Patent Application: US-84691804-A

Abstract:
an anti - inflammatory pharmaceutical composition comprising as active ingredient a compound of general formula : wherein w represents oxygen or sulfur atoms ; r 1 represents lower alkyl or lower cycloalkyl ; r 2 represents halogen , alkenyl , alkynyl or alkylidenhydrazino ; r 3 represents a lower alkyl , lower cycloalkyl , aryl , alkyl or anilide , said cycloalkyl , aryl and alkyl may be substituted with one or more of the groups selected from halogen , hydroxyl , hydroxyalkyl ; and a pharmaceutically acceptable additive . the composition may be used to threat diseases such as multiple sclerosis , rheumatoid arthritis and crohn &# 39 ; s disease .

Description:
5 ′- deoxy - 2 -( 1 - hexynyl )- 5 ′- methylthioadenosine ( referred to also as cf402 ) was synthesized as described in wo 02 / 070532 and in van tilburg , e . w ., et al , j . med . chem . ( 2002 ) 45 : 420 - 429 ( with reference to compound 37 ). molecular formula : c 17 h 23 in 5 o 3 s the standard material is a yellowish - light brown powder . the material was visually inspected against a white background . using a büchi capillary melting point apparatus , the melting point of cf402 was determined to be in the range of 64 - 67 ° c . a preliminary , qualitative solubility study of cf402 was completed . the solubility of cf402 in water and dmso at 1 mg / ml and at ambient temperature is shown in table 1 below . general . to a solution of the appropriate 5 ′- alkylthio - 5 ′- deoxy - 2 - iodoadenosine ( 0 . 92 mmol ) in 7 ml dry acetonitrile and 7 ml triethylamine under a nitrogen atmosphere was added cui ( 0 . 07 mmol , 13 . 3 mg ), pdcl 2 ( 0 . 05 mmol , 8 . 47 mg ) and ph 3 p ( 0 . 11 mmol ). to the suspension was added 1 - hexyn ( 4 . 45 mmol , 511 μl ) and the mixture was stirred overnight under nitrogen atmosphere . the light brown solution was filtered and concentrated . the residu was extracted with water and etoac ( 3 × 50 ml ), the organic layer was dried , concentrated and purified by column chromatography . 5 ′- deoxy - 2 -( 1 - hexynyl )- 5 ′- methylthioadenosine ( cf402 ). the reaction was carried out with 5 ′- deoxy - 2 - iodo - 5 ′- methylthioadenosine ( 480 mg , 1 . 13 mmol ). the mixture was purified by column chromatography ( eluent ch 2 cl 2 to 10 % meoh in ch 2 cl 2 ). yield 257 mg ( 0 . 68 mmol , 60 %); mp 64 - 67 ° c ; r f 0 . 28 ( 10 % meoh in ch 2 cl 2 ). an aliquot of the product was recrystallised from methanol for analytical purposes ; 1 h nmr ( dmso - d 6 ) δ 8 . 37 ( s , 1h , h - 8 ), 7 . 39 ( s , 2h , nh 2 ), 5 . 85 ( d , j = 6 . 18 hz , 1h , h - 1 ′), 5 . 49 ( d , j = 6 . 18 hz , 1h , oh - 2 ′), 5 . 32 ( d , j = 4 . 81 hz , 1h , oh - 3 ′), 4 . 67 ( q , j = 5 . 49 hz , 1h , h - 2 ′), 4 . 12 - 3 . 95 ( m , 1h , h - 3 ′), 4 . 12 - 3 . 95 ( m , 1h , h - 4 ′), 2 . 84 ( t , j = 5 . 49 hz , 2h , h - 5 ′), 2 . 40 ( t , j = 6 . 68 hz , 2h , ≡ cch 2 ), 2 . 05 ( s , 3h , sch 3 ), 1 . 55 - 1 . 32 ( m , 4h , ≡ cch 2 ch 2 ch 2 ), 0 . 90 ( t , j = 6 . 18 hz , 3h , ch 3 ). general . the appropriate 6 - chloro - 2 - iodo - 9 -( 2 , 3 - di - o - acetyl - 5 - alkylthio - 5 - deoxy - β - d - ribofuranosyl )- purine ( 5 . 33 mmol ) was stirred with 50 ml etoh / nh 3 for 64 h . the mixture was concentrated and purified by column chromatography . 5 ′- deoxy - 2 - iodo - 5 ′- methylthioadenosine . the reaction was carried out with 6 - chloro - 2 - iodo - 9 -( 2 , 3 - di - o - acetyl - 5 - deoxy - 5 - methylthio - β - d - ribofuranosyl )- purine ( 3 . 