Opinion ID: 158744
Heading Depth: 3
Heading Rank: 5

Heading: Substantially Limited with Respect to the Major Life Activity of Working

Text: 51 Denver contests the district court's rejection of its proposed jury instruction on whether plaintiffs were limited in a major life activity, and also claims the instruction defining substantially limited with respect to working was misleading. We consider each claim in turn. 11 52 The district court correctly instructed the jury that major life activities under the Americans with Disabilities Act include sitting, standing, walking, lifting, reaching, performing manual tasks, working, and caring for oneself. Aplt. App. at 2878; see McGuinness v. University of New Mexico Sch. of Med., 170 F.3d 974, 978 (10th Cir. 1999) (quoting 29 C.F.R. 1630.2 (i)) (including caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, walking, and working in the definition of major life activity under the ADA); Pack v. Kmart Corp., 166 F.3d 1300, 1305 (10th Cir. 1999) (noting that, inter alia, sitting, standing, lifting, and reaching constitute major life activities under the ADA); Nielsen v. Moroni Feed Co., 162 F.3d 604, 610 n.11 (10th Cir. 1998) (listing major life activities under the ADA); Lowe v. Angelo's Italian Foods, Inc., 87 F.3d 1170, 1173-74 (10th Cir. 1996) (noting [t]he appendix to the regulations provides that 'other major life activities include, but are not limited to, sitting, standing, lifting, reaching,' and holding that lifting is a major life activity under ADA). Denver did not contest this definition, but proposed that the district court also instruct the jury that [i]n this case, the Plaintiffs claim they are limited in the major life activity of working. Aplt. App. at 1419. The district court declined to do so and Denver now asserts that the private plaintiffs never pled or proved [the limitation of] a substantial life activity other than working. Aplt. Br. at 33. 53 Denver's contention is simply incorrect. The private plaintiffs' complaint did not enumerate the life activities in which they are substantially limited (working or otherwise), and the United States complaint on behalf of Jack Davoll specifically alleged that his injuries substantially limited his ability to walk[], stand[], and work[]. Aplt. App. at 125. The pretrial record and trial transcript contain considerable evidence of plaintiffs' substantial limitations in various life activities including sitting, standing, lifting, reaching, and sleeping. Any assertion to the contrary is disingenuous. The district court was well with in its discretion to reject Denver's proposed instruction on the matter. 54 Denver also argues that the district court misled the jury by instructing it to consider the substantially limited with respect to a major life activity inquiry in two phases. 12 The district court followed the administrative regulations and instructed the jury to first determine whether plaintiffs were substantially limited with respect to a major life activity other than working. If the jury found plaintiffs were not so limited, the jury was to then consider whether plaintiffs were substantially limited with respect to working. See 29 C.F.R. pt. 1630, app. 1630.2(j). Such an instruction sets forth a logical framework for the jury to consider working and other major life activities and the factors associated with each. The district court did not abuse its discretion in so instructing the jury. B. Sufficiency of the Evidence 55 We next turn to Denver's contention that insufficient evidence supported the jury's verdict. Denver asserts the evidence was insufficient to support the jury's findings that (1) plaintiffs were qualified individuals with disabilities; 13 (2) plaintiffs were qualified for vacant positions within the Career Service; and (3) reassignment of plaintiffs to Career Service positions would not constitute an undue hardship on the city. The United States and the private plaintiffs argue that we cannot consider Denver's assertions on appeal because Denver did not move for judgment as a matter of law at the close of all the evidence as required by Fed. R. Civ. P. 50. We agree. 