Opinion ID: 1614199
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Heading: validity of the search clause under the fourth amendment

Text: We begin by recognizing that probation is not the same as freedom. A probationer is a convicted criminal who has been sentenced to a term of imprisonment and who has been allowed to serve at least a portion of that term outside the confines of a jail. Although the constitutional status of probationers has not been precisely delineated, case law clearly indicates that probationers are neither totally bereft of nor fully invested with constitutional protections. See Gagnon v. Scarpelli, 411 U.S. 778, 93 S.Ct. 1756, 36 L.Ed.2d 656 (1973); Morrissey v. Brewer, 408 U.S. 471, 92 S.Ct. 2593, 33 L.Ed.2d 484 (1972). In State v. Schlosser, 202 N.W.2d 136, 139 (N.D.1972), our court stated that a: ... defendant's status as a probationer does affect his rights under the Fourth Amendment. The court has a responsibility to regulate a probationer's activities to help in his rehabilitation and at the same time to guard against continued criminal behavior. Schlosser, supra 202 N.W.2d 136, 137, involved the condition of an order suspending the imposition of sentence for the offense of possession of marijuana which similarly required that the defendant 'consent to his parole officer or other law enforcement officers to search his home, property or person at any time without a search warrant' . The defendant in Schlosser, supra, while on probation, was arrested on a charge of possession of marijuana and was placed in jail. Later that day he was taken from jail by his probation officer and two law enforcement officers and was taken to his apartment which was then searched in his presence without a warrant. Marijuana and hashish were discovered as a result of the search. The products of the search were admitted in evidence at his probation revocation hearing and the defendant was subsequently sentenced to imprisonment in the State Penitentiary for one year. Relying to a large extent on the California Supreme Court's decision in People v. Mason, 5 Cal.3d 759, 97 Cal.Rptr. 302, 488 P.2d 630 (1971), cert. denied, 405 U.S. 1016, 92 S.Ct. 1289, 31 L.Ed.2d 478 (1972), our court concluded such a condition of probation is valid if it is reasonable and is related to the probationer's reformation and rehabilitation in the light of the offense of which he was convicted. This court, in Schlosser, supra 202 N.W.2d at 139, also adopted the test applied by the California court in Mason, supra, which was set forth in People v. Dominguez, 256 Cal.App.2d 623, 64 Cal.Rptr. 290, 293 (1967): A condition of probation which (1) has no relationship to the crime of which the offender was convicted, (2) relates to conduct which is not in itself criminal, and (3) requires or forbids conduct which is not reasonably related to future criminality does not serve the statutory ends of probation and is invalid. Applying this test in Schlosser, supra, we concluded that the condition imposed constituted a reasonable and necessary element of the defendant's probation and, as such, the warrantless search and seizure of the contraband from his apartment by his probation officer was not unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment, and the evidence seized was admissible in his probation revocation hearing. Perbix contends that Schlosser, supra, can be distinguished from the instant case because in Schlosser the probation officer concurred in and participated in the search; the defendant had just been arrested for possession of marijuana immediately prior to the search, thus providing authorities with at least a logical reason if not probable cause; and the fruits of the search were used in a probation revocation proceeding. The question thus becomes whether or not our rationale in Schlosser may be extended to include situations in which police officers, without the knowledge or assistance of a defendant's probation officer and without probable cause or even a reasonable suspicion that the defendant is engaging in criminal activities or violating a condition of his probation, conduct a search pursuant to such a search clause and use the fruits of that search as a basis for a new criminal charge. Respectable and well-reasoned authorities have reached contrary results concerning the constitutional validity and application of search provisions of the type involved in the instant case. See generally Note, Fourth Amendment Limitations on Probation and Parole Supervision, 1976 Duke L.J. 71 (1976); Note, Search and Seizure Rights of Parolees and Probationers in the Ninth Circuit, 44 Fordham L.Rev. 617 (1975); Note, Striking the Balance Between Privacy and Supervision: The Fourth Amendment and Parole and Probation Officer Searches of Parolees and Probationers, 51 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 800 (1976); 3 W. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 10.10 (1978); Annot., 79 A.L.R.3d 1083 (1977). Although most courts have upheld the validity of various forms of search provisions made a condition of a defendant's probation, many jurisdictions appear to limit the parties who may conduct such searches to probation officers or law enforcement officers acting under the direction of a probation officer. [4] See United States v. Consuelo-Gonzalez, 521 F.2d 259, 265-267 (9th Cir.1975); Roman v. State, 570 P.2d 1235, 1243 (Alaska 1977); Grubbs v. State, 373 So.2d 905, 910 (Fla. 1979); State v. Fogarty, Mont., 610 P.2d 140, 150 (1980); Seim v. State, 95 Nev. 89, 590 P.2d 1152, 1155 (1979); State v. Bollinger, 169 N.J.Super. 553, 405 A.2d 432, 438 (1979); People v. Fortunato, 50 A.D.2d 38, 376 N.Y.S.2d 723, 727 (1975); State v. Fisher, 32 Or.App. 465, 574 P.2d 354, 356 (1978); State v. Cummings, 262 N.W.2d 56, 61 (S.D. 1978); Tamez v. State, 534 S.W.2d 686, 692 (Tex.Cr.App.1976); Sanderson v. State, 649 P.2d 677, 679 (Wyo.1982). Several courts have also stated that, at the very least, some sort of reasonable cause requirement must first be met before a search can be validly conducted. See Latta v. Fitzharris, 521 F.2d 246, 250 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 897, 96 S.Ct. 200, 46 L.Ed.2d 130 (1975); United States v. Consuelo-Gonzalez, supra 521 F.2d at 266; State v. Fogarty, supra 610 P.2d at 150-153; Seim v. State, supra 590 P.2d at 1155; People v. Fortunato, supra 376 N.Y.S.2d at 727. Other jurisdictions, however, appear to have ruled that there is no constitutional or statutory impediment to allowing police officers the same right as probation officers to conduct such searches pursuant to a condition of probation. See Owens v. Kelley, 681 F.2d 1362, 1369 (11th Cir.1982); State v. Montgomery, 115 Ariz. 583, 566 P.2d 1329, 1331 (1977); People v. Mason, 5 Cal.3d 759, 97 Cal.Rptr. 302, 306, 488 P.2d 630, 634 (1971), cert. denied, 405 U.S. 1016, 92 S.Ct. 1289, 31 L.Ed.2d 478 (1972); State v. Morgan, 206 Neb. 818, 295 N.W.2d 285, 288-289 (1980); State v. Mitchell, 22 N.C.App. 663, 207 S.E.2d 263, 264 (1974). [5] Also, some of these courts have either explicitly or implicitly declined to require that such searches be based on reasonable suspicion or probable cause. See Owens v. Kelley, supra 681 F.2d at 1368; State v. Morgan, supra 295 N.W.2d at 289; State v. Mitchell, supra 207 S.E.2d at 264. We find persuasive the collective rationale of those courts which find no constitutional infirmity in allowing police officers, as well as probation officers, to conduct warrantless searches as a condition of probation. In Owens v. Kelley, supra 681 F.2d at 1369, a panel of the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals stated: Owens and amicus ... argue that if warrantless searches are to be permitted we should only allow such searches by probation supervisors and not by law enforcement officers. We are not convinced, however, that such a distinction should be drawn. While the primary task of supervising Owens' probation rests with the state probation supervisors, law enforcement officers can lend legitimate assistance by conducting searches pursuant to the probation condition.... such searches are lawful so long as they are in fact conducted for probationary purposes. They cannot be conducted as `a subterfuge for criminal investigations.' United States v. Consuelo-Gonzalez, 521 F.2d at 267. We believe an individual convicted of a criminal offense who is placed on probation should be subject to certain reasonable restrictions on his living in an open society. By the fact of his or her conviction, the probationer has already demonstrated a need for supervised control. See Grubbs v. State, supra 373 So.2d at 909. We are also cognizant of the fact that criminal activities on the part of drug offenders are often uncovered only through searches of the personal property of the defendant. In this regard, the Nebraska Supreme Court, in State v. Morgan, supra 295 N.W.2d at 289, stated: ... To the extent that the possibility of such searches restrains previously convicted drug offenders from further activity in that field, it clearly aids in the rehabilitation process. Were we to flatly prohibit such searches under provisions similar to those contained in the probation order in this case [allowing law enforcement officers to conduct searches], we would, we believe, unnecessarily impede and hamper law enforcement authorities, as well as the probation process itself. Reasonable searches are necessary and should be permitted in order to determine whether the probationer is abiding by the conditions of the probation, so that those supervising such persons may determine whether the probationer is making progress in rehabilitation efforts, particularly in drug offenses, or whether the probationer has fallen by the wayside and has resumed his or her incursions into the field of drug addiction, drug abuse, and similar activities. Another consideration is that probation under certain circumstances is, we believe, desirable for several reasons. For example, it tends to maximize the probationer's usefulness in society while still vindicating the authority of the law in protecting the public. If probation conditions related to the purposes of probation cannot be imposed by a trial judge, the use of probation may substantially decline. Thus, in those cases in which a judge is wavering between an active or a suspended sentence, such restrictions