Dataset Viewer
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9
| sections
sequence | sec_text
sequence | extractive_keyphrases
sequence | abstractive_keyphrases
sequence | metadata
dict |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
6271257 | [
"introduction",
"setup of the experiment",
"gathering input sketches",
"defining sketch/image pairs",
"interaction for gathering the ratings",
"anchoring",
"choice of stimulus duration",
"evaluation",
"rank correlation",
"tied ranks",
"measuring statistical significance",
"benchmarking sbir systems",
"study and analysis",
"consistency among sketch/image pairs",
"correlation analysis",
"descriptors and indexing",
"bag-of-features model for image retrieval",
"sampling strategies",
"codebook generation",
"search strategy",
"local features for representing sketches",
"shape context",
"spark feature",
"histogram of oriented gradients",
"shog feature",
"evaluation of descriptor performance",
"results and applications",
"finding optimal local descriptor parameters",
"codebook size",
"feature size",
"feature representation",
"experimental applications",
"specialized search: human faces",
"2d search from 3d shapes",
"basic sketch-based video search",
"user study",
"possible sources of bias",
"choice of rating scale",
"benchmark",
"sketching interface",
"local features",
"conclusion"
] | [
[
"F",
"OR",
"most",
"image",
"databases,",
"browsing",
"as",
"a",
"means",
"of",
"retrieval",
"is",
"impractical,",
"and",
"query-based",
"searching",
"is",
"required.",
"Queries",
"are",
"often",
"expressed",
"as",
"keywords",
"(or",
"by",
"other",
"means",
"than",
"the",
"images",
"themselves),",
"requiring",
"the",
"images",
"to",
"be",
"tagged.",
"In",
"view",
"of",
"the",
"ever",
"increasing",
"size",
"of",
"image",
"databases,",
"the",
"assumption",
"of",
"an",
"appropriate",
"and",
"complete",
"set",
"of",
"tags",
"might",
"be",
"invalid,",
"and",
"content-based",
"search",
"techniques",
"become",
"vital..",
"Different",
"types",
"of",
"content-based",
"image",
"queries",
"have",
"been",
"suggested",
"and",
"analyzed:",
"example",
"images;",
"rough,",
"blurry",
"drawings",
"of",
"the",
"desired",
"colors;",
"simple",
"outline",
"sketches;",
"and",
"combinations",
"or",
"extensions",
"thereof",
"[1]",
".",
"We",
"believe",
"that",
"outline",
"sketches",
"are",
"typically",
"easier",
"and",
"faster",
"to",
"generate",
"than",
"a",
"complete",
"color",
"description",
"of",
"the",
"scene.",
"And",
"they",
"can",
"be",
"generated",
"for",
"arbitrary",
"desired",
"images,",
"while",
"example",
"images",
"may",
"or",
"may",
"not",
"be",
"at",
"hand",
"when",
"searching.",
"In",
"addition,",
"input",
"devices",
"change",
"in",
"favor",
"of",
"sketching",
"as",
"touch-enabled",
"devices",
"become",
"more",
"common.",
"In",
"other",
"words,",
"sketch-based",
"image",
"retrieval",
"(SBIR)",
"is",
"a",
"relevant",
"means",
"of",
"querying",
"large",
"image",
"databases..",
"Several",
"approaches",
"for",
"SBIR",
"have",
"been",
"suggested.",
"However,",
"to",
"achieve",
"interactive",
"query",
"response,",
"it",
"is",
"impossible",
"to",
"compare",
"the",
"sketch",
"to",
"all",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"database",
"directly.",
"Instead,",
"descriptors",
"are",
"extracted",
"in",
"a",
"preprocess",
"and",
"stored",
"in",
"a",
"data",
"structure",
"for",
"fast",
"access.",
"Very",
"commonly,",
"the",
"descriptors",
"are",
"interpreted",
"as",
"points",
"in",
"a",
"high-dimensional",
"space",
"and",
"finding",
"close",
"matches",
"means",
"searching",
"for",
"nearest",
"neighbors",
"in",
"this",
"space.",
"Moreover,",
"image",
"descriptors",
"can",
"be",
"roughly",
"classified",
"into",
"global",
"versus",
"local",
"descriptors:",
"global",
"descriptors",
"encode",
"specific",
"features",
"of",
"the",
"whole",
"image",
"that",
"suffice",
"to",
"describe",
"the",
"\"gist\"",
"of",
"the",
"scene",
"[2]",
",",
"while",
"many",
"local",
"descriptors",
"need",
"to",
"be",
"extracted",
"for",
"a",
"single",
"image,",
"with",
"each",
"descriptor",
"describing",
"only",
"a",
"small",
"spatially",
"localized",
"region",
"of",
"the",
"image",
"[3]",
".",
"While",
"the",
"use",
"of",
"local",
"descriptors",
"is",
"a",
"common",
"approach",
"in",
"example-based",
"image",
"retrieval",
"[4]",
",",
"[5]",
",",
"[6]",
",",
"[7]",
",",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"up",
"to",
"now",
"still",
"employ",
"global",
"descriptors",
"and",
"thus",
"inherit",
"their",
"drawbacks,",
"mainly",
"being",
"not",
"invariant",
"to",
"affine",
"transformations..",
"An",
"important",
"design",
"feature",
"for",
"any",
"descriptor-based",
"retrieval",
"system",
"is",
"that",
"the",
"distance",
"metric",
"in",
"feature",
"space",
"correlates",
"with",
"perceptual",
"similarity.",
"To",
"gauge",
"this",
"perceptual",
"similarity,",
"ground-truth",
"information",
"from",
"user",
"studies",
"is",
"needed.",
"Interestingly,",
"Forsyth",
"[8]",
"criticizes",
"the",
"design",
"of",
"many",
"existing",
"image",
"retrieval",
"systems",
"for",
"not",
"meeting",
"real",
"users'",
"needs",
"when",
"they",
"are",
"based",
"on",
"image",
"collections",
"that",
"are",
"comprehensively",
"tagged",
"but",
"are",
"typically",
"unrealistically",
"small..",
"We",
"design",
"a",
"benchmark",
"for",
"SBIR",
"that",
"is",
"based",
"on",
"a",
"large",
"collection",
"of",
"images,",
"several",
"orders",
"of",
"magnitude",
"closer",
"in",
"size",
"to",
"real",
"data",
"sets",
"than",
"other",
"collections.",
"We",
"also",
"design",
"local",
"descriptors",
"for",
"SBIR.",
"The",
"benchmark",
"allows",
"us",
"to",
"show",
"that",
"they",
"better",
"model",
"humans'",
"perceptual",
"metric",
"between",
"outline",
"sketches",
"and",
"images.",
"More",
"particularly,",
"we",
"report",
"on",
"the",
"following",
"contributions:.",
".",
"In",
"a",
"controlled",
"user",
"study,",
"we",
"gather",
"a",
"data",
"set",
"of",
"more",
"than",
"30,000",
"ratings",
"indicating",
"how",
"well",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"match.",
"The",
"analysis",
"of",
"the",
"ratings",
"shows",
"(probably",
"for",
"the",
"first",
"time)",
"that",
"human",
"subjects",
"rate",
"the",
"similarity",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"images",
"in",
"a",
"predictable",
"and",
"similar",
"way.",
"Thus,",
"the",
"data",
"define",
"a",
"benchmark",
"that",
"can",
"be",
"used",
"to",
"evaluate",
"how",
"well",
"the",
"results",
"of",
"an",
"arbitrary",
"SBIR",
"system",
"correspond",
"to",
"human",
"expectation.",
"Additionally,",
"we",
"define",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"100,000",
"Creative",
"Commons",
"images",
"that",
"is",
"used",
"along",
"with",
"the",
"benchmark.",
"We",
"will",
"make",
"the",
"image",
"database",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"the",
"benchmark",
"freely",
"available",
"for",
"other",
"researchers",
"to",
"compare",
"image",
"retrieval",
"algorithms",
"and",
"evaluate",
"SBIR",
"systems.",
".",
"We",
"adapt",
"existing",
"image",
"features",
"(such",
"as",
"shape",
"contexts",
"or",
"SIFT)",
"to",
"SBIR",
"and",
"also",
"introduce",
"new",
"local",
"shape",
"features.",
"These",
"features",
"are",
"used",
"in",
"a",
"bag-of-features",
"approach",
"for",
"SBIR.",
"Based",
"on",
"our",
"benchmark,",
"we",
"can",
"show",
"that",
"the",
"bag-of-feature",
"approaches",
"generally",
"outperform",
"existing",
"global",
"descriptors",
"from",
"the",
"literature-we",
"attribute",
"this",
"mostly",
"to",
"translation",
"invariance.",
"And",
"among",
"the",
"bag-of-features",
"approaches,",
"the",
"new",
"feature",
"descriptor",
"we",
"designed",
"specifically",
"for",
"SBIR",
"indeed",
"performs",
"better",
"than",
"other",
"general",
"image",
"features.",
"Based",
"on",
"the",
"new",
"descriptors,",
"we",
"introduce",
"prototypes",
"for",
"several",
"applications",
"that",
"benefit",
"from",
"SBIR."
],
[
"We",
"assume",
"that",
"humans",
"generally",
"agree",
"that",
"a",
"simple",
"sketch",
"may",
"be",
"perceptually",
"closer",
"to",
"some",
"images",
"than",
"to",
"others.",
"However,",
"we",
"make",
"no",
"assumptions",
"on",
"the",
"similarity",
"of",
"this",
"behavior",
"across",
"humans",
"or",
"even",
"if",
"humans",
"would",
"rate",
"the",
"likeness",
"of",
"images",
"similarly.",
"Given",
"a",
"few",
"examples",
"of",
"similarity",
"ratings,",
"we",
"ask",
"if",
"humans",
"gauge",
"other",
"pairs",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"images",
"consistently",
"over",
"time",
"and",
"across",
"subjects.",
"If",
"so,",
"we",
"would",
"like",
"to",
"gather",
"these",
"measurements",
"for",
"comparison",
"with",
"measurements",
"based",
"on",
"feature",
"extraction",
"in",
"computer",
"systems..",
"To",
"answer",
"this",
"question,",
"we",
"conducted",
"an",
"experiment,",
"in",
"which",
"we",
"show",
"pairs",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"images",
"(see",
"Fig.",
"1",
")",
"under",
"controlled",
"conditions",
"to",
"human",
"subjects",
"and",
"ask",
"them",
"to",
"rate",
"the",
"similarity",
"of",
"the",
"pair.",
"We",
"discuss",
"the",
"following",
"design",
"choices",
"for",
"the",
"study:.",
".",
"Sketches",
"shown",
"in",
"the",
"study.",
".",
"Images",
"paired",
"with",
"the",
"sketches.",
".",
"Human-computer",
"interaction",
"during",
"the",
"experiment",
"to",
"gather",
"the",
"ratings.",
".",
"Benchmarking",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"using",
"the",
"results",
"of",
"the",
"study.",
"In",
"the",
"following",
"section,",
"we",
"describe",
"how",
"the",
"experiment",
"was",
"performed",
"and",
"comment",
"on",
"the",
"results."
],
[
"The",
"choice",
"of",
"query",
"sketches",
"essentially",
"defines",
"the",
"difficulty",
"of",
"the",
"resulting",
"benchmark.",
"It",
"is",
"important",
"to",
"define",
"it",
"in",
"such",
"a",
"way",
"that",
"current",
"systems",
"can",
"be",
"evaluated.",
"If",
"the",
"sketches",
"would",
"contain",
"too",
"much",
"abstraction,",
"current",
"systems",
"would",
"perform",
"very",
"badly",
"and",
"an",
"evaluation",
"would",
"have",
"to",
"deal",
"with",
"more",
"noise.",
"Overall,",
"we",
"tried",
"to",
"select",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"sketches",
"for",
"the",
"study",
"such",
"that",
"a",
"reasonable",
"compromise",
"between",
"users'",
"demands",
"toward",
"a",
"query",
"system",
"and",
"the",
"capabilities",
"of",
"current",
"systems",
"are",
"achieved..",
"We",
"gathered",
"a",
"large",
"number",
"of",
"sketches",
"drawn",
"by",
"different",
"subjects",
"that",
"are",
"not",
"biased",
"toward",
"potentially",
"working",
"with",
"a",
"particular",
"SBIR",
"system.",
"In",
"order",
"to",
"achieve",
"a",
"wide",
"spectrum",
"of",
"drawing",
"styles,",
"we",
"asked",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"19",
"subjects",
"to",
"draw",
"sketches",
"using",
"two",
"different",
"methods:",
"first,",
"16",
"individuals",
"(that",
"had",
"not",
"been",
"exposed",
"to",
"SBIR)",
"generated",
"arbitrary",
"input",
"sketches",
"depicting",
"arbitrary",
"scenes",
"or",
"objects,",
"drawing",
"them",
"in",
"a",
"way",
"they",
"would",
"expect",
"to",
"work",
"well",
"for",
"an",
"imaginary",
"retrieval",
"system.",
"For",
"inspiration,",
"we",
"gave",
"them",
"a",
"list",
"of",
"categories",
"(plants,",
"animals,",
"skylines,",
"landscapes,",
"machines,",
"and",
"humans)",
"but",
"we",
"stressed",
"that",
"sketches",
"from",
"any",
"other",
"category",
"were",
"also",
"allowed",
"and",
"actually",
"desired.",
"Second,",
"we",
"asked",
"three",
"subjects",
"to",
"also",
"create",
"sketches",
"by",
"roughly",
"tracing",
"the",
"objects",
"seen",
"in",
"existing",
"color",
"images.",
"For",
"both",
"types",
"of",
"sketches,",
"we",
"emphasized",
"that",
"including",
"shading",
"information",
"and",
"crosshatching",
"techniques",
"should",
"be",
"avoided;",
"instead,",
"we",
"asked",
"to",
"create",
"rough",
"outlines",
"that",
"are",
"quick",
"and",
"simple",
"to",
"draw..",
"This",
"resulted",
"in",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"164",
"sketches",
"created",
"for",
"the",
"purpose",
"of",
"this",
"study.",
"From",
"this",
"set,",
"we",
"manually",
"selected",
"49",
"sketches",
"with",
"the",
"aim",
"that",
"they",
"match",
"reasonably",
"with",
"a",
"sufficient",
"number",
"of",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"database.",
"We",
"used",
"the",
"following",
"criteria",
"in",
"our",
"selection:",
"sketches",
"should",
"depict",
"shape",
"rather",
"than",
"symbols;",
"they",
"should",
"depict",
"nonfictional",
"objects;",
"if",
"any",
"perspective",
"was",
"used,",
"it",
"should",
"be",
"reasonably",
"realistic.",
"Using",
"this",
"set",
"of",
"sketches,",
"we",
"now",
"describe",
"how",
"the",
"images",
"for",
"presentation",
"and",
"ranking",
"were",
"chosen."
],
[
"Performing",
"the",
"user",
"study",
"requires",
"us",
"to",
"select",
"a",
"certain",
"number",
"of",
"images",
"to",
"be",
"presented",
"for",
"rating",
"along",
"with",
"the",
"sketches.",
"Randomly",
"sampling",
"images",
"from",
"a",
"large",
"image",
"database",
"turned",
"out",
"not",
"to",
"be",
"applicable:",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"nonrelevant",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"database",
"given",
"a",
"certain",
"sketch",
"is",
"large",
"and",
"would",
"likely",
"cause",
"frustration",
"throughout",
"the",
"experiment",
"and",
"also",
"create",
"insufficient",
"data",
"for",
"close",
"matches..",
"Ideally,",
"we",
"would",
"like",
"to",
"gather",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"exhibiting",
"the",
"following",
"properties:.",
".",
"Rating",
"the",
"complete",
"set",
"should",
"be",
"possible",
"in",
"about",
"one",
"hour",
"per",
"participant",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"avoid",
"fatigue.",
"We",
"settled",
"for",
"31",
"sketches",
"(allowing",
"for",
"a",
"wide",
"variety",
"of",
"scenes",
"and",
"objects",
"depicted)",
"and",
"40",
"images",
"associated",
"with",
"each",
"sketch.",
".",
"The",
"set",
"should",
"generate",
"roughly",
"the",
"same",
"number",
"of",
"ratings",
"for",
"each",
"discrete",
"rank",
"on",
"our",
"ranking",
"scale",
"(i.e.,",
"approximately",
"same",
"number",
"of",
"well",
"matching",
"and",
"poorly",
"matching",
"images",
"associated",
"with",
"each",
"sketch).",
"This,",
"however,",
"would",
"require",
"a",
"priori",
"knowledge",
"of",
"how",
"subjects",
"rate",
"the",
"matches.",
"To",
"approximate",
"this",
"property,",
"we",
"performed",
"a",
"pilot",
"study.",
"We",
"generated",
"preliminary",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"by",
"using",
"a",
"subset",
"of",
"the",
"best",
"performing",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"from",
"Eitz",
"et",
"al.",
"[9]",
"..",
"For",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"49",
"sketches",
"selected",
"in",
"Section",
"2.1,",
"we",
"queried",
"for",
"the",
"top",
"ranking",
"20",
"images",
"using",
"three",
"variants",
"of",
"Tensor",
"descriptor",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"the",
"histograms",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients",
"(HoG)",
"descriptor",
"(we",
"discuss",
"this",
"process",
"and",
"its",
"potential",
"to",
"generate",
"a",
"biased",
"sample",
"later).",
"This",
"resulted",
"in",
"a",
"collection",
"of",
"3",
"Á",
"2",
"Á",
"20",
"Á",
"49",
"¼",
"5;880",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"(including",
"duplicates).",
"Without",
"duplicates,",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"4,532",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"remained..",
"Using",
"these",
"sketch/image",
"pairs,",
"we",
"performed",
"a",
"pilot",
"study",
"with",
"three",
"participants,",
"gathering",
"3",
"Á",
"4;532",
"¼",
"13;596",
"ratings.",
"As",
"expected,",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"ratings",
"was",
"not",
"uniform",
"for",
"most",
"sketches",
"(see",
"Fig.",
"7",
").",
"We",
"now",
"show",
"how",
"to",
"select",
"a",
"subset",
"of",
"these",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"that",
"would",
"likely",
"generate",
"a",
"more",
"uniform",
"distribution",
"of",
"the",
"ratings",
"in",
"the",
"final",
"study..",
"Assuming",
"a",
"uniform",
"distribution",
"of",
"the",
"ratings",
"over",
"the",
"scale",
"1",
"to",
"7,",
"40",
"images",
"per",
"sketch",
"would",
"lead",
"to",
"an",
"average",
"of",
"40=7",
"%",
"5:71",
"ratings",
"per",
"discrete",
"rank",
"on",
"the",
"scale.",
"For",
"each",
"sketch,",
"we",
"computed",
"the",
"standard",
"deviation",
"of",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"ratings",
"from",
"the",
"desired",
"mean",
"of",
"5.71,",
"and",
"discarded",
"the",
"18",
"sketches",
"with",
"the",
"largest",
"AE",
"(exclusively",
"corresponding",
"to",
"sketches",
"associated",
"with",
"many",
"poorly",
"matching",
"images)..",
"For",
"the",
"remaining",
"sketches,",
"we",
"randomly",
"subsampled",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"associated",
"images",
"such",
"that",
"exactly",
"40",
"images",
"remained,",
"however,",
"biasing",
"the",
"subsample",
"toward",
"a",
"uniform",
"distribution",
"of",
"ratings.",
"This",
"procedure",
"mostly",
"eliminated",
"images",
"with",
"poor",
"ratings,",
"as",
"expected..",
"The",
"result",
"of",
"the",
"pilot",
"study",
"is",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"31",
"sketches,",
"with",
"exactly",
"40",
"images",
"associated",
"with",
"each",
"sketch.",
"This",
"resulting",
"set",
"of",
"1,240",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"is",
"used",
"in",
"the",
"final",
"user",
"study",
"and",
"presented",
"to",
"the",
"participants",
"for",
"rating.",
"The",
"distribution",
"of",
"ratings",
"from",
"the",
"pilot",
"study",
"and",
"the",
"final",
"study",
"is",
"visualized",
"in",
"Fig.",
"7",
"and",
"illustrates",
"clearly,",
"that",
"the",
"proposed",
"subsampling",
"strategy",
"was",
"successful",
"in",
"selecting",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"that",
"are",
"closer",
"to",
"a",
"uniform",
"distribution",
"of",
"ratings."
],
[
"We",
"showed",
"each",
"sketch/image",
"pair",
"side",
"by",
"side",
"on",
"a",
"24",
"inch",
"LCD",
"monitor",
"under",
"controlled",
"environmental",
"conditions",
"(i.e.,",
"similar",
"lighting",
"conditions,",
"no",
"significant",
"audible",
"distraction,",
"and",
"80",
"cm",
"viewing",
"distance).",
"An",
"example",
"display",
"is",
"shown",
"in",
"Fig.",
"1",
".",
"Subjects",
"were",
"exposed",
"to",
"the",
"stimulus",
"for",
"2",
"seconds.",
"After",
"the",
"stimulus,",
"the",
"screen",
"turned",
"black",
"for",
"1",
"second.",
"Subjects",
"were",
"asked",
"to",
"rate",
"the",
"similarity",
"on",
"a",
"7-point",
"Likert",
"scale",
"[10]",
"from",
"1",
"(best)",
"to",
"7",
"(worst),",
"by",
"pressing",
"the",
"corresponding",
"number",
"key",
"on",
"a",
"keyboard.",
"The",
"rating",
"could",
"be",
"submitted",
"and",
"changed",
"during",
"the",
"total",
"of",
"2",
"seconds",
"of",
"stimulus",
"or",
"the",
"1",
"second",
"of",
"blank",
"screen,",
"but",
"not",
"afterward.",
"After",
"the",
"3",
"seconds,",
"the",
"next",
"pair",
"was",
"automatically",
"displayed..",
"The",
"first",
"set",
"of",
"pairs",
"was",
"presented",
"with",
"a",
"suggested",
"scale",
"(see",
"below).",
"After",
"that,",
"the",
"experiment",
"started",
"and",
"pairs",
"were",
"presented",
"in",
"random",
"order.",
"Participants",
"were",
"allowed",
"to",
"pause",
"the",
"study",
"at",
"any",
"time.",
"Apart",
"from",
"the",
"final",
"rating,",
"we",
"also",
"recorded",
"the",
"time",
"until",
"the",
"final",
"rating."
],
[
"To",
"understand",
"if",
"subjects",
"rate",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"consistently",
"over",
"time",
"and,",
"if",
"so,",
"to",
"get",
"comparable",
"ratings",
"across",
"subjects,",
"it",
"is",
"important",
"to",
"expose",
"subjects",
"to",
"example",
"pairs",
"and",
"a",
"desired",
"rating.",
"Thus,",
"directly",
"prior",
"to",
"the",
"experiment,",
"we",
"display",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"21",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"(three",
"sketches,",
"with",
"seven",
"corresponding",
"images",
"each,",
"as",
"shown",
"in",
"Fig.",
"2",
")",
"together",
"with",
"their",
"corresponding",
"ratings",
"to",
"each",
"participant..",
"The",
"idea",
"is",
"that",
"human",
"subjects",
"use",
"this",
"information",
"for",
"anchoring,",
"creating",
"a",
"bias",
"toward",
"these",
"ratings",
"for",
"similar",
"matches:",
"if",
"human",
"subjects",
"are",
"able",
"to",
"consistently",
"rank",
"the",
"likeness",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"images,",
"then",
"anchoring",
"works.",
"If",
"humans",
"are",
"generally",
"unable",
"to",
"consistently",
"assess",
"the",
"matches,",
"then",
"the",
"effect",
"of",
"examples",
"would",
"quickly",
"diffuse",
"and",
"subjects",
"would",
"rate",
"the",
"matches",
"randomly",
"or",
"following",
"some",
"mechanism",
"that",
"we",
"are",
"not",
"aware",
"of.",
"We",
"include",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"used",
"for",
"anchoring",
"randomly",
"into",
"the",
"later",
"part",
"of",
"the",
"experiment..",
"If",
"consistent",
"similarity",
"rating",
"based",
"on",
"visual",
"perception",
"was",
"impossible,",
"this",
"would",
"now",
"be",
"easy",
"to",
"detect",
"by",
"analyzing",
"if",
"subjects",
"significantly",
"changed",
"their",
"rating",
"for",
"the",
"examples",
"or",
"if",
"ratings",
"were",
"inconsistent",
"across",
"subjects",
"despite",
"the",
"anchoring."
],
[
"It",
"is",
"clear",
"that",
"the",
"sketch/image",
"pair",
"cannot",
"be",
"shown",
"too",
"short",
"or",
"too",
"long.",
"Our",
"setup",
"leads",
"to",
"disks",
"with",
"a",
"radius",
"of",
"roughly",
"2",
"cm",
"being",
"projected",
"into",
"the",
"foveal",
"region",
"of",
"the",
"eye.",
"This",
"means",
"a",
"human",
"observer",
"needs",
"saccades",
"to",
"compare",
"features",
"in",
"the",
"sketch",
"and",
"the",
"image.",
"Fixations",
"between",
"saccades",
"are",
"rarely",
"shorter",
"than",
"200",
"ms",
"across",
"different",
"visual",
"activities",
"[11]",
".",
"In",
"a",
"similar",
"experimental",
"setup",
"and",
"comparable",
"content,",
"a",
"recent",
"study",
"reports",
"a",
"mean",
"time",
"of",
"250",
"ms",
"between",
"saccades",
"[12]",
".",
"Thus,",
"comparing",
"few",
"features",
"in",
"the",
"pair",
"requires",
"at",
"least",
"roughly",
"a",
"second,",
"perhaps",
"more.",
"In",
"a",
"preliminary",
"experiment,",
"our",
"participants",
"found",
"display",
"times",
"less",
"than",
"2",
"seconds",
"exhausting.",
"On",
"the",
"other",
"hand,",
"more",
"time",
"leads",
"to",
"more",
"high-level",
"considerations",
"and",
"more",
"noisy",
"data.",
"We",
"therefore",
"settled",
"for",
"2",
"seconds",
"presentation",
"time.",
"This",
"also",
"helped",
"to",
"keep",
"the",
"time",
"for",
"rating",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"1,240",
"sketch/image",
"displays",
"to",
"roughly",
"an",
"hour,",
"which",
"we",
"considered",
"tolerable."
],
[
"Given",
"the",
"experiment,",
"we",
"now",
"discuss",
"how",
"to",
"evaluate",
"the",
"results.",
"We",
"propose",
"to",
"base",
"the",
"evaluation",
"on",
"rank",
"correlation",
"and",
"show",
"how",
"this",
"approach",
"can",
"also",
"be",
"used",
"to",
"compare",
"automatic",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"against",
"the",
"human",
"data",
"gathered",
"in",
"the",
"experiment."
],
[
"Let",
"x",
"be",
"a",
"list",
"of",
"n",
"ratings",
"with",
"x",
"i",
"denoting",
"the",
"rating",
"assigned",
"to",
"the",
"ith",
"element.",
"Kendall's",
"tau",
"[13]",
",",
"[14]",
"is",
"a",
"widely",
"used",
"measure",
"of",
"rank",
"correlation,",
"allowing",
"to",
"assess",
"the",
"degree",
"of",
"correspondence",
"between",
"two",
"ordered",
"lists",
"of",
"the",
"same",
"elements",
"and",
"determine",
"the",
"significance",
"of",
"this",
"correspondence.",
"In",
"our",
"setup,",
"these",
"lists",
"are",
"generated",
"in",
"two",
"areas:",
"first,",
"participants",
"of",
"the",
"user",
"study",
"rank",
"the",
"benchmark",
"images",
"with",
"respect",
"to",
"a",
"benchmark",
"sketch",
"(visualized",
"in",
"Fig.",
"3",
").",
"Second,",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"rank",
"the",
"results",
"of",
"a",
"query",
"with",
"respect",
"to",
"a",
"query",
"sketch.",
"Contrary",
"to",
"linear",
"correlation,",
"as",
"used",
"in",
"a",
"benchmark",
"related",
"to",
"ours",
"[15]",
",",
"Kendall's",
"rank",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"is",
"independent",
"of",
"the",
"scale",
"and",
"distribution",
"of",
"the",
"data",
"to",
"be",
"compared.",
"Therefore,",
"it",
"facilitates",
"a",
"direct",
"comparison",
"of",
"the",
"experimental",
"data",
"(on",
"a",
"scale",
"from",
"1",
"to",
"7)",
"with",
"the",
"results",
"of",
"any",
"retrieval",
"system,",
"given",
"the",
"particular",
"system",
"is",
"able",
"to",
"generate",
"a",
"weak",
"ordering",
"of",
"the",
"result",
"images",
"when",
"querying",
"with",
"a",
"particular",
"sketch..",
"Kendall's",
"rank",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"is",
"computed",
"as",
"the",
"difference",
"between",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"concordant",
"(similarly",
"ordered)",
"and",
"discordant",
"(reversely",
"ordered)",
"pairs",
"of",
"ranks",
"ðx",
"i",
";",
"y",
"i",
"Þ",
"and",
"ðx",
"j",
";",
"y",
"j",
"Þ",
"in",
"two",
"ordered",
"sets",
"x",
"and",
"y.",
"A",
"pair",
"is",
"concordant",
"if",
"ðx",
"i",
"À",
"x",
"j",
"Þðy",
"i",
"À",
"y",
"j",
"Þ",
">",
"0",
"and",
"discordant",
"if",
"ðx",
"i",
"À",
"x",
"j",
"Þðy",
"i",
"À",
"y",
"j",
"Þ",
"<",
"0.",
"Normalization",
"by",
"the",
"total",
"number",
"of",
"pairs",
"is",
"applied",
"to",
"gain",
"independence",
"of",
"the",
"test",
"set",
"size.",
"Let",
"n",
"c",
"denote",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"concordant",
"and",
"n",
"d",
"denote",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"discordant",
"pairs,",
"then",
"is",
"defined",
"as.",
"According",
"to",
"this",
"definition,",
"can",
"take",
"values",
"in",
"the",
"range",
"½À1;",
"1,",
"with",
"À1",
"indicating",
"a",
"reversed",
"list,",
"0",
"indicating",
"that",
"the",
"two",
"lists",
"are",
"independent,",
"and",
"1",
"indicating",
"that",
"the",
"two",
"lists",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"(weak)",
"order..",
"To",
"summarize,",
"we",
"suggest",
"to",
"use",
"Kendall's",
"tau",
"as",
"a",
"measure",
"to",
"compare",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"an",
"SBIR",
"system",
"against",
"the",
"data",
"gathered",
"in",
"the",
"user",
"study,",
"thus",
"defining",
"a",
"general",
"benchmark",
"for",
"SBIR",
"systems."
],
[
"It",
"is",
"common",
"in",
"our",
"setting",
"that",
"the",
"ranks",
"of",
"pairs",
"in",
"a",
"list",
"are",
"tied,",
"i.e.,",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"rank:",
"subjects",
"evaluated",
"40",
"images",
"on",
"a",
"discrete",
"scale",
"from",
"1",
"to",
"7,",
"necessarily",
"resulting",
"in",
"a",
"certain",
"number",
"of",
"ties.",
"Also,",
"an",
"SBIR",
"system",
"may",
"produce",
"exactly",
"the",
"same",
"score",
"for",
"two",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"collection,",
"thus",
"possibly",
"producing",
"tied",
"pairs.",
"Our",
"measure",
"of",
"correlation",
"needs",
"to",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"deal",
"with",
"those",
"cases;",
"the",
"denominator",
"in",
"(1)",
"is",
"too",
"large",
"in",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"ties",
"and",
"thus",
"needs",
"to",
"be",
"adapted",
"to",
"keep",
"the",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"in",
"the",
"range",
"½À1;",
"1..",
"Let",
"N",
"¼",
"nðn",
"À",
"1Þ=2",
"(number",
"of",
"possible",
"pairs",
"in",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"n",
"distinct",
"elements),",
"U",
"¼",
".",
"(number",
"of",
"ties",
"in",
"the",
"second",
"list).",
"Kendall's",
"rank",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"adapted",
"to",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"ties",
"is",
"denoted",
"as",
"b",
"and",
"defined",
"as",
"[14]",
":"
],
[
"Assuming",
"the",
"null",
"hypothesis",
"of",
"no",
"correlation",
"H",
":",
"¼",
"0",
"is",
"true,",
"we",
"are",
"interested",
"in",
"the",
"probability",
"of",
"obtaining",
"a",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"greater",
"or",
"equal",
"than",
"the",
"actually",
"observed",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"o",
"by",
"chance",
"(p-value).",
"In",
"other",
"words:",
"each",
"observed",
"rank",
"correlation",
"value",
"o",
"comes",
"with",
"a",
"corresponding",
"p-value,",
"with",
"lower",
"p-values",
"indicating",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"less",
"likely",
"to",
"observe",
"!",
"o",
"in",
"case",
"the",
"two",
"ordered",
"lists",
"are",
"actually",
"not",
"correlated.",
"Kendall's",
"tau",
"allows",
"for",
"a",
"very",
"convenient",
"assessment",
"of",
"the",
"significance",
"of",
"a",
"correlation",
"value,",
"since",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"correlation",
"value",
"frequencies",
"quickly",
"tends",
"to",
"a",
"Gaussian",
"distribution",
"with",
"2",
"¼",
"ð4n",
"þ",
"10Þ=9nðn",
"À",
"1Þ",
"for",
"n",
">",
"10.",
"For",
"smaller",
"sample",
"sizes,",
"the",
"exact",
"distribution",
"can",
"instead",
"be",
"easily",
"computed.",
"In",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"ties,",
"the",
"distribution",
"also",
"tends",
"to",
"a",
"Gaussian,",
"however,",
"with",
"a",
"different",
"standard",
"deviation",
"[14]",
"..",
"Throughout",
"the",
"paper,",
"we",
"assess",
"significance",
"of",
"correlation",
"coefficients",
"using",
"a",
"significance",
"threshold",
"of",
"¼",
"0:05,",
"i.e.,",
"accepting",
"the",
"null",
"hypothesis",
"of",
"no",
"correlation",
"for",
"p",
"!",
".",
"For",
"p",
"<",
",",
"we",
"reject",
"the",
"null",
"hypothesis",
"and",
"instead",
"accept",
"the",
"hypothesis",
"that",
"the",
"two",
"ordered",
"lists",
"indeed",
"correlate."