56 At the close of plaintiffs' evidence, Denver moved for judgment as a matter of law claiming that none of the plaintiffs had established they are individuals who are disabled. Aplt. App. at 3664. Specifically, Denver asserted plaintiffs ha[d] not established that there is a significant limitation on any major life activity, and with respect to the issue of their qualifications, that the plaintiffs have not established as a matter of law that any of the plaintiffs have met all of the qualifications and requirements of the employer. Id. at 3665. Denver then put on its defense, which included calling numerous witnesses. At the close of all the evidence, plaintiffs moved for judgment as a matter of law but Denver did not. 57 A failure to move for a directed verdict on a particular issue will bar appellate review of that issue. See FDIC v. United Pac. Ins. Co., 20 F.3d 1070, 1076 (10th Cir. 1994) (Defendant's failure to raise the bond coverage issue in its directed verdict motion precludes us from reviewing the sufficiency of the evidence to support the jury's bond coverage finding); Cleveland v. Piper Aircraft Corp., 890 F.2d 1540, 1551 (10th Cir. 1989) (Failure to move for a directed verdict on this ground . . . precludes Defendant from challenging the sufficiency of the evidence of crashworthiness negligence on appeal.); Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. v. Pearson, 769 F.2d 1471, 1478 (10th Cir. 1985). Similarly, [a]s a general rule, a defendant's motion for directed verdict made at the close of the plaintiff's evidence is deemed waived if not renewed at the close of all the evidence; failure to renew that motion bars consideration of a later motion for judgment n.o.v. Karns v. Emerson Elec. Co., 817 F.2d 1452, 1455 (10th Cir. 1987) (citing cases). Failure to renew the motion thus prevents a defendant from challenging the sufficiency of the evidence on appeal. Id.; see also 9A Charles Alan Wright & Arthur R. Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure 2536 (2d ed. 1994) (It is thoroughly established that the sufficiency of the evidence is not reviewable on appeal unless a motion for judgment as a matter of law was made in the trial court. Indeed a motion at the close of plaintiff's case will not do unless it is renewed at the close of all the evidence.). 58 Denver did not move for judgment as a matter of law on whether plaintiffs were qualified for vacant positions at the close of the evidence, and never moved for judgment as a matter of law on the undue hardship issue. Denver does not contend otherwise, nor does it claim that it should be excepted from the general rule precluding appellate review. We therefore decline to consider its sufficiency of evidence claims. C. Evidentiary Issues 59 Denver asserts the district court erred in four of its evidentiary and discovery rulings. Specifically, Denver contests (1) the district court's prohibition of the term affirmative action and like phrases at trial; (2) the introduction of one of Denver's responses to a request for an admission; (3) the admission of Dr. Kleen's testimony; and (4) the denial of Denver's motion to extend expert witness discovery and for examination of plaintiffs pursuant to Fed. R. Civ. P. 35. We review a district court's evidentiary rulings and rulings on motions in limine for an abuse of discretion. See McCue v. Kansas Dept. of Human Resources, 165 F.3d 784, 788 (10th Cir. 1999); Den Hartog v. Wasatch Academy, 129 F.3d 1076, 1092 (10th Cir. 1997). We review de novo a district court's interpretation of the Federal Rules of Evidence. See Reeder v. American Econ. Ins. Co., 88 F.3d 892, 894 (10th Cir. 1996). 60 1. Prohibition on Affirmative Action and Like Terms 61 We first address whether the district court erred in granting plaintiffs' motion in limine prohibiting Denver from using terms like affirmative action, special rights, and preferences. In granting that motion, the district court stated, [w]ith regard to the issues of defendants using language at trial that plaintiffs were seeking preferences or affirmative action or special rights, defendants are precluded from using such language because it would simply muddy the waters and obfuscate the issues, and its prejudicial effect might outweigh its probative value. Aplt. App. at 2767. On appeal, Denver does not deny that such language would have mudd[ied] the water or obfuscate[d] the issue. Instead, Denver contends the district court's ruling was incorrect because it was based on the court's erroneous legal interpretation that ADA requires something beyond equal treatment of disabled and nondisabled employees. 62 As noted above, Denver's interpretation of the ADA is incorrect. Denver again erroneously conflates 'affirmative action' with the statutory definition of discrimination. Smith, 180 F.3d at 1167. Such labels cannot substitute for Congress' statutory mandate in the ADA. Id. Congress included reassignment to a vacant position in its definition of reasonable accommodation, and legislated that the failure reasonably to accommodate (including reassignment) [is] a prohibited act of discrimination. Id. The legal underpinnings of the district court's ruling were sound because, as we held in Smith, we view plaintiffs' request for reassignment as a reasonable accommodation and not affirmative action. 