Opinion ID: 347528
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 9

Heading: haldeman's perjury convictions the evidence and the instructions

Text: 160 In addition to finding the defendant Haldeman guilty of conspiracy and obstruction of justice, the jury also found him guilty on three counts of perjury Counts 7, 8, and 9 in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1621 (1970). All of these offenses were allegedly committed from July 30 to August 1, 1973, when he testified before the Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities (the Ervin Committee). Count 7 charged Haldeman with falsely testifying that, prior to March 21, 1973, no one in the White House other than John Dean had any idea that hush money was being paid to the Watergate burglars. Count 8 alleged that Haldeman committed perjury in testifying that he had listened to a tape recording of the President's March 21, 1973, conversation with Dean and that he (Haldeman) was absolutely positive that the tapes recorded the President as saying, We can (raise $1,000,000 for hush money)    but it would be wrong. Count 9 alleged that perjury was committed when Haldeman told the Senate Committee that, during a March 21, 1973, meeting among himself, the President, and John Dean, I don't believe there was any reference to (Jeb) Magruder committing perjury.
161 Haldeman first contends that the trial court erred in not explaining the meaning of corroboration in connection with the Two-Witness Rule applicable to perjury offenses. 185 He had requested such an instruction. J.A. 828-829. This objection is directed to Count 7, which alleged that Haldeman committed perjury when he denied personal knowledge that anyone was aware until March 1973 that around $350,000 which had been collected and paid for the defense of the Watergate burglars involved either blackmail or hush money. 186 The court's instruction on this point was as follows: 162 As to the second element, the law requires in a case such as this that the falsity of the testimony in question be proved by the sworn testimony of at least one witness, and that the testimony as to falsity given by such witness be corroborated by some other evidence in the case. In other words, a person cannot be convicted of perjury when the evidence simply consists of his oath against another's; there must be some corroboration of the testimony against him before he can be convicted. This is one of the factors which distinguishes this perjury law from the false declaration law which forms the basis of Counts Four, Five, Eleven, and Twelve as I noted a while ago. 163 Accordingly, if you find, with respect to any of these perjury counts, namely, Six, Seven, Eight, and Nine, that the prosecution has presented only one witness who has testified to the falsity of a Defendant's Senate testimony, and no independent corroborating evidence of the falsity of the Defendant's testimony, you must find the Defendant not guilty on that count. 164 Tr. 12390-12391. 165 Haldeman contends that this instruction constitutes reversible error on count Seven because the trial court failed to define corroboration. Haldeman br. at 137. His apparent point is that the court should have additionally instructed that corroborative evidence necessary to sustain a perjury conviction is that which tends to show the perjury independently. 187 Haldeman br. at 136-137. It seems, however, that the court's instruction, given above, practically complied with this requirement in that portion of the charge stating: 166    if you find    that the prosecution has presented only one witness who has testified to the falsity of a Defendant's Senate testimony, and no independent corroborating evidence of the falsity of the Defendant's testimony, you must find the defendant not guilty on that count. 167 J.A. 12391 (emphasis added). We are of opinion that this instruction was adequate and appellant's objection to it is not well taken. 168 A second argument raised by Haldeman is that, even assuming an adequate instruction on corroboration, there was no independent corroborating evidence of the falsity of this testimony. The main proof of perjury is John Dean's testimony that Haldeman was aware at the very outset of the conspiracy that money was being paid to the break-in defendants to keep them silent. See, e. g., Tr. 2741-2742. The corroborating proof of this, however, is said to be only allegations by Dean that Haldeman heard a tape recording of a conversation between E. Howard Hunt and Charles Colson in which Hunt complained that the Administration's promises of money payments were not being fulfilled. Tr. 2909-2912, 2920-2923, 2928-2931, 4250-4254; Tape Tr. 646-647, 651. 169 If this were the only corroborating evidence, it would be insufficient, for it is not independent it is only Dean affirming Dean. But contrary to Haldeman's argument, there is independent evidence to support Dean's allegations in this regard. Several of the taped conversations involving Haldeman and the President, which were heard by the jury, could reasonably be interpreted to include admissions by Haldeman of knowledge, prior to March 21, 1973, of hush money payments to the Watergate break-in defendants. For example, on April 14, 1973, the President, Haldeman, and Ehrlichman discussed Dean's June 28, 1972, request that Herbert Kalmbach be asked to raise hush money: 170 EHRLICHMAN: As a matter of fact, I didn't refer him (Dean) to Kalmbach. He came to me and said, May I go to Kalmbach? 