Opinion ID: 340081
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: did the district court err in admitting challenged evidence?

Text: 81 Appellants also seek to overturn their convictions on the basis of several rulings by the district court admitting challenged evidence. They contend that the wiretap evidence that figured so prominently in the prosecution's case was inadmissible, first because the government's application was not properly authorized, and also because the application did not meet several statutory requirements. Appellants seek the suppression of the evidence seized at the Hubbell Street house, and from appellants Jones, Hurt, and Woods at the time of their arrests, on Fourth Amendment grounds. Appellants contend that voice exemplars that they were required to give were inadmissible on both Fourth and Fifth Amendment grounds. And finally, they contend that the testimony of Agent Garibotto identifying the voices on the tapes was inadmissible because it was the fruit of informal aural show ups which violated appellants' Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendment rights. 82
83 The intercepted communications were critical items of proof in the government's case, and appellants contend that the district court erred in refusing to suppress the evidence seized by the interception. They challenge the validity of the authorization for the government's application for a wiretap order. 10 They also argue that the application did not demonstrate that normal investigative procedures would have been inadequate, nor did it afford the district judge probable cause to believe that the telephone to be tapped was being used or was about to be used for one of the offenses specified in the wiretap statute. 84
85 Appellants argue that the wiretap evidence should have been suppressed because the government's application for the interception order lacked the authorization required by the statute. 18 U.S.C. § 2516(1) provides that: 86 The Attorney General, or any Assistant Attorney General specially designated by the Attorney General, may authorize an application to a Federal judge of competent jurisdiction for . . . an order authorizing or approving the interception of wire or oral communications . . . . 87 In this case, the written application and the application for an extension stated that Attorney General Mitchell had specially designated Acting Assistant Attorney General Henry Peterson to authorize the application to the federal court, and Peterson's letter was attached. 88 After their indictment, appellants moved to suppress the wiretap evidence on the ground that an acting assistant attorney general had no authority to authorize wiretaps pursuant to § 2516. Appellants argue that the applications were insufficient on their face. Section 2518(10)(a)(ii) provides that the contents of intercepted communications may be suppressed on the ground that the order of authorization or approval under which it was intercepted is insufficient on its face. 89 In United States v. Vigi, 515 F.2d 290 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 912, 96 S.Ct. 215, 46 L.Ed.2d 140 (1975), our court considered this argument and held that it was unnecessary to determine whether an acting assistant attorney general who signed the letter authorizing the application could give effective approval under § 2516, because the Attorney General himself had actually approved the application. Accord, United States v. Swann, 526 F.2d 147 (9th Cir. 1975); United States v. Acon, 513 F.2d 513 (3d Cir. 1975); United States v. Robertson, 504 F.2d 289 (5th Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 421 U.S. 913, 95 S.Ct. 1568, 43 L.Ed.2d 778 (1975). The same situation is present in this case. The district court found that Peterson had submitted the papers supporting the request for authorization to Attorney General Mitchell, and that Mitchell himself approved the application. The government submitted the affidavit of Sol Lindenbaum who stated that the Attorney General had approved the request for authorization to apply for wiretap orders. Attached to this affidavit were copies of a memorandum from Mitchell to Peterson. In his deposition Lindenbaum identified the handwritten initials on the memos as Mitchell's. Judge Kennedy, who issued the wiretap orders, was told that Mitchell had approved the application. 90 Appellants also contend, however, that Attorney General Mitchell's internal memoranda were ineffective because 28 C.F.R. § 0.180 required the designation of formal orders. Appellants contend that this section is applicable by its own terms to all documents relating to the assignment . . . or delegations of authority, functions, or duties by the Attorney General. These documents are to be designated as formal orders to be issued by the Attorney General in a numbered series. This section is not applicable to delegations of the special authority over applications for interception orders, or to the Attorney General's personal approval of an application for an interception order. Other courts have found even verbal approval by the Attorney General to be sufficient. United States v. Falcone, 505 F.2d 478 (3d Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 420 U.S. 955, 95 S.Ct. 1339, 43 L.Ed.2d 432 (1975). 91 Appellants also contend that the affidavit in support of the application for the wiretap failed to make the averments required by 18 U.S.C. § 2518(1)(c). Section 2518(1)(c) requires that an application for an electronic surveillance order contain a complete statement as to whether or not other investigative procedures have been tried and failed or why they appear to be unlikely to succeed if tried or to be too dangerous . . . . We hold that the affidavit of Agent Garibotto was a satisfactory statement of the investigative steps taken to date, and that it affords a sufficient reason why normal investigative procedures appear to be unlikely to succeed. 