Patent Application: US-89786907-A

Abstract:
a method of improving the sensitivity and selectivity of dye swapping cdna microarray assays includes providing replicate expression data , preferably in the form of fluorescence measurements of two dyes . the replicate expression data can be ranked based on the intensity of fluorescence from the each of the dyes to generate first and second spot order rankings for each expression datum . a three - dimensional framework can be established that has indices of first spot order ranking , second spot order ranking , and the fluorescence intensity of a sample relative to that of a reference genetic material . an upper surface and a lower surface can be defined in the three dimensional framework containing between them a noise region , the noise region containing replicate expression data that have been determined as being probable noise according to predetermined parameters . these noise data can then be removed from the replicate expression data that lies in the probable noise region of the three dimensional framework to produce data having a predetermined significance level .

Description:
to make the exemplary embodiment outlined in this application clearer , the terms ‘ genes ’, ‘ spots ’, ‘ symmetrical ’, ‘ rank ’, and ‘ spot order ’ are exemplified in using a commercially available 1 . 7k array as an example . however , the terms as defined in the example are also applicable to other microarrays . gene microarrays are slides , usually made of glass , with areas on the slide that have been created with genetic material attached to the area . a location where the genetic material is placed on the slide is called a ‘ spot .’ the exemplary 1 . 7k microarray contains 1920 cdnas , here referred to as ‘ genes .’ are placed twice each on a given slide to a total of 3840 ‘ spots .’ the rna on the spot is referred to as the ‘ probe ’ rna being used to determine what rna is present in the sample being put on the slide . in the examples that follow , human brain rna is the sample , but the processes described can be applied to any rna experiment if the same principles are applied . similarly , the degree of neurological disease expressed by the human brain rna is being tested , but other results of gene expression are equally subject to the methods disclosed here . for convenience , each slide contains two replicate adjacent spots for each gene . the samples used in the experiment , the rna that is introduced to the slides , is labeled with dyes . when the sample rna is placed on the spot , if the sample rna links up with the gene it is said to have “ hybridized ” with the gene . after the sample has been hybridized to the microarray , loose sample is washed off . accordingly , the amount of fluorescence on a given spot correlates with the amount of sample material that has hybridized with the genetic material on that spot . for each sample , two different dyes are usually used , in the examples given here cy3 and cy5 , but other dyes could be used . because there are two of each gene , the term symmetrical refers to the two patterns ( or images when lit ), corresponding to the same sample labeled with each of cy3 and cy5 fluorescent dyes , on a single microarray slide . dye swapping refers to experiments where the cy3 and cy5 dyes are reversed between the two samples ; they are performed to annul confounding variables introduced by heterogeneous fluorescence of the cy5 and cy3 molecules . each microarray slide yields of a set of symmetrical cy3 / cy5 images that generate two replicate ratios . each dye swapping dataset generates four replicate ratios . this simplifies the execution of swapping cy3 and cy5 to obtain two ratios . the total is four replicate ratios with dye - swapping . rna used in spike - in experiments is transcribed from the same arabidopsis cdna spotted on microarray slides . the design of the exemplary gene microarray experiment , which includes dye swapping as that term is used in the literature , generates four replicate measurements per gene and sample is described more fully in fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2003 , 2002 , which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein . the amount of light from the fluorescent dyes is measured , and the amount of background light is also measured . the level of expression of a gene , or genetic expression , is set forth in relative terms , which is to say that in a first particular circumstance ( sample ) a gene is expressed either more or less than a second particular circumstance ( reference ). for example , a gene may be expressed more in children than in adults , or the other way around . it may also be expressed differently in a person with a disease than in a healthy individual . this is because the cells that the genes are in operate differently in different circumstances . the term up regulation means that a gene is more abundant in the sample than in the reference and down regulation means that a gene is less abundant in the sample than in the reference . thus , one discusses the