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6271257
[ "introduction", "setup of the experiment", "gathering input sketches", "defining sketch/image pairs", "interaction for gathering the ratings", "anchoring", "choice of stimulus duration", "evaluation", "rank correlation", "tied ranks", "measuring statistical significance", "benchmarking sbir systems", "study and analysis", "consistency among sketch/image pairs", "correlation analysis", "descriptors and indexing", "bag-of-features model for image retrieval", "sampling strategies", "codebook generation", "search strategy", "local features for representing sketches", "shape context", "spark feature", "histogram of oriented gradients", "shog feature", "evaluation of descriptor performance", "results and applications", "finding optimal local descriptor parameters", "codebook size", "feature size", "feature representation", "experimental applications", "specialized search: human faces", "2d search from 3d shapes", "basic sketch-based video search", "user study", "possible sources of bias", "choice of rating scale", "benchmark", "sketching interface", "local features", "conclusion" ]
[ [ "F", "OR", "most", "image", "databases,", "browsing", "as", "a", "means", "of", "retrieval", "is", "impractical,", "and", "query-based", "searching", "is", "required.", "Queries", "are", "often", "expressed", "as", "keywords", "(or", "by", "other", "means", "than", "the", "images", "themselves),", "requiring", "the", "images", "to", "be", "tagged.", "In", "view", "of", "the", "ever", "increasing", "size", "of", "image", "databases,", "the", "assumption", "of", "an", "appropriate", "and", "complete", "set", "of", "tags", "might", "be", "invalid,", "and", "content-based", "search", "techniques", "become", "vital..", "Different", "types", "of", "content-based", "image", "queries", "have", "been", "suggested", "and", "analyzed:", "example", "images;", "rough,", "blurry", "drawings", "of", "the", "desired", "colors;", "simple", "outline", "sketches;", "and", "combinations", "or", "extensions", "thereof", "[1]", ".", "We", "believe", "that", "outline", "sketches", "are", "typically", "easier", "and", "faster", "to", "generate", "than", "a", "complete", "color", "description", "of", "the", "scene.", "And", "they", "can", "be", "generated", "for", "arbitrary", "desired", "images,", "while", "example", "images", "may", "or", "may", "not", "be", "at", "hand", "when", "searching.", "In", "addition,", "input", "devices", "change", "in", "favor", "of", "sketching", "as", "touch-enabled", "devices", "become", "more", "common.", "In", "other", "words,", "sketch-based", "image", "retrieval", "(SBIR)", "is", "a", "relevant", "means", "of", "querying", "large", "image", "databases..", "Several", "approaches", "for", "SBIR", "have", "been", "suggested.", "However,", "to", "achieve", "interactive", "query", "response,", "it", "is", "impossible", "to", "compare", "the", "sketch", "to", "all", "images", "in", "the", "database", "directly.", "Instead,", "descriptors", "are", "extracted", "in", "a", "preprocess", "and", "stored", "in", "a", "data", "structure", "for", "fast", "access.", "Very", "commonly,", "the", "descriptors", "are", "interpreted", "as", "points", "in", "a", "high-dimensional", "space", "and", "finding", "close", "matches", "means", "searching", "for", "nearest", "neighbors", "in", "this", "space.", "Moreover,", "image", "descriptors", "can", "be", "roughly", "classified", "into", "global", "versus", "local", "descriptors:", "global", "descriptors", "encode", "specific", "features", "of", "the", "whole", "image", "that", "suffice", "to", "describe", "the", "\"gist\"", "of", "the", "scene", "[2]", ",", "while", "many", "local", "descriptors", "need", "to", "be", "extracted", "for", "a", "single", "image,", "with", "each", "descriptor", "describing", "only", "a", "small", "spatially", "localized", "region", "of", "the", "image", "[3]", ".", "While", "the", "use", "of", "local", "descriptors", "is", "a", "common", "approach", "in", "example-based", "image", "retrieval", "[4]", ",", "[5]", ",", "[6]", ",", "[7]", ",", "SBIR", "systems", "up", "to", "now", "still", "employ", "global", "descriptors", "and", "thus", "inherit", "their", "drawbacks,", "mainly", "being", "not", "invariant", "to", "affine", "transformations..", "An", "important", "design", "feature", "for", "any", "descriptor-based", "retrieval", "system", "is", "that", "the", "distance", "metric", "in", "feature", "space", "correlates", "with", "perceptual", "similarity.", "To", "gauge", "this", "perceptual", "similarity,", "ground-truth", "information", "from", "user", "studies", "is", "needed.", "Interestingly,", "Forsyth", "[8]", "criticizes", "the", "design", "of", "many", "existing", "image", "retrieval", "systems", "for", "not", "meeting", "real", "users'", "needs", "when", "they", "are", "based", "on", "image", "collections", "that", "are", "comprehensively", "tagged", "but", "are", "typically", "unrealistically", "small..", "We", "design", "a", "benchmark", "for", "SBIR", "that", "is", "based", "on", "a", "large", "collection", "of", "images,", "several", "orders", "of", "magnitude", "closer", "in", "size", "to", "real", "data", "sets", "than", "other", "collections.", "We", "also", "design", "local", "descriptors", "for", "SBIR.", "The", "benchmark", "allows", "us", "to", "show", "that", "they", "better", "model", "humans'", "perceptual", "metric", "between", "outline", "sketches", "and", "images.", "More", "particularly,", "we", "report", "on", "the", "following", "contributions:.", ".", "In", "a", "controlled", "user", "study,", "we", "gather", "a", "data", "set", "of", "more", "than", "30,000", "ratings", "indicating", "how", "well", "sketch/image", "pairs", "match.", "The", "analysis", "of", "the", "ratings", "shows", "(probably", "for", "the", "first", "time)", "that", "human", "subjects", "rate", "the", "similarity", "of", "sketches", "and", "images", "in", "a", "predictable", "and", "similar", "way.", "Thus,", "the", "data", "define", "a", "benchmark", "that", "can", "be", "used", "to", "evaluate", "how", "well", "the", "results", "of", "an", "arbitrary", "SBIR", "system", "correspond", "to", "human", "expectation.", "Additionally,", "we", "define", "a", "set", "of", "100,000", "Creative", "Commons", "images", "that", "is", "used", "along", "with", "the", "benchmark.", "We", "will", "make", "the", "image", "database", "as", "well", "as", "the", "benchmark", "freely", "available", "for", "other", "researchers", "to", "compare", "image", "retrieval", "algorithms", "and", "evaluate", "SBIR", "systems.", ".", "We", "adapt", "existing", "image", "features", "(such", "as", "shape", "contexts", "or", "SIFT)", "to", "SBIR", "and", "also", "introduce", "new", "local", "shape", "features.", "These", "features", "are", "used", "in", "a", "bag-of-features", "approach", "for", "SBIR.", "Based", "on", "our", "benchmark,", "we", "can", "show", "that", "the", "bag-of-feature", "approaches", "generally", "outperform", "existing", "global", "descriptors", "from", "the", "literature-we", "attribute", "this", "mostly", "to", "translation", "invariance.", "And", "among", "the", "bag-of-features", "approaches,", "the", "new", "feature", "descriptor", "we", "designed", "specifically", "for", "SBIR", "indeed", "performs", "better", "than", "other", "general", "image", "features.", "Based", "on", "the", "new", "descriptors,", "we", "introduce", "prototypes", "for", "several", "applications", "that", "benefit", "from", "SBIR." ], [ "We", "assume", "that", "humans", "generally", "agree", "that", "a", "simple", "sketch", "may", "be", "perceptually", "closer", "to", "some", "images", "than", "to", "others.", "However,", "we", "make", "no", "assumptions", "on", "the", "similarity", "of", "this", "behavior", "across", "humans", "or", "even", "if", "humans", "would", "rate", "the", "likeness", "of", "images", "similarly.", "Given", "a", "few", "examples", "of", "similarity", "ratings,", "we", "ask", "if", "humans", "gauge", "other", "pairs", "of", "sketches", "and", "images", "consistently", "over", "time", "and", "across", "subjects.", "If", "so,", "we", "would", "like", "to", "gather", "these", "measurements", "for", "comparison", "with", "measurements", "based", "on", "feature", "extraction", "in", "computer", "systems..", "To", "answer", "this", "question,", "we", "conducted", "an", "experiment,", "in", "which", "we", "show", "pairs", "of", "sketches", "and", "images", "(see", "Fig.", "1", ")", "under", "controlled", "conditions", "to", "human", "subjects", "and", "ask", "them", "to", "rate", "the", "similarity", "of", "the", "pair.", "We", "discuss", "the", "following", "design", "choices", "for", "the", "study:.", ".", "Sketches", "shown", "in", "the", "study.", ".", "Images", "paired", "with", "the", "sketches.", ".", "Human-computer", "interaction", "during", "the", "experiment", "to", "gather", "the", "ratings.", ".", "Benchmarking", "SBIR", "systems", "using", "the", "results", "of", "the", "study.", "In", "the", "following", "section,", "we", "describe", "how", "the", "experiment", "was", "performed", "and", "comment", "on", "the", "results." ], [ "The", "choice", "of", "query", "sketches", "essentially", "defines", "the", "difficulty", "of", "the", "resulting", "benchmark.", "It", "is", "important", "to", "define", "it", "in", "such", "a", "way", "that", "current", "systems", "can", "be", "evaluated.", "If", "the", "sketches", "would", "contain", "too", "much", "abstraction,", "current", "systems", "would", "perform", "very", "badly", "and", "an", "evaluation", "would", "have", "to", "deal", "with", "more", "noise.", "Overall,", "we", "tried", "to", "select", "the", "set", "of", "sketches", "for", "the", "study", "such", "that", "a", "reasonable", "compromise", "between", "users'", "demands", "toward", "a", "query", "system", "and", "the", "capabilities", "of", "current", "systems", "are", "achieved..", "We", "gathered", "a", "large", "number", "of", "sketches", "drawn", "by", "different", "subjects", "that", "are", "not", "biased", "toward", "potentially", "working", "with", "a", "particular", "SBIR", "system.", "In", "order", "to", "achieve", "a", "wide", "spectrum", "of", "drawing", "styles,", "we", "asked", "a", "total", "of", "19", "subjects", "to", "draw", "sketches", "using", "two", "different", "methods:", "first,", "16", "individuals", "(that", "had", "not", "been", "exposed", "to", "SBIR)", "generated", "arbitrary", "input", "sketches", "depicting", "arbitrary", "scenes", "or", "objects,", "drawing", "them", "in", "a", "way", "they", "would", "expect", "to", "work", "well", "for", "an", "imaginary", "retrieval", "system.", "For", "inspiration,", "we", "gave", "them", "a", "list", "of", "categories", "(plants,", "animals,", "skylines,", "landscapes,", "machines,", "and", "humans)", "but", "we", "stressed", "that", "sketches", "from", "any", "other", "category", "were", "also", "allowed", "and", "actually", "desired.", "Second,", "we", "asked", "three", "subjects", "to", "also", "create", "sketches", "by", "roughly", "tracing", "the", "objects", "seen", "in", "existing", "color", "images.", "For", "both", "types", "of", "sketches,", "we", "emphasized", "that", "including", "shading", "information", "and", "crosshatching", "techniques", "should", "be", "avoided;", "instead,", "we", "asked", "to", "create", "rough", "outlines", "that", "are", "quick", "and", "simple", "to", "draw..", "This", "resulted", "in", "a", "total", "of", "164", "sketches", "created", "for", "the", "purpose", "of", "this", "study.", "From", "this", "set,", "we", "manually", "selected", "49", "sketches", "with", "the", "aim", "that", "they", "match", "reasonably", "with", "a", "sufficient", "number", "of", "images", "in", "the", "database.", "We", "used", "the", "following", "criteria", "in", "our", "selection:", "sketches", "should", "depict", "shape", "rather", "than", "symbols;", "they", "should", "depict", "nonfictional", "objects;", "if", "any", "perspective", "was", "used,", "it", "should", "be", "reasonably", "realistic.", "Using", "this", "set", "of", "sketches,", "we", "now", "describe", "how", "the", "images", "for", "presentation", "and", "ranking", "were", "chosen." ], [ "Performing", "the", "user", "study", "requires", "us", "to", "select", "a", "certain", "number", "of", "images", "to", "be", "presented", "for", "rating", "along", "with", "the", "sketches.", "Randomly", "sampling", "images", "from", "a", "large", "image", "database", "turned", "out", "not", "to", "be", "applicable:", "the", "number", "of", "nonrelevant", "images", "in", "the", "database", "given", "a", "certain", "sketch", "is", "large", "and", "would", "likely", "cause", "frustration", "throughout", "the", "experiment", "and", "also", "create", "insufficient", "data", "for", "close", "matches..", "Ideally,", "we", "would", "like", "to", "gather", "a", "set", "of", "sketch/image", "pairs", "exhibiting", "the", "following", "properties:.", ".", "Rating", "the", "complete", "set", "should", "be", "possible", "in", "about", "one", "hour", "per", "participant", "in", "order", "to", "avoid", "fatigue.", "We", "settled", "for", "31", "sketches", "(allowing", "for", "a", "wide", "variety", "of", "scenes", "and", "objects", "depicted)", "and", "40", "images", "associated", "with", "each", "sketch.", ".", "The", "set", "should", "generate", "roughly", "the", "same", "number", "of", "ratings", "for", "each", "discrete", "rank", "on", "our", "ranking", "scale", "(i.e.,", "approximately", "same", "number", "of", "well", "matching", "and", "poorly", "matching", "images", "associated", "with", "each", "sketch).", "This,", "however,", "would", "require", "a", "priori", "knowledge", "of", "how", "subjects", "rate", "the", "matches.", "To", "approximate", "this", "property,", "we", "performed", "a", "pilot", "study.", "We", "generated", "preliminary", "sketch/image", "pairs", "by", "using", "a", "subset", "of", "the", "best", "performing", "SBIR", "systems", "from", "Eitz", "et", "al.", "[9]", "..", "For", "each", "of", "the", "49", "sketches", "selected", "in", "Section", "2.1,", "we", "queried", "for", "the", "top", "ranking", "20", "images", "using", "three", "variants", "of", "Tensor", "descriptor", "as", "well", "as", "the", "histograms", "of", "oriented", "gradients", "(HoG)", "descriptor", "(we", "discuss", "this", "process", "and", "its", "potential", "to", "generate", "a", "biased", "sample", "later).", "This", "resulted", "in", "a", "collection", "of", "3", "Á", "2", "Á", "20", "Á", "49", "¼", "5;880", "sketch/image", "pairs", "(including", "duplicates).", "Without", "duplicates,", "a", "set", "of", "4,532", "sketch/image", "pairs", "remained..", "Using", "these", "sketch/image", "pairs,", "we", "performed", "a", "pilot", "study", "with", "three", "participants,", "gathering", "3", "Á", "4;532", "¼", "13;596", "ratings.", "As", "expected,", "the", "distribution", "of", "ratings", "was", "not", "uniform", "for", "most", "sketches", "(see", "Fig.", "7", ").", "We", "now", "show", "how", "to", "select", "a", "subset", "of", "these", "sketch/image", "pairs", "that", "would", "likely", "generate", "a", "more", "uniform", "distribution", "of", "the", "ratings", "in", "the", "final", "study..", "Assuming", "a", "uniform", "distribution", "of", "the", "ratings", "over", "the", "scale", "1", "to", "7,", "40", "images", "per", "sketch", "would", "lead", "to", "an", "average", "of", "40=7", "%", "5:71", "ratings", "per", "discrete", "rank", "on", "the", "scale.", "For", "each", "sketch,", "we", "computed", "the", "standard", "deviation", "of", "the", "number", "of", "ratings", "from", "the", "desired", "mean", "of", "5.71,", "and", "discarded", "the", "18", "sketches", "with", "the", "largest", "AE", "(exclusively", "corresponding", "to", "sketches", "associated", "with", "many", "poorly", "matching", "images)..", "For", "the", "remaining", "sketches,", "we", "randomly", "subsampled", "the", "set", "of", "associated", "images", "such", "that", "exactly", "40", "images", "remained,", "however,", "biasing", "the", "subsample", "toward", "a", "uniform", "distribution", "of", "ratings.", "This", "procedure", "mostly", "eliminated", "images", "with", "poor", "ratings,", "as", "expected..", "The", "result", "of", "the", "pilot", "study", "is", "a", "set", "of", "31", "sketches,", "with", "exactly", "40", "images", "associated", "with", "each", "sketch.", "This", "resulting", "set", "of", "1,240", "sketch/image", "pairs", "is", "used", "in", "the", "final", "user", "study", "and", "presented", "to", "the", "participants", "for", "rating.", "The", "distribution", "of", "ratings", "from", "the", "pilot", "study", "and", "the", "final", "study", "is", "visualized", "in", "Fig.", "7", "and", "illustrates", "clearly,", "that", "the", "proposed", "subsampling", "strategy", "was", "successful", "in", "selecting", "sketch/image", "pairs", "that", "are", "closer", "to", "a", "uniform", "distribution", "of", "ratings." ], [ "We", "showed", "each", "sketch/image", "pair", "side", "by", "side", "on", "a", "24", "inch", "LCD", "monitor", "under", "controlled", "environmental", "conditions", "(i.e.,", "similar", "lighting", "conditions,", "no", "significant", "audible", "distraction,", "and", "80", "cm", "viewing", "distance).", "An", "example", "display", "is", "shown", "in", "Fig.", "1", ".", "Subjects", "were", "exposed", "to", "the", "stimulus", "for", "2", "seconds.", "After", "the", "stimulus,", "the", "screen", "turned", "black", "for", "1", "second.", "Subjects", "were", "asked", "to", "rate", "the", "similarity", "on", "a", "7-point", "Likert", "scale", "[10]", "from", "1", "(best)", "to", "7", "(worst),", "by", "pressing", "the", "corresponding", "number", "key", "on", "a", "keyboard.", "The", "rating", "could", "be", "submitted", "and", "changed", "during", "the", "total", "of", "2", "seconds", "of", "stimulus", "or", "the", "1", "second", "of", "blank", "screen,", "but", "not", "afterward.", "After", "the", "3", "seconds,", "the", "next", "pair", "was", "automatically", "displayed..", "The", "first", "set", "of", "pairs", "was", "presented", "with", "a", "suggested", "scale", "(see", "below).", "After", "that,", "the", "experiment", "started", "and", "pairs", "were", "presented", "in", "random", "order.", "Participants", "were", "allowed", "to", "pause", "the", "study", "at", "any", "time.", "Apart", "from", "the", "final", "rating,", "we", "also", "recorded", "the", "time", "until", "the", "final", "rating." ], [ "To", "understand", "if", "subjects", "rate", "sketch/image", "pairs", "consistently", "over", "time", "and,", "if", "so,", "to", "get", "comparable", "ratings", "across", "subjects,", "it", "is", "important", "to", "expose", "subjects", "to", "example", "pairs", "and", "a", "desired", "rating.", "Thus,", "directly", "prior", "to", "the", "experiment,", "we", "display", "a", "set", "of", "21", "sketch/image", "pairs", "(three", "sketches,", "with", "seven", "corresponding", "images", "each,", "as", "shown", "in", "Fig.", "2", ")", "together", "with", "their", "corresponding", "ratings", "to", "each", "participant..", "The", "idea", "is", "that", "human", "subjects", "use", "this", "information", "for", "anchoring,", "creating", "a", "bias", "toward", "these", "ratings", "for", "similar", "matches:", "if", "human", "subjects", "are", "able", "to", "consistently", "rank", "the", "likeness", "of", "sketches", "and", "images,", "then", "anchoring", "works.", "If", "humans", "are", "generally", "unable", "to", "consistently", "assess", "the", "matches,", "then", "the", "effect", "of", "examples", "would", "quickly", "diffuse", "and", "subjects", "would", "rate", "the", "matches", "randomly", "or", "following", "some", "mechanism", "that", "we", "are", "not", "aware", "of.", "We", "include", "the", "set", "of", "sketch/image", "pairs", "used", "for", "anchoring", "randomly", "into", "the", "later", "part", "of", "the", "experiment..", "If", "consistent", "similarity", "rating", "based", "on", "visual", "perception", "was", "impossible,", "this", "would", "now", "be", "easy", "to", "detect", "by", "analyzing", "if", "subjects", "significantly", "changed", "their", "rating", "for", "the", "examples", "or", "if", "ratings", "were", "inconsistent", "across", "subjects", "despite", "the", "anchoring." ], [ "It", "is", "clear", "that", "the", "sketch/image", "pair", "cannot", "be", "shown", "too", "short", "or", "too", "long.", "Our", "setup", "leads", "to", "disks", "with", "a", "radius", "of", "roughly", "2", "cm", "being", "projected", "into", "the", "foveal", "region", "of", "the", "eye.", "This", "means", "a", "human", "observer", "needs", "saccades", "to", "compare", "features", "in", "the", "sketch", "and", "the", "image.", "Fixations", "between", "saccades", "are", "rarely", "shorter", "than", "200", "ms", "across", "different", "visual", "activities", "[11]", ".", "In", "a", "similar", "experimental", "setup", "and", "comparable", "content,", "a", "recent", "study", "reports", "a", "mean", "time", "of", "250", "ms", "between", "saccades", "[12]", ".", "Thus,", "comparing", "few", "features", "in", "the", "pair", "requires", "at", "least", "roughly", "a", "second,", "perhaps", "more.", "In", "a", "preliminary", "experiment,", "our", "participants", "found", "display", "times", "less", "than", "2", "seconds", "exhausting.", "On", "the", "other", "hand,", "more", "time", "leads", "to", "more", "high-level", "considerations", "and", "more", "noisy", "data.", "We", "therefore", "settled", "for", "2", "seconds", "presentation", "time.", "This", "also", "helped", "to", "keep", "the", "time", "for", "rating", "the", "set", "of", "1,240", "sketch/image", "displays", "to", "roughly", "an", "hour,", "which", "we", "considered", "tolerable." ], [ "Given", "the", "experiment,", "we", "now", "discuss", "how", "to", "evaluate", "the", "results.", "We", "propose", "to", "base", "the", "evaluation", "on", "rank", "correlation", "and", "show", "how", "this", "approach", "can", "also", "be", "used", "to", "compare", "automatic", "SBIR", "systems", "against", "the", "human", "data", "gathered", "in", "the", "experiment." ], [ "Let", "x", "be", "a", "list", "of", "n", "ratings", "with", "x", "i", "denoting", "the", "rating", "assigned", "to", "the", "ith", "element.", "Kendall's", "tau", "[13]", ",", "[14]", "is", "a", "widely", "used", "measure", "of", "rank", "correlation,", "allowing", "to", "assess", "the", "degree", "of", "correspondence", "between", "two", "ordered", "lists", "of", "the", "same", "elements", "and", "determine", "the", "significance", "of", "this", "correspondence.", "In", "our", "setup,", "these", "lists", "are", "generated", "in", "two", "areas:", "first,", "participants", "of", "the", "user", "study", "rank", "the", "benchmark", "images", "with", "respect", "to", "a", "benchmark", "sketch", "(visualized", "in", "Fig.", "3", ").", "Second,", "SBIR", "systems", "rank", "the", "results", "of", "a", "query", "with", "respect", "to", "a", "query", "sketch.", "Contrary", "to", "linear", "correlation,", "as", "used", "in", "a", "benchmark", "related", "to", "ours", "[15]", ",", "Kendall's", "rank", "correlation", "coefficient", "is", "independent", "of", "the", "scale", "and", "distribution", "of", "the", "data", "to", "be", "compared.", "Therefore,", "it", "facilitates", "a", "direct", "comparison", "of", "the", "experimental", "data", "(on", "a", "scale", "from", "1", "to", "7)", "with", "the", "results", "of", "any", "retrieval", "system,", "given", "the", "particular", "system", "is", "able", "to", "generate", "a", "weak", "ordering", "of", "the", "result", "images", "when", "querying", "with", "a", "particular", "sketch..", "Kendall's", "rank", "correlation", "coefficient", "is", "computed", "as", "the", "difference", "between", "the", "number", "of", "concordant", "(similarly", "ordered)", "and", "discordant", "(reversely", "ordered)", "pairs", "of", "ranks", "ðx", "i", ";", "y", "i", "Þ", "and", "ðx", "j", ";", "y", "j", "Þ", "in", "two", "ordered", "sets", "x", "and", "y.", "A", "pair", "is", "concordant", "if", "ðx", "i", "À", "x", "j", "Þðy", "i", "À", "y", "j", "Þ", ">", "0", "and", "discordant", "if", "ðx", "i", "À", "x", "j", "Þðy", "i", "À", "y", "j", "Þ", "<", "0.", "Normalization", "by", "the", "total", "number", "of", "pairs", "is", "applied", "to", "gain", "independence", "of", "the", "test", "set", "size.", "Let", "n", "c", "denote", "the", "number", "of", "concordant", "and", "n", "d", "denote", "the", "number", "of", "discordant", "pairs,", "then", "is", "defined", "as.", "According", "to", "this", "definition,", "can", "take", "values", "in", "the", "range", "½À1;", "1,", "with", "À1", "indicating", "a", "reversed", "list,", "0", "indicating", "that", "the", "two", "lists", "are", "independent,", "and", "1", "indicating", "that", "the", "two", "lists", "have", "the", "same", "(weak)", "order..", "To", "summarize,", "we", "suggest", "to", "use", "Kendall's", "tau", "as", "a", "measure", "to", "compare", "the", "performance", "of", "an", "SBIR", "system", "against", "the", "data", "gathered", "in", "the", "user", "study,", "thus", "defining", "a", "general", "benchmark", "for", "SBIR", "systems." ], [ "It", "is", "common", "in", "our", "setting", "that", "the", "ranks", "of", "pairs", "in", "a", "list", "are", "tied,", "i.e.,", "have", "the", "same", "rank:", "subjects", "evaluated", "40", "images", "on", "a", "discrete", "scale", "from", "1", "to", "7,", "necessarily", "resulting", "in", "a", "certain", "number", "of", "ties.", "Also,", "an", "SBIR", "system", "may", "produce", "exactly", "the", "same", "score", "for", "two", "images", "in", "the", "collection,", "thus", "possibly", "producing", "tied", "pairs.", "Our", "measure", "of", "correlation", "needs", "to", "be", "able", "to", "deal", "with", "those", "cases;", "the", "denominator", "in", "(1)", "is", "too", "large", "in", "the", "case", "of", "ties", "and", "thus", "needs", "to", "be", "adapted", "to", "keep", "the", "correlation", "coefficient", "in", "the", "range", "½À1;", "1..", "Let", "N", "¼", "nðn", "À", "1Þ=2", "(number", "of", "possible", "pairs", "in", "a", "set", "of", "n", "distinct", "elements),", "U", "¼", ".", "(number", "of", "ties", "in", "the", "second", "list).", "Kendall's", "rank", "correlation", "coefficient", "adapted", "to", "the", "case", "of", "ties", "is", "denoted", "as", "b", "and", "defined", "as", "[14]", ":" ], [ "Assuming", "the", "null", "hypothesis", "of", "no", "correlation", "H", ":", "¼", "0", "is", "true,", "we", "are", "interested", "in", "the", "probability", "of", "obtaining", "a", "correlation", "coefficient", "greater", "or", "equal", "than", "the", "actually", "observed", "correlation", "coefficient", "o", "by", "chance", "(p-value).", "In", "other", "words:", "each", "observed", "rank", "correlation", "value", "o", "comes", "with", "a", "corresponding", "p-value,", "with", "lower", "p-values", "indicating", "that", "it", "is", "less", "likely", "to", "observe", "!", "o", "in", "case", "the", "two", "ordered", "lists", "are", "actually", "not", "correlated.", "Kendall's", "tau", "allows", "for", "a", "very", "convenient", "assessment", "of", "the", "significance", "of", "a", "correlation", "value,", "since", "the", "distribution", "of", "correlation", "value", "frequencies", "quickly", "tends", "to", "a", "Gaussian", "distribution", "with", "2", "¼", "ð4n", "þ", "10Þ=9nðn", "À", "1Þ", "for", "n", ">", "10.", "For", "smaller", "sample", "sizes,", "the", "exact", "distribution", "can", "instead", "be", "easily", "computed.", "In", "the", "case", "of", "ties,", "the", "distribution", "also", "tends", "to", "a", "Gaussian,", "however,", "with", "a", "different", "standard", "deviation", "[14]", "..", "Throughout", "the", "paper,", "we", "assess", "significance", "of", "correlation", "coefficients", "using", "a", "significance", "threshold", "of", "¼", "0:05,", "i.e.,", "accepting", "the", "null", "hypothesis", "of", "no", "correlation", "for", "p", "!", ".", "For", "p", "<", ",", "we", "reject", "the", "null", "hypothesis", "and", "instead", "accept", "the", "hypothesis", "that", "the", "two", "ordered", "lists", "indeed", "correlate." ], [ "We", "propose", "to", "use", "the", "31", "ordered", "lists", "(one", "per", "sketch)", "resulting", "from", "averaging", "the", "ratings", "over", "the", "28", "study", "participants", "as", "\"ground", "truth.