Opinion ID: 691027
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Drug Paraphernalia Act

Text: 25 Janus next asserts that the current drug paraphernalia statute violates the Tenth Amendment because it does not contain an interstate commerce element 2 and lacks specific congressional findings that the sales of drug paraphernalia affect interstate commerce. R.Supp. Vol. 1, Doc. 2. We review de novo the issue of whether Sec. 863 represents a legitimate exercise of congressional authority. Johnston v. Cigna Corp., 14 F.3d 486, 489 (10th Cir.1993); United States v. Murphy, 977 F.2d 503, 504 (10th Cir.1992). 26 Article I, section 8, clause 3 of the Constitution confers upon Congress the power [t]o regulate Commerce ... among the several states and clause 18 of the same article grants Congress the power [t]o make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for the carrying into execution the foregoing powers. Under its extensive commerce power, Congress may regulate purely intrastate activities that affect interstate commerce, Fry v. United States, 421 U.S. 542, 547, 95 S.Ct. 1792, 1795, 44 L.Ed.2d 363 (1975) (Even activity that is purely intrastate in character may be regulated by Congress, where the activity affects commerce among the States or with foreign nations.), and need not require proof of a nexus between the activity and interstate commerce. See, e.g., Perez v. United States, 402 U.S. 146, 153, 91 S.Ct. 1357, 1361, 28 L.Ed.2d 686 (1971) (upholding 18 U.S.C. Secs. 891-894, which prohibit extortionate credit transactions but do not expressly require proof of an interstate commerce nexus); see also United States v. Lane, 883 F.2d 1484, 1492 (10th Cir.1989) (upholding 18 U.S.C. Sec. 245(b)(2)(C), which prohibits interference with applications for or enjoyment of private employment because of race, color, religion, or national origin but does not expressly require proof of an interstate commerce requirement), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 1059, 110 S.Ct. 872, 107 L.Ed.2d 956 (1990). Janus apparently concedes this, but argues that Sec. 863 is unconstitutional because the legislative history for the specific statute does not contain any explicit or implicit congressional findings that sales of drug paraphernalia affect interstate commerce. R.Supp. Vol. 1, Doc. 2. 27 Janus's argument is foreclosed by prior case law in which we have repeatedly concluded that the absence of formal findings concerning the effect on interstate commerce ... does not prevent Congress from regulating under the Commerce Clause. Morgan v. Secretary of Housing & Urban Dev., 985 F.2d 1451, 1455 (10th Cir.1993); Lane, 883 F.2d at 1492 (Congress is not required to make 'particularized findings in order to legislate.'  (quoting Perez, 402 U.S. at 156, 91 S.Ct. at 1362)). And our holdings in Morgan, Lane, and the case at bar are entirely consistent with the Supreme Court's Commerce Clause jurisprudence. See, e.g., Perez, 402 U.S. at 156, 91 S.Ct. at 1362 (providing Congress need not make particularized findings in order to legislate); Katzenbach v. McClung, 379 U.S. 294, 299, 85 S.Ct. 377, 381, 13 L.Ed.2d 290 (1964) (same); see also Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448, 503, 100 S.Ct. 2758, 2787, 65 L.Ed.2d 902 (1980) (Powell, J., concurring) (After Congress has legislated repeatedly in an area of national concern, its Members gain experience that may reduce the need for fresh hearings or prolonged debate when Congress again considers action in that area.). 28 Additionally, the Supreme Court has emphasized that [w]here the class of activities is regulated and that class is within the reach of federal power, the courts have no power 'to excise, as trivial, individual instances' of the class. Perez, 402 U.S. at 154, 91 S.Ct. at 1361-62 (quoting Maryland v. Wirtz, 392 U.S. 183, 193, 88 S.Ct. 2017, 2022, 20 L.Ed.2d 1020 (1968)); see also United States v. Smaldone, 485 F.2d 1333, 1342 (10th Cir.1973) ([A]ctivities within a regulated class of activities which do not exceed the reach of federal power under the Commerce Clause need not be shown, in each individual case, to affect interstate commerce.), cert. denied, 416 U.S. 936, 94 S.Ct. 1934, 40 L.Ed.2d 286 (1974). Regarding the case at bar, Congress frequently has relied upon the Commerce Clause as authority for the enactment of statutes regulating drug trafficking, see, e.g., 21 U.S.C. Sec. 801, and courts have consistently upheld congressional regulation of the class of intrastate drug activities. See, e.g., United States v. Visman, 919 F.2d 1390, 1393 (9th Cir.1990), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 969, 112 S.Ct. 442, 116 L.Ed.2d 460 (1991); United States v. Montes-Zarate, 552 F.2d 1330, 1331 (9th Cir.1977) (per curium), cert. denied, 435 U.S. 947, 98 S.Ct. 1532, 55 L.Ed.2d 545 (1978). Therefore, because intrastate sales of drug paraphernalia are part of this properly regulated class, it follows that the drug paraphernalia statute is a proper exercise of Congressional power. See Lane, 883 F.2d at 1492 (When Congress enacts a statute under its commerce power, it is not constitutionally obligated to require proof beyond a reasonable doubt that each individual act in the class of activities regulated had an effect on interstate commerce.). 29 Furthermore, the drug paraphernalia statute which Janus challenges is part of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of Title 21. In the legislative history of that act, Congress specifically found that Federal control of the intrastate incidents of the traffic in controlled substances is essential to the effective control of the interstate incidents of such traffic. 