Court Opinion

ID: 9839377
Source: CourtListenerOpinion
Date Created: 2023-09-12 21:12:34.773435+00
Date Added: 2024-06-11T09:20:15.654116
License: Public Domain

IN THE COURT OF APPEALS OF NORTH CAROLINA

                                 No. COA22-261

                             Filed 12 September 2023

Wake County, No. 21 CVS 7438

DUSTIN MICHAEL MCKINNEY, GEORGE JEREMY MCKINNEY and JAMES
ROBERT TATE, Plaintiffs,

            v.

GARY SCOTT GOINS and THE GASTON COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION,
Defendants.

      Appeal by Plaintiffs and Intervenor State of North Carolina from an order

entered 20 December 2021 by Judges R. Gregory Horne and Imelda J. Pate, with

Judge Martin B. McGee dissenting, in Wake County Superior Court. Heard in the

Court of Appeals 6 June 2023.

      Lanier Law Group, P.A., by Donald S. Higley, II, Robert O. Jenkins, and Lisa
      Lanier, for Plaintiffs-Appellants.

      Attorney General Joshua H. Stein, by Solicitor General Ryan Y. Park, Deputy
      Solicitor General Nicholas S. Brod, Solicitor General Fellow Zachary W. Ezor,
      and Special Deputy Attorney General Orlando L. Rodriguez, for Intervenor-
      Appellant State of North Carolina.

      Brooks, Pierce, McLendon, Humphrey & Leonard, L.L.P., by Elizabeth Lea
      Troutman, Robert J. King, III, Jill R. Wilson, and Lindsey S. Barber, for
      Defendant-Appellee Gaston County Board of Education.

      No brief filed by Defendant-Appellee Gary Scott Goins.

      Fox Rothschild LLP, by Troy D. Shelton, for Amici Curiae Student Victims of
      Sexual Abuse.
                                MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Opinion of the Court

      Troutman Pepper Hamilton Sanders LLP, by Joshua D. Davey and Mary K.
      Grob, for Amicus Curiae Roman Catholic Diocese of Charlotte, North Carolina.

      Wilder Pantazis Law Group, by Sam McGee, for Amicus Curiae CHILD USA.

      Tharrington Smith, L.L.P., by Deborah R. Stagner, for Amicus Curiae North
      Carolina School Boards Association.

      Nelson Mullins Riley & Scarborough, LLP, by Lorin J. Lapidus, G. Gray
      Wilson, Denise M. Gunter, and Martin M. Warf, and Bell, Davis & Pitt, P.A.,
      by Kevin G. Williams, for Amicus Curiae Young Men’s Christian Association of
      Northwest North Carolina d/b/a Kernersville Family YMCA.

      RIGGS, Judge.

      Plaintiffs Dustin Michael McKinney, George Jeremy McKinney, and James

Robert Tate, along with Intervenor-Appellant State of North Carolina, appeal from

an order entered by a divided three-judge panel in Wake County dismissing Plaintiffs’

complaint under Rule 12(b)(6) of the North Carolina Rules of Civil Procedure. The

majority below dismissed Plaintiffs’ complaint on the rationale that the Sexual

Assault Fast reporting and Enforcement Act (the “SAFE Child Act”)—which revived

Plaintiffs’ civil claims for child sexual abuse after expiration of the statute of

limitations—was facially unconstitutional as violating due process rights protected

by the “Law of the Land” clause in Article I, Section 19 of the North Carolina

Constitution. See 2019 N.C. Sess. Laws 1231, 1235, ch. 245, sec. 4.2.(b) (“Effective

from January 1, 2020, until December 31, 2021, this section revives any civil action

for child sexual abuse otherwise time-barred under G.S. 1-52 as it existed

                                        -2-
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

immediately before the enactment of this act.”); N.C. Const. art. I, § 19 (“No person

shall be taken, imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold, liberties, or privileges, or

outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner deprived of his life, liberty, or property, but by

the law of the land.”).

      Defendant Gaston County Board of Education (the “Board”)—who, per the

complaint in this case, failed to protect the children in its care from a sexually abusive

employee over a period of years—asks us to elevate a purely procedural statute of

limitations defense into an inviolable constitutional right to be free from any civil

liability for whatever misdeeds would be provable at trial. But affording all statutes

of limitation that exceptional status is nowhere required by the constitutional text,

nor is it mandated by the precedents of our Supreme Court. Because adopting the

Board’s position would require us to strike down as unconstitutional a duly enacted

statute of our General Assembly and disregard the narrowly crafted legislation

designed to address a stunningly pressing problem affecting vulnerable children

across the state, we decline to convert an affirmative defense into a free pass for those

who engaged in and covered up atrocious child sexual abuse. After careful review,

we reverse the trial court and remand for further proceedings not inconsistent with

this opinion.

                I.   FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY

A. Underlying Abuse of Plaintiffs

                                          -3-
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

      The allegations of the complaint, taken as true for purposes of review at the

12(b)(6) stage, establish the following:

      Plaintiffs were all high school students and members of the East Gaston High

School wrestling team at different times during the mid-1990s and early 2000s. All

were coached by Defendant Gary Scott Goins, who physically and sexually assaulted

each of the boys during their pre-teen and/or teenage years.         Defendant Goins

desensitized his victims to sex, used foul language, and exposed them to vulgarity

and pornography. He further engaged in acts of physical violence, psychological

harm, and sexual abuse. On trips to tournaments and other team events, Defendant

Goins precluded Plaintiffs from travelling or rooming with their parents so that he

could sexually assault them without raising suspicion. Plaintiffs suffered lasting

psychological harm—including post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression,

and/or substance abuse issues—as a result of Defendant Goins’ illegal acts.

      The Board, Defendant Goins’ employer, received numerous complaints

concerning his physical abuse of wrestlers under his tutelage. The Board, however,

made no corrective action in response to these reports, electing instead to dismiss

them after minimal investigation. Nor did the Board properly supervise Defendant

Goins’ activities to protect Plaintiffs from his abuse, including while in school

facilities, travelling on school vehicles, and during overnight trips sanctioned by the

Board.

                                           -4-
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

      In 2014, Defendant Goins was convicted of the following offenses in connection

with his sexual abuse of wrestlers on the East Gaston High School wrestling team:

(1) two counts of statutory sexual offense; (2) six counts of taking indecent liberties

with a minor; (3) four counts of taking indecent liberties with a student; (4) three

counts of sexual activity with a student; and (5) two counts of crimes against nature.

State v. Goins, 244 N.C. App. 499, 511, 781 S.E.2d 45, 54 (2015). He was sentenced

to a collective minimum term of 34.5 years for his crimes, and his conviction and

sentences were upheld on appeal. Id.

B. Statute of Limitations and the SAFE Child Act

      Under the statute of limitations then in effect, Plaintiffs had three years from

their eighteenth birthdays to bring civil suits against Defendants for the torts arising

out of their sexual abuse. See N.C. Gen. Stat. § 1-17 (2007) (providing that persons

under the age of eighteen may generally pursue claims “within the time limited in

this Subchapter” upon reaching the age of majority); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 1-52 (2007)

(establishing a three-year statute of limitations for assault, battery, and false

imprisonment). None of Plaintiffs brought civil suits against Defendants for these

torts within three years of their eighteenth birthdays, with the latest of the claims

expiring in 2008.

      The North Carolina General Assembly passed the SAFE Child Act

unanimously on 31 October 2019, and it was signed by the Governor a week later.

2019 N.C. Sess. Laws 1231, 1239, ch. 245, sec. 9(c). Among the many substantial

                                          -5-
                                       MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                         Opinion of the Court

statutory changes in the SAFE Child Act were revisions to the statute of limitations

governing Plaintiffs’ claims against Defendants, including the following “Revival

Window” provision: “Effective from January 1, 2020, until December 31, 2021, this

section revives any civil action for child sexual abuse otherwise time-barred under

G.S. 1-52 as it existed immediately before the enactment of this act.” Id., 1235, ch.

245, sec. 4.2(b). This change by the legislature mirrored scientific developments and

greater understanding by lawmakers from 2000 to the present 1 that child sex abuse

victims frequently delayed disclosure of their traumas well into adulthood and suffer

lifelong impacts to their physical, mental, and behavioral health. See Melissa Hall &

Joshua Hall, The Long-Term Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse: Counseling

Implications,       AM.      COUNSELING         ASS’N      VISTAS        ONLINE,       2-5     (2011),

https://www.counseling.org/docs/disaster-and-trauma_sexual-abuse/long-term-

effects-of-childhood-sexual-abuse.pdf; Ramona Alaggia et al., Facilitators and

Barriers to Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) Disclosures: A Research Update (2000-2016),

20(2)       TRAUMA,           VIOLENCE,          &        ABUSE         260,        276        (2019),

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838017697312;                      CHILD        USA,

Delayed Disclosure: A Factsheet Based on Cutting-Edge Research on Child Sex Abuse,

        1 Connecticut, California, and Delaware were the first three states to revive civil claims under

expired statutes of limitations for child sexual abuse in 2002, 2003, and 2007, respectively. 2023 SOL
Tracker, CHILD USA, https://childusa.org/2023sol/ (last visited June 27, 2023). Twenty-three states
and three territories followed suit between 2010 and 2023. Id. See also Brief of Amicus Curiae CHILD
USA in Support of Plaintiffs-Appellants Urging Reversal of the Decision Below, 17-22, McKinney v.
Goins, COA22-261 (N.C. Ct. App. Apr. 19, 2023).

                                                 -6-
                                       MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                        Opinion of the Court

4 (March 2020), https://childusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Delayed-Disclosure-

Factsheet-2020.pdf; Ctrs. for Disease Control, Preventing Child Sexual Abuse, 1

(2021),        https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/can/CSA-Factsheet_508.pdf

(collecting research from the late 1990s through the late 2010s).

C. Plaintiffs’ Suit and the Board’s Facial Constitutional Challenge

       Relying on the SAFE Child Act’s Revival Window, Plaintiffs filed suit against

Defendants on 2 November 2020 in Gaston County Superior Court for: (1)

assault/battery; (2) negligent hiring, retention, and supervision; (3) negligent

infliction of emotional distress; (4) intentional infliction of emotional distress; (5)

constructive fraud; (6) false imprisonment; and (7) punitive damages.2 The Board

filed an answer and counterclaim on 27 January 2021, specifically asserting that the

complaint     must     be    dismissed      because      the   Revival   Window     “is   facially

unconstitutional” and the claims were time-barred by the applicable statute of

limitations. The Board later filed a 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss on this same basis, as

well as a motion to transfer the action to a three-judge panel of the Superior Court of

Wake County. See N.C. Gen. Stat. § 1-267.1(a1) (2021) (“[A]ny facial challenge to the

validity of an act of the General Assembly shall be transferred pursuant to G.S. 1A-

1, Rule 42(b)(4), to the Superior Court of Wake County and shall be heard and

determined by a three-judge panel of the Superior Court of Wake County[.]”).

       2 Defendant Goins was later dismissed from the lawsuit without prejudice and is therefore

omitted from further discussion in this opinion.

                                                   -7-
                                MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Opinion of the Court

      Plaintiffs and the Board subsequently filed a joint motion to transfer and stay

the remainder of the action, and the Gaston County Superior Court granted that

motion on 17 May 2021. Chief Justice Paul Newby of the Supreme Court of North

Carolina subsequently appointed Superior Court Judges Martin B. McGee, R.

Gregory Horne, and Imelda J. Pate to hear the Board’s facial challenge to the Revival

Window. Shortly after their appointment, the State filed a motion to intervene to

defend the constitutionality of the SAFE Child Act’s Revival Window, and the panel

unanimously granted that motion.

D. Dismissal of Plaintiffs’ Suit

      The three-judge panel heard the Board’s motion to dismiss on 21 October 2021.

After taking the matter under advisement, the panel entered a divided decision

granting the Board’s motion to dismiss on the basis that the Revival Window facially

violated due process protections provided by the Law of the Land Clause.          The

majority concluded, based on several decisions from the Supreme Court of North

Carolina and this Court, that a statute of limitations defense is a constitutionally

protected vested right. See Wilkes County v. Forester, 204 N.C. 163, 169, 167 S.E.

691, 695 (1933); Waldrop v. Hodges, 230 N.C. 370, 373, 53 S.E.2d 263, 265 (1949);

Stereo Center v. Hodson, 39 N.C. App. 591, 595, 251 S.E.2d 673, 675 (1979); Colony

Hill Condominium I Assoc. v. Colony Co., 70 N.C. App. 390, 394, 320 S.E.2d 273, 276

(1984). The majority further held that, because retroactive interference with a vested

right is violative of the Law of the Land Clause’s constitutional due process

                                         -8-
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

protections, the Revival Window’s dissolution of the Board’s statute of limitations

defense was per se unconstitutional. See Lester Brothers v. Insurance Co., 250 N.C.

