Opinion ID: 4200908
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: birth father has the legal right to challenge

Text: THE VALIDITY OF BIRTH MOTHER’S CONSENT AND THE DISTRICT COURT’S SUBJECT MATTER JURISDICTION ¶ 45 Following Birth Mother’s invalid consent, Birth Father appealed the district court’s denial of his motion to intervene. The district court denied Birth Father’s motion to intervene because it held that he had not established paternity before Birth Mother gave her consent, as required by Utah Code section 78B-6-121(3). Although I believe Birth Mother’s consent was invalid and the district court lacked subject matter jurisdiction to proceed with the adoption, these issues are before us only if Birth Father can properly challenge them. I would hold that Birth Father can do so, as he enjoys both traditional standing 16 The majority takes the position that the action is merely voidable because the phrase “may petition” in section 1914 “suggests that unless a party affirmatively challenges a proceeding’s compliance with ICWA section 1913, the consent and resulting termination order are valid.” Infra ¶ 117. I reject this attempt to pit sections 1914 and 1913’s protections against each other. Section 1914 is a mechanism for bringing voidness to the attention of a court; it does not negate section 1913’s language about untimely consent “not be[ing] valid.” The majority’s contrary interpretation contravenes our principle of interpreting statutes “in harmony with other provisions in the same statute and with other statutes under the same and related chapters.” Sill v. Hart, 2007 UT 45, ¶ 7, 162 P.3d 1099 (citation omitted). 25 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part under Utah standing law and a statutory right as a parent under 25 U.S.C. section 1914 to raise Birth Mother’s invalid consent and the district court’s lack of subject matter jurisdiction to go forward with the adoption. A. Birth Father Has Standing Under Our Traditional Test ¶ 46 Before a court may make a child available for adoption, it must terminate the parental rights of the biological parents. The order terminating Birth Mother’s parental rights is, as Justice Lee correctly notes, an appealable order. Infra ¶ 98. But as a prerequisite to the adoption order—which has not been finalized in this case—it is an appealable order within an existing case in which Birth Father’s rights are still very much at issue.17 In the unique context of adoption 17 The majority chides me for “cit[ing] no authority for the power to revisit a final order in a collateral termination proceeding not challenged by any of the parties at any stage of these proceedings.” Infra ¶ 104. But the order here was not actually collateral, as both the termination and consent orders all took place within the same adoption proceeding, which is among the rare cases in which a final, appealable order affects remaining rights in such a way that we do not view it as collateral. Cf. State v. Mooers & Becker, 2017 UT 36, ¶ 17, __ P.3d __ (noting that “orders of complete restitution, though technically entered on the civil docket, flow entirely from the criminal cases that give rise to them; they are not separate civil cases with a life outside of the criminal case”); id. ¶ 19 n.4 (noting that where a district court alters the amount of complete restitution on appeal, that may form the basis for the district court on remand to also alter the amount of court-ordered restitution, even where the order of court-ordered restitution was not appealed). To call Birth Father’s action “collateral” similarly ignores the reality of how adoption orders are intertwined. And because Birth Father’s rights were directly affected by an order within the existing adoption case, his appeal properly falls within the time period of “the pendency of an action,” during which we have a responsibility to sua sponte raise subject matter jurisdictional issues. See infra ¶ 104. The majority also cites two cases in support of its assertion that state timelines bar Birth Father from challenging the order terminating Mother’s rights because “[w]here, as here, a district court expressly holds that its order complies with ICWA requirements, the courts have held that the time to challenge that determination under section 1914 (cont.) 26 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part proceedings, Birth Father’s rights are inextricably tied to the order terminating Birth Mother’s rights, as that order purported to terminate his rights as a biological parent.18 Consequently, I conclude that Birth Father has standing to raise the defect in Birth Mother’s consent and the resultant failure of subject matter jurisdiction. expires upon the running of the time for an appeal.” Infra ¶ 119. But our holding in the first case, In re Adoption of A.B., 2010 UT 55, 245 P.3d 711, applies only to individuals who have the ability to file an appeal. See id. ¶ 13. But in this case, Birth Father was not a party at the time of Birth Mother’s untimely consent and therefore had no ability to appeal the relevant order. And the second case involves a question of res judicata and the Full Faith and Credit Clause, neither of which is applicable here. See Kiowa Tribe of Okla. v. Lewis, 777 F.2d 587, 592 (10th Cir. 1985). 