11 92 However, appellants argue that the averments were false and misleading because a government informant, Roosevelt Nabors, had been asked to become a lieutenant in the organization, but had refused on the advice of government agents. This opportunity for infiltration, they argue, would have permitted the government to investigate the organization by normal procedures. The affidavit did not discuss the invitation for Nabors to become a lieutenant. The district judge rejected this argument because, even as a lieutenant, Nabors would have had difficulty in learning all the complex details of the widespread organization, and its aiders and abettors. Moreover, in view of Nabors' lengthy prior criminal record, the government would have had great difficulty in establishing criminal liability by his testimony alone. 93 We agree with the district court's analysis. The availability of an informant who was offered and declined an opportunity to penetrate deeper into a criminal organization under investigation did not render insufficient Garibotto's statements of the need for wiretaps to discover and prove the liability of the conspirators. See United States v. Pacheco, 489 F.2d 554, 564-565 (5th Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 421 U.S. 909, 95 S.Ct. 1558, 43 L.Ed.2d 774 (1975). 94 Appellants' final contention regarding the wire interception is that the affidavit submitted with the application for the wiretap order did not meet the requirement of 18 U.S.C. § 2518(3)(d) that it afford the district court probable cause for belief that the facilities from which, or the place where, the wire or oral communications are to be intercepted are being used, or are about to be used, in connection with the commission of (an offense specified) . . . . Appellants contend that the application failed to establish probable cause to believe that the telephone in the house on Hubbell Street was being, or was about to be, used to facilitate the distribution of narcotics. 95 The affidavit recited that on two separate occasions, on October 22 and November 4, a government informant, who consented to having government agents monitor his conversation, called the number registered to the Hubbell Street address and set up a sale at the Hubbell Street house, and the purchased substance was tested and found to be heroin. During the exchange, the agent observed the telephone ring a number of times. He saw appellants Blair and Brown answer the calls. Additionally, Garibotto averred that based upon his experience in narcotics investigations, a telephone was regularly used to negotiate the time, place, and manner of selling, buying, possessing, concealing, delivering, distributing, or paying for controlled substances. 96 On review, we must view the affidavit in a common sense fashion, and we think that it afforded probable cause to believe that the telephone at the Hubbell Street address was being used to make the arrangements for a series of narcotics transactions. This is sufficient to satisfy the requirement of § 2518(3)(d). 97
98 We next consider the legality of the arrests of appellants Jones, Hurt, and Woods as they left Hubbell Street on the night of December 15. Appellants argue that the government lacked probable cause to make these arrests, and that the evidence seized at the time of the arrests must be suppressed. Earlier in the evening of the night of the arrests, the agents monitoring the Hubbell Street telephone tap overheard conversations indicating that an expected shipment of narcotics had arrived. Accordingly, a large number of government agents took up surveillance posts near the Hubbell Street house and arrested appellants as they left the structure. 99 The government intercepted a call from Joe Weaver to appellant Jones about 9 p.m. Weaver told Jones that Courtney (Brown) wants to see you. Garibotto was informed of this call, and he instructed Agent Smelter that Jones was a close associate of Jackson, and that he should be arrested as he left Hubbell Street. 100 Agent Dockery testified that he actually arrested Jones. There was no evidence that Dockery knew that Garibotto had identified Jones as a close associate of Jackson's who should be arrested. Dockery testified that when he arrested Jones, he knew that the wire interception indicated that a large shipment of narcotics was concealed at 19315 Hubbell Street, that Weaver had called Jones and told him that Courtney wanted to see him, and that Jones was identified by another agent when he arrived at Hubbell Street. Dockery testified that based on their knowledge of the large quantity of narcotics hidden on the premises, he and the other agents had conferred and determined that anyone seen entering and then leaving 19315 Hubbell would be stopped and searched on the probable cause that they would be carrying narcotics. He observed Jones' car pull up to the house, and saw its two passengers enter 19315 Hubbell. They departed about five minutes later. Dockery followed them for a short distance, then arrested them. A search revealed that Jones had concealed four cellophane bags containing about one pound of heroin each inside his shirt at the waistband. The evidence of the 1,924.5 grams of heroin was the basis for counts 6 and 10, distribution and possession without intent to distribute heroin. 101 Agents also intercepted a call from Blair to appellant Hurt on December 15. Blair stated that the heroin was on hand. Hurt wanted a kilogram, and he was told that he would have to pay cash. Hurt asked the price, and Blair stated that he would call him back. Garibotto was informed of the call, and he stated that Hurt was a substantial customer, and if he came he should be arrested as he left. 102 Hurt was arrested by Agent Cigich, who testified that supervisory agents told him to maintain surveillance at Hubbell Street, and 103 should any individual that had arrived at that address get back into their (sic) vehicles and depart, to apprehend and place under arrest the individual. 