Opinion ID: 2623375
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 7

Heading: The Frisk for Weapons During the Second Stop

Text: {20} We start our analysis with Officer Roberts' frisk for weapons during the second stop, because this event uncovered the marijuana. Before getting to the frisk, however, we briefly review the reasonableness of the second stop. {21} Officer Roberts stopped Swanson for speeding in a construction zone. The district court believed Officer Roberts' stated reason for the stop based upon evidence that Swanson was exceeding the speed limit. Based on this evidence, the Court of Appeals agreed with the district court that Officer Roberts reasonably suspected that Swanson had violated a traffic law. Reasonable suspicion arises if the officer can point to `specific articulable facts ... that, when judged objectively, would lead a reasonable person to believe criminal activity occurred or was occurring.' State v. Taylor, 1999-NMCA-022, ¶ 7, 126 N.M. 569, 973 P.2d 246 (quoting State v. Pallor, 1996-NMCA-083, ¶ 12, 122 N.M. 232, 923 P.2d 599). Unsupported intuition and inarticulate hunches are not sufficient. State v. Cobbs, 103 N.M. 623, 626, 711 P.2d 900, 903 (Ct.App.1985). We agree with the analysis of both the district court and the Court of Appeals that Officer Roberts reasonably suspected that Swanson had violated a traffic law, and therefore, Officer Roberts was entitled to stop Swanson's car. We now turn to the weapons frisk that followed. {22} To justify a frisk for weapons, an officer must have a sufficient degree of articulable suspicion that the person being frisked is both armed and presently dangerous. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 27, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968). Any indication in previous cases that an officer need only suspect that a party is either armed or dangerous is expressly disavowed. Cf. Cobbs, 103 N.M. at 630, 711 P.2d at 907; State v. Lovato, 112 N.M. 517, 522, 817 P.2d 251, 256 (Ct.App.1991). We have previously made clear that when an officer is investigating inherently dangerous crimes, such as burglary or robbery, Cobbs, 103 N.M. at 630, 711 P.2d at 907, or a drive-by shooting, Lovato, 112 N.M. at 522, 817 P.2d at 256, the nature of the crimes may be a sufficient predicate, depending on the totality of the circumstances, to consider a suspect armed and dangerous and subject to a protective frisk for weapons. {23} To determine the reasonableness of a protective frisk for weapons, we must balance the threat posed to officer safety under the circumstances, against the individual's right to personal security free from arbitrary interference by law officers. Cobbs, 103 N.M. at 627, 711 P.2d at 904 (quoting United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 878, 95 S.Ct. 2574, 45 L.Ed.2d 607 (1975)) (internal quotation marks omitted); Terry, 392 U.S. at 21, 88 S.Ct. 1868. A frisk is a unique type of limited search within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. 4 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure: A Treatise on the Fourth Amendment § 9.5 (3d ed.1966). In Terry, the United States Supreme Court acknowledged a critical distinction in purpose, character, and extent between a search incident to an arrest and a limited search for weapons. The former, although justified in part by the acknowledged necessity to protect the arresting officer from assault with a concealed weapon, is also justified on other grounds, and can therefore involve a relatively extensive exploration of the person. A search for weapons in the absence of probable cause to arrest, however, must like any other search, be strictly circumscribed by the exigencies which justify its initiation. Id., 392 U.S. at 25-26, 88 S.Ct. 1868 (internal citation omitted). Although a weapons frisk must be strictly circumscribed by the exigencies that justify it, [t]he officer need not be absolutely certain that the individual is armed; the issue is whether a reasonably prudent [officer] in the circumstances would be warranted in the belief that his safety or that of others was in danger. Id. at 27, 88 S.Ct. 1868; see Paul T., 1999-NMSC-037, ¶¶ 17-18. The purpose of a frisk for weapons is to allow an officer to conduct an investigation without fear of violence. State v. Ingram, 1998-NMCA-177, ¶ 6, 126 N.M. 426, 970 P.2d 1151. In evaluating the reasonableness of an officer's conduct when confronted with exigent circumstances, [t]he inquiry is an objective [one] ... into whether a reasonable, well-trained officer would have made the judgment this officer made. If reasonable people might differ ..., we defer to the officer's good judgment. State