Opinion ID: 374662
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Plaintiffs' Burden.

Text: 58 We require a showing of purposeful discrimination in cases brought under 42 U.S.C. § 1981. Grigsby v. North Mississippi Medical Center, Inc., 586 F.2d 457 (5th Cir. 1978); Williams v. DeKalb County, 582 F.2d 2 (5th Cir. 1978) (on rehearing). In cases alleging disparate treatment under Title VII, which also require proof of intent, Teamsters, supra, 97 S.Ct. at 1854 n. 15, plaintiffs may establish a prima facie violation by showing that they are members of a group protected by Title VII, that they sought and were qualified for positions that Western Electric was attempting to fill, that despite their qualifications they were rejected, and that after their rejection Western Electric either continued to attempt to fill the positions or in fact filled the positions with whites. See McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 802, 93 S.Ct. 1817, 1824, 36 L.Ed.2d 668 (1973). We think the articulation in Green of the elements of a prima facie case is equally applicable in cases under section 1981. 27 However, there are other ways to prove intentional discrimination. Teamsters, supra, 97 S.Ct. at 1866. Green merely prescribes one method by which a rebuttable inference of intent can arise. Statistical disparity between blacks and whites, especially when coupled with direct evidence of racially motivated conduct or language, might also, in a proper case, satisfy plaintiffs' initial burden. Cf. Teamsters, supra (pattern and practice suit by the government); Grigsby v. North Mississippi Medical Center, Inc., supra (statistics without evidence of purposeful discrimination failed to establish a prima facie case). 59 Applying Green 's elements to these facts, we see that all plaintiffs are protected by section 1981 from racial discrimination. 28 They proved that they sought advancement to higher indexes; although work assignments to higher codes do not depend on an installer's requesting such work, most plaintiffs testified that they did make those requests, and we will assume arguendo that all of them sought the higher pay concomitant with higher index ratings. 60 The trial court found that no evidence was produced by the plaintiffs to show that they were qualified to do the work that they claim was discriminatorily denied them. The court presumably intended to indicate that plaintiffs failed to satisfy Green 's second element. Work assignments to codes in higher indexes depend on two factors: an installer's skill level, as perceived by his or her supervisor; and, usually, an installer's achieving, for example, the Index 2 level before being assigned work within Index 3. All plaintiffs satisfied the latter factor; thus, the court must have found that they had not sufficiently proved their levels of skill. 61 Establishing qualifications is an employer's prerogative, Rowe v. General Motors Corp., 457 F.2d 348, 358 (5th Cir. 1972), but an employer may not utilize wholly subjective standards by which to judge its employees' qualifications and then plead lack of qualification when its promotion process, for example, is challenged as discriminatory. See id. at 358-59. Rowe condemned subjective evaluations by white foremen of black employees' ability, merit, and capacity, id. at 353, 358-59; we think Western Electric's skill requirement, since it is not based on any written evaluation or articulated standard, is equally suspect. 62 Plaintiffs brought out, on direct examination of their own witnesses 29 and on cross examination of Western Electric's witnesses, 30 testimony indicating that the index review system depends on highly subjective elements. This court and others have 63 expressed a skepticism that Black persons dependent directly on decisive recommendations from Whites can expect non-discriminatory action. See, Hawkins v. North Carolina Dental Society, 4 Cir., 1966, 355 F.2d 718, 723-724; Cypress v. Newport News General and Nonsectarian Hosp. Assn., 4 Cir., 1967, 375 F.2d 648, 655; Meredith v. Fair, 5 Cir., 1962, 298 F.2d 696, 702, cert. denied, 1962, 371 U.S. 828, 83 S.Ct. 49, 9 L.Ed.2d 66. 64 Rowe, 457 F.2d at 359. We find that all plaintiffs who sought work assignments in and promotion to the next higher index proved themselves prima facie qualified to do that work and satisfied Green 's second prong. 