],
[
"We",
"propose",
"to",
"use",
"the",
"31",
"ordered",
"lists",
"(one",
"per",
"sketch)",
"resulting",
"from",
"averaging",
"the",
"ratings",
"over",
"the",
"28",
"study",
"participants",
"as",
"\"ground",
"truth.\"",
"Each",
"of",
"these",
"lists",
"can",
"be",
"seen",
"as",
"a",
"consensus",
"between",
"the",
"participants",
"and",
"is",
"optimal",
"in",
"the",
"sense",
"that",
"it",
"maximizes",
"the",
"average",
"Spearman's",
"rho",
"rank",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"between",
"the",
"28",
"lists",
"from",
"the",
"data",
"and",
"the",
"estimated",
"one",
"[14]",
"..",
"We",
"use",
"the",
"resulting",
"31",
"benchmark",
"lists",
"to",
"evaluate",
"other",
"SBIR",
"system's",
"results",
"by",
"determining",
"Kendall's",
"rank",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"b",
"for",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"corresponding",
"31",
"ordered",
"lists",
"generated",
"by",
"the",
"system.",
"Benchmarking",
"a",
"system",
"thus",
"results",
"in",
"31",
"correlation",
"coefficients",
"that",
"for",
"each",
"sketch",
"indicate",
"how",
"well",
"the",
"system",
"ranks",
"the",
"benchmark",
"images",
"compared",
"to",
"human",
"judgement.",
"Throughout",
"this",
"paper,",
"we",
"report",
"the",
"average",
"of",
"those",
"31",
"correlation",
"coefficients",
"as",
"the",
"performance",
"indicator",
"for",
"a",
"specific",
"system..",
"The",
"complete",
"set",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"images",
"selected",
"for",
"the",
"benchmark",
"is",
"shown",
"in",
"the",
"additional",
"material.",
"The",
"images",
"corresponding",
"to",
"the",
"sketches",
"are",
"sorted",
"according",
"to",
"the",
"order",
"defined",
"by",
"the",
"benchmark,",
"i.e.,",
"a",
"retrieval",
"system",
"achieves",
"high",
"correlation",
"values",
"if",
"it",
"returns",
"the",
"benchmark",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"same",
"order",
"as",
"shown",
"in",
"the",
"additional",
"material..",
"To",
"summarize,",
"benchmarking",
"an",
"arbitrary",
"SBIR",
"is",
"now",
"straightforward",
"and",
"requires",
"the",
"following",
"steps:.",
".",
"Place",
"the",
"1,240",
"benchmark",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"collection",
"of",
"100,000",
"images",
"(note",
"that",
"this",
"is",
"not",
"strictly",
"necessary",
"when",
"using",
"global",
"descriptors).",
".",
"For",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"31",
"benchmark",
"sketches,",
"perform",
"a",
"query",
"on",
"the",
"resulting",
"collection",
"of",
"101,240",
"images",
"and",
"determine",
"the",
"ranking",
"of",
"the",
"corresponding",
"benchmark",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"result",
"set.",
".",
"For",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"resulting",
"31",
"ordered",
"lists,",
"compute",
"b",
"against",
"the",
"corresponding",
"\"ground-truth\"",
"list.",
"The",
"resulting",
"values",
"can",
"be",
"compared",
"to",
"the",
"rank",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"across",
"subjects",
"in",
"the",
"study",
"(see",
"Fig.",
"5",
").",
"An",
"ideal",
"system",
"would",
"perform",
"similar",
"to",
"human",
"subjects."
],
[
"We",
"gathered",
"our",
"data",
"using",
"the",
"experimental",
"setup",
"described",
"in",
"Section",
"2.3.",
"Our",
"28",
"participants",
"had",
"an",
"average",
"age",
"of",
"25.5",
"years",
"(AE3:1),",
"23",
"were",
"male,",
"five",
"female."
],
[
"To",
"understand",
"if",
"the",
"7-point",
"scale",
"we",
"used",
"in",
"the",
"experiment",
"is",
"not",
"introducing",
"noise,",
"we",
"analyzed",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"ratings",
"by",
"grouping",
"the",
"ratings",
"according",
"to",
"the",
"median",
"of",
"the",
"28",
"ratings",
"for",
"each",
"sketch/image",
"pair",
"p",
"i",
";",
"i",
"2",
"f1;",
".",
".",
".",
";",
"1240g.",
"Let",
"r",
"i;j",
"denote",
"the",
"rating",
"of",
"p",
"i",
"by",
"participant",
"j",
"(j",
"2",
"f1;",
".",
".",
".",
";",
"28g).",
"We",
"first",
"compute",
"the",
"median",
"rating",
"m",
"i",
"for",
"each",
"p",
"i",
"as",
"m",
"i",
"¼",
"median",
"j",
"ðr",
"i;j",
"Þ.",
"We",
"then",
"define",
"the",
"multiset",
"of",
"ratings",
"that",
"fall",
"into",
"a",
"common",
"bin",
"k",
"when",
"binning",
"according",
"to",
"their",
"associated",
"median",
"rating",
"m",
"i",
"as.",
"For",
"each",
"B",
"k",
",",
"we",
"show",
"the",
"mean",
"and",
"standard",
"deviation",
"in",
"Fig.",
"8a",
"and",
"the",
"histogram",
"in",
"Fig.",
"8b",
".",
"The",
"analysis",
"shows",
"that",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"ratings",
"is",
"roughly",
"uniform",
"over",
"all",
"seven",
"bins",
"with",
"a",
"slight",
"peak",
"at",
"bin",
"6.",
"The",
"variance",
"of",
"the",
"ratings",
"is",
"smallest",
"for",
"the",
"lower",
"and",
"higher",
"bins",
"and",
"peaks",
"at",
"bin",
"4",
"with",
"¼",
"1:4692,",
"i.e.,",
"participants",
"were",
"quite",
"consistent",
"for",
"good",
"and",
"poor",
"matching",
"pairs",
"and",
"slightly",
"less",
"consistent",
"for",
"the",
"average",
"matches."
],
[
"We",
"have",
"performed",
"a",
"correlation",
"analysis",
"of",
"the",
"rating",
"results",
"of",
"this",
"study.",
"As",
"discussed,",
"we",
"use",
"Kendall's",
"rank",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"b",
".",
"First,",
"we",
"analyzed",
"the",
"correlation",
"of",
"ratings",
"throughout",
"the",
"experiment",
"for",
"the",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"used",
"for",
"anchoring.",
"77.4",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"resulting",
"correlation",
"coefficients",
"can",
"be",
"accepted",
"as",
"significant,",
"the",
"resulting",
"distribution",
"of",
"values",
"is",
"shown",
"in",
"Fig.",
"4",
".",
"We",
"conclude",
"from",
"this",
"analysis",
"that",
"for",
"most",
"subjects,",
"anchoring",
"is",
"significant,",
"i.e.,",
"we",
"can",
"accept",
"the",
"hypothesis",
"that",
"the",
"ratings",
"given",
"by",
"the",
"participants",
"are",
"correlated",
"with",
"the",
"ratings",
"shown",
"in",
"the",
"anchoring",
"process..",
"Second,",
"we",
"compared",
"the",
"ratings",
"across",
"subjects.",
"For",
"each",
"sketch,",
"we",
"computed",
"b",
"for",
"all",
"possible",
"pairs",
"of",
"lists",
"generated",
"by",
"the",
"28",
"subjects.",
"This",
"resulted",
"in",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"378",
"correlation",
"values",
"per",
"sketch-the",
"number",
"of",
"possible",
"pairs",
"for",
"28",
"participants.",
"The",
"analysis",
"reveals",
"that",
"the",
"ratings",
"across",
"subjects",
"are",
"mostly",
"consistent,",
"86",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"interuser",
"correlation",
"values",
"lie",
"over",
"the",
"significance",
"threshold",
"for",
"¼",
"0:05..",
"While",
"b",
"describes",
"the",
"correlation",
"between",
"two",
"sets,",
"we",
"are",
"also",
"interested",
"in",
"a",
"measure",
"of",
"agreement",
"among",
"the",
"28",
"participants",
"(per",
"sketch)",
"as",
"a",
"group.",
"This",
"is",
"known",
"as",
"the",
"problem",
"of",
"m",
"ordered",
"lists",
"and",
"formalized",
"by",
"Kendall's",
"W",
"[14]",
".",
"We",
"have",
"computed",
"Kendall's",
"W",
"for",
"all",
"31",
"sketchesthe",
"results",
"show",
"that",
"for",
"most",
"sketches,",
"the",
"agreement",
"between",
"the",
"study",
"participants",
"is",
"strong,",
"with",
"all",
"correlation",
"values",
"being",
"highly",
"significant..",
"Altogether,",
"we",
"take",
"this",
"as",
"a",
"strong",
"indication",
"that",
"humans",
"agree",
"on",
"how",
"well",
"a",
"sketch",
"fits",
"a",
"natural",
"image-a",
"further",
"indication",
"that",
"sketches",
"can",
"be",
"used",
"in",
"image",
"retrieval",
"systems",
"and",
"an",
"additional",
"motivation",
"to",
"develop",
"systems",
"that",
"match",
"humans'",
"expectations.",
"This",
"also",
"indicates",
"that",
"a",
"benchmark",
"created",
"from",
"these",
"data",
"is",
"sound",
"and",
"general",
"enough",
"to",
"cover",
"the",
"similarity",
"perception",
"of",
"a",
"large",
"body",
"of",
"different",
"users.",
"For",
"each",
"sketch,",
"we",
"visualize",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"b",
"and",
"the",
"value",
"of",
"W",
"in",
"Fig.",
"5",
"..",
"Third,",
"we",
"analyzed",
"how",
"human",
"subjects",
"perform",
"against",
"the",
"benchmark.",
"Note",
"that",
"in",
"this",
"case,",
"Kendall's",
"W",
"is",
"not",
"Fig.",
"4",
".",
"For",
"each",
"subject,",
"the",
"plot",
"shows",
"three",
"correlations.",
"These",
"values",
"denote",
"how",
"well",
"the",
"subject's",
"ratings",
"correlate",
"with",
"the",
"ratings",
"defined",
"in",
"the",
"anchoring",
"process",
"for",
"the",
"three",
"sketches",
"shown",
"in",
"Fig.",
"2",
"..",
"appropriate",
"since",
"we",
"are",
"indeed",
"only",
"interested",
"in",
"the",
"correspondence",
"between",
"two",
"ordered",
"lists:",
"the",
"benchmark's",
"and",
"a",
"subject's.",
"For",
"each",
"subject,",
"we",
"therefore",
"computed",
"31",
"b",
"coefficients",
"(one",
"for",
"each",
"sketch),",
"estimating",
"the",
"correspondence",
"between",
"the",
"subject's",
"data",
"and",
"the",
"benchmark.",
"The",
"analysis",
"shows",
"that",
"99",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"correlation",
"coefficients",
"lie",
"over",
"the",
"significance",
"threshold",
"for",
"¼",
"0:05.",
"We",
"take",
"this",
"as",
"a",
"strong",
"indication",
"that",
"the",
"proposed",
"benchmark",
"adequately",
"reflects",
"human",
"assessment",
"of",
"shape/image",
"similarity.",
"We",
"plot",
"the",
"resulting",
"distribution",
"of",
"b",
"coefficients",
"in",
"Fig.",
"6",
".",
"Additionally,",
"we",
"show",
"the",
"sketches",
"with",
"highest",
"and",
"lowest",
"inter-user",
"correlation",
"values",
"in",
"Fig.",
"9",
"."
],
[
"We",
"propose",
"using",
"a",
"bag-of-features",
"approach",
"[5]",
"for",
"SBIR",
"employing",
"small",
"local",
"descriptors.",
"This",
"allows",
"basing",
"the",
"search",
"on",
"a",
"standard",
"inverted",
"index",
"data",
"structure",
"from",
"text",
"retrieval",
"[16]",
".",
"We",
"discuss",
"the",
"four",
"main",
"components",
"of",
"our",
"retrieval",
"system:.",
"1.",
"definition",
"and",
"representation",
"of",
"local",
"features,",
"2.",
"sampling",
"strategies",
"defining",
"the",
"coordinates",
"in",
"image",
"space",
"of",
"the",
"features",
"to",
"be",
"extracted,",
"3.",
"codebook",
"definition,",
"and",
"4.",
"the",
"actual",
"search",
"algorithm",
"based",
"on",
"an",
"inverted",
"index.",
"While",
"we",
"rely",
"on",
"existing",
"methods",
"proposed",
"in",
"the",
"literature",
"for",
"sampling,",
"learning",
"a",
"codebook,",
"and",
"defining",
"the",
"search",
"algorithm,",
"our",
"work",
"focuses",
"on",
"feature",
"representation,",
"as",
"this",
"is",
"the",
"part",
"where",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"differ",
"strongly",
"from",
"classical",
"example-based",
"retrieval",
"systems.",
"In",
"particular,",
"we",
"evaluate",
"which",
"feature",
"representations",
"are",
"best",
"suited",
"for",
"implementing",
"a",
"bag-of-features-based",
"SBIR",
"system",
"by",
"searching",
"the",
"parameter",
"space",
"for",
"well",
"performing",
"combinations.",
"We",
"base",
"our",
"performance",
"evaluation",
"on",
"the",
"benchmark",
"defined",
"in",
"Section",
"3,",
"i.e.,",
"on",
"real",
"user's",
"preferences."
],
[
"Using",
"inverted",
"indices",
"for",
"image",
"retrieval",
"has",
"been",
"inspired",
"by",
"techniques",
"from",
"text",
"retrieval",
"[4]",
"and",
"indeed",
"bears",
"many",
"similarities",
"with",
"text",
"retrieval",
"approaches.",
"However,",
"there",
"are",
"several",
"main",
"differences:",
".",
"Text",
"documents",
"are",
"naturally",
"separated",
"into",
"atomic,",
"semantically",
"meaningful",
"entities",
"(words),",
"pixels",
"alone,",
"however,",
"do",
"not",
"contain",
"sufficient",
"information.",
"Instead,",
"larger",
"image",
"patches",
"are",
"considered",
"as",
"a",
"whole",
"and",
"a",
"feature",
"encoding",
"the",
"essential",
"information",
"in",
"this",
"local",
"area",
"is",
"extracted.",
".",
"No",
"natural",
"boundary",
"between",
"image",
"patches",
"typically",
"exists;",
"instead,",
"the",
"locations",
"of",
"patches",
"in",
"image",
"space",
"need",
"to",
"be",
"sampled.",
".",
"Contrary",
"to",
"text",
"retrieval",
"(fixed",
"number",
"of",
"distinct",
"words),",
"a",
"gigantic",
"number",
"of",
"different",
"features",
"could",
"be",
"extracted",
"from",
"images.",
"Therefore,",
"a",
"finite-sized",
"visual",
"codebook",
"of",
"visual",
"words",
"is",
"typically",
"generated",
"which",
"assigns",
"perceptually",
"similar",
"features",
"to",
"the",
"same",
"visual",
"word.",
"We",
"next",
"quickly",
"discuss",
"the",
"design",
"choices",
"made",
"in",
"our",
"system",
"for",
"addressing",
"those",
"issues",
"and",
"then",
"discuss",
"the",
"proposed",
"feature",
"representations",
"that",
"we",
"have",
"identified",
"as",
"suitable",
"for",
"sketch-based",
"image",
"retrieval",
"in",
"more",
"detail."
],
[
"Initial",
"experiments",
"with",
"the",
"SIFT",
"interest",
"point",
"detector",
"[3]",
"have-as",
"expected-shown",
"that",
"very",
"few",
"to",
"no",
"interest",
"points",
"are",
"detected",
"on",
"our",
"binary",
"sketches.",
"Instead,",
"we",
"perform",
"random",
"sampling",
"in",
"image",
"space",
"which",
"has",
"been",
"shown",
"to",
"work",
"well",
"in",
"a",
"bag-of-features",
"setup",
"for",
"image",
"classification",
"[17]",
".",
"We",
"employ",
"two",
"different",
"strategies,",
"tailored",
"to",
"the",
"features",
"to",
"be",
"extracted",
"from",
"the",
"sample",
"regions:",
"1)",
"generating",
"500",
"random",
"samples",
"in",
"image",
"space",
"and",
"2)",
"generating",
"500",
"random",
"samples",
"on",
"the",
"sketch",
"lines.",
"In",
"the",
"next",
"section,",
"we",
"describe",
"which",
"strategy",
"is",
"appropriate",
"for",
"which",
"descriptor."
],
[
"We",
"learn",
"codebooks",
"from",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"20,000",
"training",
"images",
"(disjoint",
"from",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"query",
"images).",
"For",
"each",
"training",
"image,",
"we",
"extract",
"500",
"features",
"sampled",
"on",
"random",
"locations",
"and",
"perform",
"k-means",
"clustering",
"on",
"the",
"resulting",
"set",
"of",
"10",
"million",
"feature",
"vectors.",
"We",
"evaluate",
"the",
"influence",
"of",
"the",
"codebook",
"size",
"on",
"retrieval",
"performance",
"by",
"testing",
"the",
"following",
"range",
"of",
"codebook",
"sizes:",
"250,",
"500,",
"750,",
"and",
"1,000."
],
[
"We",
"rely",
"on",
"standard",
"methods",
"for",
"creating",
"and",
"querying",
"the",
"inverted",
"index",
"[16]",
",",
"[18]",
".",
"Creating",
"the",
"index",
"in",
"our",
"implementation",
"for",
"one",
"million",
"images",
"takes",
"roughly",
"4",
"hours,",
"a",
"query",
"for",
"50",
"images",
"takes",
"a",
"couple",
"of",
"seconds,",
"depending",
"on",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"distinct",
"visual",
"words",
"in",
"the",
"query.",
"Note",
"that",
"those",
"timings",
"could",
"be",
"easily",
"improved,",
"this,",
"however,",
"was",
"not",
"the",
"focus",
"of",
"this",
"work."
],
[
"In",
"this",
"section,",
"we",
"describe",
"our",
"approach",
"to",
"identifying",
"suitable",
"local",
"descriptors",
"for",
"SBIR,",
"capable",
"of",
"capturing",
"essential",
"properties",
"of",
"local",
"sketch",
"areas.",
"We",
"start",
"with",
"two",
"popular",
"feature",
"representation",
"approaches,",
"that",
"naturally",
"seem",
"to",
"be",
"suitable",
"for",
"representing",
"our",
"binary",
"sketches:",
"1)",
"shape",
"contexts",
"[19]",
"and",
"2)",
"histograms",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients",
"[3]",
",",
"[20]",
".",
"We",
"then",
"explore",
"if",
"and",
"how",
"those",
"descriptors",
"need",
"to",
"be",
"modified",
"to",
"work",
"well",
"for",
"SBIR",
"and",
"evaluate",
"a",
"large",
"range",
"of",
"parameter",
"settings",
"against",
"our",
"benchmark",
"to",
"identify",
"the",
"best",
"performing",
"descriptor.",
"We",
"show",
"the",
"results",
"of",
"our",
"evaluation",
"in",
"Fig.",
"11",
"..",
"When",
"extracting",
"descriptors",
"from",
"photographs,",
"we",
"apply",
"the",
"Canny",
"edge",
"detector",
"[21]",
"in",
"a",
"preprocess.",
"We",
"use",
"a",
"(rather",
"large)",
"¼",
"5",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"suppress",
"small",
"lines",
"that",
"are",
"unlikely",
"to",
"be",
"sketched",
"by",
"users.",
"We",
"use",
"a",
"low",
"threshold",
"of",
"0.05",
"and",
"a",
"high",
"threshold",
"of",
"0.2",
"(both",
"thresholds",
"are",
"taken",
"relative",
"to",
"the",
"minimum/maximum",
"magnitude",
"of",
"gradient",
"remaining",
"after",
"the",
"nonmaximum",
"suppression",
"step)."
],
[
"Shape",
"context",
"features",
"encode",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"sample",
"point",
"locations",
"on",
"the",
"shape",
"relative",
"to",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"other",
"sample",
"points",
"(see",
"Fig.",
"10",
",",
"left).",
"The",
"distribution",
"is",
"encoded",
"as",
"a",
"log-polar",
"histogram",
"with",
"five",
"bins",
"for",
"(logarithmic)",
"distance",
"and",
"12",
"bins",
"for",
"angles.",
"Because",
"each",
"shape",
"context",
"encodes",
"information",
"about",
"all",
"the",
"other",
"sample",
"points,",
"it",
"inherently",
"captures",
"global",
"information",
"about",
"the",
"shape.",
"For",
"our",
"purposes,",
"we",
"localize",
"shape",
"contexts",
"by",
"computing",
"the",
"distribution",
"only",
"within",
"local",
"regions",
"of",
"the",
"sample",
"point",
"with",
"a",
"fixed",
"radius.",
"We",
"sample",
"500",
"points",
"on",
"the",
"feature",
"lines",
"and",
"use",
"several",
"local",
"radii",
"(in",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"image",
"diagonal):",
"5,",
"10,",
"15,",
"20,",
"25,",
"and",
"30.",
"Additionally,",
"we",
"test",
"the",
"global",
"variant,",
"encoding",
"for",
"each",
"sample",
"point",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"all",
"other",
"points",
"on",
"the",
"shape.",
"We",
"sample",
"only",
"on",
"the",
"features",
"lines,",
"corresponding",
"to",
"sketched",
"lines",
"for",
"queries",
"and",
"Canny",
"lines",
"in",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"images."
],
[
"We",
"introduce",
"the",
"Spark",
"feature",
"as",
"an",
"extension",
"of",
"shape",
"context",
"features,",
"specialized",
"for",
"the",
"needs",
"of",
"SBIR.",
"While",
"they",
"bear",
"some",
"similarity",
"with",
"shape",
"contexts",
"regarding",
"the",
"information",
"that",
"is",
"encoded,",
"both",
"the",
"way",
"that",
"other",
"sample",
"points",
"on",
"the",
"sketch",
"are",
"generated",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"the",
"local",
"region",
"they",
"describe",
"is",
"different.",
"First,",
"we",
"generate",
"random",
"sample",
"points",
"in",
"the",
"image",
"domain.",
"Note",
"that",
"those",
"sample",
"points",
"must",
"not",
"lie",
"on",
"sketch",
"lines,",
"instead",
"they",
"are",
"generated",
"to",
"lie",
"in",
"the",
"empty",
"areas",
"between",
"feature",
"lines.",
"For",
"each",
"sample",
"point,",
"we",
"trace",
"rays",
"of",
"random",
"direction",
"until",
"the",
"first",
"feature",
"line",
"is",
"hit,",
"if",
"any",
"(see",
"Fig.",
"10,",
"middle)",
".",
"The",
"descriptor",
"then",
"stores",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"several",
"properties",
"of",
"the",
"feature",
"lines",
"at",
"the",
"hitpoints.",
"We",
"have",
"tried",
"several",
"variants,",
"including",
"2D",
"histograms",
"storing",
"distance/angle",
"information",
"(as",
"in",
"the",
"shape",
"context),",
"distance/orientation",
"information",
"(orientation",
"of",
"the",
"feature",
"line",
"at",
"the",
"hitpoint),",
"and",
"a",
"3D",
"histogram",
"variant,",
"storing",
"distance,",
"angle,",
"and",
"orientation",
"information."
],
[
"Histograms",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients",
"are",
"usually",
"implemented",
"as",
"3D",
"histograms",
"encoding",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"gradient",
"orientations",
"in",
"small",
"local",
"areas",
"[3]",
",",
"[20]",
".",
"We",
"test",
"the",
"localized",
"variant",
"used",
"in",
"the",
"SIFT",
"descriptor",
"(4",
"Â",
"4",
"spatial",
"bins",
"and",
"eight",
"bins",
"for",
"gradient",
"orientation)",
"extracted",
"from",
"a",
"range",
"of",
"differently",
"sized",
"local",
"rectangular",
"windows",
"(in",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"image",
"diagonal):",
"5,",
"10,",
"15,",
"20,",
"25,",
"and",
"30.",
"We",
"determine",
"sampling",
"locations",
"by",
"random",
"sampling",
"in",
"image",
"space."
],
[
"We",
"improve",
"the",
"standard",
"histogram",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients",
"descriptor",
"by",
"storing",
"only",
"the",
"most",
"dominant",
"sketched",
"feature",
"lines",
"in",
"the",
"histogram",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients.",
"This",
"helps",
"to",
"make",
"descriptors",
"extracted",
"from",
"user",
"sketches",
"and",
"descriptors",
"extracted",
"from",
"the",
"database",
"image",
"more",
"similar,",
"improving",
"the",
"probability",
"that",
"descriptors",
"that",
"are",
"near",
"in",
"feature",
"space",
"correspond",
"to",
"perceptually",
"good",
"matches.",
"We",
"use",
"Canny",
"lines",
"as",
"an",
"indicator",
"for",
"important",
"features",
"and",
"store",
"only",
"orientations",
"that",
"correspond",
"to",
"data",
"lying",
"under",
"a",
"slightly",
"blurred",
"version",
"of",
"the",
"Canny",
"feature",
"lines.",
"We",
"test",
"the",
"same",
"variants",
"of",
"rectangular",
"windows",
"as",
"with",
"the",
"standard",
"histogram",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients",
"descriptor.",
"The",
"resulting",
"descriptor",
"is",
"visualized",
"in",
"Fig.",
"10",
",",
"right."
],
[
"We",
"evaluate",
"performance",
"of",
"the",
"local",
"SBIR",
"descriptors",
"using",
"the",
"benchmark",
"defined",
"in",
"Section",
"3.",
"We",
"are",
"interested",
"in",
"how",
"the",
"following",
"three",
"parameters",
"influence",
"retrieval",
"performance:",
"1)",
"codebook",
"size,",
"2)",
"local",
"window",
"size",
"for",
"feature",
"extraction,",
"and",
"3)",
"feature",
"representation.",
"For",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"six",
"descriptor",
"variants",
"(histogram",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients,",
"shape",
"context,",
"spark",
"(2D,",
"2D,",
"3D)",
",",
"and",
"SHoG),",
"we,",
"therefore,",
"evaluate",
"all",
"combinations",
"of",
"four",
"different",
"codebook",
"sizes",
"(250,",
"500,",
"750,",
"and",
"1,000)",
"and",
"seven",
"local",
"feature",
"window",
"sizes",
"(5,",
"10,",
"15,",
"20,",
"25,",
"30",
",",
"in",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"image",
"diagonal).",
"We",
"generate",
"the",
"codebooks",
"from",
"a",
"training",
"set",
"of",
"20,000",
"images,",
"randomly",
"sampled",
"from",
"nine",
"million",
"Flickr",
"images",
"which",
"is",
"disjoint",
"from",
"the",
"evaluation",
"set.",
"The",
"evaluation",
"set",
"contains",
"100,000",
"images",
"(also",
"randomly",
"sampled",
"from",
"the",
"same",
"set",
"of",
"nine",
"million",
"Flickr",
"images)",
"plus",
"the",
"additional",
"1,240",
"benchmark",
"images.",
"For",
"all",
"combinations,",
"we",
"compute",
"inverted",
"indices",
"using",
"the",
"corresponding",
"codebooks",
"and",
"the",
"descriptors",
"extracted",
"from",
"the",
"evaluation",
"set",
"of",
"101,240",
"images..",
"We",
"then",
"benchmark",
"all",
"resulting",
"retrieval",
"systems",
"(defined",
"as",
"a",
"combination",
"of",
"feature",
"type,",
"codebook",
"size,",
"and",
"local",
"radius)",
"with",
"the",
"method",
"proposed",
"in",
"Section",
"3,",
"i.e.,",
"we",
"perform",
"queries",
"with",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"31",
"benchmark",
"sketches",
"and",
"determine",
"the",
"order",
"of",
"the",
"corresponding",
"40",
"benchmark",
"images",
"in",
"the",
"result",
"set.",
"We",
"show",
"a",
"visualization",
"of",
"the",
"results",
"in",
"Fig.",
"11",
"and",
"comment",
"on",
"the",
"findings",
"in",
"the",
"next",
"section.",
"Additionally,",
"we",
"show",
"several",
"typical",
"retrieval",
"results",
"given",
"a",
"query",
"sketch",
"in",
"Fig.",
"12",
"."
],
[
"In",
"this",
"section,",
"we",
"comment",
"on",
"which",
"system",
"parameters",
"mainly",
"influence",
"performance",
"of",
"the",
"proposed",
"local",
"SBIR",
"descriptors",
"and",
"show",
"several",
"experimental",
"applications",
"that",
"benefit",
"from",
"a",
"state-of-the-art",
"SBIR",
"system.",
"We",
"show",
"a",
"demo",
"of",
"the",
"retrieval",
"system",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"all",
"experimental",
"applications",
"in",
"the",
"accompanying",
"video."
],
[
"We",
"discuss",
"our",
"findings",
"regarding",
"the",
"influence",
"of",
"codebook",
"size,",
"local",
"feature",
"window",
"radius,",
"and",
"feature",
"representation",
"on",
"retrieval",
"performance.",
"Additionally,",
"we",
"present",
"the",
"results",
"of",
"the",
"evaluation",
"of",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"four",
"different",
"global",
"sketch-based",
"descriptors:",
"angular",
"radial",
"partitioning",
"(ARP)",
"[22]",
",",
"edge",
"histogram",
"descriptor",
"from",
"the",
"MPEG-7",
"standard",
"(EHD)",
"[23]",
"and",
"the",
"Tensor",
"and",
"HoG",
"descriptors",
"[9]",
"and",
"evaluate,",
"whether",
"a",
"bag-of-features-based",
"approach",
"is",
"superior",
"to",
"a",
"global",
"approach.",
"All",
"performance",
"numbers",
"have",
"been",
"determined",
"by",
"evaluating",
"the",
"corresponding",
"retrieval",
"system",
"with",
"a",
"certain",
"set",
"of",
"parameters",
"against",
"the",
"benchmark",
"defined",
"in",
"Section",
"3.",
"A",
"combined",
"plot",
"summarizing",
"the",
"results",
"is",
"shown",
"in",
"Fig.",
"11",
"."
],
[
"We",
"have",
"generated",
"all",
"codebooks",
"from",
"the",
"same",
"training",
"set",
"of",
"20,000",
"images",
"testing",
"a",
"range",
"of",
"different",
"codebook",
"sizes:",
"250,",
"500,",
"750,",
"and",
"1,000.",
"Retrieval",
"results",
"generally",
"are",
"best",
"for",
"a",
"codebook",
"size",
"in",
"the",
"order",
"of",
"500-1,000",
"visual",
"words.",
"Note",
"that",
"this",
"number",
"is",
"significantly",
"smaller",
"than",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"visual",
"words",
"typically",
"used",
"in",
"example-based",
"image",
"retrieval.",
"We",
"attribute",
"this",
"to",
"the",
"fact",
"that",
"the",
"information",
"encoded",
"in",
"sketches",
"is",
"much",
"sparser",
"compared",
"to",
"images.",
"Additionally,",
"no",
"information",
"about",
"the",
"magnitude",
"of",
"gradients",
"is",
"available."
],
[
"We",
"find",
"that",
"rather",
"large",
"local",
"feature",
"sizes",
"are",
"necessary",
"to",
"achieve",
"good",
"retrieval",
"results,",
"independent",
"of",
"the",
"feature",
"representation",
"used.",
"If",
"the",
"local",
"window",
"size",
"is",
"chosen",
"too",
"small,",
"the",
"majority",
"of",
"visual",
"words",
"would",
"encode",
"small",
"line",
"segments",
"in",
"a",
"variety",
"of",
"different",
"orientations,",
"which",
"is",
"not",
"discriminative",
"enough",
"to",
"achieve",
"good",
"retrieval",
"results.",
"Note",
"that",
"this",
"result",
"depends",
"on",
"the",
"type",
"of",
"sketch",
"used",
"as",
"input:",
"artists",
"might",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"express",
"fine",
"detail",
"in",
"their",
"drawings",
"and",
"thus",
"might",
"benefit",
"from",
"smaller",
"local",
"windows-all",
"participants",
"that",
"have",
"generated",
"our",
"sketches,",
"however,",
"have",
"drawn",
"only",
"large-scale",
"features.",
"We",
"thus",
"assume",
"that",
"a",
"large",
"majority",
"of",
"potential",
"users",
"would",
"not",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"express",
"fine",
"details",
"in",
"their",
"drawings.",
"This",
"could",
"also",
"explain",
"the",
"good",
"retrieval",
"results",
"of",
"the",
"existing",
"global",
"descriptors.",
"Summarizing,",
"we",
"find",
"that",
"local",
"feature",
"sizes",
"in",
"the",
"order",
"of",
"20-25",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"image's",
"diagonal",
"perform",
"best.",
"We",
"discuss",
"the",
"implications",
"of",
"this",
"in",
"Section",
"6."
