Opinion ID: 1204328
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 5

Heading: Ramirez and the State Bar Allegations Involving Merle

Text: During the course of appellants' investigation, Attorney Patrick Hallinan provided Ramirez with a copy of the letter he had filed against Merle with the State Bar of California. As noted, this letter charged that despite Merle's knowledge that Hallinan represented Dean Tom, Merle had improperly interrogated Tom without counsel. Hallinan also told Ramirez that it was his understanding there had been a recommendation within the bar that Merle be disciplined on the Tom matter. Several months later, Ramirez checked with Hallinan again about the status of the Merle complaint. Hallinan told Ramirez that a full committee of the bar had reversed a panel's earlier recommendation that Merle be disciplined. Ramirez was also informed by someone at the State Bar that as a matter of policy the bar did not release information about pending complaints. In the article of May 21, 1976, Ramirez wrote that a State Bar disciplinary review committee had decided to sanction Merle for his alleged misconduct in a 1973 Chinatown case. Ramirez added that according to State Bar officials, no official action had been taken. Ramirez's original draft of this article stated that a bar panel had recommended that Merle be sanctioned for alleged misconduct, but that a larger committee overturned this suggestion. Ramirez testified that after he wrote this draft, but prior to publication, he received additional information that caused him to change the story to its final version, omitting any reference to the fact that the recommendation to impose sanctions had been overturned. He further testified that when he submitted that final version for publication, he believed it was accurate.
This case presents the delicate and sensitive task of accommodating the First Amendment's protection of free expression of ideas with the common law's protection of an individual's interest in reputation. ( Ollman v. Evans, supra, 750 F.2d at p. 974.) Libel laws recognize that each person has a right not to be disparaged by false statements. (Eldredge, The Law of Defamation (1978) § 4, p. 8.) [22] Society's interest in redressing the harm done to one's reputation is strong. ( Rosenblatt v. Baer, supra, 383 U.S. at p. 86 [15 L.Ed.2d at pp. 605-606].) Moreover, this court is not unmindful that [t]he harm done to one's reputation by erroneous charges of corruption or dishonesty can never be fully undone, ... For even an erased question mark still suffices to raise the question, where perhaps none existed before. (Bird, The Role of the Press in a First Amendment Society (1980) 20 Santa Clara L.Rev. 1, 8 [hereafter Role of the Press ].) There exists a substantial tension between the protection of these reputational interests and the commitment to free debate. (See Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. (1974) 418 U.S. 323, 342 [41 L.Ed.2d 789, 806-807, 94 S.Ct. 2997].) Few events place this tension in such graphic relief as when false accusations of corruption are disseminated in an irresponsible and gratuitous fashion by an indifferent and powerful press. Nevertheless, press responsibility is not constitutionally mandated nor can it be legislatively or judicially compelled. (See Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo (1974) 418 U.S. 241, 256 [41 L.Ed.2d 730, 740, 94 S.Ct. 2831].) The First Amendment grants the press a privilege to report and comment upon official actions with no requirement that an individual's reputation be spared. ( Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, supra, 403 U.S. 29, 62 [29 L.Ed.2d 296, 322], conc. opn. of White, J.) As this court recently observed: Fair and objective reporting may be a worthy ideal, but there is also room, within the protection of the First Amendment, for writing which seeks to expose wrongdoing and arouse righteous anger.... ( Reader's Digest Assn. v. Superior Court, supra, 37 Cal.3d at p. 259.) The constitutional protections afforded the media under New York Times present a formidable barrier to public official plaintiffs. Equally formidable, however, are those principles which prompted the high court's articulation of the concept of constitutional malice. The public possesses an independent interest in the qualifications and performance of its public officials. (See Rosenblatt v. Baer, supra, 383 U.S. at pp. 85-86 [15 L.Ed.2d at p. 605]; Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts (1967) 388 U.S. 130, 153 [18 L.Ed.2d 1094, 1110, 87 S.Ct. 1975].) To effectuate this interest, the public relies upon the press as its agent to gather and disseminate this information (see Saxbe v. Washington Post Co. (1974) 417 U.S. 843, 863 [41 L.Ed.2d 514, 527, 94 S.Ct. 2811] (dis. opn. of Powell, J.), as well as to provide a forum for the expression of criticism and