14 63 Moreover, the district court's ruling did not inhibit Denver from invoking phrases almost identical to those prohibited, as well as other language that conveyed the same message. Throughout the trial, Denver's attorneys and witnesses discussed their reluctance to give preferences, Aplt. App. at 3466; see also id. at 3429, 3600, or jobs based on status, id. at 2849, 3436, and the importance of maintaining a level playing field, id. at 2940, 2942, 3848; see also id. at 3846. Denver emphasized that plaintiffs wanted better treatment, than others, id. at 3747, and were seeking . . . an advantage, id. at 3839. In closing argument Denver explained this case is about . . . the plaintiffs wanting an advantage with respect to a job in the City and County of Denver, and that . . . advantage is a disadvantage to the rest of the employees in the Career Service of the City and County of Denver. Id. at 3834. Under such circumstances, any possible error in the district court's ruling is harmless. 64 2. Stipulation Regarding Discovery Responses 65 Denver contends the district court erred in refusing to allow it to withdraw a stipulation to the admissibility and authenticity of its discovery responses which, it claims, contained a typographical error. District courts . . . are vested with broad discretion in determining whether to hold a party to a stipulation or whether the interests of justice require that the stipulation be set aside. Wheeler v. John Deere Co., 935 F.2d 1090, 1098 (10th Cir. 1991). 66 Plaintiffs' request for admission stated, Admit you contend that . . . police officers with disabilities who cannot make a forcible arrest or shoot a firearm are not qualified individuals with disabilities as defined under the ADA. Aplt. App. at 506. Denver responded, deny. . . . Defendants contend that police officers who cannot make a forcible arrest and/or shoot a firearm are qualified individuals with a disability as defined under the ADA. Id. It is not entirely clear that Denver's response contains a typographical error as it twice affirms that plaintiffs are qualified individuals with disabilities. Nevertheless, Denver used the ample opportunity it had both at pretrial and at trial to contest whether plaintiffs were qualified individuals with disabilities and to explain to the jury that the response was inaccurate. Moreover, the district court did not instruct the jury to give any special weight to the admission. See Keen v. Detroit Diesel Allison, 569 F.2d 547, 553-54 (10th Cir. 1978). The court was well within its discretion in refusing to allow Denver to withdraw its stipulation to this discovery response. 3. Testimony of Dr. Kleen 67 Denver complains that Dr. Kleen, Mr. Davoll's treating physician, was actually an undisclosed expert whose testimony fell within the parameters of Fed. R. Evid. 702. It asserts the district court erred in admitting Dr. Kleen's testimony because it went beyond the scope of his treatment of Mr. Davoll, and because plaintiffs did not properly disclose him as an expert pursuant to Fed. R. Civ. P. 26(a)(2), which requires a party to disclose the identity of an expert and the expert to provide a written report. Plaintiffs and the United States contend that Dr. Kleen testified as a lay witness. 68 A treating physician is not considered an expert witness if he or she testifies about observations based on personal knowledge, including the treatment of the party. See Richardson v. Consolidated Rail Corp., 17 F.3d 213, 218 (7th Cir. 1994); see also Fed. R. Civ. P. 26(a)(2) advisory committee's note (1998) (distinguishing between treating physicians and retained experts); cf. Patel v. Gayes, 984 F.2d 214, 218 (7th Cir. 1992) (treating physicians' opinions on industry standard of care constituted classic expert testimony). A treating physician, even when testifying as a lay witness, may state expert facts to the jury in order to explain his testimony. See 4 Jack B. Weinstein & Margaret A. Berger, Weinstein's Federal Evidence 701.08 (Joseph M. McLaughlin ed., 2d ed. 1999) (noting that a doctor testifying as a lay witness should be given loose rein to state what are truly facts, even if they are 'expert' facts). In addition, a lay witness may testify as to any opinion '(a) rationally based on the perception of the witness and (b) helpful to a clear understanding . . . of a fact in issue.' Weese v. Schukman, 98 F.3d 542, 550 (10th Cir. 1996) (quoting Fed. R. Evid. 701). In Weese, we noted that, in accordance with Rule 701, any opinions offered by [a lay witness doctor] were based on his experience as a physician and were clearly helpful to an understanding of his decision making process in the situation. Id. 69 In the present case, Dr. Kleen testified as a lay witness who had treated Mr. Davoll. While he did explain various medical terminology and drew a diagram explaining Mr. Davoll's injury, those actions do not render Dr. Kleen an expert witness. His factual explanations of terms like rehabilitation, modality, and soft tissue injury, as well as the diagram explaining Mr. Davoll's injuries, clarified his testimony on his treatment of Mr. Davoll and did not constitute opinion testimony. 