\"", "Each", "of", "these", "lists", "can", "be", "seen", "as", "a", "consensus", "between", "the", "participants", "and", "is", "optimal", "in", "the", "sense", "that", "it", "maximizes", "the", "average", "Spearman's", "rho", "rank", "correlation", "coefficient", "between", "the", "28", "lists", "from", "the", "data", "and", "the", "estimated", "one", "[14]", "..", "We", "use", "the", "resulting", "31", "benchmark", "lists", "to", "evaluate", "other", "SBIR", "system's", "results", "by", "determining", "Kendall's", "rank", "correlation", "coefficient", "b", "for", "each", "of", "the", "corresponding", "31", "ordered", "lists", "generated", "by", "the", "system.", "Benchmarking", "a", "system", "thus", "results", "in", "31", "correlation", "coefficients", "that", "for", "each", "sketch", "indicate", "how", "well", "the", "system", "ranks", "the", "benchmark", "images", "compared", "to", "human", "judgement.", "Throughout", "this", "paper,", "we", "report", "the", "average", "of", "those", "31", "correlation", "coefficients", "as", "the", "performance", "indicator", "for", "a", "specific", "system..", "The", "complete", "set", "of", "sketches", "and", "images", "selected", "for", "the", "benchmark", "is", "shown", "in", "the", "additional", "material.", "The", "images", "corresponding", "to", "the", "sketches", "are", "sorted", "according", "to", "the", "order", "defined", "by", "the", "benchmark,", "i.e.,", "a", "retrieval", "system", "achieves", "high", "correlation", "values", "if", "it", "returns", "the", "benchmark", "images", "in", "the", "same", "order", "as", "shown", "in", "the", "additional", "material..", "To", "summarize,", "benchmarking", "an", "arbitrary", "SBIR", "is", "now", "straightforward", "and", "requires", "the", "following", "steps:.", ".", "Place", "the", "1,240", "benchmark", "images", "in", "the", "collection", "of", "100,000", "images", "(note", "that", "this", "is", "not", "strictly", "necessary", "when", "using", "global", "descriptors).", ".", "For", "each", "of", "the", "31", "benchmark", "sketches,", "perform", "a", "query", "on", "the", "resulting", "collection", "of", "101,240", "images", "and", "determine", "the", "ranking", "of", "the", "corresponding", "benchmark", "images", "in", "the", "result", "set.", ".", "For", "each", "of", "the", "resulting", "31", "ordered", "lists,", "compute", "b", "against", "the", "corresponding", "\"ground-truth\"", "list.", "The", "resulting", "values", "can", "be", "compared", "to", "the", "rank", "correlation", "coefficient", "across", "subjects", "in", "the", "study", "(see", "Fig.", "5", ").", "An", "ideal", "system", "would", "perform", "similar", "to", "human", "subjects." ], [ "We", "gathered", "our", "data", "using", "the", "experimental", "setup", "described", "in", "Section", "2.3.", "Our", "28", "participants", "had", "an", "average", "age", "of", "25.5", "years", "(AE3:1),", "23", "were", "male,", "five", "female." ], [ "To", "understand", "if", "the", "7-point", "scale", "we", "used", "in", "the", "experiment", "is", "not", "introducing", "noise,", "we", "analyzed", "the", "distribution", "of", "ratings", "by", "grouping", "the", "ratings", "according", "to", "the", "median", "of", "the", "28", "ratings", "for", "each", "sketch/image", "pair", "p", "i", ";", "i", "2", "f1;", ".", ".", ".", ";", "1240g.", "Let", "r", "i;j", "denote", "the", "rating", "of", "p", "i", "by", "participant", "j", "(j", "2", "f1;", ".", ".", ".", ";", "28g).", "We", "first", "compute", "the", "median", "rating", "m", "i", "for", "each", "p", "i", "as", "m", "i", "¼", "median", "j", "ðr", "i;j", "Þ.", "We", "then", "define", "the", "multiset", "of", "ratings", "that", "fall", "into", "a", "common", "bin", "k", "when", "binning", "according", "to", "their", "associated", "median", "rating", "m", "i", "as.", "For", "each", "B", "k", ",", "we", "show", "the", "mean", "and", "standard", "deviation", "in", "Fig.", "8a", "and", "the", "histogram", "in", "Fig.", "8b", ".", "The", "analysis", "shows", "that", "the", "number", "of", "ratings", "is", "roughly", "uniform", "over", "all", "seven", "bins", "with", "a", "slight", "peak", "at", "bin", "6.", "The", "variance", "of", "the", "ratings", "is", "smallest", "for", "the", "lower", "and", "higher", "bins", "and", "peaks", "at", "bin", "4", "with", "¼", "1:4692,", "i.e.,", "participants", "were", "quite", "consistent", "for", "good", "and", "poor", "matching", "pairs", "and", "slightly", "less", "consistent", "for", "the", "average", "matches." ], [ "We", "have", "performed", "a", "correlation", "analysis", "of", "the", "rating", "results", "of", "this", "study.", "As", "discussed,", "we", "use", "Kendall's", "rank", "correlation", "coefficient", "b", ".", "First,", "we", "analyzed", "the", "correlation", "of", "ratings", "throughout", "the", "experiment", "for", "the", "sketch/image", "pairs", "used", "for", "anchoring.", "77.4", "percent", "of", "the", "resulting", "correlation", "coefficients", "can", "be", "accepted", "as", "significant,", "the", "resulting", "distribution", "of", "values", "is", "shown", "in", "Fig.", "4", ".", "We", "conclude", "from", "this", "analysis", "that", "for", "most", "subjects,", "anchoring", "is", "significant,", "i.e.,", "we", "can", "accept", "the", "hypothesis", "that", "the", "ratings", "given", "by", "the", "participants", "are", "correlated", "with", "the", "ratings", "shown", "in", "the", "anchoring", "process..", "Second,", "we", "compared", "the", "ratings", "across", "subjects.", "For", "each", "sketch,", "we", "computed", "b", "for", "all", "possible", "pairs", "of", "lists", "generated", "by", "the", "28", "subjects.", "This", "resulted", "in", "a", "total", "of", "378", "correlation", "values", "per", "sketch-the", "number", "of", "possible", "pairs", "for", "28", "participants.", "The", "analysis", "reveals", "that", "the", "ratings", "across", "subjects", "are", "mostly", "consistent,", "86", "percent", "of", "the", "interuser", "correlation", "values", "lie", "over", "the", "significance", "threshold", "for", "¼", "0:05..", "While", "b", "describes", "the", "correlation", "between", "two", "sets,", "we", "are", "also", "interested", "in", "a", "measure", "of", "agreement", "among", "the", "28", "participants", "(per", "sketch)", "as", "a", "group.", "This", "is", "known", "as", "the", "problem", "of", "m", "ordered", "lists", "and", "formalized", "by", "Kendall's", "W", "[14]", ".", "We", "have", "computed", "Kendall's", "W", "for", "all", "31", "sketchesthe", "results", "show", "that", "for", "most", "sketches,", "the", "agreement", "between", "the", "study", "participants", "is", "strong,", "with", "all", "correlation", "values", "being", "highly", "significant..", "Altogether,", "we", "take", "this", "as", "a", "strong", "indication", "that", "humans", "agree", "on", "how", "well", "a", "sketch", "fits", "a", "natural", "image-a", "further", "indication", "that", "sketches", "can", "be", "used", "in", "image", "retrieval", "systems", "and", "an", "additional", "motivation", "to", "develop", "systems", "that", "match", "humans'", "expectations.", "This", "also", "indicates", "that", "a", "benchmark", "created", "from", "these", "data", "is", "sound", "and", "general", "enough", "to", "cover", "the", "similarity", "perception", "of", "a", "large", "body", "of", "different", "users.", "For", "each", "sketch,", "we", "visualize", "the", "distribution", "of", "b", "and", "the", "value", "of", "W", "in", "Fig.", "5", "..", "Third,", "we", "analyzed", "how", "human", "subjects", "perform", "against", "the", "benchmark.", "Note", "that", "in", "this", "case,", "Kendall's", "W", "is", "not", "Fig.", "4", ".", "For", "each", "subject,", "the", "plot", "shows", "three", "correlations.", "These", "values", "denote", "how", "well", "the", "subject's", "ratings", "correlate", "with", "the", "ratings", "defined", "in", "the", "anchoring", "process", "for", "the", "three", "sketches", "shown", "in", "Fig.", "2", "..", "appropriate", "since", "we", "are", "indeed", "only", "interested", "in", "the", "correspondence", "between", "two", "ordered", "lists:", "the", "benchmark's", "and", "a", "subject's.", "For", "each", "subject,", "we", "therefore", "computed", "31", "b", "coefficients", "(one", "for", "each", "sketch),", "estimating", "the", "correspondence", "between", "the", "subject's", "data", "and", "the", "benchmark.", "The", "analysis", "shows", "that", "99", "percent", "of", "the", "correlation", "coefficients", "lie", "over", "the", "significance", "threshold", "for", "¼", "0:05.", "We", "take", "this", "as", "a", "strong", "indication", "that", "the", "proposed", "benchmark", "adequately", "reflects", "human", "assessment", "of", "shape/image", "similarity.", "We", "plot", "the", "resulting", "distribution", "of", "b", "coefficients", "in", "Fig.", "6", ".", "Additionally,", "we", "show", "the", "sketches", "with", "highest", "and", "lowest", "inter-user", "correlation", "values", "in", "Fig.", "9", "." ], [ "We", "propose", "using", "a", "bag-of-features", "approach", "[5]", "for", "SBIR", "employing", "small", "local", "descriptors.", "This", "allows", "basing", "the", "search", "on", "a", "standard", "inverted", "index", "data", "structure", "from", "text", "retrieval", "[16]", ".", "We", "discuss", "the", "four", "main", "components", "of", "our", "retrieval", "system:.", "1.", "definition", "and", "representation", "of", "local", "features,", "2.", "sampling", "strategies", "defining", "the", "coordinates", "in", "image", "space", "of", "the", "features", "to", "be", "extracted,", "3.", "codebook", "definition,", "and", "4.", "the", "actual", "search", "algorithm", "based", "on", "an", "inverted", "index.", "While", "we", "rely", "on", "existing", "methods", "proposed", "in", "the", "literature", "for", "sampling,", "learning", "a", "codebook,", "and", "defining", "the", "search", "algorithm,", "our", "work", "focuses", "on", "feature", "representation,", "as", "this", "is", "the", "part", "where", "SBIR", "systems", "differ", "strongly", "from", "classical", "example-based", "retrieval", "systems.", "In", "particular,", "we", "evaluate", "which", "feature", "representations", "are", "best", "suited", "for", "implementing", "a", "bag-of-features-based", "SBIR", "system", "by", "searching", "the", "parameter", "space", "for", "well", "performing", "combinations.", "We", "base", "our", "performance", "evaluation", "on", "the", "benchmark", "defined", "in", "Section", "3,", "i.e.,", "on", "real", "user's", "preferences." ], [ "Using", "inverted", "indices", "for", "image", "retrieval", "has", "been", "inspired", "by", "techniques", "from", "text", "retrieval", "[4]", "and", "indeed", "bears", "many", "similarities", "with", "text", "retrieval", "approaches.", "However,", "there", "are", "several", "main", "differences:", ".", "Text", "documents", "are", "naturally", "separated", "into", "atomic,", "semantically", "meaningful", "entities", "(words),", "pixels", "alone,", "however,", "do", "not", "contain", "sufficient", "information.", "Instead,", "larger", "image", "patches", "are", "considered", "as", "a", "whole", "and", "a", "feature", "encoding", "the", "essential", "information", "in", "this", "local", "area", "is", "extracted.", ".", "No", "natural", "boundary", "between", "image", "patches", "typically", "exists;", "instead,", "the", "locations", "of", "patches", "in", "image", "space", "need", "to", "be", 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"creation", "of", "the", "user", "study,", "all", "of", "which", "influenced", "the", "outcome", "to", "a", "certain", "degree.", "The", "choice", "of", "sketches", "and", "corresponding", "images", "certainly", "has", "the", "largest", "influence:", "we", "tried", "to", "generate", "them", "in", "such", "a", "way", "that", "current", "SBIR", "systems", "would", "be", "able", "to", "achieve", "reasonable", "results", "with", "the", "resulting", "benchmark.", "Since", "the", "matching", "images", "were", "generated", "from", "the", "output", "of", "a", "system", "using", "global", "descriptors,", "this", "has", "some", "influence", "on", "what", "the", "benchmark", "measures:", "it", "is", "not", "explicitly", "designed", "for", "evaluation", "of", "invariance", "to", "affine", "transformations.", "A", "further", "study", "similar", "to", "the", "one", "in", "this", "paper", "would", "be", "helpful", "to", "evaluate", "those", "questions.", "From", "our", "experience", "and", "the", "feedback", "of", "the", "study", "participants,", "we", "can,", "however,", "report", "that", "users", "still", "give", "good", "ratings", "if", "an", "object", "is", "located", "at", "a", "slightly", "different", "position", "than", "in", "the", "sketch,", "strong", "offsets,", "however,", "typically", "lead", "to", "poor", "ratings.", "Also,", "slight", "scale", "invariance", "is", "desirable,", "rotation", "invariance,", "however,", "does", "not", "seem", "to", "be", "what", "the", "average", "user", "is", "looking", "for." ], [ "We", "note", "that", "the", "selection", "process", "of", "images", "to", "be", "paired", "with", "the", "sketches", "is", "potentially", "biased.", "A", "pool", "of", "candidate", "images", "has", "been", "collected", "using", "existing", "sketch-based", "retrieval", "algorithms", "and", "it", "is", "hard", "to", "assess", "what", "images", "have", "been", "ignored", "in", "this", "process..", "Potential", "bias", "for", "the", "study", "could", "only", "be", "introduced", "by", "systematically", "ignoring", "images", "that", "would", "be", "considered", "good", "matches", "to", "a", "sketch", "at", "least", "by", "some", "human", "observers.", "However,", "the", "same", "could", "be", "true", "for", "any", "other", "automated", "selection", "process.", "And,", "also", "a", "human-guided", "selection", "process", "would", "likely", "be", "biased:", "unless", "we", "know", "that", "humans", "rate", "the", "likeness", "of", "sketches", "and", "images", "similarly,", "we", "would", "have", "to", "involve", "several", "subjects", "in", "the", "selection", "process-whose", "selection", "is", "a", "sampling", "problem", "in", "itself.", "More", "severely,", "the", "manual", "inspection", "of", "millions", "of", "images", "will", "most", "likely", "lead", "to", "fatigue", "and", "frustration,", "which", "would", "bias", "the", "selection.", "Consequently,", "we", "believe", "it", "is", "impossible", "to", "select", "a", "set", "of", "images", "for", "this", "task", "that", "was", "arguably", "unbiased..", "We", "like", "to", "explain", "the", "consequences", "of", "a", "potentially", "biased", "images", "sample:.", "1.", "Most", "obviously,", "the", "selection", "based", "on", "an", "existing", "SBIR", "system", "could", "favor", "this", "system", "in", "the", "benchmark.", "We", "argue", "that", "this", "is", "very", "unlikely,", "since", "subjects", "are", "not", "aware", "of", "how", "the", "images", "have", "been", "selected", "and,", "indeed,", "for", "a", "few", "sketches,", "we", "noticed", "negative", "correlation", "values", "between", "users'", "rankings", "and", "the", "descriptor's", "ranking.", "2.", "Our", "conclusion", "that", "humans", "rank", "the", "likeness", "of", "sketches", "and", "images", "consistently", "would", "have", "to", "be", "limited", "to", "the", "subsample", "we", "have", "actually", "analyzed,", "if", "a", "significant", "part", "of", "relevant", "pairs", "was", "missing.", "This", "is", "a", "general", "problem", "in", "any", "study", "of", "this", "type.", "However,", "for", "the", "definition", "of", "a", "benchmark,", "this", "has", "little", "consequences,", "as", "the", "conclusion", "is", "still", "true", "for", "the", "sample", "used.", "3.", "Optimizing", "descriptor", "parameters", "based", "on", "the", "benchmark", "could", "overfit", "to", "the", "sample,", "which", "is", "not", "fully", "representative", "of", "ground", "truth.", "This", "is", "a", "common", "problem", "in", "any", "approach", "that", "optimizes", "an", "algorithm", "based", "on", "sampled", "data.", "We", "can,", "however,", "report", "that", "algorithms", "that", "appear", "improved", "based", "on", "the", "benchmark", "indeed", "behave", "better", "in", "practical", "applications." ], [ "A", "5", "or", "7-point", "Likert", "scale", "is", "commonly", "used", "in", "psychological", "experiments-possibly", "because", "humans", "are", "able", "to", "discern", "just", "around", "seven", "values", "in", "many", "types", "of", "experiments", "[30]", ".", "Research", "on", "the", "effect", "of", "scales", "on", "the", "outcome", "of", "experiments", "found", "no", "statistical", "difference", "between", "5", "and", "7-point", "scales", "[31]", ".", "Using", "a", "7-point", "scale", "in", "our", "study,", "none", "of", "the", "subjects", "reported", "they", "disliked", "the", "scale", "or", "found", "it", "more", "difficult", "to", "choose", "among", "the", "pairs", "that", "did", "not", "match", "well." ], [ "We", "propose", "to", "use", "the", "ranking", "resulting", "from", "averaging", "scores", "over", "all", "28", "study", "participants", "as", "the", "benchmark", "ranking.", "Our", "analysis", "reveals", "that", "this", "ranking", "can", "be", "reasonably", "used", "as", "a", "benchmark", "(see", "Fig.", "5", ",", "right).", "However,", "certain", "characteristics", "of", "the", "benchmark", "might", "need", "to", "be", "adapted", "depending", "on", "the", "application", "and", "the", "needs", "of", "the", "specific", "user", "[8]", ".", "Also,", "there", "are", "certainly", "other", "valid", "ways", "of", "analyzing", "the", "resulting", "data", "besides", "rank", "correlation.", "We,", "therefore,", "provide", "the", "complete", "data", "set", "gathered", "from", "the", "user", "study", "as", "an", "open", "resource,", "hoping", "that", "this", "spawns", "further", "research", "on", "SBIR", "evaluation." ], [ "A", "search", "result", "can", "only", "be", "as", "good", "as", "the", "input,", "and", "therefore", "the", "performance", "of", "current", "SBIR", "systems", "currently", "largely", "depends", "on", "a", "user's", "ability", "to", "depict", "the", "desired", "sketch", "in", "a", "\"realistic\"", "way.", "Due", "to", "the", "use", "of", "coarse", "histogram", "binning,", "the", "proposed", "local", "feature", "descriptors", "are", "tolerant", "against", "offsets", "in", "position", "and", "orientation", "of", "the", "depicted", "sketch", "lines-nevertheless,", "they", "rely", "on", "the", "fact", "that", "the", "depicted", "lines", "exist", "in", "the", "images", "to", "be", "searched.", "The", "proposed", "2D", "search", "from", "3D", "input", "could", "be", "an", "initial", "approach", "to", "overcome", "those", "problems,", "helping", "users", "to", "generate", "sketches", "that", "are,", "e.g.,", "perspectively", "correct.", "Automatic", "tools", "for", "simplification,", "smoothing,", "filtering,", "and", "enforcing", "symmetry", "in", "the", "sketch", "could", "support", "users", "in", "generating", "\"good\"", "sketches.", "We", "can", "also", "envision", "approaches", "where", "a", "system", "\"teaches\"", "the", "user", "how", "to", "draw", "sketches", "in", "order", "to", "achieve", "good", "retrieval", "results..", "Such", "a", "system", "could,", "e.g.,", "filter", "or", "mark", "lines", "in", "a", "sketch", "that", "would", "have", "little", "influence", "on", "the", "search", "results." ], [ "We", "found", "that", "the", "local", "feature", "size", "required", "should", "be", "as", "large", "as", "25", "percent", "of", "the", "image", "diagonal", "in", "order", "to", "achieve", "good", "query", "results.", "Note", "that", "with", "such", "large", "window", "sizes,", "invariance", "to", "translations", "also", "suffers-for", "the", "large", "sketches", "typically", "drawn", "by", "users,", "there", "is", "simply", "not", "much", "space", "left", "for", "translating", "the", "sketch.", "This", "might", "also", "explain", "the", "good", "results", "achieved", "with", "global", "descriptors,", "which", "are", "mostly", "translation", "variant.", "An", "obvious", "improvement", "of", "the", "local", "descriptors-which", "we", "left", "for", "future", "work-is", "making", "them", "fully", "invariant", "to", "affine", "transformations,", "i.e.,", "rotations", "(if", "desired)", "and", "scaling.", "Many", "possible", "approaches", "for", "this", "problem", "have", "been", "reported", "in", "the", "image", "retrieval", "literature", "and", "it", "remains", "to", "be", "evaluated,", "whether", "those", "approaches", "can", "be", "directly", "applied", "to", "SBIR." ], [ "Our", "main", "conclusion", "drawn", "from", "the", "results", "of", "the", "user", "study", "is", "that", "humans", "consistently", "agree", "on", "the", "similarity", "between", "a", "simple", "binary", "sketch", "on", "the", "one", "hand", "and", "a", "color", "image", "on", "the", "other", "hand.", "This", "result", "has", "allowed", "us", "to", "define", "a", "general", "benchmark", "for", "evaluating", "the", "performance", "of", "any", "SBIR", "system.", "As", "shown", "in", "this", "paper,", "the", "benchmark", "cannot", "only", "be", "used", "to", "evaluate", "existing", "systems", "but", "can", "also", "be", "used", "to", "optimize", "new", "systems", "by", "giving", "a", "means", "for", "measuring", "the", "influence", "of", "various", "retrieval", "system", "parameters", "on", "retrieval", "performance.", "We", "believe", "that", "the", "most", "important", "detail", "concerning", "our", "benchmark", "is", "that", "it", "is", "grounded", "on", "real", "users'", "input:", "they", "need", "to", "be", "satisfied", "by", "the", "query", "results", "of", "a", "particular", "system", "and", "the", "score", "of", "the", "proposed", "benchmark", "is", "directly", "proportional", "to", "this", "property.", "Interestingly,", "we", "found", "that", "the", "rather", "small", "difference", "in", "benchmark", "correlation", "values", "between", "the", "best", "global", "and", "the", "best", "local", "descriptor", "results", "in", "significantly", "improved", "experienced", "retrieval", "quality", "(i.e.,", "one", "can", "\"clearly", "feel\"", "the", "difference).", "Given", "the", "performance", "of", "the", "currently", "best", "performing", "descriptors,", "we", "have", "to", "admit", "that", "those", "results", "are", "still", "far", "from", "optimal-real", "humans", "are", "able", "to", "achieve", "substantially", "higher", "correlation", "values", "than", "current", "systems.", "We", "hope", "that", "the", "benchmark", "provided", "in", "this", "paper", "will", "help", "to", "stimulate", "further", "research", "on", "sketch-based", "image", "retrieval", "and", "make", "the", "resulting", "retrieval", "systems", "more", "comparable.", ".", "For", "more", "information", "on", "this", "or", "any", "other", "computing", "topic,", "please", "visit", "our", "Digital", "Library", "at", "www.computer.org/publications/dlib." ] ]
