Patent Application: US-17358502-A

Abstract:
a non - invasive method of enhancing the permeability of the skin to a biologically active permeant or compound is described utilizing a combination of sonophoresis and chemical enhancers . the previous preparation of the skin using an ultrasonically generated mechanical skin scrubbing action is also described . synergism brought simultaneously applying iontophoresis , electroporation , mechanical vibrations and magnetophoresis is used to optimize the transcutaneous active permeation of compounds , considerably lowering the time of treatment . the method is intended also for , among others , the non - invasive painless treatment of cellulitis , localized fat , stretch marks and flacid skin .

Description:
although the present invention , as described herein , presents the best approach presently known for enhancing the permeability of membranes using ultrasound and enhancing the transcutaneous flux rate of a compound through a biological membrane through the use of chemical permants and sonophoresis , iontophoresis , electroporation , mechanical vibrations and magnetophoreis , it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to the particular process steps and materials disclosed herein as such process steps and materials may vary . it is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is not intended to be limiting since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims and their equivalents . this invention is intended to establish an optimized mode of delivery of agents or permeants which exist in the state of the art or which may later be established as active agents and which are suitable for delivery by the present invention , including compounds normally delivered into the body , through body surfaces and membranes , including skin . as used herein , “ transcutaneous ” has the same meaning of transdermal or percutaneous . as used herein , a “ biological membrane ” is intended to mean also the human skin . as used herein , “ individual ” refers to a human , to which the present invention may be applied . as used herein , “ transcutaneous flux rate ” is the rate of passage of any compound , pharmacologically active agent , through the skin of an individual . as used herein , “ low frequency ultrasound ” means ultrasound waves with frequencies below or equal to 1 mhz . as used herein , “ therapeutic ultrasound ” means ultrasound waves with frequencies above 1 mhz . as used herein , “ non - invasive ” means not requiring the entry of a needle , catheter , or other invasive medical instrument into any part of the body including its natural orifices like mouth , nose , ears , anus , urethra and vagina . firstly speaking of permeation of non charged particles , fick &# 39 ; s first law states that the flux of a compound across the skin can be varied by changing either the the diffusion coefficient or the driving force , that is the gradient of concentration . in a simplified way this means that if the gradient of concentration is constant , then the transcutaneous flux rate can only be enhanced by improving the diffusion coefficient . this can be achieved by the use of so - called penetration or chemical enhancers associated with sonophoresis . there are two primary categories of components where chemical enhancers are comprised of , that is , cell - envelope disordering compounds and solvents or binary systems containing both cell - envelope disordering compounds and solvents , where the first are well known as being useful in topical pharmaceutical preparations therefore any cell envelope disordering compound is useful for purposes of this invention . cell - envelope disordering compounds are thought to assist in skin penetration by disordering the lipid structure of the stratum corneum cell - envelopes ; solvents include water ; diols , mono - alcohols , dmso and others . european patent application 43 , 738 presents the use of selected diols as solvents along with a broad category of cell - envelope disordering compounds for delivery of lipophilic pharmacologically - active compounds . because of the detail in disclosing the cell - envelope disordering compounds and the diols , this disclosure of european patent application 43 , 738 is incorporated herein by reference . other chemical enhancers , not necessarily associated with binary systems , include dmso or aqueous solutions of dmso such as taught in herschler , u . s . pat . no . 3 , 551 , 554 ; herschler , u . s . pat . no . 3 , 711 , 602 ; and herschler , u . s . pat . no . 3 , 711 , 606 , and the azones ( n - substituted - alkyl - azacycloalkyl - 2 - ones ) such as noted in cooper , u . s . pat . no . 4 , 557 , 943 . some chemical enhancer systems may show negative collateral effects such as toxicity and skin irritation . u . s . pat . no . 4 , 855 , 298 discloses compositions for reducing skin irritation having an amount of glycerin sufficient to provide an anti - irritating effect . since this invention is not drawn to the use of chemical enhancers per se it is believed that all chemical enhancers useful in the delivery of compounds through the skin may be associated with sonophoresis , iontophoresis , mechanical vibrations and magnetophoresis in further enhancing the delivery of permeants and compounds through the skin surface . permeation through the stratum corneum can occur either by intracellular , intercellular or transappendageal penetration , in this case specially through the aqueous pathway of the sweat glands . the property shown by the ultrasound of enhancing the permeability of the stratum corneum and , consequently , increasing transcutaneous flux rate is thought to derive from thermal and mechanical alteration of biological tissues . the physical properties of ultrasound waves that can be changed either to control or improve penetration include frequency and intensity along with time of application . other factors are also important , for example the composition and structure of the membrane through which molecules are to be transported , the physical and chemical characteristics of the medium in which the molecules are suspended , and the nature of the molecules themselves . the exposure may be either continuous or pulsed to reduce excessive heating of biological membranes , when upper average values of usual intensities in the range of 0 . 