70 Denver's two specific objections to Dr. Kleen's testimony are similarly without merit. 15 Denver objected to questioning it contends emphasized Dr. Kleen's background, and to his assessment of Mr. Davoll's psychological state. See Aplt. Br., Attachments I & J. With respect to the former, the questioning was cursory, eliciting that Dr. Kleen was licensed to practice in Colorado, received his medical degree from the University of Minnesota, and specialized in physical medicine and rehabilitation. He was not questioned about his curriculum vitae, his prior experience, or his publications. The questioning on his background was comparable to (and in some cases less than) that of the other lay witnesses at trial. With respect to the psychological impairment testimony, see Aplt. Br. at 28, Dr. Kleen simply stated that, based on his interactions with Mr. Davoll, he understood that Mr. Davoll was suffering from psychological stress because Denver was pressuring him to retire. Aplt. App. at 3090. Dr. Kleen did not attempt to name a particular psychological disorder or give an in-depth analysis as to Mr. Davoll's mental health. He simply stated, as did Mrs. Davoll, that the retirement proceedings caused Mr. Davoll stress. Cf. id. at 3168, 3170-71 (Mrs. Davoll's testimony regarding the effect of the forced retirement on Mr. Davoll's mental state). That conclusion is within the province of a lay witness such as Dr. Kleen who has personal knowledge of the situation. See United States v. Anthony, 944 F.2d 780, 782-83 (10th Cir. 1991) (lay witnesses may testify as to the sanity or insanity of a person if the witness' relationship with that person is of sufficient intimacy and duration); see also United States v. Garcia, 994 F.2d 1499, 1506 (10th Cir. 1993) ([T]he first hand knowledge requirement may be based on the lay witness' perception of otherwise inadmissible out of court statements.). 71 4. Denial of Motion to Extend Expert Witness Discovery and Examine Plaintiffs 72 Denver argues that the district court erred in refusing to extend the time allowed for expert witness discovery and for Fed. R. Civ. P. 35 discovery. We review discovery rulings for an abuse of discretion. See Cole v. Ruidoso Mun. Schs., 43 F.3d 1373, 1386 (10th Cir. 1994). [W]e will not reverse a decision to limit discovery 'absent a clear showing that the denial of discovery resulted in actual and substantial prejudice to the complaining litigant.' Gile v. United Airlines, Inc., 95 F.3d 492, 495 (7th Cir. 1996) (quoting Searls v. Glasser, 64 F.3d 1061, 1068 (7th Cir. 1995)). 73 The district court's decisions do not appear to be an abuse of discretion. 16 Even assuming arguendo the court's denial of Denver's motion was in error, reversal is clearly not required. After the district court consolidated the United States' case with that of the private plaintiffs, Denver had an opportunity to cure any prejudice flowing from the court's original rulings but failed to take advantage of it. First, Denver expressly disavowed any desire to conduct a physical examination of plaintiffs. The magistrate judge specifically asked, Am I correct now that you don't want a medical examination, or you do want a medical examination? Aplt. App. at 2710. Denver's counsel replied, We do not. Id. at 2711. Similarly, the district court gave Denver additional time to designate a vocational rehabilitation expert but Denver declined the opportunity. Denver may not now claim prejudice from the pre-trial ruling when it had a chance to cure precisely the prejudice it allegedly suffered and chose not to. Cf. Woodworker's Supply, Inc. v. Principal Mut. Life Ins. Co., 170 F.3d 985, 993 (10th Cir. 1999) (appellant failed to take advantage of opportunity to cross-examine witness giving undisclosed testimony outside the presence of the jury); Real v. Hogan, 828 F.2d 58, 63 (1st Cir. 1987) (appellant failed to show up for Rule 35 examinations and then attempted to vacate trial date so he could be examined). D. Remedies 74 We turn to the appeal and cross-appeal of the remedies awarded to plaintiffs. Denver appeals the district court's denial of its request for an evidentiary hearing on equitable relief. Plaintiffs cross-appeal, contesting the district court's decision to limit their front-pay awards to two years after the judgment instead of awarding front pay for their full work-life expectancies. We review for an abuse of discretion the district court's refusal to hold an evidentiary hearing on equitable relief, cf. FDIC v. Daily, 973 F.2d 1525, 1532 (10th Cir. 1992), and the court's award of equitable remedies, see Roberts v. Colorado State Bd. of Agric., 998 F.2d 824, 826 (10th Cir. 1993). 