[ "image databases", "benchmarking" ]
[ "image/video retrieval" ]
{ "title": [ "Sketch-Based", "Image", "Retrieval:", "Benchmark", "and", "Bag-of-Features", "Descriptors" ], "abstract": [ "Abstract-We", "introduce", "a", "benchmark", "for", "evaluating", "the", "performance", "of", "large-scale", "sketch-based", "image", "retrieval", "systems.", "The", "necessary", "data", "are", "acquired", "in", "a", "controlled", "user", "study", "where", "subjects", "rate", "how", "well", "given", "sketch/image", "pairs", "match.", "We", "suggest", "how", "to", "use", "the", "data", "for", "evaluating", "the", "performance", "of", "sketch-based", "image", "retrieval", "systems.", "The", "benchmark", "data", "as", "well", "as", "the", "large", "image", "database", "are", "made", "publicly", "available", "for", "further", "studies", "of", "this", "type.", "Furthermore,", "we", "develop", "new", "descriptors", "based", "on", "the", "bag-of-features", "approach", "and", "use", "the", "benchmark", "to", "demonstrate", "that", "they", "significantly", "outperform", "other", "descriptors", "in", "the", "literature." ] }
6278012
[ "i", "ii. basic principles in hcf", "a. hop-count computation", "b. capturing legitimate hop-count values", "c. inspection and validation algorithm", "iii. does hop-count filtering really work?", "a. diversity of hop-count distribution", "b. effectiveness of hcf against simple attacks", "c. robustness against hcf-aware attackers", "1) randomization of initial ttls:", "2) learning of hop-count values:", "d. hop-count stability", "iv. construction of ip2hc mapping table", "a. ip address aggregation", "1) aggregation techniques:", "b. table initialization and update", "1) initialization and addition of new entries:", "c. hop-count ambiguity caused by nats", "v. running states of hcf", "a. tasks in two states", "b. blocking bandwidth attacks", "c. staying \"alert\" to drdos attacks", "vi. resource savings", "a. implementing the hop-count filter", "b. experimental evaluation", "related work", "viii. conclusion and future work", "appendix analysis of randomized ttl attacks against hcf" ]
[ [ "P", "NETWORKS", "are", "vulnerable", "to", "source", "address", "spoofing", "[33]", ".", "For", "example,", "a", "compromised", "Internet", "host", "can", "spoof", "IP", "packets", "by", "using", "a", "raw", "socket", "to", "fill", "arbitrary", "source", "IP", "addresses", "into", "packet", "headers.", "IP", "spoofing", "is", "commonly", "associated", "with", "malicious", "network", "activities,", "such", "as", "Distributed", "Denial", "of", "Service", "(DDoS)", "attacks", "[21]", ",", "[27]", ",", "[32]", ",", "which", "block", "legitimate", "access", "by", "either", "exhausting", "victim", "servers'", "resources", "[7]", "or", "saturating", "stub", "networks'", "access", "links", "to", "the", "Internet", "[18]", ".", "Most", "DDoS", "attacking", "tools", "spoof", "IP", "addresses", "by", "randomizing", "the", "32-bit", "source-address", "field", "in", "the", "IP", "header", "[12]", ",", "[13]", ",", "which", "conceals", "attacking", "sources", "and", "dilutes", "localities", "in", "attacking", "traffic.", "The", "recent", "\"backscatter\"", "study", "[32]", ",", "which", "quantifies", "DoS", "activities", "in", "the", "current", "Internet,", "has", "confirmed", "the", "widespread", "use", "of", "randomness", "in", "spoofing", "IP", "addresses.", "Moreover,", "some", "known", "DDoS", "attacks,", "such", "as", "smurf", "[8]", "and", "more", "recent", "Distributed", "Reflection", "Denial", "of", "Service", "(DRDoS)", "attacks", "[18]", ",", "[38]", ",", "are", "not", "possible", "without", "IP", "spoofing.", "Such", "attacks", "masquerade", "the", "source", "IP", "address", "of", "each", "spoofed", "packet", "with", "the", "victim's", "IP", "address.", "Overall,", "DDoS", "attacks", "with", "IP", "spoofing", "are", "much", "more", "difficult", "to", "defend..", "To", "thwart", "DDoS", "attacks,", "researchers", "have", "taken", "two", "distinct", "approaches:", "router-based", "and", "host-based.", "The", "router-based", "approach", "installs", "defense", "mechanisms", "inside", "IP", "routers", "to", "trace", "the", "source(s)", "of", "attack", "[4]", ",", "[30]", ",", "[43]", ",", "[45]", ",", "[46]", ",", "[49]", ",", "or", "detect", "and", "block", "attacking", "traffic", "[15]", ",", "[23]", ",", "[25]", ",", "[29]", ",", "[31]", ",", "[36]", ",", "[50]", ",", "[56]", ".", "However,", "these", "router-based", "solutions", "require", "not", "only", "router", "support,", "but", "also", "coordination", "among", "different", "routers", "and", "networks,", "and", "wide-spread", "deployment", "to", "reach", "their", "potential.", "In", "contrast", "to", "the", "router-based", "approach,", "the", "host-based", "approach", "can", "be", "deployed", "immediately.", "Moreover,", "end", "systems", "should", "have", "a", "much", "stronger", "incentive", "to", "deploy", "defense", "mechanisms", "than", "network", "service", "providers..", "The", "current", "host-based", "approaches", "protect", "an", "Internet", "server", "either", "by", "using", "sophisticated", "resource-management", "schemes", "[3]", ",", "[6]", ",", "[40]", ",", "[47]", "or", "by", "significantly", "reducing", "the", "resource", "consumption", "of", "each", "request", "to", "withstand", "the", "flooding", "traffic", "such", "as", "SYN", "cookies", "[5]", "and", "Client", "Puzzle", "[24]", ",", "[53]", ".", "Without", "a", "mechanism", "to", "detect", "and", "discard", "spoofed", "IP", "traffic", "at", "the", "very", "beginning", "of", "network", "processing,", "spoofed", "packets", "will", "share", "the", "same", "resource", "principals", "and", "code", "paths", "as", "legitimate", "requests.", "Under", "heavy", "attacks,", "current", "approaches", "are", "unlikely", "to", "be", "able", "to", "sustain", "service", "availability", "due", "to", "resource", "depletion", "caused", "by", "spoofed", "IP", "packets.", "Furthermore,", "most", "of", "existing", "host-based", "solutions", "work", "at", "the", "transport-layer", "and", "above,", "and", "cannot", "prevent", "the", "victim", "server", "from", "consuming", "CPU", "resource", "in", "servicing", "interrupts", "from", "spoofed", "IP", "traffic.", "At", "high", "speed,", "incoming", "IP", "packets", "generate", "many", "interrupts", "and", "can", "drastically", "slow", "down", "the", "victim", "server", "[42]", "(also", "see", "Section", "VI).", "Therefore,", "the", "ability", "to", "detect", "and", "filter", "spoofed", "packets", "at", "the", "IP", "layer", "without", "any", "router", "support", "is", "essential", "to", "protection", "against", "DDoS", "attacks.", "Since", "filtering", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "is", "orthogonal", "to", "the", "resource-protection", "mechanisms", "at", "higher", "layers,", "it", "can", "be", "used", "in", "conjunction", "with", "advanced", "resource-protection", "schemes..", "In", "this", "paper,", "we", "propose", "a", "lightweight", "scheme", "that", "validates", "incoming", "IP", "packets", "at", "an", "Internet", "server", "without", "using", "any", "cryptographic", "methodology", "or", "router", "support.", "Our", "goal", "is", "not", "to", "achieve", "perfect", "authentication,", "but", "to", "screen", "out", "most", "bogus", "traffic", "with", "little", "collateral", "damage.", "The", "fundamental", "idea", "is", "to", "utilize", "inherent", "network", "information-that", "each", "packet", "carries", "and", "an", "attacker", "cannot", "easily", "forge-to", "distinguish", "spoofed", "packets", "from", "legitimate", "ones.", "The", "inherent", "network", "information", "we", "use", "here", "is", "the", "number", "of", "hops", "a", "packet", "takes", "to", "reach", "its", "destination:", "although", "an", "attacker", "can", "forge", "any", "field", "in", "the", "IP", "header,", "he", "cannot", "falsify", "the", "number", "of", "hops", "an", "IP", "packet", "takes", "to", "reach", "its", "destination,", "which", "is", "solely", "determined", "by", "the", "Internet", "routing", "infrastructure.", "The", "hop-count", "information", "is", "indirectly", "reflected", "in", "the", "Time-to-Live", "(TTL)", "field", "of", "the", "IP", "header,", "since", "each", "intermediate", "router", "decrements", "the", "TTL", "value", "by", "one", "before", "forwarding", "a", "packet", "to", "the", "next", "hop..", "Based", "on", "hop-count,", "we", "propose", "a", "novel", "filtering", "technique,", "called", "Hop-Count", "Filtering,", "to", "weed", "out", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "at", "the", "very", "beginning", "of", "network", "processing,", "thus", "effectively", "protecting", "victim", "servers'", "resources", "from", "abuse.", "The", "rationale", "behind", "hop-count", "filtering", "(HCF)", "is", "that", "most", "randomly", "spoofed", "IP", "packets,", "when", "arriving", "at", "victims,", "do", "not", "carry", "hop-count", "values", "that", "are", "consistent", "with", "the", "IP", "addresses", "being", "spoofed.", "As", "a", "receiver,", "an", "Internet", "server", "can", "infer", "the", "hop-count", "information", "and", "check", "for", "consistency", "of", "source", "IP", "addresses.", "Exploiting", "this", "observation,", "HCF", "builds", "an", "accurate", "IP-to-hopcount", "(IP2HC)", "mapping", "table,", "while", "using", "a", "moderate", "amount", "of", "storage,", "by", "clustering", "address", "prefixes", "based", "on", "hop-count.", "To", "capture", "hop-count", "changes", "under", "dynamic", "network", "conditions,", "we", "also", "devise", "a", "safe", "update", "procedure", "for", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "that", "prevents", "pollution", "by", "attackers.", "The", "same", "pollution-proof", "method", "is", "used", "for", "both", "initializing", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "and", "inserting", "additional", "IP", "addresses", "into", "the", "table..", "To", "minimize", "collateral", "damage,", "HCF", "has", "two", "running", "states,", "learning", "and", "filtering.", "Under", "normal", "conditions,", "HCF", "stays", "in", "the", "learning", "state,", "watching", "for", "abnormal", "TTL", "behaviors", "without", "discarding", "any", "packets.", "Even", "if", "a", "legitimate", "packet", "is", "incorrectly", "identified", "as", "spoofed,", "it", "will", "not", "be", "dropped.", "Therefore,", "there", "is", "no", "collateral", "damage", "in", "the", "learning", "state.", "Upon", "detection", "of", "an", "attack,", "HCF", "switches", "to", "the", "filtering", "state,", "in", "which", "HCF", "discards", "those", "IP", "packets", "with", "mismatching", "hop-counts.", "Through", "analysis", "using", "network", "measurement", "data,", "we", "show", "that", "HCF", "can", "recognize", "close", "to", "90%", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "packets.", "In", "addition,", "our", "hop-count-based", "clustering", "significantly", "reduces", "the", "number", "of", "false", "positives.", "1", "Thus,", "we", "can", "discard", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "with", "little", "collateral", "damage", "in", "the", "filtering", "state.", "To", "ensure", "that", "the", "filtering", "mechanism", "itself", "withstands", "attacks,", "our", "design", "is", "light-weight", "and", "requires", "only", "a", "moderate", "amount", "of", "storage.", "We", "implement", "HCF", "in", "the", "Linux", "kernel", "as", "the", "first", "step", "of", "incoming", "packet", "processing", "at", "the", "IP", "layer.", "We", "evaluate", "the", "benefit", "of", "HCF", "with", "experimental", "measurements", "and", "show", "that", "HCF", "is", "indeed", "effective", "in", "countering", "IP", "spoofing", "by", "providing", "significant", "resource", "savings..", "While", "HCF", "is", "simple", "and", "effective", "in", "thwarting", "IP", "spoofing,", "it", "is", "not", "a", "complete", "solution", "to", "the", "generic", "DDoS", "problem.", "Rather,", "it", "is", "only", "an", "important", "piece", "of", "the", "puzzle", "that", "weeds", "out", "spoofed", "IP", "traffic.", "Like", "most", "other", "schemes", "in", "dealing", "with", "the", "DDoS", "problem,", "HCF", "has", "its", "own", "limitations.", "An", "attacker", "may", "circumvent", "HCF", "entirely", "by", "not", "using", "spoofed", "traffic,", "or", "partially", "by", "bombarding", "a", "victim", "with", "much", "more", "attacking", "traffic", "than", "seen", "before.", "Also,", "a", "\"determined\"", "attacker", "may", "find", "a", "way", "to", "build", "an", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "that", "is", "accurate", "enough", "for", "most", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "to", "evade", "HCF.", "Moreover,", "the", "actual", "deployment", "of", "1", "Those", "legitimate", "packets", "that", "are", "incorrectly", "identified", "as", "spoofed..", "HCF", "requires", "further", "work", "in", "tuning", "its", "parameters", "and", "handling", "the", "IP2HC", "inaccuracy", "caused", "by", "the", "Network", "Address", "Translator", "(NAT)", "boxes", "and", "possible", "hop-count", "instability.", "Nevertheless,", "HCF", "does", "greatly", "enhance", "the", "capability", "to", "counter", "DDoS", "attacks", "by", "depriving", "an", "attacker", "of", "his", "powerful", "weapon,", "random", "IP", "spoofing..", "The", "remainder", "of", "the", "paper", "is", "organized", "as", "follows.", "Section", "II", "presents", "the", "TTL-based", "hop-count", "computation,", "the", "pollution-proof", "hop-count", "capturing", "mechanism,", "and", "the", "hop-count", "inspection", "algorithm,", "which", "are", "critical", "to", "HCF.", "Section", "III", "demonstrates", "that", "the", "proposed", "HCF", "indeed", "works", "effectively", "in", "detecting", "spoofed", "packets,", "based", "on", "a", "large", "set", "of", "previously", "collected", "data,", "and", "also", "robust", "against", "HCF-aware", "attackers.", "Section", "IV", "presents", "the", "construction", "of", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table.", "Section", "V", "details", "the", "two", "running", "states", "of", "HCF,", "the", "inter-state", "transitions,", "and", "the", "placement", "of", "HCF.", "Section", "VI", "describes", "our", "implementation", "and", "experimental", "evaluation", "of", "HCF.", "Section", "VII", "discusses", "related", "work.", "Finally,", "the", "paper", "concludes", "with", "Section", "VIII." ], [ "In", "this", "section,", "we", "describe", "the", "basic", "principles", "of", "HCF.", "Central", "to", "HCF", "is", "the", "validation", "of", "the", "source", "IP", "address", "of", "each", "packet", "via", "hop-count", "inspection.", "We", "first", "describe", "the", "hop-count", "computation,", "and", "then", "present", "a", "safe", "update", "mechanism", "that", "captures", "the", "legitimate", "mappings", "between", "IP", "addresses", "and", "hopcount", "values.", "Finally,", "we", "summarize", "HCF", "in", "the", "form", "of", "a", "highlevel", "inspection", "algorithm." ], [ "Since", "hop-count", "information", "is", "not", "directly", "stored", "in", "the", "IP", "header,", "one", "has", "to", "compute", "it", "based", "on", "the", "final", "TTL", "value.", "TTL", "is", "an", "8-bit", "field", "in", "the", "IP", "header,", "originally", "introduced", "to", "specify", "the", "maximum", "lifetime", "of", "each", "packet", "in", "the", "Internet.", "Each", "intermediate", "router", "decrements", "the", "TTL", "value", "of", "an", "in-transit", "IP", "packet", "by", "one", "before", "forwarding", "it", "to", "the", "next-hop.", "The", "final", "TTL", "value", "when", "a", "packet", "reaches", "its", "destination", "is,", "therefore,", "the", "initial", "TTL", "decreased", "by", "the", "number", "of", "intermediate", "hops", "(or", "simply", "hop-count).", "The", "challenge", "in", "hop-count", "computation", "is", "that", "a", "destination", "only", "sees", "the", "final", "TTL", "value.", "It", "would", "have", "been", "simple", "had", "all", "operating", "systems", "(OSes)", "used", "the", "same", "initial", "TTL", "value,", "but", "in", "practice,", "there", "is", "no", "consensus", "on", "the", "initial", "TTL", "value.", "Furthermore,", "since", "the", "OS", "for", "a", "given", "IP", "address", "may", "change", "with", "time,", "we", "cannot", "assume", "a", "single", "static", "initial", "TTL", "value", "for", "each", "IP", "address..", "According", "to", "[14]", ",", "most", "modern", "OSes", "use", "only", "a", "few", "selected", "initial", "TTL", "values,", "30,", "32,", "60,", "64,", "128,", "and", "255.", "This", "set", "of", "initial", "TTL", "values", "covers", "most", "of", "the", "popular", "OSes,", "such", "as", "Microsoft", "Windows,", "Linux,", "variants", "of", "BSD,", "and", "many", "commercial", "Unix", "systems.", "We", "observe", "that", "most", "of", "these", "initial", "TTL", "values", "are", "far", "apart,", "except", "between", "30", "and", "32,", "60", "and", "64,", "and", "between", "32", "and", "60.", "Since", "Internet", "traces", "have", "shown", "that", "few", "Internet", "hosts", "are", "apart", "by", "more", "than", "30", "hops", "[9]", ",", "[10]", ",", "which", "is", "also", "confirmed", "by", "our", "own", "observation,", "one", "can", "determine", "the", "initial", "TTL", "value", "of", "a", "packet", "by", "selecting", "the", "smallest", "initial", "value", "in", "the", "set", "that", "is", "larger", "than", "its", "final", "TTL.", "For", "example,", "if", "the", "final", "TTL", "value", "is", "112,", "the", "initial", "TTL", "value", "is", "128.", "To", "resolve", "ambiguities", "in", "the", "cases", "of", "{30,", "32},", "{60,", "64},", "and", "{32,", "60},", "we", "will", "compute", "a", "hop-count", "value", "for", "each", "of", "the", "possible", "initial", "TTL", "values,", "and", "accept", "the", "packet", "if", "there", "is", "a", "match", "with", "either", "of", "the", "possible", "hop-counts..", "The", "drawback", "of", "limiting", "the", "possible", "initial", "TTL", "values", "is", "that", "packets", "from", "end-systems", "that", "use", "\"odd\"", "initial", "TTL", "values,", "may", "be", "incorrectly", "identified", "as", "spoofed.", "This", "may", "happen", "if", "a", "user", "switches", "OS", "from", "one", "that", "uses", "a", "\"normal\"", "initial", "TTL", "value", "to", "another", "that", "uses", "an", "\"odd\"", "value.", "Since", "our", "filter", "starts", "to", "discard", "packets", "only", "upon", "detection", "of", "a", "DDoS", "attack,", "such", "endsystems", "would", "suffer", "only", "during", "an", "actual", "DDoS", "attack.", "The", "study", "in", "[14]", "shows", "that", "the", "OSes", "that", "use", "\"odd\"", "initial", "TTLs", "are", "typically", "older", "OSes.", "We", "expect", "such", "OSes", "to", "constitute", "a", "very", "small", "percentage", "of", "end-hosts", "in", "the", "current", "Internet.", "Thus,", "the", "benefit", "of", "deploying", "HCF", "should", "outweigh", "the", "risk", "of", "denying", "service", "to", "those", "end-hosts", "during", "attacks." ], [ "To", "maintain", "an", "accurate", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table,", "we", "must", "capture", "valid", "hop-count", "mappings", "and", "legitimate", "changes", "in", "hopcount,", "while", "foiling", "any", "attempt", "to", "slowly", "pollute", "the", "mapping", "table.", "We", "can", "accomplish", "this", "through", "TCP", "connection", "establishment.", "The", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "should", "be", "updated", "only", "by", "packets", "belonging", "to", "TCP", "connections", "in", "the", "state", "[54]", ".", "The", "three-way", "TCP", "handshake", "for", "connection", "setup", "requires", "the", "active-open", "party", "to", "send", "an", "ACK", "(the", "last", "packet", "in", "the", "three-way", "handshake)", "to", "acknowledge", "the", "passive", "party's", "initial", "sequence", "number.", "The", "zombie", "(flooding", "source", "2", ")", "that", "sends", "the", "SYN", "packet", "with", "a", "spoofed", "IP", "address", "will", "not", "receive", "the", "victim's", "SYN/ACK", "packet", "and", "thus", "cannot", "complete", "the", "three-way", "handshake.", "3", "Using", "packets", "from", "established", "TCP", "connections", "ensures", "that", "an", "attacker", "cannot", "slowly", "pollute", "a", "table", "by", "spoofing", "source", "IP", "addresses..", "While", "our", "pollution-proof", "mechanism", "provides", "safety,", "it", "may", "be", "too", "expensive", "to", "inspect", "and", "update", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "with", "each", "newly", "established", "TCP", "connection,", "since", "our", "update", "function", "is", "on", "the", "critical", "path", "of", "TCP", "processing.", "We", "provide", "a", "user-configurable", "parameter", "to", "adjust", "the", "frequency", "of", "updates", "(see", "Section", "V-A).", "Note", "that", "the", "pollution-proof", "mechanism", "works", "to", "capture", "legitimate", "changes", "in", "hop-count", "as", "well", "as", "hop-count", "values", "of", "new", "IP", "addresses." ], [ "Assuming", "that", "an", "accurate", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "is", "present", "(see", "Section", "IV", "for", "details", "of", "its", "construction),", "Fig.", "1", "outlines", "the", "HCF", "procedure", "used", "to", "identify", "spoofed", "packets.", "The", "inspection", "algorithm", "extracts", "the", "source", "IP", "address", "and", "the", "final", "TTL", "value", "from", "each", "IP", "packet.", "The", "algorithm", "infers", "the", "initial", "TTL", "value", "and", "subtracts", "the", "final", "TTL", "value", "from", "it", "to", "obtain", "the", "hop-count.", "The", "source", "IP", "address", "serves", "as", "the", "index", "into", "the", "table", "to", "retrieve", "the", "correct", "hop-count", "for", "this", "IP", "address.", "If", "the", "computed", "hop-count", "matches", "the", "stored", "hop-count,", "the", "packet", "has", "been", "\"authenticated\";", "otherwise,", "the", "packet", "is", "classified", "as", "spoofed.", "Note", "that", "a", "spoofed", "IP", "address", "may", "happen", "to", "have", "the", "same", "hop-count", "as", "the", "one", "from", "a", "zombie", "to", "the", "victim.", "In", "this", "case,", "HCF", "will", "not", "be", "able", "to", "identify", "the", "spoofed", "packet.", "However,", "as", "shown", "in", "Section", "III-C1,", "even", "with", "a", "limited", "range", "of", "hop-count", "values,", "HCF", "is", "highly", "effective", "in", "identifying", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses." ], [ "The", "feasibility", "of", "HCF", "hinges", "on", "four", "factors:", "1)", "diversity", "of", "hop-count", "values;", "2)", "effectiveness", "in", "detecting", "spoofed", "packets;", "3)", "robustness", "against", "evasions;", "and", "4)", "stability", "of", "hop-counts.", "In", "this", "section,", "we", "first", "assess", "whether", "valid", "hop-counts", "to", "a", "server", "are", "diverse", "enough", "so", "that", "matching", "the", "hop-count", "with", "the", "source", "IP", "address", "of", "each", "packet", "suffices", "to", "recognize", "spoofed", "packets", "with", "a", "high", "probability.", "Second,", "we", "consider", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "HCF", "against", "simple", "spoofing", "attacks.", "Third,", "we", "evaluate", "the", "robustness", "of", "HCF", "by", "examining", "various", "ways", "an", "attacker", "may", "circumvent", "filtering,", "and", "by", "showing", "that", "evasion", "would", "be", "very", "difficult", "without", "severely", "limiting", "the", "damage", "or", "exposing", "the", "attacking", "sources,", "which,", "in", "turn,", "makes", "the", "detection", "and", "blockage", "of", "the", "attacking", "traffic", "much", "easier.", "Finally,", "the", "stability", "of", "hop-count", "values", "is", "discussed." ], [ "Since", "hop-count", "values", "have", "a", "limited", "range,", "typically", "between", "1", "and", "30,", "multiple", "IP", "addresses", "may", "have", "the", "same", "hop-count", "values.", "Consequently,", "HCF", "cannot", "recognize", "forged", "packets", "whose", "source", "IP", "addresses", "have", "the", "same", "hop-count", "value", "to", "a", "destination", "as", "that", "of", "a", "zombie.", "It", "is", "prudent", "to", "examine", "hop-count", "distributions", "at", "various", "locations", "in", "the", "Internet", "to", "ensure", "that", "the", "limited", "range", "does", "not", "severely", "diminish", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "HCF.", "A", "good", "hop-count", "distribution", "should", "have", "two", "properties:", "being", "symmetric", "around", "the", "mean", "value,", "and", "being", "reasonably", "diverse", "over", "the", "entire", "range.", "Symmetry", "is", "needed", "to", "take", "advantage", "of", "the", "full", "range", "of", "hop-count", "values,", "and", "diversity", "helps", "maximize", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "HCF..", "To", "obtain", "actual", "hop-count", "distributions,", "we", "use", "the", "raw", "data", "from", "47", "different", "gateways", "in", "[11]", ".", "The", "locations", "of", "gateways", "are", "diverse", "as", "shown", "in", "Table", "I", ".", "Fig.", "2", "shows", "the", "distribution", "of", "the", "number", "of", "clients", "measured", "by", "each", "of", "the", "47", "gateways.", "Most", "of", "the", "gateways", "measured", "hop-counts", "to", "more", "than", "40", "000", "clients..", "We", "examined", "the", "hop-count", "distributions", "at", "all", "gateways", "and", "found", "that", "the", "Gaussian", "distribution", "(bell-shaped", "curve)", "could", "be", "a", "good", "first-order", "approximation,", "but", "we", "do", "not", "make", "any", "claim", "whether", "hop-count", "distributions", "are", "indeed", "Gaussian.", "Figs.", "3", "and", "4", "show", "the", "hop-count", "distributions", "of", "two", "selected", "sites:", "a", "well-connected", "commercial", "server", "and", "an", "educational", "institute.", "The", "mean", "value", "of", "a", "Gaussian", "distribution", "specifies", "the", "center", "of", "the", "bell-shaped", "curve.", "The", "standard", "deviation", "describes", "the", "girth", "of", "the", "curve-the", "larger", "the", ",", "the", "more", "diverse", "the", "hop-count", "distribution,", "and", "the", "more", "effective", "HCF", "will", "be.", "For", "each", "given", "hop-count", "distribution,", "we", "use", "the", "normfit", "function", "in", "Matlab", "to", "compute", "and", ".", "We", "plot", "the", "CDF", "of", "the", "mean", "and", "standard", "deviation", "of", "the", "fitted", "Gaussian", "function", "in", "Figs.", "5", "and", "6.", "We", "observe", "that", "most", "of", "the", "values", "fall", "between", "14", "and", "19", "hops,", "and", "the", "values", "between", "3", "and", "5", "hops.", "More", "importantly,", "in", "most", "distributions,", "the", "mode", "accounts", "for", "only", "10%", "of", "the", "total", "IP", "addresses,", "with", "the", "maximum", "and", "minimum", "of", "the", "47", "modes", "being", "15%", "and", "8%,", "respectively.", "Thus,", "the", "hop-count", "distributions", "in", "our", "data", "set", "satisfy", "both", "the", "symmetry", "and", "diversity", "properties", "to", "enable", "very", "effective", "filtering." ], [ "We", "now", "assess", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "HCF", "by", "asking", "the", "question", "\"what", "fraction", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "can", "be", "detected", "by", "the", "proposed", "HCF?