171 HALDEMAN: He did the same thing to me. 172 PRESIDENT: Go to Kalmbach for the purpose of? 173 EHRLICHMAN: For the purpose of getting Herb to raise some money. For the purpose of paying the defendants. For the purpose of keeping them, quote, on the reservation, unquote. 174 PRESIDENT: Right. With that they could try to tie you and Bob in a conspiracy to obstruct justice. 175 EHRLICHMAN: That's his theory. 176 Tape Tr. 456 (emphasis added). In another conversation on March 22, 1973, between Haldeman and the President, Haldeman essentially admitted approving transfer of $350,000 from a fund under his control for use to pay off the Watergate break-in defendants. 188 8] These direct statements of Haldeman are strong substantiating evidence, and are completely independent of the testimony of John Dean. In addition, they allow inferences to be drawn from other circumstantial evidence (such as Dean contacting Kalmbach about raising money for the defendants, Tr. 6301-6305), which corroborate Dean's story. 177 Therefore, we reject both the challenge to the instructions and the challenge to the evidence under Count 7, and affirm Haldeman's conviction on this count. 189
178 The next attack on the instructions by Haldeman relates to his conviction on Count 8 the but it would be wrong count. This charge arises from the false statement to the Senate Select Committee that, on March 21, 1973, during a meeting among Haldeman, the President, and John Dean, the President discussed the possibility of raising hush money but concluded by saying we can do that but it would be wrong. Indictment, Count 8, P 4, J.A. 141-143. Haldeman complains that the jury was not instructed on the theory of his defense to this charge, although appropriate requests were made. Specifically, he asserts in his brief that the 179 Jury Was Not Told that Defendant Haldeman Challenged the Accuracy of the Alleged Perjurious Senate Testimony Which Formed the Basis for Count Eight on the Ground that He Did Not Quote President Nixon but Rather Paraphrased His Statements 180 Defendant Haldeman testified at trial that he was not quoting President Nixon to this effect but was only paraphrasing the former Chief Executive. Claiming a variance from the Indictment, defendant Haldeman submitted a proposed instruction that would have advised the jury of this theory of defense (J.A. 711) but the court rejected this request without explanation (J.A. 776). 181 Haldeman br. at 137. 182 The requested instruction, which he now asserts he was entitled to because it would have presented the theory of his defense, would have instructed the jury: 183 If you find that Mr. Haldeman did not purport to quote former President Nixon at the date, time and place alleged in Count Eight, then you should find Mr. Haldeman not guilty of the offense charged in Count Eight. Otherwise, you should apply to Count Eight the instructions on perjury which I have heretofore given you. 184 J.A. 711. 190 The actual charge delivered to the jury by the trial judge with respect to Count 8 did include the following language, however: 185 (A)s I will mention again in a minute, Mr. Haldeman is contesting the accuracy of his testimony as it set forth in Count Eight of the indictment. Let me now remind you that even though there are some stipulations, you must decide for yourselves whether the first element has been proved beyond a reasonable doubt. 186 Tr. 12390 (emphasis added). 187 The jury must note that the Defendant, Mr. Haldeman, has challenged the accuracy of the testimony alleged in Count Eight of the indictment to be false. So on this count of the indictment, the jury must also determine whether the Defendant testified before the Senate Committee as alleged in Count Eight. 188 Thus, in each of these counts the Government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt the falsity of the alleged perjurious testimony. 189 Tr. 12391-12392 (emphasis added). 190 While these instructions were not worded exactly as Haldeman requested, they did fairly present to the jury the fact that he was challenging the accuracy of his alleged perjurious Senate testimony as alleged in Count 8. In fact, that point was twice stated. We see no error in the instructions on this matter. 