Opinion ID: 1296847
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 4

Heading: Count 3 Andrea Levine

Text: Andrea Levine rented a basement apartment in the home of Robert Hays and his wife. On Thursday, August 30, 1990, Hays saw Levine after she returned from work. Later that evening, Levine met her boyfriend at a Kirkland restaurant, where the two discussed plans to go to the San Juan Islands. Levine declined a ride and drove herself home to pack at about 1:30 a.m. Hays and his wife awoke on Friday morning at about 5 a.m. Hays opened the back door to let their dog out. The dog began barking wildly. Hays stepped out to investigate and saw a dark figure about 25 to 30 feet away. It was dark and Hays could see only an adult with a white form, approximately two-thirds of the width of the person, on or in front of the individual's abdomen. Hays called out and the person fled. Hays chased the person a short distance but stopped because he was unarmed. He called the police who examined the yard but did not check Levine's apartment. The following Monday, Hays' wife entered Levine's apartment because one of Levine's cats appeared hungry. As she walked down the hallway, she smelled something like old blood coming from the bedroom. She opened the door and discovered Levine's body. Levine was on her back, on the bed. Her face was turned toward her left shoulder. Her legs were spread with knees straight. Her right arm extended above her shoulder while her left arm rested by her side. Under Levine's left forearm was the book More Joy of Sex. A plastic dildo was partially inserted into Levine's mouth. The medical examiner determined that Levine had died from severe multiple head wounds inflicted with an object such as an iron bar. Levine's body was covered with postmortem stab wounds. Forensic evidence revealed the presence of a single negroid pubic hair at the crime scene. This hair could not be matched to any samples taken from Russell, although Russell could not be excluded, either. No fingerprints could be found, suggesting to the police that someone had wiped the scene down. Verbatim Report on Appeal, at 5286, 5304-05. At trial the State presented evidence showing that Russell knew Levine. On one occasion, Levine's boyfriend drove her home in her truck and Russell followed in the boyfriend's car. A few weeks later, Russell and some friends drove out to Renton to help Levine put a new battery in her truck. Russell rode back to Kirkland with Levine. On a third occasion, Levine was at a bar and Russell came over to talk. After Levine's murder Russell made disparaging remarks about her, stating that she slept around, that she used men, and that she was a whore. Verbatim Report on Appeal, at 5464. On the Labor Day weekend after Levine was killed, Russell and some friends went to Canada. On August 30, the night before they left, the group stayed at a motel. Russell left during the night dressed in dark pants, white tennis shoes, a dark blue sweatshirt, and a dark cap. He said something about going to work. He returned at about 6 a.m. wearing the same clothing. Russell did not have a car. Levine lived about a mile from the motel by car, but the walking distance was shorter. A friend of Russell's testified that she received a ring from Russell several days after Labor Day. She wore the ring several times and then gave it to a friend who pawned it. The police later retrieved the ring from the pawnshop. Levine's sister-in-law identified the ring as one that she had given to Levine. Police brought the ring to a jewelry store where an employee identified it as one he had worked on for Levine in February 1990. The owner of the jewelry store also testified that Levine had brought the ring in to be worked on. Russell was arrested 8 days after Levine's murder based on some outstanding misdemeanor warrants. After interviewing Russell, the police charged him with the murders of Mary Ann Pohlreich, Carol Beethe, and Andrea Levine. Russell raises several issues in this appeal. Other facts will be discussed where relevant to the issue presented.