565, 568, 109 S.E.2d 263, 266 (1959) (noting that a plaintiff’s vested right to hold a

defendant individually liable for business debts could not be extinguished by a later

statute eliminating that individual liability because “[a] retrospective statute,

affecting or changing vested rights, is founded on unconstitutional principles and

consequently void” (citation omitted)).

      Judge McGee respectfully dissented from the majority’s determination. In his

dissent, Judge McGee found the caselaw and constitutional history surrounding

retrospective laws, statutes of limitations, and vested rights less clear-cut than the

majority, noting that: (1) Article I, Section 16 of the North Carolina Constitution only

explicitly prohibits retrospective criminal laws and taxes, N.C. Const. art. I, § 16; (2)

the North Carolina Constitution nowhere describes a statute of limitations defense

as a vested property right; (3) the cases relied upon by the majority did not anchor

their vested rights and statute of limitations analyses to any constitutional

provisions; and (4) at least two decisions from our Supreme Court recognize that

retrospective laws are not per se prohibited by our State Constitution, see State v. — ,

2 N.C. 28, 39-40 (1794) (upholding judgments against delinquent receivers of public

money after hearing the Attorney General’s argument that “[s]ection 24 of our Bill of

Rights . . . prohibits the passing of a retrospective law so far as it magnifies the

criminality of a former action, but leaves the Legislature free to pass all others[.]”);

                                          -9-
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

State v. Bell, 61 N.C. 76, 83 (1867) (holding, prior to amendment of N.C. Const. art.

I, § 16 prohibiting retrospective taxes, that a retrospective tax was constitutional

because “[t]he omission of any such prohibition [against retrospective laws beyond ex

post facto criminal statutes] in the Constitution of the United States, and also of the

State, is a strong argument to show that retrospective laws, merely as such, were not

intended to be forbidden”).

      Judge McGee viewed the above history in light of the maxim that laws are

presumed constitutional and are not to be invalidated “unless [the reviewing court]

determine[s] that it is unconstitutional beyond reasonable doubt.”       State ex rel.

McCrory v. Berger, 368 N.C. 633, 639, 781 S.E.2d 248, 252 (2016). Concluding that a

vested right in a statute of limitations defense is never described as a fundamental

right in our State and Federal Constitutions and related caselaw, Judge McGee

examined the Revival Window under the rational basis test. See Rhyne v. K-Mart

Corp., 358 N.C. 160, 180, 594 S.E.2d 1, 15 (2004) (“[I]f the statute impacts neither a

fundamental right nor a suspect class, we employ the rational basis test.”). He then

identified the State’s interest in “providing an avenue in our civil courts for victims

of child sexual abuse to hold accountable child abusers, and their enablers, for past

actions” as a rational basis for the Revival Window and would have rejected the

Board’s facial challenge. See id. at 181, 594 S.E.2d at 15 (“As long as there could be

some rational basis for enacting the statute at issue, this Court may not invoke

principles of due process to disturb the statute.” (cleaned up)).

                                          - 10 -
                                      MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                       Opinion of the Court

       Judge McGee further concluded that, even if the vested right in a statute of

limitations defense amounted to a fundamental right because it impacted a property

interest, the Revival Window survived heightened strict scrutiny analysis.                      See

Toomer v. Garrett, 155 N.C. App. 462, 469, 574 S.E.2d 76, 84 (2002) (“If [the impacted]

liberty or property interest is a fundamental right under the Constitution, the

government action may be subjected to strict scrutiny.” (citation omitted)). Turning

to that test, Judge McGee believed several compelling state interests were served by

the Revival Window: namely “protecting children from physical and psychological

harm, the legislators’ determination that many incidents of sexual abuse involved

delayed disclosure, and supplying civil remedies to victims of childhood sexual abuse.”

He then reasoned that the Revival Window—limited to a two-year period and civil

actions for child sexual abuse—was narrowly tailored to advance those compelling

state interests. As a result, Judge McGee would have denied the Board’s motion

under this more stringent standard. See Stephenson v. Bartlett, 355 N.C. 354, 377,

562 S.E.2d 377, 393 (2002) (“Under strict scrutiny, a challenged governmental action

is unconstitutional if the State cannot establish that it is narrowly tailored to advance

a compelling governmental interest.”).

       Plaintiffs and the State both timely appealed from the majority’s order. 3

       3  Plaintiffs and the State initially sought and were granted discretionary review by our
Supreme Court prior to a determination by this Court. After briefing, the Supreme Court rescinded
its grant of discretionary review and remanded the matter to this Court, directing us to “accept the

                                               - 11 -
                                         MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                          Opinion of the Court

                                         II.   ANALYSIS

        The central constitutional question raised by the parties, as appropriately

considered by the three-judge panel, is whether a retroactive statute resuscitating a

claim previously barred by a statute of limitations runs afoul of the North Carolina

Constitution regardless of the circumstances.                 Recognizing that our precedents

related to this issue may not provide the most clear-cut answer, we ultimately hold

that our Constitution does not per se prohibit such an act by our legislature and,

regardless of the degree of scrutiny applicable, the Revival Window passes

constitutional muster.         We therefore reverse the trial court’s order dismissing

Plaintiffs’   complaint      on    the     basis    that    the   Revival     Window       is   facially

unconstitutional.

A. Standards of Review

        Whether the trial court properly granted a motion to dismiss pursuant to Rule

12(b)(6) is reviewed de novo on appeal. S.N.R. Mgmt. Corp. v. Danube Partners 141,

LLC, 189 N.C. App. 601, 606, 659 S.E.2d 442, 447 (2008). We take the allegations in

the non-movant’s pleading as true for purposes of this analysis. Id. at 606, 659 S.E.2d

parties’ briefs previously filed in [the Supreme] Court as the basis for review in the Court of Appeals.”
Order, McKinney v. Goins, 109PA22 (N.C. March 1, 2023). We subsequently ordered supplemental
briefing and authorized amici who filed briefs before the Supreme Court to file the same with this
Court.     Order, McKinney v. Goins, COA22-261 (N.C. Ct. App. March 22, 2023). Thus, our
consideration of this appeal is on: (1) the briefs filed with our Supreme Court; (2) the parties’
supplemental briefs; (3) amici briefs properly filed with this Court in accordance with our order, Rule
28(i) of the North Carolina Rules of Appellate Procedure, and relevant caselaw; (4) the record on
appeal; and (5) the parties’ oral arguments.

                                                   - 12 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                      Opinion of the Court

at 448. Dismissal is proper under the Rule only when “it appears beyond a doubt that

the plaintiff could not prove any set of facts to support his claim which would entitle

him to relief.” Block v. County of Person, 141 N.C. App. 273, 277-78, 540 S.E.2d 415,

419 (2000) (citation omitted).

      Similarly, whether a statutory provision is unconstitutional presents a

question of law subject to that same de novo standard. State v. Romano, 369 N.C.

678, 685, 800 S.E.2d 644, 649 (2017). Constitutional challenges generally take two

forms: (1) facial challenges, which “maintain[ ] that no constitutional applications of

[a] statute exist, prohibiting its enforcement in any context,” State v. Packingham,

368 N.C. 380, 383, 777 S.E.2d 738, 743 (2015) (citation omitted), rev’d and remanded

on other grounds, Packingham v. North Carolina, 582 U.S. 98, 198 L. Ed. 2d 273

(2017); and (2) as-applied challenges, which ask if a statute “can be constitutionally

applied to a particular defendant, even if the statute is otherwise generally

enforceable.” Id.   There is no dispute amongst the parties that the instant appeal

solely involves a facial challenge.

      Several core principles govern the exercise of de novo review over facial

challenges like the one before us.        We are obliged to recognize that “the North

Carolina Constitution is not a grant of power, but a limit on the otherwise plenary

police power of the State. We therefore presume that a statute is constitutional, and

we will not declare it invalid unless its unconstitutionality is demonstrated beyond

reasonable doubt.” Hart v. State, 368 N.C. 122, 131, 774 S.E.2d 281, 287 (2015)

                                             - 13 -
                                   MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                    Opinion of the Court

(citations omitted).   Moreover, “a facial challenge to the constitutionality of an

act . . . is the most difficult challenge to mount successfully.” Id. at 131, 774 S.E.2d

at 288 (citation omitted).     The challenger must therefore “meet the high bar of

showing that there are no circumstances under which the statute might be

constitutional.” Id. (citation and quotation marks omitted).

B. The Law of the Land Clause and Federal Due Process

       The Law of the Land Clause found in Article I, Section 19 of the North Carolina

Constitution provides that “[n]o person shall be taken, imprisoned, or disseized of his

freehold, liberties, or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner deprived of

his life, liberty, or property, but by the law of the land.” N.C. Const. art. I, § 19. It is

generally equivalent to—but not coterminous with—the Fourteenth Amendment’s

Due Process Clause in the Constitution of the United States. Singleton v. N.C. Dep’t

of Health & Hum. Servs., 284 N.C. App. 104, 112-13, 874 S.E.2d 669, 676-77 (2022).

As such, “a decision of the United States Supreme Court interpreting the Due Process

Clause is persuasive, though not controlling, authority for interpretation of the Law

of the Land Clause.” Evans v. Cowan, 132 N.C. App. 1, 6, 510 S.E.2d 170, 174 (1999)

(citation omitted).    Our Law of the Land Clause is thus principally subject to

independent interpretation under the particular laws of this state, so long as that

interpretation does not contravene the baseline protections provided by the

Constitution of the United States. See, e.g., State v. Jackson, 348 N.C. 644, 648, 503

S.E.2d 101, 103 (1998) (“[T]he United States Constitution is binding on the

                                           - 14 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

states . . . , so no citizen will be accorded lesser rights no matter how we construe the

state Constitution. . . . [T]he United States Constitution provides a constitutional

floor of fundamental rights guaranteed all citizens of the United States[.]” (quotation

marks omitted)).

      The Supreme Court of the United States has held that the Fourteenth

Amendment’s Due Process Clause does not prohibit states from reviving civil claims

otherwise barred by a lapsed statute of limitations. See, e.g., Chase Securities Corp.

v. Donaldson, 325 U.S. 304, 315-16, 89 L. Ed. 2d 1628, 1636 (1945) (“[C]ertainly it

cannot be said that lifting the bar of a statute of limitation so as to restore a remedy

lost through mere lapse of time is per se an offense against the Fourteenth

Amendment.”). Resolution of this appeal turns, then, on whether the Law of the Land

Clause provides such protection above and beyond the Fourteenth Amendment. This

analysis consists of two questions: (1) are acts reviving expired statutes of limitations

per se unconstitutional as interfering with vested rights under the text of the North

Carolina Constitution, its history, and interpretive judicial decisions from this state?;

and (2) if not, is the Revival Window otherwise unconstitutional under the modern

due process framework applicable to the Law of the Land Clause?

C. Interpretive Principles Applicable to the North Carolina Constitution

      Every facial constitutional challenge under the Constitution of North Carolina

begins with “the text of the constitution, the historical context in which the people of

North Carolina adopted the applicable constitutional provision, and our precedents.”

                                          - 15 -
                                       MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                         Opinion of the Court

McCrory, 368 N.C. at 639, 781 S.E.2d at 252. Our Supreme Court recently reiterated

both the difficulty faced by and the high burden imposed upon litigants asserting that

a legislative enactment plainly and clearly violates an express provision of the State

Constitution. See generally Harper v. Hall, ___ N.C. ___, 886 S.E.2d 393 (2023).

D. The Law of the Land Clause, Ex Post Facto Laws, and Retrospective
   Laws Through Reconstruction

        An examination of the history of this state’s jurisprudence on the Law of the

Land Clause and retrospective laws through Reconstruction is illuminating to the

instant analysis because of these cases’ temporal proximity to the Founding of this

State and because of their discussion of constitutional provisions that were retained

through subsequent constitutional revisions.                 Specific provisions of the North

Carolina Constitution impose express limitations on the General Assembly’s ability

to pass legislation of retroactive effect. Our Constitution, as originally ratified at the

time of the Founding, provided that “retrospective Laws, punishing facts committed

before the Existence of such Laws, and by them only declared criminal, are

oppressive, unjust, and incompatible with Liberty; wherefore no ex post facto law

ought to be made.” N.C. Const. of 1776, Declaration of Rights, § XXIV. Two decades

later, our state’s Founding-era appellate court4 considered whether this provision of

        4 Under the Judicial Act of 1777, and prior to the formal establishment of our Supreme Court

as a distinct judicial body, a single superior court judge could hold trials, while two or more superior
court judges could convene “to sit as an appellate or Supreme Court.” Hon. Kemp P. Battle, President,
Univ. of N.C., An Address on the History of the Supreme Court, 103 N.C. 339, 353 (1889).

