Opinion ID: 1196239
Heading Depth: 3
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: separation violencethe bratton testimony

Text: Rosemary Bratton has extensive experience working with both battered and battering spouses and has previously testified as an expert on the subject of Battered Woman Syndrome (BWS). BWS experts generally attempt to explain the irrational behavior of battered spouses, such as seeking withdrawal of a protective order or continually returning to an abusive spouse. Here, however, the State made known to defense counsel that Bratton would also testify about the characteristics of batterers and the kind of conduct they tend to exhibit. Ryan objected to that portion of the Bratton testimony pertaining to anything he might have done. While the trial judge admitted that he was having trouble determining the relevancy of Bratton's testimony concerning Ryan's actual or possible actions; ultimately, she was allowed to testify. At trial, Bratton began by explaining the now familiar characteristics of BWS to the jury. She explained the cyclical pattern of violence often present in abusive relationships and then went on to describe a phenomena termed, separation violence: Q. Now, is there any particular phase of this cycle of violence which tends to be more dangerous than another? A. Yes. And we actually term it now as separation violence. What I know from my experience and what we know from the literature and the research that has been done is that the time that the victim is planning to leave or has left this relationship is the time of the greatest danger. That's the time more homicides are committed, that's the time when there's greater physical injury, and it happens because perpetrators of domestic violence who need to maintain power and control over their partner become extremely upset, nervous, agitated when they feel that they are losing that control. When they feel that that person is actually going to leave them, then it becomes far more dangerous for the victim, because the violence will escalate to whatever it takes to prevent this person from actually leaving. They are losing control, they are losing access to this individual, and it's a very very dangerous time for victims. Q. Now, this separation violence is what you've termed this; is that correct? A. That's correct. Q. And have there been any studies done here in Wyoming on that issue? A. Yes, there have. There's a study that our coalition sponsored. We started this study in the early '90s, and we went back to 1985 and looked at those incidents of domestic homicides in our state, and one of the interesting facts that we learned was that of theof the 38 individuals that that are a part of our research, 16 of those had actually left the relationship. Bratton added that the majority of the women involved in the study were killed with guns. She then described those characteristics exhibited by batterers. She testified that batterers tend to control and isolate their spouses by such means as constant calls to their place of employment, demanding to know where they are, who they are with, and when they will return. Bratton stated that batterers will often threaten to commit suicide in order to force their partner to remain in the relationship. She testified that batterers tend to abuse their spouses emotionally through constant criticism. She also testified that batterers tend to exhibit pathological jealousy often accusing their spouses of having adulterous affairs with random strangers. The prosecutor argued, and the district court agreed, that separation violence is a logical extension of BWS. Ryan argued that under W.R.E. 404(a), such an extension is not admissible. W.R.E. 404(a) prohibits use of evidence of a person's character if used to prove that he acted in conformity therewith. If offered pursuant to W.R.E. 404(b) [3] , evidence which implies bad character is admissible for a limited purpose, but not to show conduct conforming to character. A large part of the testimony which portrayed Ryan as an angry and violent person who expressed that violence toward his wife was admitted for W.R.E. 404(b) reasons. That testimony was not offered for the purpose of showing that he acted in conformity therewith, but rather to show motive, intent, or identity. The expert testimony on separation violence, however, was not offered under W.R.E. 404(b), and, therefore, we must determine if it violates W.R.E. 404(a). W.R.E. 404(a), provides in pertinent part: (a) Character evidence generally. Evidence of a person's character or a trait of his character is not admissible for the purpose of proving that he acted in conformity therewith on a particular occasion[.] Mueller and Kirkpatrick explain the rule's purpose this way: FRE 404(a) states the crucial principle that evidence of the character of a person is generally inadmissible to prove conduct on a particular occasion. There are important exceptions, but the principle applies broadly in both civil and criminal cases. The idea is that character should not be used, for the most part, as circumstantial evidence of behavior. The principle blocks resort to the general propensity argumentthe argument that since a person is, for instance, by disposition violent, it follows that he likely committed the violent act giving rise to the present charges. Christopher B. Mueller and Laird C. Kirkpatrick, 1 Federal Evidence, § 100, at 539 (2d ed.1994). Justice Jackson