],
[
"We",
"find",
"that",
"unmodified",
"existing",
"shape",
"descriptors",
"(shape",
"context",
"[19]",
"and",
"histogram",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients",
"[3]",
",",
"[20]",
")",
"are",
"not",
"directly",
"suitable",
"for",
"the",
"task",
"of",
"SBIR.",
"We",
"report",
"the",
"following",
"maximum",
"correlation",
"coefficients",
"achieved",
"for",
"the",
"global",
"descriptors",
"(Tensor",
"and",
"HoG):",
"0.223.",
"Both",
"the",
"shape",
"context",
"and",
"the",
"histogram",
"of",
"oriented",
"gradients",
"descriptor",
"achieve",
"lower",
"maximum",
"correlation",
"values",
"of",
"0.161",
"and",
"0.175",
"for",
"the",
"range",
"of",
"parameters",
"tested",
"in",
"this",
"evaluation",
"setup.",
"The",
"proposed",
"spark",
"descriptor",
"attains",
"a",
"maximum",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"of",
"0.217",
"for",
"a",
"codebook",
"size",
"of",
"1,000",
"visual",
"words",
"and",
"a",
"local",
"radius",
"of",
"20.",
"The",
"histogram",
"of",
"dominant",
"local",
"orientations",
"outperforms",
"the",
"other",
"local",
"descriptors",
"with",
"a",
"maximum",
"correlation",
"coefficient",
"of",
"0.277",
"for",
"a",
"codebook",
"size",
"of",
"1,000",
"visual",
"words",
"and",
"a",
"radius",
"of",
"25",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"image",
"diagonal."
],
[
"We",
"present",
"several",
"experimental",
"applications",
"that",
"build",
"on",
"the",
"bag-of-features",
"SBIR",
"system",
"proposed",
"in",
"Section",
"4.",
"Note",
"that",
"in",
"each",
"application,",
"users",
"are",
"only",
"asked",
"to",
"draw",
"or",
"edit",
"simple",
"binary",
"feature",
"lines."
],
[
"We",
"performed",
"initial",
"experiments",
"for",
"sketch-based",
"search",
"on",
"the",
"FERET",
"face",
"database",
"[24]",
",",
"containing",
"12,000",
"pictures",
"taken",
"from",
"1,200",
"human",
"faces.",
"As",
"illustrated",
"in",
"Fig.",
"13",
",",
"our",
"SBIR",
"system",
"provides",
"acceptable",
"to",
"good",
"results",
"even",
"when",
"applied",
"in",
"such",
"a",
"specialized",
"search",
"scenario.",
"Controlling",
"the",
"visual",
"search",
"processes",
"through",
"sketch",
"lines",
"opens",
"the",
"question",
"of",
"the",
"drawing",
"interface",
"provided",
"to",
"usersadditional",
"computation",
"(i.e.,",
"symmetry",
"enforcement,",
"filtering)",
"could",
"help",
"to",
"improve",
"retrieval",
"results",
"in",
"this",
"scenario."
],
[
"We",
"propose",
"a",
"simple",
"strategy",
"for",
"2D",
"search",
"from",
"3D",
"objects:",
"the",
"user",
"starts",
"by",
"choosing",
"a",
"3D",
"object",
"in",
"a",
"shape",
"repository",
"and",
"selects",
"an",
"appropriate",
"viewpoint.",
"We",
"render",
"the",
"view",
"using",
"recent",
"line",
"drawing",
"algorithms",
"[25]",
",",
"[26]",
"and",
"forward",
"to",
"resulting",
"2D",
"image",
"to",
"our",
"SBIR",
"search",
"engine.",
"While",
"this",
"method",
"obviously",
"requires",
"access",
"to",
"a",
"browsable",
"database",
"of",
"3D",
"objects,",
"we",
"believe",
"that",
"it",
"could",
"be",
"particularly",
"helpful",
"for",
"3D",
"artists",
"modeling",
"and",
"texturing",
"3D",
"shapes:",
"extracting",
"such",
"data",
"from",
"real",
"photos",
"is",
"a",
"frequent",
"task",
"but",
"the",
"search",
"for",
"adequate",
"images",
"is",
"tedious.",
"Our",
"SBIR",
"system",
"definitely",
"eases",
"the",
"search",
"for",
"matching",
"images,",
"by",
"using",
"the",
"information",
"contained",
"in",
"the",
"designed",
"3D",
"shape",
"to",
"query",
"for",
"matching",
"pictures.",
"Note",
"that",
"an",
"image-based",
"search",
"would",
"not",
"work",
"as",
"the",
"main",
"source",
"of",
"information",
"in",
"the",
"3D",
"shape",
"is",
"lines",
"and",
"contours.",
"We",
"present",
"an",
"example",
"of",
"such",
"a",
"2D",
"search",
"from",
"3D",
"input",
"in",
"Fig.",
"14."
],
[
"Video",
"collections",
"could",
"also",
"be",
"understood",
"as",
"large",
"image",
"collections,",
"which",
"again",
"can",
"now",
"be",
"easily",
"searched",
"using",
"the",
"proposed",
"SBIR",
"system.",
"We",
"performed",
"initial",
"experiments",
"by",
"searching",
"within",
"a",
"collection",
"of",
"17",
"feature-length",
"movies.",
"We",
"extracted",
"the",
"I-frames",
"of",
"all",
"videos,",
"resulting",
"in",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"78,000",
"images",
"which",
"again",
"could",
"be",
"searched",
"using",
"the",
"proposed",
"SBIR",
"system.",
"The",
"result",
"was",
"satisfying",
"for",
"simple",
"scenarios",
"but",
"appears",
"that",
"complex",
"animations",
"will",
"require",
"annotated",
"sketches,",
"containing",
"additional",
"information",
"on",
"movements",
"[27]",
",",
"[28]",
",",
"[29]",
"."
],
[
"There",
"were",
"several",
"design",
"decisions",
"involved",
"in",
"the",
"creation",
"of",
"the",
"user",
"study,",
"all",
"of",
"which",
"influenced",
"the",
"outcome",
"to",
"a",
"certain",
"degree.",
"The",
"choice",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"corresponding",
"images",
"certainly",
"has",
"the",
"largest",
"influence:",
"we",
"tried",
"to",
"generate",
"them",
"in",
"such",
"a",
"way",
"that",
"current",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"would",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"achieve",
"reasonable",
"results",
"with",
"the",
"resulting",
"benchmark.",
"Since",
"the",
"matching",
"images",
"were",
"generated",
"from",
"the",
"output",
"of",
"a",
"system",
"using",
"global",
"descriptors,",
"this",
"has",
"some",
"influence",
"on",
"what",
"the",
"benchmark",
"measures:",
"it",
"is",
"not",
"explicitly",
"designed",
"for",
"evaluation",
"of",
"invariance",
"to",
"affine",
"transformations.",
"A",
"further",
"study",
"similar",
"to",
"the",
"one",
"in",
"this",
"paper",
"would",
"be",
"helpful",
"to",
"evaluate",
"those",
"questions.",
"From",
"our",
"experience",
"and",
"the",
"feedback",
"of",
"the",
"study",
"participants,",
"we",
"can,",
"however,",
"report",
"that",
"users",
"still",
"give",
"good",
"ratings",
"if",
"an",
"object",
"is",
"located",
"at",
"a",
"slightly",
"different",
"position",
"than",
"in",
"the",
"sketch,",
"strong",
"offsets,",
"however,",
"typically",
"lead",
"to",
"poor",
"ratings.",
"Also,",
"slight",
"scale",
"invariance",
"is",
"desirable,",
"rotation",
"invariance,",
"however,",
"does",
"not",
"seem",
"to",
"be",
"what",
"the",
"average",
"user",
"is",
"looking",
"for."
],
[
"We",
"note",
"that",
"the",
"selection",
"process",
"of",
"images",
"to",
"be",
"paired",
"with",
"the",
"sketches",
"is",
"potentially",
"biased.",
"A",
"pool",
"of",
"candidate",
"images",
"has",
"been",
"collected",
"using",
"existing",
"sketch-based",
"retrieval",
"algorithms",
"and",
"it",
"is",
"hard",
"to",
"assess",
"what",
"images",
"have",
"been",
"ignored",
"in",
"this",
"process..",
"Potential",
"bias",
"for",
"the",
"study",
"could",
"only",
"be",
"introduced",
"by",
"systematically",
"ignoring",
"images",
"that",
"would",
"be",
"considered",
"good",
"matches",
"to",
"a",
"sketch",
"at",
"least",
"by",
"some",
"human",
"observers.",
"However,",
"the",
"same",
"could",
"be",
"true",
"for",
"any",
"other",
"automated",
"selection",
"process.",
"And,",
"also",
"a",
"human-guided",
"selection",
"process",
"would",
"likely",
"be",
"biased:",
"unless",
"we",
"know",
"that",
"humans",
"rate",
"the",
"likeness",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"images",
"similarly,",
"we",
"would",
"have",
"to",
"involve",
"several",
"subjects",
"in",
"the",
"selection",
"process-whose",
"selection",
"is",
"a",
"sampling",
"problem",
"in",
"itself.",
"More",
"severely,",
"the",
"manual",
"inspection",
"of",
"millions",
"of",
"images",
"will",
"most",
"likely",
"lead",
"to",
"fatigue",
"and",
"frustration,",
"which",
"would",
"bias",
"the",
"selection.",
"Consequently,",
"we",
"believe",
"it",
"is",
"impossible",
"to",
"select",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"images",
"for",
"this",
"task",
"that",
"was",
"arguably",
"unbiased..",
"We",
"like",
"to",
"explain",
"the",
"consequences",
"of",
"a",
"potentially",
"biased",
"images",
"sample:.",
"1.",
"Most",
"obviously,",
"the",
"selection",
"based",
"on",
"an",
"existing",
"SBIR",
"system",
"could",
"favor",
"this",
"system",
"in",
"the",
"benchmark.",
"We",
"argue",
"that",
"this",
"is",
"very",
"unlikely,",
"since",
"subjects",
"are",
"not",
"aware",
"of",
"how",
"the",
"images",
"have",
"been",
"selected",
"and,",
"indeed,",
"for",
"a",
"few",
"sketches,",
"we",
"noticed",
"negative",
"correlation",
"values",
"between",
"users'",
"rankings",
"and",
"the",
"descriptor's",
"ranking.",
"2.",
"Our",
"conclusion",
"that",
"humans",
"rank",
"the",
"likeness",
"of",
"sketches",
"and",
"images",
"consistently",
"would",
"have",
"to",
"be",
"limited",
"to",
"the",
"subsample",
"we",
"have",
"actually",
"analyzed,",
"if",
"a",
"significant",
"part",
"of",
"relevant",
"pairs",
"was",
"missing.",
"This",
"is",
"a",
"general",
"problem",
"in",
"any",
"study",
"of",
"this",
"type.",
"However,",
"for",
"the",
"definition",
"of",
"a",
"benchmark,",
"this",
"has",
"little",
"consequences,",
"as",
"the",
"conclusion",
"is",
"still",
"true",
"for",
"the",
"sample",
"used.",
"3.",
"Optimizing",
"descriptor",
"parameters",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"benchmark",
"could",
"overfit",
"to",
"the",
"sample,",
"which",
"is",
"not",
"fully",
"representative",
"of",
"ground",
"truth.",
"This",
"is",
"a",
"common",
"problem",
"in",
"any",
"approach",
"that",
"optimizes",
"an",
"algorithm",
"based",
"on",
"sampled",
"data.",
"We",
"can,",
"however,",
"report",
"that",
"algorithms",
"that",
"appear",
"improved",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"benchmark",
"indeed",
"behave",
"better",
"in",
"practical",
"applications."
],
[
"A",
"5",
"or",
"7-point",
"Likert",
"scale",
"is",
"commonly",
"used",
"in",
"psychological",
"experiments-possibly",
"because",
"humans",
"are",
"able",
"to",
"discern",
"just",
"around",
"seven",
"values",
"in",
"many",
"types",
"of",
"experiments",
"[30]",
".",
"Research",
"on",
"the",
"effect",
"of",
"scales",
"on",
"the",
"outcome",
"of",
"experiments",
"found",
"no",
"statistical",
"difference",
"between",
"5",
"and",
"7-point",
"scales",
"[31]",
".",
"Using",
"a",
"7-point",
"scale",
"in",
"our",
"study,",
"none",
"of",
"the",
"subjects",
"reported",
"they",
"disliked",
"the",
"scale",
"or",
"found",
"it",
"more",
"difficult",
"to",
"choose",
"among",
"the",
"pairs",
"that",
"did",
"not",
"match",
"well."
],
[
"We",
"propose",
"to",
"use",
"the",
"ranking",
"resulting",
"from",
"averaging",
"scores",
"over",
"all",
"28",
"study",
"participants",
"as",
"the",
"benchmark",
"ranking.",
"Our",
"analysis",
"reveals",
"that",
"this",
"ranking",
"can",
"be",
"reasonably",
"used",
"as",
"a",
"benchmark",
"(see",
"Fig.",
"5",
",",
"right).",
"However,",
"certain",
"characteristics",
"of",
"the",
"benchmark",
"might",
"need",
"to",
"be",
"adapted",
"depending",
"on",
"the",
"application",
"and",
"the",
"needs",
"of",
"the",
"specific",
"user",
"[8]",
".",
"Also,",
"there",
"are",
"certainly",
"other",
"valid",
"ways",
"of",
"analyzing",
"the",
"resulting",
"data",
"besides",
"rank",
"correlation.",
"We,",
"therefore,",
"provide",
"the",
"complete",
"data",
"set",
"gathered",
"from",
"the",
"user",
"study",
"as",
"an",
"open",
"resource,",
"hoping",
"that",
"this",
"spawns",
"further",
"research",
"on",
"SBIR",
"evaluation."
],
[
"A",
"search",
"result",
"can",
"only",
"be",
"as",
"good",
"as",
"the",
"input,",
"and",
"therefore",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"current",
"SBIR",
"systems",
"currently",
"largely",
"depends",
"on",
"a",
"user's",
"ability",
"to",
"depict",
"the",
"desired",
"sketch",
"in",
"a",
"\"realistic\"",
"way.",
"Due",
"to",
"the",
"use",
"of",
"coarse",
"histogram",
"binning,",
"the",
"proposed",
"local",
"feature",
"descriptors",
"are",
"tolerant",
"against",
"offsets",
"in",
"position",
"and",
"orientation",
"of",
"the",
"depicted",
"sketch",
"lines-nevertheless,",
"they",
"rely",
"on",
"the",
"fact",
"that",
"the",
"depicted",
"lines",
"exist",
"in",
"the",
"images",
"to",
"be",
"searched.",
"The",
"proposed",
"2D",
"search",
"from",
"3D",
"input",
"could",
"be",
"an",
"initial",
"approach",
"to",
"overcome",
"those",
"problems,",
"helping",
"users",
"to",
"generate",
"sketches",
"that",
"are,",
"e.g.,",
"perspectively",
"correct.",
"Automatic",
"tools",
"for",
"simplification,",
"smoothing,",
"filtering,",
"and",
"enforcing",
"symmetry",
"in",
"the",
"sketch",
"could",
"support",
"users",
"in",
"generating",
"\"good\"",
"sketches.",
"We",
"can",
"also",
"envision",
"approaches",
"where",
"a",
"system",
"\"teaches\"",
"the",
"user",
"how",
"to",
"draw",
"sketches",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"achieve",
"good",
"retrieval",
"results..",
"Such",
"a",
"system",
"could,",
"e.g.,",
"filter",
"or",
"mark",
"lines",
"in",
"a",
"sketch",
"that",
"would",
"have",
"little",
"influence",
"on",
"the",
"search",
"results."
],
[
"We",
"found",
"that",
"the",
"local",
"feature",
"size",
"required",
"should",
"be",
"as",
"large",
"as",
"25",
"percent",
"of",
"the",
"image",
"diagonal",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"achieve",
"good",
"query",
"results.",
"Note",
"that",
"with",
"such",
"large",
"window",
"sizes,",
"invariance",
"to",
"translations",
"also",
"suffers-for",
"the",
"large",
"sketches",
"typically",
"drawn",
"by",
"users,",
"there",
"is",
"simply",
"not",
"much",
"space",
"left",
"for",
"translating",
"the",
"sketch.",
"This",
"might",
"also",
"explain",
"the",
"good",
"results",
"achieved",
"with",
"global",
"descriptors,",
"which",
"are",
"mostly",
"translation",
"variant.",
"An",
"obvious",
"improvement",
"of",
"the",
"local",
"descriptors-which",
"we",
"left",
"for",
"future",
"work-is",
"making",
"them",
"fully",
"invariant",
"to",
"affine",
"transformations,",
"i.e.,",
"rotations",
"(if",
"desired)",
"and",
"scaling.",
"Many",
"possible",
"approaches",
"for",
"this",
"problem",
"have",
"been",
"reported",
"in",
"the",
"image",
"retrieval",
"literature",
"and",
"it",
"remains",
"to",
"be",
"evaluated,",
"whether",
"those",
"approaches",
"can",
"be",
"directly",
"applied",
"to",
"SBIR."
],
[
"Our",
"main",
"conclusion",
"drawn",
"from",
"the",
"results",
"of",
"the",
"user",
"study",
"is",
"that",
"humans",
"consistently",
"agree",
"on",
"the",
"similarity",
"between",
"a",
"simple",
"binary",
"sketch",
"on",
"the",
"one",
"hand",
"and",
"a",
"color",
"image",
"on",
"the",
"other",
"hand.",
"This",
"result",
"has",
"allowed",
"us",
"to",
"define",
"a",
"general",
"benchmark",
"for",
"evaluating",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"any",
"SBIR",
"system.",
"As",
"shown",
"in",
"this",
"paper,",
"the",
"benchmark",
"cannot",
"only",
"be",
"used",
"to",
"evaluate",
"existing",
"systems",
"but",
"can",
"also",
"be",
"used",
"to",
"optimize",
"new",
"systems",
"by",
"giving",
"a",
"means",
"for",
"measuring",
"the",
"influence",
"of",
"various",
"retrieval",
"system",
"parameters",
"on",
"retrieval",
"performance.",
"We",
"believe",
"that",
"the",
"most",
"important",
"detail",
"concerning",
"our",
"benchmark",
"is",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"grounded",
"on",
"real",
"users'",
"input:",
"they",
"need",
"to",
"be",
"satisfied",
"by",
"the",
"query",
"results",
"of",
"a",
"particular",
"system",
"and",
"the",
"score",
"of",
"the",
"proposed",
"benchmark",
"is",
"directly",
"proportional",
"to",
"this",
"property.",
"Interestingly,",
"we",
"found",
"that",
"the",
"rather",
"small",
"difference",
"in",
"benchmark",
"correlation",
"values",
"between",
"the",
"best",
"global",
"and",
"the",
"best",
"local",
"descriptor",
"results",
"in",
"significantly",
"improved",
"experienced",
"retrieval",
"quality",
"(i.e.,",
"one",
"can",
"\"clearly",
"feel\"",
"the",
"difference).",
"Given",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"the",
"currently",
"best",
"performing",
"descriptors,",
"we",
"have",
"to",
"admit",
"that",
"those",
"results",
"are",
"still",
"far",
"from",
"optimal-real",
"humans",
"are",
"able",
"to",
"achieve",
"substantially",
"higher",
"correlation",
"values",
"than",
"current",
"systems.",
"We",
"hope",
"that",
"the",
"benchmark",
"provided",
"in",
"this",
"paper",
"will",
"help",
"to",
"stimulate",
"further",
"research",
"on",
"sketch-based",
"image",
"retrieval",
"and",
"make",
"the",
"resulting",
"retrieval",
"systems",
"more",
"comparable.",
".",
"For",
"more",
"information",
"on",
"this",
"or",
"any",
"other",
"computing",
"topic,",
"please",
"visit",
"our",
"Digital",
"Library",
"at",
"www.computer.org/publications/dlib."
]
] | [
"image databases",
"benchmarking"
] | [
"image/video retrieval"
] | {
"title": [
"Sketch-Based",
"Image",
"Retrieval:",
"Benchmark",
"and",
"Bag-of-Features",
"Descriptors"
],
"abstract": [
"Abstract-We",
"introduce",
"a",
"benchmark",
"for",
"evaluating",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"large-scale",
"sketch-based",
"image",
"retrieval",
"systems.",
"The",
"necessary",
"data",
"are",
"acquired",
"in",
"a",
"controlled",
"user",
"study",
"where",
"subjects",
"rate",
"how",
"well",
"given",
"sketch/image",
"pairs",
"match.",
"We",
"suggest",
"how",
"to",
"use",
"the",
"data",
"for",
"evaluating",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"sketch-based",
"image",
"retrieval",
"systems.",
"The",
"benchmark",
"data",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"the",
"large",
"image",
"database",
"are",
"made",
"publicly",
"available",
"for",
"further",
"studies",
"of",
"this",
"type.",
"Furthermore,",
"we",
"develop",
"new",
"descriptors",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"bag-of-features",
"approach",
"and",
"use",
"the",
"benchmark",
"to",
"demonstrate",
"that",
"they",
"significantly",
"outperform",
"other",
"descriptors",
"in",
"the",
"literature."
]
} |
6278012 | [
"i",
"ii. basic principles in hcf",
"a. hop-count computation",
"b. capturing legitimate hop-count values",
"c. inspection and validation algorithm",
"iii. does hop-count filtering really work?",
"a. diversity of hop-count distribution",
"b. effectiveness of hcf against simple attacks",
"c. robustness against hcf-aware attackers",
"1) randomization of initial ttls:",
"2) learning of hop-count values:",
"d. hop-count stability",
"iv. construction of ip2hc mapping table",
"a. ip address aggregation",
"1) aggregation techniques:",
"b. table initialization and update",
"1) initialization and addition of new entries:",
"c. hop-count ambiguity caused by nats",
"v. running states of hcf",
"a. tasks in two states",
"b. blocking bandwidth attacks",
"c. staying \"alert\" to drdos attacks",
"vi. resource savings",
"a. implementing the hop-count filter",
"b. experimental evaluation",
"related work",
"viii. conclusion and future work",
"appendix analysis of randomized ttl attacks against hcf"
] | [
[
"P",
"NETWORKS",
"are",
"vulnerable",
"to",
"source",
"address",
"spoofing",
"[33]",
".",
"For",
"example,",
"a",
"compromised",
"Internet",
"host",
"can",
"spoof",
"IP",
"packets",
"by",
"using",
"a",
"raw",
"socket",
"to",
"fill",
"arbitrary",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"into",
"packet",
"headers.",
"IP",
"spoofing",
"is",
"commonly",
"associated",
"with",
"malicious",
"network",
"activities,",
"such",
"as",
"Distributed",
"Denial",
"of",
"Service",
"(DDoS)",
"attacks",
"[21]",
",",
"[27]",
",",
"[32]",
",",
"which",
"block",
"legitimate",
"access",
"by",
"either",
"exhausting",
"victim",
"servers'",
"resources",
"[7]",
"or",
"saturating",
"stub",
"networks'",
"access",
"links",
"to",
"the",
"Internet",
"[18]",
".",
"Most",
"DDoS",
"attacking",
"tools",
"spoof",
"IP",
"addresses",
"by",
"randomizing",
"the",
"32-bit",
"source-address",
"field",
"in",
"the",
"IP",
"header",
"[12]",
",",
"[13]",
",",
"which",
"conceals",
"attacking",
"sources",
"and",
"dilutes",
"localities",
"in",
"attacking",
"traffic.",
"The",
"recent",
"\"backscatter\"",
"study",
"[32]",
",",
"which",
"quantifies",
"DoS",
"activities",
"in",
"the",
"current",
"Internet,",
"has",
"confirmed",
"the",
"widespread",
"use",
"of",
"randomness",
"in",
"spoofing",
"IP",
"addresses.",
"Moreover,",
"some",
"known",
"DDoS",
"attacks,",
"such",
"as",
"smurf",
"[8]",
"and",
"more",
"recent",
"Distributed",
"Reflection",
"Denial",
"of",
"Service",
"(DRDoS)",
"attacks",
"[18]",
",",
"[38]",
",",
"are",
"not",
"possible",
"without",
"IP",
"spoofing.",
"Such",
"attacks",
"masquerade",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"of",
"each",
"spoofed",
"packet",
"with",
"the",
"victim's",
"IP",
"address.",
"Overall,",
"DDoS",
"attacks",
"with",
"IP",
"spoofing",
"are",
"much",
"more",
"difficult",
"to",
"defend..",
"To",
"thwart",
"DDoS",
"attacks,",
"researchers",
"have",
"taken",
"two",
"distinct",
"approaches:",
"router-based",
"and",
"host-based.",
"The",
"router-based",
"approach",
"installs",
"defense",
"mechanisms",
"inside",
"IP",
"routers",
"to",
"trace",
"the",
"source(s)",
"of",
"attack",
"[4]",
",",
"[30]",
",",
"[43]",
",",
"[45]",
",",
"[46]",
",",
"[49]",
",",
"or",
"detect",
"and",
"block",
"attacking",
"traffic",
"[15]",
",",
"[23]",
",",
"[25]",
",",
"[29]",
",",
"[31]",
",",
"[36]",
",",
"[50]",
",",
"[56]",
".",
"However,",
"these",
"router-based",
"solutions",
"require",
"not",
"only",
"router",
"support,",
"but",
"also",
"coordination",
"among",
"different",
"routers",
"and",
"networks,",
"and",
"wide-spread",
"deployment",
"to",
"reach",
"their",
"potential.",
"In",
"contrast",
"to",
"the",
"router-based",
"approach,",
"the",
"host-based",
"approach",
"can",
"be",
"deployed",
"immediately.",
"Moreover,",
"end",
"systems",
"should",
"have",
"a",
"much",
"stronger",
"incentive",
"to",
"deploy",
"defense",
"mechanisms",
"than",
"network",
"service",
"providers..",
"The",
"current",
"host-based",
"approaches",
"protect",
"an",
"Internet",
"server",
"either",
"by",
"using",
"sophisticated",
"resource-management",
"schemes",
"[3]",
",",
"[6]",
",",
"[40]",
",",
"[47]",
"or",
"by",
"significantly",
"reducing",
"the",
"resource",
"consumption",
"of",
"each",
"request",
"to",
"withstand",
"the",
"flooding",
"traffic",
"such",
"as",
"SYN",
"cookies",
"[5]",
"and",
"Client",
"Puzzle",
"[24]",
",",
"[53]",
".",
"Without",
"a",
"mechanism",
"to",
"detect",
"and",
"discard",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"traffic",
"at",
"the",
"very",
"beginning",
"of",
"network",
"processing,",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"will",
"share",
"the",
"same",
"resource",
"principals",
"and",
"code",
"paths",
"as",
"legitimate",
"requests.",
"Under",
"heavy",
"attacks,",
"current",
"approaches",
"are",
"unlikely",
"to",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"sustain",
"service",
"availability",
"due",
"to",
"resource",
"depletion",
"caused",
"by",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets.",
"Furthermore,",
"most",
"of",
"existing",
"host-based",
"solutions",
"work",
"at",
"the",
"transport-layer",
"and",
"above,",
"and",
"cannot",
"prevent",
"the",
"victim",
"server",
"from",
"consuming",
"CPU",
"resource",
"in",
"servicing",
"interrupts",
"from",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"traffic.",
"At",
"high",
"speed,",
"incoming",
"IP",
"packets",
"generate",
"many",
"interrupts",
"and",
"can",
"drastically",
"slow",
"down",
"the",
"victim",
"server",
"[42]",
"(also",
"see",
"Section",
"VI).",
"Therefore,",
"the",
"ability",
"to",
"detect",
"and",
"filter",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"at",
"the",
"IP",
"layer",
"without",
"any",
"router",
"support",
"is",
"essential",
"to",
"protection",
"against",
"DDoS",
"attacks.",
"Since",
"filtering",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"is",
"orthogonal",
"to",
"the",
"resource-protection",
"mechanisms",
"at",
"higher",
"layers,",
"it",
"can",
"be",
"used",
"in",
"conjunction",
"with",
"advanced",
"resource-protection",
"schemes..",
"In",
"this",
"paper,",
"we",
"propose",
"a",
"lightweight",
"scheme",
"that",
"validates",
"incoming",
"IP",
"packets",
"at",
"an",
"Internet",
"server",
"without",
"using",
"any",
"cryptographic",
"methodology",
"or",
"router",
"support.",
"Our",
"goal",
"is",
"not",
"to",
"achieve",
"perfect",
"authentication,",
"but",
"to",
"screen",
"out",
"most",
"bogus",
"traffic",
"with",
"little",
"collateral",
"damage.",
"The",
"fundamental",
"idea",
"is",
"to",
"utilize",
"inherent",
"network",
"information-that",
"each",
"packet",
"carries",
"and",
"an",
"attacker",
"cannot",
"easily",
"forge-to",
"distinguish",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"from",
"legitimate",
"ones.",
"The",
"inherent",
"network",
"information",
"we",
"use",
"here",
"is",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"hops",
"a",
"packet",
"takes",
"to",
"reach",
"its",
"destination:",
"although",
"an",
"attacker",
"can",
"forge",
"any",
"field",
"in",
"the",
"IP",
"header,",
"he",
"cannot",
"falsify",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"hops",
"an",
"IP",
"packet",
"takes",
"to",
"reach",
"its",
"destination,",
"which",
"is",
"solely",
"determined",
"by",
"the",
"Internet",
"routing",
"infrastructure.",
"The",
"hop-count",
"information",
"is",
"indirectly",
"reflected",
"in",
"the",
"Time-to-Live",
"(TTL)",
"field",
"of",
"the",
"IP",
"header,",
"since",
"each",
"intermediate",
"router",
"decrements",
"the",
"TTL",
"value",
"by",
"one",
"before",
"forwarding",
"a",
"packet",
"to",
"the",
"next",
"hop..",
"Based",
"on",
"hop-count,",
"we",
"propose",
"a",
"novel",
"filtering",
"technique,",
"called",
"Hop-Count",
"Filtering,",
"to",
"weed",
"out",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"at",
"the",
"very",
"beginning",
"of",
"network",
"processing,",
"thus",
"effectively",
"protecting",
"victim",
"servers'",
"resources",
"from",
"abuse.",
"The",
"rationale",
"behind",
"hop-count",
"filtering",
"(HCF)",
"is",
"that",
"most",
"randomly",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets,",
"when",
"arriving",
"at",
"victims,",
"do",
"not",
"carry",
"hop-count",
"values",
"that",
"are",
"consistent",
"with",
"the",
"IP",
"addresses",
"being",
"spoofed.",
"As",
"a",
"receiver,",
"an",
"Internet",
"server",
"can",
"infer",
"the",
"hop-count",
"information",
"and",
"check",
"for",
"consistency",
"of",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses.",
"Exploiting",
"this",
"observation,",
"HCF",
"builds",
"an",
"accurate",
"IP-to-hopcount",
"(IP2HC)",
"mapping",
"table,",
"while",
"using",
"a",
"moderate",
"amount",
"of",
"storage,",
"by",
"clustering",
"address",
"prefixes",
"based",
"on",
"hop-count.",
"To",
"capture",
"hop-count",
"changes",
"under",
"dynamic",
"network",
"conditions,",
"we",
"also",
"devise",
"a",
"safe",
"update",
"procedure",
"for",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"that",
"prevents",
"pollution",
"by",
"attackers.",
"The",
"same",
"pollution-proof",
"method",
"is",
"used",
"for",
"both",
"initializing",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"and",
"inserting",
"additional",
"IP",
"addresses",
"into",
"the",
"table..",
"To",
"minimize",
"collateral",
"damage,",
"HCF",
"has",
"two",
"running",
"states,",
"learning",
"and",
"filtering.",
"Under",
"normal",
"conditions,",
"HCF",
"stays",
"in",
"the",
"learning",
"state,",
"watching",
"for",
"abnormal",
"TTL",
"behaviors",
"without",
"discarding",
"any",
"packets.",
"Even",
"if",
"a",
"legitimate",
"packet",
"is",
"incorrectly",
"identified",
"as",
"spoofed,",
"it",
"will",
"not",
"be",
"dropped.",
"Therefore,",
"there",
"is",
"no",
"collateral",
"damage",
"in",
"the",
"learning",
"state.",
"Upon",
"detection",
"of",
"an",
"attack,",
"HCF",
"switches",
"to",
"the",
"filtering",
"state,",
"in",
"which",
"HCF",
"discards",
"those",
"IP",
"packets",
"with",
"mismatching",
"hop-counts.",
"Through",
"analysis",
"using",
"network",
"measurement",
"data,",
"we",
"show",
"that",
"HCF",
"can",
"recognize",
"close",
"to",
"90%",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets.",
"In",
"addition,",
"our",
"hop-count-based",
"clustering",
"significantly",
"reduces",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"false",
"positives.",
"1",
"Thus,",
"we",
"can",
"discard",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"with",
"little",
"collateral",
"damage",
"in",
"the",
"filtering",
"state.",
"To",
"ensure",
"that",
"the",
"filtering",
"mechanism",
"itself",
"withstands",
"attacks,",
"our",
"design",
"is",
"light-weight",
"and",
"requires",
"only",
"a",
"moderate",
"amount",
"of",
"storage.",
"We",
"implement",
"HCF",
"in",
"the",
"Linux",
"kernel",
"as",
"the",
"first",
"step",
"of",
"incoming",
"packet",
"processing",
"at",
"the",
"IP",
"layer.",
"We",
"evaluate",
"the",
"benefit",
"of",
"HCF",
"with",
"experimental",
"measurements",
"and",
"show",
"that",
"HCF",
"is",
"indeed",
"effective",
"in",
"countering",
"IP",
"spoofing",
"by",
"providing",
"significant",
"resource",
"savings..",
"While",
"HCF",
"is",
"simple",
"and",
"effective",
"in",
"thwarting",
"IP",
"spoofing,",
"it",
"is",
"not",
"a",
"complete",
"solution",
"to",
"the",
"generic",
"DDoS",
"problem.",
"Rather,",
"it",
"is",
"only",
"an",
"important",
"piece",
"of",
"the",
"puzzle",
"that",
"weeds",
"out",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"traffic.",
"Like",
"most",
"other",
"schemes",
"in",
"dealing",
"with",
"the",
"DDoS",
"problem,",
"HCF",
"has",
"its",
"own",
"limitations.",
"An",
"attacker",
"may",
"circumvent",
"HCF",
"entirely",
"by",
"not",
"using",
"spoofed",
"traffic,",
"or",
"partially",
"by",
"bombarding",
"a",
"victim",
"with",
"much",
"more",
"attacking",
"traffic",
"than",
"seen",
"before.",
"Also,",
"a",
"\"determined\"",
"attacker",
"may",
"find",
"a",
"way",
"to",
"build",
"an",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"that",
"is",
"accurate",
"enough",
"for",
"most",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"to",
"evade",
"HCF.",
"Moreover,",
"the",
"actual",
"deployment",
"of",
"1",
"Those",
"legitimate",
"packets",
"that",
"are",
"incorrectly",
"identified",
"as",
"spoofed..",
"HCF",
"requires",
"further",
"work",
"in",
"tuning",
"its",
"parameters",
"and",
"handling",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"inaccuracy",
"caused",
"by",
"the",
"Network",
"Address",
"Translator",
"(NAT)",
"boxes",
"and",
"possible",
"hop-count",
"instability.",
"Nevertheless,",
"HCF",
"does",
"greatly",
"enhance",
"the",
"capability",
"to",
"counter",
"DDoS",
"attacks",
"by",
"depriving",
"an",
"attacker",
"of",
"his",
"powerful",
"weapon,",
"random",
"IP",
"spoofing..",
"The",
"remainder",
"of",
"the",
"paper",
"is",
"organized",
"as",
"follows.",
"Section",
"II",
"presents",
"the",
"TTL-based",
"hop-count",
"computation,",
"the",
"pollution-proof",
"hop-count",
"capturing",
"mechanism,",
"and",
"the",
"hop-count",
"inspection",
"algorithm,",
"which",
"are",
"critical",
"to",
"HCF.",
"Section",
"III",
"demonstrates",
"that",
"the",
"proposed",
"HCF",
"indeed",
"works",
"effectively",
"in",
"detecting",
"spoofed",
"packets,",
"based",
"on",
"a",
"large",
"set",
"of",
"previously",
"collected",
"data,",
"and",
"also",
"robust",
"against",
"HCF-aware",
"attackers.",
"Section",
"IV",
"presents",
"the",
"construction",
"of",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table.",
"Section",
"V",
"details",
"the",
"two",
"running",
"states",
"of",
"HCF,",
"the",
"inter-state",
"transitions,",
"and",
"the",
"placement",
"of",
"HCF.",
"Section",
"VI",
"describes",
"our",
"implementation",
"and",
"experimental",
"evaluation",
"of",
"HCF.",
"Section",
"VII",
"discusses",
"related",
"work.",
"Finally,",
"the",
"paper",
"concludes",
"with",
"Section",
"VIII."