                                                - 16 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

our original constitution precluded the State from pursuing judgments against

delinquent receivers of public money pursuant to a statute retroactively authorizing

such collection. State v. —, 2 N.C. at 28-29. Although the Court resolved State v. — ,

without issuance of a formal opinion, it is both illuminating of and relevant to a

historical understanding of the Law of the Land Clause as originally ratified and

enforced in connection with retroactive claims for monetary relief.

      In State v. —, the trial judge initially ruled that the Attorney General could

not pursue such judgments under several state constitutional provisions, including

the Law of the Land Clause. Id. at 29-30. The Attorney General subsequently

revisited the issue with the trial judge, arguing as follows:

             It has been said, amongst other objections to the clause now
             in question, that this is a retrospective law. Does any part
             of our constitution prohibit the passing of a retrospective
             law? It certainly does not. The objection is grounded upon
             section 24 of our Bill of Rights, which prohibits the passing
             of an ex post facto law. This prohibition is essential to
             freedom and the safety of individuals. . . . [T]his clause, I
             admit, is in restraint of legislative power in this particular.
             This indeed prohibits the passing of a retrospective law so
             far as it magnifies the criminality of a former action, but
             leaves the Legislature free to pass all others, and without
             such a power no government could exist for any
             considerable length of time, without experiencing great
             mischiefs. The exercise of such power has been found
             frequently necessary here since the Revolution, and
             divers[e] retrospective acts, which the Legislature have
             passed[,] have been carried into execution and sanctioned
             by the judiciary. . . . The Convention foresaw the necessity
             there would be for sometimes enacting such laws, and
             therefore they have been careful to word section 24 so as
             not to exclude the power of passing a retrospective law, not

                                          - 17 -
                                      MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                        Opinion of the Court

               falling within the description of an ex post facto law. The
               Convention meant to leave it with the legislature to pass
               such laws when the public convenience required it.

Id. at 39. When the trial judge was unmoved by the explained necessity of retroactive

legislation, the Attorney General raised the issue and presented the same argument

to a two-judge panel, who overruled the trial judge. Id. at 40. While no formal opinion

was provided by the Court, the ruling likely—if not necessarily—involved an inherent

determination that the Attorney General’s actions to enforce a retrospective law were

constitutional.5

       This understanding of due process and retrospective laws under the North

Carolina Constitution—that is, that an overly broad prohibition on retrospective laws

interferes with the ability of a legislative body to effectively represent its people in a

changing era—appears to have prevailed through the Civil War, as evidenced by

State v. Bell, 61 N.C. 76, 80 (1867). There, our Supreme Court was tasked with

determining whether the North Carolina Constitution barred a retrospective tax. In

resolving the issue, the Court observed that:

               Whenever a retrospective statute applies to crimes and
               penalties, it is an ex post facto law, and as such is
               prohibited by the Constitution of the United States, not
               only to the States, as we have already seen, but to
               Congress. The omission of any such prohibition in the
               Constitution of the United States, and also of the State, is
               a strong argument to show that retrospective laws, merely

       5 Indeed, that Court had been the first judicial body in the nation to recognize judicial review

seven years earlier, holding in Bayard v. Singleton that statutes in violation of the North Carolina
Constitution were unenforceable. 1 N.C. 5, 7 (1787).

                                               - 18 -
                                        MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                          Opinion of the Court

                as such, were not intended to be forbidden. It furnishes an
                instance for the application of the maxim expressio unius
                est exclusion alterius.[6] We know that retrospective
                statutes have been enforced in our courts[.]

Bell, 61 N.C. at 82-83. Then, with this understanding, the Supreme Court upheld the

retroactive tax as constitutional in light of the “well established right to pass a

retrospective law which is not in its nature criminal[.]” Id. at 86.

        The following year, the Supreme Court again had an opportunity to consider

whether other kinds of retrospective laws—and specifically, laws reviving claims

previously barred by a statute of limitations—violated the State Constitution. In

Hinton v. Hinton, 61 N.C. 410 (1868), the Court was tasked with determining whether

a law reviving the rights of widows to claim dower7 that had expired under a statute

of limitations was an unconstitutional retrospective law. It first observed that the

right of dower “existed at common law, and was not created by the act of 1784 [that

imposed time limitations on dower claims.] . . . [T]he act . . . is a ‘statute of

limitations,’ which in such cases bars the right to a writ of dower, but does not

extinguish the preexisting common-law right of dower.” Hinton, 61 N.C. at 412.

When asked, “[d]id the Legislature have power to pass the act [reviving barred dower

claims],” id. at 415, the Supreme Court held that it did.

        6 “Under the doctrine of expressio unius est exclusion alterius, when a [law] lists the situations

to which it applies, it implies the exclusion of situations not contained in the list.” Evans v. Diaz, 333
N.C. 774, 779-80, 430 S.E.2d 244, 247 (1993) (citation omitted).
        7 Dower is “[t]he portion of or interest in the real estate of a deceased husband that is given by

law to his widow during her life[.]” Yount v. Yount, 258 N.C. 236, 241-42, 128 S.E.2d 613, 618 (1962).

                                                 - 19 -
                                        MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                             Opinion of the Court

        First, the Supreme Court noted that revival of a claim barred by the statute of

limitations does not inherently affect any particular property of the defendant, and

thus does not necessarily implicate any vested rights:

                It is said the Legislature has not the power to interfere
                with “vested rights,” and take property from one and give
                it to another! That is true[.] . . . There is in this case no
                interference with vested rights. The effect of the statute is
                not to take from the devisee his property and give it to the
                widow, but merely to take from him a right conferred by the
                former statute[.]

Id.   Stated simply, no claim to or interest in property invariably stems from a

defendant’s reliance on the procedural bar provided by the statute of limitations, and

thus no vested right is impacted when that bar is lifted.

        The Supreme Court then went on to explain why this is so, reasoning that

removing a procedural bar imposed by a statute of limitations affects the plaintiff’s

claim rather than any interest of the defendant, as “it affects the remedy and not the

[defendant’s] right of property.” Id. (emphasis in original). In other words, a statute

of limitations, as a general proposition, simply serves to procedurally bar recovery by

a plaintiff and does not, by contrast, create a property right in the defendant by

extinguishing any underlying liability.8 The Supreme Court then recognized that

        8 This distinction persists today.See, e.g., Williams v. Thompson, 227 N.C. 166, 168, 41 S.E.2d
359, 360 (1947) (“The lapse of time [under a statute of limitations] does not discharge the liability. It
merely bars recovery.” (citations omitted)). It also separates statutes of limitation from statutes of
repose. See, e.g., Boudreau v. Baughman, 322 N.C. 331, 340-41, 368 S.E.2d 849, 856 (1988) (“Ordinary
statutes of limitation are clearly procedural, affecting only the remedy directly and not the right to
recover. The statute of repose, on the other hand, acts as a condition precedent to the action itself. . .

                                                    - 20 -
                                       MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                         Opinion of the Court

retrospective legislation posed no inherent constitutional problem in this

circumstance, as “[t]he power of the Legislature to pass retroactive statutes affecting

remedies is settled.” Id. Finally, the Supreme Court made explicit, by example, that

this holding extended beyond the context of dower and reached even ordinary claims

for money owed:

               Suppose a simple contract debt created in 1859. In 1862,
               the right of action was barred by the general statute of
               limitations, which did not extinguish the debt, but simply
               barred the right of action. Then comes the act of 1863,
               providing that the time from 20 May, 1861, shall not be
               counted. Can the debtor object that this deprives him of a
               vested right? Surely not. It only takes from him the
               privilege of claiming the benefit of a former statute, the
               operation of which is for a season suspended.

Id. (emphasis in original).

       The Board contends that Hinton is of no application here because it involved

law particular to the vested right of dower.               But, as the Supreme Court’s debt

collection example recounted above plainly illustrates, the Court did not intend the

holding and rationale of Hinton to be so limited. And Plaintiffs’ substantive claims

are not entirely dissimilar, insofar as they likewise sound in the common law of torts

rather than any statutorily created right of action. Further, “[a] vested right of action

is property. The statute may change the remedies, but cannot defeat or modify a

right of action that has already accrued.” Mizell v. R.R., 181 N.C. 36, 39, 106 S.E.

. For this reason we have previously characterized the statute of repose as a substantive definition of
rights rather than a procedural limitation on the remedy used to enforce rights.” (citations omitted)).

                                                - 21 -
                                      MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                           Opinion of the Court

133, 135 (1921). We therefore reject the Board’s attempt to cast Hinton’s substantive

holdings as inapposite.

       Hinton’s pertinent substantive holdings, then, are threefold: (1) a statute of

limitations only inherently affects the availability of a plaintiff’s remedy, Hinton, 61

N.C. at 415; (2) the procedural bar imposed by a lapsed statute of limitations does not

intrinsically or inevitably create a vested right in the defendant, as it does not

eliminate liability for the underlying claim or otherwise necessarily implicate

property rights, id. at 415-16; and (3) the General Assembly is not constitutionally

constrained from lifting such a procedural bar in these circumstances, id. at 415. In

brief, under Hinton, revival of a statute of limitations does not per se violate the North

Carolina Constitution, as the procedural bar created by those statutes is not a vested

claim to land, goods, currency, or any incorporeal interest in the same. Id. at 415-16.

       Within a year of both Bell and Hinton, the people of North Carolina saw fit to

further restrict the ability of the General Assembly to pass retrospective laws when

they ratified a new constitution in 1868.9 In addition to restricting ex post facto

criminal laws, Article I, Section 32 of the 1868 Constitution newly provided that “[n]o

law taxing retrospectively sales, purchases, or other acts previously done, ought to be

passed.” N.C. Const. of 1868, art. I, § 32. But, beyond restricting ex post facto criminal

laws and retrospective taxation—the latter in apparent reaction to Bell—the people

       9 Bell was decided in 1867 and Hinton at the January term of 1868.   The 1868 Constitution
was subsequently ratified in April 1868.

                                                  - 22 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                    Opinion of the Court

ratified no other express provisions further restricting retrospective acts specifically,

let alone those deemed constitutional by Hinton. Both the language of the Law of the

Land Clause and the Ex Post Facto Clause of the 1868 Constitution survive in our

current state Constitution. Compare N.C. Const. of 1868, art. I, §§ 17 & 32, with N.C.

Const. art. I, §§ 16 & 19 (containing the same language, with added clauses in the

current Section 19 providing for equal protection of the laws and prohibiting

discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin).

      This history plainly demonstrates that retroactive civil laws, including ones

reviving statutes of limitation, are not inherently unconstitutional; they do not

unerringly violate either the Law of the Land Clause or the express provisions of the

Ex Post Facto Clause of our state Constitution as understood and enacted from the

Founding through Reconstruction. State v —, 2 N.C. at 39-40; Bell, 61 N.C. at 86;

Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415-16. And though phrased in antiquated language, the core

holdings of Hinton ring as clearly today as they did centuries ago: a procedural bar to

a plaintiff’s claim imposed by an expired statute of limitations does not, standing

alone, create any property right in the defendant, and said bar may be retroactively

lifted without interfering with a defendant’s vested rights. Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415-

16. Inviolable vested rights affecting real or personal property are not equivalent to

the fungible benefits of statutory procedure affecting remedies.         Id. Even more

simply, a right of a plaintiff to a potential recovery does not bear upon a right of a

defendant to be free from liability. Id. See also Colony Hill Condominium I Assoc.,

                                           - 23 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

70 N.C. App. at 394, 320 S.E.2d at 276 (recognizing that, unlike statutes of limitation,

a statute of repose may not be retroactively suspended to revive a cause of action

because it “gives the defendant a vested right not to be sued” (citation omitted)).

While the Board points us to several decisions and authorities from other

jurisdictions to the contrary, they cannot, by their very nature, control this state’s

historical understanding, interpretation, and application of its own Constitution. See

McCrory, 368 N.C. at 639, 781 S.E.2d at 252.