191 Haldeman also challenges the evidence on Count 8, arguing that  a fair and liberal construction of the March 21 tape, as explained by the defendant, finds the statements true, and surely they were believed to be true 191 since he allegedly was paraphrasing rather than quoting President Nixon. This amounts to a challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence to convict on this count. We find no error in submitting the question to the jury, for there is enough evidence here to support a conviction. The actual testimony before the Senate Committee, as quoted in Count 8 and reproduced in the margin, 192 goes a long way toward answering the question of whether Haldeman did, or did not, purport to quote former President Nixon as alleged in Count 8. The addendum referred to by Senator Baker on July 31 is presumably a written statement filed with the Committee by Haldeman, see Exhibit 22; Hearings Before the Senate Select Comm. on Presidential Campaign Activities, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., Book 7, at 2866, 2897 (July 30, 1973). It (unlike the actual testimony) obviously involves no interruption. The Senator quotes Haldeman as stating flatly in this addendum, The President said there is no problem in raising a million dollars. We can do that but it would be wrong. J.A. 142 (emphasis added). 193 Then, in response to a question from the Senator, Haldeman affirmed that this is what he heard: 192 Senator Baker. Did you hear it with your own voice? 193 Mr. Haldeman. With my own ears, yes. 194 Id. Several minutes later, in response to a question from Senator Ervin, Haldeman refers again, without qualification, to the statement of the President that payment of hush money would be wrong. Id. at 93. While it is true that Haldeman did preface his statement before the Committee on July 30, 1973, with the caveat that he was recounting the substance of that (March 21) meeting to the best of my recollection after listening to the tape, id. at 91, this by itself does not indicate whether he would be quoting or paraphrasing particular sentences; moreover, the caveat was not repeated the next day (July 31) when, as pointed out above, he again flatly stated twice that the President had said hush money would be wrong. Haldeman's argument was presented to the jury, see, e. g., Tr. 1808-1812, and it was clearly within the province of the jury to interpret these statements as quotations. 194
195 Haldeman next asserts that the court erred in failing to grant his requested instruction with respect to the effect of an alleged interruption in his testimony. 196 As is indicated by the transcript of Haldeman's testimony before the Senate Committee, the following colloquy occurred with Senator Baker: 197 Senator Baker. What I want to point out to you is that one sentence in your addendum . . . the third from the last sentence on page 2, The President said there is no problem in raising a million dollars. We can do that but it would be wrong. Now, how sure are you, Mr. Haldeman, that those tapes, in fact say that? 198 Mr. Haldeman. I am absolutely positive that the tapes 199 Senator Baker. Did you heard it with your own voice? Mr. Haldeman. With my own ears, yes. 195 200 Haldeman points to what appears to be an interruption by Senator Baker of the reply to the Senator's first question. At trial, Haldeman testified that his answer was incomplete and that if he had been allowed to do so he would have enlarged upon his answer to avoid what on the face of the record (he now contends) appears to be a misinterpretation of his statement (Tr. 8676). Haldeman br. at 138. To assist in making this point to the jury, Haldeman proffered the following proposed instruction: 201 You may not convict a defendant of perjury merely because his testimony was factually incorrect, or if he gave incorrect testimony because of surprise, confusion, haste, inadvertence, an honest mistake as to the facts, carelessness, negligence, or if an incorrect impression was created because the defendant was interrupted while making his statement. 202 J.A. 712 (emphasis added). He now claims error because this instruction was denied. 203 The court, however, did give the following instruction: 204 A Defendant may not be found guilty of perjury simply because he gives testimony which is factually incorrect. He may have given incorrect testimony because of surprise, confusion, inadvertence, honest mistake of facts, carelessness or negligence. Also, if a Defendant believed a statement to be true when he made it, you must find that Defendant not guilty, even if it so happens that the statement was, in fact, false. 205 This instruction covers all the principal points of the requested instruction, except it omits the italicized words, i. e., a defendant may not be found guilty of perjury if an incorrect impression was created because the defendant was interrupted while making his statement. We do not find error in the refusal to so instruct the jury. 206 The italicized portion of the requested instruction was too strongly worded in the defendant's behalf and was not a correct statement of the law. 196 It would have in effect instructed the jury that they could acquit the defendant on Count 8 if an interruption in his testimony created an incorrect impression even though it clearly appeared that other testimony set forth in the count constituted clear perjury. The requested instruction was far too inclusive the creation of an incorrect impression, without further specification, is not a legal defense to the offense charged in Count 8 of the indictment. There was much more to the perjury charged in this count than the portion related to the alleged interruption. The same statement was repeated elsewhere, and particularly in Haldeman's prepared statement. If the apparent falsity of all the testimony that is charged as being false in a particular count of an indictment was due to an incorrect impression created by an interruption, that would be a defense to the count. The court is not required to adopt the exact words of a proposed instruction which is given in substance, 197 and it appears here that the court's charge adequately instructed to this end when it pointed out, He may have given incorrect testimony because of surprise, confusion, inadvertence.     