level of expression for a gene in sample a versus the level of expression of a gene in sample b . these relative levels of genetic expression in samples can be assayed using cdna arrays . the comparative level of gene expression for a given gene in sample a relative to sample b is can be expressed as the ratio of the background - subtracted intensities of fluorescence of the gene spot exposed to sample a divided by the background - subtracted intensities of fluorescence from a gene spot exposed to sample b . a ratio greater than one ( e . g . log 2 & gt ; 0 ) implies up - regulation of the gene in sample a as compared with b . in the examples disclosed here , background - subtracted spot intensities are sorted in ascending order to assign a rank to every spot . for instance , in a system where the higher number in the spot order means a higher intensity , a spot whose rank is 3000 has a higher background subtracted spot intensity than all spots whose ranks are & lt ; 3000 . a system where the lowest number corresponds to the highest intensity would be equivalent in practice . a microarray spot order ( labeled “ so ” in the drawings ) is a listing of its spots sorted by their ranks . a cdna spotted slide generates two spot orders , the first dye spot order (“ so1 ”) and the second dye spot order (“ so2 ”), which correspond to spot orders of the genes of samples labeled with the first and second dyes , in the exemplary case cy3 and cy5 respectively . datasets can be taken in such a way as to assure that the measurements taken comport with good scientific experimental design . thus , a system of blanks and controls is used . in a ‘ blank ’ there is a true negative dataset — a dataset where there is known to be no true expression within the data . a control has a known level of positive response . the true negative datasets compare the same pool of brain rna with itself ( same - to - same ), so that there should be no up or down expression relative to itself the goal of the same - to - same comparisons is to collect experimental noise ( technical artifacts ) independent of biological heterogeneity . in this design , normalized expression ratios ≠ 1 ( log 2 ≠ 0 ) are false positive ( noise ) because the cy3 / cy5 symmetrical images contain identical genetic information . the ‘ artifactual ’ measurements , that is measurement results that are the result on the experimental equipment instead of the experimental samples , may be caused by several factors including slide - to - slide differences , variations in the reverse transcription reactions , hybridization , labeling and laser . in the present exemplary embodiment , the same - to - same comparisons include 18 and 20 experiments that generate a total of 9 and 10 dye swapping datasets using the human 1 . 7k and 19k microarrays , respectively . the experiments are paired by consecutive order . the new algorithm operates to filter same - to - same expression ratios originating from technical noise . compared with mash , the new algorithm discovers a smaller number of genes as being differentially expressed in the same - to - same design . the exemplary 1 . 7k microarray includes 64 genes of arabidopsis cdna . true positive datasets can include four sets of spike - in dye swapping experiments using exemplary 1 . 7k microarrays , where 1 ng of arabidopsis rna is added to one sample but not the other . thus , in the spike - in samples , there is sample arabidopsis cdna to hybridize with the probe arabidopsis cdna . in this design , all 64 genes of probe arabidopsis cdna serve as true positives . the sensitivity of mash is 26 / 64 [ 41 %, ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2004 )]. the new algorithm discovers all 64 arabidopsis genes as being differentially expressed . the present invention is somewhat related to the prior mash filter , so the two are explained relation to each other in the following . mash includes two filters , f 1 and f 2 . a spot is sensitive to f 1 if both its symmetrical ranks in the first dye spot order and the second dye spot order are less than a predetermined cutoff rank . to be resistant to f 1 , either cy3 or cy5 images of the spot must contain enough signals such that at least one of the symmetrical ranks is larger than the cutoff rank . the latter is computed empirically from the slopes of the ranking curves ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2004 ). the second filter ( f 2 ) of mash consists of two rules . the first rule ( named either f 2 a or f 4 ) is that all four replicate ratios consistently show up or down - regulation ; i . e . all four replicate log 2 ( ratios )& gt ; 0 or all four & lt ; 0 . the second rule of f 2 ( f 2 b ) necessitates that all four replicate f 2 b - resistant log 2 ( ratios ) must be outside a predetermined number of standard deviations from a mean . in the exemplary embodiment of the interval of + 3 times the largest of the standard deviations of all f1 - resistant log 2 ( ratios ). genes sensitive to either f 4 or f 2 b are filtered by trans - forming their mean log 2 ( ratio ) to 0 . the experience is that microarray datasets are heterogeneous ( fig1 - 3 ). this heterogeneity is reflected by their geometrical structure in the 3 dimensional space , whose axes are the ranks in the first dye spot order and the second dye spot order and the log 2 ( ratios ). specifically , this geometry / distribution ( 1 ) is unique to each dataset ( fig1 and 3 ), ( 2 ) includes a zone of instability , whose f1 - sensitive spots generate large errors ( fig1 - 3 ), and ( 3 ) displays rank - dependent variability of log 2 ( ratios ). accordingly , the 19k dataset looks something like a butterfly in 3 dimensions , and 1 . 