Russell first challenges the trial court's conclusion that PCR testing of DNA has gained sufficient scientific acceptance to admit the results of such testing in court. The PCR tests pertained to count 1, and were conducted on a vaginal swab taken from Mary Ann Pohlreich's body and a piece of stained upholstery removed from Smith McLain's truck. Before discussing the results of those tests and their admissibility, it is useful to briefly outline the PCR identification process. Our discussion is taken from Thomas M. Fleming, Annotation, Admissibility of DNA Identification Evidence, 84 A.L.R.4th 313 (1991) unless otherwise noted. DNA identification techniques are based on a system of premises concerning the nature and function of the DNA molecule, a long, threadlike structure resembling a twisted ladder packed into the chromosomes in every nucleated cell. Each side of the ladder is composed of a chain of sugars and phosphates, while the rungs attached to them, approximately 3 billion in number, consist of pairs of molecules called bases  adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine  each of which bonds with only one of the others. The particular order of the four bases along the DNA molecule constitutes a genetic code which governs the production of proteins making up the organism. While most sections of this chain of bases are largely the same among individuals within a given species, certain sections are variable or polymorphic, meaning that they may take different forms in different individuals. A gene, which is the sequence of bases responsible for producing a particular protein, thus may be polymorphic, having two or more possible variations called alleles. Fleming, at 319. Because of polymorphism in human genetic structure, no two individuals (except for identical twins) have identical base sequences throughout their DNA, although no one's base sequence within a particular section is absolutely unique. Moreover, a given person's DNA is the same in every nucleated cell in the body, whether from hair follicles, blood, semen, or other tissues, and remains the same throughout life, barring rare mutations. These are the qualities that make possible the identification of a specific person, to the practical exclusion of others, through analysis of his or her DNA. Fleming, at 319-20. The two kinds of DNA tests most commonly used for identification are restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. PCR is the test at issue here. One microbiologist has described PCR as a genetic photocopy machine. Kamrin T. MacKnight, Comment, The Polymerase Chain Reaction on (PCR): The Second Generation of DNA Analysis Methods Takes the Stand, 9 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 287, 304 (1993). [1] The PCR amplification system takes advantage of the natural DNA replication system and manipulates it to the advantage of the analyst to produce many millions of DNA copies. MacKnight, at 304. In the PCR procedure, DNA is extracted from a sample, purified, and added to a buffer solution containing chemical primers and an enzyme called Taq polymerase. MacKnight, at 305. The solution is then placed in a heating device called a thermal cycler which cycles it through several successive temperature plateaus. After 30 or 40 of these cycles, the DNA has become denatured and the primers have annealed to it, identifying a gene of interest which will have been replicated or amplified by the enzyme billions of times. Fleming, at 323. In a procedure called the reverse dot-blot process, the amplified DNA is flooded over a nylon membrane onto which have been dotted a number of allele-specific probes, each designed to recognize one variant of the gene of interest. [2] Fleming, at 323. This may result in a color reaction and a visible dot on the membrane wherever a probe has identified one of the alleles. To determine whether two samples could have come from the same person, the analyst checks whether they have produced the same pattern of dots. If one sample produces a dot in response to a probe to which the other did not react, the samples could not have a common source. Fleming, at 323. The AmpliType DQ alpha test kit is one of the few PCR test systems sufficiently developed for forensic use, and was used to conduct the PCR tests in this case. See MacKnight, at 307. This kit was developed by the Cetus Corporation and will be referred to hereafter as the Cetus kit. The Cetus kit uses probes that identify the six different alleles present in the HLA DQ alpha genetic marker system. (HLA stands for the human leukocyte antigen system. Leukocytes are white blood cells; antigens are proteins.) The six alleles present in this system are denominated as 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2, 3, and 4. These alleles are combined in pairs in each person, because one is received from each parent. There are 21 possible pairs of these traits, and each pairing is called a genotype. Fleming, at 323. If the DQ alpha genotype of a suspect is different from that of the evidence sample, the suspect presumably is excluded as the donor of the evidence. Unlike matches or inclusions, exclusions are independent of the frequencies of the genotype in the population. MacKnight, at 310. If the suspect and evidence have the same genotype, then the suspect is included as a possible source of the evidence sample. The probability that another, unrelated, individual would also match the evidence is equal to the frequency of that genotype in the relevant population. MacKnight, at 310. PCR testing at the DQ alpha locus provides a power of discrimination of approximately 83 to 94 percent. MacKnight, at 312. This compares favorably to that of the ABO red cell typing system. By itself, however, PCR testing can neither provide individual identification nor the very high power of discrimination possible with RFLP methods of DNA typing. MacKnight, at 311. PCR analysis has proved useful, though, in including or excluding criminal suspects in circumstances where conventional typing has failed or insufficient DNA was available for RFLP testing. RFLP analysis requires relatively large samples of DNA, whereas PCR testing is capable of analyzing minute and degraded samples. MacKnight, at 297-98, 312. Other advantages of the PCR technique are that it takes much less time to achieve results than RFLP, is less expensive, and achieves results that are easier to interpret. State v. Williams, 252 N.J. Super. 