18 The majority posits that Birth Father “accepted the validity of the consent order” until this court raised the issue, and concludes that he thus waived the issue. Infra ¶ 98 n.1. But whether Birth Father, the prospective adoptive parents, or the district court miscounted the days from the Child’s birth does not change the fact that the issue goes to subject matter jurisdiction and is properly raised by the court. In re Adoption of Baby E.Z., 2011 UT 38, ¶ 25, 266 P.3d 702 (“Because subject matter jurisdiction goes to the heart of a court’s authority to hear a case, it is not subject to waiver and may be raised at any time, even if first raised on appeal.” (citation omitted)); Barnard v. Wassermann, 855 P.2d 243, 248 (Utah 1993) (“This court has made clear that challenges to subject matter jurisdiction may be raised at any time and cannot be waived by the parties.”). And I reject the majority’s assertion that applying our sua sponte duties to this case “smacks of paternalism.” Infra ¶ 120. That charge essentially boils down to an attack on ICWA’s special protections for Indian children, parents, and tribes. If anything, the majority’s suggestion that state courts should turn their back to these problems at the risk of being paternalistic smacks of the kind of disregard of Indian welfare that caused Congress to enact ICWA in the first place. See Miss. Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield, 490 U.S. 30, 44– 45 (1989) (“It is clear from the very text of the ICWA, not to mention its legislative history and the hearings that led to its enactment, that Congress was concerned with the rights of Indian families and Indian communities vis-à-vis state authorities.”). 27 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part ¶ 47 Courts of this state employ a three-step inquiry in assessing traditional standing: (1) “the party must assert that it has been or will be adversely affected by the [challenged] actions”; (2) “the party must allege a causal relationship between the injury to the party, the [challenged] actions and the relief requested”; and (3) “the relief requested must be substantially likely to redress the injury claimed.” Utah Chapter of the Sierra Club v. Utah Air Quality Bd., 2006 UT 74, ¶ 19, 148 P.3d 960 (alterations in original) (internal quotation marks omitted). Birth Father easily satisfies all three parts of this test. ¶ 48 First, Birth Father is undeniably adversely affected by Birth Mother’s invalid consent and the dependent order terminating her rights. Indeed, absent the termination order, Birth Father would be a “parent” under ICWA and entitled to intervene in this action even under the most grudging of standards. But as it now stands, Birth Mother’s invalid consent cut off Birth Father’s rights to his own child. That this state of affairs adversely affected Birth Father is beyond peradventure. See In re J.P., 648 P.2d 1364, 1373 (Utah 1982) (“The rights inherent in family relationships—husband-wife, parent-child, and sibling—are the most obvious examples of rights retained by the people. They are ‘natural,’ ‘intrinsic,’ or ‘prior’ in the sense that our Constitutions presuppose them. . . . Blackstone deemed ‘the most universal relation in nature . . . (to be) that between parent and child.’” (citations omitted)). Second, Birth Father can establish a causal relationship between the challenged action and the adverse effect: Birth Mother’s invalid consent and the subsequent order terminating her rights led directly to the district court placing the Child for adoption. And finally, the relief requested—Birth Father’s opportunity to intervene and assert his parental rights—will be a direct consequence of recognizing the invalidity of Birth Mother’s rights. B. Birth Father Is a Parent Under ICWA ¶ 49 Section 1914 of ICWA allows a parent to petition a court to invalidate an action terminating parental rights that violated any provision of sections 1911, 1912, and 1913 of ICWA.19 We hold that 19 Section 1914 reads in full: Any Indian child who is the subject of any action for foster care placement or termination of parental rights under State law, any parent or Indian custodian from (cont.) 28 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part Birth Father meets ICWA’s definition of a “parent” because he has acknowledged paternity. ¶ 50 “Pursuant to general principles of statutory interpretation, [w]e . . . look first to the . . . plain language [of ICWA], recognizing that our primary goal is to give effect to [congressional] intent in light of the purpose the statute was meant to achieve.” In re Kunz, 2004 UT 71, ¶ 8, 99 P.3d 793 (first three alterations in original) (internal quotation marks omitted). We consider it obvious that the plain language does not fully answer the question of what is required for an unmarried biological father to be considered a parent for purposes of ICWA.20 ICWA defines “parent” as “any biological parent or parents of an Indian child” but specifically excludes “the unwed father where paternity has not been acknowledged or established.” 