Patent Application: US-201615017381-A

Abstract:
disclosed are means of inducing antigen - specific tolerance through genetically modifying msc to express antigens of interest in an inducible manner or constitutive manner . msc have been demonstrated to suppress pathological immunity in an antigen - nonspecific manner in vitro and in vivo , including clinical trials of gvhd , type 1 diabetes , and multiple sclerosis . administration of autoantigens in non - immunogenic routes , such as orally , intranasally , or delivered using immature dendritic cells has shown some signs of clinical efficacy , although effect has not been robust enough to allow for human therapeutic success . we disclose genetic modification of msc to induce overexpression of autoantigens in a regulated manner in order to generate a universal donor antigen - specific tolerogenic vaccine as a treatment for autoimmunity . msc are uniquely suited for this goal given their following properties : a ) induction of t regulatory cells ; b ) suppression of t helper , t cytotoxic , and nk cells ; c ) downregulation of antigen presentation .

Description:
immunological tolerance is a cardinal feature of the immune system , allowing for recognition and elimination of pathological threats , while selectively ignoring antigens that belong to the body . understanding mechanisms of immunological tolerance , and having the ability to induce this process would make a major impact in autoimmune conditions , which affect approximately 8 % of the us population 1 . major autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis , multiple sclerosis , type 1 diabetes , systemic lupus erythromatosis , and inflammatory bowel disease . traditionally , autoimmune conditions are treated with non - specific inhibitors of inflammation such as steroids , as well as immune suppressive agents such as cyclosporine , 5 - azathrioprine , and methotrexate . these approaches globally suppress immune functions and have numerous undesirable side effects . unfortunately , given the substantial decrease in quality of life observed in patients with autoimmunity , the potential of alleviation of autoimmune symptoms outweighs the side effects such as opportunistic infections and increased predisposition to neoplasia . the introduction of “ biological therapies ” such as anti - tnf - alpha antibodies has led to some improvements in prognosis , although side effects are still present due to the non - specific nature of the intervention . regardless , sales of tnf - alpha inhibitors have been quite successful : humira ($ 9 . 2b ; 2012 ), enbrel ($ 7 . 8b ; 2011 ), remicade ($ 6 . 7b ; 2011 ) 2 . these approaches do not “ cure ” autoimmunity , but merely alleviate symptomology . 1 http :// www . niaid . nih . gov / topics / autoimmune / documents / adccreport . pdf 2 http :// www . forbes . com / sites / simonking / 2013 / 01 / 28 / the - best - selling - drugs - of - all - time - humira - joins - the - elite / to “ cure ” autoimmunity , it is essential to delete / inactivate the t cell clone that is recognizing the autoantigen in a selective manner . this would be akin to recapitulating the natural process of tolerance induction . while thymic deletion was the original process identified as being responsible for selectively deleting autoreactive t cells , it became clear that numerous redundant mechanisms exist that are not limited to the neonatal period . specifically , a “ mirror image ” immune system was demonstrated to co - exist with the conventional immune system . conventional t cells are activated by self - antigens to die in the thymus and conventional t cells that are not activated receive a survival signal [ 1 ]; the “ mirror image ”, t regulatory ( treg ) cells are actually selected to live by encounter with self - antigens , and treg cells that do not bind self antigens are deleted [ 2 , 3 ]. thus the self - nonself discrimination by the immune system occurs in part based on self antigens depleting autoreactive t cells , while promoting the generation of treg cells . an important point for development of an antigen - specific tolerogenic vaccine is that in adult life , and in the periphery , autoreactive t cells are “ anergized ” by presentation of self - antigens in absence of danger signals , and autoreactive treg are generated in response to self antigens . although the process of t cell deletion in the thymus is different than induction of t cell anergy , and treg generation in the thymus , results in a different type of treg as compared to peripheral induced treg , in many aspects , the end result of adult tolerogenesis is similar to that which occurs in the neonatal period . specific examples of tolerogenesis that occurs in adults includes settings such as pregnancy , cancer , and oral tolerance . in the situation of pregnancy , studies have demonstrated selective inactivation of maternal t cell clones that recognize fetal antigens occurs through a variety of mechanisms , including fasl expression on fetal and placental cells [ 4 ], antigen presentation in the context of pd 1 - l [ 5 ], and hla - g interacting with immune inhibitory receptors such as ilt 4 [ 6 ]. in pregnancy , “ tolerogenic antigen presentation ” occurs only through the indirect pathway of antigen presentation [ 7 ]. other pathways of selective tolerogenesis in pregnancy include the stimulation of treg cells , which have been demonstrated essential for successful pregnancy [ 8 ]. in the context of cancer , depletion of tumor specific t cells , while sparing of t cells with specificities to other antigens has been demonstrated by the tumor itself or tumor associated cells [ 9 - 12 ]. additionally , treg cells have been demonstrated to actively suppress anti - tumor t cells , perhaps as a “ back up ” mechanism of tumor immune evasion [ 13 - 15 ]. at a clinical level the ability of tumors to inhibit peripheral t cell activity has been associated in numerous studies with poor prognosis [ 16 - 18 ]. oral tolerance is the process by which ingested antigens induce generation of antigen - specific tgf - beta producing cells ( called “ th3 ” by some ) [ 19 - 21 ], as well as treg cells [ 22 , 23 ]. ingestion of antigen , including the autoantigen collagen ii [ 24 ], has been shown to induce inhibition of both t and b cell responses in a specific manner [ 25 , 26 ]. it appears that induction of regulatory cells , as well as deletion / anergy of effector cells is associated with antigen presentation in a tolerogenic manner [ 27 ]. remission of disease in animal models of ra [ 28 ], multiple sclerosis [ 29 ], and type i diabetes [ 30 ], has been reported by oral administration of autoantigens . furthermore , clinical trials have shown signals of efficacy of oral tolerance in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis [ 31 ], autoimmune uveitis [ 32 ], and multiple sclerosis [ 33 ]. in all of these natural conditions of tolerance , common molecules and mechanisms seem to be operating . accordingly , a natural means of inducing tolerance would be the administration of a “ universal donor ” cell with tolerogenic potential that generate molecules similar to those found in physiological conditions of tolerance induction . below we will describe some of the mechanisms associated with mesenchymal stem cell ( msc ) mediated tolerogenesis . while to date , msc mediated tolerogenesis is non - specific to a particular antigen , we propose that genetic transfection of autoantigens in an inducible manner will allow the use of msc to act as an “ antigen - specific tolerogenic vaccine ”. mesenchymal stem cells ( msc ) are classically defined as adherent , non - hematopoietic cells expressing markers such as cd90 , cd105 , and cd73 , while lacking expression of cd14 , cd34 , and cd45 , and being able to differentiate into adipocytes , chondrocytes , and osteocytes in vitro after treatment with differentiation inducing agents [ 34 ]. although early studies in the late 1960s initially identified msc in the bone marrow [ 35 ], more recent studies have reported these cells can be purified from various tissues such as adipose [ 36 ], heart [ 37 ] , wharton &# 39 ; s jelly [ 38 ], dental pulp [ 39 ], peripheral blood [ 40 ], cord blood [ 41 ], and more recently menstrual blood [ 42 - 44 ]. studies in the bone marrow showed that although msc are the primary cell type that overgrows in in vitro cultures , in vivo msc are found at a low ratio compared to other bone marrow mononuclear cells , specifically , 1 : 10 , 000 to 1 : 100 , 000 [ 45 ]. the physiological role of msc still remains to be fully elucidated , with one hypothesis being that bone marrow msc act as precursors for stromal cells that make up the hematopoietic stem cell microenvironment [ 46 - 48 ]. the first clinical use of msc has been to accelerate hematopoietic recovery after bone marrow ablation in the context of hematopoietic stem cell transplant or oncology chemotherapy . in a 1995 paper , lazarus et al . reported the use of autologous , in vitro expanded , “ mesenchymal progenitor cells ” to treat 15 patients suffering from hematological malignancies in remission . the authors demonstrated that a 10 cc bone marrow sample was capable of 16 , 000 - fold growth over a 4 - 7 week in vitro culture . cell administration was performed in total doses ranging from 1 − 50 × 10 6 cells and was not causative of treatment associated adverse effects [ 49 ]. in a subsequent study from the same group , the use of msc to accelerate hematopoietic reconstitution was performed in 28 breast cancer patients who received high dose chemotherapy . msc at concentrations of 1 . 0 − 2 . 2 × 10 6 / kg , were administered intravenously with no treatment associated adverse effects . the authors noted that leukocytic and thrombocytic reconstitution occurred at an accelerated rate as compared to historical controls [ 50 ]. it is important to note that these initial clinical experiences with msc were in patients with oncological indications and no overt acceleration of cancer progression was noted . this has been a concern given that msc are known to be angiogenic [ 51 - 56 ], produce mitogenic / antiapoptotic factors [ 57 - 63 ], and exert an immune suppressive effect [ 64 - 71 ]. besides feasibility , these studies were important because they established the technique for ex vivo expansion and re - administration . the demonstration of clinical feasibility , combined with animal models supporting therapeutic efficacy of msc in non - hematopoietic indications [ 72 - 79 ], gave rise to a series of clinical trials with msc in a wide range of therapeutic areas ranging from major diseases such as stroke [ 80 - 83 ], heart failure [ 84 , 85 ], copd [ 86 ], and liver failure [ 87 ], as well as rare diseases such as osteogenesis imperfecta [ 88 ], hurler syndrome [ 89 ], and duchenne muscular dystrophy [ 90 ]. the ability to generate large amounts of defined msc starting with a small clinical sample , to administer without need for haplotype matching , and excellent safety profile , has resulted in a current 367 clinical trials listed on the international registry clinicaltrials . gov . while some trials have demonstrated efficacy of msc , little is known about molecular mechanisms . initial studies demonstrated ability of certain msc types to differentiate into functional tissues that is compromised as a result of the underlying pathological . subsequent studies have demonstrated that the majority of administered msc lodge into the lungs and liver , with only a small minority entering the tissue of pathology [ 91 ]. the concept that msc act as “ repair cells ” of the body , would imply that msc do not constitutively secrete regenerative factors , but in contrast , produce them only upon need . indeed this seems to be not just a concept but an experimental reality . one of the most common elements of tissue injury is the presence of hypoxia . interstitial