrase.
In fifty-one of the fifty-four cases, “atmosphere” is used in the sense of OED Definition 5, rather than Definition lb. (In the other three, this is less clear, but there are important distinguishing factors.) That is, in almost every case, the “atmosphere” referred to is the air in a particular place, sometimes outdoors and sometimes indoors. In twenty-six of the cases, the damp atmosphere is definitely indoors.1 In another eight cases, it is unclear where the damp atmosphere is, but it is clearly the air surrounding a particular place.2 In seventeen cases, the damp at*358mosphere is outside, but it is localized and is being discussed because of its effect on activities that only occur outdoors.3 Two of the cases cited above 'involve insurance language (and the same defendant), and both use Definition 5.4
In the three cases that remain, the reference to damp atmosphere relates to the weather in general. In two of them, however, the reference is to “the atmosphere,” a distinction that will be discussed more below. Reames v. Jones Dry Goods Co., 99 Mo.App. 396, 73 S.W. 935, 938 (Mo.Ct. App.1903) (Ellison, J., concurring); Simmons v. Prudential Ins. Co., 269 A.D. 1048, 58 N.Y.S.2d 578, 579 (N.Y.App.Div.1945). In the third, a ceiling was damaged when it was exposed to the “damp outdoor atmosphere” because windows were kept open. Cackowski v. Jack A. Halprin, Inc., 133 Conn. 631, 53 A.2d 649, 651 (Conn.1947) (emphasis added).
These cases thus show that it is unreasonable to define “dampness of atmosphere” in a way that excludes Definition 5.5 The court’s opinion has given me no *359reason to conclude otherwise. With respect to the court’s argument at page 20,1 reiterate that the conflict is not between two mutually exclusive definitions. It is not that Blaine says “atmosphere” means only the outside air and INA says that it means only the inside air around a particular place. Instead, the conflict is that INA says that atmosphere can mean air that is either outside or inside, whereas Blaine can only prevail if a reasonable interpretation is to exclude indoor air altogether. On that dichotomy, the authorities cited support the view that there is no ambiguity-
Contrary to the argument made by Blaine below, cited at page 9, INA’s interpretation of its own language does not exclude all water damage, nor does INA wish to do so. If someone played a fire-hose on the walls of the building, or if water spurting from a broken hydrant caused the damage, even by rendering the walls “damp,” INA’s language would not exclude coverage. However, had INA chosen the language suggested by the court, at pages 15 — 16, such damage would be excluded. Thus, if INA wanted to express its carefully considered wishes, the language it chose does the job nicely.
D
Finally, I would like to explain further why the remainder of Blaine’s argument is unconvincing to me, and why INA’s arguments are more availing. Blaine cites pollution cases in which discharges into the atmosphere have been limited to those into outside am. See, e.g., Lumbermen’s Mut. Cas. Co. v. S-W Indus. Inc., 39 F.3d 1324, 1336 (6th Cir.1994) (holding that policy was meant to protect against liability for damages to neighbors and governmental environmental agencies, not indoor injuries from toxic materials). Indeed, pollution cases involving general-liability policies with exclusions for discharges “into the atmosphere” use Definition lb fairly uniformly. See, e.g., Gamble Farm Inn, Inc. v. Selective Ins. Co., 440 Pa.Super. 501, 656 A.2d 142, 145 (Pa.Super.1995); Continental Cas. Co. v. Rapid-American Corp., 80 N.Y.2d 640, 593 N.Y.S.2d 966, 609 N.E.2d 506, 512 (N.Y.1993); Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp. v. Allstate Ins. Co., 74 Ohio Misc.2d 144, 660 N.E.2d 746, 754 (Ohio Com.Pl.1993); United States Fidelity & Guar. Co. v. Wilkin Insulation Co., 144 Ill.2d 64, 161 Ill.Dec. 280, 578 N.E.2d 926, 933 (Ill.1991); see also Essex Ins. Co. v. Avondale Mills, Inc., 639 So.2d 1339, 1341-42 (Ala.1994); Bd. of Regents of University of Minnesota v. Royal Ins. Co. of America, 517 N.W.2d 888, 892-93 (Minn.1994).