more forcefully explained in Michelson v. United States, 335 U.S. 469, 69 S.Ct. 213, 93 L.Ed. 168 (1948): Courts that follow the common-law tradition almost unanimously have come to disallow resort by the prosecution to any kind of evidence of a defendant's evil character to establish a probability of his guilt. Not that the law invests the defendant with a presumption of good character, ... but it simply closes the whole matter of character, disposition and reputation on the prosecution's case-in-chief. The state may not show defendant's prior trouble with the law, specific criminal acts, or ill name among his neighbors, even though such facts might logically be persuasive that he is by propensity a probable perpetrator of the crime. The inquiry is not rejected because character is irrelevant; on the contrary, it is said to weigh too much with the jury and to so overpersuade them as to prejudge one with a bad general record and deny him a fair opportunity to defend against a particular charge. The overriding policy of excluding such evidence, despite its admitted probative value, is the practical experience that its disallowance tends to prevent confusion of issues, unfair surprise and undue prejudice. Id., 335 U.S. at 475-76, 69 S.Ct. at 218-19 (citation and footnotes omitted). At the outset, we must determine whether separation violence evidence falls within the emerging field of social framework and syndrome evidence. In general, BWS and other syndrome evidence is considered a proper subject for expert testimony, and does not implicate the proscription against character evidence. See Mueller and Kirkpatrick, 3 Federal Evidence, § 351 (2d ed.1994). According to Mueller and Kirkpatrick: Usually framework and syndrome evidence is offered by prosecutors and relates to the victim, as in sexual assault and child abuse trials. But sometimes it is offered by the defense and relates to defendants, as in the setting of homicide trials of women charged with killing husbands or intimate companions. And typical patterns of usage do not always hold true, for defendants sometimes offer evidence that patterns of behavior or attitudes in the alleged victim did not fit the syndrome and prosecutors sometimes offer evidence of battered women syndrome in trials of men to explain the victim's behavior. Id. at 633 (Emphasis added.) When such evidence is raised by the prosecution in its case-in-chief and relates to the defendant, however, the testimony draws close to commenting directly on what likely happened and looks like character evidence after all. Id. at 637. In such situations, Mueller and Kirkpatrick recognize that: The traditional sensitivity accorded to defense rights in criminal cases warrants special care when government experts are talking about the defendant, even if their testimony stops at one remove from direct comments on what the defendant likely did or thought. Id. at 637. Expert testimony on BWS which relates to the victim is entirely proper. Evidence concerning the defendant's involvement, however, demands close scrutiny under the character evidence rules. This is so even if reference to the defendant may only be inferred from the testimony. Bratton did not say that because Ryan was possessed of a violent character he acted in conformity therewith on the night of the murder. She was more subtle, but the effect was the same. After showing that the subjects of the study tended to commit homicide when faced with the prospect of separation, she impliedly invited the jury to group Ryan among those subjects and by this method determine conduct. Finding guilt by reference to common characteristics of a class of individuals to which one belongs raises the specter of profile evidence. Profile or syndrome evidence is developed through expert testimony and tends to classify people by their shared physical, emotional, or mental characteristics. State v. Percy, 146 Vt. 475, 507 A.2d 955, 960 (1986) (citing 1 J. Weinstein & M. Berger, Weinstein's Evidence § 401[10], at 88-91 (1985)). In the context of drug courier profiles, a profile has been characterized as, an informal compilation of characteristics often displayed by those trafficking in drugs, and as an `abstract of characteristics found to be typical of persons transporting illegal drugs.' Similarly, Chief Justice Rehnquist has described the profile as essentially an investigative tool involving characteristics recognizable to trained officers. A `profile' is, in effect the collective or distilled experience of narcotics officers concerning characteristics repeatedly seen in drug smugglers. United States v. Quigley, 890 F.2d 1019, 1021 (8th Cir.1989) (citations omitted), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 1091, 110 S.Ct. 1163, 107 L.Ed.2d 1066 (1990). Translated into the battering spouse context, a profile is a compilation of characteristics repeatedly seen in those who batter their spouses. While our research has not disclosed any case dealing specifically with battering spouses, other jurisdictions in different contexts have dealt with similar attempts to construct a criminal profile for the purpose of proving conduct in conformity therewith. Those jurisdictions that have considered profiles of battering parents, pedophiles, rapists, and drug couriers unanimously agree that the prosecution may not offer such evidence in its case-in-chief as substantive evidence of guilt. These cases generally articulate three