65 Plaintiffs also needed to prove whites were given work assignments and ratings of 9 necessary to advance to the next index faster than blacks. The statistics gleaned from the pre-trial stipulation show that black installers receive promotions to higher indexes at rates much slower than their white contemporaries. Additionally, most plaintiffs testified that several white installers who had been hired after them or at the same time had advanced more rapidly. Both sides presented evidence that tended to show that whites of equal rank with blacks were given more job assignments in higher indexes. From the statistics, plus proof of subjectivity and racial incidents, we believe plaintiffs' evidence raises an inference either that blacks were not given opportunities equal to those given whites to work in higher codes or that, work opportunities being equal, whites were rated qualified much sooner than blacks on the average. In either case, the evidence is suggestive that whites were treated better in general. 66 However, since this is not a class action, each plaintiff's case under section 1981 must be examined separately in light of the statistics. The following table shows the time for advancement for each plaintiff: 67 Months to Achieve: ------------------ Index 2 Index 3 Index 4 ------- --------------- ------- Smith 18 60 -- Wright 22 41 89 Tunsill 29 72 -- Crawford 22 114 -- L. Hodge 22 40 -- S. Hodge 28 51 69 Dupree 12 54 -- Wingard 12 48 -- Crump 12 78 -- Higginbotham 18 78 k -- Newsom 18 60 -- Bartley 12 61 -- Burton 18 43 -- Cue 12 49 -- McKinney 21 (laid off 4/75) -- 68 Only Wright, L. Hodge, and Burton advanced to Index 3 approximately as fast as the average white installer. These three, therefore, have not shown discrimination in their promotions to Index 3. However, they failed to advance beyond Index 3 as fast as the average white installer. Wright had been an installer for 156 months at the time of trial, and yet whites reaching Index 5 average only 76.3 months. Wright's last promotion occurred in 1971; it advanced him to Index 4. At that time his length of service was 89 months. His white counterparts' average time to reach Index 4 was 63.8 months. Although Wright's claim for back pay based on the promotion to Index 4 is probably time barred, the statistics, when coupled with evidence of his slow advancement earlier, 31 reveal enough disparity in promotion time to Index 5 to satisfy Wright's burden to make a prima facie showing under Green. While Burton and L. Hodge have shown, via statistics, no discrimination in promotions to Index 3, they have established prima facie cases regarding their lack of promotion to Index 4. Burton had been employed for approximately 90 months at the time of trial without being promoted to Index 4; whites required 63.8 months to reach Index 4. Similarly, L. Hodge remained at Index 3 until his discharge in 1975. His total service with Western Electric was approximately 92 months. Burton and Hodge, therefore, have made prima facie cases regarding their lack of promotion to Index 4, since they proved white installers were treated better under the Index Plan. 69 S. Hodge advanced to Index 4 in 69 months, only 5.2 months slower than the average white. This disparity is not sufficient to raise an inference of discrimination. While his promotion to Index 3 required 10 months more than the white average, it occurred in 1972, far beyond the section 1981 statute of limitations for back pay. However, S. Hodge has been with Western Electric since February 1968, 112 months at the time of trial. His advancement to Index 4 shows that he is very competent, yet the average white installer who advanced to Index 5 required only 76.3 months. We hold that he has made a prima facie showing of discrimination in his lack of advancement to Index 5, which is not barred by limitations. 70 All other plaintiffs except Cue and McKinney have established a prima facie violation of section 1981, either in their promotions to current index levels, or, if those are barred by limitations, their lack of further advancement. Cue presented no evidence of specific racially motivated conduct directed toward him, and without more his advancement rate was not so slow as to raise an inference of discrimination. McKinney worked for Western Electric only three years. His advancement to Index 2 was not significantly slower than the white average, and he simply had insufficient time to achieve Index 3 before his layoff. We therefore affirm the judgment as to Cue and McKinney. 71 Thus, with the exception of Cue and McKinney, all plaintiffs established prima facie violations of section 1981 under Green by showing significant statistical disparity in advancement rates coupled with credible evidence of racial conduct by Western Electric's personnel. Cf. Teamsters, 97 S.Ct. at 1855-57 (pattern and practice suit under Title VII). 