369, 379-80, 599 A.2d 960 (1991). The PCR test results in this case indicated that the sperm on the vaginal swab contained Russell's DQ alpha genotype, and that the DQ alpha type recovered from the blood-stained upholstery was consistent with Pohlreich's blood but inconsistent with Russell's and McLain's. Prosecution witnesses concluded that Russell's DQ alpha genotype occurs in approximately 5 to 10 percent of the population. Therefore, 90 to 95 percent of the population (but not Russell) could be excluded as sources of the sperm in Pohlreich's body. Since Pohlreich's DQ alpha genotype is shared by 4 to 9 percent of the population, approximately 91 to 96 percent of the population (including Russell), could be excluded as sources of the bloodstain in McLain's truck. This exclusion was significant since Russell had told McLain that his (Russell's) vomit was the source of the upholstery stain. [1-3] The trial court admitted these test results after a lengthy pretrial Frye hearing. Under the Frye standard for novel evidence, scientific evidence will be admitted only if it is generally accepted in the relevant scientific community. See Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013, 1014, 34 A.L.R. 145 (D.C. Cir.1923). This court recently reaffirmed the Frye standard when it held RFLP evidence admissible in State v. Cauthron, 120 Wn.2d 879, 886, 846 P.2d 502 (1993). [3] The core concern of Frye is whether the evidence being offered is based on an established scientific methodology. This involves both an accepted theory and general acceptance of the technique used to implement that theory. Cauthron, at 889. The Frye inquiry does not require acceptance of the laboratory testing procedures used in the case before the court. Cauthron, at 889. If the methodology is sufficiently accepted in the scientific community at large, concerns about the possibility of error or mistakes made in the case at hand can be argued to the factfinder. Cauthron, at 889. This reference to the scientific community at large is important  a court looks not only to the technique's acceptance in the forensic setting but also to its acceptance by the wider scientific community familiar with the theory and underlying technique. See Cauthron, at 896-97; Williams, at 381. Under Frye, the court looks for general acceptance in the appropriate scientific community, that is, acceptance by the community of scientists familiar with the challenged theory. See Cauthron, at 887; People v. Young, 425 Mich. 470, 481, 391 N.W.2d 270 (1986) (ideal community would be scientists with direct empirical experience with the procedure in question). Furthermore, Frye requires only general acceptance, not full acceptance, of novel scientific methods. This only makes sense since full acceptance would obviate the necessity of a Frye hearing. The court's review is de novo. See Cauthron, at 887. During the 2-week Frye hearing in this case, the State introduced four experts to support its position that PCR analysis meets the scientific acceptance required by Frye. These experts included Dr. Rebecca Reynolds, a Cetus employee; Dr. Daniel Geraghty, a molecular geneticist employed by Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center; Dr. Cecelia Von Beroldingen, forensic DNA specialist at the Oregon state police crime laboratory; and Dr. Edward Blake of Forensic Science Associates, a forensic serologist who conducted the PCR tests at issue. The defense presented Dr. John Gerdes, DNA analysis director at Immunological Associates of Denver; Dr. Kristen Skogerboe, a clinical chemist at the Laboratory of Pathology; and Dr. Glenn Evans, associate molecular laboratory professor at the Salk Institute. Dr. Reynolds acknowledged that PCR testing received attention first from biomedical researchers, but she added that over 30 laboratories were either in the process of implementing DQ alpha typing, using the Cetus kit, or already using it on casework. She regarded the PCR technique as a useful and reliable source of genetic markers. Dr. Von Beroldingen also testified to the growing use of the Cetus kit by both private and governmental laboratories. She further stated that the forensic application of PCR testing in this case met with generally accepted scientific principles and practices. Dr. Daniel Geraghty testified that PCR analysis was the major technical development of the last 10 years in molecular immunology and that it met with no pockets of resistance. He saw no serious dispute regarding the scientific principles involved in PCR testing. Fred Hutchinson uses the Cetus kit to help determine compatibility for bone marrow transplants. The same technology is used by Dr. Blake and Fred Hutchinson, with the only difference being the method of seeing the result. Dr. Blake uses an enzymatic color change which turns blue if the enzyme is present, while Fred Hutchinson uses a chemifluorescent method. Dr. Geraghty described them both as perfectly reasonable and well established methods. Verbatim Report on Appeal, at 216. Dr. Geraghty also uses the dot-blot method described earlier while the Cetus kit employs the reverse dot-blot method. He stated that Dr. Blake's use of the reverse method, with its lower likelihood of error, made perfect sense. Verbatim Report on Appeal, at 220. Fred Hutchinson uses the same amplification method as Dr. Blake, with all reagents coming from Cetus, and also has approximately 50 thermal cyclers, which the doctor termed very reliable. Verbatim Report on Appeal, at 217. Dr. Geraghty stated that PCR was now used by almost every molecular biologist in the world, and added that he had heard no criticisms of the Cetus kit. Dr. Geraghty said that Dr. Blake's tests in this case were conducted properly and he expressed confidence in the results even though Dr. Blake conducted only one test on the swab. (The bloodstain sample was performed in triplicate.) [4] Defense expert Dr. John Gerdes testified that while RFLP has been used by research labs for 15 to 20 years, PCR is a newer method. Dr. Gerdes felt it was too early for the Cetus kit to produce reasonable