damage is often associated with activation of the coagulation cascade , resulting in areas of hypoxia . it is known that reduction in oxygen tension in a variety of tissues leads to activation of the transcription factor hif - 1 alpha , which induces transcription of angiogenic genes such as vegf [ 92 , 93 ], as well as the msc chemoattractant sdf - 1 [ 94 , 95 ]. once msc migrate to areas of hypoxia , it has been demonstrated that production of various therapeutic paracrine mediators is increased . the relevance of hypoxia to msc growth factor production in vitro has been demonstrated by several groups . for example , exposure of bone marrow ( bm )- msc to 24 hours of hypoxia ( 1 % oxygen ) results in marked induction of vegf , fgf - 2 , hgf , and igf - 1 production , in an nf - kappa b dependent manner [ 96 ]. the stimulation of growth factor production by hypoxia is not specific to bm - msc and has been demonstrated in msc derived from adipose tissue [ 97 ], placenta [ 98 ], and dental pulp [ 99 ]. furthermore , hypoxia stimulation of angiogenic and anti - apoptotic factors such as vegf , fgf - 2 , hgf and igf - 1 have been reported to also occur in msc from aged animals , supporting clinical utility [ 100 ]. the biological relevance of msc - secreted growth factors stimulated by hypoxia can be seen in studies showing that conditioned media from hypoxia treated msc but not normoxia treated msc endows therapeutic benefit in animal models . for example , chang et al demonstrated that conditioned media from hypoxia treated bm - msc was capable of restoring neurological function in a rat model of traumatic brain injury significantly better than administration of conditioned media from normoxia treated bm - msc . furthermore , they demonstrated that this was associated with production of hgf and vegf , which were involved in the induction of endogenous neurogenesis [ 101 ]. in a similar study , yu et al administered bm - msc that were hypoxia conditioned into a rat massive hepatectomy model , and compared their therapeutic activity with bm - msc that were exposed to normoxia . they found that the hypoxia conditioned bm - msc produced significantly higher levels of vegf in vitro as compared to control treated cells . furthermore , in vivo administration resulted in significantly elevated cyclin d1 , proliferating cell nuclear antigen - positive hepatocytes , liver weight / body weight ratio , and survival compared with animals that received normoxia preconditioned bm - msc . interestingly , blockade of vegf by in vivo administration of anti - vegf antibody negated the therapeutic effect of hypoxia [ 102 ]. in a rat model of diabetic cardiomyopathy it was demonstrated that administration of hypoxia treated bm - msc resulted in superior inhibition of pathological remodeling as compared to administration of control bm - msc , which was associated with production of cardiomyocytes from apoptosis , which the authors speculated may have occurred due to hypoxia mediated stimulation of igf - 1 production [ 103 ]. the effect of hypoxia on msc appears to be not only a trigger for production of growth factors , but also allows the msc to retain an undifferentiated phenotype , allowing for self - renewal without differentiation . this may be due in part to the fact that anatomically , mscs tend to be found in hypoxic areas of the body , for example in areas of adipose tissue , or bone marrow that are relatively poorly perfused by the circulatory system [ 104 , 105 ]. it was demonstrated in vitro that exposure of bm - msc to hypoxia results in augmented proliferation of bm - msc , as well as the formation of colonies in the colony - forming unit assay ( cfu - a ), the percentage of quiescent cells , and the expression of stemness markers rex - 1 and oct - 4 , thereby suggesting an increase in the stemness of bm - msc when exposed to hypoxia [ 106 ]. one of the key factors of msc of relevance to therapeutics development is their known anti - inflammatory / immune modulatory properties . the potency of this effect is seen in clinical studies showing efficacy of msc at inhibiting the lethal , immune - based condition of graft versus host disease [ 107 - 112 ]. exposure of msc to hypoxia has been demonstrated in several systems to augment immune modulatory activity . in one example , it was demonstrated that msc expression of the tryptophan catabolizing enzyme , indolamine 2 , 3 deoxygenase ( ido ), was markedly upregulated in the presence of hypoxia [ 113 ]. ido is critical in immune regulation by msc in part through induction of t cell anergy [ 114 ], and in part by stimulation of t regulatory cells [ 115 , 116 ]. the practical relevance of hypoxia - stimulated immune regulation of msc is seen in the situation of allogeneic use of bm - msc for stimulation of therapeutic angiogenesis . it was shown in a recent study that hypoxia - conditioned bm - mscs from b6 mice ameliorate limb ischaemia of balb / c mice compared to normoxic mscs . histological staining demonstrated that hypoxic bm - msc have an increased ability to engraft in allogeneic recipients by reducing nk cytotoxicity , and decrease the accumulation of host - derived nk cells when transplanted in vivo . these allogeneic hypoxia treated bm - msc gave rise to cd31 + endothelial cells and αsma + and desmin + muscle cells , thereby enhancing angiogenesis and restoring muscle structure . moreover , application of anti - nk antibodies together with normoxic mscs enhanced angiogenesis and prevented limb amputation in allogeneic recipients with limb ischemia , thus demonstrating that the benefit of hypoxic conditioning was mediated by enhanced immune modulation in the allogenic setting [ 117 ]. in addition to responding to hypoxia , msc produce immune modulatory and regenerative factors in response to inflammatory stimuli . one of the most studied mechanisms by which inflammation triggers msc activity the treatment with interferon gamma . this cytokine