That portion of the charge was sufficient for Haldeman's counsel to make his point in arguing that particular defense to the jury. He was therefore not denied an instruction on the theory of his defense, to the extent that his theory was valid. The charge was sufficient and it was not necessary to make it more detailed. 198 207 We likewise find no error in the denial of the following instruction suggested by Haldeman: 208 The essence of the crime of perjury is that the challenged sworn testimony must be false and that the witness believes it to be false. No one may be convicted of perjury where he gives an answer that is literally accurate or is reasonably susceptible of more than one interpretation, one of which is truthful. Nor is it a criminal act for a witness to willfully state any material matter that implies any material matter that he does not believe to be true. 209 J.A. 708. This instruction is said to be predicated upon Bronston v. United States, 409 U.S. 352, 93 S.Ct. 595, 34 L.Ed.2d 568 (1973), where the Supreme Court held that the federal perjury statute does not reach a witness' answer that is literally true but unresponsive, even assuming the witness intends to mislead his questioner by the answer. 199 210 Bronston, however, dealt with an answer that was undisputably true, which is not the case here. The appellant's statement to the Committee under Count 8 in this case was untrue (though responsive) unless the jury accepted his explanation. Bronston cannot be read to shield from prosecution answers or statements which are arguably true under some defense theory, for such a holding would all but void the federal perjury statute. Therefore, we hold that the instruction which was given 200 fully satisfied Bronston, and we affirm the conviction.
211 This count charges Haldeman with perjury in testifying before the Senate Committee that he did not believe there had been any reference during a March 21, 1973, meeting to Magruder's having committed perjury. 201 The proof of this offense was bottomed on Dean's positive testimony, the tape recordings of the meeting, and Haldeman's notes which he reviewed prior to his testimony before the Senate Committee. At trial Haldeman admitted the falsity of his answer but defended on the ground that he was honestly mistaken. 202 The issue on this count was thus squarely for the jury which was thereby called upon to determine the credibility of Haldeman's testimony. In choosing to disbelieve him it was completely within the province assigned by the law to it 203 and we will not interfere with the result it reached. In reaching this conclusion we also find the proof of willfulness to be sufficient. 204 X. ADMISSIBILITY OF THE TAPE RECORDINGS 212 The Government's evidence at trial included tape recordings of conversations among President Nixon, appellants Ehrlichman and Haldeman, and other conspirators. The bulk of the conversations occurred in the Oval Office or the Executive Office Building, while others took place over the telephone. Appellants object to the introduction of the recordings on three grounds, each of which we find to be without merit. A. Admissibility under the Omnibus Act 213 Under Title II of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, 18 U.S.C. § 2510 et seq. (1970), interceptions of oral or wire communications may not be introduced in evidence except under specified circumstances, one of which is that one of the parties to the conversation consented to the interception. Id. § 2511(2)(c), (d). Appellants contend that the District Judge made no finding of consent, or, alternatively, that there was not an adequate basis for such a finding. 214 The transcript reveals some confusion in the hearing on the consent issue. There was only one genuine issue to be decided at that hearing whether the interceptions that were effected by recording the conversations in question were consented to by Mr. Nixon, a party to them. However, the trial judge appears to have believed there was a second issue whether the overall supervision of the recording equipment by the Secret Service, and specifically the custody of the completed recordings, was itself an interception. Many of the judge's comments, including his statement that the statute was not intended to apply to the situation we have in this case, Tr. 5841, appear to relate to this second issue. 205 And he was correct in ruling that these purely custodial duties of the Secret Service did not constitute an interception. 