7 k dataset looks something like a cone with a tail . the f4 - sensitive spots intrinsic to each dataset ( 1 ) replicate the geometry / distribution of all spots in the dataset ( fig1 and 3 ) and ( 2 ) are independent of the genes that are differentially expressed . accordingly , this new algorithm constructs rank - dependent upper and lower bound contour surfaces that are patterned based on the geometrical structure of f4 - sensitive spots ( fig4 ). the zone of instability is generated by ratios whose ranks are both less than the cutoff rank . this finding is consistent with , but not specified by , the results of baggerly et al . ( 2001 ) who report that ratios computed from spots containing a small amount of total signal are highly variable , whereas ratios derived from spots containing large amount of total signal are fairly stable . the zone of instability ( fig1 - 3 ) may also explain the results of tan et al . ( 2003 ) who demonstrate poor reproducibility of states of genetic expression across different platforms . sensitivity is a function of measurable quality parameters ; specifically , it is negatively correlated with the noise factor ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2004 ). in addition , poor data quality has a negative impact on the efficient detection of low - level regulated genes ( raffelsberger et al ., 2003 ). specifically , the distributions of false positive ratios vary between datasets ; poor quality datasets contain large false positive ratios ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2004 ). therefore , the degree of confidence that a low - or moderate - level expression ratio is true is dependent , not only on the analytical methods , but also on the unique distribution of noise in that specific dataset . thus , to annul the confounding effects of data quality on sensitivity , the true positives of this study are designed to represent large differentials generated by adding arabidopsis rna to one sample but not the other . the specificity and sensitivity of the algorithm appear to be best at n = 3 for the specific system studied . values of n & gt ; 3 yield lower sensitivity ( fig6 c ) and values of n & lt ; 3 yield lower specificity ( fig6 a and b ). the z - axis positions of the contour surfaces are dependent on the standard deviation of the local ( neighborhood ) noise isolated by the square columns at specific ranks . the assays developed in this paper leads to a test ( fs ) that compares the geometrical structures of distributions in the 3d space . specifically , fs divides the space into small subspaces ( neighborhoods ) and constructs contour surfaces whose z - axis variance is based on the local distributions at specific ranks ( fig4 ). the position of the cutoff rank of the first filter of mash , f 1 , is stochastic ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2004 ). notice that f1 filters the zone of instability ( fig1 - 3 ). it is not surprising that fs is more sensitive than f 1 ( fig6 c ); specifically , instead of deleting the zone of instability , fs generates upper - and lower - bound contour surfaces around it ( fig1 , 2 and 5 ). unlike other methods this analysis is not dependent on ( 1 ) assuming linearity in the error model , ( 2 ) correlating levels of transcripts to signal levels , or ( 3 ) addressing the question of accuracy of fold - changes in gene expression ( newton et al ., 2001 ; theilhaber et al ., 2001 ; yang et al ., 2002 ; huber et al ., 2002 ; goryachev et al ., 2001 ; bolstad et al ., 2003 ; irizarry et al ., 2003 ). the present method determines the genes that are up or down regulated between the samples to a high degree of certainty . the results that follow reveal that the geometrical distributions of f4 - sensitive spots ( noise ) in the 3d space are non - linear ( fig1 - 3 ). nonetheless , because the distribution of f4 - sensitive spots models the distribution of all spots in the dataset ( fig1 and 3 ), the algorithm builds contour upper - and lower - bound surfaces based on the distributions of f4 - sensitive spots ( fig4 and 5 ). herein , the datasets are normalized by the non - linear method described in more detail elsewhere ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2004 ). each spot generates two measurements of the total intensity within the spot and the local background intensity defined as the total intensity within a small rim surrounding the spot . the background - subtracted spot intensities ( y - axis ) versus spot ranks ( x - axis ) of a dataset are acquired from the microarrays . normalization of data can be done . in one method of normalization , a log trans - formation of the dataset is done . the log transformed dataset is curve - fitted to : where x refers to rank , ns refers to the total number of spots in the array ; ns = 3840 for the 1 . 