Opinion ID: 3039812
Heading Depth: 3
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Attaining a Balance

Text: Finally, the majority reworks the third Weber and Johnson factor, which requires that an affirmative action plan be “in- 7 The majority’s reasoning cannot be limited to the § 1981 context. Indeed, if equality can only be achieved through inequality, it is unclear why the majority’s rationale would not apply with equal force to employment, housing, or public schools. DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS 19121 tended to attain a balanced work force, not to maintain one.” Johnson, 480 U.S. at 639; accord Weber, 443 U.S. at 208 (holding an affirmative action “plan [should be] a temporary measure[,] . . . not intended to maintain racial balance, but simply to eliminate a manifest racial imbalance”). Though the Supreme Court has not required that all affirmative action programs contain an explicit end date, Johnson also holds that, “Express assurance that a program is only temporary may be necessary if the program actually sets aside positions according to specific numbers.” 480 U.S. at 639-40. Indeed, in such cases, a sunset provision is “necessary both to minimize the effect of the program on other employees, and to ensure that the plan’s goals ‘[are] not being used simply to achieve and maintain . . . balance.’ ” Id. at 640 (quoting Weber, 478 U.S. at 477-78); accord Taxman v. Bd. of Educ. of Twp. of Piscataway, 91 F.3d 1547, 1564 (3d Cir. 1996) (en banc) (“[B]oth Weber and Johnson unequivocally provide that valid affirmative action plans are temporary measures that seek to attain, not maintain a permanent racial . . . balance.” (internal quotation marks omitted)), cert. granted, 521 U.S. 1117 (1997), cert. dismissed, 522 U.S. 1010 (1997). Under the third factor, the majority properly recognizes that an affirmative action “admissions policy must do no more than is necessary to correct” a racial imbalance and must be “temporary.” Maj. Op. at 19082; accord id. at 19077. Proclaiming that “[a]n explicit or immediately foreseeable end date has never been required for an affirmative action plan to be valid,” Maj. Op. at 19083, however, the majority completely ignores Johnson’s suggestion that even a partial preference should be checked by an explicit sunset provision, by holding that Kamehameha’s absolute preference need not contain a sunset provision at all, see Maj. Op. at 19082 (holding that Kamehameha may use race as an exclusive admissions factor “so long as is necessary to remedy the current educational effects of past, private, and governmentsponsored discrimination and of social and economic deprivation”); id. at 19079 (“The goal [of Kamehameha’s admissions 19122 DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS policy] is to bring Native Hawaiian students into educational parity with other ethnic groups in Hawaii.”); see also id. at 19082 (noting that in the last “118 years, the Schools’ admissions policy . . . has remained constant”). The majority thus not only rejects Johnson but also the Court’s admonishment that “race-conscious admissions policies . . . however compelling their goals, are potentially so dangerous that they . . . must have reasonable durational limits.” Grutter, 539 U.S. at 342 (internal quotation marks and emphasis omitted); accord id. (“The requirement that all race-conscious admissions programs have a termination point assure[s] all citizens that the deviation from the norm of equal treatment of all racial and ethnic groups is a temporary matter, a measure taken in the service of the goal of equality itself.” (internal quotation marks omitted)). Far from placing a durational limit on Kamehameha’s use of race as a dispositive admissions factor, the majority actually sanctions the use of race in perpetuity. For example, since few, if any, private parties will be able to correct “significant imbalances in educational achievement” in the entire “target population” through their own individual action, the majority’s standard effectively issues private schools a license to engage in perpetual racial discrimination. Because such a limitless use of race in determining admissions contravenes precedent, the majority’s retooling of Johnson and Weber’s third factor is also unsound. B. Applying the Majority’s Standard to Kamehameha Even if I were to agree with the majority’s modifications to the Supreme Court’s Title VII standard, I could not agree with its application of that standard in this case. 1. A Manifest Imbalance Presently Affecting