1. Compensatory Damages 75 Denver contends the district court erred in failing to instruct the jury that Title II provides for compensatory damages only upon a showing of intentional discrimination. Plaintiffs and the United States claim Denver failed to raise this issue below in the manner required by Fed. R. Civ. P. 51. We agree. 76 The rule provides that [n]o party may assign as error the giving or the failure to give an instruction unless that party objects thereto before the jury retires to consider its verdict, stating distinctly the matter objected to and the grounds of the objection. Fed. R. Civ. P. 51. (emphasis added). Because the purpose of the objection is to give the court an opportunity to correct any mistake before the jury enters deliberations . . . an excessively vague or general objection to the propriety of a given instruction is insufficient to preserve the issue for appeal. Medlock v. Ortho Biotech, Inc., 164 F.3d 545, 553 (10th Cir. 1999) (citation omitted); see also Tele-Communications, Inc. v. Commissioner, 104 F.3d 1229, 1233 (10th Cir. 1997); Aspen Highlands Skiing Corp. v. Aspen Skiing Co., 738 F.2d 1509, 1514 (10th Cir. 1984). 77 In its reply brief, Denver claims that it properly objected to the jury instructions on compensatory damages and the district court ruled against it; that even if it did not properly object, it was excused from doing so because the district court was aware of its position and further objection would have been futile; and even if it was not excused from objecting, the exclusion of the word intentional from the instruction constituted plain error. We consider each contention in turn. 78 Denver claims it objected to the omission of the word intentional in the first set of plaintiffs' jury instructions on compensatory damages. There Denver wrote, [d]efendants object to the omission of the work [sic] 'intentional' as all plaintiffs must in the end prove intentional discrimination. St. Mary's Honor Center v. Hicks, 113 S. Ct. 2742, 2747-49 (1993). Aplt. App. at 1408j. The language of that objection is somewhat vague it is unclear whether Denver was claiming that plaintiffs must prove intentional discrimination to hold the City liable or to merit an award of compensatory damages. The cite to Hicks helps clarify the matter, however. On the pages cited and indeed in the whole opinion, the Court discusses a Title VII plaintiff's ultimate burden of persuasion that the defendant engaged in intentional discrimination. See Hicks, 509 U.S. 502, 506-511 (1993). The case is not about compensatory damages, and there is simply no discussion of damages on the cited pages. Thus, Denver's objection appears to go to liability and therefore only indirectly to damages. 79 Similarly, the district court's ruling cited by Denver as deciding this issue against it also concerns intent as an element of liability, not as an element of compensatory damages. In a hearing on the first set of instructions tendered by plaintiffs and defendants, the district court rejected all proposed instructions because they were too long, were confusing, and with respect to defendant's instructions disregarded the summary judgment rulings. The court specifically pointed out proposed instructions that conflicted with its previous rulings and said at one point, I have ruled that . . . plaintiffs do not have to prove intent in this kind of case. Aplt. App. at 2738. Denver relies on this language to argue the district court ruled against its compensatory damage objection. However, the court had not made any previous rulings on compensatory damages; it had only ruled on when a failure to accommodate constitutes discrimination under the ADA. See Davoll, 943 F. Supp. at 1300-01. The district court's statement, in context, does not support Denver's assertion that it properly objected to the compensatory damage instruction and that its objection was overruled. 