is typically produced during inflammatory th1 immune responses that are associated with autoimmunity mediated by cellular means , such as cd8 t cells and nk cells . examples of conditions associated with this type of immune response include multiple sclerosis , type 1 diabetes , and rheumatoid arthritis [ 118 ]. exposure of msc to interferon gamma has been demonstrated by numerous groups to increase the immune suppressive activity by stimulation of the enzyme ido [ 119 - 122 ]. as expected , exposure to this inflammatory mediator induces production of other inhibitors of inflammation by msc , including the complement inhibitor factor h [ 123 ], as well as the immune modulatory molecules tgf - beta and hgf [ 124 ]. at a functional level , noone et al demonstrated that interferon gamma pretreatment of msc resulted in protection of the msc from nk - mediated killing in part through upregulation of prostaglandin e ( pge )- 2 synthesis [ 125 ]. other inflammatory mediators that are known to induce regenerative activities in msc include the macrophage - derived cytokine tnf - alpha . it was demonstrated that tnf - alpha pretreated of msc endowed the cells with superior angiogenic activity in vitro , as assessed by expression of vegf , as well as in vivo , for treating the animal model of critical limb ischemia , as compared to untreated msc [ 126 ]. another study demonstrated that tn alpha pre - conditioning increased proliferation , mobilization , and osteogenic differentiation of msc and up - regulated bone morphogenetic protein - 2 ( bmp - 2 ) protein level . bmp - 2 silencing by sirna partially inhibited osteogenic differentiation of msc induced by tnf alpha [ 127 ]. more recent studies have shown that activators of innate immunity , such as lipopolysaccharide , and tlr agonists , also are capable of stimulating regenerative activity in msc through production of paracrine factors such as vegf [ 128 ]. overall , these data suggest that the paracrine effects of msc seem to be inducible , and have a relationship with context - specific settings . specifically , the role of the msc is to act as a “ repair cell ” but it only performs these functions in the context in which it is needed to perform this . since these initial trials , the use of msc has been expanded into indications such as heart failure , stroke , crohn &# 39 ; s disease and gvhd . a meta - analysis of over 1000 patients treated with msc intravenously concluded there was no association between msc administration and acute infusional toxicity , organ system complications , infection , death or malignancy [ 129 ]. in the field of autoimmunity , several clinical trials have been conducted supporting the immune modulatory activity of msc , which will be described below . in the case of multiple sclerosis , a study of 10 patients with progressive , treatment refractory disease was reported in which patients received autologous msc intrathecally [ 130 ]. the follow - up period was 13 - 26 months . the edss of one patient improved from 5 to 2 . 5 score . four patients showed no change in edss . five patients &# 39 ; edss increased from 0 . 5 to 2 . 5 . in the functional system assessment , six patients showed some degree of improvement in their sensory , pyramidal , and cerebellar functions . one showed no difference in clinical assessment and three deteriorated . the result of mri assessment after 12 months was as following : seven patients with no difference , two showed an extra plaque , and one patient showed decrease in the number of plaques . no patients had adverse events associated with the treatment . this study supported the feasibility and potential of efficacy of msc therapy . a similar study was reported in 10 multiple sclerosis patients with progressive disease who were administered autologous msc intrathecally . assessment at 3 - 6 months revealed expanded disability scale score ( edss ) improvement in 5 / 7 , stabilization in 1 / 7 , and worsening in 1 / 7 patients . mri at 3 months revealed new or enlarging lesions in 5 / 7 and gadolinium ( gd +) enhancing lesions in 3 / 7 patients . vision and low contrast sensitivity testing at 3 months showed improvement in 5 / 6 and worsening in 1 / 6 patients [ 131 ]. similar marginal improvement with safety of administration was reported in another intrathecal administration study of 22 patients [ 132 ]. karussis et al also confirmed safety and signals of efficacy in 15 drug resistant patients with secondary progressive ms who received autologous expanded bm - msc intrathecally . they observed a mean edss score improvement from 6 . 7 ( 1 . 0 ) to 5 . 9 ( 1 . 6 ). magnetic resonance imaging visualized the mscs in the occipital horns of the ventricles , indicating the possible migration in the meninges , subarachnoid space , and spinal cord . immunological analysis revealed an increase in the proportion of cd4 (+) cd25 (+) regulatory t cells , a decrease in the proliferative responses of lymphocytes , and the expression of cd40 (+), cd83 (+), cd86 (+), and hla - dr on myeloid dendritic cells at 24 hours after msc transplantation [ 133 ]. these results are offer the tantalizing suggestion that animal studies demonstrating msc induction of treg cells [ 66 , 134 - 140 ], may be transferable into the clinical situation . this is further supported by a clinical study of mohajeri et al which demonstrated msc treated patients have an increased number of peripheral blood mononuclear cells expressing the treg marker foxp3 six months subsequent to treatment [ 141 ]. therapeutic signals in multiple sclerosis were seen not only by intrathecal administration but also by intravenous administration . connick et al evaluated ten patients with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis administered a mean dose of 1 . 