Opinion ID: 553870
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: the informer's privilege

Text: 8 The Federal Grand Jury performs the dual function of determining if there is probable cause to believe that a crime has been committed and of protecting citizens against unfounded criminal prosecutions. Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665, 92 S.Ct. 2646, 33 L.Ed.2d 626 (1972) (footnote omitted). Accordingly, the grand jury is vested with broad subpoena powers not otherwise permitted outside the grand jury context. In re Matter of Walsh, 623 F.2d 489, 492 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 994, 101 S.Ct. 531, 66 L.Ed.2d 291 (1980). However, that power is not unlimited; the grand jury may not use its authority to violate a valid privilege, whether established by the Constitution, statutes, or the common law. United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. 338, 346, 94 S.Ct. 613, 619, 38 L.Ed.2d 561 (1974). Therefore, in the posture of this appeal, we must determine whether enforcement of the grand jury subpoena would violate the City of Detroit's privilege to withhold from disclosure the identity of criminal informers. See United States v. Sharp, 778 F.2d 1182 (6th Cir.1985), cert. denied, 475 U.S. 1030, 106 S.Ct. 1234, 89 L.Ed.2d 342 (1986) (discussing application of informer's privilege in the Sixth Circuit). 9 The informer's privilege is a creature of the common law designed to provide the government with a qualified immunity to withhold from disclosure the identity of individuals who furnish information of criminal activity to law enforcement officials. McCray v. Illinois, 386 U.S. 300, 308-09, 87 S.Ct. 1056, 1061, 18 L.Ed.2d 62 (1967). See also 8 Wigmore, Evidence Sec. 2374 (McNaughton rev. 1961). The privilege was created to protect the public's interest in effective law enforcement through the maintenance of the Government's channels of communication by shielding the identity of an informer from those who would have cause to resent his conduct. Roviaro v. United States, 353 U.S. 53, 60 n. 8, 77 S.Ct. 623, 627 n. 8, 1 L.Ed.2d 639 (1957). The privilege, however, is not absolute; concern for the rights of criminal defendants requires that the privilege give way where the informer's identity is relevant and helpful to the defense of an accused, or is essential to a fair determination of a cause[.] Id. at 60-61, 77 S.Ct. at 628. In determining whether disclosure is justified, the precepts of fundamental fairness require a balancing of 10 the public interest in protecting the flow of information against the individual's right to prepare his defense. Whether a proper balance renders nondisclosure erroneous must depend on the particular circumstances of each case, taking into consideration the crime charged, the possible defenses, the possible significance of the informer's testimony, and other relevant factors. 11 Id. at 62, 77 S.Ct. at 629. 12 As an evidentiary privilege, the informer's privilege is not to be expansively construed to excuse an individual's testimonial obligation because such privileges create an inherent tension with society's legitimate interest in complete disclosure of the truth. United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683, 710 n. 18, 94 S.Ct. 3090, 3108 n. 18, 41 L.Ed.2d 1039 (1974). This tension is magnified within the unique setting of a grand jury. To ensure that the grand jury may properly fulfill its investigatory function, a privilege must be applied only to the extent necessary to effectuate its purpose. Fisher v. United States, 425 U.S. 391, 403, 96 S.Ct. 1569, 1577, 48 L.Ed.2d 39 (1976). 13 The City of Detroit's assertion that the facts of this case require the application of the informer's privilege to ensure effective law enforcement strikes this court as disingenuous. This is not a typical case in which the prosecution seeks to withhold the identity of an informer who, unknown to the defendant, has revealed information about underlying criminal transactions to law enforcement officials. Rather, this is a case where the target of a grand jury investigation seeks to thwart inquiry into its own possible corruption by claiming the informer's privilege. Such a finding would not protect the identity of an informer from those who would have cause to resent his conduct, but rather would shield allegedly corrupt governmental bodies from investigatory scrutiny, thus distorting, rather than preserving, the valid interests protected by the informer's privilege. 