],
[
"In",
"this",
"section,",
"we",
"describe",
"the",
"basic",
"principles",
"of",
"HCF.",
"Central",
"to",
"HCF",
"is",
"the",
"validation",
"of",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"of",
"each",
"packet",
"via",
"hop-count",
"inspection.",
"We",
"first",
"describe",
"the",
"hop-count",
"computation,",
"and",
"then",
"present",
"a",
"safe",
"update",
"mechanism",
"that",
"captures",
"the",
"legitimate",
"mappings",
"between",
"IP",
"addresses",
"and",
"hopcount",
"values.",
"Finally,",
"we",
"summarize",
"HCF",
"in",
"the",
"form",
"of",
"a",
"highlevel",
"inspection",
"algorithm."
],
[
"Since",
"hop-count",
"information",
"is",
"not",
"directly",
"stored",
"in",
"the",
"IP",
"header,",
"one",
"has",
"to",
"compute",
"it",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"value.",
"TTL",
"is",
"an",
"8-bit",
"field",
"in",
"the",
"IP",
"header,",
"originally",
"introduced",
"to",
"specify",
"the",
"maximum",
"lifetime",
"of",
"each",
"packet",
"in",
"the",
"Internet.",
"Each",
"intermediate",
"router",
"decrements",
"the",
"TTL",
"value",
"of",
"an",
"in-transit",
"IP",
"packet",
"by",
"one",
"before",
"forwarding",
"it",
"to",
"the",
"next-hop.",
"The",
"final",
"TTL",
"value",
"when",
"a",
"packet",
"reaches",
"its",
"destination",
"is,",
"therefore,",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"decreased",
"by",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"intermediate",
"hops",
"(or",
"simply",
"hop-count).",
"The",
"challenge",
"in",
"hop-count",
"computation",
"is",
"that",
"a",
"destination",
"only",
"sees",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"value.",
"It",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"simple",
"had",
"all",
"operating",
"systems",
"(OSes)",
"used",
"the",
"same",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value,",
"but",
"in",
"practice,",
"there",
"is",
"no",
"consensus",
"on",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value.",
"Furthermore,",
"since",
"the",
"OS",
"for",
"a",
"given",
"IP",
"address",
"may",
"change",
"with",
"time,",
"we",
"cannot",
"assume",
"a",
"single",
"static",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"for",
"each",
"IP",
"address..",
"According",
"to",
"[14]",
",",
"most",
"modern",
"OSes",
"use",
"only",
"a",
"few",
"selected",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values,",
"30,",
"32,",
"60,",
"64,",
"128,",
"and",
"255.",
"This",
"set",
"of",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"covers",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"popular",
"OSes,",
"such",
"as",
"Microsoft",
"Windows,",
"Linux,",
"variants",
"of",
"BSD,",
"and",
"many",
"commercial",
"Unix",
"systems.",
"We",
"observe",
"that",
"most",
"of",
"these",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"are",
"far",
"apart,",
"except",
"between",
"30",
"and",
"32,",
"60",
"and",
"64,",
"and",
"between",
"32",
"and",
"60.",
"Since",
"Internet",
"traces",
"have",
"shown",
"that",
"few",
"Internet",
"hosts",
"are",
"apart",
"by",
"more",
"than",
"30",
"hops",
"[9]",
",",
"[10]",
",",
"which",
"is",
"also",
"confirmed",
"by",
"our",
"own",
"observation,",
"one",
"can",
"determine",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"of",
"a",
"packet",
"by",
"selecting",
"the",
"smallest",
"initial",
"value",
"in",
"the",
"set",
"that",
"is",
"larger",
"than",
"its",
"final",
"TTL.",
"For",
"example,",
"if",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"value",
"is",
"112,",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"is",
"128.",
"To",
"resolve",
"ambiguities",
"in",
"the",
"cases",
"of",
"{30,",
"32},",
"{60,",
"64},",
"and",
"{32,",
"60},",
"we",
"will",
"compute",
"a",
"hop-count",
"value",
"for",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"possible",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values,",
"and",
"accept",
"the",
"packet",
"if",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"match",
"with",
"either",
"of",
"the",
"possible",
"hop-counts..",
"The",
"drawback",
"of",
"limiting",
"the",
"possible",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"is",
"that",
"packets",
"from",
"end-systems",
"that",
"use",
"\"odd\"",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values,",
"may",
"be",
"incorrectly",
"identified",
"as",
"spoofed.",
"This",
"may",
"happen",
"if",
"a",
"user",
"switches",
"OS",
"from",
"one",
"that",
"uses",
"a",
"\"normal\"",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"to",
"another",
"that",
"uses",
"an",
"\"odd\"",
"value.",
"Since",
"our",
"filter",
"starts",
"to",
"discard",
"packets",
"only",
"upon",
"detection",
"of",
"a",
"DDoS",
"attack,",
"such",
"endsystems",
"would",
"suffer",
"only",
"during",
"an",
"actual",
"DDoS",
"attack.",
"The",
"study",
"in",
"[14]",
"shows",
"that",
"the",
"OSes",
"that",
"use",
"\"odd\"",
"initial",
"TTLs",
"are",
"typically",
"older",
"OSes.",
"We",
"expect",
"such",
"OSes",
"to",
"constitute",
"a",
"very",
"small",
"percentage",
"of",
"end-hosts",
"in",
"the",
"current",
"Internet.",
"Thus,",
"the",
"benefit",
"of",
"deploying",
"HCF",
"should",
"outweigh",
"the",
"risk",
"of",
"denying",
"service",
"to",
"those",
"end-hosts",
"during",
"attacks."
],
[
"To",
"maintain",
"an",
"accurate",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table,",
"we",
"must",
"capture",
"valid",
"hop-count",
"mappings",
"and",
"legitimate",
"changes",
"in",
"hopcount,",
"while",
"foiling",
"any",
"attempt",
"to",
"slowly",
"pollute",
"the",
"mapping",
"table.",
"We",
"can",
"accomplish",
"this",
"through",
"TCP",
"connection",
"establishment.",
"The",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"should",
"be",
"updated",
"only",
"by",
"packets",
"belonging",
"to",
"TCP",
"connections",
"in",
"the",
"state",
"[54]",
".",
"The",
"three-way",
"TCP",
"handshake",
"for",
"connection",
"setup",
"requires",
"the",
"active-open",
"party",
"to",
"send",
"an",
"ACK",
"(the",
"last",
"packet",
"in",
"the",
"three-way",
"handshake)",
"to",
"acknowledge",
"the",
"passive",
"party's",
"initial",
"sequence",
"number.",
"The",
"zombie",
"(flooding",
"source",
"2",
")",
"that",
"sends",
"the",
"SYN",
"packet",
"with",
"a",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"address",
"will",
"not",
"receive",
"the",
"victim's",
"SYN/ACK",
"packet",
"and",
"thus",
"cannot",
"complete",
"the",
"three-way",
"handshake.",
"3",
"Using",
"packets",
"from",
"established",
"TCP",
"connections",
"ensures",
"that",
"an",
"attacker",
"cannot",
"slowly",
"pollute",
"a",
"table",
"by",
"spoofing",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses..",
"While",
"our",
"pollution-proof",
"mechanism",
"provides",
"safety,",
"it",
"may",
"be",
"too",
"expensive",
"to",
"inspect",
"and",
"update",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"with",
"each",
"newly",
"established",
"TCP",
"connection,",
"since",
"our",
"update",
"function",
"is",
"on",
"the",
"critical",
"path",
"of",
"TCP",
"processing.",
"We",
"provide",
"a",
"user-configurable",
"parameter",
"to",
"adjust",
"the",
"frequency",
"of",
"updates",
"(see",
"Section",
"V-A).",
"Note",
"that",
"the",
"pollution-proof",
"mechanism",
"works",
"to",
"capture",
"legitimate",
"changes",
"in",
"hop-count",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"hop-count",
"values",
"of",
"new",
"IP",
"addresses."
],
[
"Assuming",
"that",
"an",
"accurate",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"is",
"present",
"(see",
"Section",
"IV",
"for",
"details",
"of",
"its",
"construction),",
"Fig.",
"1",
"outlines",
"the",
"HCF",
"procedure",
"used",
"to",
"identify",
"spoofed",
"packets.",
"The",
"inspection",
"algorithm",
"extracts",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"and",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"value",
"from",
"each",
"IP",
"packet.",
"The",
"algorithm",
"infers",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"and",
"subtracts",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"value",
"from",
"it",
"to",
"obtain",
"the",
"hop-count.",
"The",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"serves",
"as",
"the",
"index",
"into",
"the",
"table",
"to",
"retrieve",
"the",
"correct",
"hop-count",
"for",
"this",
"IP",
"address.",
"If",
"the",
"computed",
"hop-count",
"matches",
"the",
"stored",
"hop-count,",
"the",
"packet",
"has",
"been",
"\"authenticated\";",
"otherwise,",
"the",
"packet",
"is",
"classified",
"as",
"spoofed.",
"Note",
"that",
"a",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"address",
"may",
"happen",
"to",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count",
"as",
"the",
"one",
"from",
"a",
"zombie",
"to",
"the",
"victim.",
"In",
"this",
"case,",
"HCF",
"will",
"not",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"identify",
"the",
"spoofed",
"packet.",
"However,",
"as",
"shown",
"in",
"Section",
"III-C1,",
"even",
"with",
"a",
"limited",
"range",
"of",
"hop-count",
"values,",
"HCF",
"is",
"highly",
"effective",
"in",
"identifying",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses."
],
[
"The",
"feasibility",
"of",
"HCF",
"hinges",
"on",
"four",
"factors:",
"1)",
"diversity",
"of",
"hop-count",
"values;",
"2)",
"effectiveness",
"in",
"detecting",
"spoofed",
"packets;",
"3)",
"robustness",
"against",
"evasions;",
"and",
"4)",
"stability",
"of",
"hop-counts.",
"In",
"this",
"section,",
"we",
"first",
"assess",
"whether",
"valid",
"hop-counts",
"to",
"a",
"server",
"are",
"diverse",
"enough",
"so",
"that",
"matching",
"the",
"hop-count",
"with",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"of",
"each",
"packet",
"suffices",
"to",
"recognize",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"with",
"a",
"high",
"probability.",
"Second,",
"we",
"consider",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"HCF",
"against",
"simple",
"spoofing",
"attacks.",
"Third,",
"we",
"evaluate",
"the",
"robustness",
"of",
"HCF",
"by",
"examining",
"various",
"ways",
"an",
"attacker",
"may",
"circumvent",
"filtering,",
"and",
"by",
"showing",
"that",
"evasion",
"would",
"be",
"very",
"difficult",
"without",
"severely",
"limiting",
"the",
"damage",
"or",
"exposing",
"the",
"attacking",
"sources,",
"which,",
"in",
"turn,",
"makes",
"the",
"detection",
"and",
"blockage",
"of",
"the",
"attacking",
"traffic",
"much",
"easier.",
"Finally,",
"the",
"stability",
"of",
"hop-count",
"values",
"is",
"discussed."
],
[
"Since",
"hop-count",
"values",
"have",
"a",
"limited",
"range,",
"typically",
"between",
"1",
"and",
"30,",
"multiple",
"IP",
"addresses",
"may",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count",
"values.",
"Consequently,",
"HCF",
"cannot",
"recognize",
"forged",
"packets",
"whose",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count",
"value",
"to",
"a",
"destination",
"as",
"that",
"of",
"a",
"zombie.",
"It",
"is",
"prudent",
"to",
"examine",
"hop-count",
"distributions",
"at",
"various",
"locations",
"in",
"the",
"Internet",
"to",
"ensure",
"that",
"the",
"limited",
"range",
"does",
"not",
"severely",
"diminish",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"HCF.",
"A",
"good",
"hop-count",
"distribution",
"should",
"have",
"two",
"properties:",
"being",
"symmetric",
"around",
"the",
"mean",
"value,",
"and",
"being",
"reasonably",
"diverse",
"over",
"the",
"entire",
"range.",
"Symmetry",
"is",
"needed",
"to",
"take",
"advantage",
"of",
"the",
"full",
"range",
"of",
"hop-count",
"values,",
"and",
"diversity",
"helps",
"maximize",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"HCF..",
"To",
"obtain",
"actual",
"hop-count",
"distributions,",
"we",
"use",
"the",
"raw",
"data",
"from",
"47",
"different",
"gateways",
"in",
"[11]",
".",
"The",
"locations",
"of",
"gateways",
"are",
"diverse",
"as",
"shown",
"in",
"Table",
"I",
".",
"Fig.",
"2",
"shows",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"clients",
"measured",
"by",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"47",
"gateways.",
"Most",
"of",
"the",
"gateways",
"measured",
"hop-counts",
"to",
"more",
"than",
"40",
"000",
"clients..",
"We",
"examined",
"the",
"hop-count",
"distributions",
"at",
"all",
"gateways",
"and",
"found",
"that",
"the",
"Gaussian",
"distribution",
"(bell-shaped",
"curve)",
"could",
"be",
"a",
"good",
"first-order",
"approximation,",
"but",
"we",
"do",
"not",
"make",
"any",
"claim",
"whether",
"hop-count",
"distributions",
"are",
"indeed",
"Gaussian.",
"Figs.",
"3",
"and",
"4",
"show",
"the",
"hop-count",
"distributions",
"of",
"two",
"selected",
"sites:",
"a",
"well-connected",
"commercial",
"server",
"and",
"an",
"educational",
"institute.",
"The",
"mean",
"value",
"of",
"a",
"Gaussian",
"distribution",
"specifies",
"the",
"center",
"of",
"the",
"bell-shaped",
"curve.",
"The",
"standard",
"deviation",
"describes",
"the",
"girth",
"of",
"the",
"curve-the",
"larger",
"the",
",",
"the",
"more",
"diverse",
"the",
"hop-count",
"distribution,",
"and",
"the",
"more",
"effective",
"HCF",
"will",
"be.",
"For",
"each",
"given",
"hop-count",
"distribution,",
"we",
"use",
"the",
"normfit",
"function",
"in",
"Matlab",
"to",
"compute",
"and",
".",
"We",
"plot",
"the",
"CDF",
"of",
"the",
"mean",
"and",
"standard",
"deviation",
"of",
"the",
"fitted",
"Gaussian",
"function",
"in",
"Figs.",
"5",
"and",
"6.",
"We",
"observe",
"that",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"values",
"fall",
"between",
"14",
"and",
"19",
"hops,",
"and",
"the",
"values",
"between",
"3",
"and",
"5",
"hops.",
"More",
"importantly,",
"in",
"most",
"distributions,",
"the",
"mode",
"accounts",
"for",
"only",
"10%",
"of",
"the",
"total",
"IP",
"addresses,",
"with",
"the",
"maximum",
"and",
"minimum",
"of",
"the",
"47",
"modes",
"being",
"15%",
"and",
"8%,",
"respectively.",
"Thus,",
"the",
"hop-count",
"distributions",
"in",
"our",
"data",
"set",
"satisfy",
"both",
"the",
"symmetry",
"and",
"diversity",
"properties",
"to",
"enable",
"very",
"effective",
"filtering."
],
[
"We",
"now",
"assess",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"HCF",
"by",
"asking",
"the",
"question",
"\"what",
"fraction",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"can",
"be",
"detected",
"by",
"the",
"proposed",
"HCF?\"",
"We",
"assume",
"that",
"potential",
"victim",
"servers",
"know",
"the",
"complete",
"mapping",
"between",
"their",
"client",
"IP",
"addresses",
"and",
"hop-counts",
"(to",
"the",
"victims",
"themselves).",
"In",
"Section",
"III-B1,",
"we",
"will",
"discuss",
"how",
"to",
"construct",
"such",
"mappings.",
"Without",
"loss",
"of",
"generality,",
"we",
"further",
"assume",
"that",
"the",
"attacker",
"evenly",
"divides",
"the",
"flooding",
"traffic",
"among",
"the",
"flooding",
"sources.",
"To",
"make",
"the",
"analysis",
"tractable,",
"we",
"consider",
"only",
"static",
"hop-counts.",
"(The",
"update",
"procedure",
"that",
"captures",
"legitimate",
"hop-count",
"changes",
"has",
"been",
"shown",
"in",
"Section",
"II-B)..",
"Most",
"of",
"the",
"available",
"DDoS",
"attacking",
"tools",
"[12]",
",",
"[13]",
"do",
"not",
"alter",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"of",
"packets.",
"Thus,",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"value",
"of",
"a",
"spoofed",
"packet",
"will",
"bear",
"the",
"hop-count",
"between",
"the",
"flooding",
"source",
"and",
"the",
"victim.",
"We",
"examine",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"HCF",
"against",
"simple",
"attackers",
"that",
"spoof",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"while",
"still",
"using",
"the",
"default",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"at",
"the",
"flooding",
"sources.",
"To",
"assess",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"HCF",
"against",
"such",
"simple",
"attacks,",
"we",
"consider",
"two",
"scenarios:",
"a",
"single",
"flooding",
"source",
"and",
"multiple",
"flooding",
"sources..",
"1)",
"Single",
"Source:",
"Fig.",
"7",
"depicts",
"the",
"hop-count",
"distributions",
"seen",
"at",
"a",
"hypothetical",
"server",
"for",
"both",
"real",
"client",
"IP",
"addresses",
"and",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"generated",
"by",
"a",
"single",
"flooding",
"source.",
"Since",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"come",
"from",
"a",
"single",
"source,",
"they",
"all",
"have",
"an",
"identical",
"hop-count.",
"Hence,",
"the",
"hop-count",
"distribution",
"of",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"is",
"a",
"vertical",
"bar",
"of",
"width",
"1.",
"The",
"shaded",
"area",
"represents",
"those",
"IP",
"addresses-the",
"fraction",
"of",
"total",
"valid",
"IP",
"addresses-that",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count",
"to",
"the",
"server",
"as",
"the",
"flooding",
"source.",
"Thus,",
"the",
"fraction",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"that",
"cannot",
"be",
"detected",
"is",
",",
"and",
"the",
"remaining",
"fraction",
"will",
"be",
"identified",
"and",
"discarded",
"by",
"HCF..",
"The",
"attacker",
"may",
"happen",
"to",
"choose",
"a",
"zombie",
"that",
"is",
"16",
"or",
"17-the",
"most",
"popular",
"hop-count",
"values-hops",
"away",
"from",
"the",
"victim",
"as",
"the",
"flooding",
"source.",
"As",
"shown",
"in",
"Section",
"III-A,",
"even",
"if",
"the",
"attacker",
"floods",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"from",
"such",
"a",
"zombie,",
"HCF",
"should",
"still",
"identify",
"nearly",
"90%",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses.",
"HCF",
"is",
"highly",
"effective",
"against",
"a",
"single",
"attacking",
"source,",
"reducing",
"the",
"attacking",
"traffic",
"by",
"one",
"order",
"of",
"magnitude..",
"2)",
"Multiple",
"Sources:",
"Distributed",
"DoS",
"attacks",
"involve",
"more",
"than",
"a",
"single",
"host.",
"Suppose",
"there",
"are",
"sources",
"that",
"flood",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"packets,",
"and",
"each",
"flooding",
"source",
"generates",
"spoofed",
"packets.",
"We",
"assume",
"that",
"each",
"flooding",
"source",
"generates",
"traffic",
"without",
"altering",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value.",
"If",
"is",
"the",
"hop-count",
"between",
"the",
"victim",
"and",
"flooding",
"source",
",",
"then",
"the",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"from",
"source",
"that",
"HCF",
"can",
"identify",
"is",
".",
"The",
"fraction,",
",",
"of",
"identifiable",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"generated",
"by",
"flooding",
"sources",
"is",
"This",
"expression",
"says",
"that",
"the",
"overall",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"having",
"multiple",
"flooding",
"sources",
"is",
"somewhere",
"between",
"that",
"of",
"the",
"most",
"effective",
"source",
"with",
"the",
"largest",
"and",
"that",
"of",
"the",
"least",
"effective",
"source",
"with",
"the",
"smallest",
".",
"Adding",
"more",
"flooding",
"sources",
"does",
"not",
"diminish",
"the",
"ability",
"of",
"HCF",
"to",
"identify",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets.",
"On",
"the",
"contrary,",
"since",
"hop-count",
"distributions",
"follow",
"a",
"Gaussian",
"distribution,",
"the",
"existence",
"of",
"less",
"effective",
"flooding",
"sources",
"(with",
"small",
"'s)",
"reduces",
"the",
"total",
"volume",
"of",
"undetectable",
"attacking",
"traffic."
],
[
"Once",
"attackers",
"become",
"aware",
"of",
"HCF,",
"they",
"will",
"attempt",
"to",
"circumvent",
"the",
"hop-count",
"inspection.",
"The",
"robustness",
"of",
"HCF",
"against",
"such",
"HCF-aware",
"attackers",
"is",
"a",
"serious",
"concern",
"to",
"victim",
"servers.",
"In",
"what",
"follows,",
"we",
"first",
"assess",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"a",
"simple",
"evasion",
"of",
"randomizing",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values.",
"Then,",
"we",
"show",
"that",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"successfully",
"evade",
"HCF,",
"more",
"sophisticated",
"evasion",
"attempts",
"require",
"a",
"large",
"amount",
"of",
"time",
"and",
"resources,",
"and",
"elaborate",
"planning,",
"i.e.,",
"casual",
"attackers",
"are",
"unlikely",
"to",
"evade",
"HCF."
],
[
"While",
"the",
"hop-count",
"from",
"a",
"single",
"flooding",
"source",
"to",
"the",
"victim",
"is",
"fixed,",
"randomizing",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"will",
"create",
"an",
"illusion",
"of",
"attacking",
"packets",
"having",
"many",
"different",
"hop-count",
"values",
"at",
"the",
"victim",
"server.",
"Instead",
"of",
"using",
"the",
"default",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value,",
"an",
"attacker",
"may",
"simply",
"randomize",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values,",
"hoping",
"that",
"many",
"forged",
"packets",
"may",
"happen",
"to",
"carry",
"matching",
"final",
"TTL",
"values",
"when",
"they",
"reach",
"the",
"victim..",
"An",
"attacker",
"may",
"generate",
"the",
"full",
"range",
"of",
"hop-counts",
"from",
"1",
"to",
"30",
"by",
"randomizing",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"from",
"the",
"range",
",",
"where",
"is",
"the",
"hop-count",
"from",
"the",
"flooding",
"source",
"to",
"the",
"victim",
"and",
"is",
"the",
"default",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"at",
"the",
"flooding",
"source.",
"The",
"final",
"TTL",
"values,",
"'s,",
"seen",
"at",
"the",
"victim",
"are",
",",
"where",
"represents",
"randomly",
"generated",
"initial",
"TTLs.",
"Since",
"is",
"constant,",
"if",
"follows",
"a",
"certain",
"random",
"distribution",
",",
"then",
"'s",
"follow",
"the",
"same",
"random",
"distribution.",
"Because",
"the",
"victim",
"derives",
"the",
"hop-count",
"of",
"a",
"received",
"IP",
"packet",
"based",
"on",
"its",
"value,",
"the",
"perceived",
"hop-count",
"of",
"a",
"spoofed",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"is",
"also",
"randomly",
"distributed..",
"As",
"a",
"simple",
"example,",
"we",
"assume",
"that",
"the",
"attacker",
"generates",
"initial",
"TTLs",
"using",
"uniform",
"distribution.",
"Fig.",
"8",
"illustrates",
"the",
"effect",
"of",
"randomized",
"initial",
"TTLs,",
"where",
".",
"We",
"use",
"a",
"Gaussian",
"curve",
"with",
"and",
"to",
"represent",
"a",
"typical",
"hop-count",
"distribution",
"(see",
"Section",
"III-A)",
"from",
"real",
"IP",
"addresses",
"to",
"the",
"victim,",
"and",
"the",
"box",
"graph",
"to",
"represent",
"the",
"uniform",
"hop-count",
"distribution",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"at",
"the",
"victim.",
"The",
"large",
"overlap",
"between",
"the",
"two",
"graphs",
"may",
"appear",
"to",
"indicate",
"that",
"our",
"filtering",
"mechanism",
"is",
"not",
"effective.",
"On",
"the",
"contrary,",
"uniformly",
"distributed",
"random",
"TTLs",
"actually",
"conceal",
"fewer",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"from",
"HCF.",
"For",
"uniformly",
"distributed",
"TTLs,",
"each",
"spoofed",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"has",
"the",
"probability",
"of",
"having",
"the",
"matching",
"TTL",
"value,",
"where",
"is",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"possible",
"hop-counts.",
"Consequently,",
"for",
"each",
"possible",
"hop-count",
",",
"only",
"fraction",
"of",
"IP",
"addresses",
"have",
"correct",
"TTL",
"values.",
"Overall,",
"assuming",
"that",
"the",
"range",
"of",
"possible",
"hop-counts",
"is",
"where",
"and",
",",
"the",
"fraction",
"of",
"spoofed",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"that",
"have",
"correct",
"TTL",
"values",
"is",
"given",
"as.",
"Here",
"we",
"use",
"in",
"place",
"of",
"to",
"simplify",
"notation.",
"In",
"Fig.",
"8",
",",
"the",
"range",
"of",
"generated",
"hop-counts",
"is",
"between",
"10",
"and",
"20,",
"so.",
".",
"The",
"summation",
"will",
"have",
"a",
"maximum",
"value",
"of",
"1,",
"thus",
"can",
"be",
"at",
"most",
",",
"which",
"is",
"represented",
"by",
"the",
"area",
"under",
"the",
"shorter",
"Gaussian",
"distribution",
"in",
"Fig.",
"8",
".",
"In",
"this",
"case,",
"less",
"than",
"10%",
"of",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"go",
"undetected",
"by",
"HCF..",
"In",
"general,",
"an",
"attacker",
"could",
"generate",
"initial",
"TTLs",
"within",
"the",
"range",
",",
"based",
"on",
"a",
"certain",
"distribution,",
"where",
"the",
"fraction",
"of",
"IP",
"addresses",
"with",
"hop-count",
"is.",
".",
"If",
"the",
"fraction",
"of",
"the",
"real",
"IP",
"addresses",
"that",
"have",
"a",
"hop-count",
"of",
"is",
",",
"then",
"the",
"fraction",
"of",
"the",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"that",
"will",
"not",
"be",
"caught",
"by",
"HCF",
"is.",
"The",
"term",
"inside",
"the",
"summation",
"simply",
"states",
"that",
"only",
"fraction",
"of",
"IP",
"addresses",
"with",
"hop-count",
"can",
"be",
"spoofed",
"with",
"matching",
"TTL",
"values.",
"It",
"is",
"not",
"difficult",
"to",
"see",
"that",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"maximize",
",",
"an",
"attacker",
"must",
"generate",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"with",
"the",
"most",
"popular",
"hop-count,",
",",
"for",
"which",
"is",
"the",
"largest",
"among",
"all",
"s.",
"Thus,",
"this",
"more",
"sophisticated",
"attack",
"is",
"no",
"more",
"threatening",
"than",
"the",
"simple",
"attacks",
"in",
"Section",
"III-B1..",
"A",
"more",
"rigorous",
"mathematical",
"analysis",
"of",
"HCF's",
"robustness",
"against",
"randomized",
"TTL",
"attacks",
"is",
"given",
"in",
"the",
"Appendix."
],
[
"A",
"successful",
"evasion",
"requires",
"that",
"HCF-aware",
"attackers",
"correctly",
"set",
"an",
"appropriate",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"for",
"each",
"spoofed",
"packet.",
"Without",
"loss",
"of",
"generality,",
"we",
"assume",
"the",
"same",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"for",
"all",
"Internet",
"hosts.",
"A",
"packet",
"from",
"a",
"flooding",
"source,",
"which",
"is",
"hops",
"away",
"from",
"the",
"victim,",
"has",
"a",
"final",
"TTL",
"value",
"of",
".",
"In",
"order",
"for",
"the",
"attacker",
"to",
"generate",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"from",
"this",
"flooding",
"source",
"without",
"being",
"detected,",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"of",
"each",
"packet",
"must",
"be",
"set",
"to",
",",
"where",
"is",
"the",
"hop-count",
"from",
"the",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"address",
"to",
"the",
"victim.",
"Each",
"spoofed",
"packet",
"would",
"then",
"have",
"the",
"correct",
"final",
"TTL",
"value,",
",",
"when",
"it",
"reaches",
"the",
"victim.",
"An",
"attacker",
"may",
"easily",
"learn",
"the",
"hop-count,",
",",
"from",
"a",
"zombie",
"to",
"the",
"victim",
"by",
"running",
".",
"However,",
"randomly",
"selecting",
"the",
"source",
"address",
"for",
"each",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packet",
"[12]",
",",
"[13]",
"makes",
"it",
"extremely",
"difficult,",
"if",
"not",
"impossible,",
"for",
"the",
"attacker",
"to",
"learn",
".",
"To",
"obtain",
"the",
"correct",
"values",
"for",
"all",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"sent",
"to",
"the",
"victim,",
"the",
"attacker",
"has",
"to",
"build",
"a",
"priori",
"an",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"that",
"covers",
"the",
"entire",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"address",
"space.",
"This",
"is",
"much",
"more",
"difficult",
"than",
"building",
"an",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"at",
"the",
"victim,",
"since",
"the",
"attacker",
"cannot",
"observe",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"values",
"of",
"normal",
"traffic",
"at",
"the",
"victim.",
"For",
"an",
"attacker",
"to",
"build",
"such",
"an",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table,",
"he",
"may",
"have",
"to",
"compromise",
"at",
"least",
"one",
"end-host",
"behind",
"every",
"stub",
"network",
"whose",
"IP",
"addresses",
"are",
"in",
"the",
"random",
"IP",
"address",
"space,",
"and",
"perform",
"to",
"get",
"for",
"the",
"corresponding",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"entry.",
"Even",
"if",
"the",
"attacker",
"probes",
"only",
"one",
"host",
"per",
"stub",
"network,",
"with",
"a",
"large",
"IP",
"spoofing",
"space,",
"the",
"probing",
"activity",
"will",
"take",
"considerable",
"amount",
"of",
"time.",
"Moreover,",
"network",
"administrators",
"are",
"alert",
"to",
"unusual",
"access",
"patterns",
"or",
"probing",
"attempts,",
"it",
"would",
"require",
"an",
"excessive",
"amount",
"of",
"effort",
"to",
"coordinate",
"the",
"probing",
"attempts",
"with",
"impunity.",
"Without",
"the",
"correct",
"values,",
"the",
"attacker",
"cannot",
"fabricate",
"the",
"appropriate",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"to",
"conceal",
"forgery..",
"Without",
"compromising",
"end-hosts,",
"an",
"attacker",
"may",
"compute",
"hop-counts",
"of",
"to-be-spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"based",
"on",
"an",
"existing",
"router-level",
"topology",
"of",
"the",
"Internet,",
"and",
"the",
"underlying",
"routing",
"algorithms",
"and",
"policies.",
"The",
"recent",
"Internet",
"mapping",
"efforts",
"such",
"as",
"Internet",
"Map",
"[9]",
",",
"Mercator",
"[20]",
",",
"Rocketfuel",
"[48]",
",",
"and",
"Skitter",
"[10]",
"projects,",
"may",
"make",
"the",
"approach",
"plausible.",
"However,",
"the",
"current",
"topology",
"mappings",
"put",
"together",
"snapshots",
"of",
"various",
"networks",
"measured",
"at",
"different",
"times.",
"Thus-produced",
"topology",
"maps",
"are",
"generally",
"time-averaged",
"approximations",
"of",
"actual",
"network",
"connectivity.",
"More",
"importantly,",
"inter-domain",
"routing",
"in",
"the",
"Internet",
"is",
"policy-based,",
"and",
"the",
"routing",
"policies",
"are",
"not",
"disclosed",
"to",
"the",
"public.",
"The",
"path,",
"and",
"therefore",
"the",
"hop-count,",
"between",
"a",
"source",
"and",
"a",
"destination",
"is",
"determined",
"by",
"routing",
"policies",
"and",
"algorithms",
"that",
"are",
"often",
"unknown.",
"Even",
"if",
"an",
"attacker",
"has",
"accurate",
"information",
"of",
"the",
"Internet",
"topology,",
"he",
"cannot",
"obtain",
"the",
"correct",
"hop-counts",
"based",
"on",
"network",
"connectivity",
"alone.",
"We",
"believe",
"that",
"the",
"quality",
"of",
"network",
"maps",
"will",
"improve",
"with",
"better",
"mapping",
"technology,",
"but",
"we",
"do",
"not",
"anticipate",
"any",
"near-term",
"advance",
"that",
"can",
"lead",
"to",
"accurate",
"hop-counts",
"based",
"on",
"just",
"Internet",
"topology",
"maps..",
"Instead",
"of",
"spoofing",
"randomly",
"selected",
"IP",
"addresses,",
"the",
"attacker",
"may",
"choose",
"to",
"spoof",
"IP",
"addresses",
"from",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"already-compromised",
"machines",
"that",
"are",
"much",
"smaller",
"in",
"number",
"than",
"2",
",",
"so",
"that",
"he",
"can",
"measure",
"all",
"'s",
"and",
"fabricate",
"appropriate",
"initial",
"TTLs.",
"However,",
"this",
"reduces",
"the",
"attacker's",
"ability",
"to",
"launch",
"a",
"successful",
"attack",
"in",
"several",
"ways.",
"First,",
"the",
"list",
"of",
"would-be",
"spoofed",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"is",
"greatly",
"reduced,",
"which",
"makes",
"the",
"detection",
"and",
"removal",
"of",
"flooding",
"traffic",
"much",
"easier.",
"Second,",
"source",
"addresses",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"reveal",
"the",
"locations",
"of",
"compromised",
"end-hosts,",
"which",
"makes",
"IP",
"traceback",
"much",
"easier.",
"Third,",
"the",
"most",
"popular",
"distributed",
"attacking",
"tools,",
"including",
"mstream,",
"Shaft,",
"Stacheldraht,",
"TFN,",
"TFN2k,",
"Trinoo",
"and",
"Trinity,",
"generate",
"randomized",
"IP",
"addresses",
"in",
"the",
"space",
"of",
"2",
"for",
"spoofing",
"[12]",
",",
"[13]",
".",
"Thus,",
"the",
"attacker",
"must",
"now",
"modify",
"the",
"available",
"attacking",
"tools,",
"which",
"may",
"be",
"difficult",
"for",
"an",
"unsophisticated",
"attacker..",
"Overall,",
"although",
"it",
"is",
"not",
"difficult",
"to",
"obtain",
"the",
"appropriate",
"initial",
"TTL",
"for",
"a",
"single",
"IP",
"address,",
"the",
"attacker",
"has",
"to",
"spend",
"a",
"significant",
"amount",
"of",
"time",
"and",
"effort",
"to",
"achieve",
"accurate",
"hopcount",
"information",
"for",
"a",
"large",
"IP",
"spoof",
"space.",
"While",
"HCF",
"cannot",
"eliminate",
"DDoS",
"attacks,",
"it",
"will",
"make",
"it",
"much",
"harder",
"for",
"them",
"to",
"succeed."