7k microarrays , and parameters ( a1 , . . . , a19 ) vary between individual curves . colantuoni et al . ( 2002 ) have also described methods for local normalization by non - linear transformations . fs is applicable to 2 - color ( 2 - channel ) microarray data with dye swapping replicates . highly specific discovery of states of genetic expression has immediate and numerous applications ; specifically , it generates testable hypotheses in biology and medicine that uncover molecular systems behind biological phenotypes . examples include the phenotypes of resistance to oxidative stress and motility in cultured glioma and ectopic calcification in meningioma ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2003 ; fathallah - shaykh , 2005a , b ). a source of sample rna is needed for a gene microarray experiment . for the present explanation of the invention , and the examples that follow , the underlying experiments were done with normal brain rna obtained by pooling rna from human occipital lobes harvested from four individuals with no known neurological disease whose brains are frozen & lt ; 3 h post mortem . tumor rnas , isolated from 35 surgical gliomas , 10 surgical meningiomas and 6 cultured glial cell lines , are profiled as compared with aliquots from the same normal brain rna ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2003 , 2002 , 2004 ; fathallah - shaykh , 2005a ). the quality of rna can be assayed by gel electrophoresis , and in the present exemplary embodiment only high quality rna is processed . the microarray probes used in the present embodiment are microarray slides with 1 . 7k ( 1920 genes ) and 19k ( 19 200 genes ) microarrays containing cdnas spotted in duplicates , the microarrays having been obtained from the ontario cancer institute in ontario , canada . other slides may be used , and as long as the same genes are tested across replicates , whether one or more slides is used for each of the replicates is , in theory , immaterial . naturally , using identical slides from an identical source is preferred in order to improve reproducibility . the same - to - same datasets comprise errors in measurement generated by technical noise . fig1 a and d plot the distributions of same - to - same 19k and 1 . 7k microarray datasets in the 3d space defined by ( 1 ) ranks in the first dye spot order ( x - axis ), ( 2 ) ranks in the second dye spot order ( y - axis ), and ( 3 ) log 2 ( ratios ) ( z - axis ), respectively . if the experimental system generated no noise , the z - axis coordinates would all be equal to 0 . large positive or negative log 2 ( ratios ) reflect large errors indicated with arrows labeled 10 . the findings presented in fig1 reveal that the distributions of noise in the 3d space are heterogeneous because each microarray dataset generates its unique geometrical structure , which differs between datasets . specifically , the z - axis variations of log 2 ( ratios ) about 0 are rank - dependent and unique to a specific dataset ( fig1 , arrows labeled 20 ). the analysis of the present invention provides techniques for permitting the automation of dealing with the unique geometrical structure of each data set . if the unique geometrical structure of the data is thought of as being analagous to a mathematical manifold . the techniques of the present invention provide something akin to a local geometry on the manifold that is homeomorphic with the manifold . the localization that results permits defining a noise geometry that tracks the unique geometry of the data set . fig1 a and 1 d of exemplary sorted data show that the distributions in the 3d space include zones of instability where the log 2 ( ratios ) have large absolute values ( arrows 10 ). fig2 a plots the projections of the distribution of noise of fig1 a onto the 2d space defined by ranks in the first dye spot order ( x - axis ) and log 2 ( ratios ) ( y - axis ). fig2 b plots the projections of the distribution of noise of fig1 a onto the 2d space defined by ranks in the second dye spot order ( x - axis ) and log 2 ( ratios ) ( y - axis ), respectively . to visualize the rank - dependent behavior of noise , the spots are colored by their ascending ranks ( fig2 ). as in fig1 a , fig2 a and 2 b also reveal that the distributions of noise include zones of instability , where log 2 ( ratios ) have large values ( large errors ; arrows 10 ). fig1 and 2 suggest that the zone of instability is dependent on the ranks in both the first dye spot order and the second dye spot order . for example , the spots of fig2 a and 2 b whose ranks in the first dye spot order and the second dye spot order are both & lt ; 10 , 000 generate unstable or large log 2 ( ratios ). the