72 The four Title VII plaintiffs, Dupree, Smith, L. Hodge, and Tunsill, have proved prima facie cases of disparate impact as a matter of law. Dupree, Smith, and Tunsill were rated Index 3; to get there, Smith required 60 months, Tunsill 72 months, and Dupree 54 months. Whites averaged 41 months. These Title VII plaintiffs have established a prima facie case by showing that the Index Plan currently in operation freezes the status quo of prior discriminatory employment practices. See Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424, 430-31, 91 S.Ct. 849, 853, 28 L.Ed.2d 158 (1971). All three have been with Western Electric much longer than the average service time whites require to reach Index 4, yet none have reached that level. Therefore, the index system has current impact on the terms of their employment. L. Hodge, before his termination, required only 40 months to achieve Index 3. This was under the average for whites, and thus failed to establish disparate impact liability under Title VII. However, he made out a prima facie case of disparate impact by proving that he remained with Western Electric 92 months without achieving Index 4, while the average white reached that index in 63.8 months. Defendant's Rebuttal 73 A. Work Assignments. 74 Western Electric defended its procedures on several grounds. First, it insists that the incentives for supervisors to bring a job in under the budgeted number of hours preclude work assignments based on any factor other than the skills and efficiency of individual installers. The trial court accepted this contention. It stated: 75 Line supervisors are given a limited period of time within which to accomplish any specific job. Their efficiency rating, which determines their income advancement, depends on their ability to perform the job within its designated time limit. The evidence, therefore, demonstrates that the line supervisors are motivated by their own self-interest to base work assignments on ability not race. 76 Yet we have recognized that when the supervisory force is all white: 77 Blacks may very well (be) hindered in obtaining recommendations from their foremen since there is no familial or social association between these two groups. . . . (P)romotion/transfer procedures which depend almost entirely upon the subjective evaluation and favorable recommendation of the immediate foreman are a ready mechanism for discrimination against Blacks much of which can be covertly concealed and, for that matter, not really known to management. 78 Rowe, supra at 359. Thus, the self interest of a supervisor would not necessarily be inconsistent with his regularly selecting whites over equally skilled blacks for work assignments in more complex codes, and perhaps the trial court weighted too heavily the evidence that efficiency and self interest were primary motivating forces. 79 Second, Western Electric contended, and the court below found, that the announced policy of Western Electric to its supervisors is that their continued employment depends on their willingness to enforce the policy of the Company to treat black employees the same as any other employee. Thus, supervisors are doubly motivated to avoid discrimination based on race. Plaintiffs do not contest the existence of a comprehensive affirmative action program at Western Electric, and we agree with the trial court that such a plan tends to refute an inference of discriminatory purpose. 80 Third, the downturn in Western Electric's business since mid-1974 forced it to lay off on the basis of seniority large numbers of installers having low index ratings. The company thus was left with a surplus of Index 4 and 5 installers and, conversely, a shortage of work assignments in Index 4 and 5 that were available to parcel out to Index 3 installers. We agree that economic factors may have circumscribed work opportunities for all Index 3 installers, black and white, after mid-1974. The trial court's factual finding in this regard certainly is not clearly erroneous. 