],
[
"The",
"stability",
"in",
"hop-counts",
"between",
"an",
"Internet",
"server",
"and",
"its",
"clients",
"is",
"crucial",
"for",
"HCF",
"to",
"work",
"correctly",
"and",
"effectively..",
"Frequent",
"changes",
"in",
"the",
"hop-count",
"between",
"the",
"server",
"and",
"each",
"of",
"its",
"clients",
"not",
"only",
"lead",
"to",
"excessive",
"mapping",
"updates,",
"but",
"also",
"greatly",
"reduce",
"filtering",
"accuracy",
"when",
"an",
"out-of-date",
"mapping",
"is",
"in",
"use",
"during",
"attacks..",
"Hop-count",
"stability",
"is",
"dictated",
"by",
"the",
"end-to-end",
"routing",
"behaviors",
"in",
"the",
"Internet.",
"According",
"to",
"the",
"study",
"of",
"end-to-end",
"routing",
"stability",
"in",
"[37]",
",",
"the",
"Internet",
"paths",
"were",
"found",
"to",
"be",
"dominated",
"by",
"a",
"few",
"prevalent",
"routes,",
"and",
"about",
"two",
"thirds",
"of",
"the",
"Internet",
"paths",
"studied",
"were",
"observed",
"to",
"have",
"routes",
"persisting",
"for",
"either",
"days",
"or",
"weeks.",
"To",
"confirm",
"these",
"findings,",
"we",
"use",
"daily",
"measurements",
"taken",
"at",
"ten-minute",
"intervals",
"among",
"113",
"sites",
"[16]",
"from",
"January",
"1st",
"to",
"April",
"30,",
"2003",
".",
"We",
"observed",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"10",
"814",
"distinct",
"one-way",
"paths,",
"a",
"majority",
"of",
"which",
"had",
"12",
"000",
"traceroute",
"measurements",
"each",
"over",
"the",
"five-month",
"period.",
"In",
"these",
"measurements,",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"paths",
"experienced",
"very",
"few",
"hop-count",
"changes:",
"95%",
"of",
"the",
"paths",
"had",
"fewer",
"than",
"five",
"observable",
"daily",
"changes..",
"Furthermore,",
"recent",
"Internet",
"experiments",
"[28]",
",",
"[41]",
"have",
"shown",
"that,",
"despite",
"the",
"large",
"number",
"of",
"routing",
"updates:",
"1)",
"a",
"large",
"fraction",
"of",
"destination",
"prefixes",
"have",
"remarkably",
"stable",
"Border",
"Gateway",
"Protocol",
"(BGP)",
"routes;",
"2)",
"popular",
"prefixes",
"tend",
"to",
"have",
"stable",
"BGP",
"routes",
"for",
"days",
"or",
"weeks;",
"and",
"3)",
"a",
"vast",
"majority",
"of",
"BGP",
"instability",
"stems",
"from",
"a",
"small",
"number",
"of",
"unpopular",
"destinations.",
"Within",
"a",
"single",
"domain,",
"a",
"case",
"study",
"of",
"intra-domain",
"routing",
"behavior",
"[44]",
"indicates",
"that",
"the",
"intra-domain",
"topology",
"changes",
"are",
"due",
"mainly",
"to",
"external",
"changes",
"4",
"and",
"no",
"network-wide",
"instability",
"is",
"observed..",
"Therefore,",
"it",
"is",
"reasonable",
"to",
"expect",
"hop-counts",
"to",
"be",
"stable",
"in",
"the",
"Internet.",
"Moreover,",
"the",
"proposed",
"filter",
"contains",
"a",
"dynamic",
"update",
"procedure",
"to",
"capture",
"hop-count",
"changes",
"as",
"discussed",
"in",
"Section",
"IV-B."
],
[
"We",
"have",
"shown",
"that",
"HCF",
"can",
"remove",
"nearly",
"90%",
"of",
"spoofed",
"traffic",
"with",
"an",
"accurate",
"mapping",
"between",
"IP",
"addresses",
"and",
"hopcounts.",
"Thus,",
"building",
"an",
"accurate",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"is",
"critical",
"to",
"detect",
"the",
"maximum",
"number",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets.",
"In",
"this",
"section,",
"we",
"detail",
"our",
"approach",
"to",
"constructing",
"a",
"table.",
"Our",
"objectives",
"in",
"building",
"a",
"table",
"are:",
"1)",
"accurate",
"IP2HC",
"mapping;",
"2)",
"up-to-date",
"IP2HC",
"mapping;",
"and",
"3)",
"moderate",
"storage",
"requirement.",
"By",
"clustering",
"address",
"prefixes",
"based",
"on",
"hop-counts,",
"we",
"can",
"build",
"accurate",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"tables",
"and",
"maximize",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"HCF",
"without",
"storing",
"the",
"hop-count",
"for",
"each",
"IP",
"address."
],
[
"Ideally,",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"has",
"one",
"entry",
"for",
"each",
"valid",
"IP",
"address.",
"However,",
"this",
"will",
"consume",
"a",
"very",
"large",
"amount",
"of",
"memory,",
"and",
"it",
"is",
"unlikely",
"that",
"an",
"Internet",
"server",
"will",
"receive",
"legitimate",
"requests",
"from",
"all",
"live",
"IP",
"addresses",
"in",
"the",
"Internet.",
"By",
"aggregating",
"IP",
"address,",
"we",
"can",
"reduce",
"the",
"space",
"requirement",
"of",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"significantly.",
"More",
"importantly,",
"with",
"IP",
"address",
"aggregation,",
"it",
"is",
"enough",
"to",
"capture",
"the",
"hop-count",
"value",
"of",
"one",
"IP",
"address",
"from",
"each",
"subnet",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"build",
"a",
"complete",
"HCF",
"mapping",
"table.",
"In",
"the",
"following,",
"we",
"present",
"and",
"evaluate",
"the",
"techniques",
"for",
"IP",
"address",
"aggregation",
"in",
"constructing",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"tables.",
"4",
"Here",
"the",
"external",
"changes",
"are",
"the",
"routing",
"updates",
"conveyed",
"by",
"external",
"linkstate",
"advertisements",
"[44]",
"."
],
[
"Aggregating",
"hosts",
"according",
"to",
"address",
"prefix,",
"especially",
"the",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix,",
"is",
"a",
"common",
"method.",
"It",
"is",
"straightforward",
"to",
"implement",
"in",
"practice",
"and",
"can",
"offer",
"fast",
"lookup",
"with",
"an",
"efficient",
"implementation.",
"Assuming",
"an",
"array",
"with",
"one-byte",
"hop-count",
"entry",
"per",
"network",
"prefix,",
"the",
"storage",
"requirement",
"is",
"2",
"bytes",
"or",
"16",
"MB.",
"The",
"memory",
"requirement",
"is",
"modest",
"compared",
"to",
"contemporary",
"servers",
"which",
"are",
"typically",
"equipped",
"with",
"multi-gigabytes",
"of",
"memory.",
"Under",
"this",
"setup,",
"the",
"lookup",
"operation",
"consists",
"of",
"computing",
"a",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix",
"from",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"in",
"each",
"packet",
"and",
"indexing",
"it",
"into",
"the",
"mapping",
"table",
"to",
"find",
"the",
"right",
"hop-count",
"value.",
"For",
"systems",
"with",
"limited",
"memory,",
"the",
"HCF",
"mapping",
"table",
"can",
"be",
"implemented",
"as",
"a",
"hash-table",
"of",
"prefixes",
"of",
"known",
"clients.",
"While",
"24-bit",
"aggregation",
"may",
"not",
"be",
"the",
"most",
"accurate,",
"it",
"is",
"a",
"certainly",
"a",
"deployable",
"solution..",
"Since",
"IP",
"addresses",
"within",
"each",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix",
"may",
"be",
"allocated",
"to",
"different",
"physical",
"networks,",
"these",
"hosts",
"are",
"not",
"necessarily",
"co-located",
"and",
"most",
"likely",
"do",
"not",
"have",
"identical",
"hop-counts.",
"To",
"obtain",
"a",
"more",
"accurate",
"IP2HC",
"mapping,",
"one",
"can",
"further",
"divide",
"IP",
"addresses",
"within",
"each",
"24-bit",
"prefix",
"into",
"smaller",
"clusters",
"based",
"on",
"hop-count.",
"Using",
"a",
"binary",
"tree,",
"we",
"can",
"cluster",
"IP",
"addresses",
"with",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count.",
"The",
"leaves",
"of",
"the",
"tree",
"represent",
"the",
"254",
"(excluding",
"the",
"network",
"address",
"and",
"the",
"subnet",
"mask)",
"valid",
"IP",
"addresses",
"inside",
"a",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix.",
"In",
"each",
"iteration,",
"we",
"examine",
"two",
"sibling",
"nodes",
"and",
"aggregate",
"the",
"two",
"nodes",
"as",
"long",
"as",
"they",
"share",
"a",
"common",
"hop-count,",
"or",
"one",
"of",
"them",
"is",
"empty.",
"If",
"aggregation",
"is",
"possible,",
"the",
"parent",
"node",
"will",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count",
"as",
"the",
"children.",
"We",
"can",
"thus",
"find",
"the",
"largest",
"possible",
"aggregation",
"for",
"a",
"given",
"set",
"of",
"IP",
"addresses.",
"Fig.",
"9",
"shows",
"an",
"example",
"of",
"clustering",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"IP",
"addresses",
"(with",
"the",
"last",
"octet",
"shown)",
"by",
"their",
"hop-counts",
"using",
"the",
"aggregation",
"tree",
"(showing",
"the",
"first",
"four",
"levels).",
"For",
"example,",
"the",
"IP",
"address",
"range",
"128",
"to",
"245",
"is",
"aggregated",
"into",
"a",
"128/25",
"prefix",
"with",
"a",
"hop-count",
"of",
"20,",
"and",
"the",
"three",
"IP",
"addresses",
"79,",
"105,",
"and",
"111",
"are",
"aggregated",
"into",
"a",
"64/26",
"prefix",
"with",
"a",
"hop-count",
"of",
"20.",
"We",
"are",
"able",
"to",
"aggregate",
"11",
"of",
"17",
"IP",
"addresses",
"into",
"four",
"network",
"prefixes.",
"The",
"remaining",
"ones",
"must",
"be",
"stored",
"as",
"individual",
"IP",
"addresses..",
"Based",
"on",
"the",
"BGP",
"routing",
"table",
"information,",
"a",
"network-aware",
"clustering",
"technique",
"[26]",
"has",
"been",
"proposed",
"to",
"identify",
"a",
"group",
"of",
"Web",
"clients",
"that",
"are",
"topologically",
"close",
"to",
"each",
"other",
"and",
"likely",
"to",
"be",
"under",
"a",
"single",
"administration.",
"In",
"contrast,",
"hop-count",
"clustering",
"is",
"self-reliant,",
"and",
"the",
"IP",
"addresses",
"within",
"the",
"same",
"cluster",
"may",
"not",
"be",
"topologically",
"close",
"to",
"each",
"other",
"while",
"they",
"have",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count",
"to",
"the",
"victim",
"server..",
"To",
"understand",
"whether",
"our",
"clustering",
"method",
"improves",
"HCF",
"over",
"the",
"simpler",
"24-bit",
"aggregation,",
"we",
"compare",
"the",
"filtering",
"accuracies",
"of",
"mapping",
"tables",
"built",
"under",
"different",
"aggregation",
"techniques..",
"2)",
"Evaluation",
"of",
"Filtering",
"Accuracy:",
"We",
"treat",
"each",
"gateway",
"(Section",
"III-A)",
"as",
"a",
"\"web",
"server,\"",
"and",
"its",
"measured",
"IP",
"addresses",
"as",
"clients",
"to",
"this",
"web",
"server.",
"We",
"build",
"a",
"table",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"client",
"IP",
"addresses",
"at",
"each",
"web",
"server",
"and",
"evaluate",
"the",
"filtering",
"accuracy",
"under",
"each",
"aggregation",
"method.",
"We",
"assume",
"that",
"the",
"attacker",
"generates",
"packets",
"by",
"randomly",
"selecting",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"among",
"legitimate",
"clients.",
"We",
"further",
"assume",
"that",
"the",
"attacker",
"knows",
"the",
"general",
"hop-count",
"distribution",
"for",
"each",
"web",
"server",
"and",
"uses",
"it",
"to",
"randomly",
"generate",
"a",
"hop-count",
"for",
"each",
"spoofed",
"packet.",
"This",
"is",
"the",
"most",
"effective",
"DDoS",
"attack",
"that",
"an",
"attacker",
"can",
"launch",
"without",
"learning",
"the",
"exact",
"IP2HC",
"mapping..",
"We",
"use",
"the",
"percentages",
"of",
"false",
"positives",
"and",
"false",
"negatives",
"to",
"measure",
"filtering",
"accuracy.",
"False",
"positives",
"are",
"those",
"legitimate",
"client",
"IP",
"addresses",
"that",
"are",
"incorrectly",
"identified",
"as",
"spoofed.",
"False",
"negatives",
"are",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"that",
"go",
"undetected",
"by",
"HCF.",
"A",
"good",
"aggregation",
"method",
"should",
"minimize",
"both..",
"Under",
"each",
"aggregation",
"method,",
"we",
"build",
"an",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"for",
"each",
"web",
"server.",
"Since",
"a",
"24-bit",
"prefix",
"may",
"contain",
"addresses",
"with",
"different",
"hop-counts,",
"we",
"use",
"the",
"minimum",
"hop-count",
"of",
"all",
"IP",
"addresses",
"inside",
"the",
"24-bit",
"network",
"address",
"as",
"the",
"hop-count",
"of",
"the",
"network.",
"To",
"filter",
"an",
"IP",
"packet,",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"is",
"mapped",
"into",
"the",
"proper",
"table",
"entry",
"through",
"prefix",
"matching,",
"and",
"the",
"hop-count",
"in",
"the",
"packet",
"is",
"checked",
"against",
"the",
"one",
"stored",
"in",
"the",
"table.",
"Since",
"24-bit",
"aggregation",
"cannot",
"preserve",
"hop-counts",
"for",
"all",
"IP",
"addresses",
"within",
"each",
"address",
"prefix,",
"we",
"examine",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"three",
"types",
"of",
"filtering",
"policies:",
"Strict",
"Filtering,",
"1",
"Filtering,",
"and",
"2",
"Filtering.",
"Strict",
"Filtering",
"drops",
"packets",
"whose",
"hop-counts",
"do",
"not",
"match",
"those",
"stored",
"in",
"the",
"table.",
"1",
"Filtering",
"drops",
"packets",
"whose",
"hop-counts",
"differ",
"by",
"more",
"than",
"one",
"hop",
"from",
"those",
"in",
"the",
"table,",
"and",
"2",
"Filtering",
"drops",
"packets",
"whose",
"hop-counts",
"differ",
"by",
"more",
"than",
"two",
"hops.",
"32-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering",
"is",
"the",
"ideal",
"case",
"where",
"the",
"mapping",
"table",
"has",
"one",
"entry",
"for",
"each",
"valid",
"IP",
"address.",
"Packet",
"filtering",
"based",
"on",
"a",
"table",
"built",
"using",
"hop-count",
"clustering",
"is",
"called",
"Cluster-Based",
"Filtering.",
"Fig.",
"10",
"presents",
"the",
"combined",
"false",
"positive",
"and",
"false",
"negative",
"results",
"for",
"the",
"five",
"filtering",
"schemes:",
"32-bit",
"Strict,",
"24-bit",
"Strict,",
"24-bit",
"1,",
"24-bit",
"2,",
"and",
"Clustering-based",
"Filterings.",
"The",
"axis",
"is",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"false",
"negatives,",
"and",
"the",
"axis",
"is",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"false",
"positives.",
"Each",
"point",
"in",
"the",
"figure",
"represents",
"the",
"pair",
"of",
"percentages",
"for",
"a",
"single",
"web",
"server.",
"We",
"observe",
"that",
"the",
"24-bit",
"strict",
"filtering",
"yields",
"a",
"similar",
"percentage",
"of",
"false",
"negatives",
"as",
"32-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering,",
"only",
"5%",
"of",
"false",
"negatives.",
"This",
"is",
"because",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"false",
"negatives",
"is",
"determined",
"by",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"hop-counts,",
"and",
"24-bit",
"aggregation",
"does",
"not",
"alter",
"the",
"hop-count",
"distribution.",
"However,",
"under",
"24-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering,",
"most",
"web",
"servers",
"suffer",
"about",
"10%",
"of",
"false",
"positives,",
"while",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"false",
"positives",
"under",
"32-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering",
"is",
"zero.",
"As",
"we",
"relax",
"the",
"filtering",
"criterion",
"as",
"in",
"24-bit",
"1",
"2",
"Filtering,",
"false",
"positives",
"of",
"24-bit",
"aggregation",
"are",
"halved",
"while",
"false",
"negatives",
"approximately",
"doubled.",
"If",
"one",
"desires",
"a",
"simpler",
"implementation",
"than",
"Cluster-Based",
"Fil-",
"tering,",
"1",
"Filtering",
"under",
"24-bit",
"aggregation",
"offers",
"a",
"reasonable",
"compromise..",
"With",
"hop-count-based",
"clustering,",
"we",
"never",
"aggregate",
"IP",
"addresses",
"that",
"do",
"not",
"share",
"the",
"same",
"hop-count.",
"Hence,",
"we",
"can",
"eliminate",
"false",
"positives",
"as",
"long",
"as",
"we",
"update",
"the",
"mapping",
"table",
"when",
"client",
"hop-counts",
"change.",
"As",
"shown",
"in",
"Fig.",
"10",
",",
"where",
"the",
"points",
"of",
"Clustering-Based",
"Filtering",
"overlap",
"with",
"those",
"of",
"32-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering,",
"Clustering-Based",
"Filtering",
"has",
"nearly",
"identical",
"performance",
"as",
"32-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering..",
"Compared",
"with",
"the",
"24-bit",
"aggregation,",
"the",
"clustering",
"approach",
"is",
"more",
"accurate",
"but",
"consumes",
"more",
"memory.",
"Fig.",
"11",
"shows",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"entries",
"in",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"for",
"each",
"web",
"server",
"used",
"in",
"our",
"experiments.",
"The",
"axis",
"is",
"the",
"web",
"server",
"ID,",
"ranked",
"according",
"to",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"client",
"IP",
"addresses,",
"and",
"the",
"axis",
"is",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"table",
"entries.",
"The",
"number",
"of",
"entries",
"under",
"Cluster-Based",
"Filtering",
"does",
"not",
"include",
"the",
"intermediate",
"nodes",
"used",
"to",
"generate",
"the",
"mapping,",
"e.g.,",
"the",
"internal",
"nodes",
"in",
"the",
"clustering",
"trees,",
"because",
"these",
"internal",
"nodes",
"do",
"not",
"need",
"to",
"be",
"stored",
"in",
"the",
"final",
"mapping",
"table.",
"Since",
"the",
"clustering",
"algorithm",
"and",
"the",
"aggregation",
"tree",
"are",
"completely",
"deterministic,",
"we",
"can",
"easily",
"reconstruct",
"the",
"tree",
"on",
"demand",
"to",
"reduce",
"memory",
"consumption.",
"Clustering-based",
"Filtering",
"increases",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"entries",
"by",
"no",
"more",
"than",
"20%",
"in",
"all",
"but",
"one",
"case,",
"in",
"comparison",
"with",
"the",
"24-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering.",
"The",
"32-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering,",
"while",
"having",
"slightly",
"higher",
"accuracy,",
"increases",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"entries",
"by",
"at",
"least",
"67%."
],
[
"Before",
"running",
"HCF,",
"we",
"need",
"to",
"initialize",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"and",
"then",
"keep",
"the",
"mapping",
"table",
"updated.",
"The",
"most",
"critical",
"aspect",
"in",
"initializing",
"and",
"updating",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"is",
"to",
"ensure",
"that",
"only",
"valid",
"IP2HC",
"mappings",
"are",
"stored",
"in",
"the",
"table."
],
[
"To",
"populate",
"an",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"initially,",
"the",
"administrator",
"of",
"an",
"Internet",
"server",
"should",
"collect",
"traces",
"of",
"its",
"clients",
"to",
"obtain",
"both",
"IP",
"addresses",
"and",
"the",
"corresponding",
"hop-count",
"values.",
"The",
"initial",
"collection",
"period",
"should",
"be",
"long",
"enough",
"to",
"ensure",
"good",
"filtering",
"accuracy",
"even",
"at",
"the",
"very",
"beginning,",
"and",
"the",
"duration",
"should",
"depend",
"on",
"the",
"amount",
"of",
"daily",
"traffic",
"the",
"server",
"is",
"receiving.",
"For",
"a",
"popular",
"site",
"such",
"as",
"or",
",",
"a",
"collection",
"period",
"of",
"a",
"few",
"days",
"could",
"be",
"sufficient,",
"while",
"for",
"a",
"lightly",
"loaded",
"site,",
"a",
"few",
"weeks",
"might",
"be",
"more",
"appropriate..",
"After",
"the",
"initial",
"population",
"of",
"the",
"mapping",
"table",
"and",
"activation,",
"HCF",
"will",
"continue",
"adding",
"new",
"entries",
"to",
"the",
"mapping",
"table",
"when",
"requests",
"with",
"previously",
"unseen",
"legitimate",
"IP",
"addresses",
"are",
"sighted.",
"Thus,",
"over",
"time,",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"will",
"capture",
"the",
"correct",
"mapping",
"between",
"IP",
"address",
"and",
"hop-count",
"for",
"all",
"clients",
"of",
"a",
"server.",
"This",
"ensures",
"that",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"traffic",
"can",
"be",
"detected,",
"and",
"then",
"discarded",
"with",
"little",
"collateral",
"damage",
"during",
"a",
"DDoS",
"attack..",
"2)",
"Updating",
"Hop-Counts:",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"must",
"be",
"kept",
"up-to-date",
"as",
"hop-counts",
"of",
"existing",
"IP",
"addresses",
"change.",
"The",
"hop-count",
"from",
"a",
"client",
"to",
"a",
"server",
"could",
"change",
"as",
"a",
"result",
"of",
"relocation",
"of",
"networks,",
"routing",
"instability,",
"or",
"temporary",
"network",
"failures.",
"Some",
"of",
"these",
"events",
"are",
"transient",
"and",
"therefore",
"can",
"be",
"omitted,",
"but",
"longer-term",
"changes",
"in",
"hop-count",
"must",
"be",
"captured..",
"Under",
"24-bit",
"or",
"32-bit",
"Strict",
"Filtering,",
"a",
"table",
"update",
"involves",
"indexing",
"the",
"table",
"using",
"a",
"given",
"IP",
"address",
"and",
"changing",
"the",
"indexed",
"table",
"entry",
"with",
"a",
"new",
"hop-count.",
"Under",
"hop-count",
"clustering,",
"an",
"update,",
"or",
"adding",
"a",
"new",
"node,",
"may",
"split",
"a",
"node",
"or",
"merge",
"two",
"adjacent",
"nodes",
"on",
"the",
"existing",
"hop-count",
"clustering",
"tree.",
"To",
"carry",
"out",
"the",
"update,",
"one",
"first",
"allocates",
"memory",
"for",
"a",
"new",
"clustering",
"tree.",
"The",
"new",
"clustering",
"tree",
"has",
"a",
"fixed",
"format",
"of",
"depth",
"eight,",
"represented",
"as",
"an",
"array",
"of",
"511",
"elements.",
"We",
"populate",
"the",
"array",
"with",
"nodes",
"on",
"the",
"existing",
"clustering",
"tree",
"with",
"updated",
"hop-count(s).",
"We",
"can",
"then",
"repeat",
"the",
"procedure",
"described",
"in",
"Section",
"IV-A1.",
"In",
"addition,",
"one",
"may",
"need",
"to",
"split",
"an",
"existing",
"node",
"because",
"one",
"of",
"its",
"two",
"immediate",
"child",
"nodes",
"now",
"has",
"a",
"different",
"hop-count",
"as",
"clustering",
"percolates",
"up",
"the",
"tree.",
"When",
"this",
"happens,",
"we",
"replace",
"the",
"parent",
"node",
"with",
"its",
"two",
"child",
"nodes,",
"one",
"having",
"the",
"new",
"hop-count",
"and",
"the",
"other",
"retaining",
"the",
"original",
"hop-count..",
"Reclustering",
"should",
"have",
"a",
"relatively",
"small",
"impact",
"on",
"system",
"performance",
"for",
"two",
"reasons.",
"First,",
"each",
"reclustering",
"instance",
"is",
"a",
"local",
"event",
"on",
"a",
"tree",
"of",
"at",
"most",
"511",
"nodes.",
"Second,",
"since",
"hop-count",
"changes",
"are",
"not",
"frequent",
"in",
"the",
"network",
"as",
"reported",
"in",
"[37]",
"and",
"reaffirmed",
"by",
"our",
"own",
"limited",
"observations,",
"reclustering",
"will",
"probably",
"occur",
"infrequently",
"in",
"practice."
],
[
"The",
"existence",
"of",
"NAT",
"boxes,",
"some",
"of",
"which",
"may",
"connect",
"multiple",
"stub",
"networks,",
"could",
"make",
"a",
"single",
"IP",
"address",
"appear",
"to",
"have",
"multiple",
"valid",
"hop-counts",
"at",
"the",
"same",
"time.",
"This",
"may",
"lower",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"accuracy",
"in",
"the",
"table.",
"However,",
"since",
"a",
"NAT",
"box",
"enforces",
"the",
"assignment",
"of",
"a",
"single",
"source",
"IP",
"ad-",
"dress",
"to",
"every",
"outgoing",
"IP",
"packet,",
"this",
"automatically",
"prevents",
"the",
"zombies",
"behind",
"NAT",
"boxes",
"from",
"IP",
"spoofing..",
"To",
"cope",
"with",
"the",
"hop-count",
"ambiguity",
"caused",
"by",
"NAT",
"boxes,",
"a",
"simple",
"possible",
"solution",
"is",
"to",
"have",
"NAT",
"boxes",
"reset",
"the",
"TTL",
"value",
"of",
"each",
"outgoing",
"IP",
"packet",
"to",
"a",
"default",
"initial",
"TTL.",
"Then,",
"there",
"will",
"be",
"a",
"strict",
"one-to-one",
"mapping",
"between",
"the",
"IP",
"address",
"of",
"a",
"NAT",
"box",
"and",
"a",
"hop-count.",
"While",
"the",
"computed",
"hop-count",
"is",
"the",
"one",
"from",
"the",
"NAT",
"box,",
"instead",
"of",
"the",
"end-hosts",
"behind",
"it,",
"to",
"the",
"victim,",
"this",
"does",
"not",
"affect",
"the",
"filtering",
"accuracy",
"at",
"all",
"as",
"long",
"as",
"the",
"victim",
"maintains",
"the",
"same",
"skewed",
"hop-count",
"as",
"the",
"one",
"computed",
"from",
"IP",
"header.",
"The",
"drawback",
"of",
"this",
"simple",
"solution",
"is",
"the",
"required",
"modification",
"at",
"NAT",
"boxes.",
"However,",
"since",
"NAT",
"boxes",
"must",
"manipulate",
"the",
"IP",
"headers",
"of",
"passing",
"packets",
"anyway,",
"the",
"overhead",
"induced",
"by",
"the",
"proposed",
"TTL",
"resetting",
"is",
"minor."
],
[
"Since",
"HCF",
"causes",
"delay",
"in",
"the",
"critical",
"path",
"of",
"packet",
"processing,",
"it",
"should",
"not",
"be",
"active",
"at",
"all",
"times.",
"We",
"therefore",
"introduce",
"two",
"running",
"states",
"inside",
"HCF:",
"the",
"learning",
"state",
"captures",
"legitimate",
"changes",
"in",
"hop-count",
"and",
"detects",
"the",
"presence",
"of",
"spoofed",
"packets,",
"and",
"the",
"filtering",
"state",
"actively",
"discards",
"spoofed",
"packets.",
"By",
"default,",
"HCF",
"stays",
"in",
"the",
"learning",
"state",
"and",
"monitors",
"the",
"trend",
"of",
"hop-count",
"changes",
"without",
"discarding",
"packets.",
"Upon",
"detection",
"of",
"a",
"flux",
"of",
"spoofed",
"packets,",
"HCF",
"switches",
"to",
"the",
"filtering",
"state",
"to",
"examine",
"each",
"packet",
"and",
"discard",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets.",
"In",
"this",
"section,",
"we",
"discuss",
"the",
"details",
"of",
"each",
"state",
"and",
"show",
"that",
"having",
"two",
"states",
"can",
"better",
"protect",
"servers",
"against",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"traffic,",
"while",
"minimizing",
"overhead.",
"Fig.",
"12",
"lists",
"the",
"tasks",
"performed",
"by",
"each",
"state.",
"In",
"the",
"learning",
"state,",
"HCF",
"performs",
"the",
"following",
"tasks:",
"sample",
"incoming",
"packets",
"for",
"hop-count",
"inspection,",
"calculate",
"the",
"spoofed",
"packet",
"counter,",
"and",
"update",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"in",
"case",
"of",
"legitimate",
"hop-count",
"changes.",
"Packets",
"are",
"sampled",
"at",
"exponentially",
"distributed",
"intervals",
"with",
"mean",
"in",
"either",
"time",
"or",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"packets.",
"The",
"exponential",
"distribution",
"can",
"be",
"precomputed",
"and",
"made",
"into",
"a",
"lookup",
"table",
"for",
"fast",
"on-line",
"access.",
"For",
"each",
"sampled",
"packet,",
"IP2HC_Inspect()",
"returns",
"a",
"binary",
"number",
"spoof,",
"depending",
"on",
"whether",
"the",
"packet",
"is",
"judged",
"as",
"spoofed",
"or",
"not.",
"This",
"is",
"then",
"used",
"by",
"Average()",
"to",
"compute",
"an",
"average",
"spoof",
"counter",
"per",
"unit",
"time.",
"When",
"is",
"greater",
"than",
"a",
"threshold",
",",
"HCF",
"enters",
"the",
"filtering",
"state.",
"HCF",
"in",
"the",
"learning",
"state",
"will",
"also",
"update",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"using",
"the",
"TCP",
"control",
"block",
"of",
"every",
"th",
"established",
"TCP",
"connection."