206 215 As to the first issue the only genuine interception involved the record cannot be considered crystal clear. Yet on reviewing it in its entirety, we are persuaded that the District Judge did find Mr. Nixon to have consented to the interceptions by directing the installation of the recording equipment. The District Judge stated that (t)hese are completed conversations that were ordered according to the testimony and it can be inferred I think by the President through Mr. Higby. Tr. 5826. That view was immediately reiterated: (the tapes) were made at the direction of the President. Tr. 5827. This finding of presidential consent is reflected in the statement that the Secret Service employees could be construed as agents of the President, Tr. 5839, and in yet another suggestion that the President consented to (the interception) by directing somebody to give the word to Mr. Higby, who gave the word to somebody else, Tr. 5840. Certainly, a greater measure of clarity and precision in formulating the finding would not have been amiss in view of its importance. Nonetheless, we believe the complete record reveals that the District Judge based his decision to admit the tape recordings on an unmistakably implicit finding that President Nixon directed the installation of the recording equipment and thereby consented to the interception of the conversations in question. 216 Although appellants urge that such a finding is not supported by the evidence, we believe there is no merit to this contention. Findings of District Judges are not to be set aside unless clearly erroneous. Fed.R.Civ.P. 52(a). This rule is fully applicable to transcribed oral findings, and its scope extends even to inferences drawn from undisputed facts. Case v. Morrisette, 155 U.S.App.D.C. 31, 37-38, 475 F.2d 1300, 1306-1307 (1973). 217 The record before the trial judge provided a more than adequate basis for inferring that President Nixon directed the installation of the recording system. Alexander Butterfield, a Deputy Assistant to the President, testified that Lawrence Higby, the principal aide to Mr. Haldeman, the President's Chief of Staff, told him to arrange for the Secret Service to install recording equipment in the President's Oval Office. Tr. 5521, 5524-5526. Butterfield then told the head of the Secret Service's Technical Security Division at the White House that the President wanted a tape recording system installed. 207 It is possible that this activity could all have been initiated by Higby acting on his own; the record does not absolutely preclude such an inference from the testimony. But, by the same token, it is at least equally plausible to infer that, in a matter as extraordinary as this, Higby, a 24-year-old aide, Tr. 5527, would not have acted without Haldeman's authorization, and that Haldeman in turn would similarly not have acted without presidential approval. Indeed, an inference of presidential consent could have been drawn merely from the existence of the devices in presidential offices. Reviewing the finding with the appropriate deference, we find no basis for upsetting it as clearly erroneous. 218 Finally, even if it were thought that additional evidentiary support were needed to sustain the District Judge's ruling, such support exists. For, in the course of the hearing on the consent issue, the Government read into the record testimony given by Mr. Haldeman in a hearing in the District Court on November 8, 1973, regarding the 18 1/2 minute gap that appeared on one of the recordings. 208 That testimony was as follows: 219 Question: Now, would you explain the circumstances of the installation of the equipment, how it came about and with whom you discussed the matter? 220 Answer: The matter was discussed with the President initially and the equipment for the procedure was established for the purpose of providing a complete accurate record of conversations held by the President in these two offices and on the particular telephones and on some occasions in the Cabinet Room for his reference and for historical purposes. He has made a practice of meeting with individuals and groups without having staff members present, and it was felt that such a record was importatn (sic ) to be maintained and a procedure was set up to provide it. 221 Tr. 5835. 222 The District Judge could surely take judicial notice, in a preliminary hearing merely on the admissibility of certain evidence, that this testimony was in fact presented in a hearing at which he presided on a not unrelated matter. See Gomez v. Wilson, 155 U.S.App.D.C. 242, 247 n.28, 477 F.2d 411, 416 n.28 (1973); cf. Partridge v. Presley, 88 U.S.App.D.C. 298, 300, 189 F.2d 645, 647, cert. denied, 342 U.S . 850, 72 S.Ct. 79, 96 L.Ed. 642 (1951). See generally C. McCormick, Handbook of the Law of Evidence § 330, at 765-766 & nn.74-75 (Cleary ed. 1972). 