99 g , 7 . 58 mmol ). the mixture was purified by column chromatography ( 10 % meoh in ch 2 cl 2 ). yield 2 . 21 g ( 5 . 22 mmol , 69 %), mp 90 - 93 ° c . ; r f 0 . 24 ( 10 % meoh in ch 2 cl 2 ). the product was recrystallised from etoac ; 1 h nmr ( dmso - d 6 ) δ 8 . 29 ( s , 1h , h - 8 ), 7 . 71 ( bs , 2h , nh 2 ), 5 . 79 ( d , j = 5 . 84 hz , 1h , h - 1 ′), 5 . 52 ( d , j = 6 . 52 hz , 1h , oh - 2 ′), 5 . 35 ( d , j = 5 . 80 hz , 1h , oh - 3 ′), 4 . 69 ( m , 1h , h - 2 ′), 4 . 11 - 4 . 02 ( m , 1h , h - 3 ′), 4 . 11 - 4 . 02 ( m , 1h , h - 4 ′), 2 . 85 - 2 . 80 ( m , 2h , h - 5 ′), 2 . 06 ( s , 3h , sch 3 ); ms m / z 424 ( m + h ) + ; anal . ( c 11 h 14 in 5 o 3 s . 0 . 35 etoac ) c , h , n . general diazotization method . isopentylnitrite ( 23 . 2 mmol , 3 . 10 ml ) was added to a mixture of the appropriate 2 - amino - 6 - chloro - 9 -( 2 , 3 - di - o - acetyl - 5 - alkylthio - 5 - deoxy - β - d - ribofuranosyl )- purine ( 7 . 49 mmol ), i 2 ( 7 . 49 mmol , 1 . 90 g ), ch 2 i 2 ( 77 . 5 mmol , 6 . 24 ml ) and cui ( 7 . 87 mmol , 1 . 50 g ) in 40 ml tetrahydrofuran . the dark brown solution was refluxed ( under intensive cooling ) for 40 - 60 minutes and then cooled to room temperature . the mixture was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuo . the residue was dissolved in ch 2 cl 2 and extracted with a saturated na 2 s 2 o 3 solution , until the colour disappeared . the organic layer was dried and concentrated . the brownish oil was purified by column chromatography . the reaction was carried out with 2 - amino - 6 - chloro - 9 -( 2 , 3 - di - o - acetyl - 5 - deoxy - 5 - methylthio - β - d - ribofuranosyl )- purine ( 3 . 83 g , 9 . 21 mmol ). the mixture was purified by column chromatography ( eluens ch 2 cl 2 - 5 % meoh in ch 2 cl 2 ). yield 3 . 99 g ( 7 . 58 mmol , 82 %), r f 0 . 62 ( 5 % meoh in ch 2 cl 2 ); 1 h nmr ( dmso - d 6 ) δ 8 . 84 ( s , 1h , h - 8 ), 6 . 27 ( d , j = 5 . 49 hz , 1h , h - 1 ′), 5 . 96 ( t , j = 5 . 49 hz , 1h , h - 2 ′), 5 . 58 ( t , j = 5 . 49 hz , 1h , h - 3 ′), 4 . 37 - 4 . 32 ( m , 1h , h - 4 ′), 2 . 98 ( d , j = 6 . 86 hz , 2h , h - 5 ′), 2 . 12 , 2 . 07 ( 2 × s , 6h , 2 × coch 3 ), 2 . 02 ( s , 3h , sch 3 ). general chlorination procedure . to a suspension of the appropriate 2 ′, 3 ′- di - o - acetyl - 5 ′- alkylthio - 5 ′- deoxyguanosine ( 19 . 3 mmol , predried ) and tetraethylammonium chloride ( 6 . 48 g , 39 . 1 mmol ; predried in vacuo at 80 ° c .) in acetonitrile ( 40 ml ) were added n , n - dimethylaniline ( 2 . 52 ml , 20 . 0 mmol , dried and distilled from koh ), and phosphoryl chloride ( pocl 3 , 10 . 95 ml , 0 . 12 mol , freshly distilled ) at room temperature . the flask was placed in an oil bath preheated at 100 ° c . and the solution was refluxed for 10 - 15 minutes . volatile materials were evaporated immediately in vacuo . the resulting yellow foam was dissolved in ch 2 cl 2 ( 100 ml ) and stirred vigorously for 15 minutes with crushed ice . the layers were separated and the aqueous phase was extracted with ch 2 cl 2 again ( 75 ml ). the combined organic layers were kept cold by addition of crushed ice and washed with cold water ( 3 × 75 ml ), 5 % nahco 3 / h 2 o to ph 7 , dried over mgso 4 and filtered . the residue was purified by column chromatography . 2 - amino - 6 - chloro - 9 -( 2 , 3 - di - o - acetyl - 5 - deoxy - 5 - methylthio - β - d - ribofuranosyl )- purine . the reaction was carried out with 2 ′, 3 ′- di - o - acetyl - 5 ′- deoxy - 5 ′- methylthioguanosine ( 5 . 