],
[
"To",
"minimize",
"the",
"overhead",
"of",
"hop-count",
"inspection",
"and",
"dynamic",
"update",
"in",
"the",
"learning",
"state,",
"their",
"execution",
"frequencies",
"are",
"adaptively",
"chosen",
"to",
"be",
"inversely",
"proportional",
"to",
"the",
"server's",
"workload.",
"We",
"measure",
"the",
"server's",
"workload",
"by",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"established",
"TCP",
"connections.",
"If",
"the",
"server",
"is",
"lightly",
"loaded,",
"HCF",
"calls",
"for",
"IP2HC",
"inspection",
"and",
"dynamic",
"update",
"more",
"frequently",
"by",
"reducing",
"and",
",",
"which",
"determine",
"the",
"idle",
"times",
"for",
"table",
"update",
"and",
"inspection,",
"respectively.",
"In",
"contrast,",
"for",
"a",
"heavily",
"loaded",
"server,",
"both",
"and",
"are",
"increased.",
"The",
"two",
"thresholds",
"and",
",",
"used",
"for",
"detecting",
"spoofed",
"packets,",
"should",
"also",
"be",
"adjusted",
"based",
"on",
"load.",
"The",
"general",
"guideline",
"for",
"setting",
"execution",
"rates",
"and",
"thresholds",
"with",
"the",
"dynamics",
"of",
"server's",
"workload",
"is",
"given",
"as",
"follows:.",
"However,",
"we",
"only",
"recommend",
"these",
"parameters",
"to",
"be",
"user-configurable.",
"Their",
"specific",
"values",
"depend",
"on",
"the",
"requirement",
"of",
"individual",
"networks",
"in",
"balancing",
"between",
"security",
"and",
"performance..",
"HCF",
"in",
"the",
"filtering",
"state",
"performs",
"a",
"similar",
"set",
"of",
"tasks",
"as",
"in",
"the",
"learning",
"state.",
"The",
"key",
"difference",
"is",
"that",
"HCF",
"in",
"the",
"filtering",
"state",
"must",
"examine",
"every",
"packet",
"(instead",
"of",
"sampling",
"only",
"a",
"subset",
"of",
"packets)",
"and",
"discards",
"spoofed",
"packets,",
"if",
"any.",
"HCF",
"stays",
"in",
"the",
"filtering",
"state",
"as",
"long",
"as",
"a",
"certain",
"number",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"are",
"detected.",
"When",
"the",
"ongoing",
"spoofing",
"ceases,",
"HCF",
"switches",
"back",
"to",
"the",
"learning",
"state.",
"This",
"is",
"accomplished",
"by",
"checking",
"the",
"spoof",
"counter",
"against",
"another",
"threshold",
",",
"which",
"should",
"be",
"smaller",
"than",
"for",
"better",
"stability.",
"HCF",
"should",
"not",
"alternate",
"between",
"the",
"learning",
"and",
"filtering",
"states",
"when",
"fluctuates",
"around",
".",
"Making",
"the",
"second",
"threshold",
"avoids",
"this",
"instability.",
"Note",
"that",
"HCF's",
"filtering",
"accuracy",
"is",
"independent",
"of",
"the",
"settings",
"of",
"and",
".",
"In",
"our",
"filtering",
"accuracy",
"experiments,",
"we",
"have",
"assumed",
"that",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"holds",
"the",
"complete",
"IP",
"addresses",
"of",
"clients.",
"However,",
"in",
"reality,",
"there",
"are",
"always",
"new",
"requests",
"coming",
"in",
"from",
"unseen",
"address",
"prefixes,",
"regardless",
"of",
"how",
"well",
"a",
"mapping",
"table",
"is",
"initialized",
"or",
"kept",
"up-to-date.",
"To",
"protect",
"against",
"attacking",
"traffic",
"that",
"uses",
"unseen",
"IP",
"addresses,",
"we",
"must",
"drop",
"all",
"packets",
"that",
"have",
"no",
"corresponding",
"entries",
"in",
"the",
"table-the",
"function",
"returns",
"true",
"if",
"does",
"not",
"exist",
"in",
"the",
"table.",
"While",
"undesirable,",
"HCF",
"ensures",
"that",
"legitimate",
"requests",
"from",
"known",
"IP",
"addresses",
"are",
"still",
"served",
"during",
"an",
"attack.",
"Clearly,",
"such",
"collateral",
"damage",
"can",
"be",
"made",
"very",
"low",
"by",
"carefully",
"aggregating",
"IP",
"addresses",
"and",
"diligently",
"populating",
"an",
"HCF",
"mapping",
"table",
"over",
"a",
"long",
"period",
"of",
"time."
],
[
"To",
"protect",
"server",
"resources",
"such",
"as",
"CPU",
"and",
"memory,",
"HCF",
"can",
"be",
"installed",
"at",
"a",
"server",
"itself",
"or",
"at",
"any",
"network",
"device",
"near",
"the",
"servers,",
"i.e.,",
"inside",
"the",
"\"last-mile\"",
"region,",
"such",
"as",
"the",
"firewall",
"of",
"an",
"organization.",
"However,",
"this",
"scheme",
"will",
"not",
"be",
"effective",
"against",
"DDoS",
"attacks",
"that",
"target",
"the",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"a",
"network",
"to/from",
"the",
"server.",
"The",
"task",
"of",
"protecting",
"the",
"access",
"link",
"of",
"an",
"entire",
"stub",
"network",
"is",
"more",
"complicated",
"and",
"difficult",
"because",
"the",
"filtering",
"has",
"to",
"be",
"applied",
"at",
"the",
"upstream",
"router",
"of",
"the",
"access",
"link,",
"which",
"must",
"involve",
"the",
"stub",
"network's",
"ISP..",
"The",
"difficulty",
"in",
"protecting",
"against",
"bandwidth",
"flooding",
"is",
"that",
"packet",
"filtering",
"must",
"be",
"separated",
"from",
"detection",
"of",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"as",
"the",
"filtering",
"has",
"to",
"be",
"done",
"at",
"the",
"ISP's",
"edge",
"router.",
"One",
"or",
"more",
"machines",
"inside",
"the",
"stub",
"network",
"must",
"run",
"HCF",
"and",
"actively",
"watch",
"for",
"traces",
"of",
"IP",
"spoofing",
"by",
"always",
"staying",
"alert.",
"In",
"addition,",
"at",
"least",
"one",
"machine",
"inside",
"the",
"stub",
"network",
"needs",
"to",
"maintain",
"an",
"updated",
"HCF",
"table",
"since",
"only",
"end-hosts",
"can",
"see",
"established",
"TCP",
"connections.",
"Under",
"an",
"attack,",
"this",
"machine",
"should",
"notify",
"the",
"network",
"administrator",
"who",
"then",
"coordinates",
"with",
"the",
"ISP",
"to",
"install",
"a",
"packet",
"filter",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"HCF",
"table",
"on",
"the",
"ISP's",
"edge",
"router.",
"Our",
"two",
"running-state",
"design",
"makes",
"it",
"natural",
"to",
"separate",
"these",
"two",
"functions-detection",
"and",
"filtering",
"of",
"spoofed",
"packets.",
"Once",
"the",
"HCF",
"table",
"is",
"enabled",
"at",
"the",
"ISP's",
"edge",
"router,",
"most",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"will",
"be",
"intercepted,",
"and",
"only",
"a",
"very",
"small",
"percentage",
"of",
"the",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"that",
"slip",
"through",
"HCF,",
"will",
"consume",
"bandwidth.",
"In",
"this",
"case,",
"having",
"two",
"separable",
"states",
"is",
"crucial",
"since",
"routers",
"usually",
"cannot",
"observe",
"established",
"TCP",
"connections",
"and",
"use",
"the",
"safe",
"update",
"procedure."
],
[
"In",
"DRDoS",
"attacks,",
"an",
"attacker",
"forges",
"IP",
"packets",
"that",
"contain",
"legitimate",
"requests,",
"such",
"as",
"DNS",
"queries,",
"by",
"setting",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"of",
"these",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"to",
"the",
"actual",
"victim's",
"IP",
"address.",
"The",
"attacker",
"then",
"sends",
"these",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"to",
"a",
"large",
"number",
"of",
"reflectors.",
"Each",
"reflector",
"only",
"receives",
"a",
"moderate",
"flux",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"so",
"that",
"it",
"can",
"easily",
"sustain",
"the",
"availability",
"of",
"its",
"normal",
"service.",
"The",
"usual",
"intrusion",
"detection",
"methods",
"based",
"on",
"the",
"ongoing",
"traffic",
"volume",
"or",
"access",
"patterns",
"may",
"not",
"be",
"sensitive",
"enough",
"to",
"detect",
"the",
"presence",
"of",
"such",
"spoofed",
"traffic.",
"In",
"contrast,",
"HCF",
"specifically",
"looks",
"for",
"IP",
"spoofing,",
"so",
"it",
"will",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"detect",
"attempts",
"to",
"fool",
"servers",
"into",
"acting",
"as",
"reflectors.",
"Although",
"HCF",
"is",
"not",
"perfect",
"and",
"some",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"may",
"still",
"slip",
"through",
"the",
"filter,",
"HCF",
"can",
"detect",
"and",
"intercept",
"enough",
"of",
"the",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"to",
"thwart",
"DRDoS",
"attacks."
],
[
"This",
"section",
"details",
"the",
"implementation",
"of",
"a",
"proof-of-concept",
"HCF",
"inside",
"the",
"Linux",
"kernel",
"and",
"presents",
"its",
"evaluation",
"on",
"a",
"real",
"testbed.",
"For",
"HCF",
"to",
"be",
"useful,",
"the",
"per-packet",
"overhead",
"must",
"be",
"much",
"lower",
"than",
"the",
"normal",
"processing",
"of",
"an",
"IP",
"packet.",
"In",
"addition,",
"since",
"HCF",
"operates",
"at",
"the",
"IP",
"layers,",
"spoofed",
"packets,",
"even",
"when",
"detected,",
"will",
"still",
"consume",
"CPU",
"cycles",
"due",
"to",
"interrupt",
"handling",
"and",
"data",
"link",
"layer",
"processing.",
"We",
"justify",
"the",
"deployment",
"of",
"HCF",
"in",
"practice",
"by",
"measuring",
"the",
"per-packet",
"overhead",
"of",
"HCF",
"and",
"the",
"amount",
"of",
"resource",
"savings",
"when",
"HCF",
"is",
"active."
],
[
"To",
"validate",
"the",
"efficacy",
"of",
"HCF",
"in",
"a",
"real",
"system,",
"we",
"implement",
"a",
"test",
"module",
"inside",
"the",
"Linux",
"kernel.",
"The",
"test",
"module",
"resides",
"in",
"the",
"IP",
"packet",
"receive",
"function,",
".",
"To",
"minimize",
"the",
"CPU",
"cycles",
"consumed",
"by",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets,",
"we",
"insert",
"the",
"filtering",
"function",
"before",
"the",
"code",
"segment",
"that",
"performs",
"the",
"expensive",
"checksum",
"verification.",
"Our",
"test",
"module",
"has",
"the",
"basic",
"data",
"structures",
"and",
"functions",
"to",
"support",
"search",
"and",
"update",
"operations",
"to",
"the",
"hop-count",
"mapping..",
"The",
"hop-count",
"mapping",
"is",
"organized",
"as",
"a",
"4096-bucket",
"hash",
"table",
"with",
"chaining",
"to",
"resolve",
"collisions.",
"Each",
"entry",
"in",
"the",
"hash",
"table",
"represents",
"a",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix,",
"and",
"it",
"uses",
"a",
"binary",
"tree",
"to",
"cluster",
"hosts",
"within",
"the",
"single",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix.",
"Searching",
"for",
"the",
"hop-count",
"of",
"an",
"IP",
"address",
"consists",
"of",
"locating",
"the",
"entry",
"for",
"its",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix",
"in",
"the",
"hash",
"table,",
"and",
"then",
"finding",
"the",
"proper",
"cluster",
"that",
"the",
"IP",
"address",
"belongs",
"to",
"in",
"the",
"tree.",
"Given",
"an",
"IP",
"address,",
"HCF",
"computes",
"the",
"hash",
"key",
"by",
"XORing",
"the",
"upper",
"and",
"lower",
"12-bits",
"of",
"the",
"first",
"24",
"bits",
"of",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address.",
"Since",
"4096",
"is",
"relatively",
"small",
"compared",
"to",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"possible",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefixes,",
"collisions",
"are",
"likely",
"to",
"occur.",
"To",
"estimate",
"the",
"average",
"size",
"of",
"a",
"chained",
"list,",
"we",
"hash",
"the",
"client",
"IP",
"addresses",
"from",
"[11]",
"into",
"the",
"4096-bucket",
"hash",
"table",
"to",
"find",
"that,",
"on",
"average,",
"there",
"are",
"11",
"entries",
"on",
"a",
"chain,",
"with",
"the",
"maximum",
"being",
"25.",
"Thus,",
"we",
"use",
"fixed",
"11-entry",
"chained",
"lists.",
"We",
"determine",
"the",
"size",
"of",
"the",
"clustering",
"tree",
"by",
"choosing",
"a",
"minimum",
"clustering",
"unit",
"of",
"four",
"IP",
"addresses",
"so",
"the",
"tree",
"has",
"a",
"depth",
"of",
"six",
"(2",
"64).",
"This",
"binary",
"tree",
"can",
"then",
"be",
"implemented",
"as",
"a",
"linear",
"array",
"of",
"127",
"elements.",
"Each",
"element",
"in",
"this",
"array",
"stores",
"the",
"hop-count",
"value",
"of",
"a",
"particular",
"clustering.",
"We",
"set",
"the",
"array",
"element",
"to",
"be",
"the",
"hop-count",
"if",
"clustering",
"is",
"possible,",
"and",
"zero",
"otherwise.",
"The",
"clustering",
"overhead",
"has",
"not",
"yet",
"been",
"evaluated..",
"To",
"implement",
"table",
"update,",
"we",
"insert",
"the",
"function",
"call",
"into",
"the",
"kernel",
"TCP",
"code",
"past",
"the",
"point",
"where",
"the",
"three-way",
"handshake",
"of",
"TCP",
"connection",
"is",
"completed.",
"For",
"every",
"th",
"established",
"TCP",
"connection,",
"the",
"update",
"function",
"takes",
"the",
"argument",
"of",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address",
"and",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"value",
"of",
"the",
"ACK",
"packet",
"that",
"completes",
"the",
"handshake.",
"Then,",
"the",
"function",
"searches",
"the",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"for",
"an",
"entry",
"that",
"corresponds",
"to",
"this",
"source",
"IP",
"address,",
"and",
"will",
"either",
"overwrite",
"the",
"existing",
"entry",
"or",
"create",
"a",
"new",
"entry",
"for",
"a",
"first-time",
"visitor."
],
[
"For",
"HCF",
"to",
"be",
"useful,",
"the",
"per-packet",
"overhead",
"must",
"be",
"much",
"lower",
"than",
"the",
"normal",
"processing",
"of",
"an",
"IP",
"packet.",
"We",
"examine",
"the",
"per-packet",
"overhead",
"of",
"HCF",
"by",
"instrumenting",
"the",
"Linux",
"kernel",
"to",
"time",
"the",
"filtering",
"function",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"the",
"critical",
"path",
"in",
"processing",
"IP",
"packets.",
"We",
"use",
"the",
"built-in",
"Linux",
"macro",
"to",
"record",
"the",
"execution",
"time",
"in",
"CPU",
"cycles.",
"While",
"we",
"cannot",
"generalize",
"our",
"experimental",
"results",
"to",
"predict",
"the",
"performance",
"of",
"HCF",
"under",
"real",
"DDoS",
"attacks,",
"we",
"can",
"confirm",
"whether",
"HCF",
"provides",
"significant",
"resource",
"savings..",
"We",
"set",
"up",
"a",
"simple",
"testbed",
"of",
"two",
"machines",
"connected",
"to",
"a",
"100",
"Mb/s",
"Ethernet",
"hub.",
"A",
"Dell",
"Precision",
"workstation",
"with",
"1.9",
"GHz",
"Pentium",
"4",
"processor",
"and",
"1",
"GB",
"of",
"memory,",
"simulates",
"the",
"victim",
"server",
"where",
"HCF",
"is",
"installed.",
"A",
"second",
"machine",
"generates",
"various",
"types",
"of",
"IP",
"traffic",
"to",
"emulate",
"incoming",
"attack",
"traffic",
"to",
"the",
"victim",
"server.",
"To",
"minimize",
"the",
"effect",
"of",
"caches,",
"we",
"randomize",
"each",
"hash",
"key",
"to",
"simulate",
"randomized",
"IP",
"addresses",
"to",
"hit",
"all",
"buckets",
"in",
"the",
"hash",
"table.",
"For",
"each",
"hop-count",
"look-up,",
"we",
"assume",
"the",
"worst",
"case",
"search",
"time.",
"The",
"search",
"of",
"a",
"24-bit",
"address",
"prefix",
"traverses",
"the",
"entire",
"chained",
"list",
"of",
"11",
"entries,",
"and",
"the",
"hop-count",
"lookup",
"within",
"the",
"24-bit",
"prefix",
"traverses",
"the",
"entire",
"depth",
"of",
"the",
"tree..",
"We",
"generate",
"two",
"types",
"of",
"traffic,",
"TCP",
"and",
"ICMP,",
"to",
"emulate",
"flooding",
"traffic",
"in",
"DDoS",
"attacks.",
"In",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"flooding",
"TCP",
"traffic,",
"we",
"use",
"a",
"modified",
"version",
"of",
"[1]",
"to",
"generate",
"TCP",
"SYN",
"packets",
"to",
"simulate",
"a",
"SYN",
"flooding",
"attack.",
"In",
"addition,",
"we",
"also",
"repeatedly",
"open",
"a",
"TCP",
"connection",
"on",
"the",
"victim",
"machine",
"and",
"close",
"it",
"right",
"away,",
"which",
"includes",
"sending",
"both",
"SYN",
"and",
"FIN",
"packets.",
"Linux",
"delays",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"processing",
"and",
"the",
"establishment",
"of",
"the",
"connection",
"control",
"block",
"until",
"receiving",
"the",
"final",
"ACK",
"from",
"the",
"host",
"that",
"does",
"the",
"active",
".",
"Since",
"the",
"processing",
"to",
"establish",
"a",
"connection",
"is",
"included",
"in",
"our",
"experiment,",
"the",
"measured",
"critical",
"path",
"may",
"be",
"longer",
"than",
"that",
"in",
"a",
"SYN",
"flooding",
"attack.",
"To",
"emulate",
"ICMP",
"attacks,",
"we",
"run",
"two",
"experiments",
"of",
"single-stream",
"s.",
"The",
"first",
"uses",
"default",
"64-byte",
"packets",
"at",
"10",
"ms",
"intervals,",
"and",
"the",
"second",
"uses",
"ping",
"flood",
"-with",
"the",
"default",
"packet",
"size",
"of",
"64",
"bytes",
"and",
"sends",
"packets",
"as",
"fast",
"as",
"the",
"system",
"can",
"transmit.",
"To",
"understand",
"the",
"impact",
"of",
"HCF",
"on",
"normal",
"IP",
"traffic,",
"we",
"also",
"consider",
"bulk",
"data",
"transfers",
"under",
"both",
"TCP",
"and",
"UDP.",
"We",
"compare",
"the",
"per-packet",
"overhead",
"without",
"HCF",
"with",
"the",
"per-packet",
"overhead",
"of",
"the",
"filtering",
"function",
"in",
"Table",
"II.",
"We",
"present",
"the",
"recorded",
"processing",
"times",
"in",
"CPU",
"cycles",
"in",
"Table",
"II",
".",
"The",
"column",
"under",
"\"with",
"HCF\"",
"lists",
"the",
"execution",
"times",
"of",
"the",
"filtering",
"function.",
"The",
"column",
"under",
"\"without",
"HCF\"",
"lists",
"the",
"packet",
"processing",
"times",
"without",
"HCF.",
"Each",
"row",
"in",
"the",
"table",
"represents",
"a",
"single",
"experiment,",
"and",
"each",
"experiment",
"is",
"run",
"with",
"a",
"large",
"number",
"(",
"40",
"000)",
"of",
"packets",
"to",
"compute",
"the",
"average",
"number",
"of",
"cycles.",
"We",
"present",
"both",
"the",
"minimum",
"and",
"the",
"average",
"numbers.",
"There",
"exists",
"a",
"difference",
"between",
"average",
"cycles",
"and",
"minimum",
"cycles",
"for",
"two",
"reasons.",
"First,",
"some",
"packets",
"take",
"longer",
"to",
"process",
"than",
"others,",
"e.g.,",
"a",
"SYN/ACK",
"packet",
"takes",
"more",
"time",
"than",
"a",
"FIN",
"packet.",
"Second,",
"the",
"average",
"cycles",
"may",
"include",
"lower-level",
"interrupt",
"processing,",
"such",
"as",
"input",
"processing",
"by",
"the",
"Linux",
"Ethernet",
"driver.",
"We",
"observe",
"that,",
"in",
"general,",
"the",
"filtering",
"function",
"uses",
"significantly",
"fewer",
"cycles",
"than",
"the",
"emulated",
"attack",
"traffic,",
"at",
"least",
"an",
"order",
"of",
"magnitude",
"less.",
"Consequently,",
"HCF",
"should",
"provide",
"significant",
"resource",
"savings",
"by",
"detecting",
"and",
"discarding",
"spoofed",
"traffic.",
"Moreover,",
"for",
"both",
"TCP",
"and",
"UDP",
"bulk",
"transfers,",
"the",
"CPU",
"overhead",
"induced",
"by",
"HCF",
"is",
"small",
"(less",
"than",
"7%).",
"Note",
"that",
"the",
"processing",
"of",
"regular",
"packets",
"takes",
"fewer",
"cycles",
"than",
"the",
"emulated",
"attack",
"traffic.",
"We",
"attribute",
"this",
"to",
"TCP",
"header",
"prediction",
"and",
"the",
"much",
"simpler",
"protocol",
"processing",
"in",
"UDP.",
"It",
"is",
"fair",
"to",
"say",
"that",
"the",
"filtering",
"function",
"adds",
"only",
"a",
"small",
"overhead",
"to",
"the",
"processing",
"of",
"legitimate",
"IP",
"traffic.",
"However,",
"this",
"is",
"by",
"far",
"more",
"than",
"compensated",
"by",
"not",
"processing",
"spoofed",
"traffic..",
"To",
"illustrate",
"the",
"potential",
"savings",
"in",
"CPU",
"cycles,",
"we",
"compute",
"the",
"actual",
"resource",
"savings",
"we",
"can",
"achieve,",
"when",
"an",
"attacker",
"launches",
"a",
"spoofed",
"DDoS",
"attack",
"against",
"a",
"server.",
"Given",
"attack",
"and",
"legitimate",
"traffic,",
"and",
",",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"the",
"fraction",
"of",
"total",
"traffic",
"per",
"unit",
"time,",
"the",
"average",
"number",
"of",
"CPU",
"cycles",
"consumed",
"per",
"packet",
"without",
"HCF",
"is",
",",
"where",
"and",
"are",
"the",
"per-packet",
"processing",
"times",
"of",
"attack",
"and",
"legitimate",
"traffic,",
"respectively.",
"The",
"average",
"number",
"of",
"CPU",
"cycles",
"consumed",
"per",
"packet",
"with",
"HCF",
"is",
"with",
"and",
"being",
"the",
"filtering",
"overhead",
"for",
"attack",
"and",
"legitimate",
"traffic,",
"respectively,",
"and",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"attack",
"traffic",
"that",
"we",
"cannot",
"filter",
"out.",
"Let",
"us",
"also",
"assume",
"that",
"the",
"attacker",
"uses",
"64-byte",
"traffic",
"to",
"attack",
"the",
"server",
"that",
"implements",
"HCF.",
"The",
"results",
"for",
"various",
",",
",",
"and",
"parameters",
"are",
"plotted",
"in",
"Fig.",
"13",
".",
"The",
"axis",
"is",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"total",
"traffic",
"contributed",
"by",
"the",
"DDoS",
"attack,",
"namely",
".",
"The",
"axis",
"is",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"CPU",
"cycles",
"saved",
"as",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"total",
"CPU",
"cycles",
"consumed",
"without",
"HCF.",
"The",
"figure",
"contains",
"a",
"number",
"of",
"curves,",
"each",
"corresponding",
"to",
"an",
"value.",
"Since",
"the",
"per-packet",
"overhead",
"of",
"the",
"DDoS",
"traffic",
"(20",
"194",
")",
"is",
"much",
"higher",
"than",
"TCP",
"bulk",
"transfer",
"(6538),",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"the",
"DDoS",
"traffic",
"that",
"HCF",
"can",
"filter,",
",",
"essentially",
"becomes",
"the",
"sole",
"determining",
"factor",
"in",
"resource",
"savings.",
"As",
"the",
"composition",
"of",
"total",
"traffic",
"varies,",
"the",
"percentage",
"of",
"resource",
"savings",
"remains",
"essentially",
"the",
"same",
"as",
"."
],
[
"Several",
"efficient",
"mechanisms",
"[17]",
",",
"[19]",
",",
"[35]",
",",
"[52]",
"are",
"available",
"to",
"detect",
"DDoS",
"attacks.",
"In",
"addition,",
"researchers",
"have",
"also",
"used",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"TTL",
"values",
"seen",
"at",
"servers",
"to",
"detect",
"abnormal",
"load",
"spikes",
"due",
"to",
"DDoS",
"traffic",
"[39]",
".",
"The",
"Razor",
"team",
"at",
"Bindview",
"built",
"Despoof",
"[2]",
",",
"which",
"is",
"a",
"command-line",
"antispoofing",
"utility.",
"Despoof",
"compares",
"the",
"TTL",
"of",
"a",
"received",
"packet",
"that",
"is",
"considered",
"\"suspicious,\"",
"with",
"the",
"actual",
"TTL",
"of",
"a",
"test",
"packet",
"sent",
"to",
"the",
"source",
"IP",
"address,",
"for",
"verification.",
"However,",
"Despoof",
"requires",
"the",
"administrator",
"to",
"determine",
"which",
"packets",
"should",
"be",
"examined,",
"and",
"to",
"manually",
"perform",
"this",
"verification.",
"Thus,",
"the",
"per-packet",
"processing",
"overhead",
"is",
"prohibitively",
"high",
"for",
"weeding",
"out",
"spoofed",
"traffic",
"in",
"real",
"time..",
"In",
"parallel",
"with,",
"and",
"independently",
"of,",
"our",
"work,",
"the",
"possibility",
"of",
"using",
"TTL",
"for",
"detecting",
"spoofed",
"packet",
"was",
"discussed",
"in",
"[51]",
".",
"Their",
"results",
"have",
"shown",
"that",
"the",
"final",
"TTL",
"values",
"from",
"an",
"IP",
"address",
"were",
"predictable",
"and",
"generally",
"clustered",
"around",
"a",
"single",
"value,",
"which",
"is",
"consistent",
"with",
"our",
"observation",
"of",
"hopcounts",
"being",
"mostly",
"stable.",
"However,",
"the",
"authors",
"did",
"not",
"provide",
"a",
"detailed",
"solution",
"against",
"spoofed",
"DDoS",
"attacks.",
"Neither",
"did",
"they",
"provide",
"any",
"analysis",
"of",
"the",
"effectiveness",
"of",
"using",
"TTL",
"values,",
"nor",
"the",
"construction,",
"update,",
"and",
"deployment",
"of",
"an",
"accurate",
"TTL",
"mapping",
"table.",
"In",
"this",
"paper,",
"we",
"examine",
"these",
"questions",
"and",
"develop",
"a",
"deployable",
"solution..",
"There",
"are",
"a",
"number",
"of",
"recent",
"router-based",
"filtering",
"techniques",
"to",
"lessen",
"the",
"effects",
"of",
"DDoS",
"packets",
"or",
"to",
"curb",
"their",
"propagations",
"in",
"the",
"Internet.",
"As",
"a",
"proactive",
"solution",
"to",
"DDoS",
"attacks,",
"these",
"filtering",
"schemes",
"[15]",
",",
"[29]",
",",
"[36]",
",",
"[55]",
",",
"which",
"must",
"execute",
"on",
"IP",
"routers",
"or",
"rely",
"on",
"routers'",
"markings,",
"have",
"been",
"proposed",
"to",
"prevent",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"from",
"reaching",
"intended",
"victims.",
"The",
"most",
"straightforward",
"scheme",
"is",
"ingress",
"filtering",
"[15]",
",",
"which",
"blocks",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"at",
"edge",
"routers,",
"where",
"address",
"ownership",
"is",
"relatively",
"unambiguous,",
"and",
"traffic",
"load",
"is",
"low.",
"However,",
"the",
"success",
"of",
"ingress",
"filtering",
"hinges",
"on",
"its",
"wide-deployment",
"in",
"IP",
"routers.",
"Most",
"ISPs",
"are",
"reluctant",
"to",
"implement",
"this",
"service",
"due",
"to",
"administrative",
"overhead",
"and",
"lack",
"of",
"immediate",
"benefits",
"to",
"their",
"customers..",
"Given",
"the",
"reachability",
"constraints",
"imposed",
"by",
"routing",
"and",
"network",
"topology,",
"router-based",
"distributed",
"packet",
"filtering",
"(DPF)",
"[36]",
"utilizes",
"routing",
"information",
"to",
"determine",
"whether",
"an",
"incoming",
"packet",
"at",
"a",
"router",
"is",
"valid",
"with",
"respect",
"to",
"the",
"inscribed",
"source",
"and",
"destination",
"IP",
"addresses",
"in",
"the",
"packet.",
"The",
"experimental",
"results",
"reported",
"in",
"[36]",
"show",
"that",
"a",
"significant",
"fraction",
"of",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"may",
"be",
"filtered",
"out,",
"and",
"those",
"spoofed",
"packets",
"that",
"DPF",
"fails",
"to",
"capture,",
"can",
"be",
"localized",
"into",
"five",
"candidate",
"sites",
"that",
"are",
"easy",
"to",
"trace",
"back..",
"To",
"validate",
"that",
"an",
"IP",
"packet",
"carries",
"a",
"true",
"source",
"address,",
"SAVE",
"[29]",
",",
"a",
"source",
"address",
"validity",
"enforcement",
"protocol,",
"builds",
"a",
"table",
"of",
"incoming",
"source",
"IP",
"addresses",
"at",
"each",
"router",
"that",
"associates",
"each",
"of",
"its",
"incoming",
"interfaces",
"with",
"a",
"set",
"of",
"valid",
"incoming",
"network",
"addresses.",
"SAVE",
"runs",
"on",
"each",
"IP",
"router",
"and",
"checks",
"whether",
"each",
"IP",
"packet",
"arrives",
"at",
"the",
"expected",
"interface.",
"By",
"matching",
"incoming",
"IP",
"addresses",
"with",
"their",
"expected",
"receiving",
"interfaces,",
"the",
"set",
"of",
"IP",
"source",
"addresses",
"that",
"any",
"attacker",
"can",
"spoof",
"are",
"greatly",
"reduced..",
"Based",
"on",
"IP",
"traceback",
"marking,",
"Path",
"Identifier",
"(Pi)",
"[55]",
"embeds",
"a",
"path",
"fingerprint",
"in",
"each",
"packet",
"so",
"that",
"a",
"victim",
"can",
"identify",
"all",
"packets",
"traversing",
"the",
"same",
"path",
"across",
"the",
"Internet,",
"even",
"for",
"those",
"with",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses.",
"Instead",
"of",
"probabilistic",
"marking,",
"marking",
"in",
"Pi",
"is",
"deterministic.",
"By",
"checking",
"the",
"marking",
"on",
"each",
"packet,",
"the",
"victim",
"can",
"filter",
"out",
"all",
"attacking",
"packets",
"that",
"match",
"the",
"path",
"signatures",
"of",
"already-known",
"attacking",
"packets.",
"Pi",
"is",
"effective",
"even",
"if",
"only",
"half",
"of",
"the",
"routers",
"in",
"the",
"Internet",
"participate",
"in",
"packet",
"marking.",
"There",
"also",
"exist",
"commercial",
"solutions",
"[22]",
",",
"[34]",
"that",
"block",
"the",
"propagation",
"of",
"DDoS",
"traffic",
"with",
"router",
"support..",
"However,",
"the",
"main",
"difference",
"between",
"our",
"scheme",
"and",
"these",
"solutions",
"is",
"that",
"HCF",
"is",
"an",
"end-system",
"mechanism",
"that",
"does",
"not",
"require",
"any",
"network",
"support.",
"This",
"difference",
"implies",
"that",
"our",
"solution",
"is",
"immediately",
"deployable",
"in",
"the",
"Internet.",
"HCF",
"works",
"well",
"because",
"no",
"single",
"entity",
"controls",
"the",
"value",
"of",
"the",
"TTL",
"field,",
"and",
"thus,",
"destinations",
"can",
"use",
"it",
"to",
"fingerprint",
"legitimate",
"IP",
"packets.",
"It",
"is",
"not",
"difficult",
"to",
"see",
"that",
"end-host-based",
"filtering",
"can",
"be",
"much",
"more",
"effective",
"if",
"intermediate",
"routers",
"could",
"do",
"more",
"than",
"merely",
"decrementing",
"TTL",
"by",
"one."