      In urging us to read this history differently, the Board relies principally on

University v. Foy, 5 N.C. 58 (1804). But Foy involved a narrow legal question—

whether the General Assembly could retroactively rescind a prior grant of title to real

property consistent with the Law of the Land Clause’s explicit prohibition against

deprivations of “property.” 5 N.C. at 84, N.C. Const. art. I, § 19. Foy’s resolution of

that limited issue by declaring such a revocation of real property rights

unconstitutional, Foy, 5 N.C. at 88-89, thus cannot overrule the much broader

recognition in State v. — that, as a general matter, retroactive civil laws are not

always unconstitutional. State v. —, 2 N.C. at 39-40. Nor did Foy—unlike Hinton—

purport to decide whether vested property rights necessarily flow from an expired

statute of limitations such that a retroactive revival of expired claims implicates the

Law of the Land Clause. Finally, Foy could in no way deprive the later decisions in

Bell and Hinton—as well as the limited change to the Ex Post Facto Clause in the

1868 Constitution—of force of law or relevant historical context.

                                          - 24 -
                                      MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                        Opinion of the Court

       Indeed, other decisions from this time period confirm, consistent with both Foy

and Hinton, that: (1) where a retroactive statute interferes with an established right

to property, it violates the Law of the Land Clause as implicating vested rights, Foy,

5 N.C. at 87-89; and (2) where a retrospective statute affects only a party’s reliance

on a procedural statute, no vested rights are affected, Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415-16.

       For example, in Hoke v. Henderson, 15 N.C. 1, 17 (1833), overruled by Mial v.

Ellington, 134 N.C. 131, 46 S.E. 961 (1903), the Supreme Court was tasked with

deciding whether a position of public office constituted a vested right that could not

be retrospectively abridged. The Court first observed that constitutionally protected

vested rights, in accord with the plain text of the Law of the Land Clause, generally

sounded in “every species of corporeal property, real and personal.” Hoke, 15 N.C. at

16 (emphasis added). It then extended the concept of vested rights to incorporeal

property rights, such as “the right to exercise a[n] . . . employment, and to take the

fees and emoluments thereunto belonging.” Id. at 17. Thus, because public office

includes the right to “secure the possession of it and its emoluments,” retrospective

interference with that office violated the Law of the Land Clause as abridging vested

incorporeal property rights. Id. at 19.10

       10 Importantly, as the later decisions of Bell and Hinton would demonstrate, the fact that a

retroactive statute implicates a defendant’s monetary interests does not invariably render it as
unconstitutionally affecting a vested property right. Bell, 61 N.C. at 86; Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415-16.
And Mial would later overrule Hoke on the basis that its definition of “property” in connection with
public office was unworkable when taken “to its logical conclusion,” 134 N.C. at 154, 46 S.E. at 969,
and was uniformly contrary to the law in other state and federal jurisdictions, id. at 156, 46 S.E. at
970.

                                               - 25 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

      Hoke’s implicit holding—and Hinton’s explicit one—that constitutionally

vested rights sound in corporeal or incorporeal property interests rather than

procedure is seen throughout other cases of the era. Compare Robinson v. Barfield,

6 N.C. 391, 422 (1818) (holding a statute retrospectively validating deeds improperly

executed under prior law was unconstitutional as violating vested rights), Scales v.

Fewell, 10 N.C. 18, 18-20 (1824) (holding liens on real property create a vested right),

Pratt v. Kitterell, 15 N.C. 168, 168-71 (1833) (holding a right to claim, control, and

possess an estate as administrator is a vested right), Battle v. Speight, 31 N.C. 288,

292 (1848) (holding devises of property by will create a vested right), and Green v.

Cole, 35 N.C. 425, 428 (1852) (“The legislature cannot interfere with vested rights of

property.” (citing Hoke)), with Oats v. Darden, 5 N.C. 500, 501 (1810) (“[W]hen an act

of Assembly takes away from a citizen a vested right, its constitutionality may be

inquired into; but when it alters the remedy or mode of proceeding as to rights

previously vested, it certainly, in that respect, runs in a constitutional channel.”),

Harrison v. Burgess, 8 N.C. 384, 391-92 (1821) (holding a law authorizing the

Supreme Court to order new trials for errors of law did not affect vested rights when

applied to cases pending appeal at the time of enactment), and Phillips v. Cameron,

48 N.C. 390, 392 (1856) (stating “[w]e admit, that the Act of 1852, applying as it does

to the remedy and not to the rights of the parties, might have been made retrospective

in its operation,” before opining that such intent could have been made clear by

entitling the statute “[a]n act to encourage litigation, by reviving stale claims”).

                                          - 26 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

E. Modern Jurisprudence Addressing Statutes of Limitation, Vested
   Rights, and Due Process

      Of course, as all parties acknowledge, our history did not terminate in 1868,

and later decisions would elucidate certain principles that make the question of the

Revival Window’s constitutionality still a searching one. Understandably, the Board

relies heavily on a line of cases from the Reconstruction era and the early twentieth

century to argue, essentially, that Hinton is no longer good law. Our careful review

of those cases leads us to conclude that they are inapposite to the dispute before us,

and respecting our role as an intermediate court, we decline to hold that Hinton is no

longer good law absent any explicit overruling of it.

      In 1869, in Johnson v. Winslow, the Supreme Court addressed a slightly

different question than that presented here: namely, whether the General Assembly

could suspend statutes of limitation for claims that had not yet run. 63 N.C. 552, 553

(1869). In dicta, the Supreme Court cited a legal treatise for the proposition that “the

Legislature has no power to revive a right of action after it has been barred, i.e., to

suspend the operation of the Statute of Limitations retrospectively, after it has

operated.” Id. (citation omitted). Its decision did not however, turn on that general

principle, nor did it purport to abrogate or overrule Hinton—a decision that did

squarely address the legal question of reviving an expired statute of limitations. In

fact, in 1880, our Supreme Court would reaffirm Hinton. See Tabor v. Ward, 83 N.C.

291, 294 (1880) (“Retroactive laws are not only not forbidden by the state constitution

                                          - 27 -
                                   MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                    Opinion of the Court

but they have been sustained by numerous decisions in our own state. See . . . Hinton

v. Hinton, Phil., 410, where it was expressly held ‘that retroactive legislation is not

unconstitutional, and that retroactive legislation is competent to affect remedies not

rights.’” (other citations omitted)).

       A few years later, in Whitehurst v. Dey, the Supreme Court would once more,

in dicta, cite a treatise for the proposition that “‘[s]tatutes of limitation relate only to

the remedy and may be altered or repealed before the statutory bar has become

complete, but not after, so as to defeat the effect of the statute in extinguishing the

rights of action.’” 90 N.C. 542, 545-46 (1884). But that decision on contract rights

also expressly distinguished Hinton—again, in dicta, and without expressly

overruling it—on an understanding that such statutes are “an impairment of vested

rights and . . . fall[ ] within the inhibition of the federal constitution[.]” Id. at 545

(emphasis added). The Supreme Court of the United States would subsequently show

Whitehurst’s reading of the federal constitution to be erroneous less than a year later.

See Campbell v. Holt, 115 U.S. 620, 628, 29 L. Ed. 483, 487 (1885) (holding that the

Fourteenth Amendment does not bar a state legislature from reviving civil claims

after a statute of limitations has run because “no right is destroyed when the law

restores a remedy which had been lost”).

       This pattern of discussing statutes of limitation as vested rights in dicta

returned after the turn of the century in Wilkes County v. Forester, 204 N.C. 163, 167

S.E. 691 (1933). There, Wilkes County sought to foreclose on tax liens filed against

                                           - 28 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

the defendants’ property for unpaid taxes in 1924 and 1925, relying on tax sale

certificates obtained in 1928. Id. at 165-66, 167 S.E. at 692-93. However, Wilkes

County delayed filing its action until 1930—well after the 18-month filing period

allowed by statute. Id. at 166, 167 S.E. at 693. The defendants pled that statute of

limitations, and Wilkes County sought to counter that defense on a revival act passed

during the pendency of the suit in 1931 which extended the statute of limitations for

tax certificates through December of that year. Id. at 166, 167 S.E. at 692-93. The

trial court dismissed Wilkes County’s claim, and it appealed to the Supreme Court,

arguing that the extension statute applied to save the tax certificates in question. Id.

      The Supreme Court ultimately disagreed with Wilkes County, concluding that

the revival act did not apply to the case. The relevant revival act, enacted in 1931

after Wilkes County had filed its foreclosure action, stated as follows:

             Any . . . board of commissioners of any county . . . holding a
             certificate of sale on which an action to foreclose has not
             been brought . . . shall have until the first day of December,
             one thousand nine hundred and thirty-one, to institute
             such action. This section and extension shall include all
             certificates executed for the sales prior to and including
             sales for the tax levy of the year one thousand nine hundred
             twenty-eight. . . . Provided, however, that where any action
             to foreclose has heretofore been instituted or brought for the
             collection of any tax certificate, prior to the ratification of
             this act, under the then existing laws, nothing herein shall
             prevent or prohibit the continuance and suing to completion
             any of said suit or suits under the laws existing at the time
             of institution of said action.

Id. at 166, 167 S.E. at 693 (citation omitted) (emphasis in original). The plain

                                          - 29 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

language of the revival statute—limiting its applicability to actions filed after

enactment and disclaiming any effect on foreclosures already instituted—thus

rendered it of no application to the controversy, as the foreclosure action had been

filed before the revival act was passed. Id. at 168, 167 S.E. at 693-94. And, because

the statute of limitations had run at the time of the foreclosure action’s filing and the

revival act did not apply, Wilkes County’s claim was time-barred under applicable

law. Id.

      Despite having settled the dispute with the foregoing holding, the Supreme

Court nonetheless went on to consider another question not necessary to its decision:

whether the 1931 act could revive previously barred claims had it applied to the

foreclosure action. Id. at 168, 167 S.E. at 694. It proceeded to analyze dicta from

various North Carolina decisions, provisions of various legal treatises, and holdings

from other jurisdictions, before opining:

             Whatever may be the holdings in other jurisdictions, we
             think this jurisdiction is committed to the rule that an
             enabling statute to revive a cause of action barred by the
             statute of limitations is inoperative and of no avail. . . . It
             cannot be resuscitated. . . . It takes away vested rights of
             defendants and therefore is unconstitutional.

Id. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695 (citing Booth v. Hairston, 193 N.C. 278, 286, 136 S.E. 879,

883 (1927) (holding an enabling act purporting to retroactively validate late-filed

deeds to real property in probate that would otherwise be void was inoperative to cure

and save such a late-filed deed)). This is dicta.

                                            - 30 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Opinion of the Court

      Even if the above language is not considered dicta, the rationale and reasoning

of Wilkes County show—consistent with the property vs. procedural distinctions

drawn from Foy, Hinton, etc.—that the above discussion is addressing cases in which

expired statutes of limitation affect vested property rights, not a procedural defense.

In keeping with Wilkes County’s attempt to foreclose on real property in the action

at hand, virtually all the decisions cited by the Supreme Court in Wilkes County

discussed the unconstitutionality of revival statutes where the expired claim was

explicitly for title to property. Id. at 168-70, 167 S.E. at 694-95. For example, in

addition to relying on the real property dispute resolved in Booth, the Supreme Court

favorably quoted Campbell’s statement that “[i]t may . . . very well be held that, in

an action to recover real or personal property, where the question is as to the removal

of the bar of the statute of limitations by legislative act passed after the bar has

become perfect[,] such act deprives the party of his property without due process of

law.” Id. at 168, 167 S.E. at 694 (quoting Campbell, 115 U.S. at 623, 29 L. Ed. at 483)

(emphasis added). It then cited several treatises, two of which stated as follows:

             There appears to be no divergence of opinion as to the full
             applicability of the principle that the Legislature cannot
             divest a vested right to a defense under the statute of
             limitations, whether the case involves the title to real
             estate or personal property. . . . Where title to property has
             vested under a statute of limitations it is not possible by
             any enactment to extend the statute or revive the remedy
             since this would impair a vested right in the property.”

Id. at 169, 167 S.E. at 694 (emphasis added) (citations and quotation marks omitted).

                                         - 31 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Opinion of the Court

Critically, the Supreme Court did not purport to overrule Hinton based on any

controlling holding that the revival of expired actions involving claims unrelated to

real or personal property offend the Law of the Land Clause or some other express

provision of the North Carolina Constitution. And, notwithstanding any debate over

the controlling effect of dicta or the significance of the property vs. procedure

distinction, the Supreme Court immediately reaffirmed that the revival statute did

not apply to the controversy at issue. Id. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695.

      In an attempt to read Wilkes County more broadly, the Board cites to numerous

cases repeating Wilkes County’s vested rights commentary in subsequent dicta. See

Sutton v. Davis, 205 N.C. 464, 467-69, 171 S.E. 738, 739-40 (1933) (holding an

amendment to a statute that barred recovery for debts discharged in bankruptcy to

subsequently allow for recovery did not have retroactive effect and thus did not apply

to the case at bar, while also citing Wilkes County to note that if the amendment did

have retroactive effect, such retroactivity would be unconstitutional); Waldrop v.