96 g , 15 . 0 mmol ). the mixture was purified by column chromatography ( eluens etoac : pe40 / 60 = 1 : 1 to 2 : 1 ). yield 3 . 83 g ( 9 . 21 mmol , 62 %), r f 0 . 28 ( etoac : pe40 / 60 = 2 : 1 ). 1 h nmr ( dmso - d 6 ) δ 8 . 40 ( s , 1h , h - 8 ), 7 . 08 ( bs , 2h , nh 2 ), 6 . 10 - 5 . 99 ( m , 2h , h - 1 ′, h - 2 ′), 5 . 49 - 5 . 45 ( m , 1h , h - 3 ′), 4 . 31 - 4 . 24 ( n , 1h , h - 4 ′), 2 . 96 ( pd , j = 6 . 86 hz , 2h , h - 5 ′), 2 . 12 , 2 . 06 ( 2xs , 6h , coch 3 ), 1 . 97 ( s , 3h , sch 3 ). general acetylation procedure . to a suspension of the appropriate 5 ′- alkylthio guanosine derivative ( 0 . 46 mmol ) and 4 - dimethylaminopyridine ( dmap ; 0 . 03 mmol ) in a mixture of acetonitrile ( 5 . 7 ml ) and triethylamine ( 154 μl , 1 . 1 mmol ) was added acetic anhydride ( 95 μl , 1 mmol ) at room temperature . the mixture was stirred for 1 h until the solution became clear . methanol ( 10 ml ) was added and the solution was stirred for 5 - 10 minutes , concentrated in vacuo and stirred with isopropanol . the white slurrie obtained was filtered and subsequently stirred with hexane . the white precipitate was filtered and dried . 2 ′, 3 ′- di - o - acetyl - 5 ′- deoxy - 5 ′- methylthioguanosine . the reaction was carried out with 5 ′- deoxy - 5 ′- methylthioguanosine ( 10 . 4 g , 33 . 2 mmol ). yield 10 . 5 g ( 26 . 4 mmol , 79 %), 1 h nmr ( dmso - d 6 ) δ 7 . 98 ( s , 1h , h - 8 ), 6 . 59 ( bs , 2h , nh 2 ), 5 . 99 - 5 . 90 ( m , 1h , h - 1 ′), 5 . 99 - 5 . 90 ( m , 1h , h - 2 ′), 5 . 43 ( t , j = 3 . 78 hz , 1h , h - 3 ′), 4 . 24 ( pq , j = 3 . 19 hz , 1h , h - 4 ′), 2 . 96 - 2 . 88 ( m , 2h , h - 5 ′), 2 . 11 , 2 . 07 ( 2 × s , 6h , 2 × coch 3 ), 2 . 00 ( s , 3h , sch 3 ). general procedure for the syntheses of 5 ′- alkylthio derivatives . the appropriate thiol ( 3 . 32 mmol ) was dissolved in 10 ml 2 m naoh . after stirring , 5 ′- chloro - 5 ′- deoxyguanosine ( 100 mg , 0 . 33 mmol ) was slowly added . the mixture was refluxed for 2 - 2 . 5 h and then cooled to room temperature . it was acidified with acetic acid and a white precipitate was formed . the precipitate was filtered and dried . 5 ′- deoxy - 5 ′- methylthioguanosine . the reaction was carried out with sodium thiomethoxide ( 27 . 42 g , 0 . 39 mol ) and 5 ′- chloro - 5 ′- deoxyguanosine ( 11 . 8 g , 39 . 1 mmol ). yield 10 . 41 g ( 33 . 2 mmol , 85 %), 1 h nmr ( dmso - d 6 ) δ 7 . 85 ( s , 1h , h - 8 ), 7 . 23 ( bs , 2h , nh 2 ), 5 . 68 ( d , j = 6 . 18 hz , 1h , h - 1 ′), 4 . 53 - 4 . 51 ( m , 1h , h - 2 ′), 4 . 05 - 3 . 99 ( m , 1h , h - 3 ′), 3 . 99 - 3 . 95 ( m , 1h , h - 4 ′), 2 . 78 ( t , j = 6 . 52 hz , 2h , h - 5 ′), 1 . 67 ( s , 3h , ch 3 ). 5 ′- chloro - 5 ′- deoxyguanosine . guanosine ( 43 . 5 g , 0 . 15 mol ) was dissolved in hexamethylphosphorictriamide ( hmpa , 40 ml , 0 . 23 mol ). thionyl chloride ( 61 . 5 ml , 0 . 85 mol ) was added in 1 h . the mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for 1 h , diluted with water and chromatographed on dowex 50 w ( h + ). after washing with water ( 350 ml ), the product was collected by eluting 5 % aqueous ammonia ( 350 ml ). the fraction was concentrated in vacuo . yield 40 g ( 0 . 13 mol , 86 %), 1 h nmr ( dmso - d 6 ) δ 10 . 53 ( bs , 1h , nh ), 7 . 89 ( s , 1h , h - 8 ), 6 . 50 ( bs , 2h , nh 2 ), 5 . 72 ( d , j = 5 . 84 hz , 1h , h - 1 ′), 5 . 55 ( d , j = 6 . 52 hz , 1h , oh - 2 ′), 5 . 39 - 5 . 