evidentiary bases for excluding evidence tending to establish that the defendant fits a particular profile: 1) relevancy; 2) probative value substantially outweighed by prejudicial effect; and 3) impermissible character evidence. Many courts find profile evidence irrelevant. [4] Commonwealth v. Day, 409 Mass. 719, 569 N.E.2d 397 (1991) aptly articulated the reasoning for such a conclusion: A criminal trial is by its very nature an individualized adjudication of a defendant's guilt or legal innocence. Testimony regarding a criminal profile is nothing more than an expert's opinion as to certain characteristics which are common to some or most of the individuals who commit particular crimes. Evidence of a child battering profile does not meet the relevancy test, because the mere fact that a defendant fits the profile does not tend to prove that a particular defendant physically abused the victim. Id. at 399. See also, Percy, 507 A.2d at 960 (Evidence that other rapists often excused or explained their conduct the way the defendant did was not relevant.); State v. Clements, 244 Kan. 411, 770 P.2d 447, 454 (1989) (Evidence which only describes the characteristics of the typical offender has no relevance to whether the defendant committed the crime in question.); United States v. Simpson, 910 F.2d 154, 157 (4th Cir.1990) (Proof that a person fits the drug courier profile, unsupported by evidence of drug trafficking, proves nothing.); State v. Maule, 35 Wash.App. 287, 667 P.2d 96, 99 (1983) (The relevance of testimony that the majority of child abuse cases involved a male parent figure is not readily discernable.); State v. Brown, 370 S.2d 547, 552 (La.1979) (Unable to see how evidence of drug courier profile is relevant to any issue of innocence or guilt at the trial on the merits.); Duley v. State, 56 Md.App. 275, 467 A.2d 776, 780 (1983) (Evidence of child abuser profile is totally irrelevant because it does not tend to prove that the defendant committed the acts of abuse attributed to him.); United States v. Hernandez-Cuartas, 717 F.2d 552, 555 (11th Cir. 1983), rehearing denied, 721 F.2d 822 (11th Cir.1983) (Drug courier profile evidence is nothing more than the opinion of those officers conducting an investigation, and it cannot be used as substantive evidence of guilt.); State v. Hansen, 304 Or. 169, 743 P.2d 157, 161 (1987) (That child abusers use certain techniques to get near their victims has no bearing on whether a person who does these things is a child abuser.); and People v. Bradley, 172 Ill.App.3d 545, 122 Ill.Dec. 523, 526 N.E.2d 916, 921 (1988) (Evidence showing characteristics of child abuse perpetrators was in no way probative or relevant to the question of whether the defendant committed the crime.). Even assuming that profile testimony is in some degree relevant to the issues at trial, the danger of unfair prejudice to the accused has generally been found to outweigh the probative value. [5] See Percy, 507 A.2d at 960-61; Simpson, 910 F.2d at 157; Maule, 667 P.2d at 99; Duley, 467 A.2d at 780; Brown, 370 S.2d at 552; Day, 569 N.E.2d at 399; United States v. Jones, 913 F.2d 174, 177 (4th Cir.1990), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 1052, 111 S.Ct. 766, 112 L.Ed.2d 785 (1991); and Bradley, 122 Ill.Dec. 523, 526 N.E.2d at 921. Finally, profile evidence is often found to be an impermissible attack on the defendant's character. [6] See State v. Hester, 114 Idaho 688, 760 P.2d 27, 33 (Id.1988); In the Interest of D.L., 401 N.W.2d 201, 203 (Iowa App.1986); People v. Walkey, 177 Cal.App.3d 268, 223 Cal.Rptr. 132, 138 (1986); State v. Loebach, 310 N.W.2d 58, 62-64 (Minn.1981); Sanders v. State, 251 Ga. 70, 303 S.E.2d 13, 18 (1983); Haakanson v. State, 760 P.2d 1030, 1035-36 (Alaska 1988); and Bradley, 122 Ill.Dec. 523, 526 N.E.2d at 921. We hold that the evidence pertaining to separation violence was inadmissable. Our ruling does not, however, proscribe BWS testimony in general, and we reaffirm our prior decisions which have allowed expert testimony to explain the behavior of a battered spouse. See Trujillo v. State, 953 P.2d 1182, 1183 (Wyo.1998). We must now determine whether the error was harmless. [7] Generally, profile evidence consists of a compilation of otherwise innocent characteristics, coupled with an implicit invitation to infer criminal conduct from those characteristics. In the present case, however, the characteristics of the profile consist of prior bad acts, which have independent evidentiary significance. That is, they tend to prove motive, intent, and identity. Aside from the formidable body of prior bad acts evidence, there was substantial physical evidence indicating Ryan's guilt. Keri was killed while lying prone on the bed. Her body was moved and the gun placed under her hand after she was shot. There was no evidence of struggle or suicide. After shooting Keri, Ryan admittedly shot himself and called 911, but it was his, rather than Keri's, impending demise that prompted the call. The objectionable statements consist of two short answers made during more than a week of testimony, and the prosecutor only briefly discussed the testimony in closing argument. Where, as here, there is substantial evidence of guilt, and the State has not unduly emphasized the objectionable testimony, we cannot say that there is a reasonable probability that the result would have been more favorable to Ryan had the error never occurred. The error was harmless.