Hodges, 230 N.C. 370, 373-74, 53 S.E.2d 263, 265 (1949) (observing, based on

Johnson, Whitehurst, and Wilkes County, that the General Assembly may not revive

an expired statute of limitations before holding that issue did not arise in the case

before the Court because the relevant statute extended the limitations period prior

to expiration); Jewell v. Price, 264 N.C. 459, 461, 142 S.E.2d 1, 3 (1965) (holding a

non-retroactive amendment to the statute of limitations after filing of the plaintiffs’

suit was not applicable while citing Waldrop, Wilkes County and related cases for

                                         - 32 -
                                        MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                          Opinion of the Court

their discussions of revival statutes);11 Stereo Center, 39 N.C. App. at 595, 251 S.E.2d

at 675 (citing Waldrop for the proposition that expired statutes of limitations may not

be revived in violation of a vested right, but resolving the appeal on a different

question because the appellant conceded the amended statute of limitations

extending his time to bring suit did not apply).12 But dicta upon dicta does not the

law make. See Hayes v. Wilmington, 243 N.C. 525, 539, 91 S.E.2d 673, 684 (1956)

(declining to follow “double dicta”). Nor can dicta in subsequent decisions serve to

expand or modify earlier holdings, as dicta is itself without legal effect. Id. at 538,

91 S.E.2d at 684. Finally, dicta does not empower us to reach beyond our limited role

as an intermediate appellate court and announce a new constitutional rule in

contravention of undisturbed precedent from our Supreme Court. Compare State ex

rel. Utilities Comm. v. Central Telephone Co., 60 N.C. App. 393, 395, 299 S.E.2d 264,

        11 We read Jewell as addressing the same factual and legal circumstances raised in Wilkes

County: a statute of limitations expired, the plaintiff filed suit, and the General Assembly later
enlarged the statute of limitations non-retroactively. Wilkes County, 204 N.C. at 168, 167 S.E. at 693-
94; Jewell, 264 N.C. at 461, 142 S.E.2d at 3. The session law cited in Jewell enlarging the statute of
limitations at issue unambiguously disclaimed any retroactive effect. See 1963 N.C. Sess. Laws 1300,
1301, ch. 1050, sec. 3 (“This Act shall be in full force and effect from and after its ratification.”
(emphasis added)). Moreover, statutes are prohibited from retroactive effect unless such intent is
manifest in the statute. Estridge v. Ford Motor Co., 101 N.C. App. 716, 718-19, 401 S.E.2d. 85, 87
(1991). The plaintiff in Jewell thus rightly conceded—and the Supreme Court accepted—that the
session law extending the session law revising the statute of limitations after plaintiff had filed suit
“ha[d] no application.” 264 N.C. at 461, 142 S.E.2d at 3. As noted supra, the Revival Window at issue
here materially differs from the statutes in Wilkes County and Jewell in that it unambiguously applies
retroactively, and Plaintiffs filed suit after the Revival Window’s enactment. Thus, we do not read
Jewell as controlling precedent on the facts of this case.
        12 To the extent that any decisions of this Court purported to announce that expiration of a

statute of limitations creates a vested right in all civil actions, we could not do so in conflict with the
undisturbed holding of Hinton. Emp’t Staffing Grp., Inc. v. Little, 243 N.C. App. 266, 271 n.3, 777
S.E.2d 309, 313 n.3 (2015).

                                                  - 33 -
                                MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Opinion of the Court

266 (1983) (holding this Court is not bound by dicta from our Supreme Court), with

State v. Fowler, 159 N.C. App. 504, 516, 583 S.E.2d 637, 645 (2003) (“This Court is

bound by decisions of the North Carolina Supreme Court.” (citations omitted)).

F. Wilkes County and Its Progeny Do Not Establish the Revival Window’s
   Facial Unconstitutionality Beyond a Reasonable Doubt

      With the benefit of the above pilgrimage through our constitutional

jurisprudence—necessary to a thorough understanding of these seemingly

contradictory precedents that we ultimately conclude weigh against the facial

constitutional challenge to the Revival Window—we revisit our initial question: does

the “text of the constitution, the historical context in which the people of North

Carolina adopted [the Law of the Land Clause], and our precedents,” McCrory, 368

N.C. at 639, 781 S.E.2d at 252, make “plain and clear,” id., that the General Assembly

may not revive a tort claim—as opposed to one sounding in property or contract—

after the relevant statute of limitations has expired? More specifically, is Wilkes

County “clear and dispositive,” as the Board claims, in establishing that such an

exercise of the General Assembly’s otherwise plenary powers “directly conflicts with

an express provision of the constitution”? Harper, ___ N.C. at ___, 886 S.E.2d at 415

(emphases added). Under the applicable standard of review and burden of proof

borne by the Board, we answer these questions in the negative.

      As forecast above, the language in Wilkes County controlling the outcome of

that case does not clearly answer the question posed here. First, its ultimate holding

                                         - 34 -
                                        MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                         Opinion of the Court

did not turn on the question of whether revival of a statute of limitations violates the

state Constitution, as the Supreme Court instead held that the purported revival

statute in that case did not, by its own language, apply to the subject action filed pre-

enactment. Wilkes County, 204 N.C. at 168, 167 S.E. at 693-94. Second, despite the

Board’s assertions, Wilkes County did directly implicate property rights, and only

property rights, because the county’s claim was a foreclosure of “[a] lien upon real

estate for taxes or assessments due thereon,” id. at 167, 167 S.E. at 693 (emphasis

added) (citation and quotation marks omitted); indeed, many of the treatises and

decisions cited in Wilkes County likewise related to property.13 Third, Wilkes County

did not elucidate “an express provision of the [state] constitution” limiting such an

exercise of legislative power. Harper, ___ N.C. at ___, 886 S.E.2d at 415. Finally,

Wilkes County did not purport to overrule Hinton, a decision that did squarely

address and resolve whether the revival of statutes of limitation per se violates the

state Constitution and ultimately holding that they did not where no property rights

were at issue.

        On balance, Hinton thus resolves—with more direct applicability than

        13 Of note, in stating that “we think this jurisdiction is committed to the rule that an enabling

statute to revive a cause of action barred by the statute of limitations is inoperative and of no avail,”
id. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695, the Supreme Court cited only to Booth. There, the Supreme Court held
that an enabling act purporting to retroactively validate late-filed deeds to real property in probate
that would otherwise be void was inoperative to cure and save such a late-filed deed. Booth, 193 N.C.
at 286, 136 S.E. at 883.

                                                 - 35 -
                                        MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                         Opinion of the Court

Wilkes—whether the Revival Window is per se unconstitutional.14 As State v. — and

Bell had previously elucidated, the only provision of the state Constitution expressly

concerning retrospective statutes is found in the Ex Post Facto Clause, and the

omission of any provision either describing retrospective protections for “vested

rights” strongly suggests that statutes reviving claims barred by statutes of

limitation “were not intended to be forbidden.” Bell, 61 N.C. at 83. The ratification

of a new Constitution in 1868—abrogating Bell but leaving Hinton untouched—

furthers the point that statutes reviving barred claims under expired statutes of

limitation are “no interference with vested rights” in all cases and are not per se

unconstitutional on that basis. Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415. That Hinton does not appear

to have ever been overruled, and instead was merely mentioned in Wilkes County’s

discussion of an issue on which its holding did not ultimately turn, further weighs in

its favor.

        Our understanding of this constitutional history is reaffirmed by the

        14 To be clear, we do not purport to overrule Wilkes County in excess of our authority as an

intermediate appellate court. To the contrary, we recognize that Wilkes County does apply with
precedential force to those legally and factually analogous cases governed by its substantive
holding. We simply disagree with our respected colleague that this case counts among them. See
Howard v. Boyce, 254 N.C. 255, 265, 118 S.E.2d 897, 905 (1961) (noting, in reconciliation of arguably
conflicting North Carolina Supreme Court precedents, that “[d]ecided cases should be examined more
from the standpoint of the total factual situations presented than the exact language used. A decision
of the Supreme Court must be interpreted within the framework of the facts of that particular case.”);
In re Civil Penalty, 324 N.C. 373, 378, 379 S.E.2d 30, 33 (1989) (holding this Court erred in reading a
Supreme Court decision too broadly and reversing our decision on that basis); State ex rel. Utils.
Comm'n v. Virginia Elec., 381 N.C. 499, 523 n.4, 873 S.E.2d 608, 624 n.4 (2022) (“[W]e note that the
concept of stare decisis requires, in essence, that a court identify certain material differences between
the case that is currently before the court and potentially-relevant precedent before declining to follow
that precedent[.]”).

                                                 - 36 -
                                        MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                          Opinion of the Court

similarities evident in Hinton and the United States Supreme Court’s decision in

Campbell. See Evans, 132 N.C. App. at 6, 510 S.E.2d at 174 (“[A] decision of the

United States Supreme Court interpreting the Due Process Clause is persuasive,

though not controlling, authority for interpretation of the Law of the Land Clause.”

(citation omitted)). Both Hinton and Campbell recognized that the expiration of a

statute of limitations bars a right of action and thus “affects the remedy and not the

right of property.” Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415 (emphasis in original). See also Campbell,

115 U.S. at 628, 29 L. Ed. at 487 (“[N]o right is destroyed when the law restores a

remedy which had been lost.”). This understanding of statutes of limitation as bars

to remedies—not underlying claims—persists in our modern jurisprudence. See, e.g.,

Christie v. Hartley Constr., Inc., 367 N.C. 534, 538, 766 S.E.2d 283, 286 (2014)

(“[S]tatutes of limitation are procedural, not substantive, and determine not whether

an injury has occurred, but whether a party can obtain a remedy for that injury.”

(citation omitted)).15       Thus, just as the revival statute in Hinton “t[ook] from

        15 The Board asserts that Plaintiffs’ claims also violate the purported ten-year statute of repose

found in N.C. Gen. Stat. § 1-52(16) (2023), which provides that “no cause of action shall accrue more
than 10 years from the last act or omission of the defendant giving rise to the cause of action.” This
issue was not considered by the three-judge panel below, and their ruling does not address it.
Nonetheless, because there is no contention that Plaintiffs suffered latent injuries—and given that the
Board repeatedly asserts that the Plaintiffs’ claims accrued prior to their eighteenth birthdays—we
hold that the purported statute of repose cited by the Board does not apply. See Wilder v. Amatex
Corp., 314 N.C. 550, 555, 336 S.E.2d 66, 69 (1985) (“[N.C. Gen. Stat. § 1-52(16)] added a ten-year
statute of repose . . . which applies only to latent injury claims.”); Boudreau, 322 N.C. at 334 n.2, 368
S.E.2dat 853 n.2 (holding N.C. Gen. Stat. § 1-52(16) “was intended to apply to plaintiffs with latent
injuries. It is undisputed that plaintiff was aware of his injury as soon as it occurred. Thus the statute
is inapplicable on the facts of this case.” (citations omitted)); Soderlund v. Kuch, 143 N.C. App. 361,
370, 546 S.E.2d 632, 638 (2001) (holding a sexual assault victim’s injuries were not latent, accrued and

                                                 - 37 -
                                        MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                         Opinion of the Court

[defendant] the privilege of claiming the benefit of a former statute” rather than any

property interest or vested right under the North Carolina Constitution, 61 N.C. at

415, the Supreme Court of the United States recognized that, under the federal

constitution, there is “no right which the [defendant] has in the law which permits

him to plead lapse of time . . . [and] which shall prevent the legislature from repealing

that law because its effect is to make him fulfill his honest obligations.” Campbell,

115 U.S. at 629, 29 L. Ed. at 487.

        In sum, the Law of the Land Clause does not, either in its plain text or through

further elucidation in the Ex Post Facto Clause, “limit legislative power [to pass the

Revival Window of the SAFE Child Act] by express constitutional restriction[s].”

Harper, ___ N.C. at ___, 886 S.E.2d at 414 (emphasis added) (citation omitted).

Precedents from the Founding through Reconstruction and the ratification of the

1868 Constitution further undercut the Board’s argument to the contrary. See State

v. —, 2 N.C. at 40; Bell, 61 N.C. at 82-83; Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415; Tabor, 83 N.C. at

294. And while Wilkes County’s discussion of the question, ancillary to its ultimate

holding, is relevant, it does not establish a “plain and clear” constitutional violation,

McCrory, 368 N.C. at 639, 781 S.E.2d at 252, particularly when Hinton has not been

overruled, is on all fours, and comports with the persuasive authority found in the

United States Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment. Stated

were barred by the three-year statute of limitations, and, “thus, § 1-52(16) is inapplicable to the facts
of this case”).