results in a forensic setting because of the danger of typing a contaminant, the low power of discrimination, and the lack of independent validation of laboratories other than Dr. Blake's. On cross examination, Dr. Gerdes stated that he saw no evidence of contamination in the present case. Dr. Skogerboe was concerned that insufficient validation studies had been performed on the use of the Cetus kit for crime-scene evidence. On cross examination, however, she acknowledged that her current laboratory had been using PCR on clinical samples for diagnosis for 1 1/2 years, and she regarded the benefits of using PCR as outweighing any problems associated with the test. Dr. Evans regarded the Cetus kit as unreliable for use in a forensic setting. He added, however, that he believed PCR analysis would revolutionize society, particularly forensics, and saw no resistance to the techniques of enzymatic amplification of DNA in general. Verbatim Report on Appeal, at 1546, 1549. Following this testimony, the trial judge found the results of PCR testing at the HLA DQ alpha locus admissible under the Frye standard. The judge found that the underlying principle and techniques of PCR had been generally accepted by the scientific community, and added that DQ alpha testing and typing had gone sufficiently beyond the experimental stage to gain general acceptance in the scientific community. She observed further that the DQ alpha gene has been subjected to considerable scientific study, especially in the fields of immunology and medicine. The variations of the gene are well known, readily identified, and easily distinguished, making this gene an appropriate genetic marker for forensic use. She also noted that the population frequencies of the various genotypes occurring at the DQ alpha locus were not contested. The judge concluded that the fact that a scientific procedure might yield a false result if not performed properly did not render it inadmissible and that any problems associated with PCR testing at the DQ alpha locus went to the weight to be given the evidence. On appeal, Russell challenges these conclusions, and argues that the State failed to demonstrate that PCR analysis has gone through the extended period of use and testing in the forensic community necessary to achieve the general scientific acceptance required under the Frye standard. Russell derives most of his support for this position from a recent report prepared by the Committee on DNA Technology in Forensic Science, under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences. The Committee was formed in 1990 to address the general applicability and appropriateness of the use of DNA technology in forensic science, the need to develop standards for data collection and analysis, aspects of the technology, management of DNA typing data, and legal, societal and ethical issues surrounding DNA typing. Nat'l Research Coun., DNA Technology in Forensic Science 1-2 (1992) (hereinafter DNA Technology ). While most of the resulting report focuses on the RFLP method of DNA identification, it also discusses the PCR technique. The Committee found no scientific dispute about the validity of the general principles underlying DNA typing. DNA Technology, at 51. The Committee apparently found less agreement, however, over whether a given DNA method might be scientifically appropriate for forensic use. Before a method can be accepted as valid for forensic use, it must be rigorously characterized in both research and forensic settings to determine the circumstances under which it will and will not yield reliable results. DNA Technology, at 51-52. The basic thrust of the report was the need to standardize forensic DNA typing to the extent possible (realizing that the lack of control over crime-scene evidence makes standardization problematic). To achieve such standardization, the report recommended quality-assurance programs, individual certification, laboratory accreditation, and state or federal regulation. DNA Technology, at 16. With regard to PCR testing, the Committee observed that one commercial kit for forensic PCR analysis has been marketed. DNA Technology, at 69. While the report voiced no criticisms of the existing kit, it saw a potential for the introduction of unreliable kits and the misuse of kits. The committee believes that nonexpert laboratories will run a significant chance of error in using kits. We therefore recommend that a standing committee . .. consider the issue of regulatory approval of kits for commercial use in forensic DNA analysis. Even though no precedent exists for regulation of tests in forensic applications, we believe that it might be necessary for a government agency to test and approve kits for DNA analysis before their actual forensic use. DNA Technology, at 69. The report then summarized its findings regarding the forensic use of PCR analysis: PCR analysis is extremely powerful in medical technology, but it has not yet achieved full acceptance in the forensic setting. The theory of PCR analysis ... is scientifically accepted and has been accepted by a number of courts. However, most forensic laboratories have invested their energy in development of RFLP technology and have left the development of forensic PCR technology to a few other laboratories. Thus, there is no broad base of experience in the use of the technique in identity testing. Forensic PCR-based testing is now limited for the most part to analysis of genetic variation at the DQ locus in the HLA complex.... ... [F]urther experience should be gained with respect to PCR in identity testing. Information on the extent of the contamination problem in PCR analysis and the differential amplification of mixed samples needs to be further developed and published. A great deal of this information can be obtained when a number of polymorphic systems are available for PCR analysis.... ... Considerable advances in the use of PCR in forensic analysis can be expected soon; the method has enormous promise. DNA Technology, at 70. Russell points to this language as evidence of the lack of general scientific acceptance of PCR testing. In a subsequent chapter on the use of DNA in the legal system, however, the report acknowledges the admissibility of DNA evidence, without distinguishing