01 - 2 . 5 w / cm . sup . 2 are used ; selection is made in such a way to intensity be high enough to achieve the desired results as well as low enough to avoid significant increase of skin temperature . however , using our experimental equipment and application devices intensities between 0 . 2 and 1 . 5 w / cm . sup . 2 have shown to give good results when the process is associated with simultaneous application of iontophoresis . ultrasound frequencies varied from 20 khz to 10 mhz , preferably 20 khz to 3 mhz taking into account that the practical depth of penetration of ultrasonic energy into living soft tissue due to attenuation is inversely proportional to some power of the frequency ; high frequencies have been suggested to improve drug penetration through the skin by concentrating their effect in the stratum corneum but frequencies between 1 to 3 mhz show a better overall efficiency since they create some deeper internal heat producing a temperature rise that speeds up metabolic processes in the area under treatment as well as lowering the electrical impedance of the skin , improving the iontophoreis process . no significant cavitational effects is observed in fluids at ultrasound frequencies greater than 2 . 5 mhz , due to the fact that these cavitational effects vary inversely with ultrasound frequency [ gaertner , w ., frequency dependence of ultrasonic cavitation , j . acoust . soc . am ., 26 : 977 - 80 ( 1984 )], therefore 2 . 5 mhz is considered a reasonable estimate of the upper frequency limit for the occurrence of cavitation in fluids at therapeutic ultrasound intensities . on the other hand , cavitation originated using low frequency ultrasound , in the range of 20 khz has shown to be very effective in the enhancement of the skin permeabilty ( u . s . pat . no . 6 , 041 , 253 to kost ), allowing the permeation of higher molecular weight molecules , well above 600 d . hence , since cavitation plays an important role in transcutaneous permeation , the synergistic effect of sonophoresis and iontophoresis shall be nearly absent with frequencies higher than 2 . 5 mhz . when ultrasound energy is applied into the body using for example a circular plane metallic transducer two fields are created , the near field , known as fresnel field and the far field , known as fraunhofer field as shown in fig1 . in fresnel field ultrasound energy radiated from different parts of the element travels as spherical waves that interfere both constructively and destructively ; thus there are zones of maxima and minima of mechanical pressure along and across the beam . this field is characterized by a length which depends on the radius of the radiant surface and the wavelenght of the ultrasound in the medium in front of it , i . e ., the skin and soft tissues beneath it . therefore the ultrasound energy distribution pattern shows a large number of closely spaced local mechanical pressure peaks and nulls . the energy is “ channeled ” into the skin in an structure having parallel “ walls ” orthogonal to the plane of the transducer face . in fraunhofer field the ultrasound beam diverges in such a way which also depends on the radius of the radiant surface and the wavelenght of the ultrasound in the medium , usually soft tissues , meaning that in fraunhofer field the energy is spreaded in a conic distribution . the interface of the piezoelectric transducer with the individual is reflective due to the different values of their respective acoustic characteristic impedances and energy is reflected back to the piezoelement . thus , in order to obtain constructive interference , that is reinforcement of the ultrasound waves , the thickness of the piezoelectric transducer , normally circular shaped , must be one - half wavelenght for the frequency used . in one of the embodiments used , experiments were conducted with an application device having a lead zirconate titanate transducer 2 mm thick , and since the speed of sound for this material is of 4000 m / sec , the frequency which allows maximum energy transfer for such device is of 1 mhz . by many reasons the individual must be mechanically isolated from the piezoelectric element , and usually this is achieved interposing a plate of material having an intermediate acoustic characteristic impedance between them ; in order to maximize the energy transfer , this plate must have a thickness of one quarter wavelenght for the frequency being used . this application device used an aluminium plate for this purpose and since the speed of sound for this material is of 6400 m / s then best results were obtained with a plate 1 . 