                                                 - 38 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Opinion of the Court

briefly, and for those reasons, the Board has not shown, by reliance on Wilkes County

and similar dicta in some subsequent cases, that the Revival Window “is

unconstitutional beyond reasonable doubt.” Id. at 639, 781 S.E.2d at 252.

G. The Revival Window Satisfies Due Process

      Having held that the Board has failed to show beyond a reasonable doubt—

and based on our constitutional text, unique state history, and related

jurisprudence—that resuscitations of claims under expired statutes of limitation are

per se violative of the express text of the Law of the Land Clause, we now turn to

whether the Revival Window violates constitutional due process under the present

law of this State, i.e., the modern substantive due process analysis. See, e.g., Bunch

v. Britton, 253 N.C. App. 659, 674-75, 802 S.E.2d 462, 473-74 (2017) (reviewing the

substantive and procedural due process tests applicable under the state and federal

constitutions); Affordable Care, Inc. v. N.C. State Bd. of Dental Exam’rs, 153 N.C.

App. 527, 535-36, 571 S.E.2d 52, 59 (2002) (holding substantive due process

challenges under the Law of the Land Clause asserting infringements of fundamental

rights are subject to strict scrutiny, while other rights are subject to rational basis

review).

      Substantive due process, derived by the United States Supreme Court from the

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution—the Law of the Land

Clause’s federal complement—originally subjected all statutes restricting protected

property interests to the highest level of judicial scrutiny. See, e.g., Lochner v. New

                                         - 39 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

York, 198 U.S. 45, 64, 49 L. Ed. 937, 944 (1905) (invalidating a workplace regulation

that did not involve conduct “dangerous in any degree to morals, or in any real and

substantial degree to the health of the employees”). Nonetheless, some legislative

concerns were so pressing as to allow impingement of property and contract interests

under even this exacting standard. See Holden v. Hardy, 169 U.S. 366, 392, 42 L. Ed.

780, 791 (1898) (upholding a state statute regulating mine work hours because

regulations restricting property interests “may be lawfully resorted to for the purpose

of preserving the public health, safety, or morals, or the abatement of public

nuisances” (citation omitted)).

      The law of substantive due process has not been static. Only a few years after

our Supreme Court’s 1933 decision in Wilkes County, the United States Supreme

Court recognized that not all life, liberty, and property interests under the

Fourteenth Amendment are automatically subjected to the highest form of judicial

inquiry. See West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379, 391, 81 L. Ed. 703, 708

(1937) (upholding a state minimum wage statute as “reasonable in relation to its

subject and . . . adopted in the interests of the community”); U.S. v. Carolene Prods.

Co., 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4, 82 L. Ed. 1234, 1241 n.4 (1938) (announcing a rational

basis test for regulations restricting economic activity, but stricter scrutiny for those

that, inter alia, discriminate against minorities). Under this modern formulation,

such a claim is now subject to either strict scrutiny or the more permissive “rational

basis” review. Bunch, 253 N.C. App. at 674-75, 802 S.E.2d at 473-74. Currently,

                                          - 40 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

“[n]ot every deprivation of liberty or property constitutes a violation of substantive

due process granted under article I, section 19. Generally, any such deprivation is

only unconstitutional where the challenged law bears no rational relation to a valid

state objective.” Affordable Care, Inc., 183 N.C. App. at 535, 571 S.E.2d at 59 (citation

omitted).

      Whether to apply strict scrutiny or rational basis review to a statute

challenged under both the federal Constitution and the Law of the Land Clause of

the North Carolina Constitution is determined by our precedents according to the

following principles:

             Substantive due process is a guaranty against arbitrary
             legislation, demanding that the law shall not be
             unreasonable, arbitrary or capricious, and that the law be
             substantially related to the valid object sought to be
             obtained.      Thus, substantive due process may be
             characterized as a standard of reasonableness, and as such
             it is a limitation upon the exercise of the police power.

                    ....

             In order to determine whether a law violates substantive
             due process, we must first determine whether the right
             infringed upon is a fundamental right. If the right is
             constitutionally fundamental, then the court must apply a
             strict scrutiny analysis wherein the party seeking to apply
             the law must demonstrate that it serves a compelling state
             interest. If the right infringed upon is not fundamental in
             the constitutional sense, the party seeking to apply it need
             only meet the traditional test of establishing that the law
             is rationally related to a legitimate state interest.

State v. Fowler, 197 N.C. App. 1, 20-21, 676 S.E.2d 523, 540-41 (2009) (cleaned up).

                                          - 41 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Opinion of the Court

      Assuming, arguendo, that an affirmative defense based on a statute of

limitations implicates a fundamental right—which we do not think is a likely

conclusion, as discussed above—we hold that the Revival Window passes

constitutional muster even under the more stringent strict scrutiny test. This test

imposes two requirements on the challenged statute: (1) it must advance “a

compelling state interest,” id. at 21, 676 S.E.2d at 540 (citation and quotation marks

omitted); and (2) it must be “narrowly drawn to express only the legitimate interests

at stake,” M.E. v. T.J., 275 N.C. App. 528, 546, 854 S.E.2d 74, 93 (2020) (citation and

quotation marks omitted), aff’d as modified on separate grounds, 380 N.C. 539, 869

S.E.2d 624 (2022).

      As detailed supra Part I.B., the General Assembly’s unanimous enactment of

the SAFE Child Act and its Revival Window was a united response to developing

science that, by the 2010s, had solidified an understanding that child sex abuse

victims suffer lifelong injuries and delay disclosure well into adulthood. Vindication

of the rights of child victims of sexual abuse—and ensuring abusers and their

enablers are justly held to account to their victims for the trauma inflicted—are

unquestionably compelling state interests. Cf., e.g., N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14-208.5 (2021)

(“[T]he protection of [sexually abused] children is of great governmental interest.”);

Packingham, 368 N.C. at388, 777 S.E.2d at746 (“[P]rotecting children from sexual

abuse is a substantial governmental interest.”). Moreover, encouraging entities—

trusted by parents to care and protect their children—to guard against abusive

                                         - 42 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

employees or agents through civil penalties is likewise a compelling interest. Cf.

State v. Bishop, 368 N.C. 869, 877, 787 S.E.2d 814, 820 (2016) (recognizing, in

applying strict scrutiny review to an anti-cyberbullying statute, that “the General

Assembly has a compelling interest in protecting the physical and psychological well-

being of minors”). So, too, is ensuring that the law—when premised on an outdated

and inaccurate understanding of child sexual abuse—does not frustrate the ability of

child victims to pursue their common law remedies.

      The SAFE Child Act’s Revival Window is also so narrowly tailored as to satisfy

strict scrutiny review. The revival period is limited to only two years and, at the time

of this opinion’s filing, has long expired. 2019 N.C. Sess. Laws 1231, 1234, ch. 245,

sec. 4.2(b). It likewise restricts the category of claims revived to: (1) “civil actions,”

for (2) “child sexual abuse.” Id. Finally, it limits itself to a procedural change only—

it in no way lowers the burden of proof that a plaintiff must meet, creates new claims

for which a defendant may be held liable, or invalidates any of a defendant’s

substantive defenses to liability on the merits. The Revival Window’s lifting of a

procedural bar goes no further than necessary to satisfy the compelling state interests

identified above: namely, that child victims of sexual abuse, injured before science

and society reached a full and complete understanding of the nature of their trauma,

have a fair and just opportunity to hold their abusers to account for their injuries.

      The Board advances several policy arguments to contend that the Revival

Window is ineffective to accomplish its goals. Specifically, the Board notes numerous

                                          - 43 -
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                      Opinion of the Court

hardships stemming from stale or unpreserved evidence. “[T]hese arguments are

more properly directed to the legislature.” State v. Anthony, 351 N.C. 611, 618, 528

S.E.2d 321, 325 (2000). To the extent they are proper for this Court to consider, these

contentions do not support an argument that the Revival Window is facially, i.e., in

all cases, unconstitutional.    As the Board acknowledges, there is no statute of

limitations for felony child sex abuse, and the State, facing the highest possible

burden of proof, was nonetheless able to convict Plaintiffs’ abuser. Moreover, any

staleness of evidence was not so significant as to interfere with the ability of a trial

court to accept a child sex abuser’s guilty plea upon an independent factual basis in

a related appeal decided contemporaneously with this decision. Taylor v. Piney Grove

Vol. Fire and Rescue Dept., COA22-259, slip op. at 3 (N.C. Ct. App. Sept. 12, 2023)

(unpublished); see also Cryan v. Nat’l Council of Young Men’s Christian Ass’ns of U.S.,

___ N.C. ___, ___, 887 S.E.2d 848, 850 (2023) (discussing the guilty plea entered by

the abuser in Taylor). These policy arguments’ limited relevance does not support

the Board’s assertion that the Revival Window is unconstitutional in all contexts

beyond a reasonable doubt.

                               III.     CONCLUSION

      Evaluating a facial constitutional challenge to an enactment of our General

Assembly is perhaps the single most solemn duty of this Court. It represents an

“important and momentous subject,” Bayard, 1 N.C. at 2, and is conducted “with great

deliberation and firmness,” id. Given our courts’ “great reluctance . . . [to] involv[e]

                                             - 44 -
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                   Opinion of the Court

themselves in a dispute with the Legislature of the State,” id. at 2-3, a party

challenging the facial constitutionality of a statute is faced with a particularly heavy

burden: “a claim that a law is unconstitutional must surmount the high bar imposed

by the presumption of constitutionality and meet the highest quantum of proof, a

showing that a statute is unconstitutional beyond a reasonable doubt.” Harper, ___

N.C. at ___, 886 S.E.2d at 414-15 (citation omitted).     On review of the text of the

North Carolina Constitution, its history, and our jurisprudence interpreting it, we

hold that the Board has failed to show beyond a reasonable doubt that an express

provision of that supreme document prohibits revivals of statutes of limitation.

Similarly, we hold that, under even the highest level of scrutiny, the SAFE Child

Act’s Revival Window passes constitutional muster. The divided order of the three-

judge panel reaching the contrary conclusion is reversed, and this matter is remanded

for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.

      REVERSED AND REMANDED.

      Judge GORE concurs in result only.

      Judge CARPENTER dissents by separate opinion.

                                          - 45 -
 No. COA22-261 – McKinney v. Goins

      CARPENTER, Judge, dissenting.

      I respectfully dissent from the Majority’s opinion. I will start by noting our

common ground. I completely agree: Sexual abuse of children is vile. I agree that

striking down legislation as facially unconstitutional is strong medicine, only suitable

for clear constitutional violations. I also agree that the prohibition of reviving time-

barred claims is not a textual one; the text of the North Carolina Constitution lacks

such a provision.

      But that is where our common ground ends. We are bound by the precedents

of this Court and the North Carolina Supreme Court. Stare decisis is not limited to

decisions this Court deems well-reasoned. Stare decisis is not limited to decisions

that produce desirable results. And stare decisis is not limited to decisions tethered

to textualism—indeed, stare decisis is often an exception to textualism. The stability

and predictability of our justice system requires that we adhere to the precedents of

our Court and the North Carolina Supreme Court.

      We lack the authority to overrule the North Carolina Supreme Court, and it

appears that my colleagues and I disagree on this point. Wilkes County and its

progeny control this case. Regardless of whether Wilkes produces a desirable outcome

or whether it is a bastion of textualism, Wilkes is an opinion from the highest court

in our state, and it exceeds our power to overrule it. In my view, the Majority is

overruling several binding cases from this Court, and the Majority effectively

overrules Wilkes, itself. Because we are bound by stare decisis, I would affirm the
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

majority order entered by the three-judge panel. Therefore, I respectfully dissent.

                   I.     Standard of Review & Stare Decisis

      The Majority correctly notes that “[w]e review constitutional questions de

novo.” Piedmont Triad Reg’l Water Auth. v. Sumner Hills, Inc., 353 N.C. 343, 348,

543 S.E.2d 844, 848 (2001). “In exercising de novo review, we presume that laws

enacted by the General Assembly are constitutional, and we will not declare a law

invalid unless we determine that it is unconstitutional beyond reasonable doubt.”

State ex rel. McCrory v. Berger, 368 N.C. 633, 635, 781 S.E.2d 248, 250 (2016).

      Stare decisis binds us beyond a reasonable doubt. Dunn v. Pate, 334 N.C. 115,

118, 431 S.E.2d 178, 180 (1993) (stating this Court must follow North Carolina

Supreme Court decisions). Stare decisis means “that where a principle of law has

become settled by a series of decisions, it is binding on the courts and should be

followed in similar cases.” State v. Ballance, 229 N.C. 764, 767, 51 S.E.2d 731, 733

(1949). Stare decisis supports the age-old axiom: “the law must be characterized by

stability.” Id. at 767, 51 S.E.2d at 733.