the Target Population Under the majority’s modified first factor, “to justify a remedial racial preference, a private school must demonstrate DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS 19123 that specific, significant imbalances in educational achievement presently affect the target population” in the relevant community. Maj. Op. 19077. I have explained above in Part I.A.1. why the majority’s test is fundamentally flawed and conflicts with precedent. The majority’s modifications— eliminating any focus on the schools’ own population and any reliance on historical practices—relieves Kamehameha of the burden of demonstrating its policy is limited in scope and duration. For the reasons I explain in the next two sections, Kamehameha’s affirmative action program fails both inquiries. Nevertheless, under the majority’s modest thesis, Kamehameha’s admissions policy arguably survives the first revised factor because it is clear that Native Hawaiians suffer from significant imbalances in educational achievement relative to most other ethnic groups in Hawaii. 2. Unnecessarily Trammel the Rights of the Non- Preferred Racial Group Under the majority’s second prong, “we ask whether, within the relevant community of Hawaii, the Kamehameha Schools’ admissions policy unnecessarily trammels the rights of the non-preferred class, that is, students with no Hawaiian ancestry or creates an absolute bar to their advancement.” Maj. Op. at 19080. The majority holds that Kamehameha does not run afoul of this prong because: (1) “[t]he history of Native Hawaiians and of Kamehameha Schools has certain unique features that Congress has acknowledged”; (2) “nothing in the record suggests that educational opportunities in Hawaii are deficient for [non-Native Hawaiian] students”; (3) non-Native Hawaiians have no “legitimate, firmly rooted expectation of admission to the Schools”; and (4) “Kamehameha allows all students to apply for admission,” though “once the applications are received, the Schools consider the ethnic background of the students and admit qualified children with Native Hawaiian ancestry before admitting children with no such ancestry.” Maj. Op. at 19080-82. None of these 19124 DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS explanations is sufficient to justify Kamehameha’s admissions policy even under the revised standard. For example, the majority’s first finding is irrelevant. The mere fact that “Congress admitted that the United States was responsible, in part, for the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy” and that Congress has recognized “the challenge faced by Native Hawaiians in the educational arena” and has urged Kamehameha to “redouble its efforts to educate Native Hawaiian children,” Maj. Op. at 19081 (quoting H.R. REP. NO. 107-63(I), at 333 (2001)), says absolutely nothing about whether Kamehameha’s policy unnecessarily trammels rights or creates an absolute bar. Moreover, the statements the majority relies on also say nothing about whether Congress has ever been aware of Kamehameha’s no non-Native Hawaiians policy, let alone endorsed it. Indeed, it is unreasonable to conclude, as the majority does, that by briefly endorsing the schools’ larger educational goals in a committee report that does not even accompany a piece of legislation, Congress intended to sanction the requirements of an otherwise infirm affirmative action plan.8 8 Indeed, considered in total, the paragraph that the majority relies on provides remarkably little support for its position: The Committee has also eliminated [certain of] the Native Hawaiian specific programs formerly authorized . . . . The Committee’s rationale for repealing these programs is the fact that similar assistance is available to all students, including Native Hawaiians, under [other federal] programs . . . . Unlike other indigenous populations, Native Hawaiians have a trust, established by the last Hawaiian princess, which exists solely to educate Native Hawaiian children. The Bishop Trust is currently one of the largest charitable trusts in the world, valued in excess of $ 10 billion, and holds approximately 8 percent of all land in the State of Hawaii as well as a 10 percent share of Goldman Sachs. The Committee urges the Trust to redouble its efforts to educate Native Hawaiian children. The Committee also believes that these children should be given the same opportunities afforded to all of our children under the programs authorized in this and other acts. H.R. REP. NO. 107-63(I), at 333 (2001). DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS 19125 The majority’s second finding—that non-Native Hawaiians have other educational opportunities—also fails to justify the majority’s holding that Kamehameha’s admissions policy does not create an absolute bar or trammel the rights of the non-preferred race. In fact, as I have previously discussed, at pp. 19116-20, supra, I believe that considering non-Native Hawaiians’ alternatives in this way is unsound under prevailing civil rights case law. But even neglecting that fact, such reliance is particularly problematic here. Kamehameha has an illustrious network of alumni and a record of success that exceeds that of any other school in Hawaii. The tremendous trust corpus of the Bishop Foundation enables Kamehameha to offer this excellent education at a severely discounted price; as the majority notes, the cost of educating each student approaches $20,000 annually, but tuition at Kamehameha is less than 10% of this figure, and most students receive financial aid. See Maj. Op. at 19057-58. No other school in Hawaii offers the same benefits at such low cost. Thus, the majority’s second justification flies in the face of logic and cannot justify the majority’s holding. I find the majority’s next finding—that because for the last “118 years, the Schools’ admissions policy . . . has remained constant,” non-Native Hawaiians have no “legitimate, firmly rooted expectation of admission to the Schools,” Maj. Op. at 19082 (citation omitted)—to be unavailing.9 In other words, 9 Moreover, the majority ignores what Johnson actually said. The plaintiff in that case was eligible for promotion but he had to compete with seven other applicants who could have been promoted over him. 480 U.S. at 638. Accordingly, he did not have a “firmly rooted expectation” in the position he was denied. Id. (“[P]etitioner had no absolute entitlement to the road dispatcher position. Seven of the applicants were classified as qualified and eligible, and the Agency Director was authorized to promote any of the seven. Thus, denial of the promotion unsettled no legitimate, firmly rooted expectation on the part of petitioner.” (emphasis added)). Nowhere did Johnson hold, as the majority concludes, however, that knowledge of a long-standing discriminatory policy justifies discriminatory decisions made pursuant to that policy. 19126 DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS according to the majority, because non-Native Hawaiians have been discriminated against on the basis of their race for a long time, they have no cause of action under § 1981. This view is contrary to history and logic. Perhaps more than any other enactments in our history, the Fourteenth Amendment and the civil rights acts unsettled the expectations of an entire nation accustomed to judging people by their race. Surely the schools in Runyon would have found no defense by arguing that their exclusionary policies were open and notorious and that African-American students had “no expectation of admission to the Schools.” Maj. Op. at 19082. Advising non-Native Hawaiians that they have no possibility of admission to Kamehameha may settle their expectations, but it does not— for that reason—make the policy lawful. Lastly, the majority’s final justification for holding that Kamehameha’s admissions policy does not unnecessarily trammel rights or create an absolute bar is absolutely wrong. The majority begins by noting that “[t]he Kamehameha Schools allow all students to apply for admission. But once the applications are received, the Schools consider the ethnic background of the students and admit qualified children with Native Hawaiian ancestry before admitting children with no such ancestry.” Maj. Op. at 19080; accord id. at 19082-83 (noting, “if qualified students with Native Hawaiian ancestry do not apply to the School in sufficient numbers to fill the spots available, as happened in one recent year, the Schools’ policy is to open admissions to any qualified candidate. (footnote omitted) (emphasis added)). The majority then notes, in a bit of an understatement, that, “[b]ecause the pool of qualified potential students with Native Hawaiian blood greatly outnumbers the available slots at the Schools, non-Native Hawaiians generally are not admitted.” Id. at 19080. Highlighting the understated nature of its conclusion, the majority then proceeds to drop a footnote explaining that its euphemistic phrase “generally are not admitted” means that, from 1962 until 2002, Kamehameha admitted exactly one student who was not