6 mm thick . in order to minimize reflexions of the ultrasonic beam , which depend on the ratio of the acoustic characteristic impedances of the media it is crossing we must avoid any air gap in the interface between the application device and the surface of the skin . thus a coupling agent , preferably one having a low absorption coefficient of ultrasound energy and being non - staining , non - irritating and slow drying must be topically applied to the skin to efficiently transfer the ultrasonic energy from the ultrasound transducer into the skin . this way the ultrasound coupling agent can be also formulated along with chemical enhancers and drugs to be permeated , the resulting compounds known as “ melanges ”. the above description shows that each particular application device must be operated in a single frequency , otherwise internal acoustic mismatches will cause only partial transfer of energy to the individual , decreasing the efficiency of the process . besides this , there will be a considerable overheating of the transducer created by the internal reflected waves , which can negatively affect the mechanical integrity of the transducer , as well as causing a degradation of its piezoelectric properties along the time . some different time patterns of peaks and nulls can be obtained with non - modulated ultrasound energy mechanically travelling the transducer back and forth on the surface of the area under treatment , since the results will be quite similar to an “ on - off ” amplitude modulation , displacing the areas of maxima and minima of pressure along the time . application of electric current enhances transcutaneous transport by different mechanisms , for example it provides an additional driving force for the transport of charged molecules across the skin since electrical current paths can be established through the intercellular spaces of the cells of the stratum corneum and second , ionic motion due to application of electric fields may induce convective flows across the skin , referred to as electro - osmosis , an important mechanism in transcutaneous transport of neutral molecules during iontophoresis . also and it is thought to have additional paths through the salty sweat glands fluids which show a low electrical impedance to the current flow due to the comparatively low impedance nature of sweat . frequencies can range from 5 khz to 1 mhz , often in the range of 50 khz to 150 khz and rectangular voltage with amplitudes from 0 to 15 v or current waves with amplitudes from 0 . 01 to 1 . 0 ma / cm . sup . 2 with properly selected duty cycles are convenient to achieve good results . therefore current waves obtained through electronic generators having high internal impedance are preferable instead since their amplitudes don &# 39 ; t depend on fluctuactions on the value of skin electrical impedance , allowing safer and more reliable treatments amplitudes shall be kept small enough not to originate either tissue electrical stimulation or excessive heat due to joule effect . good results have been obtained with values about 0 . 5 ma / cm . sup . 2 or even lower than this , due to the synergistic simultaneous application of sonophoresis . u . s . pat . no . 5 , 507 , 790 to weiss discloses that with the use of iontophoresis the penetration of compounds through the skin can be as deep as 3 or 4 mm . mechanical vibrations create pressure gradients which enhance the physical movement of compounds into the skin , improve both lymph and blood circulation in the area as well as create physical stimuli which have a physiological response from the individual , since pressure sensitive nervous terminations of tissues in the area being treated are stimulated and respond to these stimuli increasing the speed of some metabolic processes . these pressure waves are inertially created through an unbalanced rotating mass fixed to the shaft of a direct current ( dc ) micromotor having its speed controlled by a pulse width modulation technique ( pwm ), allowing time varying speeds to be synthesized . in our experiences several different frequency waveshapes have been used , i . e ., sawtooth , triangle , on - off , staircase , constant low speed , constant high speed , periodic switching from low to high speed as well as any combinations of them ; all time varying frequency waveshapes have given better results , probably due to time varying pressure gradients created as well as the property of the individual to have better perception and responses to changes ; of course other waveshapes can be used with the present invention . magnetophoresis in based on the law of electromagnetism which states that when moving charged particles cross a magnetic field they are subject to the action of forces ; thus charged molecules of chemicals being permeated can further have a driving force applied to them by means of convenient magnetic fields having such magnitude , direction and polarity in order to enhance the process of transcutaneous permeation . these magnetic fields may be created by either the circulation of electric currents through specially developed coils placed inside the application device and through permanent magnets . in order to have a better understanding of both the equipment and the application devices developed for the purposes of this invention , they will be described making reference to fig5 where a perspective view is shown and fig6 where the skin scrubbing application device is shown . the first embodiment allows the use of therapeutic ultrasound frequencies , in this case , of 1 mhz . according to fig5 in this embodiment the experimental equipment consists of a main unit comprised of an enclosure (# 1 ), which can be metallic , plastic or using any other similar materials , which encloses all electronic circuitry needed for its operation . at the front part of this main unit (# 1 ) there is a panel (# 2 ) with several controls , displays and signaling devices in order to allow an interfacing with the user as friendly as possible . the equipment also has a manual application device (# 3 ) made of plastic , metal and / or similar materials connected to the