25 U.S.C. § 1903(9). ICWA does not, whose custody such child was removed, and the Indian child’s tribe may petition any court of competent jurisdiction to invalidate such action upon a showing that such action violated any provision of sections 1911, 1912, and 1913 of this title. 25 U.S.C. § 1914. We address the language about removal from custody below. Infra ¶¶ 78–84. 20 The dissent misinterprets this sentence, stating that we “find[] it ‘obvious that the plain language’ of ICWA does not dictate the application of state law standards of paternity.” Infra ¶ 178. The dissent goes further to claim that we “base[] that conclusion on [our] sense of Congress’s ‘purpose’ in enacting ICWA, and on analysis in Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield, 490 U.S. 30 (1989), that [we] view[] as supportive of [our] holding.” Infra ¶ 178. However, our conclusion that the plain language does not fully answer the question of what is required for an unmarried biological father to be considered a parent under ICWA is not so narrowly moored. Our conclusion is further supported by the language of, among other provisions, 25 U.S.C. section 1903(9), where “parent” is defined, providing that an unmarried biological father is a parent only if he has “acknowledged or established” paternity, but with no indication of what actions are required to acknowledge or establish paternity and no specification regarding timing. 29 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part however, define what actions the unmarried father has to take to acknowledge or establish paternity and also does not specify the timing. Because of the lack of a definition, we look instead to the plain meaning of the terms “acknowledge” and “establish.” We conclude that the plain meaning of the terms is so broad that it offers little guidance, so we then address the question of whether the procedures and timing for acknowledging or establishing paternity are defined by state law or are subject to a tribal or federal standard. ¶ 51 The district court determined that “Congress intended for ICWA to defer to state and/or tribal law standards for establishing paternity” and that Birth Father failed to comply with Utah or South Dakota requirements for establishing paternity. We disagree. Instead, we hold that Congress intended that a federal standard apply. We also hold that Birth Father’s actions were timely and sufficient to acknowledge paternity under ICWA. 1. Interpreting “Acknowledge” and “Establish” Requires a Plain Meaning Approach ¶ 52 Because the terms “acknowledge” and “establish” are not defined in the statute, we turn first to dictionary definitions for guidance. The first definition for “acknowledge” in Black’s Law Dictionary is “[t]o recognize (something) as being factual or valid.” Acknowledge, BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (10th ed. 2014). The second definition for “acknowledge” specifically gives “acknowledge paternity of the child” as an example; it reads, “[t]o show that one accepts responsibility for.” Id. The legal definition of “acknowledge” in Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary includes a variant with a similar example (“will acknowledge the child as his”) and defines “acknowledge” as “to admit paternity of.” Acknowledge, MERRIAMWEBSTER, available at https://perma.cc/HMQ9-MHP8. Other definitions of “acknowledge” in Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary include “to recognize as genuine or valid.” Id. Clearly, “acknowledge” is a broad term and little guidance is found in its meaning as to how to apply it. For example, while acknowledging paternity of a child can mean “show[ing] that one accepts responsibility for” the child, no specific actions are suggested by that term or its definition. Acknowledge, BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (10th ed. 2014). Incidentally, Black’s Law Dictionary defines a “formal acknowledgment” as “[a] father’s recognition of a child as his own by a formal, written declaration that meets a state’s requirements for execution, typically by 30 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part signing in the presence of two witnesses.” Acknowledgement, BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (10th ed. 2014). An “informal acknowledgment,” on the other hand, is “[a] father’s recognition of a child as his own not by a