v. Gomez, 1997-NMSC-006, ¶ 40, 122 N.M. 777, 932 P.2d 1. {24} Of course, the exigent circumstances justifying a protective frisk are not limited to investigations of violent crimes. Recently, in a very similar case our Court of Appeals upheld a protective frisk in the course of a routine traffic stop for a seat belt violation. See State v. Chapman, 1999-NMCA-106, ¶¶ 13-18, 127 N.M. 721, 986 P.2d 1122. Despite the absence of a violent crime, the Court concluded that the officer reasonably believed that [the d]efendant might be armed and dangerous. Id. ¶ 18. {25} In coming to this conclusion in Chapman, the Court of Appeals emphasized that the officer provided more than [just] conclusive characterizations of [the d]efendant. Id. ¶ 16. Instead of just describing [the d]efendant as nervous, the deputy identified specific behaviors and changes in [the d]efendant's demeanor and attitude that explain[ed] why he believed that [the d]efendant might be armed and dangerous. Id. Erratic behavior exhibited by the suspect, a failure to make eye contact, shaking hands, and unusual level of nervousness[,] were sufficient to allow the deputy to ask [the d]efendant whether he had any weapons on him. Id. ¶ 17. After the officer asked about weapons, the suspect responded in a high-pitched tone of voice and in an anxious and aggressive manner, and exhibited uncontrollable shaking. Id. ¶ 18. At that point, after becoming concerned for his safety, the officer subjected the driver to a frisk for weapons. {26} Importantly, the officer in Chapman proceeded incrementally before frisking the suspect for weapons. Id. ¶¶ 17-18. The officer observed that the suspect's behavior deteriorated as he was questioned first in the car, and then outside the car, when he was specifically asked about weapons. Id.; cf. City of Albuquerque v. Haywood, 1998-NMCA-029, ¶¶ 15-16, 18, 124 N.M. 661, 954 P.2d 93 (Ct.App.1997) (granting motion to suppress because officer's questions about weapons and subsequent frisk for weapons, conducted during a routine traffic stop, were not justified by specific, exigent circumstances). {27} We find Chapman particularly helpful in our analysis. In determining that Officer Roberts had a reasonable, articulable suspicion that Defendants might be armed and dangerous, the district court relied heavily on Chapman. On the other hand, the Court of Appeals majority opinion rejected Chapman, distinguishing it in the following manner: [Vandenberg] and Swanson's behaviorwatching Officer Roberts in the rearview mirror, drumming fingers on the roof of the car, speaking to each other, rolling the windows of the car up and down, glancing back at Officer Roberts, and general fidgetingduring the second stop came nowhere near the panicked and aggressive behavior observed by the officer in Chapman. Vandenberg, 2002-NMCA-066, ¶ 25. However, the dissenting opinion in Vandenberg was unable to meaningfully distinguish Chapman,  and we agree. Id., 1999-NMCA-106, ¶ 37. {28} In both Chapman and this case, the officers testified that the drivers were more nervous than most people who are stopped for a routine traffic offense. In addition to extreme nervousness, the officers in both cases identified other specific observations that made them anxious for their personal safety. Although there are factual differences between Chapman and the present case, the principle underlying the two opinions is the same. The officers in both cases articulated specific reasons, including specific observations of the suspect's conduct placed in context, why they needed a protective pat down for their personal safety. {29} Like the police officer in Chapman, Officer Roberts testified that most people during a traffic stop move around some, but not nearly to the degree of Swanson and Vandenberg. Officer Roberts felt Swanson was trying to expel nervous energy through his movement, stretching, drumming his fingers on the roof of the car, and being aware at all times of the location of the officer. Based on his training and experience, Officer Roberts testified that very nervous people are often a threat to officer safety because they are unpredictable; Defendants' nervousness indicated that they may have been in fight or flight mode, a concept he learned at the law enforcement academy. Defendants' excessive movement, coupled with the information he received in the BOLO, made Officer Roberts concerned enough for his safety, first to ask Defendants whether they had any weapons, and then to require a protective frisk for weapons. {30} As in Chapman, the situation gradually escalated. Each request by Officer Roberts was met with increasing nervousness and symptoms of potentially unpredictable