Opinion ID: 4348461
Heading Depth: 3
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: The International Child Abduction

Text: Remedies Act (“ICARA”) Congress enacted ICARA to implement the Convention.19 Under ICARA, “the petitioner bears the initial burden of proving by a preponderance of the evidence that the child was . . . wrongfully removed.”20 “Once the petitioner 13 Id. 14 Id. at art. 13a. 15 Id. at art. 13b. 16 Id. at art. 13. 17 Id. art. 20. Only the first (well-settled defense) and the third (grave risk defense) of these listed defenses are relevant to this case since they were the only defenses De La Roca made in response to the Petition. 18 See infra Part III(A)(2) for a discussion of ICARA provision 22 U.S.C. § 9003(e)(2) and its explanation of burdens of proof for the exceptions. 19 See, e.g., Feder v. Evans-Feder, 63 F.3d 217, 221 (3d Cir. 1995). 20 Karpenko, 619 F.3d at 263. In particular, a court must determine “(1) when the removal or retention took place; (2) the child’s habitual residence immediately prior to such 6 meets its initial burden, the respondent may oppose the child’s return by proving one of [the] five affirmative defenses” as listed under ICARA provision 22 U.S.C. § 9003(e)(2)(A) and (B).21 Section 9003(e)(2) provides: (e) Burdens of proof ... (2) In the case of an action for the return of a child, a respondent who opposes the return of the child has the burden of establishing— (A) by clear and convincing evidence that one of the exceptions set forth in article 13b or 20 of the Convention applies; and (B) by a preponderance of the evidence that any other exception set forth in article 12 or 13 of the Convention applies.22 Congress specifically required that these affirmative defenses be “narrowly construed to effectuate the purposes of the Convention.”23 Moreover, because of the very important policy objectives of the Convention and ICARA, courts retain the discretion to order the child’s return. Thus, “even where a defense applies, the court has the discretion to order the child’s return.”24