But, as INA notes, invoking context, this case does not involve a general-liability policy, in which coverage is given for damage inflicted upon others. Rather, it is an all-risk policy covering damage suffered by the insured. This makes an “internal” interpretation of “atmosphere” more appropriate. Furthermore, the exclusion here is not for discharges into the atmosphere, which implies outdoors, but rather for dampness of atmosphere, which is neutral at best. In a case closer to this, Aetna Cas. & Sur. Co. v. Yates, 344 F.2d 939 (5th *360Cir.1965), the Fifth Circuit considered the exclusions in an all-risk policy. The policyholder in the case suffered damage when a combination of inadequate ventilation and air conditioning caused condensation and rotting in a crawl space. See id. at 940. An exclusion for “[l]oss caused by ... rot, mould or other fungi; dampness of atmosphere, extremes of temperature; contamination; vermin, termites, moths or other insects” was held to apply, even when read in conjunction with an un-exclusion for water damage, and even with ambiguities construed against the insurer. Id. at 940-41. The court relied on both the “rot” and “dampness of atmosphere” provisions, and took as a given (without saying so) that “atmosphere” included indoor air. Id. at 941; see also Clark v. Barnwell, 53 U.S. (12 How.) 272, 283, 13 L.Ed. 985 (1851) (referring to “dampness of the atmosphere” in a ship’s hold).
To the extent that Blaine’s argument from the pollution cases proves anything, it proves that context is essential. It is no accident that all of Blaine’s cases involve third-party liability for discharges of pollution. It is also no accident that all of Blaine’s cases involve insurance policies that refer to “the atmosphere” (implying the singularity of the OED’s definition lb rather than the more multiplicitous definition 5) and none of which refer to “dampness.” If the policy in this case had excluded damage from “pollution released into the atmosphere,” I would agree with the cases that Blaine cites, and vote to hold that “the atmosphere” could reasonably be interpreted as meaning only the air outside the building in question. But the policy does not say that. It speaks of a different context, one of dampness, and Blaine and the majority are extending an interpretation from the pollution context, where it makes sense and has been neatly contained until today, to the dampness context, where it makes no sense.
The majority is propounding an unreasonable interpretation of the “dampness of atmosphere” exclusion, and I must dissent from its reversal of the judgment in favor of INA.
Ill
I concur with the majority’s rejection of INA’s cross-appeal.

. In the following 26 cases, the dampness of atmosphere is clearly inside. In 17, the damp atmosphere is inside a building. See Aetna Cas. & Surety Co. v. Yates, 344 F.2d 939, 941 (5th Cir.1965); Universal Film Mfg. Co. v. Copperman, 218 F. 577, 580 n. 1 (2d Cir.1914) (conditions for storing film); Wills v. Scranton Cold Storage & Warehouse Co., 153 F. 181, 182 (3d Cir.1907); Application of Spiller, 500 F.2d 1170, 1171 (C.C.P.A.1974) (conditions around paper-producing machine); Saltex Looms v. Collins & Aikman Corp., 43 F.Supp. 914, 921 (S.D.N.Y.1942) (affecting carpet); Worden v. Ordway, 105 Idaho 719, 672 P.2d 1049, 1050 (Idaho 1983); State v. Reaser, 93 Kan. 628, 145 P. 838, 839 (Kan.1915) (coal mine); Taylor v. Security Indust. Ins. Co., 454 So.2d 1260, 1262 (La.Ct.App.1984); Gureasko v. Polders, 111 So.2d 580, 581 (La.Ct.App.1959) (conditions inside house, possibly under construction); Damkroger v. Pearson, 74 Minn. 77, 76 N.W. 960, 960 (Minn.1898); Mautner v. Terminal Warehouse Co., 25 Misc. 729, 55 N.Y.S. 603, 605 (1899); Merrimon v. Postal Telegraph-Cable Co., 207 N.C. 101, 176 S.E. 246, 246 (N.C.1934); Lacey v. Washburn & Williams Co., 105 Pa.Super. 43, 160 A. 455, 457 (Pa.Super.Ct.1932), rev'd, 309 Pa. 574, 164 A. 724 (Pa.1933); Ferance v. Forestdale Mfg. Co., 36 R.I. 154, 89 A. 339, 341 (R.I.1914); Overt v. State, 97 Tex.Crim. 202, 260 S.W. 856, 857 (Tex.Crim.App.1924) (flour weight fluctuation); Wakefield v. Levin, 118 Vt. 392, 110 A.2d 712, 715 (Vt.1955) (vestibule/foyer); Marcott v. Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry., 147 Wis. 216, 133 N.W. 37, 37, 39 (Wis.1911).
In nine more cases, the damp atmosphere is inside a ship’s hold. See McKinlay v. Morrish, 62 U.S. (21 How.) 343, 345; 16 L.Ed. 100 (1858) (syllabus); The Martha, 53 U.S. (12 How.) 347, 355, 13 L.Ed. 1017 (1851); Clark v. Barnwell, 53 U.S. (12 How.) 272, 279-83, 13 L.Ed. 985 (1851); Bernier v. Phipps, 61 F. 1014, 1022 (4th Cir.1894); Neidlinger v. Insurance Co., 11 F. 514, 515 (C.C.E.D.N.Y. 1880) (syllabus); United States v. Westchester Fire Ins. Co., 154 F.Supp. 827, 833 (S.D.N.Y.1957); The J.L. Luckenbach, 209 F. 142, 143 (N.D.Cal.1913); Wolff v. The Vaderland, 18 F. 733, 738 (S.D.N.Y.1883); The Blue Jacket, 3 F. Cas. 748, 749 (E.D.N.Y.1879).