],
[
"In",
"this",
"paper,",
"we",
"have",
"presented",
"a",
"hop-count-based",
"filtering",
"scheme",
"that",
"detects",
"and",
"discards",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets",
"to",
"conserve",
"system",
"resources.",
"Our",
"scheme",
"inspects",
"the",
"hop-count",
"of",
"incoming",
"packets",
"to",
"validate",
"their",
"legitimacy.",
"Using",
"only",
"a",
"moderate",
"amount",
"of",
"storage,",
"HCF",
"constructs",
"an",
"accurate",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"table",
"via",
"IP",
"address",
"aggregation",
"and",
"hop-count",
"clustering.",
"A",
"pollution-proof",
"mechanism",
"initializes",
"and",
"updates",
"entries",
"in",
"the",
"mapping",
"table.",
"By",
"default,",
"HCF",
"stays",
"in",
"the",
"learning",
"state,",
"monitoring",
"abnormal",
"IP2HC",
"mapping",
"behaviors",
"without",
"discarding",
"any",
"packet.",
"Once",
"spoofed",
"DDoS",
"traffic",
"is",
"detected,",
"HCF",
"switches",
"to",
"the",
"filtering",
"state",
"and",
"discards",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"spoofed",
"packets..",
"By",
"analyzing",
"actual",
"network",
"measurements,",
"we",
"have",
"shown",
"that",
"HCF",
"can",
"remove",
"90%",
"of",
"spoofed",
"traffic.",
"Moreover,",
"even",
"if",
"an",
"attacker",
"is",
"aware",
"of",
"HCF,",
"he",
"cannot",
"easily",
"circumvent",
"HCF.",
"Our",
"experimental",
"evaluation",
"has",
"shown",
"that",
"HCF",
"can",
"be",
"efficiently",
"implemented",
"inside",
"the",
"Linux",
"kernel.",
"Our",
"analysis",
"and",
"experimental",
"results",
"have",
"indicated",
"that",
"HCF",
"is",
"a",
"simple",
"and",
"effective",
"solution",
"in",
"protecting",
"Internet",
"servers",
"against",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets.",
"Furthermore,",
"HCF",
"is",
"readily",
"deployable",
"in",
"end-systems",
"since",
"it",
"does",
"not",
"require",
"any",
"network",
"support..",
"There",
"are",
"several",
"issues",
"that",
"warrant",
"further",
"research.",
"First,",
"to",
"install",
"the",
"HCF",
"system",
"at",
"a",
"victim",
"site",
"for",
"practical",
"use,",
"we",
"need",
"a",
"systematic",
"procedure",
"for",
"setting",
"the",
"parameters",
"of",
"HCF,",
"such",
"as",
"the",
"frequency",
"of",
"dynamic",
"updates.",
"Second,",
"we",
"would",
"like",
"to",
"build",
"and",
"deploy",
"HCF",
"in",
"various",
"high-profile",
"server",
"sites",
"to",
"see",
"how",
"effective",
"it",
"is",
"against",
"real",
"spoofed",
"DDoS",
"traffic."
],
[
"An",
"attacker",
"may",
"somehow",
"modify",
"the",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values,",
"hoping",
"that",
"the",
"forged",
"packets",
"may",
"carry",
"matching",
"hop-count",
"values",
"when",
"they",
"reach",
"the",
"victim.",
"Assuming",
"that",
"the",
"attacker",
"knows",
"the",
"range",
"of",
"valid",
"hop-count",
"to",
"a",
"given",
"victim",
"server,",
"an",
"attacker",
"may",
"use",
"initial",
"TTLs",
"in",
"the",
"range",
",",
"where",
"is",
"the",
"hop-count",
"from",
"the",
"flooding",
"source",
"to",
"the",
"victim",
"and",
"is",
"the",
"default",
"initial",
"TTL",
"value",
"at",
"the",
"flooding",
"source.",
"Thus,",
"the",
"randomization",
"of",
"initial",
"TTL",
"values",
"is",
"the",
"same",
"as",
"subtracting",
"the",
"right",
"constant",
"between",
"1",
"and",
"from",
"to",
"give",
"a",
"matching",
"IP2HC",
"pair",
"that",
"HCF",
"cannot",
"detect..",
"Here,",
"we",
"study",
"the",
"scenario",
"where",
"for",
"any",
"given",
"IP",
"address,",
"an",
"attacker",
"is",
"only",
"able",
"to",
"select",
"at",
"random",
"a",
"hop-count",
"value",
"from",
"the",
"range",
".",
"Without",
"loss",
"of",
"generality,",
"we",
"use",
"the",
"random",
"variable",
"as",
"the",
"hop-count",
"value",
"the",
"attacker",
"draws",
"from",
"a",
"distribution",
",",
".",
"The",
"ability",
"of",
"an",
"attacker",
"to",
"evade",
"HCF",
"can",
"be",
"measured",
"by",
"the",
"probability",
"that",
"the",
"hop-count",
"value",
"embedded",
"in",
"a",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packet",
"would",
"match",
"the",
"correct",
"hop-count",
"value",
",",
"or",
",",
"using",
"Bayes'",
"formula",
"as",
"follows:.",
"where",
",",
",",
"is",
"the",
"distribution",
"of",
"hop-count",
"values",
"to",
"the",
"victim",
"server.",
"and",
"are",
"two",
"independent",
"events.",
"Thus,",
".",
"We",
"thus",
"reduce",
"the",
"above",
"equation",
"to.",
"The",
"attacker",
"would",
"want",
"to",
"to",
"maximize",
"the",
"summation",
"over",
"all",
"possible",
"s,",
"or",
"equivalently,",
"use",
"the",
"\"best\"",
"distribution",
"of",
"hop-count",
"values",
"to",
"fool",
"HCF.",
"This",
"is",
"a",
"special",
"case",
"of",
"a",
"standard",
"Linear",
"Programming",
"problem,",
"but",
"with",
"a",
"very",
"simple",
"solution.",
"We",
"observe",
"that",
"there",
"exists",
"a",
",",
"for",
"which",
"for",
"all",
".",
"Therefore,",
"we",
"can",
"provide",
"an",
"upper",
"bound",
"for",
"the",
"maximization",
"as",
"follows:.",
"Since",
"the",
"sum",
",",
"it",
"follows",
"that",
"the",
"maximization",
"is",
"bounded",
"by",
":.",
"One",
"way",
"to",
"achieve",
"this",
"upper",
"bound",
"is",
"to",
"draw",
"from",
"a",
"distribution,",
"where",
"for",
"all",
",",
"and",
".",
"We",
"have",
"shown",
"that",
"the",
"mode",
"in",
"our",
"data",
"collection",
"is",
"generally",
"around",
"10%,",
"so",
"on",
"average,",
"only",
"10%",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"addresses",
"can",
"evade",
"HCF."
]
] | [
"ip spoofing",
"hop-count",
"ddos attacks",
"host-based"
] | [] | {
"title": [
"Defense",
"Against",
"Spoofed",
"IP",
"Traffic",
"Using",
"Hop-Count",
"Filtering"
],
"abstract": [
"HCF",
"is",
"easy",
"to",
"deploy,",
"as",
"it",
"does",
"not",
"require",
"any",
"support",
"from",
"the",
"underlying",
"network.",
"Through",
"analysis",
"using",
"network",
"measurement",
"data,",
"we",
"show",
"that",
"HCF",
"can",
"identify",
"close",
"to",
"90%",
"of",
"spoofed",
"IP",
"packets,",
"and",
"then",
"discard",
"them",
"with",
"little",
"collateral",
"damage.",
"We",
"implement",
"and",
"evaluate",
"HCF",
"in",
"the",
"Linux",
"kernel,",
"demonstrating",
"its",
"effectiveness",
"with",
"experimental",
"measurements."
]
} |
19016620 | [
"introduction and background",
"methodology",
"interview data",
"observational data",
"data analysis",
"results",
"discussion",
"social and theoretical implications",
"design implications",
"limitations"
] | [
[
"One",
"persistent",
"theme",
"in",
"the",
"literature",
"on",
"distance",
"education",
"is",
"interaction.",
"In",
"particular,",
"the",
"amount",
"of",
"interaction",
"in",
"an",
"e-learning",
"setting",
"can",
"positively",
"influence",
"both",
"instructor",
"satisfaction",
"[14]",
"and",
"learning",
"outcomes",
"[1]",
"..",
"There",
"are",
"many",
"types",
"of",
"e-learning",
"settings,",
"however,",
"and",
"these",
"vary",
"in",
"the",
"extent",
"to",
"which",
"they",
"facilitate",
"frequent",
"interaction.",
"For",
"example,",
"interaction",
"is",
"easy",
"in",
"online",
"discussions",
"and",
"forums,",
"but",
"is",
"much",
"harder",
"within",
"lecturestyle",
"presentations",
"that",
"are",
"simultaneously",
"delivered",
"to",
"a",
"live",
"audience",
"and",
"distributed",
"group",
"of",
"students..",
"Our",
"focus",
"is",
"on",
"these",
"live",
"and",
"distributed",
"lectures.",
"In",
"particular,",
"we",
"know",
"that",
"it",
"can",
"be",
"quite",
"problematic",
"for",
"the",
"presenter",
"to",
"be",
"aware",
"of",
"and",
"naturally",
"interact",
"with",
"remote",
"students",
"who",
"are",
"viewing",
"the",
"lecture",
"as",
"a",
"webcast",
"[9]",
".",
"When",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"participants",
"is",
"small,",
"this",
"can",
"sometimes",
"be",
"overcome",
"using",
"videoconferencing.",
"As",
"the",
"class",
"grows,",
"however,",
"it",
"becomes",
"more",
"difficult",
"[15]",
".",
"Problems",
"arise",
"because",
"screen",
"space",
"for",
"visible",
"representations",
"of",
"remote",
"participants",
"is",
"limited,",
"and",
"humans",
"have",
"limited",
"capacity",
"for",
"processing",
"such",
"representations",
"[11]",
".",
"Thus,",
"the",
"rich",
"information",
"that",
"instructors",
"ordinarily",
"use",
"to",
"find",
"appropriate",
"interaction",
"opportunities,",
"to",
"find",
"good",
"\"target\"",
"students,",
"and",
"to",
"time",
"these",
"interactions",
"is",
"missing.",
"Clearly",
"it",
"is",
"not",
"possible",
"to",
"replicate",
"all",
"of",
"the",
"real-world",
"cues",
"in",
"a",
"distributed",
"environment.",
"This",
"raises",
"the",
"question",
"of",
"whether",
"there",
"are",
"critical",
"bits",
"of",
"awareness",
"information",
"that",
"would",
"be",
"useful",
"for",
"promoting",
"interaction",
"in",
"these",
"environments..",
"Given",
"the",
"documented",
"value",
"of",
"interaction",
"in",
"face-to-face",
"lectures,",
"others",
"have",
"attempted",
"to",
"improve",
"audience",
"awareness",
"and",
"interaction",
"in",
"videoconferencing",
"and",
"webcasting",
"[2]",
"environments.",
"For",
"example,",
"the",
"TELEP",
"system",
"[9]",
"displayed",
"video",
"or",
"photographic",
"representations",
"of",
"remote",
"audience",
"members",
"on",
"the",
"wall",
"of",
"the",
"physical",
"presentation",
"room,",
"and",
"these",
"were",
"visible",
"to",
"the",
"instructor",
"and",
"the",
"local",
"audience.",
"Next,",
"Chen",
"[5]",
"[6]",
"[7]",
"designed",
"a",
"sophisticated",
"virtual",
"auditorium.",
"Remote",
"participants",
"were",
"again",
"represented",
"on",
"a",
"large",
"screen",
"with",
"video,",
"and",
"interaction",
"was",
"via",
"two-way",
"audio",
"and",
"video,",
"along",
"with",
"some",
"gaze-tracking",
"support",
"for",
"\"eye",
"contact\"",
"between",
"the",
"presenter",
"and",
"remote",
"audience..",
"One",
"problem",
"with",
"these",
"approaches",
"is",
"that",
"they",
"only",
"scale",
"to",
"support",
"as",
"many",
"remote",
"participants",
"as",
"can",
"be",
"reasonably",
"displayed",
"on",
"a",
"screen",
"of",
"fixed",
"size,",
"and",
"even",
"this",
"may",
"tax",
"instructors'",
"perceptual",
"capabilities.",
"Full",
"fidelity",
"awareness",
"also",
"raises",
"issues",
"of",
"privacy",
"[4]",
":",
"the",
"remote",
"person",
"is",
"not",
"in",
"the",
"classroom,",
"and",
"connecting",
"the",
"classroom",
"to",
"that",
"person's",
"physical",
"space",
"can",
"introduce",
"many",
"problems..",
"An",
"alternative",
"strategy",
"is",
"to",
"display",
"awareness",
"information",
"by",
"proxy.",
"In",
"other",
"words,",
"the",
"display",
"might",
"consist",
"of",
"information",
"that",
"is",
"visualized",
"only",
"in",
"the",
"aggregate",
"(e.g.,",
"[7]",
"),",
"or",
"detailed",
"information",
"about",
"a",
"subset",
"of",
"the",
"students,",
"with",
"the",
"intent",
"that",
"this",
"subset",
"represents",
"the",
"whole..",
"Permission",
"to",
"make",
"digital",
"or",
"hard",
"copies",
"of",
"all",
"or",
"part",
"of",
"this",
"work",
"for",
"personal",
"or",
"classroom",
"use",
"is",
"granted",
"without",
"fee",
"provided",
"that",
"copies",
"are",
"not",
"made",
"or",
"distributed",
"for",
"profit",
"or",
"commercial",
"advantage",
"and",
"that",
"copies",
"bear",
"this",
"notice",
"and",
"the",
"full",
"citation",
"on",
"the",
"first",
"page.",
"To",
"copy",
"otherwise,",
"or",
"republish,",
"to",
"post",
"on",
"servers",
"or",
"to",
"redistribute",
"to",
"lists,",
"requires",
"prior",
"specific",
"permission",
"and/or",
"a",
"fee.",
"In",
"some",
"ways,",
"this",
"is",
"likely",
"what",
"instructors",
"already",
"do.",
"In",
"large",
"lecture",
"halls,",
"for",
"example,",
"it",
"is",
"clearly",
"not",
"possible",
"to",
"be",
"aware",
"of",
"or",
"interact",
"with",
"every",
"student.",
"Nonetheless,",
"these",
"lectures",
"are",
"seen",
"as",
"effective",
"and",
"are",
"extremely",
"common",
"[3]",
".",
"How,",
"then,",
"are",
"instructors",
"able",
"to",
"get",
"what",
"is",
"presumably",
"\"enough\"",
"awareness",
"information",
"about",
"their",
"students",
"in",
"these",
"environments",
"to",
"encourage",
"interaction?",
"This",
"question",
"is",
"the",
"motivation",
"behind",
"this",
"study,",
"and",
"it",
"is",
"critical",
"to",
"understanding",
"how",
"to",
"provide",
"instructors",
"with",
"visual",
"information",
"about",
"their",
"remote",
"students",
"in",
"ways",
"that",
"promote",
"both",
"awareness",
"and",
"interaction."
],
[
"Interviews",
"with",
"instructors",
"and",
"observations",
"of",
"classrooms",
"were",
"conducted",
"between",
"September,",
"2005",
"and",
"August,",
"2006",
"at",
"a",
"large",
"North",
"American",
"university."
],
[
"We",
"conducted",
"20",
"semi-structured",
"interviews",
"lasting",
"20-70",
"minutes",
"using",
"an",
"iteratively",
"developed",
"protocol.",
"Instructors",
"were",
"recruited",
"via",
"convenience",
"sampling,",
"but",
"were",
"deliberately",
"sought",
"from",
"many",
"departments",
"and",
"at",
"many",
"career",
"stages.",
"They",
"represent",
"9",
"disciplines",
"and",
"have",
"taught",
"classes",
"ranging",
"in",
"size",
"from",
"2",
"to",
"1,400",
"students.",
"Interviews",
"focused",
"on",
"how",
"instructors",
"pay",
"attention",
"to",
"students,",
"and",
"how",
"and",
"when",
"they",
"interact.",
"To",
"help",
"participants",
"think",
"critically",
"and",
"specifically",
"about",
"their",
"behavior,",
"we",
"asked",
"them",
"to",
"focus",
"on",
"specific",
"courses",
"they",
"have",
"taught,",
"and",
"also",
"asked",
"how",
"their",
"behavior",
"varies",
"in",
"different",
"settings."
],
[
"Observations",
"were",
"conducted",
"in",
"4",
"courses,",
"3",
"of",
"which",
"were",
"taught",
"by",
"interview",
"participants.",
"A",
"similar",
"sampling",
"strategy",
"was",
"used,",
"resulting",
"in",
"classes",
"of",
"varying",
"size",
"from",
"4",
"disciplines.",
"Instructors",
"ranged",
"from",
"advanced",
"graduate",
"students",
"to",
"senior",
"faculty.",
"Four",
"sessions",
"of",
"each",
"class",
"were",
"observed,",
"for",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"26",
"hours",
"of",
"observations.",
"The",
"observer",
"sat",
"in",
"the",
"classroom",
"with",
"the",
"students,",
"taking",
"field",
"notes",
"focusing",
"on",
"the",
"amount",
"of",
"interaction",
"taking",
"place,",
"and",
"what",
"the",
"instructors'",
"attention",
"seemed",
"focused",
"on.",
"Notes",
"were",
"recorded",
"on",
"paper",
"and",
"later",
"typed",
"and",
"expanded",
"upon.",
"There",
"was",
"no",
"evidence",
"to",
"suggest",
"that",
"behavior",
"was",
"modified",
"due",
"to",
"the",
"presence",
"of",
"an",
"observer."
],
[
"Both",
"interview",
"transcripts",
"and",
"field",
"notes",
"were",
"analyzed",
"using",
"qualitative",
"methods",
"described",
"in",
"[13]",
".",
"Interview",
"analysis",
"consisted",
"of",
"reading",
"and",
"rereading",
"of",
"transcripts",
"by",
"two",
"of",
"the",
"authors.",
"We",
"first",
"coded",
"responses",
"into",
"categories",
"corresponding",
"to",
"the",
"primary",
"foci",
"of",
"the",
"study:",
"audience",
"awareness",
"and",
"interaction.",
"While",
"the",
"interviews",
"covered",
"a",
"range",
"of",
"topics,",
"we",
"focused",
"our",
"analyses",
"here",
"on",
"issues",
"of",
"instructor-student",
"interaction",
"and",
"attention."
],
[
"Our",
"main",
"finding",
"is",
"that",
"instructors",
"frequently",
"and",
"seamlessly",
"switch",
"between",
"focusing",
"on",
"individual",
"students",
"or",
"groups",
"of",
"students,",
"and",
"high-level",
"information",
"about",
"the",
"entire",
"class.",
"Moreover,",
"they",
"seem",
"able",
"to",
"do",
"so",
"while",
"maintaining",
"the",
"appearance",
"of",
"attending",
"to",
"the",
"entire",
"class.",
"We",
"center",
"our",
"discussion",
"around",
"three",
"key",
"points..",
"Instructors",
"aim",
"to",
"give",
"the",
"impression",
"that",
"they",
"are",
"attending",
"to",
"the",
"entire",
"class.",
"Participants",
"indicated",
"that",
"they",
"attempt",
"to",
"consciously",
"look",
"around",
"the",
"room",
"to",
"give",
"the",
"impression",
"that",
"they",
"are",
"attending",
"to",
"all",
"students.",
"Participant",
"O,",
"for",
"example,",
"said",
"that",
"he",
"is",
"\"machinegunning",
"the",
"audience",
"with",
"[his]",
"eyes,\"",
"attempting",
"to",
"be",
"aware",
"of",
"everything",
"taking",
"place",
"in",
"the",
"classroom.\"",
"Similarly,",
"Participant",
"A",
"said",
"that",
"he",
"\"mov[es]",
"from",
"head",
"to",
"head…the",
"whole",
"time\"",
"trying",
"to",
"make",
"eye",
"contact",
"with",
"every",
"student.",
"He",
"also",
"noted",
"that",
"he",
"specifically",
"looks",
"for:.",
"signs",
"in",
"their",
"body",
"language",
"in",
"which",
"they're",
"not",
"understanding",
"the",
"material",
"well",
"or",
"they're",
"not",
"satisfied",
"with",
"the",
"way",
"you",
"are",
"delivering",
"the",
"material",
"[A]..",
"Our",
"observations",
"confirmed",
"what",
"instructors",
"said.",
"It",
"was",
"clear",
"that",
"instructors",
"were",
"paying",
"attention",
"to",
"students",
"all",
"over",
"the",
"room.",
"Even",
"in",
"a",
"large",
"lecture",
"hall,",
"the",
"instructor",
"made",
"comments",
"to",
"and",
"interacted",
"with",
"students",
"in",
"the",
"balcony,",
"the",
"back",
"of",
"the",
"room,",
"and",
"the",
"front..",
"Instructors",
"actually",
"focus",
"on",
"a",
"subset",
"of",
"students.",
"Despite",
"their",
"intent",
"to",
"appear",
"as",
"if",
"they",
"are",
"attending",
"to",
"the",
"entire",
"class,",
"the",
"instructors",
"indicated",
"that",
"they",
"actually",
"pay",
"closer",
"attention",
"to",
"a",
"subset",
"of",
"the",
"students.",
"Participant",
"T,",
"for",
"example,",
"\"tend[s]",
"to",
"make",
"eye",
"contact",
"with",
"and",
"engage",
"a",
"handful,",
"a",
"dozen",
"of",
"the",
"students.\"",
"This",
"is",
"not",
"to",
"suggest",
"that",
"instructors",
"aren't",
"looking",
"around.",
"For",
"example,",
"Participant",
"C",
"tries",
"hard",
"to",
"look",
"at",
"all",
"of",
"the",
"students:",
"However,",
"it",
"is",
"the",
"most",
"engaged",
"students",
"that",
"tend",
"to",
"reciprocate",
"with",
"eye",
"contact",
"or",
"affirmative",
"nodding",
"to",
"show",
"understanding",
"and",
"acknowledgement.",
"Participant",
"G",
"said",
"that",
"he",
"notices",
"when",
"students",
"are",
"looking",
"directly",
"at",
"him,",
"and",
"makes",
"eye",
"contact",
"with",
"those",
"students:.",
"I'm,",
"probably",
"looking",
"at,",
"at",
"a",
"set",
"of,",
"you",
"know,",
"3",
"or",
"4",
"individuals",
"who",
"are",
"actually",
"looking",
"at",
"me,",
"and",
"making",
"eye",
"contact,",
"and",
"so",
"if",
"you",
"have",
"one",
"of",
"these",
"people,",
"in",
"different",
"parts",
"of",
"the",
"room,",
"you",
"get",
"good",
"coverage",
"of",
"the",
"room,",
"but",
"you",
"also",
"get",
"kind",
"of",
"these",
"key",
"people",
"who",
"are",
"actually",
"listening",
"and",
"you",
"can",
"gauge",
"reactions",
"to",
"individual",
"things",
"that",
"you've",
"said",
"and",
"stuff",
"like",
"that",
"[G]",
"..",
"Participant",
"D",
"said",
"that",
"there",
"are",
"certain",
"students",
"she",
"looks",
"at",
"for",
"confirmation,",
"such",
"as",
"when",
"she",
"is",
"explaining",
"a",
"difficult",
"concept",
"or",
"wondering",
"if",
"the",
"students",
"are",
"following",
"along:.",
"If",
"somebody",
"normally",
"engaged",
"is",
"looking",
"really",
"confused,",
"it's",
"often",
"an",
"opportunity",
"to",
"say,",
"'is",
"something",
"not",
"clear?'",
"because",
"normally",
"you're",
"getting",
"one",
"kind",
"of",
"feedback",
"and",
"now",
"you're",
"getting",
"a",
"different",
"kind",
"of",
"feedback",
"which",
"may",
"stand",
"in",
"for",
"feedback",
"from",
"the",
"whole",
"class",
"[D]",
"..",
"Several",
"other",
"participants",
"also",
"spoke",
"about",
"focusing",
"on",
"students",
"to",
"be",
"sure",
"the",
"lecture",
"was",
"understood",
"by",
"everyone,",
"such",
"as",
"those",
"they",
"know",
"might",
"be",
"having",
"difficulty",
"with",
"the",
"material.",
"Participant",
"K",
"targets",
"the",
"extremes:",
"those",
"who",
"seem",
"to",
"be",
"paying",
"close",
"attention,",
"and",
"those",
"who",
"are",
"not:.",
"[I",
"begin",
"by",
"looking]",
"around",
"the",
"room.",
"I",
"look",
"at",
"the",
"back,",
"I",
"tend",
"to",
"gravitate",
"more",
"to",
"those",
"who",
"are",
"nodding",
"positively,",
"or",
"those",
"who",
"are",
"totally",
"out",
"of",
"it",
"and",
"or",
"whispering",
"to",
"their",
"friend",
"or",
"falling",
"asleep",
"and",
"I'll",
"pay",
"particular",
"attention",
"to",
"that",
"latter",
"group",
"and",
"maybe",
"ambush",
"them",
"by",
"asking",
"a",
"question",
"[K]",
"..",
"All",
"participants",
"indicated",
"that",
"they",
"quickly",
"notice",
"when",
"those",
"students",
"they",
"rely",
"on",
"for",
"visual",
"feedback",
"are",
"not",
"in",
"class,",
"because",
"they",
"could",
"mentally",
"picture",
"the",
"seating",
"plan",
"or",
"recognize",
"faces",
"of",
"students,",
"even",
"if",
"not",
"names..",
"Instructors",
"spatially",
"divide",
"the",
"room",
"into",
"manageable",
"'chunks'",
"of",
"students.",
"Participants",
"indicated",
"that",
"they",
"divide",
"the",
"room",
"up",
"spatially",
"-particularly",
"if",
"the",
"room",
"is",
"largeand",
"consciously",
"attend",
"to",
"different",
"regions.",
"Some",
"do",
"this",
"to",
"ensure",
"at",
"least",
"an",
"effort",
"to",
"cover",
"the",
"entire",
"class:.",
"I",
"try",
"to",
"look",
"at",
"sections,",
"so",
"I'll",
"look-try",
"to",
"look",
"at",
"the",
"different",
"balcony",
"sides,",
"side,",
"side,",
"sides,",
"and",
"back,",
"front,",
"sides,",
"but",
"I,",
"I",
"think",
"probably",
"the",
"reality",
"is",
"that",
"it's",
"mostly",
"the",
"front",
"[J]..",
"Others",
"do",
"so",
"because",
"they",
"believe",
"students",
"in",
"certain",
"areas",
"may",
"be",
"more",
"or",
"less",
"likely",
"to",
"be",
"engaged",
"by",
"the",
"material:",
"What",
"is",
"interesting",
"in",
"these",
"descriptions",
"is",
"the",
"implicit",
"transition",
"between",
"scanning",
"the",
"entire",
"room",
"by",
"region,",
"and",
"focusing",
"on",
"particular",
"students.",
"Also",
"interesting",
"is",
"the",
"conscious",
"focus",
"on",
"the",
"extremes",
"-those",
"who",
"are",
"nodding",
"along,",
"and",
"those",
"who",
"are",
"not",
"paying",
"attention",
"at",
"all."
],
[
"Our",
"participants",
"want",
"to",
"be",
"aware",
"of",
"and",
"respond",
"to",
"their",
"students.",
"In",
"large",
"classes,",
"they",
"focus",
"on",
"subsets",
"of",
"students,",
"often",
"looking",
"for",
"reactions",
"from",
"specific",
"students.",
"In",
"other",
"words,",
"these",
"subsets",
"are",
"serving",
"as",
"proxies",
"for",
"the",
"whole",
"class.",
"This",
"returns",
"us",
"to",
"our",
"initial",
"question:",
"can",
"awareness",
"be",
"conveyed",
"by",
"proxy",
"in",
"e-learning",
"environments?."
],
[
"One",
"key",
"difference",
"between",
"face-to-face",
"and",
"distributed",
"classroom",
"environments",
"is",
"highlighted",
"by",
"our",
"first",
"two",
"findings:",
"instructors",
"maintain",
"the",
"image",
"that",
"they",
"are",
"attending",
"to",
"the",
"entire",
"class,",
"but",
"may",
"actually",
"be",
"attending",
"to",
"only",
"a",
"subset.",
"In",
"other",
"words,",
"the",
"details",
"of",
"an",
"instructor's",
"actual",
"attention",
"are",
"masked",
"in",
"face-to-face",
"classes.",
"Gaze",
"direction",
"provides",
"some",
"cues,",
"but",
"it",
"is",
"difficult",
"for",
"students",
"to",
"discern",
"the",
"instructor's",
"exact",
"focus.",
"In",
"this",
"way,",
"subsets",
"or",
"\"proxies\"",
"in",
"face-to-face",
"environments",
"can",
"be",
"selected",
"dynamically",
"and",
"-from",
"the",
"students'",
"perspective",
"-invisibly,",
"as",
"was",
"evident",
"in",
"our",
"data..",
"In",
"a",
"mixed",
"environment,",
"on",
"the",
"other",
"hand,",
"where",
"remote",
"student",
"images",
"are",
"displayed",
"in",
"a",
"face-to-face",
"lecture",
"room",
"(e.g.,",
"[9]",
"),",
"this",
"display",
"is",
"public.",
"Thus,",
"if",
"only",
"a",
"subset",
"of",
"students",
"are",
"being",
"displayed,",
"others",
"will",
"know",
"who",
"is",
"being",
"focused",
"on",
"by",
"the",
"instructor.",
"In",
"other",
"words,",
"the",
"instructor's",
"attention",
"is",
"no",
"longer",
"private.",
"Moreover,",
"being",
"on",
"public",
"display",
"may",
"also",
"mean",
"additional",
"attention",
"for",
"those",
"students",
"from",
"their",
"peers",
"as",
"well.",
"This",
"threatens",
"both",
"student",
"privacy",
"and",
"the",
"plausibility",
"of",
"the",
"instructor's",
"impression",
"of",
"attending",
"to",
"the",
"entire",
"class..",
"Making",
"selected",
"student",
"subsets",
"public",
"also",
"raises",
"issues",
"of",
"how",
"to",
"choose",
"these",
"students",
"and",
"whether",
"or",
"not",
"public",
"display",
"of",
"their",
"images",
"is",
"acceptable.",
"Given",
"that",
"some",
"of",
"our",
"participants",
"indicated",
"that",
"they",
"try",
"to",
"focus",
"on",
"students",
"not",
"paying",
"attention,",
"this",
"could",
"be",
"controversial.",
"In",
"the",
"TELEP",
"experience",
"[9]",
",",
"for",
"example,",
"many",
"remote",
"participants",
"elected",
"not",
"to",
"display",
"video",
"images",
"because",
"they",
"did",
"not",
"want",
"to",
"be",
"seen",
"multi-tasking",
"in",
"their",
"offices.",
"Public",
"display",
"of",
"student",
"subgroups",
"is",
"also",
"problematic",
"in",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"perceived",
"disproportionate",
"focus",
"on",
"socially",
"charged",
"categories,",
"such",
"as",
"foreign",
"or",
"minority",
"students..",
"In",
"this",
"regard,",
"attention",
"in",
"e-learning",
"environments",
"is",
"importantly",
"different",
"from,",
"for",
"example,",
"small",
"group",
"video",
"conferences",
"where",
"focus",
"on",
"a",
"person",
"may",
"be",
"an",
"indicator",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"appropriate",
"to",
"draw",
"additional",
"attention",
"to",
"that",
"individual",
"(e.g.,",
"by",
"enlarging",
"their",
"video",
"image),",
"as",
"in",
"[10]",
"..",
"Another",
"social",
"issue",
"to",
"consider",
"is",
"the",
"extent",
"to",
"which",
"an",
"\"awareness",
"by",
"proxy\"",
"strategy",
"will",
"work",
"in",
"a",
"distributed",
"environment,",
"where",
"context",
"is",
"not",
"shared.",
"Our",
"participants",
"described",
"using",
"a",
"combination",
"of",
"looking",
"around",
"the",
"entire",
"room,",
"and",
"then",
"picking",
"on",
"particular",
"students.",
"In",
"this",
"way,",
"the",
"sampling/proxy",
"strategy",
"works",
"because",
"the",
"sample",
"is",
"picked",
"out",
"with",
"at",
"least",
"some",
"conscious",
"awareness",
"of",
"the",
"whole",
"population.",
"When",
"this",
"shared",
"context",
"is",
"taken",
"away,",
"such",
"a",
"strategy",
"may",
"be",
"less",
"effective..",
"All",
"of",
"this",
"suggests",
"that",
"a",
"\"brute-force\"",
"approach",
"using",
"video",
"to",
"mimic",
"the",
"face-to-face",
"environment",
"will",
"likely",
"miss",
"some",
"critical",
"and",
"subtle",
"facets",
"of",
"classroom",
"awareness.",
"We",
"suggest",
"an",
"alternative",
"approach",
"that",
"exploits",
"the",
"affordances",
"of",
"the",
"e-learning",
"environment",
"and",
"provides",
"for",
"multiple",
"displays",
"and",
"levels",
"of",
"privacy."