104 Hurt arrived and entered 19315 Hubbell. When he departed, Agent Cigich followed and arrested him some distance away. Cigich testified that he found a small packet of white powder inside the car, lying on the floor next to the driver's front seat. The powder was tested and found to be .268 grams of heroin. Apparently Hurt was the driver and only person in the car at the time of the arrest. The heroin was offered into evidence in support of appellants' convictions on counts 7 and 11, possession and possession with intent to distribute .268 grams of heroin. 105 There was testimony that agents observed Woods arrive at 19315 Hubbell at about 9:40, and leave a few minutes later. He was arrested by Agent Goldenbaum. Goldenbaum testified that he had been informed by agents monitoring the wiretaps that a narcotics shipment had arrived at Hubbell Street and was being rapidly distributed. He was told to get into a radio car and take up a surveillance position. He learned that at about 9:30 two persons had been arrested leaving the premises, and were found to have suspected narcotics in their possession. At about 9:40, he was informed by radio that a 1969 Chrysler was parked in front of the Hubbell Street house, and he was told to follow it when it left and to arrest appellant Woods. A package containing 37.66 grams of cocaine and 137.5 grams of heroin was found in the pocket of his jacket. Additionally agents seized $4,809 in cash and a pistol. This evidence was the basis of counts 8 and 9 charging distributing the heroin and cocaine, and supported the conspiracy charge. 106 The district court upheld each of these arrests. The court held that it was reasonable for the arresting officers to assume that the Jones who was identified arriving at Hubbell Street was the Jones who had called earlier and whom Garibotto had ordered arrested. The court held that although no one actually identified Hurt prior to his arrest, the officers had enough facts to determine that the man they arrested was Leo Hurt, Jr., and probably he was violating federal narcotics statutes. Although there was no intercepted telephone call to Woods, the district court held that the agents had probable cause because they knew that the Hubbell Street house was being used as a distribution site for narcotics on the night of December 15. The court reasoned that it was extremely unlikely that a person would come to the distribution center on that night except for the purpose of illegal narcotics trafficking. Moreover, the agents knew that it was common practice in the narcotics trade to dispense a shipment quickly. Accordingly, when they saw Woods arrive and depart after only a few minutes just as Jones and Hurt had done a few minutes earlier they had probable cause to believe that Woods, too, would have narcotics in his possession when he left. 107 Neither Garibotto's knowledge about Jones and Hurt nor his orders for their arrests can be relied upon to provide probable cause for their arrests, because there was no evidence that any of his comments had been communicated to the agents on the scene who actually made or ordered their arrests. 108 The government contends that the information known to a superior officer may be imputed to the arresting officer, citing United States v. Trabucco, 424 F.2d 1311, 1315 (5th Cir. 1970), cert. denied, 399 U.S. 918, 90 S.Ct. 2224, 26 L.Ed.2d 785 (1970), and that the collective knowledge of agents working as a team is to be considered together in determining probable cause. E. g., United States v. Canieso, 470 F.2d 1224, 1230 n.7 (2d Cir. 1972); United States v. Stratton, 453 F.2d 36 (8th Cir. 1972), cert. denied, 405 U.S. 1069, 92 S.Ct. 1515, 31 L.Ed.2d 800 (1972). When a superior officer orders another officer to make an arrest, it is proper to consider the superior's knowledge in determining whether there was probable cause. Likewise, when a group of agents in close communication with one another determines that it is proper to arrest an individual, the knowledge of the group that made the decision may be considered in determining probable cause, not just the knowledge of the individual officer who physically effected the arrest. But here, in contrast, because there was no evidence that Garibotto's order to arrest either Jones or Hurt was the basis of their arrests, his knowledge cannot be considered in determining probable cause. On the other hand, we do mutually impute the knowledge of all the agents working together on the scene and in communication with each other. Therefore it was proper to consider not only the facts known to Agent Goldenbaum when he arrested Woods, but also the information known to the officers who saw Woods visit 19315 Hubbell and ordered Goldenbaum to follow and arrest him. 109 When Dockery arrested Jones, he knew that Jones had received a call from the Hubbell Street telephone that evening, that narcotics were believed to be concealed on the premises, and that the person he saw enter and leave the premises was known to another agent on the scene as Alphonzo Jones. Dockery testified that he had conferred with the other agents on the scene and determined that anyone who visited 19315 Hubbell Street was likely to be carrying narcotics when he left. The district court's discussion of Woods' arrest indicates that it determined that the agents on the scene knew that 19315 was being used as a narcotics distribution center that evening, and we assume that Dockery learned as much from his conference with the other agents. 110 These facts are sufficient to afford probable cause to believe that Jones had been trafficking in heroin. Of course if the government had offered evidence that the agents on the scene were aware of Jones' close association with Jackson at the time of the arrest, this additional evidence would have strengthened the probable cause. Mere presence at a place where the government believes illegal drugs will be distributed will not provide probable cause for an arrest on narcotics charges. See Sibron v. New York, 392 U.S. 40, 88 S.Ct. 1889, 20 L.Ed.2d 917 (1968). But here we think that the agent who made the arrest did have reason to believe that it was more likely than not that Jones was in possession of narcotics when he left 19315 Hubbell. 