written declaration but by receiving the child into his family or supporting the child and otherwise treating the child as his own offspring.” Id. The dictionary definitions thus provide for acknowledgment under both state rules and other means not tied to state standards, and ICWA does not specify whether it requires formal or informal acknowledgment of paternity. Thus, the dictionary definition alone of “acknowledge” does not answer the question of what ICWA requires of a parent. ¶ 53 “Establish” likewise has a broad meaning under a plain language analysis. Black’s Law Dictionary has three definitions of “establish,” only one of which makes sense in the context of establishing paternity: “To prove; to convince.” Establish, BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (10th ed. 2014). And the most logical definition for this context in Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary is “to put beyond doubt.” Establish, MERRIAM-WEBSTER, available at https://perma.cc/9RB2-33WP. From these definitions, it is obvious that it requires more to “establish” paternity than to “acknowledge” paternity. But what actions are required in order to “prove” paternity or “put [paternity] beyond doubt” is not apparent from the plain meaning of the word. Furthermore, neither the plain meaning of “acknowledge” nor the plain meaning of “establish” suggests anything about the timing of the actions. Theoretically, if we were to rely on a plain meaning of the terms for the actions and timing required, a father could acknowledge or establish paternity many years after the completion of the adoption. Because the terms are so broad and vague and because of the lack of a timing element, dictionary definitions alone are inadequate for determining who is a parent under ICWA. ¶ 54 In light of this roadblock in the plain language analysis, the dissent argues that we should view “acknowledge” and “establish” as terms of art defined by the states. But the dissent belies its own conclusion by asserting, on one hand, that “acknowledge” and “establish” are well-defined terms of art, and on the other, that there are fifty variants of the terms. Infra ¶ 170. These are contradictory ideas, and the dissent’s attempt to reconcile them is unavailing. ¶ 55 The dissent’s position takes an erroneous view of the definition of a term of art. A term of art has one established meaning, not fifty. Term of art, BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY (10th ed. 2014) (“A word 31 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part or phrase having a specific, precise meaning in a given specialty, apart from its general meaning in ordinary contexts.” (emphasis added)); see McDermott Int’l, Inc. v. Wilander, 498 U.S. 337, 342 (1991) (“[W]e assume that when a statute uses such a term [of art], Congress intended it to have its established meaning.”); Dubois v. Madison Paper Co., 795 A.2d 696, 699 (Me. 2002) (“The phrase ‘clear and convincing evidence’ is a legal term of art with a well-established meaning.” (emphasis added)). The dissent’s insistence that “acknowledge” and “establish” have distinctly defined meanings contradicts the notion that the “longestablished” definitions last only as far as the state line. ¶ 56 A term of art may of course have nuanced differences from state to state, but the core meaning must be the same.21 Contrary to the dissent’s assertion, different states’ interpretations of “acknowledge” and “establish” do not share a common core. As the dissent itself notes, “standards vary widely across the fifty states,” infra ¶ 170 n.35, including whether a writing must be signed by the mother for the father to acknowledge paternity. The standard for acknowledging or establishing paternity in Utah is so different from the standard in, for example, New Jersey, that we could not say they share the same common core. See Bruce L. v. W.E., 247 P.3d 966, 978–79 (Alaska 2011) (“Under New Jersey law, ‘fil[ing] a written acknowledgement of paternity . . . or initiat[ing] a lawsuit claiming paternity or any other parental rights prior to the final judgment of adoption’ would make an unwed father a parent for ICWA purposes.” (alterations in original) (quoting In re Adoption of a Child of Indian Heritage, 543 A.2d 925, 936 (N.J. 1988))). ¶ 57 The contradiction inherent in the dissent’s argument is exposed in its analysis of Holyfield. The dissent states that Holyfield’s rejection of state-law definitions is “easily distinguishable, as it 21 This underscores why acknowledgement or establishment of paternity is not, as the dissent contends, like a declaration of bankruptcy. Infra ¶ 191 n.49. Declaring bankruptcy—as a legal term of art—certainly has different effects than “just say[ing] the word bankruptcy.” Infra ¶ 191 n.49. But the dissent ignores that the steps one must take to declare bankruptcy and the legal effects it has are the same in all fifty states. But that is far from the case for acknowledging and establishing paternity. 