main unit (# 1 ) by an electrical cable (# 4 ) using an appropriate connector . a conductive wrist band (# 5 ) is used to connect the main unit to the individual under treatment through an helicoidal electrical cable . the application device has an internal ultrasound transducer for the generation of 1 mhz ultrasound waves for sonophoresis , mechanically coupled to a 35 mm metallic circular plate , designed to achieve best enhancement in the skin permeability as described herein . either iontophoresis and electroporation may be obtained through the application of an electric variable field between the metallic surface of the application device and the skin , the electric path being closed through the conductive wrist band attached to the wrist of the individual under treatment . a switch was included in order to reverse the polarity of the electric field , according to the ph of the melange being used ; this switching action can also be achieved electronically . amplitude , frequency and duty cycle of a rectangular current wave have were modulated targeting best results ; also pulsed rectangular waves have been used for the same purpose . amplitudes of currents for iontophoresis have been varied in the range of 0 . 1 to about 1 ma / cm . sup . 2 with better results obtained for currents higher than 0 . 5 ma / cm . sup . 2 . low frequency mechanical vibrations are generated internally to the application device by means of an internal unbalanced rotating mass with speed controlled through pulse width modulating the dc voltage applied to the driving electric dc micromotor . frequencies of 1 hz to 200 hz were used with several speed waveshapes as previously described . both constant and variable magnitude magnetic field are generated by electrical currents passing through a special coil internal to the application device . since also some spatially distributed internal heat is generated by sonophoresis and also conductive heating is produced by joule effect at the face of the metallic plate of the application device , temperature of the application device is continuously sensed through a thermal sensor allowing this temperature to be always kept under 41 . degree . c , using a microcontroller and associate electronic circuitry . this way in normal use some drops of the melange to be permeated into the skin are topically dispensed and them the application device is moved in circular patterns over the skin covering the area under treatment till the complete permeation of the melange is achieved . the second embodiment allows either mechanical scrubbing action of the stratum corneum and low frequency sonophoresis , in this case , of 28 khz . according to fig5 and fig6 in this new embodiment the experimental equipment consists of a main unit comprised of an enclosure (# 1 ), which can be metallic , plastic or using any other similar materials , which encloses all electronic circuitry needed for its operation . at the front part of this main unit (# 1 ) there is a panel (# 2 ) with several controls , displays and signaling devices in order to allow an interfacing with the user as friendly as possible . the equipment also has a manual application device (# 3 ) made of plastic , metal and / or similar materials connected to the main unit (# 1 ) by an electrical cable (# 4 ) using an appropriate connector . a conductive wrist band (# 5 ) is used to connect the main unit to the individual under treatment through an helicoidal electrical cable . the application device has several internal ultrasound transducers for the generation of 28 khz ultrasound waves useful for either mechanical skin abrasion and sonophoresis . the tip of the application device , with the shape of a spatula is made of stainless steel . this application device is designed in such way to be used in two different positions : in the first , its tip is kept with a tilt angle of around 60 degree with respect to the skin surface and this way the mechanical excursion of its tip allows a scrubbing action of the wetted skin as well as generating cavitation of the wetting fluid . in the second , the metallic surface of the application device is kept flat on the surface of the skin generating cavitation of the lipids of the stratum corneum in order to achieve best enhancement of the skin permeability as described herein . in this second position either iontophoresis and electroporation may be obtained through the application of an electric variable field between the metallic surface of the application device and the skin , the electric path being closed through the conductive wrist band attached to the wrist of the individual under treatment . a switch was included in order to reverse the polarity of the electric field , according to the ph of the melange being used ; this switching action can also be achieved electronically . amplitude , frequency and duty cycle of a rectangular current wave have been modulated targeting best results ; also pulsed rectangular waves have been used for the same purpose . amplitudes of currents for iontophoresis have been varied in the range of 0 . 1 to about 1 ma / cm . sup . 2 with better results obtained for currents equal or higher than 0 . 5 ma / cm . sup . 