number 10 , 000 is unique to the dataset plotted in fig2 ; other datasets may be associated with different ranks . since the first filter of mash ( f 1 ) excludes spots whose ranks in the first dye spot order and the second dye spot order are both smaller than the cutoff rank , the question arises whether f 1 defines the zone of instability . a spot is resistant to f 1 if either one of its ranks in either the first dye spot order or the second dye spot order is larger than the cutoff rank . to understand the effects of f 1 on the zone of instability , it is applied to filter the data shown in fig1 a , 1 d , 2 a and 2 b . fig1 b and e plot the log 2 ( ratios ) of f1 - resistant spots of fig1 a and d , respectively . fig2 c and d plot the log 2 ( ratios ) of f1 - resistant spots of fig2 a and 2 b , respectively . the data illustrated in fig2 e reveals that the standard deviations of f1 - sensitive log 2 ( ratios ) ( blue ; spots filtered by f 1 ) are 5 - 10 folds larger than f1 - resistant log 2 ( ratios ) ( green ; spots not filtered by f 1 ). the findings support the conclusions that ( 1 ) spots whose symmetrical ranks are both less than the cutoff rank generate a zone of instability containing large errors of measurement [ large absolute log 2 ( ratios )], and ( 2 ) f1 filters the zone of instability . the effects of f 1 on the distributions of different - to - different datasets is considered . as in the geometrical distributions of same - to - same datasets , the distributions of the different - to - different datasets ( 1 ) are heterogeneous between datasets and rank - dependent , and ( 2 ) include f1 - sensitive zones of instability ( fig3 ). however , unlike the same - to - same design , where any log 2 ( ratio ) different than 0 is false positive , the distinction between true and false positive ratios in different - to - different comparisons is not evident . fig2 and 3 demonstrate that f 1 deletes the zone of instability , which includes a large portion of the data . the goal of the next section is to detail a method that models the noise intrinsic within each dataset in such a way that the method ( 1 ) is applicable to all datasets despite their heterogeneity ( fig1 ), and ( 2 ) contours the zone of instability instead of deleting it . in order to identify noise data in relation to the unique geometrical data distribution in a dataset it is desirable to demark a boundary that can define a separation between signal and noise . if one considers the noise portions ( errors of measurements ) of the dataset to be analagous to a manifold , it would be useful to be able to use the local geometrical structure of a sample of the noise data to define the demarcation between signal ( true ) and noise ( false ). therefore , mathematical operations are useful if they can operate at least approximately homeomorphically in local regions / neighborhoods to define local filters that can be assembled to act on a larger manifold . the filter f 4 ( f 2 a ) was devised in the glioma study ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2002 ). a gene is resistant to f 4 if its four replicate log 2 ( ratios ) are all positive or all negative ( consistently showing up or down regulation ). a gene is sensitive to f 4 if all four replicate log 2 ( ratios ) are not of the same sign . because the false negative rate of f 4 is only 1 . 6 %, the predominant majority of f4 - sensitive spots are false positive or noise . the filter f 4 therefore can assist in defining noise to provide : 1 ) the desired localization to the geometrical distribution of all the data , and 2 ) a 3 - manifold that can be used to build the local filters . fig1 c , 1 f and 3 c plot the f4 - sensitive spots of the datasets shown in fig1 a , 1 d and 3 a , respectively . interestingly , the findings demonstrate that the geometrical distribution of f4 - sensitive spots ( or the kernel of the function f 4 ) replicates the unique geometrical distribution of all the spots in the dataset . this is not surprising considering that ( 1 ) in same - to - same experiments any log 2 ( ratio ) different than 0 is false positive , and ( 2 ) only a small fraction of different - to - different datasets is truly differentially expressed . most importantly , because the geometrical structures / distributions created by f4 - sensitive noise are independent of the spots that are truly differentially expressed , they serve as a platform for constructing a new filter . each dataset generates two geometrical structures in the 3d spaces generated by the log 2 ( ratios ) of ( 1 ) all the spots ( fig1 a , d and 3 a ), and ( 2 ) the f4 - sensitive spots ( spots filtered by f 4 ; fig1 c , f and 3 c ). the distribution of the latter represents noise intrinsic to each dataset . in reality , the two distributions are interwoven in the same space . however , for practical purposes , the spaces / geometrical distributions of all spots in the dataset and f4 - sensitive spots ( kernel ) will be referred to as g and g 4 , respectively ( fig4 a and 4 b ). the rationale of the new filter ( fs ) is