      But of course, the North Carolina Supreme Court may overrule flawed cases.

See, e.g., State v. Elder, 383 N.C. 578, 603, 881 S.E.2d 227, 245 (2022) (overruling a

portion of State v. Hall, 305 N.C. 77, 286 S.E.2d 552 (1982)); Cedarbrook Residential

Ctr., Inc. v. N.C. Dep’t Health & Hum. Servs., 383 N.C. 31, 56–57, 881 S.E.2d 558,

576–77 (2022) (overruling Nanny’s Korner Day Care Ctr., Inc. v. N.C. Dep’t Health &

Hum. Servs., 264 N.C. App. 71, 825 S.E.2d 34 (2019)). This is because “stare decisis

                                            2
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

will not be applied in any event to preserve and perpetuate error and grievous wrong.”

Ballance, 229 N.C. at 767, 51 S.E.2d at 733.

      We, however, are not the Supreme Court, and notwithstanding the Majority’s

desire to do so, we lack authority to overrule decisions from our Supreme Court.

Dunn, 334 N.C. at 118, 431 S.E.2d at 180. Nor can we overrule a previous case

decided by this Court, “unless it has been overturned by a higher court.” In re Civil

Penalty, 324 N.C. 373, 384, 379 S.E.2d 30, 37 (1989); Musi v. Town of Shallotte, 200

N.C. App. 379, 383, 684 S.E.2d 892, 896 (2009) (explaining that stare decisis binds

courts of the same or lower level). We are undeniably bound by our precedents, even

if we do not like the outcomes they produce, and in my view, our precedents hold

revival statutes are unconstitutional. Thus, the Revival Window is unconstitutional

beyond a reasonable doubt. See, e.g., Wilkes Cnty. v. Forester, 204 N.C. 163, 170, 167

S.E. 691, 695 (1933).

                II.     Law of the Land Clause & Vested Rights

      The Law of the Land Clause of the North Carolina Constitution provides that

“[n]o person shall be taken, imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold, liberties, or

privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner deprived of his life, liberty, or

property, but by the law of the land.” N.C. CONST. art. I, § 19.

      The Law of the Land Clause is similar to the United States Constitution’s Due

Process Clause, found in the Fourteenth Amendment; both provide procedural and

substantive protections. See Bentley v. N.C. Ins. Guar. Ass’n, 107 N.C. App. 1, 9, 418

                                            3
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

S.E.2d 705, 712 (1992) (“‘Law of the land’ is synonymous with ‘due process of law’

under the Fourteenth Amendment . . . .”). One of the substantive protections of the

Law of the Land Clause is the protection of “vested rights.” Godfrey v. Zoning Bd. of

Adjustment, 317 N.C. 51, 62, 344 S.E.2d 272, 279 (1986) (stating the vested-rights

doctrine “is rooted in the ‘due process of law’ and the ‘law of the land’ clauses of the

federal and state constitutions”).    A vested right is “a right which is otherwise

secured, established, and immune from further legal metamorphosis.” Gardner v.

Gardner, 300 N.C. 715, 718–19, 268 S.E.2d 468, 471 (1980).

      The Law of the Land Clause protects vested rights against retroactive

legislation. Id. at 719, 268 S.E.2d at 471 (“‘Vested’ rights may not be retroactively

impaired by statute; a right is ‘vested’ when it is so far perfected as to permit no

statutory interference.”); Armstrong v. Armstrong, 322 N.C. 396, 402, 368 S.E.2d 595,

598 (1988) (quoting Godfrey v. State, 84 Wash. 2d 959, 963, 530 P.2d 630, 632 (1975))

(“A vested right, entitled to protection from legislation, must be something more than

a mere expectation based upon an anticipated continuance of the existing law; it must

have become a title, legal or equitable, to the present or future enjoyment of property,

a demand, or legal exemption from a demand by another.”).

                 III.   Statutes of Limitations as Vested Rights

      Our appellate courts have repeatedly recognized a vested right to rely on a

statute-of-limitations defense. See, e.g., Waldrop v. Hodges, 230 N.C. 370, 373, 53

S.E.2d 263, 265 (1949) (citing Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695) (“A right

                                            4
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Carpenter, J., dissenting

or remedy, once barred by a statute of limitations, may not be revived by an Act of

the General Assembly.”); Troy’s Stereo Ctr., Inc. v. Hodson, 39 N.C. App. 591, 595,

251 S.E.2d 673, 675 (1979) (“While the General Assembly may extend at will the time

within which a right may be asserted or a remedy invoked so long as it is not already

barred by an existing statute, an action already barred by a statute of limitations

may not be revived by an act of the legislature.”); Congleton v. Asheboro, 8 N.C. App.

571, 573, 174 S.E.2d 870, 872 (1970) (“It is equally clear that the statute of limitations

operates to vest a defendant with the right to rely on the statute of limitations as a

defense.”). The root of this right is in Wilkes. See Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167

S.E. at 695.

      A. Wilkes County

      In Wilkes, the county owned “certificates of tax sales,” and the county tried to

foreclose on the defendant’s real property to satisfy the certificates after the

applicable statute of limitations lapsed. Id. at 167–68, 167 S.E. at 693–94.         The

General Assembly, however, passed a law that revived the period in which counties

could foreclose on these certificates. Id. at 168, 167 S.E. at 694. One of the issues

before the North Carolina Supreme Court was whether this attempted revival was

constitutional, and the Court held that it was not. Id. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695. Indeed,

after explicitly recognizing federal caselaw on the subject, the Court said: “Whatever

may be the holdings in other jurisdictions, we think this jurisdiction is committed to

the rule that an enabling statute to revive a cause of action barred by the statute of

                                             5
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

limitations is inoperative and of no avail.” Id. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695.

      1.   Wilkes Is Not Limited to Real Property

      The Majority concludes that even if Wilkes is binding, it only applies to cases

involving real property. In my view, Wilkes applies to all statutes of limitations, not

merely those relating to real property. See id. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695. I do not

dispute, however, that in Wilkes, the General Assembly attempted to revive a claim

that affected the defendant’s real property. Id. at 167–68, 167 S.E. 693–94. And I

concede that judicial language must be read in the context of the case. State v.

Jackson, 353 N.C. 495, 500, 546 S.E.2d 570, 573 (2001). The Wilkes holding, then,

could plausibly be read to prohibit only revival statutes affecting real property. See

Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695. But our appellate courts have not read

Wilkes that way, and neither should we. See, e.g., Waldrop, 230 N.C. at 373, 53 S.E.2d

at 265; Troy’s Stereo, 39 N.C. App. at 595, 251 S.E.2d at 675; Congleton, 8 N.C. App.

at 573, 174 S.E.2d at 872.

      For example, in Jewell v. Price, the plaintiffs sued the defendants for

negligence, and the defendants asserted a statute-of-limitations defense. 264 N.C.

459, 460–61, 142 S.E.2d 1, 3 (1965). In analyzing the defense, the Court cited Wilkes

and said: “If this action was already barred when it was brought . . . it may not be

revived by an act of the legislature, although that body may extend at will the time

for bringing actions not already barred by an existing statute.” Id. at 461, 142 S.E.2d

at 3. In other words, Jewell shows that the prohibition of revival statutes applies to

                                            6
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

tort claims, too. See id. at 461, 142 S.E.2d at 3.

      Therefore, Jewell illustrates that our Supreme Court has not limited the

application of its holding in Wilkes to vested rights in real property. See id. at 461,

142 S.E.2d at 3. Wilkes established a broad vested right against revival legislation;

real property was merely the vessel that brought the issue before the Court. See id.

at 461, 142 S.E.2d at 3; Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695.

      2.   Wilkes Applied the Law of the Land Clause

      The Majority also suggests that we are not bound by Wilkes because the Wilkes

Court did not explicitly cite the Law of the Land Clause. I disagree. Granted, the

Court in Wilkes did not cite the Law of the Land Clause, see Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C.

at 170, 167 S.E. at 695, but deductive reasoning, however, shows the Court was

indeed interpreting the Law of the Land Clause.

      The Wilkes Court repeatedly analyzed the term “vested right.” See id. at 168–

70, 167 S.E. at 693–95. Our jurisprudence shows that the vested-rights doctrine is

nested in either the Law of the Land Clause or the federal Due Process Clause. See

Godfrey, 317 N.C. at 62, 344 S.E.2d 272 at 279. It is not found anywhere else.

      The Wilkes Court was necessarily interpreting the Law of the Land Clause

because the Court expressly stated it was not interpreting federal cases or the Due

Process Clause. See Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 168–70, 167 S.E. at 693–95. Rather,

the Wilkes Court stated: “Whatever may be the holdings in other jurisdictions, we

think this jurisdiction is committed to the rule that an enabling statute to revive a

                                            7
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Carpenter, J., dissenting

cause of action barred by the statute of limitations is inoperative and of no avail.” Id.

at 170, 167 S.E. at 695 (emphasis added).

       Because the North Carolina Supreme Court is the final arbiter of the Law of

the Land Clause—“[w]hatever may be the holdings in other jurisdictions”—we are

bound by Wilkes and its Law of the Land interpretation. See id. at 170, 167 S.E. at

695.   Wilkes is no less binding because the Court did not explicitly cite the

constitutional clause in question.

       B. Dicta Discussion

       The Majority also dismisses Wilkes and its progeny as spouting dicta. The

Majority, however, casts its dicta net too wide. Because I believe Wilkes, coupled with

Jewell, controls this case, I will only address the binding nature of those two

decisions. I will discuss why their revival-statute discussions are not dicta, and thus

why they control this case.

       Dicta is language “not essential to a decision.” State v. Cope, 240 N.C. 244,

246, 81 S.E.2d 773, 776 (1954). In other words, dicta is “not determinative of the

issue before [a court].” Jackson, 353 N.C. at 500, 546 S.E.2d at 573. Only parties

that have standing in a live case or controversy, however, can get issues before federal

courts. Raines v. Byrd, 521 U.S. 811, 818, 117 S. Ct. 2312, 2317, 138 L. Ed. 2d 849,

857 (1997) (“No principle is more fundamental to the judiciary’s proper role in our

system of government than the constitutional limitation of federal-court jurisdiction

to actual cases or controversies.”).

                                             8
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

      But unlike federal courts, our state courts are not bound to live cases or

controversies; we can issue advisory opinions. See e.g., In re Separation of Powers,

305 N.C. 767, 775, 295 S.E.2d 589, 594 (1982) (opining, in an advisory opinion, that

statutes authorizing a joint legislative commission to make budget decisions exceeded

legislative power and interfered with the governor’s duty to administer the budget);

Cooper v. Berger, 376 N.C. 22, 29–30, 852 S.E.2d 46, 54 (2020) (citing In re Separation

of Powers, 305 N.C. at 772, 295 S.E.2d at 592); State ex rel. Martin v. Melott, 320 N.C.

518, 523, 359 S.E.2d 783, 787 (1987) (citing In re Separation of Powers, 305 N.C. at

774, 295 S.E.2d at 593). So naturally, our state-court opinions can address a wider

range of issues, and so long as court language helps resolve an “issue before us,” it is

not dicta. See Jackson, 353 N.C. at 500, 546 S.E.2d at 573.

      The Wilkes Court explicitly addressed two issues: “(1) The first question

involved: Is plaintiff barred by the eighteen months statute of limitations, which is

properly pleaded, where it attempted to foreclose certain certificates of tax sales?”

Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 167, 167 S.E. at 693. And “(2) The second question involved:

Public Laws, 1931, chap. 260, sec. 3; at p. 320.” Id. at 168, 167 S.E. at 694. In other

words, the Court explicitly addressed (1) whether Wilkes County was time barred,

and (2) whether the challenged revival provision was constitutional. Id. at 167–68,

167 S.E. at 693–94. The Court held the county’s foreclosure effort was time barred,

and the revival provision was unconstitutional. Id. at 167–70, 167 S.E. at 693–95.