],
[
"Awareness",
"displays",
"should",
"allow",
"for",
"overview",
"and",
"detail.",
"The",
"instructors",
"we",
"studied",
"pay",
"attention",
"to",
"their",
"students",
"with",
"two",
"goals",
"in",
"mind:",
"1)",
"getting",
"an",
"overall",
"sense",
"of",
"the",
"students'",
"engagement",
"and",
"understanding,",
"and",
"2)",
"looking",
"more",
"closely",
"at",
"a",
"smaller",
"number",
"of",
"students",
"to",
"gauge",
"their",
"individual",
"reactions",
"to",
"the",
"material.",
"Moreover,",
"instructors",
"described",
"switching",
"regularly",
"and",
"rapidly",
"between",
"these",
"modes.",
"This",
"suggests",
"that",
"awareness",
"systems",
"in",
"e-learning",
"should",
"allow",
"for",
"this",
"switching",
"as",
"well.",
"In",
"particular,",
"it",
"should",
"be",
"possible",
"to",
"gauge",
"the",
"overall",
"engagement",
"and",
"comprehension",
"state",
"of",
"remote",
"students,",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"\"zoom",
"in\"",
"on",
"particular",
"students",
"for",
"more",
"details..",
"While",
"our",
"data",
"do",
"not",
"point",
"to",
"a",
"specific",
"implementation",
"strategy,",
"one",
"way",
"to",
"accomplish",
"this",
"goal",
"would",
"be",
"a",
"\"focus",
"+",
"context\"",
"display",
"[8]",
"that",
"presents",
"visualizations",
"of",
"aggregate",
"data",
"about",
"the",
"class,",
"while",
"also",
"allowing",
"instructors",
"to",
"get",
"more",
"information",
"about",
"specific",
"students.",
"This",
"information",
"could",
"consist",
"of",
"video",
"images,",
"or",
"other",
"cues",
"that",
"could",
"reliably",
"indicate",
"engagement",
"for",
"particular",
"students",
"(e.g.,",
"data",
"from",
"sensors).",
"This",
"information",
"could",
"be",
"provided",
"either",
"upon",
"deliberate",
"selection",
"of",
"students",
"by",
"the",
"instructor,",
"or",
"by",
"using",
"an",
"automated",
"selection",
"algorithm",
"based",
"on",
"a",
"combination",
"of",
"cues",
"(e.g.,",
"sensor",
"data,",
"a",
"priori",
"interest",
"in",
"a",
"student,",
"random",
"selection).",
"Specific",
"implementations",
"and",
"cues",
"are",
"topics",
"for",
"future",
"work..",
"Instructor",
"attention",
"must",
"remain",
"private.",
"A",
"second",
"key",
"element",
"in",
"our",
"findings",
"is",
"that",
"actual",
"instructor",
"attention",
"in",
"face-to-face",
"classrooms",
"is",
"private.",
"Yet",
"this",
"is",
"not",
"always",
"true",
"in",
"e-learning",
"environments.",
"This",
"presents",
"a",
"unique",
"challenge",
"for",
"designers.",
"The",
"goal",
"in",
"creating",
"public",
"awareness",
"displays",
"for",
"classrooms,",
"after",
"all,",
"was",
"not",
"to",
"invade",
"remote",
"participants'",
"privacy,",
"but",
"to",
"create",
"a",
"peripheral",
"display",
"[12]",
"that",
"could",
"be",
"seen",
"while",
"delivering",
"a",
"lecture",
"and",
"attending",
"to",
"local",
"students.",
"Overcoming",
"the",
"unintended",
"privacy",
"consequences",
"of",
"this",
"design",
"decision",
"is",
"then",
"a",
"matter",
"of",
"creating",
"a",
"\"private",
"peripheral",
"display,\"",
"and",
"determining",
"what",
"information",
"belongs",
"on",
"it..",
"It",
"may",
"in",
"fact",
"be",
"desirable",
"to",
"allow",
"the",
"face-to-face",
"students",
"to",
"see",
"some",
"information",
"about",
"their",
"remote",
"peers",
"on",
"a",
"public",
"display.",
"Problems",
"arise",
"when",
"it",
"is",
"possible",
"for",
"the",
"local",
"students",
"to",
"discern",
"the",
"instructor's",
"focus",
"of",
"attention",
"from",
"this",
"display,",
"or",
"see",
"detailed",
"information",
"that",
"remote",
"students",
"want",
"only",
"the",
"instructor",
"to",
"see..",
"One",
"possible",
"solution",
"could",
"be",
"a",
"system",
"that",
"makes",
"aggregate",
"data",
"available",
"on",
"a",
"public",
"display,",
"but",
"uses",
"private",
"displays",
"for",
"zooming",
"in",
"for",
"more",
"details",
"about",
"specific",
"students.",
"For",
"example,",
"a",
"public",
"display",
"such",
"as",
"that",
"used",
"by",
"Chen",
"[7]",
"or",
"Jancke,",
"et",
"al.",
"[9]",
"could",
"display",
"images",
"or",
"data",
"describing",
"the",
"entire",
"remote",
"class.",
"To",
"get",
"more",
"information,",
"the",
"instructor",
"could",
"use",
"a",
"gaze-based",
"interface",
"that",
"displays",
"details",
"on",
"his",
"or",
"her",
"private",
"screen",
"mounted",
"on",
"the",
"podium",
"or",
"\"augmented",
"reality\"",
"glasses..",
"A",
"second",
"facet",
"of",
"this",
"implication",
"is",
"that",
"while",
"students",
"should",
"be",
"given",
"the",
"impression",
"that",
"instructors",
"are",
"attending",
"to",
"the",
"whole",
"class,",
"this",
"should",
"be",
"rooted",
"in",
"some",
"sort",
"of",
"real",
"attention.",
"Providing",
"false",
"information",
"would",
"raise",
"ethical",
"concerns",
"and",
"likely",
"have",
"an",
"impact",
"on",
"social",
"relations."
],
[
"This",
"study",
"has",
"two",
"weaknesses,",
"and",
"thus",
"should",
"be",
"interpreted",
"with",
"caution.",
"First,",
"it",
"is",
"modest",
"in",
"size,",
"is",
"conducted",
"at",
"a",
"single",
"university,",
"and",
"relies",
"heavily",
"on",
"selfreported",
"interview",
"data.",
"While",
"these",
"interviews",
"were",
"partially",
"validated",
"by",
"observations,",
"it",
"is",
"not",
"possible",
"to",
"fully",
"verify",
"the",
"claims",
"about",
"attention",
"at",
"particular",
"times.",
"Second,",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"risk",
"in",
"using",
"face-to-face",
"data",
"to",
"design",
"systems",
"for",
"distributed",
"groups;",
"the",
"two",
"are",
"not",
"the",
"same.",
"One",
"key",
"difference",
"is",
"that",
"remote",
"students",
"may",
"not",
"wish",
"to",
"be",
"attended",
"to",
"in",
"the",
"same",
"way",
"that",
"face-to-face",
"students",
"are;",
"as",
"others",
"have",
"found,",
"they",
"may",
"be",
"muli-tasking",
"and",
"paying",
"only",
"scant",
"attention",
"to",
"the",
"lecture",
"[7]",
".",
"Additional",
"research",
"is",
"needed",
"to",
"fully",
"appreciate",
"the",
"student",
"perspective..",
"Still,",
"our",
"study",
"moves",
"research",
"in",
"audience",
"awareness",
"away",
"from",
"intuition",
"and",
"toward",
"empirical",
"practice.",
"We",
"identify",
"issues",
"with",
"a",
"proxy",
"approach",
"to",
"awareness",
"that",
"can",
"be",
"applied",
"to",
"the",
"design",
"and",
"refinement",
"of",
"webcast",
"systems",
"that",
"will",
"yield",
"additional",
"insights."
]
] | [
"e-learning",
"lectures",
"awareness",
"webcasting",
"attention"
] | [] | {
"title": [
"Attention",
"by",
"proxy?",
"issues",
"in",
"audience",
"awareness",
"for",
"webcasts",
"to",
"distributed",
"groups"
],
"abstract": [
"Instructor/student",
"interaction",
"in",
"e-learning",
"environments",
"can",
"positively",
"impact",
"both",
"student",
"learning",
"and",
"instructor",
"satisfaction.",
"In",
"online",
"webcast",
"lectures,",
"however,",
"interaction",
"can",
"be",
"difficult",
"because",
"instructors",
"lack",
"basic",
"awareness",
"information",
"about",
"their",
"remote",
"students.",
"Our",
"goal",
"is",
"to",
"better",
"understand",
"the",
"kinds",
"of",
"awareness",
"information",
"that",
"instructors",
"should",
"have",
"if",
"they",
"are",
"to",
"interact",
"frequently",
"and",
"effectively",
"with",
"their",
"students",
"in",
"elearning",
"environments.",
"We",
"conducted",
"an",
"exploratory",
"study",
"-via",
"interviews",
"and",
"observations",
"-of",
"instructor",
"attention",
"in",
"face-to-face",
"classrooms",
"at",
"a",
"large",
"university.",
"Our",
"results",
"imply",
"that",
"a",
"webcast",
"system",
"should",
"provide",
"instructors",
"with",
"overview",
"and",
"detailed",
"data",
"about",
"their",
"students,",
"but",
"that",
"this",
"detailed",
"information",
"should",
"not",
"be",
"displayed",
"publicly."
]
} |
295349 | [
"introduction",
"chained multistage amplifier",
"•",
"circuit implementation",
"figure 2. cma topology",
"simulation results",
"conclusion"
] | [
[
"High-speed",
"multistage",
"amplifiers",
"(MA)",
"are",
"widely",
"used",
"in",
"optical",
"communications",
"systems",
"as",
"the",
"main",
"amplifier",
"in",
"a",
"receiver.",
"Multi-stage",
"amplifiers",
"must",
"have",
"high",
"gain",
"and",
"wide",
"bandwidth",
"with",
"frequency",
"response",
"from",
"DC",
"range",
"to",
"several",
"GHz",
"to",
"provide",
"the",
"following",
"Clock",
"and",
"Data",
"Recovery",
"(CDR)",
"circuit",
"with",
"uniform",
"output",
"level",
"regardless",
"of",
"input",
"swing",
"level.",
"Also,",
"low",
"phase",
"shift",
"deviation",
"and",
"crossing",
"point",
"fluctuation",
"must",
"be",
"insured",
"over",
"a",
"wide",
"input",
"dynamic",
"range",
"to",
"avoid",
"degrading",
"the",
"sensitivity",
"and",
"phase",
"margin",
"of",
"CDR",
"[1]",
".",
"Expanding",
"the",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"one",
"stage,",
"which",
"is",
"usually",
"placed",
"at",
"the",
"output",
"node",
"of",
"each",
"stage,",
"ω",
"p",
",",
"is",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"methods",
"used",
"to",
"broaden",
"the",
"overall",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"an",
"MA",
"[2]",
"-",
"[5]",
".",
"Some",
"wellknown",
"bandwidth",
"enhancement",
"methods",
"are:",
"using",
"peaking",
"capacitors,",
"capacitance",
"neutralization",
"and",
"shunt-peaking.",
"Peaking",
"techniques",
"enhance",
"ω",
"p",
"by",
"introducing",
"a",
"peak",
"in",
"a",
"transfer",
"function",
"at",
"high",
"frequencies.",
"However,",
"increasing",
"ω",
"p",
"is",
"not",
"enough",
"for",
"bandwidth",
"enhancement",
"since",
"the",
"combination",
"of",
"the",
"poles",
"of",
"all",
"stages",
"degrades",
"the",
"overall",
"bandwidth,",
"ω",
"bw",
".",
"For",
"a",
"conventional",
"MA",
"ω",
"bw",
"is",
"always",
"less",
"than",
"ω",
"p",
"when",
"n>1..",
"To",
"further",
"increase",
"the",
"overall",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"a",
"conventional",
"MA",
"of",
"Fig.",
"1",
",",
"stages",
"can",
"be",
"designed",
"to",
"have",
"different",
"gains",
"and",
"poles",
"to",
"introduce",
"peaks",
"at",
"different",
"frequencies.",
"This",
"approach",
"was",
"used",
"to",
"design",
"a",
"transimpedance",
"amplifier",
"[6]",
",",
"where",
"an",
"early",
"rolloff",
"due",
"to",
"a",
"low",
"frequency",
"pole",
"in",
"one",
"stage",
"was",
"compensated",
"with",
"peaking",
"in",
"the",
"next",
"stage.",
"There",
"are",
"two",
"drawbacks",
"in",
"using",
"this",
"multi-pole",
"enhancement.",
"First,",
"the",
"design",
"of",
"stages",
"is",
"not",
"uniform",
"and",
"each",
"stage",
"should",
"be",
"designed",
"separately.",
"Second,",
"process",
"variation",
"may",
"result",
"in",
"an",
"undesirable",
"peaking.",
"Sensitivity",
"of",
"stages",
"with",
"high",
"quality",
"factor",
"limits",
"the",
"usage",
"of",
"these",
"circuits",
"in",
"typical",
"applications",
"(sensitivity",
"is",
"related",
"to",
"2Q).",
"This",
"paper",
"introduces",
"the",
"chained",
"multistage",
"amplifier",
"(CMA),",
"which",
"utilizes",
"a",
"new",
"technique",
"to",
"expand",
"the",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"an",
"MA",
"by",
"applying",
"a",
"chain",
"of",
"active",
"feedbacks.",
"The",
"proposed",
"circuit",
"topology",
"exploits",
"the",
"intrinsic",
"capacitance",
"within",
"the",
"transistors",
"to",
"push",
"output",
"pole",
"of",
"each",
"stage",
"to",
"a",
"higher",
"frequency.",
"CMA",
"offers",
"several",
"advantages",
"such",
"as",
"improved",
"performance",
"and",
"gainPermission",
"to",
"make",
"digital",
"or",
"hard",
"copies",
"of",
"all",
"or",
"part",
"of",
"this",
"work",
"for",
"personal",
"or",
"classroom",
"use",
"is",
"granted",
"without",
"fee",
"provided",
"that",
"copies",
"are",
"not",
"made",
"or",
"distributed",
"for",
"profit",
"or",
"commercial",
"advantage",
"and",
"that",
"copies",
"bear",
"this",
"notice",
"and",
"the",
"full",
"citation",
"on",
"the",
"first",
"page.",
"To",
"copy",
"otherwise,",
"or",
"republish,",
"to",
"post",
"on",
"servers",
"or",
"to",
"redistribute",
"to",
"lists,",
"requires",
"prior",
"specific",
"permission",
"and/or",
"a",
"fee.",
"bandwidth",
"product",
"that",
"make",
"it",
"suitable",
"for",
"optical",
"communications",
"applications.",
"To",
"validate",
"the",
"proposed",
"topology,",
"several",
"MAs",
"in",
"0.35µm",
"CMOS",
"process",
"were",
"designed",
"and",
"simulated.",
"In",
"section",
"II,",
"the",
"CMA",
"topology",
"and",
"its",
"features",
"are",
"discussed.",
"The",
"circuit",
"implementation",
"is",
"described",
"in",
"Section",
"III.",
"Simulation",
"results",
"are",
"presented",
"in",
"Section",
"IV.",
"Finally,",
"summary",
"of",
"the",
"results",
"is",
"given."
],
[
"Active",
"feedback",
"enhances",
"the",
"bandwidth",
"by",
"using",
"the",
"peaking",
"technique.",
"Figure",
"2",
"shows",
"the",
"block",
"diagram",
"of",
"the",
"proposed",
"structure,",
"n-stage",
"chained",
"multistage",
"amplifier",
"(CMA).",
"Assume",
"that",
"the",
"amplifier",
"blocks",
"g",
"i",
"(s)",
"can",
"be",
"represented",
"as",
"in",
"Eq.",
"(1)",
"and",
"the",
"feedback",
"blocks",
"have",
"the",
"transfer",
"function.",
"Let",
"us",
"consider",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"n=2.",
"The",
"two-stage",
"topology",
"has",
"a",
"second-order",
"transfer",
"function",
"with",
"the",
"natural",
"frequency,",
"quality",
"factor",
"and",
"3dB",
"bandwidth",
"given",
"as.",
"For",
"Q>0.707",
"(or",
"GF>1)",
"the",
"bandwidth",
"can",
"be",
"improved",
"up",
"to",
"2.7ω",
"p",
",",
"while",
"the",
"maximum",
"peak",
"on",
"the",
"overall",
"DC",
"gain",
"is",
"less",
"than",
"1.5dB",
"(@",
".",
"Since",
"ω",
"n",
"s",
"and",
"Qs",
"are",
"different,",
"each",
"2",
"nd",
"-order",
"transfer",
"function",
"has",
"a",
"peak",
"at",
"a",
"different",
"frequency.",
"The",
"overall",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"4-stage",
"CMA",
"can",
"be",
"improved",
"up",
"to",
"about",
"2.9ω",
"p",
"without",
"incurring",
"a",
"significant",
"peak",
"(<1.5dB)",
"in",
"its",
"transfer",
"function.",
"Similarly,",
"the",
"overall",
"bandwidth",
"can",
"be",
"increased",
"several",
"times",
"more",
"than",
"ω",
"p",
"for",
"n=6",
"and",
"8,",
"and",
"it",
"can",
"be",
"approximated",
"by",
"(",
").",
"Equations",
"2",
"and",
"8",
"show",
"that",
"the",
"CMA",
"has",
"a",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"(1+GF)",
"times",
"that",
"of",
"a",
"conventional",
"MA..",
"The",
"total",
"gain-bandwidth",
"product",
"(GBP)",
"of",
"the",
"CMA",
"is",
"less",
"than",
"that",
"of",
"the",
"conventional",
"MA.",
"Another",
"parameter",
"that",
"shows",
"performance",
"of",
"an",
"MA",
"is",
"the",
"gain-bandwidth",
"product",
"of",
"one",
"single",
"stage,",
"GBP",
"1",
",",
"which",
"is",
"given",
"as",
"[7]",
"(",
").",
"GBP",
"1",
"of",
"the",
"conventional",
"MA",
"is",
"decreased",
"as",
"n",
"increases",
"whereas",
"GBP",
"1",
"of",
"the",
"CMA",
"can",
"be",
"increased",
"as",
"n",
"increases.",
"This",
"is",
"confirmed",
"by",
"the",
"circuit",
"simulation",
"results",
"(see",
"Section",
"IV)..",
"The",
"advantages",
"of",
"the",
"proposed",
"CMA",
"topology",
"can",
"be",
"summarized",
"as",
"follows:"
],
[
"The",
"bandwidth",
"can",
"be",
"several",
"times",
"more",
"than",
"ω",
"p",
";",
"whereas",
"for",
"n-stage",
"conventional",
"MA",
"ω",
"bw",
"is",
"always",
"less",
"than",
"ω",
"p",
"(see",
"Eq.",
"(2))..",
"•",
"CMA",
"can",
"have",
"more",
"bandwidth",
"as",
"n",
"increases.",
"As",
"shown",
"above,",
"4-stage",
"CMA",
"can",
"be",
"broader",
"than",
"2-stage",
"CMA;",
"on",
"the",
"contrary,",
"4-stage",
"conventional",
"MA",
"has",
"less",
"bandwidth",
"than",
"2-stage",
"conventional",
"MA",
"(see",
"Eq.",
"(2))..",
"•",
"CMA",
"does",
"not",
"require",
"stages",
"with",
"high",
"quality",
"factor,",
"which",
"are",
"very",
"sensitive",
"to",
"process..",
"•",
"All",
"amplifier",
"stages",
"of",
"the",
"CMA",
"can",
"be",
"identical..",
"•",
"The",
"GBP",
"1",
"can",
"be",
"increased",
"as",
"n",
"increases."
],
[
"The",
"amplifier",
"stages",
"in",
"Fig.",
"2",
"were",
"implemented",
"using",
"an",
"inductorless",
"differential",
"cascode",
"structure",
"with",
"gain",
"boosting",
"as",
"shown",
"in",
"Fig.",
"3",
".",
"A",
"six-stage",
"CMA,",
"which",
"was",
"implemented",
"in",
"this",
"paper,",
"is",
"illustrated",
"in",
"Fig.",
"4",
"..",
"Using",
"cascode",
"structure",
"decreases",
"the",
"effective",
"input",
"capacitance",
"of",
"individual",
"stages",
"and",
"increases",
"the",
"forward",
"gain.",
"Gain",
"boosting",
"shifts",
"the",
"pole",
"of",
"the",
"M",
"g",
"'s",
"drain",
"node",
"(see",
"Fig.",
"3",
")",
"to",
"higher",
"frequencies.",
"Adding",
"a",
"new",
"pole",
"to",
"the",
"gate",
"of",
"M",
"L",
"is",
"a",
"drawback",
"of",
"using",
"gain",
"boosting.",
"To",
"ensure",
"high-frequency",
"operation,",
"the",
"gain",
"of",
"booster",
"should",
"be",
"small.",
"In",
"the",
"model",
"used,",
"the",
"poles",
"associated",
"with",
"the",
"source",
"node",
"and",
"the",
"gate",
"node",
"of",
"the",
"transistor",
"M",
"L",
"is",
"considered",
"far",
"from",
"the",
"dominant",
"pole,",
"which",
"is",
"placed",
"at",
"the",
"output",
"node",
"of",
"each",
"stage..",
"The",
"overall",
"output",
"capacitance",
"of",
"each",
"stage",
"is",
"reduced",
"by",
"using",
"the",
"Miller",
"effect",
"of",
"C",
"gd",
"of",
"transistor",
"M",
"f",
"in",
"Fig.",
"3",
".",
"Consider",
"the",
"simplified",
"circuitry",
"of",
"a",
"two-stage",
"CMA",
"as",
"illustrated",
"in",
"Fig.",
"5",
".",
"The",
"second",
"stage",
"is",
"a",
"simple",
"DC",
"amplifier",
"with",
"the",
"gain",
"block",
"G",
"and",
"the",
"input",
"capacitor",
"C",
"i",
",",
"whereas",
"the",
"first",
"stage",
"is",
"modeled",
"using",
"a",
"voltage-controlled",
"current",
"source",
"(g",
"mg",
"V",
"i",
"),",
"a",
"load",
"resistance",
"(R",
"L",
")",
"and",
"the",
"output",
"capacitor",
"(C",
"o",
").",
"The",
"voltage-controlled",
"current",
"source",
"g",
"mf",
"V",
"o",
"represents",
"the",
"feedback",
"from",
"the",
"second",
"stage.",
"The",
"node",
"X",
"has",
"the",
"overall",
"capacitance",
"of",
"C",
"eq",
"≅[C",
"o",
"+C",
"i",
"+C",
"gdf",
"]-GC",
"gdf",
".",
"C",
"eq",
"can",
"be",
"reduced",
"by",
"increasing",
"G",
"and",
"C",
"gdf",
".",
"However,",
"G",
"cannot",
"be",
"increased",
"to",
"an",
"arbitrarily",
"large",
"value",
"for",
"a",
"constant",
"R",
"L",
",",
"since",
"it",
"increases",
"C",
"i",
".",
"Furthermore,",
"increasing",
"C",
"gdf",
"decreases",
"the",
"overall",
"gain.",
"Therefore,",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"trade-off",
"between",
"the",
"overall",
"gain",
"and",
"bandwidth.",
"Using",
"extra",
"transistors",
"M",
"f",
"in",
"Fig.",
"3",
"does",
"not",
"increase",
"power",
"consumption",
"significantly,",
"since",
"the",
"drain",
"current",
"of",
"M",
"f",
"is",
"much",
"less",
"than",
"that",
"of",
"M",
"g",
"(I",
"g",
">>I",
"f",
")."
],
[
"g2(s)",
"Vi",
"-f2(s)",
"-f1(s)",
"0",
"Vo",
"-fj(s)",
"-fn(s)",
"gn(s)",
"-fn-1(s)",
"g1(s)",
"+",
"+",
"+",
"g3(s)",
"gj(s)",
"-fj-1(s)",
"+",
"gj+1(s)",
"+",
"+",
"V",
"f-",
"V",
"f+",
"V",
"g-",
"V",
"o-",
"V",
"o+",
"R",
"b",
"R",
"b",
"R",
"L",
"R",
"L",
"M",
"b",
"M",
"b",
"M",
"L",
"M",
"L",
"M",
"f",
"M",
"f",
"I",
"b",
"I",
"T",
"M",
"g",
"M",
"g",
"V",
"g+"
],
[
"Several",
"CMAs",
"and",
"conventional",
"MAs",
"were",
"designed",
"for",
"n=2,",
"4,",
"6",
"and",
"8",
"using",
"0.35µm",
"CMOS",
"technology.",
"The",
"amplifiers",
"were",
"optimized",
"with",
"different",
"W",
"f",
"(width",
"of",
"the",
"transistor",
"M",
"f",
")",
"and",
"R",
"L",
"to",
"have",
"the",
"minimum",
"ripple",
"(<1.5dB)",
"in",
"their",
"transfer",
"function,",
"where",
"the",
"forward",
"DC",
"gain",
"(G)",
"was",
"kept",
"constant",
"for",
"all",
"stages",
"(MAs'",
"stages",
"do",
"not",
"have",
"M",
"f",
").",
"The",
"circuits",
"were",
"combined",
"with",
"a",
"buffer",
"to",
"drive",
"the",
"50Ω",
"loads",
"in",
"series",
"with",
"1pF",
"capacitors",
"at",
"3.3V",
"single",
"power",
"supply.",
"Figure",
"6",
"illustrates",
"the",
"simulation",
"of",
"AC",
"responses",
"(@",
"GF",
"§",
"7KH",
"&0$",
"KDV",
"D",
"ZLGHU",
"EDQGZLGWK",
"DQG",
"WKH",
"simple",
"cascade",
"structure",
"without",
"feedback",
"gives",
"a",
"larger",
"gain.",
"8-stage",
"CMA",
"has",
"a",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"about",
"2.9",
"GHz",
"and",
"a",
"DC",
"gain",
"of",
"about",
"60dB,",
"while",
"8-stage",
"MA",
"has",
"a",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"about",
"0.43",
"GHz",
"and",
"a",
"DC",
"gain",
"of",
"91dB.",
"To",
"compare",
"the",
"CMAs",
"and",
"MAs",
"for",
"n=2,",
"4,",
"6",
"and",
"8,",
"their",
"GBP",
"1",
"s",
"and",
"the",
"overall",
"GBPs",
"(GBP",
"T",
")",
"were",
"calculated",
"from",
"simulations.",
"GBP",
"1",
"of",
"CMA",
"for",
"n=2,",
"4,",
"6",
"and",
"8",
"are",
"3.70GHz,",
"4.21GHz,",
"6.88GHz",
"and",
"7.38GHz,",
"respectively.",
"The",
"ratio",
"of",
"GBP",
"1",
"s",
"and",
"the",
"bandwidths",
"for",
"two",
"structures",
"of",
"CMA",
"and",
"MA",
"is",
"illustrated",
"in",
"Figure",
"7",
".",
"The",
"CMA's",
"GBP",
"1",
"is",
"higher",
"and",
"increasing",
"n",
"gives",
"a",
"higher",
"GBP",
"1",
"for",
"CMA.",
"This",
"is",
"exactly",
"the",
"opposite",
"of",
"what",
"is",
"seen",
"in",
"the",
"conventional",
"MA.",
"As",
"Fig.",
"7",
"shows,",
"the",
"bandwidth",
"of",
"CMA",
"is",
"more",
"than",
"6.8",
"times",
"of",
"that",
"of",
"the",
"MA.",
"As",
"it",
"was",
"explained,",
"the",
"topology",
"of",
"CMA",
"expands",
"the",
"overall",
"bandwidth",
"with",
"(1+GF),",
"e.g.,",
"for",
"GF=1,",
"it",
"doubles",
"the",
"bandwidth.",
"The",
"Miller",
"effect",
"of",
"C",
"gdf",
"shifts",
"the",
"dominant",
"pole",
"of",
"stages",
"(1",
"to",
"n-1)",
"to",
".",
"higher",
"frequencies",
"by",
"up",
"to",
"four",
"times.",
"Dominant",
"pole",
"of",
"the",
"last",
"stage",
"is",
"different",
"from",
"others.",
"Having",
"more",
"stages",
"introduces",
"more",
"peaks",
"and",
"compensates",
"for",
"rolling-off",
"of",
"transfer",
"function",
"affected",
"by",
"the",
"dominant",
"pole",
"of",
"the",
"last",
"stage.",
"Figure",
"7",
"also",
"illustrates",
"the",
"ratio",
"of",
"the",
"overall",
"gain-bandwidth",
"product",
"(GBP",
"T",
")",
"of",
"the",
"MA",
"and",
"the",
"CMA.",
"As",
"it",
"shows,",
"this",
"ratio",
"is",
"increasing",
"as",
"n",
"increases.",
"Compared",
"bandwidth",
"ratio,",
"it",
"is",
"lower.",
"Figure",
"8",
"illustrate",
"group",
"delays",
"of",
"CMAs",
"and",
"MAs.",
"Unfortunately,",
"the",
"group",
"delay",
"of",
"the",
"CMA",
"has",
"a",
"peak",
"around",
"the",
"corner",
"frequency,",
"and",
"its",
"variation",
"increases",
"as",
"n",
"increases",
"(the",
"same",
"behavior",
"can",
"also",
"be",
"observed",
"for",
"a",
"conventional",
"MA).",
"This",
"can",
"be",
"predicted",
"because",
"having",
"separated",
"poles",
"causes",
"more",
"variation",
"in",
"group",
"delay.",
"For",
"n=8",
"and",
"10",
"4",
"random",
"bits",
"with",
"the",
"rate",
"of",
"2.5Gb/s,",
"eye",
"diagrams",
"of",
"CMA",
"and",
"MA",
"for",
"an",
"input",
"signal",
"of",
"1V",
"peak-to-peak",
"are",
"shown",
"in",
"Figs.",
"9",
"(a)"
],
[
"A",
"new",
"technique",
"for",
"designing",
"a",
"wideband",
"multistage",
"amplifier",
"was",
"introduced.",
"The",
"proposed",
"method,",
"chained",
"multistage",
"amplifier",
"(CMA),",
"uses",
"active",
"feedback",
"to",
"improve",
"the",
"bandwidth.",
"Due",
"to",
"lower",
"quality",
"factor",
"required,",
"CMA",
"has",
"lower",
"sensitivity",
"to",
"process",
"variations.",
"Furthermore,",
"identical",
"gain",
"stages",
"can",
"be",
"used",
"to",
"build",
"the",
"CMA,",
"which",
"simplifies",
"the",
"design",
"process.",
"An",
"8-stage",
"CMA",
"was",
"designed",
"in",
"0.35µm",
"CMOS",
"process,",
"where",
"more",
"than",
"2.9GHz",
"bandwidth",
"and",
"an",
"overall",
"GBP",
"of",
"4.8THz",
"were",
"obtained",
"from",
"simulations."
]
] | [
"peaking technique",
"multistage amplifier",
"optical communications"
] | [
"wideband amplifier"
] | {
"title": [
"Multi-peak",
"bandwidth",
"enhancement",
"technique",
"for",
"multistage",
"amplifiers"
],
"abstract": [
"A",
"new",
"technique",
"for",
"designing",
"wideband",
"multistage",
"amplifiers",
"(MA)",
"is",
"introduced.",
"The",
"proposed",
"method",
"has",
"several",
"advantages",
"such",
"as",
"increased",
"bandwidth",
"with",
"increasing",
"number",
"of",
"stages",
"and",
"decreased",
"sensitivity",
"to",
"process",
"variations.",
"All",
"stages",
"of",
"the",
"proposed",
"MA",
"topology",
"can",
"be",
"identical,",
"where",
"the",
"bandwidth",
"can",
"be",
"several",
"times",
"more",
"than",
"that",
"of",
"a",
"single",
"stage.",
"A",
"0.35µm",
"CMOS",
"process",
"is",
"used",
"to",
"implement",
"the",
"new",
"MA",
"circuit;",
"where",
"active",
"negative",
"feedbacks",
"exploit",
"the",
"intrinsic",
"capacitance",
"within",
"the",
"transistors",
"to",
"expand",
"the",
"bandwidth.",
"Simulation",
"results",
"show",
"an",
"overall",
"GBP",
"of",
"4.8THz."
]
} |
478851 | ["introduction","on the nature of scientific notions","notions of complexity","information-based mea(...TRUNCATED) | [["While","most","will","have","a","strong","intuition","that","the","complexity","of","organisms","(...TRUNCATED) | [
"complexity",
"physical complexity",
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] | [
"postnormal science"
] | {"title":["Criteria","for","Conceptual","and","Operational","Notions","of","Complexity"],"abstract":(...TRUNCATED) |
18833971 | ["introduction","symmetrical tridiagonal matrices from special spectral data","nonnegative symmetric(...TRUNCATED) | [["In","this","paper","we","discuss","the","inverse","eigenvalue","problem","for","real","symmetrica(...TRUNCATED) | [
"symmetrical tridiagonal matrices"
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125356 | ["introduction","tensor rank","orbit closure problem","the gct program for tensors","semigroups of r(...TRUNCATED) | [["Mulmuley","and","Sohoni","[25,","26]","proposed","to","view","the","permanent","versus","determin(...TRUNCATED) | ["kronecker coefficients","tensor rank","matrix multiplication","multiplicities","geometric complexi(...TRUNCATED) | [] | {"title":["Geometric","complexity","theory","and","tensor","rank"],"abstract":["Mulmuley","and","Soh(...TRUNCATED) |
3155983 | ["introduction","streaming data examples","motivation for punctuated streams","enhancing the example(...TRUNCATED) | [["T","HERE","are","many","examples","of","stream-processing","applications:","Financial","applicati(...TRUNCATED) | [
"stream iterators",
"query operators",
"continuous data streams",
"stream semantics"
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"continuous queries"
] | {"title":["Exploiting","punctuation","semantics","in","continuous","data","streams"],"abstract":["Ab(...TRUNCATED) |
1369658 | ["introduction","cooperative multi-target tracking 2.1 architecture of ava and its functions","basic(...TRUNCATED) | [["Object","tracking","is","one","of","the","most","important","and","fundamental","technologies","f(...TRUNCATED) | [
"multi-target tracking"
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"active vision agent",
"cooperative distributed tracking",
"tracking using multiple active camera"
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9134261 | ["introduction -parallel and distributed simulations","paradigms for constructing simulators","async(...TRUNCATED) | [["The","simulation","of","physical","systems","is","an","important","tool","for","researchers","tha(...TRUNCATED) | [
"federated simulators",
"distributed simulation",
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"parallel simulation",
"computer networks simulation"
] | {"title":["A","Federated","Approach","to","Parallel","and","Distributed","Simulation","of","Complex"(...TRUNCATED) |
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