between the PCR and RFLP methodology, so long as the precautions outlined are taken (as discussed later in this opinion): It is not necessary, at this stage of development of DNA typing, to hold extensive admissibility hearings on the general validity of the scientific techniques, although cases will still arise in which the procedures used to report a match will be questioned. .... As a general matter, so long as the safeguards we discuss in this report are followed, admissibility of DNA typing should be encouraged. There is no substantial dispute about the underlying scientific principles. However, the adequacy of laboratory procedures and of the competence of the experts who testify should remain open to inquiry. DNA Technology, at 145-46. The report's message regarding the forensic use of DNA typing has been interpreted contrarily to Russell's position both by experts in the scientific community and a number of court decisions. On April 14, 1992, a New York Times article stated that courts should cease to admit DNA evidence until laboratory standards have been tightened and the technique is established on a stronger scientific basis. Gina Kolata, U.S. Panel Seeking Restriction on Use of DNA in Courts, N.Y. Times, Apr. 14, 1992, at A1. In response, the chairman of the DNA Committee stated that `[w]e think that DNA can be used in court without interruption.' Gina Kolata, Chief Says Panel Backs Courts' Use of a Genetic Test, N.Y. Times, Apr. 15, 1992, at A1. A statement included in the Committee's final report referred to the Times articles and provided this clarification: We recommend that the use of DNA analysis for forensic purposes, including the resolution of both criminal and civil cases, be continued while improvements and changes suggested in this report are being made. There is no need for a general moratorium on the use of the results of DNA typing either in investigation or in the courts. We regard the accreditation and proficiency testing of DNA typing laboratories as essential to the scientific accuracy, reliability, and acceptability of DNA typing evidence in the future. Laboratories involved in forensic DNA typing should move quickly to establish quality-assurance programs. After a sufficient time for implementation of quality-assurance programs has passed, courts should view quality control as necessary for general acceptance. DNA Technology, at x. A California Court of Appeal described the final National Research Council report as concluding that there is indeed a need for standardization of laboratory procedures and proficiency testing (as well as appropriate accreditation of laboratories) to assure the quality of DNA laboratory analysis. People v. Barney, 8 Cal. App. 4th 798, 812, 10 Cal. Rptr.2d 731 (1992). The absence of such safeguards does not mean, however, that DNA analysis is not generally accepted. Rather, the question becomes whether a laboratory has complied with generally accepted standards in a given case. Barney, at 812-13. The Colorado State Supreme Court also concluded that concerns about the forensic use of a given scientific theory bear on the weight accorded DNA typing evidence rather than its admissibility. Fishback v. People, 851 P.2d 884, 893 (Colo. 1993); see also FBI, The FBI's Responses to Recommendations by the NRC's Committee on DNA Technology in Forensic Science, 19 Crime Laboratory Dig. 49, 69 (1992) (issue of correct application of a valid scientific technique such as DNA analysis in a particular case is a question of fact and matter of weight which should be decided by jury). Similarly, a federal district court held that concerns about the forensic applications of RFLP did not bar its admissibility in United States v. Jakobetz, 747 F. Supp. 250, 256-58 (D. Vt. 1990), aff'd, 955 F.2d 786 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 113 S.Ct. 104 (1992). In addition to citing the DNA Technology report, Russell points more specifically to the absence of accreditation of forensic laboratories, the lack of published literature and professional testing of PCR, and the small number of forensic laboratories doing PCR work to demonstrate that PCR testing has not yet endured sufficient scientific analysis for general acceptance and thus admissibility under Frye. As we evaluate these challenges it is important to reiterate that our inquiry is not confined to an examination of PCR testing in the forensic laboratory setting. Rather, we are concerned with the extent of peer review and acceptance as manifested in the general scientific community. PCR analysis is in routine use in many settings. PCR testing has been used in HIV detection and diagnosis; in identifying microorganisms in the aquatic environment, as well as in food, dairy, soil, and clinical samples; in neonatal screening for cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia; in detecting chromosomal abnormalities and mutations; in gene replacement therapy; in human pedigree analysis; in studying the epidemiology of Lyme disease; and in the new fields of molecular anthropology and molecular paleontology. PCR analysis also is being used to monitor environmental contamination, to establish the new field of diagnostic molecular pathology, and to help identify those killed in the Persian Gulf War. MacKnight, at 302-04. In this case, Dr. Geraghty testified for the State that PCR is used by nearly every molecular biologist in the world, and defense expert Dr. Evans stated that he saw no resistance to the techniques of enzymatic amplification in general. Moreover, we do not agree with Russell's contention that only a few forensic laboratories are using PCR analysis. Cetus reported that over 30 forensic labs were performing DQ alpha typing as of March 1991. MacKnight, at 319. (The same article listed five forensic labs as actually performing RFLP and stated that because of its difficulty, RFLP was best performed in research labs.) MacKnight, at 295. Cetus also reports that the FBI began using the Cetus kit in 1992. AmpliType HLA DQ-Alpha Forensic DNA Typing Customer Survey (1992). Dr. Reynolds testified that the British Home Office has adopted DQ alpha as its screening test. As of December 1989, the HLA DQ alpha typing system reportedly had been used in 106 forensic cases involving the