behavior, and sometimes with evasive or hostile behavior. See id., 1999-NMCA-106, ¶ 18 (when the officer questioned the defendant in Chapman about whether he had any weapons, the defendant responded in an anxious and aggressive manner). Swanson questioned why he had to get out of the car and then only did so after hesitating. After Officer Roberts requested that Swanson move to the rear of the car, Swanson took a very large step backwards and questioned Officer Roberts' authority. When Officer Roberts explained that this was not a search, but simply a frisk for weapons, Swanson became increasingly nervous. When Officer Roberts reached out and touched Swanson's right shoulder to escort him to the rear of the vehicle, Swanson physically pulled away. Considering the totality of the circumstances, including Officer Roberts own considerable law enforcement experience, we conclude that the officer reasonably could have considered Defendants to be armed and dangerous, justifying a protective frisk for weapons. [2] {31} We caution that while nervousness may be a relevant factor in the calculus, we do not consider nervousness alone sufficient to justify a frisk for weapons. To reinforce the point, we expressly concur in that portion of the Court of Appeals' majority opinion that states: We take this opportunity to make clear that Chapman did not adopt a rule equating simple nervousness with reasonable suspicion. Vandenberg, 2002-NMCA-066, ¶ 21. We also endorse the following statement in the dissent: it is not the degree of nervousness that allows the officer to pat a defendant down, but instead it is the articulation by the officer of specific reasons why the nervousness displayed by the defendant caused the officer to reasonably believe that his or her safety would be compromised. Id. ¶ 34 (Pickard, J. dissenting); see also United States v. Millan-Diaz, 975 F.2d 720, 722 (10th Cir.1992) (It is common knowledge that most citizens ... whether innocent or guilty, when confronted by a law enforcement officer who asks them potentially incriminating questions are likely to exhibit some signs of nervousness.). Based on the testimony in this record, Officer Roberts reasonably could have believed that Swanson and Vandenberg demonstrated more than simple nervousness, and that their behavior was different from what one normally expects at a simple traffic stop. {32} We also emphasize the principle, self-evident though it may be, that a routine traffic stop is just that: routine. Ordinarily, routine means that an officer may not constitutionally perform a protective frisk for weapons during a traffic stop. It is only when the traffic stop ceases to be routine that a weapons frisk may be necessary, assuming that the officer can meet the exacting burden of presenting exigent circumstances, in sufficient detail and with convincing sincerity, to a discerning trial judge. {33} Circumspectly, our holding is narrow. In this very close case, reasonable concerns for safety, and safety alone, justified Officer Roberts' apprehensions and the protective pat down that followed. This was not a search for evidence. The officers did not try to make a case for suspicion of drug possession, and with good reason. Nothing about the perceived behavior of Defendants would have justified a frisk, much less a full-blown search, for evidence of any crime. See Cardenas-Alvarez, 2001-NMSC-017, ¶ 21, 130 N.M. 386, 25 P.3d 225 (holding that questionable but explainable behavior at a border stop did not give rise to reasonable suspicion sufficient to justify search for evidence). More was at stake here than mere evidence. {34} Traffic stops can be very dangerous. Maryland v. Wilson, 519 U.S. 408, 413, 117 S.Ct. 882, 137 L.Ed.2d 41 (1997); Pennsylvania v. Mimms, 434 U.S. 106, 110, 98 S.Ct. 330, 54 L.Ed.2d 331 (1977) (per curiam). The Court of Appeals' dissenting opinion acknowledges that `[e]ven in routine traffic stops, police may adopt precautionary measures addressed to reasonable fears ... [due to] the inordinate risks police take when they approach vehicles with persons seated in them ....' Vandenberg, 2002-NMCA-066, ¶ 37 (Pickard J. dissenting) (alteration in original) (citing Lovato, 112 N.M. at 522, 817 P.2d at 256, but relying on Mimms, 434 U.S. at 110-11, 98 S.Ct. 330); see also Cobbs, 103 N.M. at 628, 711 P.2d at 905 (At best, when an officer is merely investigating a traffic offense, he faces an inordinate risk when he approaches a subject seated in an automobile.). Relevant studies yield disturbing results. For example, [o]ver the past 10 years, more than 1,000 police officers have been murdered. Approximately 10% of those killings, or about 11 each year, occurred