opinion. The Constitution specifically selected the press ... to play an important role in the discussion of public affairs. Thus the press serves and was designed to serve as a powerful antidote to any abuses of power by governmental officials and as a constitutionally chosen means for keeping officials elected by the people responsible to all the people whom they were selected to serve. ( Mills v. Alabama (1966) 384 U.S. 214, 219 [16 L.Ed.2d 484, 488, 86 S.Ct. 1434].) Indeed, the press is our citizenry's single most important check on governmental misconduct and secrecy. ( Role of the Press, supra, 20 Santa Clara L.Rev. at p. 3.) Informed public opinion is the most potent of all restraints upon governmental wrongdoing or mismanagement. ( Grosjean v. American Press Co. (1936) 297 U.S. 233, 250 [80 L.Ed. 660, 668-669, 56 S.Ct. 444].) However, it is often impossible for an individual to obtain information about misconduct in government unless the press provides it. (Note, The Right of the Press to Gather Information Under the First Amendment (1978) 12 Loyola L.A.L.Rev. 357, 359.) Thus, it is fundamental that [c]riticism of government is at the very center of the constitutionally protected area of free discussion. Criticism of those responsible for government operations must be free, lest criticism of government itself be penalized. ( Rosenblatt v. Baer, supra, 383 U.S. at p. 85 [15 L.Ed.2d at p. 605]; Gomes v. Fried, supra, 136 Cal. App.3d at p. 932.) This court's independent examination of the record must be conducted against the backdrop of our society's profound national commitment to the principle that debate on public issues should be uninhibited, robust, and wide-open, and that it may well include vehement, caustic, and sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks on government and public officials. ( New York Times, supra, 376 U.S. at p. 270 [11 L.Ed.2d at p. 701].) For these reasons, respondents as public officials must sometimes bear scathing and even false attacks subject only to those narrowly circumscribed exceptions embodied in the concept of actual malice. The public's interest in reports of official misconduct, even if they are factually erroneous and damaging, outweighs the reputational interest of any individual. (See New York Times, supra, 376 U.S. at pp. 271-272 [11 L.Ed.2d at p. 701].) (4) As noted, liability under New York Times requires clear and convincing proof of a knowing falsehood or of reckless disregard for the truth. ( New York Times, supra, 376 U.S. at pp. 285-286 [11 L.Ed.2d at pp. 709-710].) Recovery by public officials in defamation actions is constitutionally barred unless evidence is produced of either deliberate falsification or reckless publication `despite the publisher's awareness of probable falsity'.... ( St. Amant v. Thompson, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 731 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 267].) Reckless disregard for the truth is not measured by whether a reasonably prudent man would have published, or would have investigated before publishing. There must be sufficient evidence to permit the conclusion that the defendant in fact entertained serious doubts as to the truth of his publication. ( St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 731 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 267].) Lack of due care is not the measure of liability, nor is gross or even extreme negligence. ( Reader's Digest Assn. v. Superior Court, supra, 37 Cal.3d at p. 259, fn. 11.) St. Amant named several circumstances which may give rise to serious doubts. The finder of fact must determine whether the publication was indeed made in good faith. Professions of good faith will be unlikely to prove persuasive, for example, where a story is fabricated by the defendant, is the product of his imagination, or is based wholly on an unverified anonymous telephone call. Nor will they be likely to prevail when the publisher's allegations are so inherently improbable that only a reckless man would have put them in circulation. Likewise, recklessness may be found where there are obvious reasons to doubt the veracity of the informant or the accuracy of his reports. ( St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 732 [20 L.Ed.2d at pp. 267-268].) However, as this court recently explained, neither investigatory failures, proof of the publisher's ill will, nor lack of objectivity will necessarily deprive even a defamatory falsehood of privileged status. (See Reader's Digest Assn. v. Superior Court, supra, 37 Cal.3d at pp. 258-259; St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 733 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 268]; Gomes v. Fried, supra, 136 Cal. App.3d at pp. 934-935.) (5a) In order to substantiate their claim of actual knowledge of falsity, respondents rely primarily on several pieces of Porter's deposition