14 Indeed, in this context, disclosure of an informant's identity within the secret confines of the grand jury proceedings is entirely consistent with the purposes underlying the informer's privilege. Disclosure to the grand jury will protect the public's interest in the integrity of the law enforcement establishment, while neither subjecting the informer to those who might resent his conduct nor permitting widespread dissemination of the underlying information. 15 The City of Detroit argues that should this Court require Witness to answer questions regarding confidential informers, sources of information will dry up on the streets as informers fear exposure, especially in a case such as this where the shield of grand jury secrecy has been penetrated. 1 It contends that the aftermath will be a devastating loss of police effectiveness. We cannot accept this argument, as the Supreme Court has denied a similar claim in the analogous area of the media source privilege. Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665, 92 S.Ct. 2646, 33 L.Ed.2d 626 (1972). See Developments in the Law--Privileged Communications, 98 Harv.L.Rev. 1450, 1596-1609 (1985) (comparing informer's and media-source privileges). In Branzburg, the Court rejected the argument that the denial of a constitutionally based media source privilege would irreparably damage the business of news gathering, stating: 16 The argument that the flow of news will be diminished by compelling reporters to aid the grand jury in a criminal investigation is not irrational, ... but the evidence fails to demonstrate that there would be a significant constriction of the flow of news to the public if this Court reaffirms the prior common-law and constitutional rule regarding the testimonial obligations of newsmen.... Reliance by the press on confidential informants does not mean that all such sources will in fact dry up because of the later possible appearance of the newsman before the grand jury.... [W]e cannot accept the argument that the public interest in possible future news about crime from undisclosed, unverified sources must take precedence over the public interest in pursuing and prosecuting those crimes reported to the press by informants and in thus deterring the commission of such crimes in the future. 17 408 U.S. at 693-95, 92 S.Ct. at 2662-63. 18 Given the practical effect Branzburg has had upon the information market, we have no doubt that adequate information will remain available to local police if this Court allows the federal grand jury access to criminal informers. In their investigation of possibly corrupt local practices, federal officials have an equal incentive to preserve a network of confidential informers as they are themselves experienced in dealing with informers, and have their own methods for protecting them without interference with the effective administration of justice. Id. at 695, 92 S.Ct. at 2663. 19 As to the City of Detroit's argument that the privilege should be extended because of leaks from the grand jury, we find the better course is to rely on the power of the presiding judge to employ procedures designed to eliminate the unauthorized disclosure of secret information. See In re: Matter of Archuleta, 561 F.2d 1059, 1064 (2d Cir.1977). 20 The City of Detroit has not brought a single case to the attention of this Court which would uphold an assertion of the privilege by a target of a grand jury investigation or a criminal defendant. In part, this failure must be based on the principle that such parties do not hold an informer's privilege because [t]he privilege of the prosecution to refuse to disclose the identity of an informant is an important and somewhat unique concession to the prosecution.... United States v. Ybarra, 430 F.2d 1230, 1233-34 (9th Cir.1970), cert. denied, 400 U.S. 1023, 91 S.Ct. 589, 27 L.Ed.2d 636 (1971) (emphasis added). But cf. Holman v. Cayce, 873 F.2d 944 (6th Cir.1989) (permitting civil defendant police officer to assert informer's privilege in Sec. 1983 action). Because the City of Detroit stands not in the role of the prosecutor, but in that of the accused, we agree with the district court that the City has not borne its burden of demonstrating that the matters under inquiry fall within the confines of the informer's privilege. Matter of Certain Complaints Under Investigation, 783 F.2d 1488, 1520 (11th Cir.), cert. denied, 477 U.S. 904, 106 S.Ct. 3273, 91 L.Ed.2d 563 (1986). Accordingly, we hold the informer's privilege to be inapplicable to state or local governments seeking to withhold information from federal grand juries, thus compelling Witness's compliance with a duly issued grand jury subpoena and dismissing the City of Detroit from these proceedings as it no longer has any claim or interest in the outcome.