\"", "We", "assume", "that", "potential", "victim", "servers", "know", "the", "complete", "mapping", "between", "their", "client", "IP", "addresses", "and", "hop-counts", "(to", "the", "victims", "themselves).", "In", "Section", "III-B1,", "we", "will", "discuss", "how", "to", "construct", "such", "mappings.", "Without", "loss", "of", "generality,", "we", "further", "assume", "that", "the", "attacker", "evenly", "divides", "the", "flooding", "traffic", "among", "the", "flooding", "sources.", "To", "make", "the", "analysis", "tractable,", "we", "consider", "only", "static", "hop-counts.", "(The", "update", "procedure", "that", "captures", "legitimate", "hop-count", "changes", "has", "been", "shown", "in", "Section", "II-B)..", "Most", "of", "the", "available", "DDoS", "attacking", "tools", "[12]", ",", "[13]", "do", "not", "alter", "the", "initial", "TTL", "values", "of", "packets.", "Thus,", "the", "final", "TTL", "value", "of", "a", "spoofed", "packet", "will", "bear", "the", "hop-count", "between", "the", "flooding", "source", "and", "the", "victim.", "We", "examine", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "HCF", "against", "simple", "attackers", "that", "spoof", "source", "IP", "addresses", "while", "still", "using", "the", "default", "initial", "TTL", "values", "at", "the", "flooding", "sources.", "To", "assess", "the", "performance", "of", "HCF", "against", "such", "simple", "attacks,", "we", "consider", "two", "scenarios:", "a", "single", "flooding", "source", "and", "multiple", "flooding", "sources..", "1)", "Single", "Source:", "Fig.", "7", "depicts", "the", "hop-count", "distributions", "seen", "at", "a", "hypothetical", "server", "for", "both", "real", "client", "IP", "addresses", "and", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "generated", "by", "a", "single", "flooding", "source.", "Since", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "come", "from", "a", "single", "source,", "they", "all", "have", "an", "identical", "hop-count.", "Hence,", "the", "hop-count", "distribution", "of", "spoofed", "packets", "is", "a", "vertical", "bar", "of", "width", "1.", "The", "shaded", "area", "represents", "those", "IP", "addresses-the", "fraction", "of", "total", "valid", "IP", "addresses-that", "have", "the", "same", "hop-count", "to", "the", "server", "as", "the", "flooding", "source.", "Thus,", "the", "fraction", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "that", "cannot", "be", "detected", "is", ",", "and", "the", "remaining", "fraction", "will", "be", "identified", "and", "discarded", "by", "HCF..", "The", "attacker", "may", "happen", "to", "choose", "a", "zombie", "that", "is", "16", "or", "17-the", "most", "popular", "hop-count", "values-hops", "away", "from", "the", "victim", "as", "the", "flooding", "source.", "As", "shown", "in", "Section", "III-A,", "even", "if", "the", "attacker", "floods", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "from", "such", "a", "zombie,", "HCF", "should", "still", "identify", "nearly", "90%", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses.", "HCF", "is", "highly", "effective", "against", "a", "single", "attacking", "source,", "reducing", "the", "attacking", "traffic", "by", "one", "order", "of", "magnitude..", "2)", "Multiple", "Sources:", "Distributed", "DoS", "attacks", "involve", "more", "than", "a", "single", "host.", "Suppose", "there", "are", "sources", "that", "flood", "a", "total", "of", "packets,", "and", "each", "flooding", "source", "generates", "spoofed", "packets.", "We", "assume", "that", "each", "flooding", "source", "generates", "traffic", "without", "altering", "the", "initial", "TTL", "value.", "If", "is", "the", "hop-count", "between", "the", "victim", "and", "flooding", "source", ",", "then", "the", "spoofed", "packets", "from", "source", "that", "HCF", "can", "identify", "is", ".", "The", "fraction,", ",", "of", "identifiable", "spoofed", "packets", "generated", "by", "flooding", "sources", "is", "This", "expression", "says", "that", "the", "overall", "effectiveness", "of", "having", "multiple", "flooding", "sources", "is", "somewhere", "between", "that", "of", "the", "most", "effective", "source", "with", "the", "largest", "and", "that", "of", "the", "least", "effective", "source", "with", "the", "smallest", ".", "Adding", "more", "flooding", "sources", "does", "not", "diminish", "the", "ability", "of", "HCF", "to", "identify", "spoofed", "IP", "packets.", "On", "the", "contrary,", "since", "hop-count", "distributions", "follow", "a", "Gaussian", "distribution,", "the", "existence", "of", "less", "effective", "flooding", "sources", "(with", "small", "'s)", "reduces", "the", "total", "volume", "of", "undetectable", "attacking", "traffic." ], [ "Once", "attackers", "become", "aware", "of", "HCF,", "they", "will", "attempt", "to", "circumvent", "the", "hop-count", "inspection.", "The", "robustness", "of", "HCF", "against", "such", "HCF-aware", "attackers", "is", "a", "serious", "concern", "to", "victim", "servers.", "In", "what", "follows,", "we", "first", "assess", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "a", "simple", "evasion", "of", "randomizing", "initial", "TTL", "values.", "Then,", "we", "show", "that", "in", "order", "to", "successfully", "evade", "HCF,", "more", "sophisticated", "evasion", "attempts", "require", "a", "large", "amount", "of", "time", "and", "resources,", "and", "elaborate", "planning,", "i.e.,", "casual", "attackers", "are", "unlikely", "to", "evade", "HCF." ], [ "While", "the", "hop-count", "from", "a", "single", "flooding", "source", "to", "the", "victim", "is", "fixed,", "randomizing", "the", "initial", "TTL", "values", "will", "create", "an", "illusion", "of", "attacking", "packets", "having", "many", "different", "hop-count", "values", "at", "the", "victim", "server.", "Instead", "of", "using", "the", "default", "initial", "TTL", "value,", "an", "attacker", "may", "simply", "randomize", "the", "initial", "TTL", "values,", "hoping", "that", "many", "forged", "packets", "may", "happen", "to", "carry", "matching", "final", "TTL", "values", "when", "they", "reach", "the", "victim..", "An", "attacker", "may", "generate", "the", "full", "range", "of", "hop-counts", "from", "1", "to", "30", "by", "randomizing", "initial", "TTL", "values", "from", "the", "range", ",", "where", "is", "the", "hop-count", "from", "the", "flooding", "source", "to", "the", "victim", "and", "is", "the", "default", "initial", "TTL", "value", "at", "the", "flooding", "source.", "The", "final", "TTL", "values,", "'s,", "seen", "at", "the", "victim", "are", ",", "where", "represents", "randomly", "generated", "initial", "TTLs.", "Since", "is", "constant,", "if", "follows", "a", "certain", "random", "distribution", ",", "then", "'s", "follow", "the", "same", "random", "distribution.", "Because", "the", "victim", "derives", "the", "hop-count", "of", "a", "received", "IP", "packet", "based", "on", "its", "value,", "the", "perceived", "hop-count", "of", "a", "spoofed", "source", "IP", "address", "is", "also", "randomly", "distributed..", "As", "a", "simple", "example,", "we", "assume", "that", "the", "attacker", "generates", "initial", "TTLs", "using", "uniform", "distribution.", "Fig.", "8", "illustrates", "the", "effect", "of", "randomized", "initial", "TTLs,", "where", ".", "We", "use", "a", "Gaussian", "curve", "with", "and", "to", "represent", "a", "typical", "hop-count", "distribution", "(see", "Section", "III-A)", "from", "real", "IP", "addresses", "to", "the", "victim,", "and", "the", "box", "graph", "to", "represent", "the", "uniform", "hop-count", "distribution", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "at", "the", "victim.", "The", "large", "overlap", "between", "the", "two", "graphs", "may", "appear", "to", "indicate", "that", "our", "filtering", "mechanism", "is", "not", "effective.", "On", "the", "contrary,", "uniformly", "distributed", "random", "TTLs", "actually", "conceal", "fewer", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "from", "HCF.", "For", "uniformly", "distributed", "TTLs,", "each", "spoofed", "source", "IP", "address", "has", "the", "probability", "of", "having", "the", "matching", "TTL", "value,", "where", "is", "the", "number", "of", "possible", "hop-counts.", "Consequently,", "for", "each", "possible", "hop-count", ",", "only", "fraction", "of", "IP", "addresses", "have", "correct", "TTL", "values.", "Overall,", "assuming", "that", "the", "range", "of", "possible", "hop-counts", "is", "where", "and", ",", "the", "fraction", "of", "spoofed", "source", "IP", "addresses", "that", "have", "correct", "TTL", "values", "is", "given", "as.", "Here", "we", "use", "in", "place", "of", "to", "simplify", "notation.", "In", "Fig.", "8", ",", "the", "range", "of", "generated", "hop-counts", "is", "between", "10", "and", "20,", "so.", ".", "The", "summation", "will", "have", "a", "maximum", "value", "of", "1,", "thus", "can", "be", "at", "most", ",", "which", "is", "represented", "by", "the", "area", "under", "the", "shorter", "Gaussian", "distribution", "in", "Fig.", "8", ".", "In", "this", "case,", "less", "than", "10%", "of", "spoofed", "packets", "go", "undetected", "by", "HCF..", "In", "general,", "an", "attacker", "could", "generate", "initial", "TTLs", "within", "the", "range", ",", "based", "on", "a", "certain", "distribution,", "where", "the", "fraction", "of", "IP", "addresses", "with", "hop-count", "is.", ".", "If", "the", "fraction", "of", "the", "real", "IP", "addresses", "that", "have", "a", "hop-count", "of", "is", ",", "then", "the", "fraction", "of", "the", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "that", "will", "not", "be", "caught", "by", "HCF", "is.", "The", "term", "inside", "the", "summation", "simply", "states", "that", "only", "fraction", "of", "IP", "addresses", "with", "hop-count", "can", "be", "spoofed", "with", "matching", "TTL", "values.", "It", "is", "not", "difficult", "to", "see", "that", "in", "order", "to", "maximize", ",", "an", "attacker", "must", "generate", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "with", "the", "most", "popular", "hop-count,", ",", "for", "which", "is", "the", "largest", "among", "all", "s.", "Thus,", "this", "more", "sophisticated", "attack", "is", "no", "more", "threatening", "than", "the", "simple", "attacks", "in", "Section", "III-B1..", "A", "more", "rigorous", "mathematical", "analysis", "of", "HCF's", "robustness", "against", "randomized", "TTL", "attacks", "is", "given", "in", "the", "Appendix." ], [ "A", "successful", "evasion", "requires", "that", "HCF-aware", "attackers", "correctly", "set", "an", "appropriate", "initial", "TTL", "value", "for", "each", "spoofed", "packet.", "Without", "loss", "of", "generality,", "we", "assume", "the", "same", "initial", "TTL", "value", "for", "all", "Internet", "hosts.", "A", "packet", "from", "a", "flooding", "source,", "which", "is", "hops", "away", "from", "the", "victim,", "has", "a", "final", "TTL", "value", "of", ".", "In", "order", "for", "the", "attacker", "to", "generate", "spoofed", "packets", "from", "this", "flooding", "source", "without", "being", "detected,", "the", "initial", "TTL", "value", "of", "each", "packet", "must", "be", "set", "to", ",", "where", "is", "the", "hop-count", "from", "the", "spoofed", "IP", "address", "to", "the", "victim.", "Each", "spoofed", "packet", "would", "then", "have", "the", "correct", "final", "TTL", "value,", ",", "when", "it", "reaches", "the", "victim.", "An", "attacker", "may", "easily", "learn", "the", "hop-count,", ",", "from", "a", "zombie", "to", "the", "victim", "by", "running", ".", "However,", "randomly", "selecting", "the", "source", "address", "for", "each", "spoofed", "IP", "packet", "[12]", ",", "[13]", "makes", "it", "extremely", "difficult,", "if", "not", "impossible,", "for", "the", "attacker", "to", "learn", ".", "To", "obtain", "the", "correct", "values", "for", "all", "spoofed", "packets", "sent", "to", "the", "victim,", "the", "attacker", "has", "to", "build", "a", "priori", "an", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "that", "covers", "the", "entire", "spoofed", "IP", "address", "space.", "This", "is", "much", "more", "difficult", "than", "building", "an", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "at", "the", "victim,", "since", "the", "attacker", "cannot", "observe", "the", "final", "TTL", "values", "of", "normal", "traffic", "at", "the", "victim.", "For", "an", "attacker", "to", "build", "such", "an", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table,", "he", "may", "have", "to", "compromise", "at", "least", "one", "end-host", "behind", "every", "stub", "network", "whose", "IP", "addresses", "are", "in", "the", "random", "IP", "address", "space,", "and", "perform", "to", "get", "for", "the", "corresponding", "IP2HC", "mapping", "entry.", "Even", "if", "the", "attacker", "probes", "only", "one", "host", "per", "stub", "network,", "with", "a", "large", "IP", "spoofing", "space,", "the", "probing", "activity", "will", "take", "considerable", "amount", "of", "time.", "Moreover,", "network", "administrators", "are", "alert", "to", "unusual", "access", "patterns", "or", "probing", "attempts,", "it", "would", "require", "an", "excessive", "amount", "of", "effort", "to", "coordinate", "the", "probing", "attempts", "with", "impunity.", "Without", "the", "correct", "values,", "the", "attacker", "cannot", "fabricate", "the", "appropriate", "initial", "TTL", "values", "to", "conceal", "forgery..", "Without", "compromising", "end-hosts,", "an", "attacker", "may", "compute", "hop-counts", "of", "to-be-spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "based", "on", "an", "existing", "router-level", "topology", "of", "the", "Internet,", "and", "the", "underlying", "routing", "algorithms", "and", "policies.", "The", "recent", "Internet", "mapping", "efforts", "such", "as", "Internet", "Map", "[9]", ",", "Mercator", "[20]", ",", "Rocketfuel", "[48]", ",", "and", "Skitter", "[10]", "projects,", "may", "make", "the", "approach", "plausible.", "However,", "the", "current", "topology", "mappings", "put", "together", "snapshots", "of", "various", "networks", "measured", "at", "different", "times.", "Thus-produced", "topology", "maps", "are", "generally", "time-averaged", "approximations", "of", "actual", "network", "connectivity.", "More", "importantly,", "inter-domain", "routing", "in", "the", "Internet", "is", "policy-based,", "and", "the", "routing", "policies", "are", "not", "disclosed", "to", "the", "public.", "The", "path,", "and", "therefore", "the", "hop-count,", "between", "a", "source", "and", "a", "destination", "is", "determined", "by", "routing", "policies", "and", "algorithms", "that", "are", "often", "unknown.", "Even", "if", "an", "attacker", "has", "accurate", "information", "of", "the", "Internet", "topology,", "he", "cannot", "obtain", "the", "correct", "hop-counts", "based", "on", "network", "connectivity", "alone.", "We", "believe", "that", "the", "quality", "of", "network", "maps", "will", "improve", "with", "better", "mapping", "technology,", "but", "we", "do", "not", "anticipate", "any", "near-term", "advance", "that", "can", "lead", "to", "accurate", "hop-counts", "based", "on", "just", "Internet", "topology", "maps..", "Instead", "of", "spoofing", "randomly", "selected", "IP", "addresses,", "the", "attacker", "may", "choose", "to", "spoof", "IP", "addresses", "from", "a", "set", "of", "already-compromised", "machines", "that", "are", "much", "smaller", "in", "number", "than", "2", ",", "so", "that", "he", "can", "measure", "all", "'s", "and", "fabricate", "appropriate", "initial", "TTLs.", "However,", "this", "reduces", "the", "attacker's", "ability", "to", "launch", "a", "successful", "attack", "in", "several", "ways.", "First,", "the", "list", "of", "would-be", "spoofed", "source", "IP", "addresses", "is", "greatly", "reduced,", "which", "makes", "the", "detection", "and", "removal", "of", "flooding", "traffic", "much", "easier.", "Second,", "source", "addresses", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "reveal", "the", "locations", "of", "compromised", "end-hosts,", "which", "makes", "IP", "traceback", "much", "easier.", "Third,", "the", "most", "popular", "distributed", "attacking", "tools,", "including", "mstream,", "Shaft,", "Stacheldraht,", "TFN,", "TFN2k,", "Trinoo", "and", "Trinity,", "generate", "randomized", "IP", "addresses", "in", "the", "space", "of", "2", "for", "spoofing", "[12]", ",", "[13]", ".", "Thus,", "the", "attacker", "must", "now", "modify", "the", "available", "attacking", "tools,", "which", "may", "be", "difficult", "for", "an", "unsophisticated", "attacker..", "Overall,", "although", "it", "is", "not", "difficult", "to", "obtain", "the", "appropriate", "initial", "TTL", "for", "a", "single", "IP", "address,", "the", "attacker", "has", "to", "spend", "a", "significant", "amount", "of", "time", "and", "effort", "to", "achieve", "accurate", "hopcount", "information", "for", "a", "large", "IP", "spoof", "space.", "While", "HCF", "cannot", "eliminate", "DDoS", "attacks,", "it", "will", "make", "it", "much", "harder", "for", "them", "to", "succeed." ], [ "The", "stability", "in", "hop-counts", "between", "an", "Internet", "server", "and", "its", "clients", "is", "crucial", "for", "HCF", "to", "work", "correctly", "and", "effectively..", "Frequent", "changes", "in", "the", "hop-count", "between", "the", "server", "and", "each", "of", "its", "clients", "not", "only", "lead", "to", "excessive", "mapping", "updates,", "but", "also", "greatly", "reduce", "filtering", "accuracy", "when", "an", "out-of-date", "mapping", "is", "in", "use", "during", "attacks..", "Hop-count", "stability", "is", "dictated", "by", "the", "end-to-end", "routing", "behaviors", "in", "the", "Internet.", "According", "to", "the", "study", "of", "end-to-end", "routing", "stability", "in", "[37]", ",", "the", "Internet", "paths", "were", "found", "to", "be", "dominated", "by", "a", "few", "prevalent", "routes,", "and", "about", "two", "thirds", "of", "the", "Internet", "paths", "studied", "were", "observed", "to", "have", "routes", "persisting", "for", "either", "days", "or", "weeks.", "To", "confirm", "these", "findings,", "we", "use", "daily", "measurements", "taken", "at", "ten-minute", "intervals", "among", "113", "sites", "[16]", "from", "January", "1st", "to", "April", "30,", "2003", ".", "We", "observed", "a", "total", "of", "10", "814", "distinct", "one-way", "paths,", "a", "majority", "of", "which", "had", "12", "000", "traceroute", "measurements", "each", "over", "the", "five-month", "period.", "In", "these", "measurements,", "most", "of", "the", "paths", "experienced", "very", "few", "hop-count", "changes:", "95%", "of", "the", "paths", "had", "fewer", "than", "five", "observable", "daily", "changes..", "Furthermore,", "recent", "Internet", "experiments", "[28]", ",", "[41]", "have", "shown", "that,", "despite", "the", "large", "number", "of", "routing", "updates:", "1)", "a", "large", "fraction", "of", "destination", "prefixes", "have", "remarkably", "stable", "Border", "Gateway", "Protocol", "(BGP)", "routes;", "2)", "popular", "prefixes", "tend", "to", "have", "stable", "BGP", "routes", "for", "days", "or", "weeks;", "and", "3)", "a", "vast", "majority", "of", "BGP", "instability", "stems", "from", "a", "small", "number", "of", "unpopular", "destinations.", "Within", "a", "single", "domain,", "a", "case", "study", "of", "intra-domain", "routing", "behavior", "[44]", "indicates", "that", "the", "intra-domain", "topology", "changes", "are", "due", "mainly", "to", "external", "changes", "4", "and", "no", "network-wide", "instability", "is", "observed..", "Therefore,", "it", "is", "reasonable", "to", "expect", "hop-counts", "to", "be", "stable", "in", "the", "Internet.", "Moreover,", "the", "proposed", "filter", "contains", "a", "dynamic", "update", "procedure", "to", "capture", "hop-count", "changes", "as", "discussed", "in", "Section", "IV-B." ], [ "We", "have", "shown", "that", "HCF", "can", "remove", "nearly", "90%", "of", "spoofed", "traffic", "with", "an", "accurate", "mapping", "between", "IP", "addresses", "and", "hopcounts.", "Thus,", "building", "an", "accurate", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "is", "critical", "to", "detect", "the", "maximum", "number", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "packets.", "In", "this", "section,", "we", "detail", "our", "approach", "to", "constructing", "a", "table.", "Our", "objectives", "in", "building", "a", "table", "are:", "1)", "accurate", "IP2HC", "mapping;", "2)", "up-to-date", "IP2HC", "mapping;", "and", "3)", "moderate", "storage", "requirement.", "By", "clustering", "address", "prefixes", "based", "on", "hop-counts,", "we", "can", "build", "accurate", "IP2HC", "mapping", "tables", "and", "maximize", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "HCF", "without", "storing", "the", "hop-count", "for", "each", "IP", "address." ], [ "Ideally,", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "has", "one", "entry", "for", "each", "valid", "IP", "address.", "However,", "this", "will", "consume", "a", "very", "large", "amount", "of", "memory,", "and", "it", "is", "unlikely", "that", "an", "Internet", "server", "will", "receive", "legitimate", "requests", "from", "all", "live", "IP", "addresses", "in", "the", "Internet.", "By", "aggregating", "IP", "address,", "we", "can", "reduce", "the", "space", "requirement", "of", "IP2HC", "mapping", "significantly.", "More", "importantly,", "with", "IP", "address", "aggregation,", "it", "is", "enough", "to", "capture", "the", "hop-count", "value", "of", "one", "IP", "address", "from", "each", "subnet", "in", "order", "to", "build", "a", "complete", "HCF", "mapping", "table.", "In", "the", "following,", "we", "present", "and", "evaluate", "the", "techniques", "for", "IP", "address", "aggregation", "in", "constructing", "IP2HC", "mapping", "tables.", "4", "Here", "the", "external", "changes", "are", "the", "routing", "updates", "conveyed", "by", "external", "linkstate", "advertisements", "[44]", "." ], [ "Aggregating", "hosts", "according", "to", "address", "prefix,", "especially", "the", "24-bit", "address", "prefix,", "is", "a", "common", "method.", "It", "is", "straightforward", "to", "implement", "in", "practice", "and", "can", "offer", "fast", "lookup", "with", "an", "efficient", "implementation.", "Assuming", "an", "array", "with", "one-byte", "hop-count", "entry", "per", "network", "prefix,", "the", "storage", "requirement", "is", "2", "bytes", "or", "16", "MB.", "The", "memory", "requirement", "is", "modest", "compared", "to", "contemporary", "servers", "which", "are", "typically", "equipped", "with", "multi-gigabytes", "of", "memory.", "Under", "this", "setup,", "the", "lookup", "operation", "consists", "of", "computing", "a", "24-bit", "address", "prefix", "from", "the", "source", "IP", "address", "in", "each", "packet", "and", "indexing", "it", "into", "the", "mapping", "table", "to", "find", "the", "right", "hop-count", "value.", "For", "systems", "with", "limited", "memory,", "the", "HCF", "mapping", "table", "can", "be", "implemented", "as", "a", "hash-table", "of", "prefixes", "of", "known", "clients.", "While", "24-bit", "aggregation", "may", "not", "be", "the", "most", "accurate,", "it", "is", "a", "certainly", "a", "deployable", "solution..", "Since", "IP", "addresses", "within", "each", "24-bit", "address", "prefix", "may", "be", "allocated", "to", "different", "physical", "networks,", "these", "hosts", "are", "not", "necessarily", "co-located", "and", "most", "likely", "do", "not", "have", "identical", "hop-counts.", "To", "obtain", "a", "more", "accurate", "IP2HC", "mapping,", "one", "can", "further", "divide", "IP", "addresses", "within", "each", "24-bit", "prefix", "into", "smaller", "clusters", "based", "on", "hop-count.", "Using", "a", "binary", "tree,", "we", "can", "cluster", "IP", "addresses", "with", "the", "same", "hop-count.", "The", "leaves", "of", "the", "tree", "represent", "the", "254", "(excluding", "the", "network", "address", "and", "the", "subnet", "mask)", "valid", "IP", "addresses", "inside", "a", "24-bit", "address", "prefix.", "In", "each", "iteration,", "we", "examine", "two", "sibling", "nodes", "and", "aggregate", "the", "two", "nodes", "as", "long", "as", "they", "share", "a", "common", "hop-count,", "or", "one", "of", "them", "is", "empty.", "If", "aggregation", "is", "possible,", "the", "parent", "node", "will", "have", "the", "same", "hop-count", "as", "the", "children.", "We", "can", "thus", "find", "the", "largest", "possible", "aggregation", "for", "a", "given", "set", "of", "IP", "addresses.", "Fig.", "9", "shows", "an", "example", "of", "clustering", "a", "set", "of", "IP", "addresses", "(with", "the", "last", "octet", "shown)", "by", "their", "hop-counts", "using", "the", "aggregation", "tree", "(showing", "the", "first", "four", "levels).", "For", "example,", "the", "IP", "address", "range", "128", "to", "245", "is", "aggregated", "into", "a", "128/25", "prefix", "with", "a", "hop-count", "of", "20,", "and", "the", "three", "IP", "addresses", "79,", "105,", "and", "111", "are", "aggregated", "into", "a", "64/26", "prefix", "with", "a", "hop-count", "of", "20.", "We", "are", "able", "to", "aggregate", "11", "of", "17", "IP", "addresses", "into", "four", "network", "prefixes.", "The", "remaining", "ones", "must", "be", "stored", "as", "individual", "IP", "addresses..", "Based", "on", "the", "BGP", "routing", "table", "information,", "a", "network-aware", "clustering", "technique", "[26]", "has", "been", "proposed", "to", "identify", "a", "group", "of", "Web", "clients", "that", "are", "topologically", "close", "to", "each", "other", "and", "likely", "to", "be", "under", "a", "single", "administration.", "In", "contrast,", "hop-count", "clustering", "is", "self-reliant,", "and", "the", "IP", "addresses", "within", "the", "same", "cluster", "may", "not", "be", "topologically", "close", "to", "each", "other", "while", "they", "have", "the", "same", "hop-count", "to", "the", "victim", "server..", "To", "understand", "whether", "our", "clustering", "method", "improves", "HCF", "over", "the", "simpler", "24-bit", "aggregation,", "we", "compare", "the", "filtering", "accuracies", "of", "mapping", "tables", "built", "under", "different", "aggregation", "techniques..", "2)", "Evaluation", "of", "Filtering", "Accuracy:", "We", "treat", "each", "gateway", "(Section", "III-A)", "as", "a", "\"web", "server,\"", "and", "its", "measured", "IP", "addresses", "as", "clients", "to", "this", "web", "server.", "We", "build", "a", "table", "based", "on", "the", "set", "of", "client", "IP", "addresses", "at", "each", "web", "server", "and", "evaluate", "the", "filtering", "accuracy", "under", "each", "aggregation", "method.", "We", "assume", "that", "the", "attacker", "generates", "packets", "by", "randomly", "selecting", "source", "IP", "addresses", "among", "legitimate", "clients.", "We", "further", "assume", "that", "the", "attacker", "knows", "the", "general", "hop-count", "distribution", "for", "each", "web", "server", "and", "uses", "it", "to", "randomly", "generate", "a", "hop-count", "for", "each", "spoofed", "packet.", "This", "is", "the", "most", "effective", "DDoS", "attack", "that", "an", "attacker", "can", "launch", "without", "learning", "the", "exact", "IP2HC", "mapping..", "We", "use", "the", "percentages", "of", "false", "positives", "and", "false", "negatives", "to", "measure", "filtering", "accuracy.", "False", "positives", "are", "those", "legitimate", "client", "IP", "addresses", "that", "are", "incorrectly", "identified", "as", "spoofed.", "False", "negatives", "are", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "that", "go", "undetected", "by", "HCF.", "A", "good", "aggregation", "method", "should", "minimize", "both..", "Under", "each", "aggregation", "method,", "we", "build", "an", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "for", "each", "web", "server.", "Since", "a", "24-bit", "prefix", "may", "contain", "addresses", "with", "different", "hop-counts,", "we", "use", "the", "minimum", "hop-count", "of", "all", "IP", "addresses", "inside", "the", "24-bit", "network", "address", "as", "the", "hop-count", "of", "the", "network.", "To", "filter", "an", "IP", "packet,", "the", "source", "IP", "address", "is", "mapped", "into", "the", "proper", "table", "entry", "through", "prefix", "matching,", "and", "the", "hop-count", "in", "the", "packet", "is", "checked", "against", "the", "one", "stored", "in", "the", "table.", "Since", "24-bit", "aggregation", "cannot", "preserve", "hop-counts", "for", "all", "IP", "addresses", "within", "each", "address", "prefix,", "we", "examine", "the", "performance", "of", "three", "types", "of", "filtering", "policies:", "Strict", "Filtering,", "1", "Filtering,", "and", "2", "Filtering.", "Strict", "Filtering", "drops", "packets", "whose", "hop-counts", "do", "not", "match", "those", "stored", "in", "the", "table.", "1", "Filtering", "drops", "packets", "whose", "hop-counts", "differ", "by", "more", "than", "one", "hop", "from", "those", "in", "the", "table,", "and", "2", "Filtering", "drops", "packets", "whose", "hop-counts", "differ", "by", "more", "than", "two", "hops.", "32-bit", "Strict", "Filtering", "is", "the", "ideal", "case", "where", "the", "mapping", "table", "has", "one", "entry", "for", "each", "valid", "IP", "address.", "Packet", "filtering", "based", "on", "a", "table", "built", "using", "hop-count", "clustering", "is", "called", "Cluster-Based", "Filtering.", "Fig.", "10", "presents", "the", "combined", "false", "positive", "and", "false", "negative", "results", "for", "the", "five", "filtering", "schemes:", "32-bit", "Strict,", "24-bit", "Strict,", "24-bit", "1,", "24-bit", "2,", "and", "Clustering-based", "Filterings.", "The", "axis", "is", "the", "percentage", "of", "false", "negatives,", "and", "the", "axis", "is", "the", "percentage", "of", "false", "positives.", "Each", "point", "in", "the", "figure", "represents", "the", "pair", "of", "percentages", "for", "a", "single", "web", "server.", "We", "observe", "that", "the", "24-bit", "strict", "filtering", "yields", "a", "similar", "percentage", "of", "false", "negatives", "as", "32-bit", "Strict", "Filtering,", "only", "5%", "of", "false", "negatives.", "This", "is", "because", "the", "percentage", "of", "false", "negatives", "is", "determined", "by", "the", "distribution", "of", "hop-counts,", "and", "24-bit", "aggregation", "does", "not", "alter", "the", "hop-count", "distribution.", "However,", "under", "24-bit", "Strict", "Filtering,", "most", "web", "servers", "suffer", "about", "10%", "of", "false", "positives,", "while", "the", "percentage", "of", "false", "positives", "under", "32-bit", "Strict", "Filtering", "is", "zero.", "As", "we", "relax", "the", "filtering", "criterion", "as", "in", "24-bit", "1", "2", "Filtering,", "false", "positives", "of", "24-bit", "aggregation", "are", "halved", "while", "false", "negatives", "approximately", "doubled.", "If", "one", "desires", "a", "simpler", "implementation", "than", "Cluster-Based", "Fil-", "tering,", "1", "Filtering", "under", "24-bit", "aggregation", "offers", "a", "reasonable", "compromise..", "With", "hop-count-based", "clustering,", "we", "never", "aggregate", "IP", "addresses", "that", "do", "not", "share", "the", "same", "hop-count.", "Hence,", "we", "can", "eliminate", "false", "positives", "as", "long", "as", "we", "update", "the", "mapping", "table", "when", "client", "hop-counts", "change.", "As", "shown", "in", "Fig.", "10", ",", "where", "the", "points", "of", "Clustering-Based", "Filtering", "overlap", "with", "those", "of", "32-bit", "Strict", "Filtering,", "Clustering-Based", "Filtering", "has", "nearly", "identical", "performance", "as", "32-bit", "Strict", "Filtering..", "Compared", "with", "the", "24-bit", "aggregation,", "the", "clustering", "approach", "is", "more", "accurate", "but", "consumes", "more", "memory.", "Fig.", "11", "shows", "the", "number", "of", "entries", "in", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "for", "each", "web", "server", "used", "in", "our", "experiments.", "The", "axis", "is", "the", "web", "server", "ID,", "ranked", "according", "to", "the", "number", "of", "client", "IP", "addresses,", "and", "the", "axis", "is", "the", "number", "of", "table", "entries.", "The", "number", "of", "entries", "under", "Cluster-Based", "Filtering", "does", "not", "include", "the", "intermediate", "nodes", "used", "to", "generate", "the", "mapping,", "e.g.,", "the", "internal", "nodes", "in", "the", "clustering", "trees,", "because", "these", "internal", "nodes", "do", "not", "need", "to", "be", "stored", "in", "the", "final", "mapping", "table.", "Since", "the", "clustering", "algorithm", "and", "the", "aggregation", "tree", "are", "completely", "deterministic,", "we", "can", "easily", "reconstruct", "the", "tree", "on", "demand", "to", "reduce", "memory", "consumption.", "Clustering-based", "Filtering", "increases", "the", "number", "of", "entries", "by", "no", "more", "than", "20%", "in", "all", "but", "one", "case,", "in", "comparison", "with", "the", "24-bit", "Strict", "Filtering.", "The", "32-bit", "Strict", "Filtering,", "while", "having", "slightly", "higher", "accuracy,", "increases", "the", "number", "of", "entries", "by", "at", "least", "67%." ], [ "Before", "running", "HCF,", "we", "need", "to", "initialize", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "and", "then", "keep", "the", "mapping", "table", "updated.", "The", "most", "critical", "aspect", "in", "initializing", "and", "updating", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "is", "to", "ensure", "that", "only", "valid", "IP2HC", "mappings", "are", "stored", "in", "the", "table." ], [ "To", "populate", "an", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "initially,", "the", "administrator", "of", "an", "Internet", "server", "should", "collect", "traces", "of", "its", "clients", "to", "obtain", "both", "IP", "addresses", "and", "the", "corresponding", "hop-count", "values.", "The", "initial", "collection", "period", "should", "be", "long", "enough", "to", "ensure", "good", "filtering", "accuracy", "even", "at", "the", "very", "beginning,", "and", "the", "duration", "should", "depend", "on", "the", "amount", "of", "daily", "traffic", "the", "server", "is", "receiving.", "For", "a", "popular", "site", "such", "as", "or", ",", "a", "collection", "period", "of", "a", "few", "days", "could", "be", "sufficient,", "while", "for", "a", "lightly", "loaded", "site,", "a", "few", "weeks", "might", "be", "more", "appropriate..", "After", "the", "initial", "population", "of", "the", "mapping", "table", "and", "activation,", "HCF", "will", "continue", "adding", "new", "entries", "to", "the", "mapping", "table", "when", "requests", "with", "previously", "unseen", "legitimate", "IP", "addresses", "are", "sighted.", "Thus,", "over", "time,", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "will", "capture", "the", "correct", "mapping", "between", "IP", "address", "and", "hop-count", "for", "all", "clients", "of", "a", "server.", "This", "ensures", "that", "spoofed", "IP", "traffic", "can", "be", "detected,", "and", "then", "discarded", "with", "little", "collateral", "damage", "during", "a", "DDoS", "attack..", "2)", "Updating", "Hop-Counts:", "IP2HC", "mapping", "must", "be", "kept", "up-to-date", "as", "hop-counts", "of", "existing", "IP", "addresses", "change.", "The", "hop-count", "from", "a", "client", "to", "a", "server", "could", "change", "as", "a", "result", "of", "relocation", "of", "networks,", "routing", "instability,", "or", "temporary", "network", "failures.", "Some", "of", "these", "events", "are", "transient", "and", "therefore", "can", "be", "omitted,", "but", "longer-term", "changes", "in", "hop-count", "must", "be", "captured..", "Under", "24-bit", "or", "32-bit", "Strict", "Filtering,", "a", "table", "update", "involves", "indexing", "the", "table", "using", "a", "given", "IP", "address", "and", "changing", "the", "indexed", "table", "entry", "with", "a", "new", "hop-count.", "Under", "hop-count", "clustering,", "an", "update,", "or", "adding", "a", "new", "node,", "may", "split", "a", "node", "or", "merge", "two", "adjacent", "nodes", "on", "the", "existing", "hop-count", "clustering", "tree.", "To", "carry", "out", "the", "update,", "one", "first", "allocates", "memory", "for", "a", "new", "clustering", "tree.", "The", "new", "clustering", "tree", "has", "a", "fixed", "format", "of", "depth", "eight,", "represented", "as", "an", "array", "of", "511", "elements.", "We", "populate", "the", "array", "with", "nodes", "on", "the", "existing", "clustering", "tree", "with", "updated", "hop-count(s).", "We", "can", "then", "repeat", "the", "procedure", "described", "in", "Section", "IV-A1.", "In", "addition,", "one", "may", "need", "to", "split", "an", "existing", "node", "because", "one", "of", "its", "two", "immediate", "child", "nodes", "now", "has", "a", "different", "hop-count", "as", "clustering", "percolates", "up", "the", "tree.", "When", "this", "happens,", "we", "replace", "the", "parent", "node", "with", "its", "two", "child", "nodes,", "one", "having", "the", "new", "hop-count", "and", "the", "other", "retaining", "the", "original", "hop-count..", "Reclustering", "should", "have", "a", "relatively", "small", "impact", "on", "system", "performance", "for", "two", "reasons.", "First,", "each", "reclustering", "instance", "is", "a", "local", "event", "on", "a", "tree", "of", "at", "most", "511", "nodes.", "Second,", "since", "hop-count", "changes", "are", "not", "frequent", "in", "the", "network", "as", "reported", "in", "[37]", "and", "reaffirmed", "by", "our", "own", "limited", "observations,", "reclustering", "will", "probably", "occur", "infrequently", "in", "practice." ], [ "The", "existence", "of", "NAT", "boxes,", "some", "of", "which", "may", "connect", "multiple", "stub", "networks,", "could", "make", "a", "single", "IP", "address", "appear", "to", "have", "multiple", "valid", "hop-counts", "at", "the", "same", "time.", "This", "may", "lower", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "accuracy", "in", "the", "table.", "However,", "since", "a", "NAT", "box", "enforces", "the", "assignment", "of", "a", "single", "source", "IP", "ad-", "dress", "to", "every", "outgoing", "IP", "packet,", "this", "automatically", "prevents", "the", "zombies", "behind", "NAT", "boxes", "from", "IP", "spoofing..", "To", "cope", "with", "the", "hop-count", "ambiguity", "caused", "by", "NAT", "boxes,", "a", "simple", "possible", "solution", "is", "to", "have", "NAT", "boxes", "reset", "the", "TTL", "value", "of", "each", "outgoing", "IP", "packet", "to", "a", "default", "initial", "TTL.", "Then,", "there", "will", "be", "a", "strict", "one-to-one", "mapping", "between", "the", "IP", "address", "of", "a", "NAT", "box", "and", "a", "hop-count.", "While", "the", "computed", "hop-count", "is", "the", "one", "from", "the", "NAT", "box,", "instead", "of", "the", "end-hosts", "behind", "it,", "to", "the", "victim,", "this", "does", "not", "affect", "the", "filtering", "accuracy", "at", "all", "as", "long", "as", "the", "victim", "maintains", "the", "same", "skewed", "hop-count", "as", "the", "one", "computed", "from", "IP", "header.", "The", "drawback", "of", "this", "simple", "solution", "is", "the", "required", "modification", "at", "NAT", "boxes.", "However,", "since", "NAT", "boxes", "must", "manipulate", "the", "IP", "headers", "of", "passing", "packets", "anyway,", "the", "overhead", "induced", "by", "the", "proposed", "TTL", "resetting", "is", "minor." ], [ "Since", "HCF", "causes", "delay", "in", "the", "critical", "path", "of", "packet", "processing,", "it", "should", "not", "be", "active", "at", "all", "times.", "We", "therefore", "introduce", "two", "running", "states", "inside", "HCF:", "the", "learning", "state", "captures", "legitimate", "changes", "in", "hop-count", "and", "detects", "the", "presence", "of", "spoofed", "packets,", "and", "the", "filtering", "state", "actively", "discards", "spoofed", "packets.", "By", "default,", "HCF", "stays", "in", "the", "learning", "state", "and", "monitors", "the", "trend", "of", "hop-count", "changes", "without", "discarding", "packets.", "Upon", "detection", "of", "a", "flux", "of", "spoofed", "packets,", "HCF", "switches", "to", "the", "filtering", "state", "to", "examine", "each", "packet", "and", "discard", "spoofed", "IP", "packets.", "In", "this", "section,", "we", "discuss", "the", "details", "of", "each", "state", "and", "show", "that", "having", "two", "states", "can", "better", "protect", "servers", "against", "spoofed", "IP", "traffic,", "while", "minimizing", "overhead.", "Fig.", "12", "lists", "the", "tasks", "performed", "by", "each", "state.", "In", "the", "learning", "state,", "HCF", "performs", "the", "following", "tasks:", "sample", "incoming", "packets", "for", "hop-count", "inspection,", "calculate", "the", "spoofed", "packet", "counter,", "and", "update", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "in", "case", "of", "legitimate", "hop-count", "changes.", "Packets", "are", "sampled", "at", "exponentially", "distributed", "intervals", "with", "mean", "in", "either", "time", "or", "the", "number", "of", "packets.", "The", "exponential", "distribution", "can", "be", "precomputed", "and", "made", "into", "a", "lookup", "table", "for", "fast", "on-line", "access.", "For", "each", "sampled", "packet,", "IP2HC_Inspect()", "returns", "a", "binary", "number", "spoof,", "depending", "on", "whether", "the", "packet", "is", "judged", "as", "spoofed", "or", "not.", "This", "is", "then", "used", "by", "Average()", "to", "compute", "an", "average", "spoof", "counter", "per", "unit", "time.", "When", "is", "greater", "than", "a", "threshold", ",", "HCF", "enters", "the", "filtering", "state.", "HCF", "in", "the", "learning", "state", "will", "also", "update", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "using", "the", "TCP", "control", "block", "of", "every", "th", "established", "TCP", "connection." ], [ "To", "minimize", "the", "overhead", "of", "hop-count", "inspection", "and", "dynamic", "update", "in", "the", "learning", "state,", "their", "execution", "frequencies", "are", "adaptively", "chosen", "to", "be", "inversely", "proportional", "to", "the", "server's", "workload.", "We", "measure", "the", "server's", "workload", "by", "the", "number", "of", "established", "TCP", "connections.", "If", "the", "server", "is", "lightly", "loaded,", "HCF", "calls", "for", "IP2HC", "inspection", "and", "dynamic", "update", "more", "frequently", "by", "reducing", "and", ",", "which", "determine", "the", "idle", "times", "for", "table", "update", "and", "inspection,", "respectively.", "In", "contrast,", "for", "a", "heavily", "loaded", "server,", "both", "and", "are", "increased.", "The", "two", "thresholds", "and", ",", "used", "for", "detecting", "spoofed", "packets,", "should", "also", "be", "adjusted", "based", "on", "load.", "The", "general", "guideline", "for", "setting", "execution", "rates", "and", "thresholds", "with", "the", "dynamics", "of", "server's", "workload", "is", "given", "as", "follows:.", "However,", "we", "only", "recommend", "these", "parameters", "to", "be", "user-configurable.", "Their", "specific", "values", "depend", "on", "the", "requirement", "of", "individual", "networks", "in", "balancing", "between", "security", "and", "performance..", "HCF", "in", "the", "filtering", "state", "performs", "a", "similar", "set", "of", "tasks", "as", "in", "the", "learning", "state.", "The", "key", "difference", "is", "that", "HCF", "in", "the", "filtering", "state", "must", "examine", "every", "packet", "(instead", "of", "sampling", "only", "a", "subset", "of", "packets)", "and", "discards", "spoofed", "packets,", "if", "any.", "HCF", "stays", "in", "the", "filtering", "state", "as", "long", "as", "a", "certain", "number", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "are", "detected.", "When", "the", "ongoing", "spoofing", "ceases,", "HCF", "switches", "back", "to", "the", "learning", "state.", "This", "is", "accomplished", "by", "checking", "the", "spoof", "counter", "against", "another", "threshold", ",", "which", "should", "be", "smaller", "than", "for", "better", "stability.", "HCF", "should", "not", "alternate", "between", "the", "learning", "and", "filtering", "states", "when", "fluctuates", "around", ".", "Making", "the", "second", "threshold", "avoids", "this", "instability.", "Note", "that", "HCF's", "filtering", "accuracy", "is", "independent", "of", "the", "settings", "of", "and", ".", "In", "our", "filtering", "accuracy", "experiments,", "we", "have", "assumed", "that", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "holds", "the", "complete", "IP", "addresses", "of", "clients.", "However,", "in", "reality,", "there", "are", "always", "new", "requests", "coming", "in", "from", "unseen", "address", "prefixes,", "regardless", "of", "how", "well", "a", "mapping", "table", "is", "initialized", "or", "kept", "up-to-date.", "To", "protect", "against", "attacking", "traffic", "that", "uses", "unseen", "IP", "addresses,", "we", "must", "drop", "all", "packets", "that", "have", "no", "corresponding", "entries", "in", "the", "table-the", "function", "returns", "true", "if", "does", "not", "exist", "in", "the", "table.", "While", "undesirable,", "HCF", "ensures", "that", "legitimate", "requests", "from", "known", "IP", "addresses", "are", "still", "served", "during", "an", "attack.", "Clearly,", "such", "collateral", "damage", "can", "be", "made", "very", "low", "by", "carefully", "aggregating", "IP", "addresses", "and", "diligently", "populating", "an", "HCF", "mapping", "table", "over", "a", "long", "period", "of", "time." ], [ "To", "protect", "server", "resources", "such", "as", "CPU", "and", "memory,", "HCF", "can", "be", "installed", "at", "a", "server", "itself", "or", "at", "any", "network", "device", "near", "the", "servers,", "i.e.,", "inside", "the", "\"last-mile\"", "region,", "such", "as", "the", "firewall", "of", "an", "organization.", "However,", "this", "scheme", "will", "not", "be", "effective", "against", "DDoS", "attacks", "that", "target", "the", "bandwidth", "of", "a", "network", "to/from", "the", "server.", "The", "task", "of", "protecting", "the", "access", "link", "of", "an", "entire", "stub", "network", "is", "more", "complicated", "and", "difficult", "because", "the", "filtering", "has", "to", "be", "applied", "at", "the", "upstream", "router", "of", "the", "access", "link,", "which", "must", "involve", "the", "stub", "network's", "ISP..", "The", "difficulty", "in", "protecting", "against", "bandwidth", "flooding", "is", "that", "packet", "filtering", "must", "be", "separated", "from", "detection", "of", "spoofed", "packets", "as", "the", "filtering", "has", "to", "be", "done", "at", "the", "ISP's", "edge", "router.", "One", "or", "more", "machines", "inside", "the", "stub", "network", "must", "run", "HCF", "and", "actively", "watch", "for", "traces", "of", "IP", "spoofing", "by", "always", "staying", "alert.", "In", "addition,", "at", "least", "one", "machine", "inside", "the", "stub", "network", "needs", "to", "maintain", "an", "updated", "HCF", "table", "since", "only", "end-hosts", "can", "see", "established", "TCP", "connections.", "Under", "an", "attack,", "this", "machine", "should", "notify", "the", "network", "administrator", "who", "then", "coordinates", "with", "the", "ISP", "to", "install", "a", "packet", "filter", "based", "on", "the", "HCF", "table", "on", "the", "ISP's", "edge", "router.", "Our", "two", "running-state", "design", "makes", "it", "natural", "to", "separate", "these", "two", "functions-detection", "and", "filtering", "of", "spoofed", "packets.", "Once", "the", "HCF", "table", "is", "enabled", "at", "the", "ISP's", "edge", "router,", "most", "spoofed", "packets", "will", "be", "intercepted,", "and", "only", "a", "very", "small", "percentage", "of", "the", "spoofed", "packets", "that", "slip", "through", "HCF,", "will", "consume", "bandwidth.", "In", "this", "case,", "having", "two", "separable", "states", "is", "crucial", "since", "routers", "usually", "cannot", "observe", "established", "TCP", "connections", "and", "use", "the", "safe", "update", "procedure." ], [ "In", "DRDoS", "attacks,", "an", "attacker", "forges", "IP", "packets", "that", "contain", "legitimate", "requests,", "such", "as", "DNS", "queries,", "by", "setting", "the", "source", "IP", "addresses", "of", "these", "spoofed", "packets", "to", "the", "actual", "victim's", "IP", "address.", "The", "attacker", "then", "sends", "these", "spoofed", "packets", "to", "a", "large", "number", "of", "reflectors.", "Each", "reflector", "only", "receives", "a", "moderate", "flux", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "so", "that", "it", "can", "easily", "sustain", "the", "availability", "of", "its", "normal", "service.", "The", "usual", "intrusion", "detection", "methods", "based", "on", "the", "ongoing", "traffic", "volume", "or", "access", "patterns", "may", "not", "be", "sensitive", "enough", "to", "detect", "the", "presence", "of", "such", "spoofed", "traffic.", "In", "contrast,", "HCF", "specifically", "looks", "for", "IP", "spoofing,", "so", "it", "will", "be", "able", "to", "detect", "attempts", "to", "fool", "servers", "into", "acting", "as", "reflectors.", "Although", "HCF", "is", "not", "perfect", "and", "some", "spoofed", "packets", "may", "still", "slip", "through", "the", "filter,", "HCF", "can", "detect", "and", "intercept", "enough", "of", "the", "spoofed", "packets", "to", "thwart", "DRDoS", "attacks." ], [ "This", "section", "details", "the", "implementation", "of", "a", "proof-of-concept", "HCF", "inside", "the", "Linux", "kernel", "and", "presents", "its", "evaluation", "on", "a", "real", "testbed.", "For", "HCF", "to", "be", "useful,", "the", "per-packet", "overhead", "must", "be", "much", "lower", "than", "the", "normal", "processing", "of", "an", "IP", "packet.", "In", "addition,", "since", "HCF", "operates", "at", "the", "IP", "layers,", "spoofed", "packets,", "even", "when", "detected,", "will", "still", "consume", "CPU", "cycles", "due", "to", "interrupt", "handling", "and", "data", "link", "layer", "processing.", "We", "justify", "the", "deployment", "of", "HCF", "in", "practice", "by", "measuring", "the", "per-packet", "overhead", "of", "HCF", "and", "the", "amount", "of", "resource", "savings", "when", "HCF", "is", "active." ], [ "To", "validate", "the", "efficacy", "of", "HCF", "in", "a", "real", "system,", "we", "implement", "a", "test", "module", "inside", "the", "Linux", "kernel.", "The", "test", "module", "resides", "in", "the", "IP", "packet", "receive", "function,", ".", "To", "minimize", "the", "CPU", "cycles", "consumed", "by", "spoofed", "IP", "packets,", "we", "insert", "the", "filtering", "function", "before", "the", "code", "segment", "that", "performs", "the", "expensive", "checksum", "verification.", "Our", "test", "module", "has", "the", "basic", "data", "structures", "and", "functions", "to", "support", "search", "and", "update", "operations", "to", "the", "hop-count", "mapping..", "The", "hop-count", "mapping", "is", "organized", "as", "a", "4096-bucket", "hash", "table", "with", "chaining", "to", "resolve", "collisions.", "Each", "entry", "in", "the", "hash", "table", "represents", "a", "24-bit", "address", "prefix,", "and", "it", "uses", "a", "binary", "tree", "to", "cluster", "hosts", "within", "the", "single", "24-bit", "address", "prefix.", "Searching", "for", "the", "hop-count", "of", "an", "IP", "address", "consists", "of", "locating", "the", "entry", "for", "its", "24-bit", "address", "prefix", "in", "the", "hash", "table,", "and", "then", "finding", "the", "proper", "cluster", "that", "the", "IP", "address", "belongs", "to", "in", "the", "tree.", "Given", "an", "IP", "address,", "HCF", "computes", "the", "hash", "key", "by", "XORing", "the", "upper", "and", "lower", "12-bits", "of", "the", "first", "24", "bits", "of", "the", "source", "IP", "address.", "Since", "4096", "is", "relatively", "small", "compared", "to", "the", "set", "of", "possible", "24-bit", "address", "prefixes,", "collisions", "are", "likely", "to", "occur.", "To", "estimate", "the", "average", "size", "of", "a", "chained", "list,", "we", "hash", "the", "client", "IP", "addresses", "from", "[11]", "into", "the", "4096-bucket", "hash", "table", "to", "find", "that,", "on", "average,", "there", "are", "11", "entries", "on", "a", "chain,", "with", "the", "maximum", "being", "25.", "Thus,", "we", "use", "fixed", "11-entry", "chained", "lists.", "We", "determine", "the", "size", "of", "the", "clustering", "tree", "by", "choosing", "a", "minimum", "clustering", "unit", "of", "four", "IP", "addresses", "so", "the", "tree", "has", "a", "depth", "of", "six", "(2", "64).", "This", "binary", "tree", "can", "then", "be", "implemented", "as", "a", "linear", "array", "of", "127", "elements.", "Each", "element", "in", "this", "array", "stores", "the", "hop-count", "value", "of", "a", "particular", "clustering.", "We", "set", "the", "array", "element", "to", "be", "the", "hop-count", "if", "clustering", "is", "possible,", "and", "zero", "otherwise.", "The", "clustering", "overhead", "has", "not", "yet", "been", "evaluated..", "To", "implement", "table", "update,", "we", "insert", "the", "function", "call", "into", "the", "kernel", "TCP", "code", "past", "the", "point", "where", "the", "three-way", "handshake", "of", "TCP", "connection", "is", "completed.", "For", "every", "th", "established", "TCP", "connection,", "the", "update", "function", "takes", "the", "argument", "of", "the", "source", "IP", "address", "and", "the", "final", "TTL", "value", "of", "the", "ACK", "packet", "that", "completes", "the", "handshake.", "Then,", "the", "function", "searches", "the", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "for", "an", "entry", "that", "corresponds", "to", "this", "source", "IP", "address,", "and", "will", "either", "overwrite", "the", "existing", "entry", "or", "create", "a", "new", "entry", "for", "a", "first-time", "visitor." ], [ "For", "HCF", "to", "be", "useful,", "the", "per-packet", "overhead", "must", "be", "much", "lower", "than", "the", "normal", "processing", "of", "an", "IP", "packet.", "We", "examine", "the", "per-packet", "overhead", "of", "HCF", "by", "instrumenting", "the", "Linux", "kernel", "to", "time", "the", "filtering", "function", "as", "well", "as", "the", "critical", "path", "in", "processing", "IP", "packets.", "We", "use", "the", "built-in", "Linux", "macro", "to", "record", "the", "execution", "time", "in", "CPU", "cycles.", "While", "we", "cannot", "generalize", "our", "experimental", "results", "to", "predict", "the", "performance", "of", "HCF", "under", "real", "DDoS", "attacks,", "we", "can", "confirm", "whether", "HCF", "provides", "significant", "resource", "savings..", "We", "set", "up", "a", "simple", "testbed", "of", "two", "machines", "connected", "to", "a", "100", "Mb/s", "Ethernet", "hub.", "A", "Dell", "Precision", "workstation", "with", "1.9", "GHz", "Pentium", "4", "processor", "and", "1", "GB", "of", "memory,", "simulates", "the", "victim", "server", "where", "HCF", "is", "installed.", "A", "second", "machine", "generates", "various", "types", "of", "IP", "traffic", "to", "emulate", "incoming", "attack", "traffic", "to", "the", "victim", "server.", "To", "minimize", "the", "effect", "of", "caches,", "we", "randomize", "each", "hash", "key", "to", "simulate", "randomized", "IP", "addresses", "to", "hit", "all", "buckets", "in", "the", "hash", "table.", "For", "each", "hop-count", "look-up,", "we", "assume", "the", "worst", "case", "search", "time.", "The", "search", "of", "a", "24-bit", "address", "prefix", "traverses", "the", "entire", "chained", "list", "of", "11", "entries,", "and", "the", "hop-count", "lookup", "within", "the", "24-bit", "prefix", "traverses", "the", "entire", "depth", "of", "the", "tree..", "We", "generate", "two", "types", "of", "traffic,", "TCP", "and", "ICMP,", "to", "emulate", "flooding", "traffic", "in", "DDoS", "attacks.", "In", "the", "case", "of", "flooding", "TCP", "traffic,", "we", "use", "a", "modified", "version", "of", "[1]", "to", "generate", "TCP", "SYN", "packets", "to", "simulate", "a", "SYN", "flooding", "attack.", "In", "addition,", "we", "also", "repeatedly", "open", "a", "TCP", "connection", "on", "the", "victim", "machine", "and", "close", "it", "right", "away,", "which", "includes", "sending", "both", "SYN", "and", "FIN", "packets.", "Linux", "delays", "most", "of", "the", "processing", "and", "the", "establishment", "of", "the", "connection", "control", "block", "until", "receiving", "the", "final", "ACK", "from", "the", "host", "that", "does", "the", "active", ".", "Since", "the", "processing", "to", "establish", "a", "connection", "is", "included", "in", "our", "experiment,", "the", "measured", "critical", "path", "may", "be", "longer", "than", "that", "in", "a", "SYN", "flooding", "attack.", "To", "emulate", "ICMP", "attacks,", "we", "run", "two", "experiments", "of", "single-stream", "s.", "The", "first", "uses", "default", "64-byte", "packets", "at", "10", "ms", "intervals,", "and", "the", "second", "uses", "ping", "flood", "-with", "the", "default", "packet", "size", "of", "64", "bytes", "and", "sends", "packets", "as", "fast", "as", "the", "system", "can", "transmit.", "To", "understand", "the", "impact", "of", "HCF", "on", "normal", "IP", "traffic,", "we", "also", "consider", "bulk", "data", "transfers", "under", "both", "TCP", "and", "UDP.", "We", "compare", "the", "per-packet", "overhead", "without", "HCF", "with", "the", "per-packet", "overhead", "of", "the", "filtering", "function", "in", "Table", "II.", "We", "present", "the", "recorded", "processing", "times", "in", "CPU", "cycles", "in", "Table", "II", ".", "The", "column", "under", "\"with", "HCF\"", "lists", "the", "execution", "times", "of", "the", "filtering", "function.", "The", "column", "under", "\"without", "HCF\"", "lists", "the", "packet", "processing", "times", "without", "HCF.", "Each", "row", "in", "the", "table", "represents", "a", "single", "experiment,", "and", "each", "experiment", "is", "run", "with", "a", "large", "number", "(", "40", "000)", "of", "packets", "to", "compute", "the", "average", "number", "of", "cycles.", "We", "present", "both", "the", "minimum", "and", "the", "average", "numbers.", "There", "exists", "a", "difference", "between", "average", "cycles", "and", "minimum", "cycles", "for", "two", "reasons.", "First,", "some", "packets", "take", "longer", "to", "process", "than", "others,", "e.g.,", "a", "SYN/ACK", "packet", "takes", "more", "time", "than", "a", "FIN", "packet.", "Second,", "the", "average", "cycles", "may", "include", "lower-level", "interrupt", "processing,", "such", "as", "input", "processing", "by", "the", "Linux", "Ethernet", "driver.", "We", "observe", "that,", "in", "general,", "the", "filtering", "function", "uses", "significantly", "fewer", "cycles", "than", "the", "emulated", "attack", "traffic,", "at", "least", "an", "order", "of", "magnitude", "less.", "Consequently,", "HCF", "should", "provide", "significant", "resource", "savings", "by", "detecting", "and", "discarding", "spoofed", "traffic.", "Moreover,", "for", "both", "TCP", "and", "UDP", "bulk", "transfers,", "the", "CPU", "overhead", "induced", "by", "HCF", "is", "small", "(less", "than", "7%).", "Note", "that", "the", "processing", "of", "regular", "packets", "takes", "fewer", "cycles", "than", "the", "emulated", "attack", "traffic.", "We", "attribute", "this", "to", "TCP", "header", "prediction", "and", "the", "much", "simpler", "protocol", "processing", "in", "UDP.", "It", "is", "fair", "to", "say", "that", "the", "filtering", "function", "adds", "only", "a", "small", "overhead", "to", "the", "processing", "of", "legitimate", "IP", "traffic.", "However,", "this", "is", "by", "far", "more", "than", "compensated", "by", "not", "processing", "spoofed", "traffic..", "To", "illustrate", "the", "potential", "savings", "in", "CPU", "cycles,", "we", "compute", "the", "actual", "resource", "savings", "we", "can", "achieve,", "when", "an", "attacker", "launches", "a", "spoofed", "DDoS", "attack", "against", "a", "server.", "Given", "attack", "and", "legitimate", "traffic,", "and", ",", "in", "terms", "of", "the", "fraction", "of", "total", "traffic", "per", "unit", "time,", "the", "average", "number", "of", "CPU", "cycles", "consumed", "per", "packet", "without", "HCF", "is", ",", "where", "and", "are", "the", "per-packet", "processing", "times", "of", "attack", "and", "legitimate", "traffic,", "respectively.", "The", "average", "number", "of", "CPU", "cycles", "consumed", "per", "packet", "with", "HCF", "is", "with", "and", "being", "the", "filtering", "overhead", "for", "attack", "and", "legitimate", "traffic,", "respectively,", "and", "the", "percentage", "of", "attack", "traffic", "that", "we", "cannot", "filter", "out.", "Let", "us", "also", "assume", "that", "the", "attacker", "uses", "64-byte", "traffic", "to", "attack", "the", "server", "that", "implements", "HCF.", "The", "results", "for", "various", ",", ",", "and", "parameters", "are", "plotted", "in", "Fig.", "13", ".", "The", "axis", "is", "the", "percentage", "of", "total", "traffic", "contributed", "by", "the", "DDoS", "attack,", "namely", ".", "The", "axis", "is", "the", "number", "of", "CPU", "cycles", "saved", "as", "the", "percentage", "of", "total", "CPU", "cycles", "consumed", "without", "HCF.", "The", "figure", "contains", "a", "number", "of", "curves,", "each", "corresponding", "to", "an", "value.", "Since", "the", "per-packet", "overhead", "of", "the", "DDoS", "traffic", "(20", "194", ")", "is", "much", "higher", "than", "TCP", "bulk", "transfer", "(6538),", "the", "percentage", "of", "the", "DDoS", "traffic", "that", "HCF", "can", "filter,", ",", "essentially", "becomes", "the", "sole", "determining", "factor", "in", "resource", "savings.", "As", "the", "composition", "of", "total", "traffic", "varies,", "the", "percentage", "of", "resource", "savings", "remains", "essentially", "the", "same", "as", "." ], [ "Several", "efficient", "mechanisms", "[17]", ",", "[19]", ",", "[35]", ",", "[52]", "are", "available", "to", "detect", "DDoS", "attacks.", "In", "addition,", "researchers", "have", "also", "used", "the", "distribution", "of", "TTL", "values", "seen", "at", "servers", "to", "detect", "abnormal", "load", "spikes", "due", "to", "DDoS", "traffic", "[39]", ".", "The", "Razor", "team", "at", "Bindview", "built", "Despoof", "[2]", ",", "which", "is", "a", "command-line", "antispoofing", "utility.", "Despoof", "compares", "the", "TTL", "of", "a", "received", "packet", "that", "is", "considered", "\"suspicious,\"", "with", "the", "actual", "TTL", "of", "a", "test", "packet", "sent", "to", "the", "source", "IP", "address,", "for", "verification.", "However,", "Despoof", "requires", "the", "administrator", "to", "determine", "which", "packets", "should", "be", "examined,", "and", "to", "manually", "perform", "this", "verification.", "Thus,", "the", "per-packet", "processing", "overhead", "is", "prohibitively", "high", "for", "weeding", "out", "spoofed", "traffic", "in", "real", "time..", "In", "parallel", "with,", "and", "independently", "of,", "our", "work,", "the", "possibility", "of", "using", "TTL", "for", "detecting", "spoofed", "packet", "was", "discussed", "in", "[51]", ".", "Their", "results", "have", "shown", "that", "the", "final", "TTL", "values", "from", "an", "IP", "address", "were", "predictable", "and", "generally", "clustered", "around", "a", "single", "value,", "which", "is", "consistent", "with", "our", "observation", "of", "hopcounts", "being", "mostly", "stable.", "However,", "the", "authors", "did", "not", "provide", "a", "detailed", "solution", "against", "spoofed", "DDoS", "attacks.", "Neither", "did", "they", "provide", "any", "analysis", "of", "the", "effectiveness", "of", "using", "TTL", "values,", "nor", "the", "construction,", "update,", "and", "deployment", "of", "an", "accurate", "TTL", "mapping", "table.", "In", "this", "paper,", "we", "examine", "these", "questions", "and", "develop", "a", "deployable", "solution..", "There", "are", "a", "number", "of", "recent", "router-based", "filtering", "techniques", "to", "lessen", "the", "effects", "of", "DDoS", "packets", "or", "to", "curb", "their", "propagations", "in", "the", "Internet.", "As", "a", "proactive", "solution", "to", "DDoS", "attacks,", "these", "filtering", "schemes", "[15]", ",", "[29]", ",", "[36]", ",", "[55]", ",", "which", "must", "execute", "on", "IP", "routers", "or", "rely", "on", "routers'", "markings,", "have", "been", "proposed", "to", "prevent", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "from", "reaching", "intended", "victims.", "The", "most", "straightforward", "scheme", "is", "ingress", "filtering", "[15]", ",", "which", "blocks", "spoofed", "packets", "at", "edge", "routers,", "where", "address", "ownership", "is", "relatively", "unambiguous,", "and", "traffic", "load", "is", "low.", "However,", "the", "success", "of", "ingress", "filtering", "hinges", "on", "its", "wide-deployment", "in", "IP", "routers.", "Most", "ISPs", "are", "reluctant", "to", "implement", "this", "service", "due", "to", "administrative", "overhead", "and", "lack", "of", "immediate", "benefits", "to", "their", "customers..", "Given", "the", "reachability", "constraints", "imposed", "by", "routing", "and", "network", "topology,", "router-based", "distributed", "packet", "filtering", "(DPF)", "[36]", "utilizes", "routing", "information", "to", "determine", "whether", "an", "incoming", "packet", "at", "a", "router", "is", "valid", "with", "respect", "to", "the", "inscribed", "source", "and", "destination", "IP", "addresses", "in", "the", "packet.", "The", "experimental", "results", "reported", "in", "[36]", "show", "that", "a", "significant", "fraction", "of", "spoofed", "packets", "may", "be", "filtered", "out,", "and", "those", "spoofed", "packets", "that", "DPF", "fails", "to", "capture,", "can", "be", "localized", "into", "five", "candidate", "sites", "that", "are", "easy", "to", "trace", "back..", "To", "validate", "that", "an", "IP", "packet", "carries", "a", "true", "source", "address,", "SAVE", "[29]", ",", "a", "source", "address", "validity", "enforcement", "protocol,", "builds", "a", "table", "of", "incoming", "source", "IP", "addresses", "at", "each", "router", "that", "associates", "each", "of", "its", "incoming", "interfaces", "with", "a", "set", "of", "valid", "incoming", "network", "addresses.", "SAVE", "runs", "on", "each", "IP", "router", "and", "checks", "whether", "each", "IP", "packet", "arrives", "at", "the", "expected", "interface.", "By", "matching", "incoming", "IP", "addresses", "with", "their", "expected", "receiving", "interfaces,", "the", "set", "of", "IP", "source", "addresses", "that", "any", "attacker", "can", "spoof", "are", "greatly", "reduced..", "Based", "on", "IP", "traceback", "marking,", "Path", "Identifier", "(Pi)", "[55]", "embeds", "a", "path", "fingerprint", "in", "each", "packet", "so", "that", "a", "victim", "can", "identify", "all", "packets", "traversing", "the", "same", "path", "across", "the", "Internet,", "even", "for", "those", "with", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses.", "Instead", "of", "probabilistic", "marking,", "marking", "in", "Pi", "is", "deterministic.", "By", "checking", "the", "marking", "on", "each", "packet,", "the", "victim", "can", "filter", "out", "all", "attacking", "packets", "that", "match", "the", "path", "signatures", "of", "already-known", "attacking", "packets.", "Pi", "is", "effective", "even", "if", "only", "half", "of", "the", "routers", "in", "the", "Internet", "participate", "in", "packet", "marking.", "There", "also", "exist", "commercial", "solutions", "[22]", ",", "[34]", "that", "block", "the", "propagation", "of", "DDoS", "traffic", "with", "router", "support..", "However,", "the", "main", "difference", "between", "our", "scheme", "and", "these", "solutions", "is", "that", "HCF", "is", "an", "end-system", "mechanism", "that", "does", "not", "require", "any", "network", "support.", "This", "difference", "implies", "that", "our", "solution", "is", "immediately", "deployable", "in", "the", "Internet.", "HCF", "works", "well", "because", "no", "single", "entity", "controls", "the", "value", "of", "the", "TTL", "field,", "and", "thus,", "destinations", "can", "use", "it", "to", "fingerprint", "legitimate", "IP", "packets.", "It", "is", "not", "difficult", "to", "see", "that", "end-host-based", "filtering", "can", "be", "much", "more", "effective", "if", "intermediate", "routers", "could", "do", "more", "than", "merely", "decrementing", "TTL", "by", "one." ], [ "In", "this", "paper,", "we", "have", "presented", "a", "hop-count-based", "filtering", "scheme", "that", "detects", "and", "discards", "spoofed", "IP", "packets", "to", "conserve", "system", "resources.", "Our", "scheme", "inspects", "the", "hop-count", "of", "incoming", "packets", "to", "validate", "their", "legitimacy.", "Using", "only", "a", "moderate", "amount", "of", "storage,", "HCF", "constructs", "an", "accurate", "IP2HC", "mapping", "table", "via", "IP", "address", "aggregation", "and", "hop-count", "clustering.", "A", "pollution-proof", "mechanism", "initializes", "and", "updates", "entries", "in", "the", "mapping", "table.", "By", "default,", "HCF", "stays", "in", "the", "learning", "state,", "monitoring", "abnormal", "IP2HC", "mapping", "behaviors", "without", "discarding", "any", "packet.", "Once", "spoofed", "DDoS", "traffic", "is", "detected,", "HCF", "switches", "to", "the", "filtering", "state", "and", "discards", "most", "of", "the", "spoofed", "packets..", "By", "analyzing", "actual", "network", "measurements,", "we", "have", "shown", "that", "HCF", "can", "remove", "90%", "of", "spoofed", "traffic.", "Moreover,", "even", "if", "an", "attacker", "is", "aware", "of", "HCF,", "he", "cannot", "easily", "circumvent", "HCF.", "Our", "experimental", "evaluation", "has", "shown", "that", "HCF", "can", "be", "efficiently", "implemented", "inside", "the", "Linux", "kernel.", "Our", "analysis", "and", "experimental", "results", "have", "indicated", "that", "HCF", "is", "a", "simple", "and", "effective", "solution", "in", "protecting", "Internet", "servers", "against", "spoofed", "IP", "packets.", "Furthermore,", "HCF", "is", "readily", "deployable", "in", "end-systems", "since", "it", "does", "not", "require", "any", "network", "support..", "There", "are", "several", "issues", "that", "warrant", "further", "research.", "First,", "to", "install", "the", "HCF", "system", "at", "a", "victim", "site", "for", "practical", "use,", "we", "need", "a", "systematic", "procedure", "for", "setting", "the", "parameters", "of", "HCF,", "such", "as", "the", "frequency", "of", "dynamic", "updates.", "Second,", "we", "would", "like", "to", "build", "and", "deploy", "HCF", "in", "various", "high-profile", "server", "sites", "to", "see", "how", "effective", "it", "is", "against", "real", "spoofed", "DDoS", "traffic." ], [ "An", "attacker", "may", "somehow", "modify", "the", "initial", "TTL", "values,", "hoping", "that", "the", "forged", "packets", "may", "carry", "matching", "hop-count", "values", "when", "they", "reach", "the", "victim.", "Assuming", "that", "the", "attacker", "knows", "the", "range", "of", "valid", "hop-count", "to", "a", "given", "victim", "server,", "an", "attacker", "may", "use", "initial", "TTLs", "in", "the", "range", ",", "where", "is", "the", "hop-count", "from", "the", "flooding", "source", "to", "the", "victim", "and", "is", "the", "default", "initial", "TTL", "value", "at", "the", "flooding", "source.", "Thus,", "the", "randomization", "of", "initial", "TTL", "values", "is", "the", "same", "as", "subtracting", "the", "right", "constant", "between", "1", "and", "from", "to", "give", "a", "matching", "IP2HC", "pair", "that", "HCF", "cannot", "detect..", "Here,", "we", "study", "the", "scenario", "where", "for", "any", "given", "IP", "address,", "an", "attacker", "is", "only", "able", "to", "select", "at", "random", "a", "hop-count", "value", "from", "the", "range", ".", "Without", "loss", "of", "generality,", "we", "use", "the", "random", "variable", "as", "the", "hop-count", "value", "the", "attacker", "draws", "from", "a", "distribution", ",", ".", "The", "ability", "of", "an", "attacker", "to", "evade", "HCF", "can", "be", "measured", "by", "the", "probability", "that", "the", "hop-count", "value", "embedded", "in", "a", "spoofed", "IP", "packet", "would", "match", "the", "correct", "hop-count", "value", ",", "or", ",", "using", "Bayes'", "formula", "as", "follows:.", "where", ",", ",", "is", "the", "distribution", "of", "hop-count", "values", "to", "the", "victim", "server.", "and", "are", "two", "independent", "events.", "Thus,", ".", "We", "thus", "reduce", "the", "above", "equation", "to.", "The", "attacker", "would", "want", "to", "to", "maximize", "the", "summation", "over", "all", "possible", "s,", "or", "equivalently,", "use", "the", "\"best\"", "distribution", "of", "hop-count", "values", "to", "fool", "HCF.", "This", "is", "a", "special", "case", "of", "a", "standard", "Linear", "Programming", "problem,", "but", "with", "a", "very", "simple", "solution.", "We", "observe", "that", "there", "exists", "a", ",", "for", "which", "for", "all", ".", "Therefore,", "we", "can", "provide", "an", "upper", "bound", "for", "the", "maximization", "as", "follows:.", "Since", "the", "sum", ",", "it", "follows", "that", "the", "maximization", "is", "bounded", "by", ":.", "One", "way", "to", "achieve", "this", "upper", "bound", "is", "to", "draw", "from", "a", "distribution,", "where", "for", "all", ",", "and", ".", "We", "have", "shown", "that", "the", "mode", "in", "our", "data", "collection", "is", "generally", "around", "10%,", "so", "on", "average,", "only", "10%", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "addresses", "can", "evade", "HCF." ] ]