of Native Hawaiian descent. Id. at 19080 n.10. DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS 19127 Proceeding as if its statement that Kamehameha generally does not admit non-Native Hawaiians proves that Kamehameha’s policy is not an absolute bar, the majority entirely neglects to mention the circumstances surrounding the admission of that lone non-Native Hawaiian student. Because those circumstances speak volumes about Kamehameha’s policy, however, they deserve an extended discussion. In 1962, Kamehameha reversed its previous policy of allowing the children of faculty members to attend. Thereafter, the school did not admit a single non-Native Hawaiian student until 2002, when it admitted one non-Native Hawaiian student to its Maui campus. In response to a firestorm of protests following that decision, Kamehameha’s trustees repeatedly apologized to the Native Hawaiian community, stated that the “situation” had “brought the problems with the admissions process into sharp focus,” Members of Trs. of Kamehameha Sch., Kamehameha’s Policy Will Remain, HONOLULU ADVERTISER, July 27, 2002, and acknowledged that they had “screwed up major,” Rick Daysog, Angry Ohana Grills Trustees, HONOLULU STAR-BULLETIN, July 16, 2002. “As a result,” the trustees “pledged to . . . carefully review [Kamehameha’s] admissions process,” Members of Bd. of Trs. of Kamehameha Sch., supra, presumably to prevent such a “situation” from happening again. Far from an empty promise, Kamehameha promptly made several significant changes to its admission practices. First, it created the Ho’oulu Hawaiian Data Center to develop a Native Hawaiian registry and certify the Hawaiian ancestry of the schools’ applicants; to be considered under the school’s preference policy, an applicant’s ancestry must now be verified by the data center.10 Second, Kamehameha temporarily 10 I note that in 2003, Kamehameha admitted a student to its seventh grade class whose application identified his maternal grandfather as Native Hawaiian. One week before school was set to begin, Kamehameha learned that the student’s mother was adopted and probably lacked biolog19128 DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS waived application fees for its Maui and Big Island campuses in order to induce more Native Hawaiians to apply for admission. Third, Kamehameha further increased the number of Native Hawaiians applying to its Big Island campus by allowing certain students, who had previously only been eligible for admission to its main campus in O’ahu, to apply for admission at the Big Island campus.11 Fourth, Kamehameha also ceased its preliminary screening for O’ahu and Big Island applicants. And fifth, Kamehameha ceased using a minimum scoring threshold to evaluate applicants. Since 1989, Kamehameha had required applicants to achieve a minimum composite score on an admissions test in order to be deemed “qualified applicants.” Vicki Viotti, Kamehameha Standards Debated, HONOLULU ADVERTISER, Nov. 17, 2003, at 1B. Though that test was hardly an impediment to the school’s preference policy— as 2002 marked the first time in four decades that the school had space to admit a non-Native Hawaiian student—it did at least provide an objective way to measure the number of qualified Native Hawaiian applicants. By eliminating that test, however, Kamehameha did away with that objective measure, while leaving in place “Kamehameha Schools’ admissions policy . . . to give preference to applicants of Hawaiian ancesical Hawaiian ancestry. Kamehameha immediately rescinded the student’s acceptance. Ultimately, Kamehameha settled the case and agreed to allow the student to complete his education at Kamehameha. See David Waite, Boy Sues Kamehameha, HONOLULU ADVERTISER, Aug. 19, 2003, at 1B; David Waite & Vicki Viotti, Kamehameha Settles Kaua’i Boy’s Lawsuit, HONOLULU ADVERTISER, Nov. 29, 2003, at 1A; see also Vicki Viotti & Mike Gordon, Kamehameha Settlement OK’d, HONOLULU ADVERTISER, Dec. 5, 2003, at 1B (stating that the district court indicated it believed that, legally, the boy was Native Hawaiian). 