testimony. They assert this testimony establishes with convincing clarity that an arrangement was made between Porter and Bergman whereby Porter would provide a false affidavit in exchange for Bergman's help in getting the detainer lifted. Respondents also argue appellants were reckless in ignoring information and failing to pursue several areas of investigation which would have demonstrated that Porter's affidavit was false and that Richard Lee was guilty. Appellants, in turn, contend that the investigation they undertook to corroborate Porter and to develop the Richard Lee story proves their good faith belief in the probable truth of Porter's allegations. They argue that no deal was struck between Porter and Bergman and that they cannot be faulted for relying on Porter since they uncovered a substantial amount of information which they honestly believed corroborated Porter's veracity. Appellants maintain that respondents seek to impose a double standard whereby respondents could rely on Porter to prove up their libel claim, but would preclude appellants' similar reliance upon Porter in publishing the articles. Appellants also contend that their thoroughness in investigating the entire context of the Lee case establishes that they published without malice. Initially, respondents argue that Porter's testimony concerning the prison interview shows that Bergman not only knew the affidavit was false but helped create it. The record, however, is not nearly so clear. The tone of the prison interview was established by Porter during the first telephone conversation with Bergman. Porter not only told Bergman he had lied at the trial because of something respondents had done, but also expressed great remorse and even begged Lee's forgiveness. Bergman's testimony, and especially his contemporaneous notes of that conversation (Let Richard know `forgive me' ... didn't do it because I wanted) strongly corroborate Porter's account. But it is Porter's own testimony that leaves no doubt he intended to and did convince Bergman that he was speaking the truth when he claimed to have lied at trial. Porter's admitted motive for lying was to get Bergman to visit him in order to obtain Bergman's assistance with the detainer. [23] Bergman experienced an emotional reaction to this conversation in which Porter so persuasively pleaded for forgiveness and divulged his feelings of guilt and remorse. Bergman gave a lot of credence to Porter, particularly because Porter was allowing him to visit. In addition, by the time of the visit, several ostensibly credible sources [24] had given Bergman reason to believe that there might have been serious problems with the manner in which Lee was convicted, and that the persons responsible for producing Porter as the state's key witness might have engaged in questionable behavior in Lee's case and others. In view of Bergman's state of mind, his reaction to Porter's momentary story change at the subsequent interview was neither surprising nor suspect. According to Porter, Bergman opened the interview by reiterating the very thing Porter told him over the telephone: he believed some of Porter's trial testimony was false. He was interested in getting a statement from Porter to that effect, or in Porter's words, another testimony. When Porter told Bergman he had told the truth at trial, Bergman expressed disbelief and said he thought the testimony was false. It is unclear from Porter's deposition testimony whether this response  the lynchpin of respondents' argument  merely reflected Bergman's confusion over the discrepancy between Porter's posture on the telephone and his new position (i.e., he thought Porter had told him that the testimony was false); or reflected Bergman's statement of his own belief that Porter had lied. In either case, respondents err in relying on this isolated piece of ambiguous evidence as sufficiently clear and convincing proof that Bergman knowingly solicited the intricate lie that Porter proceeded to tell and tell again. As the Supreme Court stated in Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of U.S., Inc., supra , `[a]nalysis of this kind may be adequate when the alleged libel purports to be an ... account of events that speak for themselves,' but is not appropriate where the event in issue `bristle[s] with ambiguities.' (466 U.S. 485 at pp. 512-513 [80 L.Ed.2d at p. 525], italics omitted.) Bergman's reaction prompted Porter immediately to look to Bergman for cues and to fashion his story accordingly. He interpreted Bergman's remarks as suggestions of what Bergman wanted to hear. [25] Experienced at manipulation, Porter was able to identify Bergman's concern that Lee had been unfairly convicted and exploit it. Porter acknowledged that Bergman did not tell him to say anything. In fact, by the time he gave his affidavit to Manning, Porter was quite convinced he had managed to run a scam on both