223 Appellants argue that, even if Haldeman's testimony were judicially noticeable, it was hearsay and hence not admissible. Although the facts that the declaration was made in a prior judicial proceeding, that the declarant is a party-defendant, and that the other defendants were co-conspirators, might bring the declaration within an exception to the hearsay rule, we need not carry out such an inquiry. For the technical rules of evidence are inapplicable to a hearing before the trial judge on the preliminary legal question of the admissibility of evidence. This view is held by the commentators, see, e. g., id. § 53, at 122-123 n.91; 5 J. Wigmore, Evidence § 1385, at 87 (Chadbourn ed. 1974), finds ample support in the case law, see Schwimmer v. United States, 232 F.2d 855, 863-864 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 352 U.S. 833, 77 S.Ct. 48, 1 L.Ed.2d 52 (1956); Healy v. Rennert, 9 N.Y.2d 202, 209, 213 N.Y.S.2d 44, 49, 173 N.E.2d 777, 780 (1961), and has been adopted in the new Federal Rules of Evidence, see Rule 104(a), which although not in effect when this case was tried surely provide persuasive authority. If, after reviewing the live testimony before the trial judge, any suspicion that his finding of consent was clearly erroneous remained, it is surely put to rest by the substance of Haldeman's prior testimony. 209 B. Authenticity of the Tape Recordings 224 Appellants challenge the foundation for the introduction of the tape recordings. In determining whether there was a sufficient showing of accuracy to warrant admissibility, we must keep in mind the governing standard: the possibilities of misidentification and adulteration (must) be eliminated, not absolutely, but as a matter of reasonable probability    . Gass v. United States, 135 U.S.App.D.C. 11, 14, 416 F.2d 767, 770 (1969); accord, e. g., United States v. Robinson, 145 U.S.App.D.C. 46, 51, 447 F.2d 1215, 1220 (1971) (en banc ), on rehearing, 153 U.S.App.D.C. 114, 471 F.2d 1082 (1972) (en banc ), rev'd on other grounds, 414 U.S. 218, 94 S.Ct. 467, 38 L.Ed.2d 427 (1973); United States v. S. B. Penick & Co., 136 F.2d 413, 415 (2d Cir. 1943). Although the evidence bearing on admissibility should be carefully scrutinized to see if it measures up to the standard, it may be circumstantial or direct, real or testimonial, and need not conform to any particular model. E. g., United States v. Sutton, 138 U.S.App.D.C. 208, 213, 426 F.2d 1202, 1207 (1969). Viewing the record against this standard, we must reject appellants' challenge. 225 The record included adequate proof that the tape recordings were made by elaborate electronic recording devices installed in the White House and the Executive Office Building by the Technical Services Division of the Secret Service. See Tr. 5633-5634. There is no evidence that the system did not accurately record the conversations it was designed to preserve. See Tr. 5584. Although on rare occasions a reel would run out before it was changed or a minute of conversation would be lost while reels were being changed, Tr. 5584, 5685, 5708-5709, such lacunae would not affect the accuracy of recordings that were made. 226 When a Secret Service agent placed a tape on a machine, a box associated with the tape was marked with the date and the location of the machine. Tr. 5672-5673, 5701. After a completed reel was removed, it was placed in the box and marked with the date of removal and the location of the machine and initialed by the Secret Service agent involved. 210 Tr. 5672-5673, 5701-5702. The tapes were then stored in the locked cabinet housing the machines. Tr. 5674, 5703-5704. After some 30 or 40 completed reels accumulated, they would be taken from the locked cabinet and deposited in a safe located inside a room, on the ground floor of the Executive Office Building, that was protected by an alarm system. Tr. 5704. 227 After a subpoena duces tecum was issued for particular conversations, White House attorneys removed from the safe those reels which appeared, from the date and location markings on the boxes, to contain the specified conversations. 211 To locate a particular conversation, the attorneys used the President's daily diaries, which had been prepared for unrelated purposes by personnel of the National Archives. Tr. 5740-5744. The diaries revealed the time, sequence, duration, and participants in presidential conversations in his offices or over the telephone. By identifying the voices on the tapes and checking the tapes against the diaries, conversations could be identified precisely. For every conversation introduced into evidence there was a corresponding entry in the presidential diaries. Tr. 5770-5785. Once the tapes were turned over to the District Court, it was stipulated that they were kept in a safe place with access carefully documented up until today's date, and that the conversations introduced were the ones called for by the subpoena. Tr. 5738. 228 The Government thus accounted for every stage from the inception of the tape recording system to the introduction of the tapes into evidence. There was never any significant risk, as there would be with a fungible piece of real evidence, such as blood sample, that the tape recordings were inadvertently exchanged with other evidence of a similar type. As the stipulation reflects, any possibility of misidentifying tapes or conversations was eliminated by the notation on the boxes, the identification of the voices on the tapes, the correspondence of each conversation sought with the detailed information in the daily diaries, and the distinctiveness of the evidence itself. 