32 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part involved a statutory term (domicile) of ‘generally uncontroverted meaning.’” Infra ¶ 165 (quoting Holyfield, 490 U.S. at 48). This is similar to how—at times—the dissent describes “acknowledge” and “establish” as well. See infra ¶ 170 (“First, the words acknowledgement and establishment of paternity are long-established terms of art in state family law.”); infra ¶ 170 (“Congress utilized terms with accepted meaning in state family law.”); infra ¶ 170 n.35 (“[W]hen ICWA was enacted, ‘acknowledge’ was a term of art that indicated a specific process under state law—though varying from state to state.” (emphasis added)). The dissent is attempting to have its cake and eat it too by stating that “acknowledge” and “establish” are both accepted terms of art and have fifty different meanings. ¶ 58 Rather, “acknowledge” and “establish” are properly construed as plain language terms. Carpenter v. Hawley, 281 S.E.2d 783, 786 (N.C. Ct. App. 1981) (“Contrary to plaintiff’s assertions, the word ‘acknowledged’ is not a term of art . . . requiring a formal declaration before an authorized official.”); see also Estate of Griswold, 24 P.3d 1191, 1197–98 (Cal. 2001) (applying plain language analysis to “acknowledge” in paternity suit); Blythe v. Ayres, 31 P. 915, 922 (Cal. 1892) (stating that “[t]he word ‘acknowledge’ has no technical meaning” in the context of paternity proceedings); State v. Wolfe, 239 A.2d 509, 512–13 (Conn. 1968) (stating that “acknowledge” in paternity statute “can only be taken in its usual and common meaning which is ‘(t)o own, avow, or admit; to confess; to recognize one’s acts, and assume the responsibility therefor’” (citing editions of Black’s Law Dictionary and Webster’s Dictionary)). A plain language interpretation of “acknowledge” and “establish” furthers ICWA’s purpose by allowing reasonable methods of acknowledging or establishing paternity, and Birth Father’s actions fall plainly within that scope. 2. Federal Law Applies to Give Context to the Plain Meaning of the Terms ¶ 59 Having found that a plain language analysis of the terms requires more than the dictionary definitions provide, we now turn to the question of whether the procedures and timing for acknowledging or establishing paternity are defined by state law. We reject the notion that courts should rely on state law to determine whether an unmarried biological father has acknowledged or established paternity under ICWA. Instead, we adopt the reasoning in Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield, 490 U.S. 30 (1989). In Holyfield, the Supreme Court stated that 33 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part the purpose of the ICWA gives no reason to believe that Congress intended to rely on state law for the definition of a critical term; quite the contrary. It is clear from the very text of the ICWA, not to mention its legislative history and the hearings that led to its enactment, that Congress was concerned with the rights of Indian families and Indian communities vis-à-vis state authorities. Id. at 44–45. “Parent” is a critical term under ICWA. Whether an individual qualifies as a “parent” determines whether he or she may benefit from the heightened protections for parental rights available under ICWA. There is “no reason to believe that Congress intended to rely on state law for the definition of [this] critical term.” Id. at 44. Indeed, we must begin “with the general assumption that in the absence of a plain indication to the contrary, . . . Congress when it enacts a statute is not making the application of the federal act dependent on state law.” Id. at 43 (alteration in original) (internal quotation marks omitted). And although “Congress sometimes intends that a statutory term be given content by the application of state law,” this applies only in the context of fleshing out the federal standard—it does not mean the federal standard is replaced with fifty state standards. Id. ¶ 60 Additionally, Holyfield notes that Congress can and does expressly state when it wants a state or tribal law definition to apply. Id. at 47 n.22 (“Where Congress . . . intend[s] that ICWA terms be defined by reference to other than federal law, it state[s] this explicitly.”). For example, Congress explicitly stated that “extended family member” and “Indian custodian” are defined by reference to tribal law or custom or state law. 25 U.S.C. § 1903(2), (6). This, the Holyfield Court stated, is evidence that if Congress “did intend that ICWA terms be defined by reference to other than federal law,” “it would have said so.” 490 U.S. at 47 n.22. And this is not merely “another way of saying that the legislature could have spoken more clearly.” Craig v. Provo City, 2016 UT 40, ¶ 38, 389 P.3d 423. Rather, the explicit use of state or tribal