80 More importantly, when the district court rejected the parties 137 pages of proposed instructions, Aplt. App. at 2734, the court made it very clear that it expected the parties to redraft the instructions in toto and thereafter to make their objections thereto. After giving the parties some sample instructions, the court concluded by saying: 81 Please don't try and argue your case in the instructions. And here's what I want you to do. Look at the ones I gave you. See how those were done. Get the plaintiffs to make their agreements on what they're going to offer, and submit those to the defense. The defense can itemize whatever objections the defense wants to make to those instructions and can tender a responsive objection in addition to this, which is part of your record, to those instructions. 82 Id. at 2741 (emphasis added). We thus reject Denver's contention that it was excused from objecting when the second set of jury instructions were tendered. Cf. Gardner v. Chrysler Corp., 89 F.3d 729, 736 n.4 (10th Cir. 1996). 83 Because Denver did not distinctly state the matter objected to and the grounds of the objection, Fed. R. Civ. P. 51, we review for plain error the court's instruction on compensatory damages. See Russell v. Plano Bank & Trust, 130 F.3d 715, 718-19 (10th Cir. 1997), cert. denied, 118 S. Ct. 1801 (1998); Cartier v. Jackson, 59 F.3d 1046, 1050 (10th Cir. 1995). To constitute plain error, the district court's mistake must have been both obvious and substantial. Id. 84 When the district court gave the contested instruction in late 1996, the law was unsettled as to whether Title II plaintiffs had to prove intentional discrimination to merit an award of compensatory damages. Compare Alexander v. Choate, 469 U.S. 287, 299 (1985) ([T]here is reason to question whether Congress intended 504 to reach only intentional discrimination.), W.B. v. Matula, 67 F.3d 484, 492, 494 (3d Cir. 1995) (finding compensatory damages are available under section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act without explicitly limiting such damages to intentional violations), Rodgers v. Magnet Cove Pub. Schs., 34 F.3d 642, 644-45 (8th Cir. 1994) (same), Tyler v. City of Manhattan, 118 F.3d 1400, 1407 (10th Cir. 1997) (Jenkins, J., dissenting) ([R]ecent cases . . . suggest that in the specific context of Title II of the ADA, the compensatory damages remedy may not depend on proof of intentional discrimination.), and Niece v. Fitzner, 922 F. Supp. 1208, 1219 & n.9 (E.D. Mich. 1996) (noting, without deciding, that some cases have held a showing of intent is required to recover compensatory damages under the ADA and Rehabilitation Act), with Wood v. President and Trustees of Spring Hill College, 978 F.2d 1214, 1219 (11th Cir. 1992) (requiring intentional discrimination for compensatory damages under section 504), and Tyler v. City of Mahattan, 849 F. Supp. 1442, 1444 (D. Kan. 1994) (requiring showing of intentional discrimination under Title II of the ADA), aff'd on other grounds, 118 F.3d 1400. When the law is unsettled, the decision to instruct one way or the other does not constitute plain error. 17 See Heath v. Suzuki Motor Corp., 126 F.3d 1391, 1394 (11th Cir. 1997). Such was the case here. 85 Moreover, there is another argument to support the district court's instruction. The Supreme Court has recognized the proposition that statutes enacted by Congress pursuant to its spending power should not expose funding recipients to compensatory damages liability for unintentional violations. See Franklin v. Gwinnet, 503 U.S. 60, 74 (1992) ([T]he point of not permitting monetary damages for an unintentional violation is that the receiving entity of federal funds lacks notice that it will be liable for a monetary award.); Guardians Ass'n et al. v. Civil Serv. Comm'n, 463 U.S. 582, 597 (1983) (Remedies to enforce spending power statutes must respect the privilege of the recipient of federal funds to withdraw and terminate its receipt of federal money.). Unlike the Rehabilitation Act, which was enacted under the Spending Clause, the ADA was enacted under the Commerce Clause and the Fourteenth Amendment. 42 U.S.C. 1210(b)(4). Title II entities are not necessarily recipients of federal funds, and the arguments against liability for compensatory damages absent intent are arguably less relevant. One could therefore contend that intent should not be required for Title II violations, even if it is required for Rehabilitation Act violations. See Ferguson v. City of Phoenix, 157 F.3d 668, 678 (9th Cir. 1998) (Tashima, J., dissenting); Tyler, 118 F.3d at 1414-15 (Jenkins, J., dissenting). We do not pass on the merits of this argument, but simply note it strengthens our conclusion that the instruction here was a plausible interpretation of the law and thus did not constitute plain error. 