229 If the possibility of misidentification was virtually nonexistent, the risk of tampering with the tapes was also slight. There was very little opportunity at any stage for someone to obtain access to the tapes for the purpose of tampering with them. The only persons specifically shown to have known of the existence of the taping system were four Secret Service agents and Messrs. Butterfield and Higby (and the trial judge's finding on the consent issue indicates that Nixon and probably Haldeman must have known). Only the four agents had access to the keys to the locked cabinets in which the tapes were initially stored. Tr. 5679-5680. Access to the safe located within the room protected by an alarm system was similarly restricted. 230 Appellants' attempt to establish the probability of tampering by pointing to (1) the regular access of the Secret Service to the tapes and their occasional spot checks of the completed reels, Tr. 5675, 5707, (2) the rare instances in which completed reels may have been removed from storage for use by individuals in the White House, Tr. 5586, 5717, and (3) the existence on one tape recording of an unexplained 18 1/2-minute gap. As to the Secret Service agents, there is nothing to indicate that the spot checking was anything other than the routine performance of custodial duties; indeed, the agents did not listen to full conversations when conducting a spot check. Tr. 5707. As to the occasional use of the tapes by White House employees, the only person definitely identified in this regard was Mr. Butterfield, who himself admitted the fact, Tr. 5586. There is nothing in his testimony on direct or cross-examination to indicate that he in any way attempted to tamper with the tapes. The record is similarly lacking in support for any assertion that such access as may, on a handful of occasions, have been had by others in the White House resulted in tampering. 231 We may assume arguendo that the 18 1/2-minute gap resulted from intentional conduct, but that does not lead to the conclusion that the conversations introduced at trial were suspect. To begin with, none of those conversations was contained on the tape having the 18 1/2-minute gap. Moreover, the fact that one tape was erased hardly shows that other tapes, on which no erasures were present, were not authentic. All the conversations corresponded to the detailed information contained in the President's daily diaries. The trial judge listened to all the conversations that were admitted. In doing so, he had the opportunity to confirm the Government's claim that there was nothing on the tapes that raised a suspicion of tampering: no long or unusual pauses, choppy dialogue or incomplete conversations. 232 Although it is conceivable that sophisticated redubbing could escape detection by normal listening, real evidence is not admissible because one can conjure up hypothetical possibilities that tampering occurred. Appellants, who participated in many of the conversations, have raised no challenge to the accuracy of any one of them. John Dean testified that the six conversations to which he was a party accurately reflected his recollection of the discussions. 212 Indeed, there has been no specific suggestion as to when tampering would have taken place, what equipment would have been used, and how it would have escaped contemporaneous detection by the Secret Service or discovery after the fact. See Robinson v. United States, 109 U.S.App.D.C. 22, 23-24, 283 F.2d 508, 509-510, cert. denied, 364 U.S. 919, 81 S.Ct. 282, 5 L.Ed.2d 259 (1960). 233 The determination of a District Judge to admit tape recordings rests in his sound discretion. E. g., United States v. Young, 488 F.2d 1211, 1214 (8th Cir. 1973); United States v. Clements, 484 F.2d 928, 930 (5th Cir. 1973), cert. denied, 415 U.S. 991, 94 S.Ct. 1591, 39 L.Ed.2d 888 (1974); United States v. Bryant, 480 F.2d 785, 790 (2d Cir. 1973); Monroe v. United States, 98 U.S.App.D.C. 228, 234, 234 F.2d 49, 55, cert. denied, 352 U.S. 873, 77 S.Ct. 94, 1 L.Ed.2d 76 (1956). The decision in this case to admit the tapes, leaving to the jury the question of their weight, falls far short of an abuse of that discretion. C. Admissibility of Particular Excerpts 234 Mitchell objects on two different grounds to the admission of a number of specified excerpts in the tape recordings.1. Alleged Inadmissibility Under the Opinion and Firsthand Knowledge Rules 235 Mitchell contends that a number of out-of-court declarations recorded on the tapes are inadmissible because they contain expressions of opinion or statements not based upon the declarants' firsthand knowledge. 213 The simple answer to this contention, as the Government notes in its brief, is that these rules are inapplicable to declarations admissible under the co-conspirator exception to the hearsay rule. 214 See Advisory Committee Notes on Proposed Federal Rule of Evidence 801(d)(2) (noting the freedom which admissions have enjoyed from    the restrictive influences of the opinion rule and the rule requiring firsthand knowledge, and the apparently prevalent satisfaction with the results); C. McCormick, supra § 18, at 42 and cases cited n. 42, § 263, at 632 and cases cited n. 29, § 264, at 632-633 and cases cited n. 32; 4 J. Wigmore, supra, § 1053(3). 