Bergman and Manning. [26] Furthermore, there is no evidence that Bergman's request that Porter give another story was a request that Porter give false testimony, although Porter apparently construed it as such a suggestion, or came as a response to Porter's telling him that he had told the truth at trial. Rather, the record as a whole indicates that Bergman asked Porter if, based on what Porter had told him about respondents' behavior, he would be willing to step forward to right the wrong he had committed against Lee  to give a different statement than he had given at trial. This evidence is a far cry from clear and convincing proof that Bergman's request that Porter give a different story was a request that Porter lie. The record does demonstrate that Bergman agreed to help Porter on the detainer matter because Porter was willing to execute a sworn statement documenting his oral allegations. Bergman testified that he probably would not have continued to make inquiries about the detainer had Porter not signed the affidavit. However, unless Bergman were actually aware that Porter's claims were false, nothing illicit existed between them. [27] While it may have been foolish and even grossly negligent of Bergman to entertain any discussion at all about the detainer at the same time he was asking Porter to swear to his accusations in an affidavit, this juxtaposition of events is of no moment if Bergman did not know Porter's accusations were false. Bergman's offer to make inquiries on behalf of someone incarcerated and unable effectively, or as easily, to fulfill a promise both men believed respondents had already made, was not nefarious. Absent knowledge of falsity, any arrangement between Porter and Bergman regarding the detainer was lacking in constitutional malice considering Bergman's subjective viewpoint. In sum, the conversation that occurred during the interview is constitutionally inadequate to support a conclusion either that Bergman knew Porter's allegations were false or that he fabricated them. It may be appropriate to fault Bergman for his credulity, his failure to be more cynical or guarded in his responses to Porter, and particularly for his ill-timed offer of assistance with the detainer. However, the ambiguous statements and conduct upon which respondents rely do not demonstrate with convincing clarity that Bergman acted with knowledge of falsity. Respondents also contend that appellants were reckless for failing (1) to reject Porter as an obviously biased source; (2) to reject his charges as inherently incredible; and (3) to investigate adequately his accusations. Respondents analogize appellants' reliance on Porter to the defendants' reliance on informant Burnett in Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts, supra, 388 U.S. 130. However, the plurality opinion in Butts, a public figure case, analyzed the adequacy of the investigation undertaken in preparation of the article in terms of whether it showed highly unreasonable conduct constituting an extreme departure from the standards of investigation and reporting ordinarily adhered to by responsible publishers. (388 U.S. at p. 155 [18 L.Ed.2d at p. 1111].) This court has previously noted in Reader's Digest Assn. v. Superior Court, supra, 37 Cal.3d at p. 258, fn. 9, that the Butts standard is an objective one which has since been superseded by the subjective standard propounded in St. Amant v. Thompson, supra, 390 U.S. 727. Accordingly, respondents' reliance on Butts is misplaced. Therefore, we must look to St. Amant for guidance. That case concerned a television broadcast in which defendant, St. Amant, repeated charges made by one Albin, a member of the Teamsters Union, that plaintiff Thompson, a deputy sheriff, had been involved in illegal payoffs and official corruption with St. Amant's political opponent. The Supreme Court held that Thompson had not satisfied his constitutional burden of showing that St. Amant's reliance on Albin was reckless. In explaining the holding, the high court first clarified that in order to find a defendant published with reckless disregard, there must be either (1) sufficient evidence to permit the conclusion that the defendant in fact entertained serious doubts as to the truth of his publication; or (2) obvious reasons to doubt the veracity of the informant or the accuracy of his reports. ( St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at pp. 731, 732 [20 L.Ed.2d at pp. 267, 268].) The court then made the following observations which are pertinent to this case. Closer to the mark are considerations of Albin's reliability. However, the most the state court could say was that there was no evidence in the record of Albin's reputation for veracity, and this fact merely underlines the failure of Thompson's evidence to demonstrate a low community assessment of Albin's trustworthiness or unsatisfactory experience with him by St. Amant. Other facts in this record support our view. St. Amant made his broadcast in June 1962. He had known Albin since October 1961, when he first met him with members of the dissident Teamsters faction. St. Amant testified that he had verified other aspects of Albin's information and that he had affidavits from others. Moreover Albin swore to his answers, first in writing and later in the presence of newsmen. According to Albin, he was prepared to substantiate his charges. St. Amant knew that Albin was engaged in an internal struggle in the union; Albin seemed to St. Amant to be placing himself in personal danger by publicly airing the details of the dispute.  (390 U.S. at p. 733 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 268], italics added.) Preliminarily, it should be noted that Porter's charges that he had been coerced, struck, and otherwise improperly induced to testify are not inherently improbable. New York Times and its progeny are founded upon the assumption that corruption at all levels of government, including those branches charged with enforcement and prosecution of the penal laws, exists and needs to be aired. Moreover, on October 27, 1977, this court granted Richard Lee's petition for hearing, which was supported by Porter's allegations against respondents, and issued an order to show cause why relief in Lee's habeas corpus matter should not be granted. The superior court was ordered to hold an evidentiary hearing on the factual disputes raised by the petition. [28] Significantly, in determining whether to grant such relief, this court had before it not only Porter's original affidavit but also his sworn recantations of that document contained in his affidavit of July 22, 1976, and in his deposition testimony. Therefore, appellants can scarcely be considered reckless for not rejecting Porter's allegations out of hand when this court has previously found those same charges to be sufficient to warrant further judicial intervention. Appellants, and particularly Bergman, had reason to believe most of Porter's story. Porter was very worried that his life would be in jeopardy should he be returned to California to testify on Lee's behalf. There, Porter would be under the physical control of the people he had accused of misconduct. He expressed these concerns to Bergman several times. Like the source in St. Amant, Porter swore to his allegations in writing and told Bergman he was willing to testify if Bergman would go to bat for him and help assure his personal safety. Porter seemed to Bergman to be placing himself in personal danger by publicly airing the details ... of his charges against respondents. ( St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 733 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 268].) Bergman's opinion of Porter's veracity was further influenced by Roger Ruffin, an experienced attorney and former municipal and superior court judge. Ruffin told Bergman that in his opinion the materials in the habeas corpus matter including Porter's affidavit constituted an excellent case for relief, and that Lee's habeas corpus case was one of the most complete he had seen. [29] (Contrast, Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts, supra, 388 U.S. at p. 158 [18 L.Ed.2d at pp. 1112-1113] [media defendant's conduct held highly unreasonable due to failure to check source's story with someone knowledgeable in the field].) Finally, it is noteworthy that respondents now seek a ruling from this court that since Porter was a prisoner with something to gain, there were obvious reasons to doubt his credibility and thus any reliance on Porter was reckless. Yet, thrice in the history of these proceedings, respondents have relied upon statements and stories from Porter: once, to convict Richard Lee; a second time to defeat Lee's habeas corpus claims; and a third time to obtain a multi-million dollar libel judgment. These litigious ironies do not excuse appellants from accountability for recklessness if they possessed a `high degree of awareness of ... probable falsity.' (See St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 731 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 267].) However, they do undermine the strength of respondents' suggestion that only a reckless man could have believed the things Porter had to say. ( Id., at p. 732 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 268].) The Supreme Court has consistently confirmed that in the constitutional malice context, failure to investigate does not in and of itself establish bad faith. (See, e.g., St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 733 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 268]; New York Times, supra, 376 U.S. at pp. 287-288 [11 L.Ed.2d at p. 711]; Beckley Newspapers v. Hanks, supra, 389 U.S. 81, 84-85 [19 L.Ed.2d 248, 251-252].) Respondents nevertheless point to