81 Raw data in the form of several hundred Form 1421's, covering the period from September 1973 through September 1976, may have contained evidence that whites received significantly more work assignments in higher codes than did blacks. However, plaintiffs failed to analyze and digest the information in the Form 1421's and thus failed to convert them into comprehensible evidence for the court. We cannot place on already overworked federal judges the burden of wading through a sea of uninterpreted raw evidence. This was a task for plaintiffs and their attorneys, and they failed to perform it. 82 Summarizing, we find that plaintiffs raised an inference that work in higher codes was discriminatorily assigned to whites. Defendant rebutted this evidence by proving that economic factors played a large part in reducing available work and that supervisors were ordered to assign work on a racially neutral basis. Plaintiffs might have survived this rebuttal by using direct documentary evidence of discriminatory assignments but failed to put such evidence into comprehensible form. Therefore, we hold that the trial court's finding of no racial discrimination after mid-1974 in work assignments is supported by findings of fact that are not clearly erroneous, and we concur in the court's legal conclusions. 83 However, the Title VII plaintiffs 32 were entitled to have the court consider acts of alleged discrimination that occurred earlier than January 1, 1974, such date being the back pay limitations date for section 1981 claims. 33 As we said earlier, liability under Title VII may accrue at any time subsequent to 180 days before each plaintiff filed his EEOC charge. Since the filings seem to have occurred around the beginning of 1973, liability may attach to acts occurring as far back as mid-1972. Additionally, proof of intent would not be necessary under Title VII. We therefore remand on the issue of discriminatory work assignments for those plaintiffs. There is no evidence that the economic downturn in 1974 that the court below relied upon had any impact on available work in earlier years, and the court, after examining all the evidence, may decide that work in higher codes was discriminatorily parcelled out in 1972 and 1973. If the Title VII plaintiffs have established a prima facie case of disparate treatment before 1974, defendant must articulate legitimate nondiscriminatory reasons for its actions. McDonnell-Douglas v. Green, supra ; Turner v. Texas Instruments, 555 F.2d 1251, 1255 (5th Cir. 1977). If statistical or other evidence regarding work assignments before 1974 shows a prima facie case of disparate impact, defendant must rebut by showing its particular methods are justified by business necessity. See Garcia v. Gloor, 609 F.2d 156, 163 (5th Cir. 1980), for an excellent discussion of various defenses under Title VII. 84 B. Index Review System. 85 Western Electric's rebuttal also embraced a statistical analysis aimed at refuting the charge that the index review process operated discriminatorily. The trial court's holding that the review system was not racially oriented rested in part on that analysis. Although recognizing that supervisors' subjective evaluations played a role in the index reviews, the court found that the mechanics of the review procedure, the self interest of the supervisors, and statistical evidence supported its finding of no discrimination in the index reviews. 86 We have rejected the self-interest rationale and found the review procedure to be suspect under Rowe, supra, because of inherent dangers in such a subjective process. We also find Western Electric's statistical analysis defective for reasons stated earlier. The statistical disparities do not rebut plaintiffs' prima facie case; on the contrary, they serve to strengthen the case against Western Electric. 87 Western Electric also argued that examination by higher management of the outcome of each index review, coupled with the availability of grievance procedures, provided sufficient checks on supervisors who, mistakenly or intentionally, might evaluate an installer's work erroneously. Since the supervisors make no contemporary written record of their reasons for not promoting an installer or for not giving ratings of 9, however, such reasons being recorded at some later time and only if a grievance is filed, we reject Western Electric's contention. It is highly unlikely that evidence of racial animus would find its way into a record made only in response to an appeal by a black installer, even if such animus existed during the index review. After-the-fact justification allows impermissible leeway for editing by the supervisors responsible for the promotion decisions, and thus we find that the checks built into the system are inadequate to guard against racial discrimination. 88 However, Western Electric introduced testimony by supervisors regarding each plaintiff's work habits, aptitudes, and attitudes that, if credible, might serve to rebut plaintiffs' cases by proving legitimate, nondiscriminatory reasons for their slow advancement. We must remand for further findings. The trial court failed to mention much of this evidence in its opinion, possibly because it viewed the statistics as almost conclusive proof of lack of discrimination, a conclusion we have found to be erroneous. We leave to the court below the task of assessing the credibility of this and other evidence of nondiscrimination; likewise, the trial court must make the initial decision whether the credible evidence sufficiently rebuts the prima facie showings. In this circuit legitimate, nondiscriminatory reasons must be proved by a preponderance of the evidence. Turner v. Texas Instruments, supra. 