19315 was a story-and-one-half bungalow, and agents knew that it was used as a headquarters and distribution site for narcotics. They also knew that a large shipment of narcotics had arrived. Since Dockery had a conference with the other agents, and knew of the call to Jones, we think that it is legitimate to assume that he knew that the wiretap indicated that the shipment was to be distributed to callers that evening. In this circumstance, as the district court reasoned in connection with Woods, it was more likely than not that a visitor on the night of December 15 was there to pick up narcotics, especially when he had been called earlier that night from the Hubbell Street address. Accordingly, the arrest was lawful and the evidence seized from Jones was properly admitted. 111 In the case of appellant Hurt, the same reasoning applies. Agent Cigich testified that he made the arrest because of a general order by his supervisors to arrest anyone leaving 19315 Hubbell that evening. Although the government did not prove that the call from Blair to Hurt negotiating the sale of a kilogram had been communicated to Cigich or to the other agents on the scene, we assume that the supervisory agents who gave these orders knew of the anticipated distribution from the Hubbell Street house that evening. As in the case of appellant Jones, there was probable cause to arrest Hurt immediately after his brief visit to the house. The totality of the circumstances suggested no reason for his presence other than to engage in narcotics traffic. 112 In the case of appellant Woods, moreover, the agents had more than simply the expectation that 19315 Hubbell was to serve as a distribution site that evening. They also knew that two other persons who had arrived shortly before Woods had been arrested and were found to have suspected narcotics in their possession. Additionally, as the district court noted, the agents knew that once a narcotics shipment arrives it is distributed very quickly. In these circumstances, we agree with the district court that the facts known to the officers who ordered the arrest of Woods, and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information,  'were sufficient to warrant a prudent man in the belief that (Woods) had committed or was committing an offense.'  Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143, 148, 92 S.Ct. 1921, 1925, 32 L.Ed.2d 612 (1972), quoting Beck v. Ohio, 379 U.S. 89, 91, 85 S.Ct. 223, 13 L.Ed.2d 142 (1964). 113 Accordingly, we hold that the evidence seized at the arrests of appellants Hurt, Jones, and Woods was legally seized, and was admissible to prove their guilt. Since we find that there was probable cause for the arrest of Cara Woods, the evidence seized at the time of the arrest was admissible, and we have no occasion to consider whether the statements he later made were independent of his arrest. 114
115 A large quantity of narcotics was seized from the house on Hubbell Street on December 15, shortly after the arrests of appellants Jackson, Brown, Blair, and Joseph and Reginald Weaver. Appellants contend that these arrests were purposely delayed until appellants were inside the Hubbell Street house, and that they were used as a pretext for making a search of the premises without a warrant. 116 The arrests were made at approximately 10 p.m. on December 15. According to the testimony at the suppression hearing, about 6 p.m. that evening, government agents who were monitoring the Hubbell Street wiretaps informed Agent Garibotto that several calls suggested that a long awaited shipment of narcotics had arrived. Garibotto testified that he and government attorneys immediately began to prepare affidavits in support of a search warrant for Hubbell Street. Since these calls also indicated to Garibotto that buyers had arranged to come to Hubbell Street, he ordered the agents in the Hubbell Street vicinity to be alerted for the buyers' arrival. At approximately 9:45 Garibotto, who was on the way to the home of a district judge to present the affidavits, was notified of the arrests of Jones, Hurt, and Woods as they left Hubbell Street. He was also told that each of them was found to be in possession of narcotics when arrested. At that time Garibotto ordered the agents on the scene to arrest Jackson and the others found in the Hubbell Street house. At approximately 10 p.m. at the home of the district judge, when he was notified that the arrests had been made, and that suspected narcotics had been found in plain view, he added this information to the affidavit. The district judge issued a search warrant for the house on Hubbell Street, and a full search was made pursuant thereto. A large quantity of narcotics was found and was later introduced into evidence at appellants' trial. 117 Appellants contend that Garibotto purposely ordered the arrests to be made at the Hubbell Street house as a subterfuge to permit a search of the premises without a warrant. Garibotto denied that he delayed the arrests for that reason. Both appellants and the government rely upon Garibotto's statement of his purpose for ordering the arrests at that time. He testified: 118 Well, the circumstances at the Hubbell address mandated that the arrest be made at that time. Our forces were diffused at the time. We knew there were a great number of customers heading to the Hubbell address to purchase heroin and cocaine. We made three arrests, there were three seizures. We knew that our forces were spread around the immediate vicinity. We were just concerned that the evidence that was on hand at Hubbell would be distributed to the streets and would not be seized. 