investigational deficiencies and claim these demonstrate reckless conduct. However, this court notes that appellants uncovered information during their one-and-a-half-year investigation which in their minds corroborated Porter's charges. For example, appellants obtained independent information which they believed substantiated Porter's claim that respondents had made certain promises in exchange for his testimony. They spent several hours trying to locate jail records to support Porter's claim that he had repeatedly met with respondents. They attempted, albeit unsuccessfully, to find examples of prior recitations by Porter of his story. In their opinion, there was no necessary correlation between the failure to locate certain witnesses or records and any lack of veracity on Porter's part. [30] Most importantly, they learned from several sources that respondents had been accused by others of misconduct and questionable practices. Again, whether these similar accusations of misconduct were true is not in issue. What is dispositive is that appellants relied upon these ostensibly credible sources in forming a judgment that Porter's claims might have some validity. In addition, appellants interviewed a variety of sources, from police officers to lawyers to Asians active in the Chinatown community, in order to explore Porter's charges and to understand the relationship between law enforcement and Asian youth in Chinatown. Appellants were also told by members of the police force that other Asian youths like Lee had been framed on false charges. Appellants had some reason to doubt Porter's credibility. Manning had opined to Bergman that he had some doubt about Porter's veracity, although Bergman apparently construed this remark as a comment on Porter's chances of being believed in court in view of his status as a convict. Bergman knew that Porter was concerned about the detainer and wanted assistance. In the text of the affidavit, Porter made some superficially outlandish claims that neither of the reporters took literally. [31] Ramirez also wrote a note to his superiors at the Examiner at the outset of his investigation indicating that Porter's statements should be viewed with skepticism. These questions about Porter did not rise to the level of serious doubts. And in any event, they were largely dispelled as a result of the investigation undertaken in response to Porter's charges and appellants' subjective beliefs concerning the information they uncovered. The record as a whole supports the conclusion that at the time the articles were published, appellants did not possess a subjective awareness of probable falsity. (See St. Amant, supra, 390 U.S. at p. 731 [20 L.Ed.2d at p. 267].) Finally, respondents posit that appellants were reckless by failing to reinterview Attorney Stanley Golde with whom Richard Lee had met to discuss a potential defense when he first learned he was being sought by the police in connection with the Leong homicide. Golde had told Bergman that the information he had about Lee would not be beneficial to the reporters. Bergman testified that he construed Golde's statement to mean that whatever information Golde had about Lee might not be helpful and could have been detrimental to Lee. The reporters decided that it was not in their interest to recontact Golde. Assuming arguendo that respondents are correct when they speculate that Golde would have told appellants that Lee was guilty, this knowledge would not have seriously affected their view of Porter's veracity. Porter never told Bergman nor did he swear in the affidavit, that he knew Lee was innocent. Indeed, Porter declared in the first affidavit that Richard Lee would not talk about his case to Porter. Respondents have never contended they were libeled by the articles' suggestion that Lee might be innocent. Their claim is based exclusively on Porter's published allegations. The sting of the libel ( Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts, supra, 388 U.S. 130, 138 [18 L.Ed.2d 1094, 1101]), was that respondents improperly procured Porter's testimony about Lee. This sting would have remained had appellants published the identical charges of official misconduct, but conceded Lee's guilt. Similarly, the fact that appellants might have had reason to believe Golde would tell them Lee was guilty bears little if any relationship to their subjective belief in Porter's veracity. Appellants were not obliged to assure themselves beyond a reasonable doubt that Lee was innocent before airing charges of official misconduct. These charges were logically independent of his guilt or innocence. [32] Appellants' states of mind as to Richard Lee's guilt or innocence are not determinative of their subjective attitudes toward the truth or falsity of Porter's charges. [33] (6) Respondent Merle additionally contends that the information contained in the May 21st article about the State