11 Kamehameha’s flagship campus on O’ahu receives approximately ten applications for every available opening, so reducing its applicant pool did not present the danger that the school would not receive enough qualified Native Hawaiian applicants. DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS 19129 try to the extent permitted by law.” Kamehameha Schools Admissions Office, Main Page, http://www.ksbe.edu/ admissions/mainpage.html (last visited Sep. 7, 2006). Thus, because that policy provides no objective guidance whatsoever, Kamehameha’s decision leaves it free to restrict admission solely to Native Hawaiian children, and as the trustees promised, Kamehameha need never admit a non-Native Hawaiian applicant again. This description is not meant to criticize Kamehameha’s noble mission to help Native Hawaiians receive a quality education, but only to demonstrate that its current policy—contrary to the majority’s creative characterization—does pose an absolute bar to the admittance of any non-Native Hawaiian students. And, such bar violates section 1981. 3. Do No More Than Is Necessary to Correct a Manifest Imbalance Similarly, I must dissent from the majority’s analysis under its third prong. Under that prong, as modified by the majority, Kamehameha’s “admissions policy must do no more than is necessary to correct the manifest imbalance suffered by students of Native Hawaiian ancestry.” Maj. Op. at 19082. To hold that Kamehameha’s admissions policy survives this factor, the majority asserts that Kamehameha’s policy is both flexible and limited. Id. at 19082-83. As for the former, the majority finds that Kamehameha’s admissions policy “does not do more than is necessary” because that “policy is not fixed but changes as the capacity of the Schools’ programs increases and as the well-being of the Native Hawaiian community rises.” Maj. Op. at 19082. The majority fails to provide any support for that conclusion, and that lack of support is far from surprising given that, as demonstrated above, Kamehameha has only made its race based admissions program more rigid, see supra at pp. 19127-28. The majority also finds that Kamehameha’s admissions policy is “limited in duration” by the fact that “if qualified 19130 DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS students with Native Hawaiian ancestry do not apply to the School in sufficient numbers to fill the spots available, as happened in one recent year, the Schools’ policy is to open admissions to any qualified candidate” and the admissions policy will end when “the current educational effects of past, private and government-sponsored discrimination and of social and economic deprivation” end. Maj. Op. at 19082 (footnote omitted). Because, as the majority candidly concedes, “there are many more qualified students of Hawaiian ancestry than there are available places at the Schools,” id. at 19058, and Kamehemeha altered its admissions criteria in response to what “happened in one recent year,” id. at 19082, it is unclear whether Kamehameha will ever admit another non-Native Hawaiian student, let alone end its racially exclusive admissions policy. I cannot understand how Kamehameha’s policy can reasonably be described as “limited in duration.”12 As Kamehameha’s own trustees put it, “[Our policy] must remain [in place] until Hawaiians are leading in scholastic achievement, until they are underrepresented in prisons and homeless shelters, until their well-being is restored.” Trs. of Kamehameha Sch., Kamehameha Schools’ Policy Advocates Social Justice, HONOLULU ADVERTISER, Aug. 24, 2003. And, according to its website, “Kamehameha Schools’ mission is to fulfill Pauahi’s desire to create educational opportunities in 12 Moreover, Kamehameha’s own admissions policy may help perpetuate that policy indefinitely. Because Kamehameha bases its admissions decisions heavily on an applicant’s prior academic performance it selects the highest-performing Native Hawaiian students from the public school population, and that necessarily depresses that population’s average performance in public schools. See Vicki Viotti, Kamehameha Standards Debated, HONOLULU ADVERTISER, Nov. 17, 2003, at 1B. By continually passing over the lower performers, the Native Hawaiian population will likely continue to underperform in public schools relative to its peers. If “preference [may] be given . . . for so long as is necessary to remedy the current educational effects,” Maj Op. at 19082, Kamehameha’s policy has no reasonable end in sight. DOE v. KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOLS 19131 perpetuity to improve the capability and well-being of people of Hawaiian ancestry.” See Kamehameha Schools Admissions Office, Main Page, http://www.ksbe.edu/admissions/ mainpage.html (last visited Sep. 7, 2006). Because such a perpetual use of race in admissions has no limit, I cannot join the majority in holding that Kamehameha’s admissions policy does no more than is necessary and therefore survives the modified third factor.