that a method that filters all f4 - sensitive spots in g 4 ( g 4 , see fig4 b ), when applied to g , will lead to a high degree of certainty that the unfiltered spots of g are true ( fig4 a ). fs comprises upper and lower bound contour surfaces that are patterned based on the geometrical structure of g 4 . these contour surfaces set the upper and lower bound z - axis limits at specific ranks such that any spot of g that maps outside these bounds is true to a high degree of certainty . therefore they are upper and lower surfaces of the demarcation of signal to noise that defines the manifold through a series of localizations . referring to fig7 , the geometrical structures in g and g 4 consist of spots whose x -, y - and z - axis coordinates are integer ranks in the first dye spot order 102 , the second dye spot order 104 and log 2 ( ratio ) 100 respectively ( fig1 - 4 ). accordingly , the xy space is divided into a grid , xy grid element defining a columnar space for z . for every spot k of coordinates ( x k , y k , z k ) in g ( fig4 a ), the algorithm applies a neighborhood . the neighborhood defines a two - dimensional shape to the xy plane of the three dimensional space , such as a square or circle , to define a two - dimensional region . while the manifold may be defined in terms of a set of rectangular localizations as given here , the localizations may be of any shape . those of ordinary skill in the art could apply neighborhoods of different shape , for example , making the localization round , such as a circle or ellipse , rather than a square or rectangular . the neighborhood as seen in the example is a four sided - column ( c k ), preferably a square column , within g 4 such that ( 1 ) the column is parallel to the z - axis , and ( 2 ) the center of the square maps at the coordinates ( x k , y k , z k ) ( fig4 b ). the column can extend in both the y and x directions , preferably the same amount on both axes . since the log 2 ( ratios ) of the spots present within each column reflect the local variability of noise at ranks x k and y k , they are isolated and their standard deviation and the means of the positive and negative log 2 ( ratios ) are computed ( fig4 c and d ). in order to obtain valuable averaging , the square column should contain multiple points . in one embodiment of the present invention , a computer is programmed with an algorithm that increases the size of the rectangular column , preferably as a square , until it includes a minimum number of spots . in one embodiment of the invention this minimum number of spots is 100 spots . the optimal number of spots isolated by c k is varied and computed empirically when the algorithm is completed ; experience with a limited number of datasets leads to the belief that about 100 spots provides a low false discovery rate . those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that this number might be different for different applications of the technique . now that a plurality of points have been defined , a model distribution can be selected and applied . those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with many distributions , but for the purposes of example , a normal distribution model is selected . other possible distributions include , but are not limited to , symmetric distributions of the continuous or discrete kinds , such as a binomial distribution or a poisson distribution . those of ordinary skill in the art understand that model distributions can have model distribution parameters that describe the distribution . in the case of a normal distribution , a normal distribution is usually described in terms of its mean and standard deviation , and that this mean and standard deviation relate to the statistical significance ( or confidence level ) of values a certain number of standard deviations from the mean . the example that follows is based on a normal distribution model . let sd be the standard deviation of all log 2 ( ratios ) isolated by column c k . let μ p and μ n be the means of their positive an negative log 2 ( ratios ), respectively ( fig4 d ). at every spot of coordinates ( x k , y k , z k ) in g , the upper and lower limits are set at spots in g having the following coordinates : ( 1 ) an upper - bound limit at ( x k , y k , μ p + n * sd ). ( 2 ) a lower - bound limit at ( x k , y k , μ n − n * sd ). the term n is a variable ( fig4 e ), that is not necessarily an integer . the upper and lower bound limits computed from all the spots of g assemble the upper and lower bound surfaces ( fig5 ). fs applies the following rules : a spot is filtered if its log 2 ( ratio ) maps within the 3d space bound by the upper and lower contour surfaces . alternatively , a spot is resistant if its log 2 ( ratio ) maps above the upper - bound surface or below the lower - bound surface . a gene is resistant if all of its four replicate spots are resistant to the rule above . a gene is sensitive to the filter if any of its replicate spots are sensitive . the log 2 ( ratio ) of a sensitive gene is transformed to 0 . at this stage , the method