2 . since also some spatially distributed internal heat is generated by sonophoresis and also conductive heating is produced by joule effect at the face of the metallic plate of the application device , temperature of the application device is continuously sensed through a thermal sensor allowing this temperature to be always kept under 41 . degree . c , using a microcontroller and associate electronic circuitry . in this embodiment , first the skin must be wetted with a chemical having for example cleansing properties , the application device being used in the first position . after this mechanical scrubbing action the skin shall optionally be hydrated by an appropriate hydration agent and after this some drops of the melange to be permeated into the skin are topically dispensed and then the application device is placed in the second position and moved in circular patterns over the skin covering the area under treatment till the complete permeation of the melange is achieved . experiment # 1 — comparative treatment of cellulitis with classical mesotherapy and active transcutaneous permeation using embodiment # 1 . in this experiment five volunteer patients showing nodular cellulitis ( orange skin ) in their thighs were submitted simultaneously to twelve sessions of both processes , all them were applied by an authorized physician , two sessions per week . area covered in each thigh was of about 200 cm . sup2 . both process used melanges containing lipolysis activators and improvers of the blood microcirculation and quite similar volumes and concentrations of active principles were used . sonophoresis has used therapeutic ultrasound , frequency of 1 mhz and 1 , 0 w / cm . sup2 , inertial mechanical vibrations have used a on - off waveshape , maximum speed of about 4000 rpm , iontophoresis used a 50 khz , 50 % duty cycle constant current wave with amplitude of 0 . 5 ma / cm . sup2 ., positive polarity . the treatment of the right thighs via classical mesotherapy has used specific injectable melanges employing discardable syringes and appropriate needles . a number of 80 punctures have been made in each session . after each session the patients have reported the inconvenience of the pain and remaining marks . the treatment of the left thighs via active transcutaneous permeation has used topically apllied phytotherapic melanges ; about 5 . 0 ml of melange were used in each session and duration of the session was of about 5 minutes . no previous superficial preparation of the skin was used . after each session the patients have reported the complete absence of any pain and remaining marks . patients submited to active transcutaneus permeation process have been asked not to shower within four hours of each session since the remaining melange continues to permeate through the skin ; it is important to observe that skin permeability enhancement stands for some few hours after the use of sonophoresis . after five sessions the two groups of thighs were visually qualitatively inspected and it was found that the process of active transcutaneous permeation showed similar results when compared to the classical mesotherapy , but with a significant difference , a higher skin eveness due to the intrinsic homogeneity of the process of application of melanges . after twelve sessions the results confirmed the previous ones regarding the higher eveness of the skin treated with the process of active transcutaneous permeation . experiment # 2 — comparative treatment of localized fat with classical mesotherapy and active transcutaneous permeation using embodiment # 1 . in this experiment three volunteer patients showing localized fat in their abdomens were submitted simultaneously to twelve sessions of both processes , all them were applied by an authorized physician , two sessions per week . area covered in each abdomen was of about 300 cm . sup2 . both processes used melanges containing lipolysis activators , phosphodiesterase inhibitors and improvers of the blood microcirculation and quite similar volumes and concentrations of active principles were used . sonophoresis has used therapeutic ultrasound , frequency of 1 mhz and 1 , 0 w / cm . sup2 , inertial mechanical vibrations have used a triangle waveshape , maximum speed of about 3500 rpm , iontophoresis used a 50 khz , 50 % duty cycle constant current wave with amplitude of 0 . 5 ma / cm . sup2 ., positive polarity . the treatment of the right side of the abdomens via classical mesotherapy has used specific injectable melanges utilizing discardable syringes and appropriate needles . a number of about 120 punctures have been made in each session . after each session the patients have reported the inconvenience of the pain and remaining marks . the treatment of the left side of the abdomens via active transcutaneous permeation has used topically apilied phytotherapic melanges ; about 7 . 5 ml of melange were used in each session and duration of the session was of about 7 minutes . no previous superficial preparation of the skin was used . after each session the patients have reported the complete absence of any pain and remaining marks . patients submited to active transcutaneus permeation process have been asked not to shower within four hours of each session since the remaining melange continues to permeate through the skin ; it is important to observe that skin permeability enhancement stands for some few hours after the use of sonophoresis . after six sessions the two groups of abdomens were visually qualitatively inspected and it was found that the process of active transcutaneous permeation showed similar results when compared to the classical mesotherapy , but with a significant difference , a higher skin eveness due to the intrinsic homogeneity of the process of application of melanges . after twelve sessions the results confirmed the previous ones regarding the higher eveness of the skin treated with the process of active transcutaneous permeation . experiment # 3 — comparative treatment of stretch marks with classical mesotherapy and active transcutaneous permeation using embodiment # 2 . in this experiment three volunteer patients showing stretch marks in their waistlines were