[ "ip spoofing", "hop-count", "ddos attacks", "host-based" ]
[]
{ "title": [ "Defense", "Against", "Spoofed", "IP", "Traffic", "Using", "Hop-Count", "Filtering" ], "abstract": [ "HCF", "is", "easy", "to", "deploy,", "as", "it", "does", "not", "require", "any", "support", "from", "the", "underlying", "network.", "Through", "analysis", "using", "network", "measurement", "data,", "we", "show", "that", "HCF", "can", "identify", "close", "to", "90%", "of", "spoofed", "IP", "packets,", "and", "then", "discard", "them", "with", "little", "collateral", "damage.", "We", "implement", "and", "evaluate", "HCF", "in", "the", "Linux", "kernel,", "demonstrating", "its", "effectiveness", "with", "experimental", "measurements." ] }
19016620
[ "introduction and background", "methodology", "interview data", "observational data", "data analysis", "results", "discussion", "social and theoretical implications", "design implications", "limitations" ]
[ [ "One", "persistent", "theme", "in", "the", "literature", "on", "distance", "education", "is", "interaction.", "In", "particular,", "the", "amount", "of", "interaction", "in", "an", "e-learning", "setting", "can", "positively", "influence", "both", "instructor", "satisfaction", "[14]", "and", "learning", "outcomes", "[1]", "..", "There", "are", "many", "types", "of", "e-learning", "settings,", "however,", "and", "these", "vary", "in", "the", "extent", "to", "which", "they", "facilitate", "frequent", "interaction.", "For", "example,", "interaction", "is", "easy", "in", "online", "discussions", "and", "forums,", "but", "is", "much", "harder", "within", "lecturestyle", "presentations", "that", "are", "simultaneously", "delivered", "to", "a", "live", "audience", "and", "distributed", "group", "of", "students..", "Our", "focus", "is", "on", "these", "live", "and", "distributed", "lectures.", "In", "particular,", "we", "know", "that", "it", "can", "be", "quite", "problematic", "for", "the", "presenter", "to", "be", "aware", "of", "and", "naturally", "interact", "with", "remote", "students", "who", "are", "viewing", "the", "lecture", "as", "a", "webcast", "[9]", ".", "When", "the", "number", "of", "participants", "is", "small,", "this", "can", "sometimes", "be", "overcome", "using", "videoconferencing.", "As", "the", "class", "grows,", "however,", "it", "becomes", "more", "difficult", "[15]", ".", "Problems", "arise", "because", "screen", "space", "for", "visible", "representations", "of", "remote", "participants", "is", "limited,", "and", "humans", "have", "limited", "capacity", "for", "processing", "such", "representations", "[11]", ".", "Thus,", "the", "rich", "information", "that", "instructors", "ordinarily", "use", "to", "find", "appropriate", "interaction", "opportunities,", "to", "find", "good", "\"target\"", "students,", "and", "to", "time", "these", "interactions", "is", "missing.", "Clearly", "it", "is", "not", "possible", "to", "replicate", "all", "of", "the", "real-world", "cues", "in", "a", "distributed", "environment.", "This", "raises", "the", "question", "of", "whether", "there", "are", "critical", "bits", "of", "awareness", "information", "that", "would", "be", "useful", "for", "promoting", "interaction", "in", "these", "environments..", "Given", "the", "documented", "value", "of", "interaction", "in", "face-to-face", "lectures,", "others", "have", "attempted", "to", "improve", "audience", "awareness", "and", "interaction", "in", "videoconferencing", "and", "webcasting", "[2]", "environments.", "For", "example,", "the", "TELEP", "system", "[9]", "displayed", "video", "or", "photographic", "representations", "of", "remote", "audience", "members", "on", "the", "wall", "of", "the", "physical", "presentation", "room,", "and", "these", "were", "visible", "to", "the", "instructor", "and", "the", "local", "audience.", "Next,", "Chen", "[5]", "[6]", "[7]", "designed", "a", "sophisticated", "virtual", "auditorium.", "Remote", "participants", "were", "again", "represented", "on", "a", "large", "screen", "with", "video,", "and", "interaction", "was", "via", "two-way", "audio", "and", "video,", "along", "with", "some", "gaze-tracking", "support", "for", "\"eye", "contact\"", "between", "the", "presenter", "and", "remote", "audience..", "One", "problem", "with", "these", "approaches", "is", "that", "they", "only", "scale", "to", "support", "as", "many", "remote", "participants", "as", "can", "be", "reasonably", "displayed", "on", "a", "screen", "of", "fixed", "size,", "and", "even", "this", "may", "tax", "instructors'", "perceptual", "capabilities.", "Full", "fidelity", "awareness", "also", "raises", "issues", "of", "privacy", "[4]", ":", "the", "remote", "person", "is", "not", "in", "the", "classroom,", "and", "connecting", "the", "classroom", "to", "that", "person's", "physical", "space", "can", "introduce", "many", "problems..", "An", "alternative", "strategy", "is", "to", "display", "awareness", "information", "by", "proxy.", "In", "other", "words,", "the", "display", "might", "consist", "of", "information", "that", "is", "visualized", "only", "in", "the", "aggregate", "(e.g.,", "[7]", "),", "or", "detailed", "information", "about", "a", "subset", "of", "the", "students,", "with", "the", "intent", "that", "this", "subset", "represents", "the", "whole..", "Permission", "to", "make", "digital", "or", "hard", "copies", "of", "all", "or", "part", "of", "this", "work", "for", "personal", "or", "classroom", "use", "is", "granted", "without", "fee", "provided", "that", "copies", "are", "not", "made", "or", "distributed", "for", "profit", "or", "commercial", "advantage", "and", "that", "copies", "bear", "this", "notice", "and", "the", "full", "citation", "on", "the", "first", "page.", "To", "copy", "otherwise,", "or", "republish,", "to", "post", "on", "servers", "or", "to", "redistribute", "to", "lists,", "requires", "prior", "specific", "permission", "and/or", "a", "fee.", "In", "some", "ways,", "this", "is", "likely", "what", "instructors", "already", "do.", "In", "large", "lecture", "halls,", "for", "example,", "it", "is", "clearly", "not", "possible", "to", "be", "aware", "of", "or", "interact", "with", "every", "student.", "Nonetheless,", "these", "lectures", "are", "seen", "as", "effective", "and", "are", "extremely", "common", "[3]", ".", "How,", "then,", "are", "instructors", "able", "to", "get", "what", "is", "presumably", "\"enough\"", "awareness", "information", "about", "their", "students", "in", "these", "environments", "to", "encourage", "interaction?", "This", "question", "is", "the", "motivation", "behind", "this", "study,", "and", "it", "is", "critical", "to", "understanding", "how", "to", "provide", "instructors", "with", "visual", "information", "about", "their", "remote", "students", "in", "ways", "that", "promote", "both", "awareness", "and", "interaction." ], [ "Interviews", "with", "instructors", "and", "observations", "of", "classrooms", "were", "conducted", "between", "September,", "2005", "and", "August,", "2006", "at", "a", "large", "North", "American", "university." ], [ "We", "conducted", "20", "semi-structured", "interviews", "lasting", "20-70", "minutes", "using", "an", "iteratively", "developed", "protocol.", "Instructors", "were", "recruited", "via", "convenience", "sampling,", "but", "were", "deliberately", "sought", "from", "many", "departments", "and", "at", "many", "career", "stages.", "They", "represent", "9", "disciplines", "and", "have", "taught", "classes", "ranging", "in", "size", "from", "2", "to", "1,400", "students.", "Interviews", "focused", "on", "how", "instructors", "pay", "attention", "to", "students,", "and", "how", "and", "when", "they", "interact.", "To", "help", "participants", "think", "critically", "and", "specifically", "about", "their", "behavior,", "we", "asked", "them", "to", "focus", "on", "specific", "courses", "they", "have", "taught,", "and", "also", "asked", "how", "their", "behavior", "varies", "in", "different", "settings." ], [ "Observations", "were", "conducted", "in", "4", "courses,", "3", "of", "which", "were", "taught", "by", "interview", "participants.", "A", "similar", "sampling", "strategy", "was", "used,", "resulting", "in", "classes", "of", "varying", "size", "from", "4", "disciplines.", "Instructors", "ranged", "from", "advanced", "graduate", "students", "to", "senior", "faculty.", "Four", "sessions", "of", "each", "class", "were", "observed,", "for", "a", "total", "of", "26", "hours", "of", "observations.", "The", "observer", "sat", "in", "the", "classroom", "with", "the", "students,", "taking", "field", "notes", "focusing", "on", "the", "amount", "of", "interaction", "taking", "place,", "and", "what", "the", "instructors'", "attention", "seemed", "focused", "on.", "Notes", "were", "recorded", "on", "paper", "and", "later", "typed", "and", "expanded", "upon.", "There", "was", "no", "evidence", "to", "suggest", "that", "behavior", "was", "modified", "due", "to", "the", "presence", "of", "an", "observer." ], [ "Both", "interview", "transcripts", "and", "field", "notes", "were", "analyzed", "using", "qualitative", "methods", "described", "in", "[13]", ".", "Interview", "analysis", "consisted", "of", "reading", "and", "rereading", "of", "transcripts", "by", "two", "of", "the", "authors.", "We", "first", "coded", "responses", "into", "categories", "corresponding", "to", "the", "primary", "foci", "of", "the", "study:", "audience", "awareness", "and", "interaction.", "While", "the", "interviews", "covered", "a", "range", "of", "topics,", "we", "focused", "our", "analyses", "here", "on", "issues", "of", "instructor-student", "interaction", "and", "attention." ], [ "Our", "main", "finding", "is", "that", "instructors", "frequently", "and", "seamlessly", "switch", "between", "focusing", "on", "individual", "students", "or", "groups", "of", "students,", "and", "high-level", "information", "about", "the", "entire", "class.", "Moreover,", "they", "seem", "able", "to", "do", "so", "while", "maintaining", "the", "appearance", "of", "attending", "to", "the", "entire", "class.", "We", "center", "our", "discussion", "around", "three", "key", "points..", "Instructors", "aim", "to", "give", "the", "impression", "that", "they", "are", "attending", "to", "the", "entire", "class.", "Participants", "indicated", "that", "they", "attempt", "to", "consciously", "look", "around", "the", "room", "to", "give", "the", "impression", "that", "they", "are", "attending", "to", "all", "students.", "Participant", "O,", "for", "example,", "said", "that", "he", "is", "\"machinegunning", "the", "audience", "with", "[his]", "eyes,\"", "attempting", "to", "be", "aware", "of", "everything", "taking", "place", "in", "the", "classroom.\"", "Similarly,", "Participant", "A", "said", "that", "he", "\"mov[es]", "from", "head", "to", "head…the", "whole", "time\"", "trying", "to", "make", "eye", "contact", "with", "every", "student.", "He", "also", "noted", "that", "he", "specifically", "looks", "for:.", "signs", "in", "their", "body", "language", "in", "which", "they're", "not", "understanding", "the", "material", "well", "or", "they're", "not", "satisfied", "with", "the", "way", "you", "are", "delivering", "the", "material", "[A]..", "Our", "observations", "confirmed", "what", "instructors", "said.", "It", "was", "clear", "that", "instructors", "were", "paying", "attention", "to", "students", "all", "over", "the", "room.", "Even", "in", "a", "large", "lecture", "hall,", "the", "instructor", "made", "comments", "to", "and", "interacted", "with", "students", "in", "the", "balcony,", "the", "back", "of", "the", "room,", "and", "the", "front..", "Instructors", "actually", "focus", "on", "a", "subset", "of", "students.", "Despite", "their", "intent", "to", "appear", "as", "if", "they", "are", "attending", "to", "the", "entire", "class,", "the", "instructors", "indicated", "that", "they", "actually", "pay", "closer", "attention", "to", "a", "subset", "of", "the", "students.", "Participant", "T,", "for", "example,", "\"tend[s]", "to", "make", "eye", "contact", "with", "and", "engage", "a", "handful,", "a", "dozen", "of", "the", "students.\"", "This", "is", "not", "to", "suggest", "that", "instructors", "aren't", "looking", "around.", "For", "example,", "Participant", "C", "tries", "hard", "to", "look", "at", "all", "of", "the", "students:", "However,", "it", "is", "the", "most", "engaged", "students", "that", "tend", "to", "reciprocate", "with", "eye", "contact", "or", "affirmative", "nodding", "to", "show", "understanding", "and", "acknowledgement.", "Participant", "G", "said", "that", "he", "notices", "when", "students", "are", "looking", "directly", "at", "him,", "and", "makes", "eye", "contact", "with", "those", "students:.", "I'm,", "probably", "looking", "at,", "at", "a", "set", "of,", "you", "know,", "3", "or", "4", "individuals", "who", "are", "actually", "looking", "at", "me,", "and", "making", "eye", "contact,", "and", "so", "if", "you", "have", "one", "of", "these", "people,", "in", "different", "parts", "of", "the", "room,", "you", "get", "good", "coverage", "of", "the", "room,", "but", "you", "also", "get", "kind", "of", "these", "key", "people", "who", "are", "actually", "listening", "and", "you", "can", "gauge", "reactions", "to", "individual", "things", "that", "you've", "said", "and", "stuff", "like", "that", "[G]", "..", "Participant", "D", "said", "that", "there", "are", "certain", "students", "she", "looks", "at", "for", "confirmation,", "such", "as", "when", "she", "is", "explaining", "a", "difficult", "concept", "or", "wondering", "if", "the", "students", "are", "following", "along:.", "If", "somebody", "normally", "engaged", "is", "looking", "really", "confused,", "it's", "often", "an", "opportunity", "to", "say,", "'is", "something", "not", "clear?'", "because", "normally", "you're", "getting", "one", "kind", "of", "feedback", "and", "now", "you're", "getting", "a", "different", "kind", "of", "feedback", "which", "may", "stand", "in", "for", "feedback", "from", "the", "whole", "class", "[D]", "..", "Several", "other", "participants", "also", "spoke", "about", "focusing", "on", "students", "to", "be", "sure", "the", "lecture", "was", "understood", "by", "everyone,", "such", "as", "those", "they", "know", "might", "be", "having", "difficulty", "with", "the", "material.", "Participant", "K", "targets", "the", "extremes:", "those", "who", "seem", "to", "be", "paying", "close", "attention,", "and", "those", "who", "are", "not:.", "[I", "begin", "by", "looking]", "around", "the", "room.", "I", "look", "at", "the", "back,", "I", "tend", "to", "gravitate", "more", "to", "those", "who", "are", "nodding", "positively,", "or", "those", "who", "are", "totally", "out", "of", "it", "and", "or", "whispering", "to", "their", "friend", "or", "falling", "asleep", "and", "I'll", "pay", "particular", "attention", "to", "that", "latter", "group", "and", "maybe", "ambush", "them", "by", "asking", "a", "question", "[K]", "..", "All", "participants", "indicated", "that", "they", "quickly", "notice", "when", "those", "students", "they", "rely", "on", "for", "visual", "feedback", "are", "not", "in", "class,", "because", "they", "could", "mentally", "picture", "the", "seating", "plan", "or", "recognize", "faces", "of", "students,", "even", "if", "not", "names..", "Instructors", "spatially", "divide", "the", "room", "into", "manageable", "'chunks'", "of", "students.", "Participants", "indicated", "that", "they", "divide", "the", "room", "up", "spatially", "-particularly", "if", "the", "room", "is", "largeand", "consciously", "attend", "to", "different", "regions.", "Some", "do", "this", "to", "ensure", "at", "least", "an", "effort", "to", "cover", "the", "entire", "class:.", "I", "try", "to", "look", "at", "sections,", "so", "I'll", "look-try", "to", "look", "at", "the", "different", "balcony", "sides,", "side,", "side,", "sides,", "and", "back,", "front,", "sides,", "but", "I,", "I", "think", "probably", "the", "reality", "is", "that", "it's", "mostly", "the", "front", "[J]..", "Others", "do", "so", "because", "they", "believe", "students", "in", "certain", "areas", "may", "be", "more", "or", "less", "likely", "to", "be", "engaged", "by", "the", "material:", "What", "is", "interesting", "in", "these", "descriptions", "is", "the", "implicit", "transition", "between", "scanning", "the", "entire", "room", "by", "region,", "and", "focusing", "on", "particular", "students.", "Also", "interesting", "is", "the", "conscious", "focus", "on", "the", "extremes", "-those", "who", "are", "nodding", "along,", "and", "those", "who", "are", "not", "paying", "attention", "at", "all." ], [ "Our", "participants", "want", "to", "be", "aware", "of", "and", "respond", "to", "their", "students.", "In", "large", "classes,", "they", "focus", "on", "subsets", "of", "students,", "often", "looking", "for", "reactions", "from", "specific", "students.", "In", "other", "words,", "these", "subsets", "are", "serving", "as", "proxies", "for", "the", "whole", "class.", "This", "returns", "us", "to", "our", "initial", "question:", "can", "awareness", "be", "conveyed", "by", "proxy", "in", "e-learning", "environments?." ], [ "One", "key", "difference", "between", "face-to-face", "and", "distributed", "classroom", "environments", "is", "highlighted", "by", "our", "first", "two", "findings:", "instructors", "maintain", "the", "image", "that", "they", "are", "attending", "to", "the", "entire", "class,", "but", "may", "actually", "be", "attending", "to", "only", "a", "subset.", "In", "other", "words,", "the", "details", "of", "an", "instructor's", "actual", "attention", "are", "masked", "in", "face-to-face", "classes.", "Gaze", "direction", "provides", "some", "cues,", "but", "it", "is", "difficult", "for", "students", "to", "discern", "the", "instructor's", "exact", "focus.", "In", "this", "way,", "subsets", "or", "\"proxies\"", "in", "face-to-face", "environments", "can", "be", "selected", "dynamically", "and", "-from", "the", "students'", "perspective", "-invisibly,", "as", "was", "evident", "in", "our", "data..", "In", "a", "mixed", "environment,", "on", "the", "other", "hand,", "where", "remote", "student", "images", "are", "displayed", "in", "a", "face-to-face", "lecture", "room", "(e.g.,", "[9]", "),", "this", "display", "is", "public.", "Thus,", "if", "only", "a", "subset", "of", "students", "are", "being", "displayed,", "others", "will", "know", "who", "is", "being", "focused", "on", "by", "the", "instructor.", "In", "other", "words,", "the", "instructor's", "attention", "is", "no", "longer", "private.", "Moreover,", "being", "on", "public", "display", "may", "also", "mean", "additional", "attention", "for", "those", "students", "from", "their", "peers", "as", "well.", "This", "threatens", "both", "student", "privacy", "and", "the", "plausibility", "of", "the", "instructor's", "impression", "of", "attending", "to", "the", "entire", "class..", "Making", "selected", "student", "subsets", "public", "also", "raises", "issues", "of", "how", "to", "choose", "these", "students", "and", "whether", "or", "not", "public", "display", "of", "their", "images", "is", "acceptable.", "Given", "that", "some", "of", "our", "participants", "indicated", "that", "they", "try", "to", "focus", "on", "students", "not", "paying", "attention,", "this", "could", "be", "controversial.", "In", "the", "TELEP", "experience", "[9]", ",", "for", "example,", "many", "remote", "participants", "elected", "not", "to", "display", "video", "images", "because", "they", "did", "not", "want", "to", "be", "seen", "multi-tasking", "in", "their", "offices.", "Public", "display", "of", "student", "subgroups", "is", "also", "problematic", "in", "the", "case", "of", "perceived", "disproportionate", "focus", "on", "socially", "charged", "categories,", "such", "as", "foreign", "or", "minority", "students..", "In", "this", "regard,", "attention", "in", "e-learning", "environments", "is", "importantly", "different", "from,", "for", "example,", "small", "group", "video", "conferences", "where", "focus", "on", "a", "person", "may", "be", "an", "indicator", "that", "it", "is", "appropriate", "to", "draw", "additional", "attention", "to", "that", "individual", "(e.g.,", "by", "enlarging", "their", "video", "image),", "as", "in", "[10]", "..", "Another", "social", "issue", "to", "consider", "is", "the", "extent", "to", "which", "an", "\"awareness", "by", "proxy\"", "strategy", "will", "work", "in", "a", "distributed", "environment,", "where", "context", "is", "not", "shared.", "Our", "participants", "described", "using", "a", "combination", "of", "looking", "around", "the", "entire", "room,", "and", "then", "picking", "on", "particular", "students.", "In", "this", "way,", "the", "sampling/proxy", "strategy", "works", "because", "the", "sample", "is", "picked", "out", "with", "at", "least", "some", "conscious", "awareness", "of", "the", "whole", "population.", "When", "this", "shared", "context", "is", "taken", "away,", "such", "a", "strategy", "may", "be", "less", "effective..", "All", "of", "this", "suggests", "that", "a", "\"brute-force\"", "approach", "using", "video", "to", "mimic", "the", "face-to-face", "environment", "will", "likely", "miss", "some", "critical", "and", "subtle", "facets", "of", "classroom", "awareness.", "We", "suggest", "an", "alternative", "approach", "that", "exploits", "the", "affordances", "of", "the", "e-learning", "environment", "and", "provides", "for", "multiple", "displays", "and", "levels", "of", "privacy." ], [ "Awareness", "displays", "should", "allow", "for", "overview", "and", "detail.", "The", "instructors", "we", "studied", "pay", "attention", "to", "their", "students", "with", "two", "goals", "in", "mind:", "1)", "getting", "an", "overall", "sense", "of", "the", "students'", "engagement", "and", "understanding,", "and", "2)", "looking", "more", "closely", "at", "a", "smaller", "number", "of", "students", "to", "gauge", "their", "individual", "reactions", "to", "the", "material.", "Moreover,", "instructors", "described", "switching", "regularly", "and", "rapidly", "between", "these", "modes.", "This", "suggests", "that", "awareness", "systems", "in", "e-learning", "should", "allow", "for", "this", "switching", "as", "well.", "In", "particular,", "it", "should", "be", "possible", "to", "gauge", "the", "overall", "engagement", "and", "comprehension", "state", "of", "remote", "students,", "as", "well", "as", "\"zoom", "in\"", "on", "particular", "students", "for", "more", "details..", "While", "our", "data", "do", "not", "point", "to", "a", "specific", "implementation", "strategy,", "one", "way", "to", "accomplish", "this", "goal", "would", "be", "a", "\"focus", "+", "context\"", "display", "[8]", "that", "presents", "visualizations", "of", "aggregate", "data", "about", "the", "class,", "while", "also", "allowing", "instructors", "to", "get", "more", "information", "about", "specific", "students.", "This", "information", "could", "consist", "of", "video", "images,", "or", "other", "cues", "that", "could", "reliably", "indicate", "engagement", "for", "particular", "students", "(e.g.,", "data", "from", "sensors).", "This", "information", "could", "be", "provided", "either", "upon", "deliberate", "selection", "of", "students", "by", "the", "instructor,", "or", "by", "using", "an", "automated", "selection", "algorithm", "based", "on", "a", "combination", "of", "cues", "(e.g.,", "sensor", "data,", "a", "priori", "interest", "in", "a", "student,", "random", "selection).", "Specific", "implementations", "and", "cues", "are", "topics", "for", "future", "work..", "Instructor", "attention", "must", "remain", "private.", "A", "second", "key", "element", "in", "our", "findings", "is", "that", "actual", "instructor", "attention", "in", "face-to-face", "classrooms", "is", "private.", "Yet", "this", "is", "not", "always", "true", "in", "e-learning", "environments.", "This", "presents", "a", "unique", "challenge", "for", "designers.", "The", "goal", "in", "creating", "public", "awareness", "displays", "for", "classrooms,", "after", "all,", "was", "not", "to", "invade", "remote", "participants'", "privacy,", "but", "to", "create", "a", "peripheral", "display", "[12]", "that", "could", "be", "seen", "while", "delivering", "a", "lecture", "and", "attending", "to", "local", "students.", "Overcoming", "the", "unintended", "privacy", "consequences", "of", "this", "design", "decision", "is", "then", "a", "matter", "of", "creating", "a", "\"private", "peripheral", "display,\"", "and", "determining", "what", "information", "belongs", "on", "it..", "It", "may", "in", "fact", "be", "desirable", "to", "allow", "the", "face-to-face", "students", "to", "see", "some", "information", "about", "their", "remote", "peers", "on", "a", "public", "display.", "Problems", "arise", "when", "it", "is", "possible", "for", "the", "local", "students", "to", "discern", "the", "instructor's", "focus", "of", "attention", "from", "this", "display,", "or", "see", "detailed", "information", "that", "remote", "students", "want", "only", "the", "instructor", "to", "see..", "One", "possible", "solution", "could", "be", "a", "system", "that", "makes", "aggregate", "data", "available", "on", "a", "public", "display,", "but", "uses", "private", "displays", "for", "zooming", "in", "for", "more", "details", "about", "specific", "students.", "For", "example,", "a", "public", "display", "such", "as", "that", "used", "by", "Chen", "[7]", "or", "Jancke,", "et", "al.", "[9]", "could", "display", "images", "or", "data", "describing", "the", "entire", "remote", "class.", "To", "get", "more", "information,", "the", "instructor", "could", "use", "a", "gaze-based", "interface", "that", "displays", "details", "on", "his", "or", "her", "private", "screen", "mounted", "on", "the", "podium", "or", "\"augmented", "reality\"", "glasses..", "A", "second", "facet", "of", "this", "implication", "is", "that", "while", "students", "should", "be", "given", "the", "impression", "that", "instructors", "are", "attending", "to", "the", "whole", "class,", "this", "should", "be", "rooted", "in", "some", "sort", "of", "real", "attention.", "Providing", "false", "information", "would", "raise", "ethical", "concerns", "and", "likely", "have", "an", "impact", "on", "social", "relations." ], [ "This", "study", "has", "two", "weaknesses,", "and", "thus", "should", "be", "interpreted", "with", "caution.", "First,", "it", "is", "modest", "in", "size,", "is", "conducted", "at", "a", "single", "university,", "and", "relies", "heavily", "on", "selfreported", "interview", "data.", "While", "these", "interviews", "were", "partially", "validated", "by", "observations,", "it", "is", "not", "possible", "to", "fully", "verify", "the", "claims", "about", "attention", "at", "particular", "times.", "Second,", "there", "is", "a", "risk", "in", "using", "face-to-face", "data", "to", "design", "systems", "for", "distributed", "groups;", "the", "two", "are", "not", "the", "same.", "One", "key", "difference", "is", "that", "remote", "students", "may", "not", "wish", "to", "be", "attended", "to", "in", "the", "same", "way", "that", "face-to-face", "students", "are;", "as", "others", "have", "found,", "they", "may", "be", "muli-tasking", "and", "paying", "only", "scant", "attention", "to", "the", "lecture", "[7]", ".", "Additional", "research", "is", "needed", "to", "fully", "appreciate", "the", "student", "perspective..", "Still,", "our", "study", "moves", "research", "in", "audience", "awareness", "away", "from", "intuition", "and", "toward", "empirical", "practice.", "We", "identify", "issues", "with", "a", "proxy", "approach", "to", "awareness", "that", "can", "be", "applied", "to", "the", "design", "and", "refinement", "of", "webcast", "systems", "that", "will", "yield", "additional", "insights." ] ]
[ "e-learning", "lectures", "awareness", "webcasting", "attention" ]
[]
{ "title": [ "Attention", "by", "proxy?", "issues", "in", "audience", "awareness", "for", "webcasts", "to", "distributed", "groups" ], "abstract": [ "Instructor/student", "interaction", "in", "e-learning", "environments", "can", "positively", "impact", "both", "student", "learning", "and", "instructor", "satisfaction.", "In", "online", "webcast", "lectures,", "however,", "interaction", "can", "be", "difficult", "because", "instructors", "lack", "basic", "awareness", "information", "about", "their", "remote", "students.", "Our", "goal", "is", "to", "better", "understand", "the", "kinds", "of", "awareness", "information", "that", "instructors", "should", "have", "if", "they", "are", "to", "interact", "frequently", "and", "effectively", "with", "their", "students", "in", "elearning", "environments.", "We", "conducted", "an", "exploratory", "study", "-via", "interviews", "and", "observations", "-of", "instructor", "attention", "in", "face-to-face", "classrooms", "at", "a", "large", "university.", "Our", "results", "imply", "that", "a", "webcast", "system", "should", "provide", "instructors", "with", "overview", "and", "detailed", "data", "about", "their", "students,", "but", "that", "this", "detailed", "information", "should", "not", "be", "displayed", "publicly." ] }
295349
[ "introduction", "chained multistage amplifier", "•", "circuit implementation", "figure 2. cma topology", "simulation results", "conclusion" ]
[ [ "High-speed", "multistage", "amplifiers", "(MA)", "are", "widely", "used", "in", "optical", "communications", "systems", "as", "the", "main", "amplifier", "in", "a", "receiver.", "Multi-stage", "amplifiers", "must", "have", "high", "gain", "and", "wide", "bandwidth", "with", "frequency", "response", "from", "DC", "range", "to", "several", "GHz", "to", "provide", "the", "following", "Clock", "and", "Data", "Recovery", "(CDR)", "circuit", "with", "uniform", "output", "level", "regardless", "of", "input", "swing", "level.", "Also,", "low", "phase", "shift", "deviation", "and", "crossing", "point", "fluctuation", "must", "be", "insured", "over", "a", "wide", "input", "dynamic", "range", "to", "avoid", "degrading", "the", "sensitivity", "and", "phase", "margin", "of", "CDR", "[1]", ".", "Expanding", "the", "bandwidth", "of", "one", "stage,", "which", "is", "usually", "placed", "at", "the", "output", "node", "of", "each", "stage,", "ω", "p", ",", "is", "one", "of", "the", "methods", "used", "to", "broaden", "the", "overall", "bandwidth", "of", "an", "MA", "[2]", "-", "[5]", ".", "Some", "wellknown", "bandwidth", "enhancement", "methods", "are:", "using", "peaking", "capacitors,", "capacitance", "neutralization", "and", "shunt-peaking.", "Peaking", "techniques", "enhance", "ω", "p", "by", "introducing", "a", "peak", "in", "a", "transfer", "function", "at", "high", "frequencies.", "However,", "increasing", "ω", "p", "is", "not", "enough", "for", "bandwidth", "enhancement", "since", "the", "combination", "of", "the", "poles", "of", "all", "stages", "degrades", "the", "overall", "bandwidth,", "ω", "bw", ".", "For", "a", "conventional", "MA", "ω", "bw", "is", "always", "less", "than", "ω", "p", "when", "n>1..", "To", "further", "increase", "the", "overall", "bandwidth", "of", "a", "conventional", "MA", "of", "Fig.", "1", ",", "stages", "can", "be", "designed", "to", "have", "different", "gains", "and", "poles", "to", "introduce", "peaks", "at", "different", "frequencies.", "This", "approach", "was", "used", "to", "design", "a", "transimpedance", "amplifier", "[6]", ",", "where", "an", "early", "rolloff", "due", "to", "a", "low", "frequency", "pole", "in", "one", "stage", "was", "compensated", "with", "peaking", "in", "the", "next", "stage.", "There", "are", "two", "drawbacks", "in", "using", "this", "multi-pole", "enhancement.", "First,", "the", "design", "of", "stages", "is", "not", "uniform", "and", "each", "stage", "should", "be", "designed", "separately.", "Second,", "process", "variation", "may", "result", "in", "an", "undesirable", "peaking.", "Sensitivity", "of", "stages", "with", "high", "quality", "factor", "limits", "the", "usage", "of", "these", "circuits", "in", "typical", "applications", "(sensitivity", "is", "related", "to", "2Q).", "This", "paper", "introduces", "the", "chained", "multistage", "amplifier", "(CMA),", "which", "utilizes", "a", "new", "technique", "to", "expand", "the", "bandwidth", "of", "an", "MA", "by", "applying", "a", "chain", "of", "active", "feedbacks.", "The", "proposed", "circuit", "topology", "exploits", "the", "intrinsic", "capacitance", "within", "the", "transistors", "to", "push", "output", "pole", "of", "each", "stage", "to", "a", "higher", "frequency.", "CMA", "offers", "several", "advantages", "such", "as", "improved", "performance", "and", "gainPermission", "to", "make", "digital", "or", "hard", "copies", "of", "all", "or", "part", "of", "this", "work", "for", "personal", "or", "classroom", "use", "is", "granted", "without", "fee", "provided", "that", "copies", "are", "not", "made", "or", "distributed", "for", "profit", "or", "commercial", "advantage", "and", "that", "copies", "bear", "this", "notice", "and", "the", "full", "citation", "on", "the", "first", "page.", "To", "copy", "otherwise,", "or", "republish,", "to", "post", "on", "servers", "or", "to", "redistribute", "to", "lists,", "requires", "prior", "specific", "permission", "and/or", "a", "fee.", "bandwidth", "product", "that", "make", "it", "suitable", "for", "optical", "communications", "applications.", "To", "validate", "the", "proposed", "topology,", "several", "MAs", "in", "0.35µm", "CMOS", "process", "were", "designed", "and", "simulated.", "In", "section", "II,", "the", "CMA", "topology", "and", "its", "features", "are", "discussed.", "The", "circuit", "implementation", "is", "described", "in", "Section", "III.", "Simulation", "results", "are", "presented", "in", "Section", "IV.", "Finally,", "summary", "of", "the", "results", "is", "given." ], [ "Active", "feedback", "enhances", "the", "bandwidth", "by", "using", "the", "peaking", "technique.", "Figure", "2", "shows", "the", "block", "diagram", "of", "the", "proposed", "structure,", "n-stage", "chained", "multistage", "amplifier", "(CMA).", "Assume", "that", "the", "amplifier", "blocks", "g", "i", "(s)", "can", "be", "represented", "as", "in", "Eq.", "(1)", "and", "the", "feedback", "blocks", "have", "the", "transfer", "function.", "Let", "us", "consider", "the", "case", "of", "n=2.", "The", "two-stage", "topology", "has", "a", "second-order", "transfer", "function", "with", "the", "natural", "frequency,", "quality", "factor", "and", "3dB", "bandwidth", "given", "as.", "For", "Q>0.707", "(or", "GF>1)", "the", "bandwidth", "can", "be", "improved", "up", "to", "2.7ω", "p", ",", "while", "the", "maximum", "peak", "on", "the", "overall", "DC", "gain", "is", "less", "than", "1.5dB", "(@", ".", "Since", "ω", "n", "s", "and", "Qs", "are", "different,", "each", "2", "nd", "-order", "transfer", "function", "has", "a", "peak", "at", "a", "different", "frequency.", "The", "overall", "bandwidth", "of", "4-stage", "CMA", "can", "be", "improved", "up", "to", "about", "2.9ω", "p", "without", "incurring", "a", "significant", "peak", "(<1.5dB)", "in", "its", "transfer", "function.", "Similarly,", "the", "overall", "bandwidth", "can", "be", "increased", "several", "times", "more", "than", "ω", "p", "for", "n=6", "and", "8,", "and", "it", "can", "be", "approximated", "by", "(", ").", "Equations", "2", "and", "8", "show", "that", "the", "CMA", "has", "a", "bandwidth", "of", "(1+GF)", "times", "that", "of", "a", "conventional", "MA..", "The", "total", "gain-bandwidth", "product", "(GBP)", "of", "the", "CMA", "is", "less", "than", "that", "of", "the", "conventional", "MA.", "Another", "parameter", "that", "shows", "performance", "of", "an", "MA", "is", "the", "gain-bandwidth", "product", "of", "one", "single", "stage,", "GBP", "1", ",", "which", "is", "given", "as", "[7]", "(", ").", "GBP", "1", "of", "the", "conventional", "MA", "is", "decreased", "as", "n", "increases", "whereas", "GBP", "1", "of", "the", "CMA", "can", "be", "increased", "as", "n", "increases.", "This", "is", "confirmed", "by", "the", "circuit", "simulation", "results", "(see", "Section", "IV)..", "The", "advantages", "of", "the", "proposed", "CMA", "topology", "can", "be", "summarized", "as", "follows:" ], [ "The", "bandwidth", "can", "be", "several", "times", "more", "than", "ω", "p", ";", "whereas", "for", "n-stage", "conventional", "MA", "ω", "bw", "is", "always", "less", "than", "ω", "p", "(see", "Eq.", "(2))..", "•", "CMA", "can", "have", "more", "bandwidth", "as", "n", "increases.", "As", "shown", "above,", "4-stage", "CMA", "can", "be", "broader", "than", "2-stage", "CMA;", "on", "the", "contrary,", "4-stage", "conventional", "MA", "has", "less", "bandwidth", "than", "2-stage", "conventional", "MA", "(see", "Eq.", "(2))..", "•", "CMA", "does", "not", "require", "stages", "with", "high", "quality", "factor,", "which", "are", "very", "sensitive", "to", "process..", "•", "All", "amplifier", "stages", "of", "the", "CMA", "can", "be", "identical..", "•", "The", "GBP", "1", "can", "be", "increased", "as", "n", "increases." ], [ "The", "amplifier", "stages", "in", "Fig.", "2", "were", "implemented", "using", "an", "inductorless", "differential", "cascode", "structure", "with", "gain", "boosting", "as", "shown", "in", "Fig.", "3", ".", "A", "six-stage", "CMA,", "which", "was", "implemented", "in", "this", "paper,", "is", "illustrated", "in", "Fig.", "4", "..", "Using", "cascode", "structure", "decreases", "the", "effective", "input", "capacitance", "of", "individual", "stages", "and", "increases", "the", "forward", "gain.", "Gain", "boosting", "shifts", "the", "pole", "of", "the", "M", "g", "'s", "drain", "node", "(see", "Fig.", "3", ")", "to", "higher", "frequencies.", "Adding", "a", "new", "pole", "to", "the", "gate", "of", "M", "L", "is", "a", "drawback", "of", "using", "gain", "boosting.", "To", "ensure", "high-frequency", "operation,", "the", "gain", "of", "booster", "should", "be", "small.", "In", "the", "model", "used,", "the", "poles", "associated", "with", "the", "source", "node", "and", "the", "gate", "node", "of", "the", "transistor", "M", "L", "is", "considered", "far", "from", "the", "dominant", "pole,", "which", "is", "placed", "at", "the", "output", "node", "of", "each", "stage..", "The", "overall", "output", "capacitance", "of", "each", "stage", "is", "reduced", "by", "using", "the", "Miller", "effect", "of", "C", "gd", "of", "transistor", "M", "f", "in", "Fig.", "3", ".", "Consider", "the", "simplified", "circuitry", "of", "a", "two-stage", "CMA", "as", "illustrated", "in", "Fig.", "5", ".", "The", "second", "stage", "is", "a", "simple", "DC", "amplifier", "with", "the", "gain", "block", "G", "and", "the", "input", "capacitor", "C", "i", ",", "whereas", "the", "first", "stage", "is", "modeled", "using", "a", "voltage-controlled", "current", "source", "(g", "mg", "V", "i", "),", "a", "load", "resistance", "(R", "L", ")", "and", "the", "output", "capacitor", "(C", "o", ").", "The", "voltage-controlled", "current", "source", "g", "mf", "V", "o", "represents", "the", "feedback", "from", "the", "second", "stage.", "The", "node", "X", "has", "the", "overall", "capacitance", "of", "C", "eq", "≅[C", "o", "+C", "i", "+C", "gdf", "]-GC", "gdf", ".", "C", "eq", "can", "be", "reduced", "by", "increasing", "G", "and", "C", "gdf", ".", "However,", "G", "cannot", "be", "increased", "to", "an", "arbitrarily", "large", "value", "for", "a", "constant", "R", "L", ",", "since", "it", "increases", "C", "i", ".", "Furthermore,", "increasing", "C", "gdf", "decreases", "the", "overall", "gain.", "Therefore,", "there", "is", "a", "trade-off", "between", "the", "overall", "gain", "and", "bandwidth.", "Using", "extra", "transistors", "M", "f", "in", "Fig.", "3", "does", "not", "increase", "power", "consumption", "significantly,", "since", "the", "drain", "current", "of", "M", "f", "is", "much", "less", "than", "that", "of", "M", "g", "(I", "g", ">>I", "f", ")." ], [ "g2(s)", "Vi", "-f2(s)", "-f1(s)", "0", "Vo", "-fj(s)", "-fn(s)", "gn(s)", "-fn-1(s)", "g1(s)", "+", "+", "+", "g3(s)", "gj(s)", "-fj-1(s)", "+", "gj+1(s)", "+", "+", "V", "f-", "V", "f+", "V", "g-", "V", "o-", "V", "o+", "R", "b", "R", "b", "R", "L", "R", "L", "M", "b", "M", "b", "M", "L", "M", "L", "M", "f", "M", "f", "I", "b", "I", "T", "M", "g", "M", "g", "V", "g+" ], [ "Several", "CMAs", "and", "conventional", "MAs", "were", "designed", "for", "n=2,", "4,", "6", "and", "8", "using", "0.35µm", "CMOS", "technology.", "The", "amplifiers", "were", "optimized", "with", "different", "W", "f", "(width", "of", "the", "transistor", "M", "f", ")", "and", "R", "L", "to", "have", "the", "minimum", "ripple", "(<1.5dB)", "in", "their", "transfer", "function,", "where", "the", "forward", "DC", "gain", "(G)", "was", "kept", "constant", "for", "all", "stages", "(MAs'", "stages", "do", "not", "have", "M", "f", ").", "The", "circuits", "were", "combined", "with", "a", "buffer", "to", "drive", "the", "50Ω", "loads", "in", "series", "with", "1pF", "capacitors", "at", "3.3V", "single", "power", "supply.", "Figure", "6", "illustrates", "the", "simulation", "of", "AC", "responses", "(@", "GF", "§", "7KH", "&0$", "KDV", "D", "ZLGHU", "EDQGZLGWK", "DQG", "WKH", "simple", "cascade", "structure", "without", "feedback", "gives", "a", "larger", "gain.", "8-stage", "CMA", "has", "a", "bandwidth", "of", "about", "2.9", "GHz", "and", "a", "DC", "gain", "of", "about", "60dB,", "while", "8-stage", "MA", "has", "a", "bandwidth", "of", "about", "0.43", "GHz", "and", "a", "DC", "gain", "of", "91dB.", "To", "compare", "the", "CMAs", "and", "MAs", "for", "n=2,", "4,", "6", "and", "8,", "their", "GBP", "1", "s", "and", "the", "overall", "GBPs", "(GBP", "T", ")", "were", "calculated", "from", "simulations.", "GBP", "1", "of", "CMA", "for", "n=2,", "4,", "6", "and", "8", "are", "3.70GHz,", "4.21GHz,", "6.88GHz", "and", "7.38GHz,", "respectively.", "The", "ratio", "of", "GBP", "1", "s", "and", "the", "bandwidths", "for", "two", "structures", "of", "CMA", "and", "MA", "is", "illustrated", "in", "Figure", "7", ".", "The", "CMA's", "GBP", "1", "is", "higher", "and", "increasing", "n", "gives", "a", "higher", "GBP", "1", "for", "CMA.", "This", "is", "exactly", "the", "opposite", "of", "what", "is", "seen", "in", "the", "conventional", "MA.", "As", "Fig.", "7", "shows,", "the", "bandwidth", "of", "CMA", "is", "more", "than", "6.8", "times", "of", "that", "of", "the", "MA.", "As", "it", "was", "explained,", "the", "topology", "of", "CMA", "expands", "the", "overall", "bandwidth", "with", "(1+GF),", "e.g.,", "for", "GF=1,", "it", "doubles", "the", "bandwidth.", "The", "Miller", "effect", "of", "C", "gdf", "shifts", "the", "dominant", "pole", "of", "stages", "(1", "to", "n-1)", "to", ".", "higher", "frequencies", "by", "up", "to", "four", "times.", "Dominant", "pole", "of", "the", "last", "stage", "is", "different", "from", "others.", "Having", "more", "stages", "introduces", "more", "peaks", "and", "compensates", "for", "rolling-off", "of", "transfer", "function", "affected", "by", "the", "dominant", "pole", "of", "the", "last", "stage.", "Figure", "7", "also", "illustrates", "the", "ratio", "of", "the", "overall", "gain-bandwidth", "product", "(GBP", "T", ")", "of", "the", "MA", "and", "the", "CMA.", "As", "it", "shows,", "this", "ratio", "is", "increasing", "as", "n", "increases.", "Compared", "bandwidth", "ratio,", "it", "is", "lower.", "Figure", "8", "illustrate", "group", "delays", "of", "CMAs", "and", "MAs.", "Unfortunately,", "the", "group", "delay", "of", "the", "CMA", "has", "a", "peak", "around", "the", "corner", "frequency,", "and", "its", "variation", "increases", "as", "n", "increases", "(the", "same", "behavior", "can", "also", "be", "observed", "for", "a", "conventional", "MA).", "This", "can", "be", "predicted", "because", "having", "separated", "poles", "causes", "more", "variation", "in", "group", "delay.", "For", "n=8", "and", "10", "4", "random", "bits", "with", "the", "rate", "of", "2.5Gb/s,", "eye", "diagrams", "of", "CMA", "and", "MA", "for", "an", "input", "signal", "of", "1V", "peak-to-peak", "are", "shown", "in", "Figs.", "9", "(a)" ], [ "A", "new", "technique", "for", "designing", "a", "wideband", "multistage", "amplifier", "was", "introduced.", "The", "proposed", "method,", "chained", "multistage", "amplifier", "(CMA),", "uses", "active", "feedback", "to", "improve", "the", "bandwidth.", "Due", "to", "lower", "quality", "factor", "required,", "CMA", "has", "lower", "sensitivity", "to", "process", "variations.", "Furthermore,", "identical", "gain", "stages", "can", "be", "used", "to", "build", "the", "CMA,", "which", "simplifies", "the", "design", "process.", "An", "8-stage", "CMA", "was", "designed", "in", "0.35µm", "CMOS", "process,", "where", "more", "than", "2.9GHz", "bandwidth", "and", "an", "overall", "GBP", "of", "4.8THz", "were", "obtained", "from", "simulations." ] ]
[ "peaking technique", "multistage amplifier", "optical communications" ]
[ "wideband amplifier" ]
{ "title": [ "Multi-peak", "bandwidth", "enhancement", "technique", "for", "multistage", "amplifiers" ], "abstract": [ "A", "new", "technique", "for", "designing", "wideband", "multistage", "amplifiers", "(MA)", "is", "introduced.", "The", "proposed", "method", "has", "several", "advantages", "such", "as", "increased", "bandwidth", "with", "increasing", "number", "of", "stages", "and", "decreased", "sensitivity", "to", "process", "variations.", "All", "stages", "of", "the", "proposed", "MA", "topology", "can", "be", "identical,", "where", "the", "bandwidth", "can", "be", "several", "times", "more", "than", "that", "of", "a", "single", "stage.", "A", "0.35µm", "CMOS", "process", "is", "used", "to", "implement", "the", "new", "MA", "circuit;", "where", "active", "negative", "feedbacks", "exploit", "the", "intrinsic", "capacitance", "within", "the", "transistors", "to", "expand", "the", "bandwidth.", "Simulation", "results", "show", "an", "overall", "GBP", "of", "4.8THz." ] }
478851
["introduction","on the nature of scientific notions","notions of complexity","information-based mea(...TRUNCATED)
[["While","most","will","have","a","strong","intuition","that","the","complexity","of","organisms","(...TRUNCATED)
[ "complexity", "physical complexity", "information" ]
[ "postnormal science" ]
{"title":["Criteria","for","Conceptual","and","Operational","Notions","of","Complexity"],"abstract":(...TRUNCATED)
18833971
["introduction","symmetrical tridiagonal matrices from special spectral data","nonnegative symmetric(...TRUNCATED)
[["In","this","paper","we","discuss","the","inverse","eigenvalue","problem","for","real","symmetrica(...TRUNCATED)
[ "symmetrical tridiagonal matrices" ]
[ "matrix inverse eigenvalue problem" ]
{"title":["An","inverse","eigenvalue","problem","for","symmetrical","tridiagonal","matrices"],"abstr(...TRUNCATED)
125356
["introduction","tensor rank","orbit closure problem","the gct program for tensors","semigroups of r(...TRUNCATED)
[["Mulmuley","and","Sohoni","[25,","26]","proposed","to","view","the","permanent","versus","determin(...TRUNCATED)
["kronecker coefficients","tensor rank","matrix multiplication","multiplicities","geometric complexi(...TRUNCATED)
[]
{"title":["Geometric","complexity","theory","and","tensor","rank"],"abstract":["Mulmuley","and","Soh(...TRUNCATED)
3155983
["introduction","streaming data examples","motivation for punctuated streams","enhancing the example(...TRUNCATED)
[["T","HERE","are","many","examples","of","stream-processing","applications:","Financial","applicati(...TRUNCATED)
[ "stream iterators", "query operators", "continuous data streams", "stream semantics" ]
[ "continuous queries" ]
{"title":["Exploiting","punctuation","semantics","in","continuous","data","streams"],"abstract":["Ab(...TRUNCATED)
1369658
["introduction","cooperative multi-target tracking 2.1 architecture of ava and its functions","basic(...TRUNCATED)
[["Object","tracking","is","one","of","the","most","important","and","fundamental","technologies","f(...TRUNCATED)
[ "multi-target tracking" ]
[ "active vision agent", "cooperative distributed tracking", "tracking using multiple active camera" ]
{"title":["Real-time","cooperative","multi-target","tracking","by","communicating","active","vision"(...TRUNCATED)
9134261
["introduction -parallel and distributed simulations","paradigms for constructing simulators","async(...TRUNCATED)
[["The","simulation","of","physical","systems","is","an","important","tool","for","researchers","tha(...TRUNCATED)
[ "federated simulators", "distributed simulation", "frame relay" ]
[ "parallel simulation", "computer networks simulation" ]
{"title":["A","Federated","Approach","to","Parallel","and","Distributed","Simulation","of","Complex"(...TRUNCATED)
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