86 2. Request for Hearing on Evidentiary Relief 87 Denver contends the district court abused its discretion in refusing to set a three-day evidentiary hearing on the appropriate front-pay and back-pay awards, which it requested after the post-trial status conference. Denver took issue with plaintiffs' effort at mitigation as well as the salary level used to calculate the awards and requested a hearing to challenge plaintiffs' evidence. In its order regarding equitable relief, the district court noted that [w]ithout reserving the right to request an evidentiary hearing, defense counsel agreed at the December 11, 1996 status conference that the equitable relief issues would be addressed on the basis of the parties' written submissions. Davoll v. Webb, 968 F. Supp. 549, 553 (D.Colo. 1997). Moreover, the court pointed out that Denver could have presented evidence relating to these issues at trial as it had much of the relevant information pretrial, or it could have attached offers of proof to its brief to show a need for a hearing. Both plaintiffs and the United States had appended considerable evidence concerning the appropriate equitable relief to their memoranda. The district court denied Denver's request as it ha[d] made no showing that a hearing is justified nor that it would change the outcome concerning the equitable relief issues. Id. 88 For the first time in its reply brief, Denver argues that it agreed to resolve by written submission only the issue of Mr. Davoll's back pay, not other equitable relief issues. While a few lines of the transcript discussing equitable relief are marginally ambiguous, 18 the record as a whole belies Denver's contention. In Denver's Memorandum of Law on equitable relief, nowhere did it represent it was arguing Mr. Davoll's back pay award separately from his front-pay award or from the relief to Ms. Clair and Mr. Escobedo. Moreover, Denver contested Mr. Davoll's back pay award but attached no supporting materials, even though it concedes it agreed to decide this issue on written submissions. Finally, we note that the district court, plaintiffs, and the United States all clearly understood the case would be decided on written submissions, as evidenced by the court's opinion and the parties' lengthy attachments to their motions. Denver received the other parties' motions and attachments almost a month before it submitted its own. Denver's belated argument that it did not agree to have equitable relief decided on written motions appears to be little more than a disingenuous attempt to use a barely-ambiguous record to shield itself from the consequences of its inaction. 89 Denver also claims it was prejudiced by its inability to cross-examine Dr. Vogenthaler, plaintiffs' vocational expert. Denver did not depose Dr. Vogenthaler although it had the opportunity, and did not designate its own vocational expert. Denver submitted no evidence to respond to plaintiffs' economic figures. Denver's inaction is the source of any prejudice it suffered. Cf. Woodworker's Supply, Inc., 170 F.3d at 993; Real, 828 F.2d at 63. The district court was within its discretion to deny an evidentiary hearing when the parties had agreed otherwise and Denver offered no proof that such a hearing was justified. 3. Front Pay Limitation 90 On cross-appeal, plaintiffs contend the district court abused its discretion by awarding front pay to plaintiffs for only two years. 19 We recognize that determining a front pay award requires the district court to predict future events and consider many complicated and interlocking factors, and we therefore review for an abuse of discretion. Mason v. Oklahoma Turnpike Auth., 115 F.3d 1442, 1458 (10th Cir. 1997). That discretion, however, should be measured against an anti-discrimination statute's purpose to make the plaintiffs whole. See Carter v. Sedgwick County, Kan., 36 F.3d 952, 957 (10th Cir. 1994); Pitre v. Western Elec. Co., 975 F.2d 700, 704 (10th Cir. 1992). A front-pay award must specify an end date and take into account any amounts that plaintiffs could earn using reasonable efforts. Carter v. Sedgwick County, Kan., 929 F.2d 1501, 1505 (10th Cir. 1991). Although the cut-off date is within the district court's discretion, that determination must be based on 'more than mere guesswork.' Id. (citing Shore v. Federal Express Corp., 777 F.2d 1155, 1160 (6th Cir. 1985)). Cf. Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody, 422 U.S. 405, 416 (1975) (That the court's discretion [to award Title VII back pay] is equitable in nature . . . hardly means that it is unfettered by meaningful standards or shielded from thorough appellate review. ). The district court may consider all evidence presented at trial in formulating the proper award. See EEOC v. General Lines, Inc., 865 F.2d 1555, 1562 (10th Cir. 1989) . 