analysis of over 1,000 evidence samples. Rhea Helmuth et al., HLA-DQ-Alpha Allele and Genotype Frequencies in Various Human Populations, Determined by Using Enzymatic Amplification and Oligonucleotide Probes, 47 Am. J. Hum. Genetics 515, 521 (1990). As of October 1991, PCR-based DQ alpha typing methods were used in biological evidence in over 250 cases. MacKnight, at 325. Russell is correct that the National Research Council report cites accreditation and governmental regulation of forensic laboratories as potential external mechanisms needed to ensure quality science. DNA Technology, at 16. However, the report also observed that no precedent exists for regulation of forensic testing. DNA Technology, at 69. Furthermore, Dr. Geraghty stated that Fred Hutchinson, a medical research institute, had not yet received accreditation to perform DNA testing. While accreditation and regulation may be desirable in the medical as well as the forensic setting, it is not necessary to bar the use of DNA technology until such safeguards are in place. Although the court is not the ideal forum for ensuring quality science, the adversary process is a means by which those who practice `bad' science may be discredited, while those who practice `good' science may enjoy the credibility they deserve. MacKnight, at 341. Russell also states that PCR testing lacks sufficient validation studies for admissibility. We disagree and conclude that extensive validation studies have been conducted on PCR testing. See MacKnight, at 344. Following repeated validation experiments, the FBI found that typing of the DQ gene by PCR and detection of specific alleles can be accomplished, when the typing is done using proper protocols, without producing false positive or false negative results. Catherine T. Comey & Bruce Budowle, Validation Studies on the Analysis of the HLA DQ Locus Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction, 36 J. Forensic Sci. 1633 (1991). An Oregon Court of Appeals found no dispute that scientific articles concerning the PCR method exist and that peer-reviewed journals publish many of the articles. State v. Lyons, 124 Or. App. 598, 608-09, 863 P.2d 1303 (1993). The court also noted that the Cetus Corporation has published a bibliography listing more than a thousand scientific articles on PCR analysis. Lyons, at 608-09; see also Williams, 252 N.J. Super.at 383 (hundreds of scientific articles supporting PCR testing). Russell next argues that the problems with using PCR in the forensic setting are so serious that this method of DNA testing fails to meet the standard of general acceptance required under Frye. The areas of concern that he identifies include differential amplification, misincorporation, and contamination. [4] Again, we note that whether these problems occur in the forensic setting does not affect the general scientific acceptance of PCR methodology. See Cauthron, at 887; Young, at 481. Rather, these problems bear on the question of the reliability of the individual test at issue as we found in Cauthron. The defendant in Cauthron cited commentaries discussing the possibilities of contaminated or degraded samples, improper enzyme applications, and human error in forensic RFLP testing. We concluded that while these problems were of concern, they did not require exclusion of RFLP evidence under Frye. Cauthron, at 898. Once the general underlying principles are accepted, as they are here, then both the proponents and opponents of a particular test should be able to garner the necessary information to present both sides of the issue to the factfinder. Any remaining questions about the reliability of the particular tests in this case should be examined under the standards for admissibility of expert testimony, which is within the trial court's discretion. Cauthron, at 898. These standards are set forth in ER 702. Under this rule, the trial court has discretion to admit expert testimony if the witness qualifies as an expert and if the expert testimony would be helpful to the trier of fact. State v. Kalakosky, 121 Wn.2d 525, 541, 852 P.2d 1064 (1993); Cauthron, at 890. It is important at this point to explain the relationship between Frye and ER 702 and how it affects this case. As stated earlier, the concern of Frye is whether the evidence being offered is based on generally accepted scientific theory and methodology. Cauthron, at 889. Frye is not concerned with the acceptance of the results of a particular study or of the particular testing procedures followed in the case before the court. Cauthron, at 889. These concerns are addressed under the ER 702 inquiry of whether the expert testimony would be helpful to the trier of fact. If the testing before the trial court shows that the testing procedure as performed was so flawed as to be unreliable, the results may be inadmissible because they are not helpful to the trier of fact. Kalakosky, at 541. If the evidence survives an ER 702 challenge, however, these questions then are considered by the trier of fact in assessing the weight to be given the evidence. See Kalakosky, at 543 (alleged infirmities in performance of test usually go to weight of evidence, not admissibility); Cauthron, at 899. The problems that Russell now raises do not affect the general acceptance of the underlying PCR methodology. The possibility that differential amplification, contamination, or misincorporation affected the test results in a given case can be assessed by a trial court pursuant to ER 702, as the following discussion illustrates. [5]
One authority sees no scientific basis for the belief that differential amplification or allelic dropout occurs with PCR testing. MacKnight, at 314. He explains that the phenomenon is possible, but improbable, as long as the equipment is properly calibrated and maintained. MacKnight, at 315. Another article concurs, concluding that the problem of allelic dropout with DQ alpha testing can be alleviated by performing the typing under appropriate conditions. Comey & Budowle, at 1633, 1647. These conditions include avoiding the front two rows of the thermal cycler and using stringent denaturation conditions. Dr. Geraghty saw no problems with allelic dropout at the DQ alpha locus, and there is no claim that it occurred during the tests at issue.