35 ( m , 1h , oh - 3 ′), 4 . 57 ( q , j = 5 . 15 hz , 1h , h - 2 ′), 4 . 16 - 4 . 05 ( m , 1h , h - 3 ′), 4 . 05 - 3 . 97 ( m , 1h , h - 4 ′), 3 . 86 ( dq , j = 11 . 67 hz , 2h , h - 5 ′). an aliquot of the laboratory sample of cf402 was subjected to recrystallization and subsequently to elemental and ms analysis ( department of analytical chemistry , leiden university , the netherlands ). elemental analyses were performed for c , h , n . results ( within 0 . 4 % of theoretical value ): c 17 h 23 n 5 o 3 s . 0 . 56 ch3oh . all high resolution mass spectra were measured on a finnigan mat900 mass spectrometer equipped with a direct insertion probe for ei experiments ( 70 ev with resolution 1000 ) or on a finnigan mat tsq - 70 spectrometer equipped with an electrospray interface for esi experiments . spectra were collected by constant infusion of the analyte dissolved in 80 / 20 methanol / h 2 o . esi is a soft ionization technique resulting in protonated , sodiated species in positive ionization mode and deprotonated species in the negative ionization mode . ms n / z 378 ( m + h ) + . general . all compounds ( cf402 and reference materials ) were tested in radioligand binding assays to determine their affinities for the adenosine a 1 receptor in rat brain cortex , the a 2a receptor in rat striatum and the human a 3 receptor as expressed in hek 293 cells ( table 1 ). for the adenosine a 1 receptor , the tritiated antagonist , [ 3 h ]- 1 , 3 - dipropyl - 8 - cyclopentylxanthine ([ 3 h ] dpcpx ), and for the adenosine a 2a receptor , the tritiated antagonist [ 3 h ] zm 241385 were used . since radiolabeled antagonists are not commercially available for the adenosine a 3 receptor , [ 125 i ] ab - meca , an a 3 receptor agonist , was used . displacement experiments were performed in the absence of gtp . all compounds were also tested in functional assays . the ability of the compounds to either stimulate the cyclic amp ( camp ) production through human adenosine a 2a receptors expressed in cho cells or inhibit the camp production in human adenosine a 3 receptors expressed in hek 293 cells was assessed . radioligand binding studies . measurements with [ 3 h ] dpcpx in the absence of gtp were performed according to a protocol published previously ( pirovano et al , eur j pharmacol 172 ( 1989 ) 185 ). adenosine a 2a receptor affinities were determined according to gao et al ( biochem pharmacol 60 ( 2000 ) 669 ). adenosine a 3 receptor affinities were determined essentially as described earlier ( van galen et al , mol pharmacol 45 ( 1994 ) 1101 ). briefly , assays were performed in 50 / 10 / 1 buffer ( 50 mm tris / 10 mm mgcl 2 / 1 mm ethylenediaminetetra - acetic acid ( edta ) and 0 . 01 % 3 -([ 3 - cholamidopropyl ]- dimethylammonio )- 1 - propanesulfonate ( chaps )) in glass tubes and contained 50 μl of a hek 293 cell membrane suspension ( 10 - 30 μg ), 25 μl [ 125 i ] ab meca ( final concentration 0 . 15 nm ), and 25 μl of ligand . incubations were carried out for 1 hr at 37 ° c . and were terminated by rapid filtration over whatman gf / b filters , using a brandell cell harvester ( brandell , gaithersburg , md .). tubes were washed three times with 3 ml of buffer . radioactivity was determined in a beckman 5500b γ - counter . nonspecific binding was determined in the presence of 10 − 5 m r - pia . camp assay a 2a . cho cells expressing human adenosine a 2a receptors were grown overnight as a monolayer in 24 wells tissue culture plates ( 400 μl / well ; 2 × 10 5 cells / well ). camp generation was performed in dulbecco &# 39 ; s modified eagles medium ( dmem )/ n - 2 - hydroxyethylpiperazin - n ′- 2 - ethanesulfonic acid ( hepes ) buffer ( 0 . 