submitted simultaneously to ten sessions of both processes , all them were applied by an authorized physician , two sessions per week . area covered in each side was of about 150 cm . sup2 . both processes used melanges containing lipolysis activators , connective tissue nutrients and improvers of the blood microcirculation with quite similar volumes and concentrations of active principles . the treatment of the right side of the waistlines via classical mesotherapy has used specific injectable melanges utilizing discardable syringes and appropriate needles . a number of about 60 punctures have been made in each session . after each session the patients have reported the inconvenience of the intense pain and remaining marks . the treatment of the left side of the waistlines via active transcutaneous permeation has used an initial preparation of the skin utilizing the application device for five minutes with the function of creating a mechanical scrubbing action of the wetted skin ; a cleanser cosmetic product was used with this purpose . after this about 3 ml of melange were used in each session , the application device was placed on the surface of the skin parallel to its surface and duration of the session was of about 4 minutes . sonophoresis has used low frequency ultrasound , frequency of 28 khz and 1 . 0 w / cm . sup2 , iontophoresis used a 50 khz , 50 % duty cycle constant current wave with amplitude of 0 . 1 ma / cm . sup2 . after each session the patients have reported the complete absence of any pain and residual marks . patients have been asked not to shower within four hours of each session since the remaining melange continues to permeate through the skin ; it is important to observe that skin permeability enhancement stands for some few hours after the use of sonophoresis . after five sessions the two groups of waistlines were visually qualitatively inspected and it was found that the process of active transcutaneous permeation showed similar results when compared to the classical mesotherapy , but with a significant difference , a better aspect of the reduced stretch marks due to the intrinsic homogeneity of the process of application of melanges . after ten sessions the results confirmed the previous ones regarding the better aspect of the reduced stretch marks with the process of active transcutaneous permeation . many other results obtained with similar embodiments and processes varying the qualitative and quantitative compositions of melanges , chemical enhancers , waveshapes of inertial mechanic vibrations , their maximum speeds , amplitude and frequency of iontophoresis , volume of melanges permeated through the skin as well as other physical parameters such as time of application in treatments of cellulitis , localized fat , stretch marks and flacid skin with special melanges were encouraging , showing the validity of both the embodiments , processes and the methods of application used . the above examples and illustrated embodiments and procedures are but representative of systems which may be employed in the utilization of one or more chemical and / or physical enhancement means for the transcutaneous delivery of permeants and compounds . the invention is directed to the discovery that the proper use of ultrasound skin abrasion , chemical enhancers and ultrasound associated with the simultaneous use of further physical principles through a single application device as described herein enables the noninvasive transcutaneous delivery of compounds . however , the invention is not limited only to the specific illustrations since there are numerous enhancer systems some of which may function better than another for delivery of permeants and compounds . therefore , the invention is limited in scope only by the mentioned claims and functional equivalents thereof . references cited u . s . patent documents 4372296 february , 1983 fahim . 4646725 march , 1987 moasser . 4767402 august , 1988 kost et al .. 4780212 october , 1988 kost et al .. 4821740 april , 1989 tachibana et al .. 4953565 september , 1990 tachibana et al .. 5007438 april , 1991 tachibana et al .. 5016615 may , 1991 driller . 5171215 december , 1992 flanagan . 5231975 august , 1993 bommannan et al .. 5267985 december , 1993 shimada et al .. 5445611 august , 1995 eppstein et al .. 6041253 march , 2000 kost et al .. 6234990 may , 2000 rowe et al .. eppstein , d . a . et al ., “ applications of liposome formulations for antimicrobial / antiviral therapy ” liposomes as drug carriers 311 , 315 ( g . gregoriadis ed . 1988 ). eppstein , d . a . et al ., “ alternative delivery systems for peptides and proteins as drugs ” 5 crc reviews in therapeutic drug carrier systems 99 , 125 ( 1988 ). loshilov , v . i . et al ., “ research of the technological process of ultrasound treatment of infected wounds ” ( 1976 ). apfel , r . f ., “ possiblity of microcavitation from diagnostic ultrasound ,” ieee trans . ultrason . ferroelectrics freq . control uffc - 33 : 139 - 142 ( 1986 ). barry , “ mode of action of penetration enhancers in human skin ,” j . controlled rel . 6 : 85 - 97 ( 1987 ). burnette , r . r ., “ iontophoresis ,” transdermal drug delivery developmental issues and research initiatives ( hadgraft and guv . editors , marcel dekker , 247 - 291 , 1989 ). cleary , gary w ., “ transdermal controlled release systems ,” medical applications of controlled release ( langer and wise , editors , crc press 203 - 251 , 1984 ). clegg and vaz , “ translational diffusion of proteins and lipids in artificial lipid bilayer membranes . a comparison of experiment with theory ,” progress in protein - lipid interactions watts , ed . 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