Bar disciplinary proceedings was published with actual malice. At trial, Merle's counsel argued that this portion of the article constituted a known falsehood in that (1) Hallinan had told Ramirez that the bar had decided not to impose sanctions; and (2) Ramirez completely fabricated his testimony that additional information led him to believe that the recommendation to impose sanctions had not been overturned. Respondents were able to make these arguments because the trial court erroneously ruled that Ramirez could not testify that the source of his additional information was reporter Larry Hatfield. Hatfield had covered State Bar affairs for years and Ramirez considered him to be a reliable source. During discovery Hatfield testified that he informed Ramirez that a disciplinary review committee had decided to impose unspecified disciplinary action against Merle. Hatfield had obtained this information from a qualified State Bar source. However, Hatfield refused to divulge his bar source. Respondents obtained a commissioner's order that should Hatfield fail to disclose his source, it would be deemed established for purposes of this action that there was no such source. The trial court misconstrued the commissioner's order to include a ban on any mention of Hatfield whatsoever. Therefore, Ramirez was prevented from testifying not simply as to the existence of Hatfield's source, but also as to the existence of his own source, Larry Hatfield. Article I, section 2, subdivision (b) of the California Constitution and Evidence Code section 1070 prohibit contempt proceedings against publishers, editors, reporters and others for failure to reveal their sources of information. Code of Civil Procedure section 2034 authorizes the court to impose reasonable sanctions against one who refuses to provide discovery or respond to appropriate questions during deposition. This case presents the interplay between (1) a reporter's right not to divulge a source, and (2) those provisions governing the redress of wilful failures to disclose information during civil discovery proceedings. However, this court need not resolve the tension between these laws here. The commissioner's order clearly did not bar Ramirez from explaining that he had relied upon his source, Hatfield. Nor would there have been any logical basis for such a sweeping ban on Ramirez's testimony. Hatfield was the disobedient deponent, not Ramirez. Hatfield's confidential source at the State Bar was the object of controversy, not Ramirez's source. Ramirez did not refuse to disclose his source nor did he attempt to introduce evidence of Hatfield's source. The trial court erred in disallowing Ramirez's testimony that he had a source for the published statements. When the May 21st article is evaluated in light of Ramirez's actual state of mind, it is clear that as a result of the information he received from Hatfield, Ramirez had reason to and did believe that a State Bar committee had decided to sanction Merle. Although respondents were allowed to argue that Ramirez invented this story, it was in fact based on a trusted source. No actual malice existed. In New York Times, the high court refused to hold the publisher liable even though the Times would have discovered the falsity of the published material had they simply checked their own news files. (376 U.S. at pp. 287-288 [11 L.Ed.2d at p. 711].) In that case, the court affirmed that freedom of expression requires `breathing space'  room for error  if it is to survive. ( Id., at p. 272 [11 L.Ed.2d at p. 701], quoting NAACP v. Button (1963) 371 U.S. 415, 433 [9 L.Ed.2d 405, 418, 83 S.Ct. 328].) The Supreme Court recently reaffirmed the fundamental precept that error is inevitable in free debate and that even demonstrably false statements must be protected absent actual malice. ( Philadelphia Newspapers, Inc. v. Hepps (1986) 475 U.S. 767, ___ [89 L.Ed.2d 783, 793-794, 106 S.Ct. 1558, 1564-1565]; see New York Times, supra, 376 U.S. at p. 272 [11 L.Ed.2d at pp. 701-702]; Barron & Dienes, Handbook of Free Speech and Free Press, § 61.1, p. 226.) The critic of official conduct is not compelled to guarantee the truth of all his factual assertions for to do so on pain of libel judgments virtually unlimited in amount results in self-censorship. ( New York Times, supra, 376 U.S. at p. 279 [11 L.Ed.2d at p. 706].) (5b) In light of these settled principles of constitutional law, this court concludes that appellants did not harbor actual malice when they published the articles containing false allegations of official misconduct involving respondents. [34]