215 236 2. Alleged Inadmissibility as Hearsay Falling Outside the Co-Conspirator Exception 237 Mitchell next contends that numerous excerpts on the tape recordings constitute mere narratives of past events, rather than statements made in furtherance of the conspiracy, and hence fall outside the co-conspirator exception to the hearsay rule. We agree with the point that mere narratives of past events are not admissible hearsay statements. But as applied to the facts in this case, the argument is of limited value to Mitchell. 238 The conspiracy at issue required the coordination and control of a large number of individuals who had knowledge of the events that were being covered up. It also required the conspirators to make regular strategic decisions on how best to proceed to prevent the full story of Watergate from becoming known to the press, prosecutors, Congress, and the public. The tape recordings thus contain discussions of many aspects of Watergate strategy: what would happen if particular individuals were to talk, e. g., Tape Tr. 195, how much knowledge those individuals possessed, e. g., Tape Tr. 306, who was likely to volunteer or be compelled to talk, e. g., Tape Tr. 213-214, 306, 310, what individuals could be dissociated from any responsibility for reprehensible or illegal activity, e. g., Tape Tr. 147, 265-267, 303, 458-459, whether certain officials should assert executive privilege, e. g., Tape Tr. 193-194, whether public statements should be issued and what they might contain, e. g., Tape Tr. 57, whether it was feasible to raise and distribute hush money, e. g., Tape Tr. 131-132, 179, 189-191, whether promises of money or aid had been extended to particular persons, e. g., Tape Tr. 325, and so forth, see e. g., Tape Tr. 64, 72, 82, 86, 89-91, 130, 135, 311. 239 As the threads of the cover-up began to unravel, it became increasingly important to review what had taken place in order to identify and shore up the loose ends. It became critical for the conspirators to try to ensure that any story they wished to present would not ring false and that any action they were considering would not backfire, a strategy whose success required total familiarity with the facts. 216 240 In a conspiracy in which consideration of alternative strategies played so central a role, 217 statements which narrate past events are not necessarily mere narratives in the usual sense of that phrase. Rather, they can constitute activity that is plainly and importantly in furtherance of a conspiracy, and thereby be admissible under the co-conspirator exception to the hearsay rule. See, e. g., United States v. Annunziato, 293 F.2d 373, 380 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 368 U.S. 919, 82 S.Ct. 240, 7 L.Ed.2d 134 (1961); Zamloch v. United States, 193 F.2d 889, 890-891 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 343 U.S. 934, 72 S.Ct. 770, 96 L.Ed. 1342 (1952). 241 We have reviewed each of the excerpts to which Mitchell objects in context. Although most of the 39 excerpts contain statements of past facts, almost all of these statements are integral parts of the continual strategy sessions that took place in the White House concerning what to do in the future about Watergate. Only four of the excerpts strike us as possibly falling outside of the in furtherance requirement. 218 But even were we to assume that it was error to admit these excerpts, the error is clearly harmless. 219 242 The evidence of Mitchell's participation in the conspiracy was overwhelming. As noted in our summary of the evidence supra, Mitchell was involved in the conspiracy from its inception on June 17 and played a central role in virtually every stage. The Government is entirely correct when it states at page 37 of its brief that 243 (t)here was no aspect of the obstruction in which (Mitchell) was not involved; the attempt to spring McCord; the false press release; the destruction of documents; the Magruder cover story; the attempted misuse of the CIA; the hush money payments; the veiled offers of clemency; and, finally, the false statements and perjurious testimony. 244 And his complicity in these events was irrefutably established at trial through the testimony of Dean, Magruder, LaRue, and Kalmbach, as well as co-defendants Haldeman and Ehrlichman. 245 Finally, contained on the excerpts that were properly admitted were a large number of statements by Dean, Nixon, Ehrlichman, and Haldeman that fully implicated Mitchell in the crimes of which he was convicted. 220 Any incriminating declarations on the four excerpts in question merely tracked the substance of a much larger number of declarations that were properly admitted. In light of this fact and the overwhelming evidence of Mitchell's guilt, any error that may exist is clearly harmless beyond any reasonable doubt. 221 246 We have considered all of Mitchell's arguments regarding the admission of the tapes, and we believe that none of them identifies any prejudicial error.