119 The district court upheld the seizure of the challenged evidence on two grounds. First, it held that 120 (d)espite substantial testimony about the arrests themselves at Hubbell, no persuasive facts were presented to support defendants' allegation that Jackson could have been arrested prior to his entering the house on Hubbell. 121 Additionally, the court held that even assuming that the agents had improperly delayed the arrests to gain entry into the house without a warrant, the search that was later conducted pursuant to a warrant was not tainted. The court reasoned that the district judge, who received lengthy affidavits prepared before the arrests (to which only one handwritten paragraph had been added after the arrests), had before her sufficient unchallenged facts to afford probable cause for a search. The improper addition could therefore be ignored. 122 Our court has repeatedly made it clear that: 123 An arrest may not be used as a pretext or subterfuge for making a search of premises without a search warrant where ordinarily one would be required under the Fourth Amendment. If, in fact, the primary purpose of forcibly entering a person's home is to search for evidence with which to convict him of crime, the evidence so obtained is not admissible in court. 124 United States v. Harris, 321 F.2d 739, 741 (6th Cir. 1963), quoted in United States v. Carriger, 541 F.2d 545 (6th Cir. 1976, decided and filed, August 25, 1976) (footnote omitted). As Chief Judge Cecil stated in Harris, 125 The real purpose of the agents must be determined from all of the facts and circumstances surrounding the arrest of the defendant and the search of his apartment. The court is not bound to accept the purpose as stated by the agents as controlling. 126 321 F.2d 741. 127 Appellants argue that probable cause to arrest Jackson, Brown, and Blair existed after the October 22 and November 4 sales to the undercover agent. Moreover, they emphasize that Jackson was under government surveillance before he arrived at Hubbell Street, but he was not arrested until after he was on the premises. They argue that Garibotto's statement quoted above admits that his purpose in ordering the arrests was to permit the warrantless search and seizure of narcotics. 128 Although the district court did not focus on the issue as stated in Harris, its determination that the defendants did not prove that Jackson could have been arrested sooner implies that the government did not make the arrests as a pretext for a warrantless search. The arrests were ordered as soon as the buyers who had called earlier left the premises, were arrested, and were found to be in possession of narcotics. Taken with the reports of the outgoing calls from Hubbell setting up additional sales, this firmly established that the narcotics shipment had arrived and that the occupants of the house were distributing it rapidly. This knowledge afforded probable cause to arrest all the occupants of the house, not just Jackson. Moreover, we think that Garibotto's testimony indicates that there was real concern for preventing the unlawful distribution of a large shipment of narcotics to other purchasers, as well as a desire to effect the arrests while there was sufficient manpower available. The record does not indicate that the government was trying to avoid getting a warrant to search Hubbell Street. In fact, when Garibotto ordered the arrests he was on his way to the home of a district judge with detailed affidavits, and he added only a brief handwritten statement after he learned of the arrests. The district judge actually issued a warrant within minutes of the entry and arrests. No search of the premises was made until the warrant was issued. 129 The facts and circumstances surrounding the arrests thus demonstrate that the government did not manipulate the arrests in order to avoid the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement, and we hold that the evidence seized from Hubbell Street was properly admitted. 130
131 Appellants contend that the district court's order requiring them to give formal voice exemplars violated their privilege against self-incrimination and constituted an illegal search and seizure. Accordingly, they argue that neither the exemplars nor identification testimony based upon the exemplars was admissible. In United States v. Franks, 511 F.2d 25, 32 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 422 U.S. 1042, 95 S.Ct. 2656, 45 L.Ed.2d 693 (1975) we rejected these arguments, holding: 132 Mitchell and Britton claim that the court order compelling them to give voice exemplars violated their constitutional right against unreasonable searches and seizures and their constitutional privilege against self-incrimination. United States v. Dionisio, 410 U.S. 1, 93 S.Ct. 764, 35 L.Ed.2d 67 (1973), established that compelling voice-prints even of the same words used in the crime does not violate the constitutional privilege against self-incrimination. Accord, United States v. Rogers, 475 F.2d 821, 825-826 (7th Cir. 1973). Moreover, compelling a voice-print is neither a search nor a seizure. Dionisio, 410 U.S. at 14-15, 93 S.Ct. 764. We reject Mitchell's attempt to limit Dionisio to the grand jury context in that, so long as the underlying seizure of the person is proper, requiring that person to submit voice exemplars violates no constitutional rights. See United States v. Rogers, 475 F.2d 821 (7th Cir. 1973) (court-ordered submission); United States v. Sanders, 477 F.2d 112 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 414 U.S. 870, 94 S.Ct. 88, 38 L.Ed.2d 88 (1973) (legally in custody on another matter). 133