60 g hepes / 50 ml dmem ph 7 . 4 ). to each well , washed three times with dmem / hepes buffer ( 250 μl ), 100 μl dmem / hepes buffer , 100 μl adenosine deaminase ( final concentration 5 iu / ml ) and 100 μl of a mixture of rolipram and cilostamide ( final concentration 50 μm each ) were added . after incubation for 40 minutes at 37 ° c ., 100 μl agonist was added . after 15 minutes at 37 ° c ., the reaction was terminated by removing the medium and adding 200 μl 0 . 1 m hcl . wells were stored at − 20 ° c . until assay . camp assay a 3 . cho cells expressing the human adenosine a 3 receptor were grown overnight as a monolayer in 24 wells tissue culture plates ( 400 μl / well ; 2 × 10 5 cells / well ). camp generation was performed in dulbecco &# 39 ; s modified eagles medium ( dmem )/ n - 2 - hydroxyethylpiperazin - n ′- 2 - ethansulfonic acid ( hepes ) buffer ( 0 . 60 g hepes / 50 ml dmem ph 7 . 4 ). to each well , washed three times with dmem / hepes buffer ( 250 μl ), 100 μl adenosine deaminase ( final concentration 5 iu / ml ), 100 μl of a mixture of rolipram and cilostamide ( final concentration 50 μm each ) and 100 μl agonist ( final concentration approx . 100 × the k i value ) were added . after incubation for 40 minutes at 37 ° c ., 100 μl forskolin ( final concentration 10 □ m ) was added . after 15 minutes at 37 ° c ., the reaction was terminated by removing the medium and adding 200 μl 0 . 1 m hcl . wells were stored at − 20 ° c . until assay . the amounts of camp were determined after a protocol with camp binding protein 36 with the following minor modifications . as a buffer was used 150 mm k 2 hpo 4 / 10 mm edta / 0 . 2 % bovine serum albumine ( bsa ) at ph 7 . 5 . samples ( 20 μl + 30 μl 0 . 1 m hcl ) were incubated for at least 2 . 5 hours at 0 ° c . before filtration over whatman gf / b filters . filters were additionally rinsed with 2 × 2 ml trishcl buffer ( ph 7 . 4 , 4 ° c .). filters were counted in packard emulsifier safe scintillation fluid ( 3 . 5 ml ) after 24 hours of extraction . data analysis . apparent k i and ec 50 values were computed from the displacement curves by non - linear regression of the competition curves with the software package prism ( graph pad , san diego , calif .). b percentage of inhibition of forskolin - induced ( 10 μm ) camp production , compared to cl - ib - meca . in parentheses the concentration at which concentration the effect was determined ( μm , approx . 100 x k i value ); eae is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the nervous system , which serves as a model for multiple sclerosis ( ms ). eae was induced by intradermal injection at the base of the tail of female lewis rats ( 8 weeks old ) with an emulsion consisting of the following for each rat : 100 μg myelin basic protein ( mbp ) from guinea pig ( m2295 ; sigma ), 0 . 1 ml complete freund &# 39 ; s adjuvant ( cfa ; f5506 , sigma ), and 0 . 