6 × 10 ( 6 ) cells per kg bodyweight ( range 1 · 1 - 2 - 0 ). one patient developed a transient rash shortly after treatment ; two patients had self - limiting bacterial infections 3 - 4 weeks after treatment . no serious adverse events were observed and improvement was noted after treatment in visual acuity and visual evoked response latency , with an increase in optic nerve area [ 142 ]. crohn &# 39 ; s disease is characterized by immunologically mediated damage to the gastrointestinal tract and has previously been shown to be responsive to immunologically - active biologicals such as tnf - alpha blockers . a study of 10 adult patients with refractory crohn &# 39 ; s disease ( eight females and two males ) was reported who underwent bone marrow aspiration under local anaesthesia . bone marrow mscs were isolated and expanded ex vivo . nine patients received two doses of 1 - 2 × 10 ( 6 ) cells / kg body weight , intravenously , 7 days apart . during follow - up , possible side effects and changes in patients &# 39 ; crohn &# 39 ; s disease activity index ( cdai ) scores were monitored . colonoscopies were performed at weeks 0 and 6 , and mucosal inflammation was assessed by using the crohn &# 39 ; s disease endoscopic index of severity . mscs significantly reduced peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferation in vitro . msc infusion was without side effects . baseline median cdai was 326 ( 224 - 378 ). three patients showed clinical response ( cdai decrease & gt ; 70 from baseline ) 6 weeks post - treatment ; conversely three patients required surgery due to disease worsening [ 143 ]. a subsequent study also reported signals of efficacy in which 16 patients ( 21 - 55 y old ; 6 men ) with infliximab - or adalimumab - refractory , endoscopically confirmed , active luminal cd ( cd activity index [ cdai ], & gt ; 250 ). subjects were given intravenous infusions of allogeneic mscs ( 2 × 10 6 cells / kg body weight ) weekly for 4 weeks . the primary end point was clinical response ( decrease in cdai & gt ; 100 points ) 42 days after the first msc administration ; secondary end points were clinical remission ( cdai , & lt ; 150 ), endoscopic improvement ( a cd endoscopic index of severity [ cdeis ] value , & lt ; 3 or a decrease by & gt ; 5 ), quality of life , level of c - reactive protein , and safety . among the 15 patients who completed the study , the mean cdai score was reduced from 370 ( median , 327 ; range , 256 - 603 ) to 203 ( median , 129 ) at day 42 ( p & lt ; 0 . 0001 ). the mean cdai scores decreased after each msc infusion ( 370 before administration , 269 on day 7 , 240 on day 14 , 209 on day 21 , 182 on day 28 , and 203 on day 42 ). twelve patients had a clinical response ( 80 %; 95 % confidence interval , 72 %- 88 %; mean reduction in cdai , 211 ; range 102 - 367 ), 8 had clinical remission ( 53 %; range , 43 %- 64 %; mean cdai at day 42 , 94 ; range , 44 - 130 ). seven patients had endoscopic improvement ( 47 %), for whom the mean cdeis scores decreased from 21 . 5 ( range , 3 . 3 - 33 ) to 11 . 0 ( range , 0 . 3 - 18 . 5 ). one patient had a serious adverse event ( 2 dysplasia - associated lesions ), but this probably was not caused by mscs according to the publication [ 144 ]. in the autoimmune condition systemic lupus erythromatosis ( sle ), sun et al reported 4 patients treated with allogeneic bm - msc . four cyclophosphamide / glucocorticoid treatment - refractory sle patients using allogenic msct and showed a stable 12 - 18 months disease remission in all treated patients . the patients benefited an amelioration of disease activity , improvement in serologic markers including decrease in complement c3 and antinuclear antibodies , as well as renal function [ 145 ]. these results were reproduced in a larger 58 patient study where patients with sle were treated either with donor bm - msc ( 30 patients ) at a million cells / kg dose or a “ double transplant ” ( 28 patients ) who received a dose of 1 million cells / kg , followed after 7 days of a second dose of 1 million cells / kg . there was a therapeutic benefit in terms of decreased disease scores and serum markers such as anti - nuclear antibodies and creatinine , however there was no additional benefit in the patients that received one dose versus the double dose [ 146 ]. a larger study reported 87 patients with persistently active sle who were refractory to standard treatment or had life - threatening visceral involvement were enrolled . allogeneic bone marrow or umbilical cord derived mscs were harvested and infused intravenously ( 1 × 10 6 cells / kg of body weight ). primary outcomes were rates of survival , disease remission and relapse , as well as transplantation related adverse events . secondary outcomes included sle disease activity index ( sledai ) and serologic features . during the 4 years follow up and with a mean follow up period of 27 months , the overall rate of survival was 94 % ( 82 / 87 ). complete clinical remission rate was 28 % at 1 year ( 23 / 83 ), 31 % at 2 years ( 12 / 39 ), 42 % at 3 years ( 5 / 12 ) and 50 % at 4 years ( 3 / 6 ). rates of relapse were 12 % ( 10 / 83 ) at 1 year , 18 % ( 7 / 39 ) at 2 years , 17 % ( 2 / 12 ) at 3 years and 17 % ( 1 / 6 ) at 4 years . the overall rate of relapse was 23 % ( 20 / 87 ). disease activity declined as revealed by significant changes in sledai score , levels of serum autoantibodies , albuminand complements . a total of 5 patients ( 6 %) died after msct from non - treatment - related events in 4 years follow up , and no transplantation - related adverse event was observed . in the area of rheumatic diseases , a study in 20 patients with ankylosing spondylitis who were refractory to nsaids examined the effect of 4 intravenous infusions ( ivi ) of mscs on days 0 , 7 , 14 , and 21 . the percentage of asas20 responders ( the primary endpoint ) at the 4th week and the mean asas20 response duration ( the secondary endpoint ) were used to assess treatment response to msc infusion and duration of the therapeutic effects . ankylosing spondylitis disease activity score containing c - reactive protein ( asdas - crp ) and other pre - established evaluation indices were also adopted to evaluate the clinical effects . magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) was performed to detect changes of bone marrow edema in the spine . the safety of this treatment was also evaluated . thirty - one patients were included , and the percentage of asas20 responders reached 77 . 