      The Majority thinks the Court’s answer to the second question was dicta

                                            9
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                Carpenter, J., dissenting

because it was unnecessary to answer the first question. If the first question was the

only one presented to the Court, I would agree. But it was not, and I do not. True, if

Wilkes was heard in federal court, the plaintiff may have lacked standing to present

the second question. But Wilkes was not in federal court, and our courts do not

require live cases or controversies. See In re Separation of Powers, 305 N.C. at 775,

295 S.E.2d at 594.     Because the constitutionality of the revival provision was

expressly presented to the Wilkes Court, see Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 167, 167 S.E.

at 694, the Court properly decided its constitutionality, see Jackson, 353 N.C. at 500,

546 S.E.2d at 573. In other words—Wilkes’ revival-provision language was not dicta.

      In Jewell, “[t]he critical question [was] whether plaintiffs have offered any

evidence tending to show that they instituted this action within three years from the

date it accrued.” Jewell, 264 N.C. at 460–61, 142 S.E.2d at 3. In other words, the

“critical question” was whether the case was barred by a statute of limitations. See

id. at 460–61, 142 S.E.2d at 3. To answer that question, the Jewell Court correctly

held that a revamped statute of limitations, passed after the case commenced, could

not revive a lapsed negligence claim. Id. at 461–62, 142 S.E.2d at 3–4. Such a

determination was “essential to [the] decision,” see Cope, 240 N.C. at 246, 81 S.E.2d

at 776, because if the lapsed negligence claim could have been revived, the statute-

of-limitations defense would have failed, Jewell, 264 N.C. at 461, 142 S.E.2d at 3. But

the lapsed claim could not be revived, and the defense did not fail. Id. at 461, 142

S.E.2d at 3. Therefore, the revival discussion in Jewell was necessary, not dicta. See

                                           10
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

Cope, 240 N.C. at 246, 81 S.E.2d at 776.

      In sum, I do not read the applicable language from Wilkes and Jewell as dicta.

See id. at 246, 81 S.E.2d at 776. Thus, because Wilkes established a vested right

against revival statutes, Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695, and because

Jewell established that Wilkes is not limited to real-property rights, Jewell, 264 N.C.

at 461, 142 S.E.2d at 3, we must apply those principles to this case, see Musi, 200

N.C. App. at 383, 684 S.E.2d at 896.

      C. Hinton

      The Majority relies heavily on Hinton v. Hinton, 61 N.C. 410 (1868), and the

Majority believes Hinton controls this case. I disagree with the Majority, but Hinton

certainly deserves discussion.

      In Hinton, there was a six-month statute of limitations for widows to exercise

their common-law rights of dower. Id. at 413. In 1863, because of the Civil War, the

General Assembly decided to retroactively toll the running of this statute from May

1861. Id. at 414. As to whether the General Assembly could do so under the North

Carolina Constitution, the Hinton Court answered: “The power of the Legislature to

do so is unquestionable.” Id. at 415. One could read Hinton merely to hold this: The

legislature can toll a statute, rather than revive lapsed claims.            We have

acknowledged as much. See Troy’s Stereo, 39 N.C. App. at 595, 251 S.E.2d at 675

(“[T]he General Assembly may extend at will the time within which a right may be

asserted . . . .”). But it is hard to square that reading with the following language

                                            11
                                  MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                  Carpenter, J., dissenting

from Hinton, which illustrates the Court’s logic:

               Suppose a simple contract debt created in 1859. In 1862
               the right of action was barred by the general statute of
               limitations, which did not extinguish the debt, but simply
               barred the right of action. Then comes the act of 1863,
               providing that the time from 20 May, 1861, shall not be
               counted. Can the debtor object that this deprives him of a
               vested right? Surely not. It only takes from him the
               privilege of claiming the benefit of a former statute, the
               operation of which is for a season suspended.

Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415–16.

         I tend to agree with the Majority’s understanding of Hinton: Contrary to

Wilkes, the Hinton Court held that a statute-of-limitations defense is not a vested

right.

         D. Reconciling Wilkes & Hinton

         The Majority tries to reconcile Hinton and Wilkes in several ways—by limiting

Wilkes to real-property cases, dismissing Wilkes as vague, and dismissing Wilkes as

dicta. As discussed above, I disagree with the Majority on those fronts, but I agree

with the Majority’s reading of Hinton. Thus, because I agree with the Majority on

Hinton, and because I read Wilkes to authoritatively hold the opposite of Hinton, I

cannot read the two in harmony. My reconciliation is simpler than the Majority’s: In

my view, Wilkes overruled Hinton.

         The North Carolina Supreme Court often overrules cases by implication; it

need not do so explicitly. See, e.g., McAuley v. N.C. A&T State Univ., 383 N.C. 343,

355, 881 S.E.2d 141, 149 (2022) (Barringer, J., dissenting) (noting that the majority

                                             12
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

opinion “refuse[d] to follow . . . [ninety] years of this Court’s precedent” established

in Wray v. Carolina Cotton & Woolen Mills Co., 205 N.C. 782, 783, 172 S.E. 487, 488

(1934)); State v. Styles, 362 N.C. 412, 415–16, 665 S.E.2d 438, 440–41 (2008)

(abrogating State v. Ivey, 360 N.C. 562, 633 S.E.2d 459 (2006)).

      I read Hinton to hold that the General Assembly can revive lapsed claims,

Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415, and I read Wilkes to hold that the General Assembly cannot

revive lapsed claims, Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695. These are

opposite conclusions. The Court decided Hinton in 1868. See Hinton, 61 N.C. at 410.

And the Court decided Wilkes in 1933. See Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 163, 167 S.E. at

691. Thus, our state Supreme Court overruled Hinton when it decided Wilkes. See

Styles, 362 N.C. at 415–16, 665 S.E.2d at 440–41; Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167

S.E. at 695.   Further, our subsequent caselaw follows Wilkes, not Hinton; this

supports the proposition that Wilkes overruled Hinton. See, e.g., Waldrop, 230 N.C.

at 373, 53 S.E.2d at 265.

      Therefore, Wilkes controls this case, not Hinton. This follows from the two

cases themselves and from the subsequent caselaw. See Hinton, 61 N.C. at 415;

Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167 S.E. at 695; Waldrop, 230 N.C. at 373, 53 S.E.2d

at 265. Accordingly, I would follow Wilkes and affirm the majority decision of the

three-judge panel below.

                              IV.    Tiers of Scrutiny

      The Majority also holds that, even if Wilkes applies to the Revival Window, the

                                            13
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                Carpenter, J., dissenting

window is constitutional because it passes both the relaxed rational-basis test and

the exacting strict-scrutiny test. I disagree with the Majority’s testing premise: I do

not think we should analyze this case through a tiers-of-scrutiny scheme.

      I acknowledge that we analyze certain Law of the Land cases under a tiers-of-

scrutiny framework.     But those cases involve “fundamental rights.”        See, e.g.,

Affordable Care, Inc. v. N.C. State Bd. of Dental Examiners, 153 N.C. App. 527, 535,

571 S.E.2d 52, 59 (2002) (stating that fundamental rights are subject to strict

scrutiny); Bunch v. Britton, 253 N.C. App. 659, 674, 802 S.E.2d 462, 473–74 (2017)

(discussing the tiers-of-scrutiny framework for fundamental rights).

      Under our jurisprudence, similar to our federal counterpart, fundamental

rights include those enumerated in the North Carolina Constitution. Hoke Cnty. Bd.

of Educ. v. State, 382 N.C. 386, 432, 879 S.E.2d 193, 222–23 (2022) (discussing, among

others, the fundamental rights to free elections, free speech, and education). We also

find fundamental rights beyond the text of our state’s Constitution.         Comer v.

Ammons, 135 N.C. App. 531, 539, 522 S.E.2d 77, 82 (1999) (“A fundamental right is

a right explicitly or implicitly guaranteed to individuals by the United States

Constitution or a state constitution.”) (emphasis added). Typically, these implied

fundamental rights are nestled in the Law of the Land Clause. See, e.g., N.C. Dep’t

of Transp. v. Rowe, 353 N.C. 671, 676, 549 S.E.2d 203, 208 (2001) (finding a right to

“just compensation” in the Law of the Land Clause).

      Vested rights, however, are distinct. “Without question, vested rights of action

                                           14
                                MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                Carpenter, J., dissenting

are property, just as tangible things are property.” Rhyne v. K-Mart Corp., 358 N.C.

160, 176, 594 S.E.2d 1, 12 (2004) (citing Duckworth v. Mull, 143 N.C. 461, 466–67, 55

S.E. 850, 852 (1906). Like the fundamental rights mentioned in tiered-scrutiny cases,

vested rights are grounded in due process. Godfrey, 317 N.C. at 62, 344 S.E.2d at

279. But vested rights are paramount—protected from any legislative attack. See,

e.g., See Lester Bros., Inc. v. Pope Realty & Ins. Co., 250 N.C. 565, 568, 109 S.E.2d

263, 266 (1959) (“[A] retrospective statute, affecting or changing vested rights, is

founded on unconstitutional principles and consequently void.”).        Fundamental

rights, on the other hand, can be taken by legislation—so long as the legislation

passes “strict scrutiny.” See Affordable Care, 153 N.C. App. at 535, 571 S.E.2d at 59.

      It is admittedly difficult to mesh the vested-rights doctrine with the

fundamental-rights doctrine. But the idea of vested rights predates fundamental

rights, and in my reading of the cases, vested rights are a special species of

fundamental rights. In other words, all vested rights are fundamental, but not all

fundamental rights are vested. Vested rights are treated like property, Rhyne, 358

N.C. at 176, 594 S.E.2d at 12, and they are so “fundamental” that no legislation can

take them away, Lester Bros., 250 N.C. at 568, 109 S.E.2d at 266.

      Adopting the Majority’s view of this area would erase our vested-rights

doctrine. Under the Majority’s approach, fundamental rights would swallow vested

rights, and our vested-rights doctrine would be consumed by the adopted federal

framework. See Affordable Care, Inc., 153 N.C. App. at 535, 571 S.E.2d at 59. But

                                           15
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

our vested-rights doctrine is distinct—predating any tiered scrutiny approach—and

our courts have developed the doctrine for decades. See, e.g., Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C.

at 170, 167 S.E. at 695; Lester Bros., 250 N.C. at 568, 109 S.E.2d at 266.

      The vested-rights doctrine is ill-suited for the tiers-of-scrutiny approach.

Indeed, if vested, a right is beyond legislative encroachment; if not vested, a right is

only as protected as the level of scrutiny allows. See Lester Bros., 250 N.C. at 568,

109 S.E.2d at 266; Gardner, 300 N.C. at 718–19, 268 S.E.2d at 471 (stating that a

vested right is “a right which is otherwise secured, established, and immune from

further legal metamorphosis”) (emphasis added).

      The issue before us is a state constitutional issue—not a federal one, and the

North Carolina Supreme Court is the final arbiter of the North Carolina Constitution.

If our state Supreme Court decides to lockstep with the federal Supreme Court and

the Due Process Clause, then so be it. But concerning vested rights, our Supreme

Court has not done so. See Lester Bros., 250 N.C. at 568, 109 S.E.2d at 266; Gardner,

300 N.C. 715, 719, 268 S.E.2d at 471 (“’Vested’” rights may not be retroactively

impaired by statute; a right is ‘vested’ when it is so far perfected as to permit no

statutory interference.”) (emphasis added).

      Until our state Supreme Court holds that vested rights are merely

fundamental and subject to the federal tiers-of-scrutiny approach, we should apply

the decisive vested-rights doctrine: If legislation violates a vested right, the

legislation is void. See Lester Bros., 250 N.C. at 568, 109 S.E.2d at 266. Thus, the

                                            16
                                 MCKINNEY V. GOINS

                                 Carpenter, J., dissenting

“interests” and “tailoring” within the tiers-of-scrutiny approach are irrelevant to

vested rights. Because I think the Revival Window violates a vested right, I think

the Revival Window is void. Therefore, I would affirm the panel below.

                                 V.      Conclusion

       The Majority thinks Wilkes should be overruled, and this Court has the

authority to do so. Given its lack of support from the text of our state Constitution,

perhaps Wilkes should be overruled. See Harper v. Hall, ___ N.C. ___, 886 S.E.2d 393

(2023). Although, in my view, the effects of doing so would extend far beyond this

case and would carry unintended consequences and undermine a hallmark of our

justice system–stability in our jurisprudence.

       Regardless, whether revival statutes are good policy is not for us to decide. We

cannot overrule Wilkes, its progeny, or our vested-rights doctrine. Only our state

Supreme Court can. See In re Civil Penalty, 324 N.C. at 384, 379 S.E.2d at 37; Musi,

200 N.C. App. at 383, 684 S.E.2d at 896. The Wilkes Court was clear: “Whatever may

be the holdings in other jurisdictions, we think this jurisdiction is committed to the

rule that an enabling statute to revive a cause of action barred by the statute of

limitations is inoperative and of no avail.” Wilkes Cnty., 204 N.C. at 170, 167 S.E. at

695.   Because Wilkes and its progeny control this case, the Revival Window is

“unconstitutional beyond reasonable doubt.” State ex rel. McCrory, 368 N.C. at 635,

781 S.E.2d at 250. Therefore, I would affirm the majority of the panel below, and I

respectfully dissent.

                                            17
MCKINNEY V. GOINS

Carpenter, J., dissenting

           18