2 mg of mycobacterium tuberculosis h37 ra ( m . tuberculosis , 3114 , difco ). the emulsion was injected in two halves into the medial footpad of each hind limb of the rats . cf402 treatment ( 10 μg / kg , po , bid ) started at day 7 after disease induction . the rats developed clinical eae symptoms which were graded into the following categories : 0 , no neurological symptoms ; 1 , loss of tail tonus and paralysis of the whole tail ; 2 , hind limbs weakness ; 3 , hind limbs paralysis ; 4 , quadriplegia ; 5 , moribund . the immunized rats developed acute monophasic eae within 10 days after immunization . a remarkably low clinical score in the cf402 treated group in comparison to the control group was noted . the difference in the maximal clinical score between the cf402 and the control groups was significant with p & lt ; 0 . 01 using the student &# 39 ; s t test ( fig1 ). examination of a protein extract from the spinal cord of the cf402 treated and untreated rats indicated down - regulation in the level of the pro - inflammatory cytokine tnf - α in the cf402 treated group and up - regulation in the anti - inflammatory cytokine il - 10 . also , a decrease in the phosphorylated gsk - 3β protein expression level was observed in the cf402 treated group , indicating the induction of an apoptotic process in the diseased cells ( fig2 ). eae was induced by common myelin - associated proteins , mog peptide ( 35 - 55 ) in female , c57b1 mice ( 6 - 8 weeks ). the encephalitogenic emulsion containing mog ( 300 μg / mouse ) in complete freund &# 39 ; s adjuvant enriched with 5 mg / ml mycobacterium tuberculosis was injected subcutaneously in the right flank of the mouse . a boost of the encephalitogenic emulsion was injected subcutaneously in the left flank one week later . also , on the day of the first injection of mog , pertussis toxin ( 300 ng / mouse ) was injected intraperitoneally at a volume dose of 0 . 1 ml / mouse . the injection of the pertussis toxin was repeated after 48 hours . the mice were observed daily from the 10 th day post - eae induction ( first injection of mog ) and the eae clinical signs were scored as follows :. 0 — no neurological signs ; 1 — distal limp tail : 1 . 5 — complete limp tail ; 2 — difficulties to return on feet when laid on the back ; 3 — ataxia ; 4 — early paralysis ; 5 — full paralysis ; 6 — moribund / death . oral treatment with cf402 started at day 7 after disease induction . the clinical score was monitored daily starting with the appearance of neurological signs . immunization of c57bl / 6j female mice with mog resulted in clinical signs of eae . cf402 treatment inhibited the development of the clinical signs by 40 % in comparison to the control group ( fig3 ). colitis induced by dextran sodium sulfate is a murine model of intestinal inflammation that resembles human inflammatory bowel diseases such as crohn &# 39 ; s disease . male balb / c mice , 8 weeks of age were fed for 7 days , with 5 % dextran sulfate sodium in distilled water throughout the experiments . cf402 was introduced at a dosage of 10 μg / kg , po , bid starting day 4 after disease induction . weight loss and survival were monitored . treatment of balb / c mice with 5 % dextran sulfate sodium ( dss ) in their drinking water for 7 days resulted in clinical and histological signs of colitis . dss treated mice had a marked weight loss . the cf402 treated mice had a reduced weight loss in comparison to the control ( fig4 ). thus , cf402 treatment protected the dss treated mice from the clinical signs of colitis . 1 . van der wenden , e . m ., camielli , m ., roelen , h . c . p . f ., lorenzen , a ., von frijtag drabbe künzel , j . k ., ijzerman , a . p , j . med . chem ., 1998 , 41 , 102 - 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