. Three of the cases involve medical restrictions on disabled people. See Starvis v. Finch, 315 F.Supp. 854, 857 (W.D.Pa.1970); United States v. Riggins, 8 C.M.R. 496, 507, 1952 WL 2662 (A.B.R.1952); Pocahontas Fuel Co. v. Barbour, 201 Va. 682, 112 S.E.2d 904, 906 (Va.1960).
The remaining five cases do not make it clear whether the damp atmosphere is inside or outside, but, as in the other cases, the dampness is relevant only because the air is in a certain place. See Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co. v. Union Carbide Co., 117 F. 495, 498 *358(2d Cir.1902) (telegraph coils immersed in oil to protect them from damp atmosphere); Nippon Fire & Marine Ins. Co. v. M.V. Egasco Star, 899 F.Supp. 164, 166 n. 3 (S.D.N.Y. 1995) (paper on ship damaged by “being in a very humid/damp/moist atmosphere”); Columbia Chem. Works v. Rutherford, 58 F. 787, 789 (C.C.E.D.N.Y.1893) (effect on detergent); Freeman & Turner News Co. v. Mencken, 115 Ga. 1017, 42 S.E. 369, 371 (Ga.1902) (local conditions; worms and bugs in tobacco; could also be indoors); Thomas v. City of Somerset, 97 S.W. 420, 420 (Ky.Ct.1906) (inside candy booth).

.Shinrone, Inc. v. Insurance Co. of North America, 570 F.2d 715, 716—17 (8th Cir.1978) (muddy and snowy conditions that killed several calves); Louisville & Cincinnati Packet Co. v. United Coal Co., 223 F. 300, 301 (6th Cir.1915) (local weather affecting visibility from ship); Musselwhite v. Receivers, 17 F. Cas. 1070 (C.C.E.D.Va. 1882) (No. 9972) (local weather affecting railroad spark fire) (syllabus); Turbeville v. Mobile Light & R.R. Co., 221 Ala. 91, 127 So. 519, 523 (Ala.1930) (local weather affecting driving); Central R.R. v. Denson, 84 Ga. 774, 11 S.E. 1039, 1041 (Ga.1890) (local weather; affecting sound of train); Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. Co. v. Scantland, 151 Ind. 488, 51 N.E. 1068, 1070 (Ind.1898) (local weather; affecting settling of sparks); Chicago & Erie R.R. Co. v. Kreig, 22 Ind.App. 393, 53 N.E. 1033, 1036 (Ind.App.1899) (local weather affecting settling of sparks); Manning v. Fortenberry Drilling Co., 107 So.2d 713, 717 (La.Ct.App.1958) (local weather affecting driving); Fitzpatrick v. Kansas City Southern Ry., 347 Mo. 57, 146 S.W.2d 560, 562 (Mo.1940) (atmosphere was “damp, foggy and smoky in the vicinity of the bridge and crossing, but elsewhere clear”); Holman v. Athens Empire Laundry Co., 149 Ga. 345, 100 S.E. 207, 209 (Ga.1919) (local weather causing soot from next door to settle); Baltimore & Ohio R.R. Co. v. State ex rel. Black, 107 Md. 642, 69 A. 439, 444 (Md.Ct.App.1908) (local weather affecting sound of train); Kamo Elec. Coop. v. Cushard, 416 S.W.2d 646, 657 (Mo.Ct.App.1967) (conditions near power line affecting potential for arcing); Person v. City of Independence, 114 S.W.2d 175, 177 (Mo.Ct.App.1938) (local weather allowing for extra stink); Palmer v. Reeves & Co., 139 Mo.App. 473, 122 S.W. 1119, 1121 (Mo.Ct.App.1909) (local weather affecting clover); Kill v. Summitt Drilling Co., 153 Okla. 197, 5 P.2d 346, 351 (Okla.1931) (conditions near oil rig); Lieuallen v. Mosgrove, 37 Or. 446, 61 P. 1022, 1024 (Ore. 1900) (local weather affecting fire igniting); Union Planters’ Bank & Trust Co. v. Memphis Hotel Co., 124 Xenn. 649, 139 S.W. 715, 716 (Tenn.1911) (local weather causing soot from next door to settle).

. See Shinrone, Inc. v. Insurance Co., 570 F.2d 715 (8th Cir.1978) (assumed to apply to muddy snowy conditions that killed several calves, though the jury held in favor of the insured); Aetna Cas. & Surety Co. v. Yates, 344 F.2d 939, 941 (5th Cir.1965) ("dampness of atmosphere had produced the condition in which the fungi could grow.... ”).