89 Recapitulating, we find that all plaintiffs except Cue and McKinney have established a prima facie case under section 1981 regarding the index review system by showing that their advancement rates within the limitations period were significantly slower than the average white installer and by introducing evidence of their past lack of promotion and of racial language and conduct. Additionally, Dupree, Smith, L. Hodge, and Tunsill established prima facie violations of Title VII by showing that the index review process had a disparate impact on blacks. The trial court relied on erroneous factors in its implied finding that Western Electric rebutted the prima facie cases, and we remand to allow the court to decide whether other evidence sufficiently rebutted plaintiffs' showing. Attorneys' Fees 90 The trial court awarded attorneys' fees to both the union and Western Electric on the court's finding that the plaintiffs' claims were without merit. A recent Supreme Court decision, handed down after the trial court's decision here, requires us to reverse and remand on this issue. Christianburg Garment Co. v. EEOC, 434 U.S. 412, 414 n.12, 98 S.Ct. 694, 698 n.12, 54 L.Ed.2d 648 (1978), rejected this court's reasoning, as found in United States v. Allegheny-Ludlum Industries, Inc., 558 F.2d 742 (5th Cir. 1977), on the attorneys' fees issue. We had held in Allegheny-Ludlum that the same standards should apply to both plaintiffs and defendants in awards of attorneys' fees under Title VII, and we allowed defendants to recover as prevailing parties almost as a matter of course. The Supreme Court in Christianburg Garment, however, established a double standard for attorneys' fees awards. Only when plaintiff's suit is without foundation, unreasonable, frivolous, meritless, or vexatious can defendant recover attorney's fees. 434 U.S. at 419-20, 98 S.Ct. at 699-700. Defendant need not prove that the suit was brought in subjective bad faith, but the term 'meritless' is to be understood as meaning groundless or without foundation, rather than simply that the plaintiff has ultimately lost his case. 98 S.Ct. at 700. Prevailing plaintiffs, on the other hand, should receive attorneys' fees in all but exceptional circumstances. Id. at 698. We recently held that awards of attorneys' fees in section 1981 cases, authorized by 42 U.S.C. § 1988, were also governed by Christianburg Garment's double standard. See Lopez v. Aransas County Independent School District, 570 F.2d 541 (5th Cir. 1978); see also Johnson v. Mississippi, 606 F.2d 635 (5th Cir. 1979). 91 The issue of the award of attorneys' fees to the union must be remanded to the trial court for findings of fact in light of Christianburg Garment. The court should also consider our recent opinion in Little v. Southern Electric Steel Co., 595 F.2d 998 (5th Cir. 1979), (mere lack of Title VII jurisdiction, without proof that plaintiff knew his suit was barred, will not support an attorney fee award under Title VII). Regarding the award to Western Electric, we find, as a matter of law, that plaintiffs have not brought a meritless or frivolous suit. Therefore, we reverse the trial court's award of attorneys' fees to Western Electric and remand for its consideration of an award of attorneys' fees to plaintiffs. In any event, since plaintiffs have prevailed on some issues in this appeal, including the attorney fee issue, the trial court should hear evidence on reasonable attorneys' fees for the appeal and award those fees to plaintiffs. Johnson v. Mississippi, supra ; Morrow v. Dillard, 580 F.2d 1284 (5th Cir. 1978). Additionally, if plaintiffs prevail on their Title VII or section 1981 claims on remand, they should recover attorneys' fees unless special circumstances are found to exist. Christianburg Garment Co., supra ; Johnson v. Mississippi, supra ; Lopez v. Aransas County Independent School District, supra. In assessing such fees, the court below should consider the factors enumerated in Johnson v. Georgia Highway Express, Inc., 488 F.2d 714 (5th Cir. 1974), and articulate its analysis. Harkless v. Sweeny Independent School District, 608 F.2d 595, 596 (5th Cir. 1979). 92 AFFIRMED in part and REVERSED and REMANDED in part.