4 % at the 4th week and the mean asas20 response duration was 7 . 1 weeks . the mean asdas - crp score decreased from 3 . 6 ± 0 . 6 to 2 . 4 ± 0 . 5 at the 4th week , and then increased to 3 . 2 ± 0 . 8 at the 20th week . the average total inflammation extent ( tie ) detected by mri decreased from 533 , 482 . 5 at baseline to 480 , 692 . 3 at the 4th week ( p & gt ; 0 . 05 ) and 400 , 547 . 2 at the 20th week ( p & lt ; 0 . 05 ). while the definition of as may not be a strictly autoimmune rheumatological condition , rheumatoid arthritis ( ra ) is classically described as an autoimmune condition . the use of umbilical cord msc in the treatment of ra has been reported in a large clinical trial comprising of 172 patients with active ra who had inadequate responses to traditional medication were enrolled . patients were divided into two groups for different treatment : disease - modifying anti - rheumatic drugs ( dmards ) plus medium without uc - mscs , or dmards plus uc - mscs group ( 4 × 10 7 cells per time ) via intravenous injection . adverse events and the clinical information were recorded . no serious adverse effects were observed during or after infusion . the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor - alpha and interleukin - 6 decreased after the first uc - mscs treatment ( p & lt ; 0 . 05 ). the percentage of cd4 + cd25 + foxp3 + regulatory t cells of peripheral blood was increased ( p & lt ; 0 . 05 ). the treatment induced a significant remission of disease according to the american college of rheumatology improvement criteria , the 28 - joint disease activity score , and the health assessment questionnaire . the therapeutic effects maintained for 3 - 6 months without continuous administration , correlating with the increased percentage of regulatory t cells of peripheral blood . repeated infusion after this period can enhance the therapeutic efficacy . in comparison , there were no such benefits observed in control group of dmards plus medium without uc - mscs . allograft rejection is a classical immunological phenomena , with the effective treatment of acute allograft rejection by immune suppressants such as cyclosporine having made possible the field of organ transplantation . unfortunately , the lifelong use of immune suppressants , causes numerous adverse events , including nephrotoxicity and susceptibility to opportunistic infections [ 147 ]. additionally , current immune suppressants do not address the issue of chronic organ rejection , which is the major cause of graft failure [ 148 ]. although induction of donor specific tolerance ( eg recipients being able to be taken off immune suppression ) has not been achieved on a routine basis , in a 4 patient report where tolerance was achieved , an association with generation of treg cells was reported [ 149 ]. several studies have assessed the use of msc as immune suppressants . perico et al utilized autologous bm - msc ( 1 . 7 and 2 million cells / kg , respectively ) infusion in two recipients of kidneys from living - related donors . patients were given t cell - depleting induction therapy and maintenance immunosuppression with cyclosporine and mycophenolate mofetil . on day 7 posttransplant , mscs were administered intravenously . clinical and immunomonitoring of msc - treated patients was performed up to day 360 postsurgery . serum creatinine levels increased 7 to 14 days after cell infusion in both msc - treated patients . one year post - transplant , both msc - treated patients are in good health with stable graft function . a progressive increase of the percentage of cd4 + cd25highfoxp3 + cd127 − treg and a marked inhibition of memory cd45ro + ra - cd8 + t cell expansion were observed posttransplant . patient t cells showed a profound reduction of cd8 + t cell activity [ 150 ]. a subsequent 6 patient study examined effects of 1 million autologous bm - msc / kg in recipients of allogeneic kidney grafts . five of the six patients displayed a donor - specific downregulation of the peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferation assay , not reported in patients without msc treatment . autologous bm msc treatment in transplant recipients with subclinical rejection and interstitial fibrosis / tubular atrophy is clinically feasible and safe , and the findings are suggestive of systemic immunosuppression by msc [ 151 ]. in a larger study , tan et al reported on 159 patients enrolled in this single - site , prospective , open - label , randomized study in which patients were inoculated with marrow - derived autologous msc ( 1 - 2 × 10 ( 6 )/ kg ) at kidney reperfusion and two weeks later . fifty - three patients received standard - dose and 52 patients received low - dose calcineurin inhibitors ( cnis ) ( 80 % of standard ); 51 patients in the control group received anti - il - 2 receptor antibody plus standard - dose calcineurin inhibitors . the authors reported patient and graft survival at 13 to 30 months to be similar in all groups . after 6 months , 4 of 53 patients ( 7 . 5 %) in the autologous msc plus standard - dose cni group ( 95 % ci , 0 . 4 %- 14 . 7 %; p = 0 . 04 ) and 4 of 52 patients ( 7 . 7 %) in the low - dose group ( 95 % ci , 0 . 5 %- 14 . 9 %; p = 0 . 046 ) compared with 11 of 51 controls ( 21 . 6 %; 95 % ci , 10 . 5 %- 32 . 6 %) had biopsy - confirmed acute rejection . none of the patients in either autologous msc group had glucorticoid - resistant rejection , whereas 4 patients ( 7 . 8 %) in the control group did ( 95 % ci , 0 . 6 %- 15 . 1 %; overall p = 0 . 