might well tip the scales in favor of imprisonment because the judge cannot impose the type of sentence he or she believes appropriate under the circumstances. See Grubbs v. State, supra 373 So.2d at 909; State v. Grant, 40 N.C.App. 58, 252 S.E.2d 98, 100 (1979). Also entering into consideration is the fact that a probation officer's excessive case load or distance from the probationer may limit the ability of the probation officer to conduct such searches. Therefore, we conclude that conditions of probation requiring the probationer to submit to warrantless searches by probation officers or law enforcement officers, to the extent such searches contribute to the rehabilitation process; are not used as a subterfuge for criminal investigations; and are performed in a reasonable manner, are valid and not violative of the Fourth Amendment. [6] We also decline to impose a requirement that such searches may be permitted only upon a showing of reasonable suspicion or probable cause. In Owens v. Kelley, supra 681 F.2d at 1368-1369, the court stated: ... Searches of the residence and person of probationers ... are not conducted only when there is suspicion of a crime .... the primary purpose of such searches is to deter the commission of crime and to provide supervisors with information on the progress of their rehabilitative efforts. It is clear that a requirement that searches only be conducted when officers have reasonable suspicion or probable cause that a crime has been committed or that a condition of probation has been violated could completely undermine the purpose of the search condition. Any search conducted pursuant to the search condition of probation must, of course, be carried out in a reasonable manner and only in furtherance of the purposes of probation. The terms of the condition do not authorize any intimidating and harassing search to serve law enforcement ends totally unrelated to either Owens' conviction or rehabilitation. United States v. Consuelo-Gonzalez, 521 F.2d at 265. We thus find that on its face the condition of probation is constitutional and is capable of being lawfully applied. See United States v. Gordon, 540 F.2d 452 (9th Cir.1976). In the instant case, Perbix discussed the terms of the plea agreement with his attorney and the possible ramifications of the search provision were explained to him. Perbix also received a copy of the criminal judgment which contained the search provision. Law enforcement officers, who had prior knowledge of the probationary search condition, performed the search in the early afternoon. It was the only time Perbix had been searched pursuant to the probation condition. Although there can often exist a fine line between purely probationary or correctional purposes and police investigatory objectives, under the facts presented here, we conclude that the predominant purpose for the search was to determine whether or not the conditions of Perbix's probation had been violated. It was not an intimidating and harassing search designed to serve law enforcement ends totally unrelated to either Perbix's conviction or his rehabilitation. Finally, we have not been persuaded by any case law to adopt the proposition that evidence obtained as a result of a valid search conducted pursuant to a search provision may be used only in a probation revocation proceeding rather than in a new criminal prosecution. We note that most of the decisions discussing the validity of probation search clauses concern cases in which the defendant is challenging use of the evidence in a subsequent criminal prosecution. Most of these cases do not discuss the question of use of the evidence in this manner, apparently finding it implicit that the evidence may be used for new criminal prosecutions if the search itself is found to be valid. We agree with the few courts which have addressed this contention and which found it to be without merit. See Latta v. Fitzharris, 521 F.2d 246, 252-253 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 897, 96 S.Ct. 200, 46 L.Ed.2d 130 (1975); United States ex rel. Santos v. New York State Bd. of Par., 441 F.2d 1216, 1218-1219 (2d Cir.1971), cert. denied, 404 U.S. 1025, 92 S.Ct. 692, 30 L.Ed.2d 676 (1972). Thus, the fact that the evidence in Schlosser, supra, was used in a probation revocation proceeding rather than being used as the basis for a new criminal charge, as was done in the instant case, is not significant. Because the search provision in the instant case related to Perbix's prior criminal conduct, related to activity which is criminal in itself, and prohibited conduct which is reasonably related to future criminality under the test set forth in Schlosser, supra, the search provision and the resultant search, which was performed in a reasonable manner, did not violate the defendant's Fourth Amendment rights. Furthermore, because the search provision was reasonably necessary to ensure that Perbix lead a law-abiding life, the provisions of § 12.1-32-07, N.D.C.C., were not violated. Accordingly, the order of the district court suppressing the evidence discovered during the course of the search is reversed. ERICKSTAD, C.J., and PEDERSON, VANDE WALLE and SAND, JJ., concur.