91 Numerous factors are relevant in assessing front pay including work life expectancy, salary and benefits at the time of termination, any potential increase in salary through regular promotions and cost of living adjustment, the reasonable availability of other work opportunities, the period within which a plaintiff may become re-employed with reasonable efforts, and methods to discount any award to net present value. Shore, 777 F.2d at 1160. A court may also consider a plaintiff's future in the position from which he was terminated. See Suggs v. Servicemaster Educ. Food Mgmt., 72 F.3d 1228, 1234 (6th Cir. 1996). A front pay award should reflect the individualized circumstances of the plaintiff and the employer. 92 Here, plaintiffs submitted vocational economic assessment reports by an expert, Dr. Vogenthaler, who took into account each plaintiff's educational level, disability, age, and gender to determine his or her work life expectancy and earning capacity. He then looked at how much each plaintiff would have earned had he or she been reassigned to a city government position for which he or she was qualified, since those positions pay considerably more than non-city jobs. He took the difference between the annual city salaries and the annual projected future earnings for each plaintiff, accounting for cost of living and merit increases, to determine the amount of front pay each plaintiff deserved per year. This method accounts for one's duty to mitigate damages because a plaintiff will receive only the difference between the city salary and his or her earning capacity, not what he or she actually earns. Cf. Shore v. Federal Express Corp., 42 F.3d 373, 378-79 (6th Cir. 1994). The trial record supported Dr. Vogenthaler's contention that non-city employment paid less than city employment. For example, at the time of trial in late 1996, after a lengthy and extensive job hunt Mr. Davoll had a job that paid $24,000 a year, and Mr. Escobedo earned $8.50 per hour. Had Mr. Davoll been reassigned to a city position for which he was qualified, his salary and benefits for 1997 would have been worth over $56,000; Mr. Escobedo's salary and benefits would have been worth over $51,000. Denver presented no evidence to counter Dr. Vogenthaler's assessment. 93 The district court correctly stated the law on assessing front pay awards. The court then stated, an award of front pay to each Private Plaintiff in the amount calculated by Dr. Vogenthaler from 1997 through 1999, a period of two years, will allow each a reasonable amount of time to find comparable employment. Id. at 1375. The court did not explain on what evidence it based this finding, but instead cited to two cases which awarded front pay for a two-year period, Dominic v. Consolidated Edison Co., 822 F.2d 1249, 1258 (2d Cir. 1987), and Reeder-Baker v. Lincoln Nat'l Corp., 649 F. Supp. 647, 662 (N.D. Ind. 1986). Those cases do not explain to us why the district court chose a two-year limitation here. In Reeder-Baker, the court specifically looked to the difference between the plaintiff's present and former salaries $13,380 annually to arrive at a conservative estimate of the time needed to make her whole. 649 F. Supp. at 664. In Dominic, the appeals court relied on the district court's determination that two years was a sufficient amount of time for the plaintiff, who was 52 and had a Master's and a law degree, to receive front pay. See 822 F.2d at 1256-59 (referring to district court's assessment of front pay amount and duration). In so finding, the district court had emphasized that three years had passed since the plaintiff's discharge, during which time he had found a new (albeit lower-paying job), and that his prospects of obtaining a more lucrative position are good given his academic credentials and his relative youth. Dominic v. Consolidated Edison Co., 652 F. Supp. 815, 820 (S.D.N.Y. 1986). 94 Because the purpose of front pay is to make each plaintiff whole, the district court must look at the individualized circumstances of each plaintiff. A flat rule awarding front pay for a specific period, no matter how long or short, would defeat the purpose of the award. It is unclear here why the district court thought a two year front pay award would adequately compensate plaintiffs; the record does not appear to support that assessment. See Carter, 36 F.3d at 957. We do not specify an appropriate time for the award nor do we hold that two years is definitely inappropriate in these cases. We do, however, require the district court to show the end date is based on more than mere guesswork. See Carter, 929 F.2d at 1505. We therefore reverse and remand the front pay award and instruct the district court to articulate the specific bases for the end date for each plaintiff, taking into consideration the factors we have outlined above.