02 ). renal function recovered faster among both msc groups showing increased egfr levels during the first month after surgery than the control group . patients receiving standard - dose cni had a mean difference of 6 . 2 ml / min per 1 . 73 m ( 2 ) ( 95 % ci , 0 . 4 - 11 . 9 ; p =. 04 ) and those in the low - dose cni of 10 . 0 ml / min per 1 . 73 m ( 2 ) ( 95 % ci , 3 . 8 - 16 . 2 ; p = 0 . 002 ). also , during the 1 - year follow - up , combined analysis of msc - treated groups revealed significantly decreased risk of opportunistic infections than the control group ( hazard ratio , 0 . 42 ; 95 % ci , 0 . 20 - 0 . 85 , p = 0 . 02 ) [ 152 ]. thus it appears that msc possess in vitro ability to immune modulate , which was demonstrated in numerous animal models . mechanistically , this may be working through several means , including stimulation of treg cells . data in clinical trials in multiple sclerosis , crohn &# 39 ; s disease , rheumatoid arthritis and transplant rejection support the notion that msc are capable of inducing tregs and in some situations exerting a therapeutic benefit , however studies larger scale studies are needed . msc modulate the immune system at several levels , we will discuss below the effects of msc on various aspects of immune response induction from antigen presentation to effector function . dendritic cells ( dc ) are considered the primary sentinels of the immune response , playing a key role in determining whether productive immunity will ensure , versus stimulation of t regulatory cells and suppression of immunity [ 153 , 154 ]. although various subtypes of dc exist , with varying specialized functions , one of the common themes appears to be that immature myeloid type dc reside in an immature state in the periphery , which engulf antigens and present in a tolerogenic manner to t cells in the lymph nodes . this is one of the mechanisms by which self tolerance is maintained . specifically , although small numbers of autoreactive t cells escape the thymic selection process , these t cells are either anergized , or their activity suppressed by t regulatory cells generated as a result of immature dendritic cells presenting self antigens to autoreactive t cells . in contrast , in the presence of “ danger ” signals , such as toll like receptor agonists , immature dc take a mature phenotype , characterized by high expression of costimulatory molecules , and subsequently induce t cell activation [ 155 - 157 ]. in the context of t1d it has previously been demonstrated that targeting of diabetogenic autoantigens to immature dc leads to prevention of disease [ 158 ]. administration of immature dc into 10 t1d patients resulted in increased c - peptide levels with some evidence of immunomodulatory activity [ 159 ]. given the fundamental role of the dc in controlling immunity versus tolerance , the manipulation of dc maturation by msc would strongly support an immune modulatory role of msc . early studies suggested that msc may inhibit the ability of dc to stimulate cd4 and cd8 cells using in vitro systems , however , it was demonstrated that msc also inhibited t cell activation directly [ 160 ]. subsequently , zhang et al performed a definitive study in which bone marrow msc were cultured directly with monocytes which were stimulated to differentiate into dc using a standard il - 4 and gm - csf protocol in the murine system . it was found that mscs inhibit the up - regulation of cd1a , cd40 , cd80 , cd86 , and hla - dr during dc differentiation and prevent an increase of cd40 , cd86 , and cd83 expression during dc maturation . mscs supernatants had no effect on dcs differentiation , but they inhibited the up - regulation of cd83 during maturation . both mscs and their supernatants interfered with endocytosis of dcs , decreased their capacity to secret il - 12 and activate alloreactive t cells [ 161 ]. using the human system , aggarwal et al cultured prochymal bm derived msc together with dc that were polarized to generate th1 promoting cytokines ( dc1 ) and dc polarized to generate th2 cytokines ( dc2 ). msc were demonstrated to inhibit production of tnf - alpha and il - 12 in dc1 cells while increase production of il - 10 in dc2 cells [ 161 ]. the concept of msc inducing immaturity in dc was further demonstrated in mixed lymphocyte reactions where it was shown that addition of msc would suppress mlr only in the presence of antigen presenting cells [ 162 ]. interestingly , the addition of dc maturation agents such as lps or anticd40 antibody was capable of overcoming msc mediated suppression , thus implying that inhibition of dc immunogenic activities by msc is a reversible process . the general ability of msc to suppress dc immune stimulatory activities , through inhibition of maturation and costimulatory molecule expression was replicated in other studies [ 163 - 168 ]. other methods by which msc inhibit dc activity include blocking the physical interaction with t cells [ 163 ], blocking dc progenitor entry into cell cycle [ 163 ], production of tsg - 6 [ 169 ], induction of notch in dc progenitors [ 170 ], and arresting dc migration into lymph nodes in vivo [ 171 - 173 ]. some of the immune suppressive effects of msc appear to be inducible by the presence of local inflammation . for example , a recent study showed that tlr activation on msc increases ability of the msc to suppress t cell activation through blockade of dc maturation [ 174 ]. other studies have shown that treatment of msc with inflammatory mediators such as il - 1 beta actually stimulates production of cytokines such as il - 10 that block dc maturation . il - 1 treated msc possess superior in vivo ability to suppress inflammatory diseases such as dss induced colitis [ 175 ]. similar augmentation of anti - inflammatory activity of msc by pretreatment with inflammatory cytokines was also reported by treatment with ifn - gamma [ 176 - 178 ]. on a cellular level it has been reported that coculture of msc with monocytes leads to enhanced immune suppressive