134 Appellants also contend that their Fourth Amendment rights and their privilege against self-incrimination were violated, and their Sixth Amendment right to counsel denied, at a series of informal aural show ups. Appellants allege that government agents created opportunities to speak to each of the appellants both in person after their arrests, and later over the telephone by setting up a lengthy procedure for the return of their seized property. Agents testified that they did not give the warnings detailed in Miranda v. Arizona,384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966), when they spoke to appellants on these occasions, 12 and appellants did not have their counsel present. 135 As we stated in connection with the formal voice exemplars, supra, neither the Fourth Amendment nor the privilege against self-incrimination is violated by the disclosure, even if compelled, of a person's voice. Appellants' complaint is not that their statements were used to incriminate them in a testimonial sense, but that the agents were able to recognize their voices on the tapes after having heard them in person and over the telephone. 136 Appellants also claim, however, that because the aural show ups formed the basis for the critical testimony identifying their voices on the tapes, they were critical stages at which the Sixth Amendment guaranteed appellants' right to counsel. A review of the testimony indicates that Agent Garibotto did speak to several of appellants briefly after their arrests, and later over the telephone. These conversations appear to have been brief and matter of fact, concerning such routine matters as the return of property which had been seized. There is no requirement that counsel be present for conversations about such routine matters when no effort at interrogation is made.IV. WAS THERE SUFFICIENT PROOF OF APPELLANTS' GUILT ON EACH OF THE COUNTS? 137 Next we consider the sufficiency of the proofs supporting appellants' convictions on the various counts of the indictment. First, appellants assert that the Pinkerton rule should not be applied to convict defendants, found to be conspirators, of each of the substantive counts without proof that each defendant actually took part in the individual transactions. Second, several appellants challenge the sufficiency of the evidence linking them to the conspiracy. Last, we will consider challenges to the proofs on counts 3, 4, 8 and 9. 138 A. The Pinkerton Rule. 139 Appellants vigorously attack the validity of the rule announced in Pinkerton v. United States, 328 U.S. 640, 66 S.Ct. 1180, 90 L.Ed. 1489 (1946), that even if he did no more than join a conspiracy, a conspirator can be convicted of any substantive offense committed in furtherance of the conspiracy and as a part of it. Appellants contend that the Pinkerton rule is bad law, and that this court should not follow it. Our court, however, is constitutionally required to follow the Supreme Court's decision in Pinkerton and the cases following it, which have never been overruled, or even questioned by the Supreme Court. 140 B. The Sufficiency of the Evidence of Conspiracy. 141 Appellants Kilpatrick, Riggs, Rudolph, Cavanaugh, Horne, Hurt, and Garrett challenge the sufficiency of the evidence supporting their convictions. Since each of them was found guilty of conspiracy, count 1, under the Pinkerton rule, they could also be convicted of counts 3 and 4 and counts 6 through 16, which charged crimes that were part of and in furtherance of the conspiracy. Appellants contend, however, that there was insufficient evidence to support their convictions on the conspiracy charge. 142 In reviewing the sufficiency of the proof of appellants' guilt, we will be guided by the following general principles. The evidence will be viewed in the light most favorable to the government. Glasser v. United States, 315 U.S. 60, 62 S.Ct. 457, 86 L.Ed. 680 (1942). Moreover, there are special evidentiary rules applicable to conspiracy cases. As we stated in United States v. Mayes, 512 F.2d 637, 651 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 422 U.S. 1008, 95 S.Ct. 2629, 45 L.Ed.2d 670 (1975): 143 a prima facie case of the conspiracy and the defendant's connection with it must be established by evidence independent of that offered as an admission of a co-conspirator. . . . However, a prima facie case is less than proof beyond a reasonable doubt; indeed, it is less than a preponderance. . . . Moreover, the prima facie case need not be established before the proffered hearsay may be admitted; the judge may admit it conditionally. It is sufficient if at the close of the government's proofs, a prima facie case of conspiracy and the defendant's connection with it has been established by independent or disassociated evidence. 144 Applying these principles, we turn to the evidence that is claimed to support the finding that each of these appellants was a conspirator. Willie Lee Kilpatrick 145 Appellant Kilpatrick was convicted of conspiracy, count 1, by Judge Pratt, and under the Pinkerton rule he was also convicted on counts 3, 4, and 6 through 16. We hold that the evidence was adequate to support his conviction on the conspiracy count, and we have already discussed the Pinkerton rule supra. The following evidence supported the district court's conclusion that Kilpatrick was involved in narcotic trafficking, was clearly associated with defendant Jackson and connected with the other conspirators . . . (and) was in the 'lieutenant' echelon of the Jackson organization. . . .  