One additional issue that arose in the course of this trial must be addressed. (7a) The jury was instructed in the modified language of BAJI No. 14.71 (6th ed. 1977) in pertinent part as follows: If you find that plaintiffs suffered actual damages as a proximate result of the conduct of the defendants on which you base a finding of liability, you may then consider whether you should award additional damages against defendants, for the sake of example and by way of punishment. You may in your discretion award such additional damages, known as punitive or exemplary damages, if, but only if, you find by clear and convincing evidence that said defendants were guilty of oppression, fraud, or actual malice in the conduct on which you base your finding of liability. `Malice' means a motive and willingness to vex, harass, annoy or injure another person. Malice may be shown by direct evidence of declaration of hatred or ill-will or it may be inferred from acts and conduct, such as by showing that the defendant's conduct was wilfull [ sic ], intentional, and done in reckless disregard of its possible results. (Italics added.) This instruction was apparently based on Civil Code section 3294, [35] which provides guidelines for the imposition of punitive damages in civil cases. The trial court refused to instruct in the language of section 48a, which governs the award of punitive damages in newspaper libel cases. Section 48a, subdivision 4(d), defines actual malice for purposes of punitive or exemplary damages, as that state of mind arising from hatred or ill will toward the plaintiff; provided, however, that such a state of mind occasioned by a good faith belief on the part of the defendant in the truth of the libelous publication or broadcast at the time it is published or broadcast shall not constitute actual malice. (8) In order to reach the issue of actual malice under section 48a for purposes of awarding punitive damages, the jury must first have found liability based on New York Times actual malice. These two types of actual malice are very different. The New York Times test directs attention to the `defendant's attitude toward the truth or falsity of the material published ... [not] the defendant's attitude toward the plaintiff.' ( Reader's Digest Assn. v. Superior Court, supra, 37 Cal.3d at p. 257.) Actual malice under New York Times is quite different from the common-law standard of `malice' generally required under state tort law to support an award of punitive damages.... [C]ommon-law malice  frequently expressed in terms of either personal ill will toward the plaintiff or reckless or wanton disregard of the plaintiff's rights  would focus on the defendant's attitude toward the plaintiff[] ... not toward the truth or falsity of the material published. ( Cantrell v. Forest City Publishing Co. (1974) 419 U.S. 245, 252 [42 L.Ed.2d 419, 426-427, 95 S.Ct. 465].) `[I]ll will toward the plaintiff, or bad motives, are not elements of the New York Times standard.' [Citations.] ( Letter Carriers v. Austin, supra, 418 U.S. at p. 281 [41 L.Ed.2d at p. 760].) (7b) The punitive damage instruction in this case effectively dissolved the distinction between these two types of actual malice. It did not require the jury to base its punitive damage award on a finding that defendants bore hatred or ill will toward the plaintiff. [36] The jury was informed that it could base its finding of malice either on direct evidence of such hatred or ill will, or on intentional conduct or reckless disregard for the results of that conduct. By the reference to and juxtaposition of intentional conduct and reckless disregard, the instruction given was strikingly similar to that which the jury received regarding the determination of liability based on New York Times actual malice. [37] Therefore, the jury may well have confused the two phrases and improperly based its award of punitive damages on its finding of New York Times actual malice. The danger of confusion was compounded by the use of the word conduct in the first part of the punitive damage instruction. The jury was instructed that it could award punitive damages if it found by clear and convincing evidence that the defendants were guilty of ... actual malice in the conduct on which you base your finding of liability. The flaw in this sentence is apparent. If the jury found liability based on appellants' conduct in publishing the articles with New York Times actual malice, it was then free to award punitive damages based on that same conduct. Such a result would eliminate the sharp distinction between the actual malice required by New York Times and that necessary to award punitive damages under section 48a. This instruction should not have been given. However, it is not necessary to reach the impact of this error in light of the court's finding that the record does not establish liability under New York Times.
In sum, this court holds under New York Times that the evidence does not establish with convincing clarity that appellants possessed actual malice when they wrote and published the disputed articles. The judgment of the Court of Appeal is reversed with directions to reverse the judgment of the trial court.