activities of the msc , in part through monocyte produced il - 1 [ 179 ]. inhibition of t cell reactivity by msc has been widely described . one of the initial publications supporting this assessed baboon mscs in vitro for their ability to elicit a proliferative response from allogeneic lymphocytes , to inhibit an ongoing allogeneic response , and to inhibit a proliferative response to potent t - cell mitogens . it was found that the mscs failed to elicit a proliferative response from allogeneic lymphocytes . mscs added into a mixed lymphocyte reaction , either on day 0 or on day 3 , or to mitogen - stimulated lymphocytes , led to a greater than 50 % reduction in proliferative activity . this effect could be maximized by escalating the dose of mscs and could be reduced with the addition of exogenous il - 2 . in vivo administration of mscs led to prolonged skin graft survival when compared to control animals [ 180 , 181 ]. inhibition of t cell proliferation could not be restored by costimulation or pretreatment of the msc with ifn - gamma [ 182 ], which is intriguing given that the previous study mentioned showed il - 2 could overcome msc mediated suppression . in vivo studies using humanized mice demonstrated that human msc were capable of suppressing human t cell responses in vivo , both allogenic and antigen - specific responses [ 183 ]. inhibition of t cell activity seems to be not limited to proliferation but also was demonstrated to include suppression of cytotoxic activity of cd8 t cells [ 184 , 185 ]. several mechanisms have been reported for msc suppression of t cell activation including inhibition of il - 2 receptor alpha ( cd25 ) [ 186 ], induction of division arrest [ 187 , 188 ], induction of t cell anergy directly [ 189 ] or via immature dc [ 168 ], stimulation of apoptosis of activated t cells [ 190 , 191 ], blockade of il - 2 signaling and induction of pge2 production [ 192 - 197 ], induction of tgf - beta [ 198 ], production of hla - g [ 199 ], expression of serine protease inhibitor 6 [ 200 ], stimulation of nitric oxide release [ 201 - 203 ], stimulation of indolamine 2 , 3 deoxygenase [ 204 - 207 ], expression of adenosine generating ectoenzymes such as cd39 and cd73 [ 208 - 210 ], galectin expression [ 211 , 212 ], induction of hemoxygenase 1 [ 213 , 214 ], activation of the pd1 pathway [ 211 , 215 - 217 ], fas ligand expression [ 67 , 218 ], cd200 expression [ 219 ], th2 deviation [ 74 , 220 , 221 ], inhibition of th17 differentiation [ 222 - 226 ], tsg - 6 expression [ 227 ], notch - 1 expression [ 228 ], stimulation of treg cell generation [ 66 , 134 - 140 ]. mechanisms of treg generation may be direct , or may be through modulation of dc . it has been reported by us and others , that activation of t cells in the absence of costimulatory signals leads to generation of immune suppressive cd4 + cd25 + t regulatory ( treg ) cells [ 229 , 230 ]. thus local activation of immunity in lymph nodes would theoretically be associated with reduced costimulatory molecule expression dc after msc administration , which may predispose to treg generation . conversely , it is known that tregs are involved in maintaining dc in the dc2 phenotype [ 231 ]. indeed numerous studies have demonstrated the ability of msc to induce treg cells [ 136 , 137 , 139 , 232 ] t cell suppressive properties of msc have not been restricted to the bone marrow msc types and have been reported in msc derived from a wide variety of tissues including tooth [ 177 ], placental matrix [ 233 , 234 ], adipose tissue [ 78 , 235 - 239 ], cord blood [ 240 ], muscle [ 241 ], amnion [ 199 , 242 ], and wharton &# 39 ; s jelly [ 243 , 244 ]. in addition to modulation of b cell activity , msc have been demonstrated to suppress various aspects of b cell activation . corcione et al [ 245 ], used human mscs isolated from the bone marrow and b cells purified from the peripheral blood of healthy donors in a coculture with different b - cell tropic stimuli . b - cell proliferation was inhibited by mscs through an arrest in the g0 / g1 phase of the cell cycle and not through the induction of apoptosis . a major mechanism of b - cell suppression was msc production of soluble factors , as indicated by transwell experiments . mscs inhibited b - cell differentiation as indicated by the observation that igm , igg , and iga production was significantly impaired . cxcr4 , cxcr5 , and ccr7 b - cell expression , as well as chemotaxis to cxcl12 , the cxcr4 ligand , and cxcl13 , the cxcr5 ligand , were significantly down - regulated by mscs , suggesting that these cells affect chemotactic properties of b cells , which was similarly reported for msc suppressive activities on dc [ 171 - 173 ]. similar inhibition of b cell function was observed in a study assessing human b cells generating alloreactive antibodies , a dose dependent inhibition of antibody production was observed in coculture with msc [ 246 ]. mechanistically , it has been reported that b cells are inhibited by msc through suppression of cell cycle entry , as well as inhibition of dc induced b cell maturation [ 247 ]. the suppression of b cell differentiation has been reported to be dependent on msc production of the chemokine ccl2 , which in turn inhibits stat3 in the b cell [ 248 ], this has also been associated with suppression of blimp - 1 production [ 249 , 250 ]. msc inhibition of b cell activation was also observed in vivo in a murine model of systemic lupus erythramatosis [ 251 ]. as in the situation of msc inhibition of t cell activation , ifn - gamma pretreatment of msc upregulates ability to suppress b cell function [ 252 ]. another similarity between msc mediated suppression of t cells and suppression of b cells is that msc appear to induce generation of a “ regulatory b cell ” subset that has activity in vivo against autoimmune conditions [ 253 ]. suppression of antibody production was observed not only with bm - 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