21 U.S.C. Sec. 801(6). We regard drug paraphernalia to be part and parcel of the incidents of the traffic in controlled substances, and see no reason why Congress could not rely on that connection to support Sec. 863. Cf. Lane, 883 F.2d at 1492 (concluding that although Congress had made no interstate commerce findings in 1988 when it enacted 18 U.S.C. Sec. 245, it had heard extensive evidence on the burdens racial discrimination places on interstate commerce in connection with enacting the 1964 Civil Rights Act on which Congress could have relied); see also United States v. Edwards, 13 F.3d 291, 294 (9th Cir.1993) (suggesting Congress was not required to conduct additional hearings and make new findings regarding a specific statute which would merely repeat prior findings). Therefore, we conclude that Congress possessed power under the Commerce Clause to enact Sec. 863 and that Congress validly invoked that power.IV. Joinder/Severance 30 Janus next contends that joinder of the marijuana count with the paraphernalia counts was improper under Fed.R.Crim.P. 8(a), or, alternatively, that the trial court abused its discretion in denying severance under Fed.R.Crim.P. 14. 31 A question of misjoinder under rule 8 is a question of law, subject to de novo review. United States v. Hollis, 971 F.2d 1441, 1456 (10th Cir.1992), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 113 S.Ct. 1580, 123 L.Ed.2d 148 (1993); United States v. Cardall, 885 F.2d 656, 667 (10th Cir.1989). According to Rule 8(a) joinder of offenses is proper if the offenses are of the same or similar character. United States v. Holland, 10 F.3d 696, 699 (10th Cir.1993), cert. denied sub nom. Kelly v. United States, --- U.S. ----, 114 S.Ct. 739, 126 L.Ed.2d 702 (1994); United States v. Sturmoski, 971 F.2d 452, 460 (10th Cir.1992). And we have previously stated that Rule 8 is construed broadly to allow liberal joinder to enhance the efficiency of the judicial system. United States v. Hopkinson, 631 F.2d 665, 668 (10th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 450 U.S. 969, 101 S.Ct. 1489, 67 L.Ed.2d 620 (1981); see United States v. Scott, 659 F.2d 585, 588 (5th Cir. Unit B 1981) (providing rule governing joinder is to be broadly construed in favor of initial joinder), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 854, 103 S.Ct. 121, 74 L.Ed.2d 105 (1982); Haggard v. United States, 369 F.2d 968, 973 (8th Cir.1966) (stating broad interpretation of rule governing joinder is encouraged in the interest of more efficient administration of criminal trials), cert. denied sub nom. Alley v. United States, 386 U.S. 1023, 87 S.Ct. 1379, 18 L.Ed.2d 461 (1967). In the present case, Count 161, knowingly engaging in the manufacture of marijuana plants, is a drug offense in violation of the Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of Title 21. Counts 2 and 3, knowingly and intentionally selling and offering for sale drug paraphernalia, are also drug offenses in violation of the same comprehensive act. We conclude, therefore, that the joinder of Count 161 was proper under Rule 8(a) because it was an offense of the same or similar character. Cf. United States v. Fortenberry, 919 F.2d 923, 925 (5th Cir.1990) (concluding that because both charges were for weapons violations they were of the same or similar character within the meaning of the rule governing joinder of claims), cert. denied, 499 U.S. 930, 111 S.Ct. 1333, 113 L.Ed.2d 265 (1991). 32 However, even in the absence of a misjoinder under Rule 8(a), the court may order the separate trials of counts  '[i]f it appears that a defendant ... is prejudiced by a joinder of offenses.'  United States v. Levine, 983 F.2d 165, 167 (10th Cir.1992) (quoting Fed.R.Crim.P. 14). In deciding on a motion for severance, the district court has a duty to weigh the prejudice resulting from a single trial of counts against the expense and inconvenience of separate trials. Hollis, 971 F.2d at 1456; Cardall, 885 F.2d at 668. The decision whether to grant or deny severance is within the sound discretion of the trial court, and will not be disturbed on appeal unless there is an affirmative showing of an abuse of discretion. Id. at 667. The burden of the defendant to show an abuse of discretion in this context is a difficult one. United States v. Valentine, 706 F.2d 282, 290 (10th Cir.1983). 33 Before the district court, Janus attempted to justify the severing of counts because no reasonable jury would be able to decide the drug paraphernalia counts alone when the marihuana count is tried along with it. Defs' Mot. for Severance, R.Vol. 1, Doc. 28. This rationale, however, does not mandate a severance.  'Neither a mere allegation that defendant would have a better chance of acquittal in a separate trial, nor a complaint of the spillover effect ... is sufficient to warrant severance.'  Levine, 983 F.2d at 167 (quoting United States v. Bailey, 952 F.2d 363, 365 (10th Cir.1991)) (alteration in original). Moreover, as the district court found, had separate trials been granted, the evidence would likely have been admissible anyway under Fed.R.Evid. 404(b) as showing intent. See Hollis, 971 F.2d at 1457; see also United States v. Rabbitt, 583 F.2d 1014, 1022 (8th Cir.1978), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 1116, 99 S.Ct. 1022, 59 L.Ed.2d 75 (1979). The charges against Janus mainly dealt with alleged drug paraphernalia. Consequently, Janus's intent was paramount. Janus claimed that his business was a legitimate, non-drug business as far as he knew; therefore, the presence of a hidden garden and marijuana plants would be both relevant and material on other counts. Under these circumstances we conclude that the district court did not abuse its discretion in refusing to sever the counts. 34