makes the assumption of the existence of contour surfaces such that ( 1 ) the 3d space , limited by the upper - and lower - bound surfaces includes the overwhelming majority of noise , and ( 2 ) the log 2 ( ratios ) that map above or below the upper - and lower - bound surfaces , respectively , are true . the z - axis positions of the contour surfaces and the 3d space between them are dependent on ( 1 ) n , ( 2 ) μ p , μ n and sd . experience is that the z - axis coordinates and 3d space between the contour surfaces are larger over the zone of instability ( fig5 , arrows ) because of the large standard deviations of its log 2 ( ratios ) ( fig2 e ). in theory , the variable n determines both specificity and sensitivity . for example , if n is ‘ very large ’ ( e . g . about 4 or more ), one expects sensitivity to be low because ( 1 ) the z - axis limits of the contour surfaces will also be large , and ( 2 ) the space between the contour surfaces will include all log 2 ( ratios ). however , if n is ‘ small ’ ( e . g . about 1 or less ), specificity could be low because the contour surfaces may not include all the noise . the goal is to find a value of n that yields optimal specificity and sensitivity . specificity will be assayed as 1 — the false discovery rate of fs in same - to - same comparisons . ideally , fs should filter all same - to - same log 2 ( ratios ). sensitivity will be assayed by percent discovery of arabidopsis genes in different - to - different spikein experiments ( see above ). ideally , fs should discover all the arabidopsis genes . 11 . optimizing n and comparing the sensitivity and specificity of fs to mash now to compare the specificity of mash to fs while varying n within the interval [ 2 , 6 ]. mash consists of f 1 + f 4 ( f 2 a )+ f 2 b . the false discovery rate is computed from nine 1 . 7k and ten 19k same - to - same experiments ( fig6 a and b ). the results reveal that the specificity of fs alone is as high as mash for n ≧ 3 ( fig6 a and b and table 1 ). sensitivity is assayed by the percentage of arabidopsis genes discovered from the best of four replicate spike - in experiments , where 1 ng arabidopsis rna is added to one rna sample but not the other ( fig6 c and d ). the following filter combinations are applied : ( 1 ) fs alone , and ( 2 ) f 1 and fs ( fig6 c ). as compared with mash , fs improves the best sensitivity from 41 to 91 % at n = 3 . however , adding f 1 and f 4 to fs lowers the sensitivity to 86 % at n = 3 . in addition , fig6 d demonstrates that , as compared with mash , the increase in sensitivity of fs at n = 3 is statistically significant in all four replicate spike - in experiments ( p = 0 ). these findings support the conclusion that fs at n = 3 significantly improves sensitivity without lowering the high specificity of mash . receiver operating characteristics ( roc ) is the standard approach to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic procedures ( swets and pickett , 1992 ). mash and fs at n = 2 , 2 . 5 and 3 generate the empiric roc areas of 0 . 703 , 0 . 96 , 0 . 96 and 0 . 95 , respectively . the accuracy rates are 99 . 8 %, 99 . 9 %, 100 % and 100 %, respectively ( table 1 ). fs is also applied to analyze four same - to - same datasets of rosenzweig et al . ( 2004 ). each dataset includes 710 ‘ genes ’ spotted in duplicates to a total of 1420 spots . the false discovery rates per 2840 genes are 4 , 2 and 0 at n = 2 , 4 and 3 - 6 , respectively . the findings demonstrate that fs is also effective in filtering the noise of datasets acquired in independent laboratories . to test the algorithms , fs , mash and midas were applied to analyze the same datasets . the specificity of fs at n = 3 is similar to mash ( table 1 and fig6 ), whose specificity is significantly better than midas ( fathallah - shaykh et al ., 2004 ). midas includes the locfit fs at n = 3 significantly improves sensitivity without lowering the high specificity of mash n is described in the definition of fs . the same - to - same false discovery rates are computed from 10 dye - swapping 19k and 9 dye swapping 1 . 7k datasets that compare brain rna to itself . the false discovery rate of the same - to - same design equals the number of false positive ratios . thus specificity is measured as 1 — same - to - same false discovery rate . the false discovery rate of fs at n = 3 is similar to mash . percent sensitivity refers to the best sensitivity of four replicate spike - in dye swapping 1 . 7k datasets , where 1 ng of arabidopsis rna is added to one sample but not the other . each 1 . 7k microarray includes 64 arabidopsis genes . the sensitivity of fs at n = 3 is 91 %, more than double the sensitivity of mash . roc estimates a curve , which describes the inherent tradeoff between sensitivity and specificity of a diagnostic test . the area under the roc curve is important for evaluating diagnostic procedures because it is the average sensitivity over all possible specificities ( swets , 1979 ; metz , 1986 ; obuchowski , 2003 ). eng , j . 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