Kilpatrick flew to New York with appellant Riggs (Jackson's girlfriend), who was arrested carrying a quantity of narcotics when she attempted to return to Detroit. Informant Nabors testified that he observed Kilpatrick at 19315 Hubbell Street at the time scheduled for a meeting of the Jackson organization lieutenants. When Nabors refused the organization's invitation to become a lieutenant, he was not allowed to stay. A search of Kilpatrick's apartment produced substances used to dilute heroin, narcotics paraphernalia, and firearms. Kilpatrick's address book listed the names of other conspirators, and he was likewise found listed in their books. Leo Hurt 146 Judge Feikens convicted appellant Hurt on count 1 because he found beyond a reasonable doubt that Hurt purchased from the Jackson organization large quantities of narcotics for wholesale distribution. The district court took special note of a call that Hurt made to Blair in which Hurt stated that his customers were complaining about the quality of the narcotics he had sold them. Judge Feikens observed that Hurt was mentioned in the telephone and address books of several of the conspirators. Finally, Hurt was called to the Hubbell Street house on December 15 when the large shipment was being distributed, and he was arrested with heroin in his possession when he left. Although the heroin was found in Hurt's car, not on his person, there was ample evidence to support a finding of possession, since he was apparently the only person in the car, and the heroin was found on the floor by the driver's seat. This evidence is sufficient to support the conclusion that Hurt, like Cavanaugh and Rudolph, was a major distributor for and a member of the conspiracy. Accordingly, we affirm Hurt's conviction on count 1. Under the Pinkerton rule, the conviction on count 1 permitted his conviction on the counts charging the substantive crimes committed in furtherance of the conspiracy as well, including count 7. Accordingly, we need not discuss Hurt's argument that there was insufficient evidence to convict him on count 7, although we conclude that even without the Pinkerton rule, there was sufficient evidence to sustain his conviction on this charge. 147 Hurt also contends, relying upon Kotteakos v. United States, 328 U.S. 750, 66 S.Ct. 1239, 90 L.Ed. 1557 (1946), that the evidence shows only a hub and spoke cluster of several conspiracies, each between an individual dealer and the hub consisting of Jackson and his lieutenants. In Kotteakos, however, defendant Brown specialized in obtaining loans from the Federal Housing Administration by false and fraudulent applications. Several defendants, each of whom had obtained such a loan falsely and fraudulently, were charged with and convicted of a single all-encompassing conspiracy. The Supreme Court held that there was proof, not of a single, but of several conspiracies, and reversed the convictions. 148 Hurt, however, was a distributor with an ongoing relationship with the conspiracy to distribute illegal narcotics. He depended for his success upon the continuing vitality of the entire conspiracy. This is particularly true in the narcotics business, because new customers of each seller may become, by reason of addiction, a lifetime potential market for all other sellers. Fairh Lee Riggs 149 Judge Feikens convicted appellant Riggs of conspiracy, count 1, concluding that she knowingly and intentionally joined the conspiracy, and that she was an important courier in the transportation of narcotics as well as an intimate associate of Jackson. We hold that the evidence was sufficient to convict Riggs of conspiracy. Riggs had traveled to New York with appellant Kilpatrick and defendant Reynolds in September 1971. All three used assumed names. When airlines personnel examined appellant Riggs' carry-on luggage, they observed an estimated $30,000 in cash in a paper bag. Riggs was arrested later that day when she returned to the New York airport for a return flight to Detroit. Her luggage contained 1,917 grams of heroin and almost $5,000 in cash. She was convicted of possession of the heroin in the Eastern District of New York, and the conviction was affirmed. United States v. Riggs, 474 F.2d 699 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 414 U.S. 820, 94 S.Ct. 115, 38 L.Ed.2d 53 (1973). By stipulation, the record in the New York case was incorporated into these proceedings. Riggs was Jackson's girlfriend. He arranged to take calls from another conspirator at her house. Riggs' name and telephone number, along with those of several other appellants, were found in appellant Rudolph's address book. This evidence was adequate to establish a prima facie case that appellant Riggs knowingly joined the conspiracy. Accordingly, other evidence of hearsay statements by other conspirators was admissible to strengthen the case against Riggs. Burt's testimony indicated that the Jackson organization procured several large shipments of narcotics from a source in New York. Additionally Jackson told Burt that he believed the Riggs arrest must have been a set-up because the two men with her were not arrested. Jackson tried to raise a large sum because his old lady was in jail in New York, and Blair told Burt that Jackson was trying to find a lawyer for Riggs. This evidence amply supports the conviction of Riggs on count 1. Samuel (Eugene) Horne 150 Judge Feikens concluded that it was clear beyond a reasonable doubt that defendant Samuel Horne knowingly and intentionally joined the conspiracy. He concluded that Horne's principal activity for the organization was wholesale distribution of narcotics. The government intercepted telephone conferences between Horne and Joseph Weaver, Brown, Blair, and Jackson. In particular, Judge Feikens noted that on December 9 Horne called Jackson and attempted to arrange a sale to a customer who wanted a full thing for $15,000. This evidence was more than ample to support Horne's conviction of conspiracy. Charles Cavanaugh 151 Judge Feikens convicted Cavanaugh of count 1, conspiracy, holding that he was one of the organization's wholesale distributors, and that he engaged in other kinds of supply activity for the group. Burt testified that she and Blair delivered cocaine to Cavanaugh in exchange for three outfits of clothing. The wiretap intercepted a number of calls from Cavanaugh to the Hubbell Street telephone inquiring abut the availability of narcotics. Cavanaugh indicated his familiarity with various key members of the organization by calling and asking to speak to George (Blair), Brown, or the big man (Jackson). In these calls Cavanaugh made arrangements for sales, complained about the quality of the narcotics that he had received, saying at one point that he had had to return his customers' money. On December 14 Jackson agreed to sell Cavanaugh 13 quarters of heroin. 