This occurs when the Taq polymerase enzyme makes mistakes in pairing the bases that form the rungs of the DNA ladder. Misincorporation occurs very rarely (once or twice every 20,000 to 1 million bases) and usually at random. Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Genetic Witness: Forensic Uses of DNA Tests 70 (1990); DNA Technology, at 64. One authority states that misincorporation does not create problems in DNA sequencing analysis or probe typing of PCR-amplified DNA ..., because the entire population of molecules is being examined, not a single molecule. Genetic Witness, at 70. The article then adds, however, that misincorporation of nucleotides could be an issue if the initial amount of DNA is minute. Genetic Witness, at 70. Because there is no way to predict which PCR assays will be subject to misincorporation, each assay must be thoroughly characterized. DNA Technology, at 64. Dr. Geraghty testified that he saw no likelihood of a false result occurring because of misincorporation since it is easily detected, and added that he had never seen misincorporation occur in the thousands of tests that have been done. Verbatim Report on Appeal, at 229-31.
This risk can be minimized by strict adherence to sterile technique; the use of separate work areas for sample processing, solution preparation, amplification, and type testing; the use of separate pipettes in each area; and maintenance of a one-way flow of materials from the evidence-storage area to the sample-preparation area to the type-testing area. DNA Technology, at 66-67. [6] (Drs. Blake and Geraghty testified to following these procedures in using the Cetus kit.) The study cited earlier conducted tests on several contaminated samples and found that the DQ amplification and typing system was relatively unaffected by various environmental insults to bloodstains. Comey & Budowle, at 1646. Moreover, the scientists found that the routine handling of evidence did not introduce contaminating DNA from the handler to the sample. Comey & Budowle, at 1646. Thus, the potential testing problems that Russell cites are either detectable or preventable. Expert witnesses may assist the trial court in determining whether the testing procedures are so flawed that exclusion of the results are warranted under ER 702. If the results are admitted, the same experts can assist the trier of fact in determining what weight to give the test results in light of the perceived problems. Adherence to proper laboratory procedure is essential in assessing the reliability of PCR test results and thus their admissibility under ER 702. As one commentator notes, it will be advisable for attorneys to be extremely familiar with the laboratory and with the person who conducts the PCR tests. Thus, if the opponent to the test procedure raises issues regarding contamination, the well-prepared proponent of the evidence should be able to counter the arguments with specific descriptions, photographs or other documentation of the care and diligence with which samples are handled and tested in the laboratory. On the other side of the fence, if the opponent of the evidence is aware of sloppy technique, the lack of controls and/or unsuitable laboratory design which could foreseeably lead to contamination, this would be an important argument against the evidence. MacKnight, at 322. [5] We see no question that the principles and methodology underlying PCR analysis at the DQ alpha locus have been generally accepted by the scientific community. [7] We hold that the Cetus kit test results in this case were the product of generally accepted scientific theory and technique and were properly admitted under Frye. In so holding, however, we caution that this conclusion by no means assures the automatic admission of PCR DQ alpha test results. Serious flaws in a given test may render PCR evidence unreliable and thus inadmissible pursuant to ER 702. In seeking to admit PCR evidence, counsel must be prepared to establish adherence to proper laboratory procedures and protocols. It is also important to note that while both parties have assumed here that Frye requires the general acceptance of the Cetus kit as well as DQ alpha testing, that is not the case. The trial court properly determined that the issue here was the admissibility of PCR testing at the DQ alpha locus. The Cetus kit is one means by which such testing is performed; there undoubtedly will be others. The Cetus kit is simply one tool for carrying out generally accepted PCR methodology, and any concerns about its implementation in a given case are matters to be addressed to the trial court under ER 702. See MacKnight, at 306; DNA Technology, at 68-69. Russell's final issue on the admissibility of the test results relates to the Cetus ties of the forensic experts in this case and the degree to which they were interested witnesses. It is true that most of the State's witnesses had some tie to Cetus. Dr. Reynolds was a Cetus employee, Dr. Von Beroldingen a former employer, and Dr. Blake a collaborator with Cetus in that he is paid by it to conduct workshops on PCR analysis. [6] A similar issue was raised in Barney, where a California Court of Appeal held that the self-interest underlying the testimony of FBI experts went to the weight to be attributed to their testimony rather than its admissibility. Barney, at 812; see also Williams, at 382 (evidence of financial rewards witness will gain from use of new scientific technique goes to jury in assessing weight to give testimony). We agree that the issue of self-interest is for the jury's consideration, and we also observe that in the case at bar, the trial court appeared most impressed by the testimony of Dr. Geraghty, who had no financial ties to Cetus.