during `traffic pursuits and stops,' but it is not clear how many of those pursuits and stops involved offenses such as reckless or high-speed driving, rather than offenses such as driving on an expired license, or how often the shootings could have been avoided by ordering the driver to dismount. Mimms, 434 U.S. at 119 n. 9, 98 S.Ct. 330 (internal citation omitted). Another study indicates that [i]n 1994 alone, there were 5,762 officer assaults and 11 officers killed during traffic pursuits and stops. Wilson, 519 U.S. at 413, 117 S.Ct. 882. We must assume that reasonably well-trained police officers are equally aware of these statistics, and what they portend for their personal safety during otherwise routine traffic stops. {35} Legitimate concern for officer safety answers another of Defendants' arguments. Defendants protest that the traffic stop was over when Officer Roberts began his frisk, which then exceeded the permitted scope of their detention. According to Defendants, after Officer Roberts completed the traffic citation, all he had to do was hand Swanson a ticket and let him go on his way; there was no need for any further interaction with Defendants, and no need for a protective frisk. {36} We disagree. Officer Roberts testified that he did not become nervous about his safety until after he observed Defendants' behavior while running the computer check and writing the citation. Our courts have made clear that  [d]uring an investigatory stop, when an officer reasonably believes the individual may be armed and dangerous, he or she may check for weapons to ensure personal safety. State v. Flores, 1996-NMCA-059, ¶ 17, 122 N.M. 84, 920 P.2d 1038 (emphasis added). Officer Roberts still had to get close enough to hand Swanson the citation. Although his proximity may have been only momentary, the risk to his personal safety was no less real. Therefore, we refuse to draw a bright-line, temporal cut-off point. We decline to say that an investigating officer cannot be in as much danger at the end of a traffic stop as at the beginning, or at least reasonably believe that to be so. The BOLO From the First Stop {37} In reviewing the reasonableness of what Officer Roberts did during the second stop, we cannot confine ourselves solely to the circumstances of that one event. In this case, unlike Chapman, Officer Roberts relied to some extent on what Deputy House told him had occurred during the first stop. Officer Roberts testified that based on what I observed from both individuals as well as the radio transmission I had received from Deputy Benny House, at that time my officer awareness or officer safety heightened quite a bit and I did myself become nervous. When Officer Roberts was asked during the suppression hearing whether he would have called for backup if he had never received the BOLO from Deputy House, he responded [p]robably not. It would have had to be a little bit more on my particular stop to actually get me to call for some back up. Inexplicably, Officer Roberts was never asked whether he would have demanded a weapons frisk without the information in the BOLO. {38} As a general proposition, an officer may reasonably rely on information obtained from a BOLO. Whiteley v. Warden, Wyo. State Penitentiary, 401 U.S. 560, 568, 91 S.Ct. 1031, 28 L.Ed.2d 306 (1971). A BOLO may provide sufficiently reasonable suspicion for an investigatory stop, if the information in the BOLO is corroborated by a second officer. See State v. De Jesus-Santibanez, 119 N.M. 578, 581, 893 P.2d 474, 477 (Ct.App.1995) (The description of the vehicle, the time and direction of travel, the route traveled by the vehicle, and the origin of the vehicle's license plate, all matched the specific information given by the BOLO or reasonable inferences drawn therefrom. This is sufficient to provide reasonable suspicion for an investigatory stop.). {39} However, an otherwise illegal arrest cannot be insulated from challenge by the decision of the instigating officer to rely on fellow officers to make the arrest. Whiteley, 401 U.S. at 568, 91 S.Ct. 1031; see also State v. Taylor, 60 Wis.2d 506, 210 N.W.2d 873, 880 (1973) (concluding that an officer who reasonably relies on a police dispatch has legal justification to stop a car, but this reliance does not legitimatize the arrest in a legal sense or authorize any search incident thereto). If Deputy House obtained information illegally and then passed it along to Officer Roberts, who relied on that information in his own assessment of Defendants' behavior, then a motion to suppress may have been in order. Accordingly, we must analyze the first stop and the circumstances that led to Deputy House's BOLO alert.