152 This evidence was more than sufficient to prove Cavanaugh's part in the conspiracy. See, e. g., United States v. Tramunti, 513 F.2d 1087, 1112 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 832, 96 S.Ct. 54, 46 L.Ed.2d 50 (1975); United States v. Varelli, 407 F.2d 735, 748 (7th Cir. 1969), cert. denied sub nom. Saletko v. United States, 405 U.S. 1040, 92 S.Ct. 1311, 31 L.Ed.2d 581 (1972); United States v. Aviles, 274 F.2d 179, 188 (2d Cir. 1960). Charles Rudolph 153 Judge Feikens also convicted appellant Rudolph on the conspiracy count. He held that Rudolph was deeply involved in wholesale distribution of drugs for the group. Judge Feikens cited as evidence Rudolph's telephone calls, his account records, and his automatic telephone dialing cards for other conspirators, as well as the fact that Rudolph was listed in the telephone and address books of other conspirators. In one telephone call, Rudolph told Brown he was getting low, and he would take a quantity of narcotics being held for another buyer if that transaction did not go through. Brown called Rudolph a few days before the last big delivery to tell him that the narcotics would be around in a few days, and Rudolph said that he would wait. An outgoing call to Rudolph's telephone was made from Hubbell Street on December 15 when the expected shipment was being distributed, but there was no answer. A search of appellant's home yielded 417 grams of heroin, common diluents, guns, ammunition, and a record book including the names of other conspirators and sums of money. This evidence established a prima facie showing of his status as a conspirator, and made admissible Burt's testimony that Blair told her Rudolph had once been a Jackson lieutenant, but that he broke away and now specialized in selling quarters of heroin and cocaine. It is immaterial that Rudolph no longer served the Jackson organization as a lieutenant, since he still acted as a major distributor for the organization. The evidence adequately supports his conviction. Ronald Garrett 154 Judge Feikens found appellant Garrett guilty of conspiracy on the basis of the following evidence: Garrett's telephone number was listed in Kilpatrick's address book and in Rudolph's telephone and address book, and he had a substantial account listed in Rudolph's account book. Additionally, Garrett figured prominently in a number of intercepted telephone conversations. Since Garrett was not one of the speakers in these conversations, they are admissible to prove the truth of the matters asserted only if a prima facie case is made that Garrett was one of the conspirators. However, Judge Feikens properly relied upon the fact that several of the conspirators mentioned Garrett repeatedly in the course of discussions regarding their narcotics transactions. Evidence that his name was mentioned repeatedly in the context of the narcotics transactions was not hearsay, and was competent evidence tending to show that he was a conspirator. It should be unnecessary to emphasize that proof of an illegal conspiracy is seldom direct. More often, there is only indirect proof of the unlawful agreement. We are required by Glasser to view the evidence in the light most favorable to the government. Accordingly, we hold that a prima facie case of conspiracy, although a minimal one, is established by the evidence of the telephone calls, considered together with the address books and Rudolph's account book, which indicated a substantial sum of money for Garrett as well as for other persons shown to be conspirators. Accordingly, the substance of the telephone conversations, in which other conspirators' statements indicated Garrett's deep involvement, was admissible. In addition, Burt's hearsay testimony that she helped Blair make a delivery which he said was for Five-O was admissible to prove Garrett's complicity. Burt identified Garrett as Five-O at trial. This evidence was adequate to support Garrett's conviction on count 1. 155 C. Counts 3 and 4. 156 Appellants Brown, Bell, Riggs, Horne, Garrett, Jones, and Rudolph challenge the sufficiency of the evidence to support their convictions of count 3, the October 22 sale to Special Agent Smith, and of count 4, the November 4 sale. Since we have affirmed their convictions of conspiracy under count 1, appellants were properly convicted of the substantive charges in these counts as well under the Pinkerton rule. 157 D. Counts 8 and 9. 158 Appellants challenge the validity of convicting them on count 8 (distribution of 137.35 grams of heroin) and count 9 (distribution of 37.66 grams of cocaine) in view of the fact that the district court acquitted Cara Woods, in whose possession the heroin and cocaine were found, of the conspiracy charge. Appellants contend that since Woods was not a member of the conspiracy, his statement to Agent Garibotto regarding the source of the narcotics was hearsay and therefore not admissible to prove the guilt of the conspirators. Accordingly, they argue that there was no proof that Woods had obtained the narcotics from 19315 Hubbell. We disagree. There was compelling circumstantial evidence that the heroin and cocaine referred to in counts 8 and 9 were procured from the Jackson organization at 19315 Hubbell. Woods visited the Hubbell Street address briefly on the night of the 15th of December when a large shipment of narcotics was being rapidly distributed, and when he was arrested just as he left he was found in possession of the narcotics. Minutes before two other persons had entered briefly, and when they left they too had been arrested and were found to be in possession of narcotics. We think that this is ample evidence to support a finding that the narcotics seized from Cara Woods were distributed by the Jackson organization, and that therefore all of the conspirators could be convicted of counts 8 and 9 under the Pinkerton rule. 159