The second issue presented is whether article 1, section 9 of the Washington State Constitution requires suppression of evidence derived from a statement that Russell gave to the police without the benefit of Miranda warnings. Bellevue police arrested Russell on an outstanding warrant in order to talk to him about the murders. Russell explained to the police how he knew Pohlreich and Levine and what he was doing at the time of their murders. He also told the police he used Smith McLain's pickup truck on the night of the Pohlreich murder. His statements led the police to two key witnesses in the Pohlreich case, McLain and his sister Shawn Calvo, and to the discovery of the bloodstains in the truck's cab. Russell's statement also included the names of a number of other witnesses and gave police enough information to eventually secure warrants authorizing the taking of samples of Russell's blood, saliva, and hair. Russell argued in pretrial hearings that the police failed to read him his Miranda rights prior to this questioning. He sought to have the trial court suppress not only the statement, but also the fruit of that statement. The trial court concluded that the questioning occurred in a custodial setting, requiring police to read Miranda warnings. Due to conflicting testimony, the court found the State had failed to prove by a preponderance that Russell had been advised of his rights. The State was not permitted to use his statement in its case in chief. The court found, however, that Russell's statement was voluntarily given and that his free will was not overborne, noting that the atmosphere in the interview room was relaxed and friendly. Clerk's Papers, at 423, 431A. Evidence also indicated that Russell had been Mirandized on previous occasions, including one occasion only 4 months before the questioning in this case. That Russell knew of his right to legal counsel was also clear since he eventually terminated the questioning by asking to speak to an attorney. Because Russell's statement was voluntarily given in a noncoercive atmosphere, the trial court ruled that evidence derived from his un-Mirandized statement would be admissible. Russell now challenges the admission of the fruit of his statement to the police under the Washington State Constitution. We begin our analysis with a cursory discussion of the federal constitution in order to put the evaluation of our own state constitution in context. The Fifth Amendment does not require the suppression of physical evidence derived from an un-Mirandized confession unless the statement was actually coerced. State v. Wethered, 110 Wn.2d 466, 473-75, 755 P.2d 797 (1988); see also State v. Putman, 61 Wn. App. 450, 456, 810 P.2d 977 (1991), adhered to on reconsideration, 65 Wn. App. 606, 829 P.2d 787 (1992), review denied, 122 Wn.2d 1015 (1993). Wethered makes clear that in the absence of coercion, the federal constitution requires suppression only of the un-Mirandized statement itself. See generally Wethered. [8] Given the findings here, the trial court's refusal to suppress the evidence derived from Russell's statement was proper under the federal constitution. [9] In light of the federal analysis, Russell seeks an independent interpretation of Const. art. 1, § 9 as it applies to this case. We therefore look to the factors outlined in State v. Gunwall, 106 Wn.2d 54, 61-62, 720 P.2d 808, 76 A.L.R.4th 517 (1986) in deciding whether the state constitutional provision extends broader rights than the federal constitution. Russell has provided an analysis of these factors. The State contends that a resort to Gunwall is misplaced under State v. Earls, 116 Wn.2d 364, 805 P.2d 211 (1991). In Earls, this court addressed a similar argument regarding independent interpretation of Const. art. 1, § 9, and concluded as follows: [R]esort to the Gunwall analysis is unnecessary because this court has already held that the protection of article 1, section 9 is coextensive with, not broader than, the protection of the Fifth Amendment. State v. Moore, 79 Wn.2d 51, 483 P.2d 630 (1971). Earls, at 374-75. Thus, according to the State, no Gunwall analysis is necessary since this court has previously held that the two constitutional provisions are coextensive. [7] The State, however, takes this language out of context, [10] thereby giving Earls an overly expansive interpretation and running afoul of an important principle of constitutional construction. A determination that a given state constitutional provision affords enhanced protection in a particular context does not necessarily mandate such a result in a different context. State v. Boland, 115 Wn.2d 571, 576, 800 P.2d 1112 (1990). Similarly, when the court rejects an expansion of rights under a particular state constitutional provision in one context, it does not necessarily foreclose such an interpretation in another context. In Boland, this court set out the analysis to apply where the state provision in question has been analyzed in a different context. The previous case will have already analyzed the first, second, third and fifth Gunwall factors, as these factors arise whenever the two constitutional provisions are compared. The fourth and sixth factors, however, are generally unique to the context in which the interpretation question arises. The court thus examines the fourth and sixth factors in light of the new context presented, and then takes these two factors into account along with those previously analyzed. See Boland, at 576. Because Earls and Moore did not pertain to the admissibility of the fruits of an un-Mirandized confession, these cases do not preclude the possibility of an independent interpretation of Const. art. 1, § 9 in this context. [11] While a full Gunwall analysis would not otherwise be required, we must fully analyze all six factors, for unlike the situation in Boland, we are not presented with any previous cases in which a majority opinion has evaluated all of the Gunwall factors. We will, however, take into account, where relevant, the analysis contained in the Earls and Moore decisions.