law for “extended family member” and “Indian custodian” but not for other terms such as “acknowledge” and “establish” indicates that Congress “rejected the formulation embodied in the neighboring provision”—i.e., that it declined to incorporate state or tribal standards for acknowledging and establishing paternity. Id. ¶ 38 n.9. Because Congress did not mandate a state or tribal law definition for 34 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part “acknowledge” or “establish,” we can and should rely instead on a federal definition. ¶ 61 In determining how to define the procedures for acknowledging and establishing paternity, we have a duty to “harmonize [a statute’s] provisions in accordance with the legislative intent and purpose.” Osuala v. Aetna Life & Cas., 608 P.2d 242, 243 (Utah 1980); see also Jensen v. Intermountain Health Care, Inc., 679 P.2d 903, 906– 07 (Utah 1984) (stating that the meaning of a statute’s sections could not be determined without taking into account “the purposes they were designed to effectuate”); B.L. Key, Inc. v. Utah State Tax Comm’n, 934 P.2d 1164, 1168 n.2 (Utah Ct. App. 1997) (“[T]he overarching principle, applicable to all statutes, [is] that [statutes] should be construed and applied in accordance with the intent of the Legislature and the purpose sought to be accomplished.” (third alteration in original) (citation omitted)). At times, it may be necessary to delve into legislative history to determine what and how many purposes the legislature intended. Marion Energy, Inc. v. KFJ Ranch P’ship, 2011 UT 50, ¶ 15, 267 P.3d 863 (“[W]hen statutory language is ambiguous . . . we generally resort to other modes of statutory construction and ‘seek guidance from legislative history’ and other accepted sources.” (citation omitted)). But that is not the case here, where we have a clear directive in the statute itself that drives at a purpose: to protect the best interests of Indian children and to promote the stability and security of Indian tribes and families by the establishment of minimum Federal standards for the removal of Indian children from their families and the placement of such children in foster or adoptive homes which will reflect the unique values of Indian culture, and by providing for assistance to Indian tribes in the operation of child and family service programs. 25 U.S.C. § 1902. ¶ 62 The dissent provides no support for its assertion that 25 U.S.C. section 1901(5) states that a “key countervailing purpose at stake under ICWA is the protection of the traditional jurisdiction of state courts over adoption proceedings.” Infra ¶ 159. And that is an odd statement given that, in context, section 1901(5) states that “the States, exercising their recognized jurisdiction over Indian child custody proceedings through administrative and judicial bodies, have often failed to 35 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part recognize the essential tribal relations of Indian people and the cultural and social standards prevailing in Indian communities and families.” That is, ICWA represents an extraordinary act of federal intervention into family law precisely in response to Congress’s concern about state courts’ “alarming[]” tendency to disregard the interests of Indian parents and tribes. 25 U.S.C. § 1901(4). So, far from being “recognize[d] . . . to a large degree” as a “countervailing purpose,” infra ¶ 159, state courts’ wielding of their traditional jurisdiction is what led to the need for ICWA in the first place. ¶ 63 Notably, nothing in the “Congressional declaration of policy,” 25 U.S.C. § 1902, supports the assertion that protection of states’ traditional jurisdiction is part of ICWA’s purpose. And the fact that “ICWA does not oust the states of that traditional area of their authority,” infra ¶ 159, is not a reason to read in another purpose—it is simply how federalism works. See In re Adoption of Halloway, 732 P.2d 962, 967 (Utah 1986) (“Under general supremacy principles, state law cannot be permitted to operate as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress.” (internal quotation marks omitted)). ¶ 64 The dissent also ignores Congress’s plenary powers in this arena by asserting that issues of paternity and other family matters have “never been a creature of federal law,” infra ¶ 163, and that the use of the past tense in section 1903(9) is significant because it means that Congress intended “acknowledged” and “established” to be defined by existing standards—by which it means state standards. Infra ¶ 171. This is not correct. First, acknowledgement or establishment of paternity under a federal standard is consistent with the use of the past tense because any action a putative father takes after the enactment of ICWA necessarily looks back to the standard ICWA had—in the past— established. Second, to the extent the dissent is attempting to guard against a perceived intrusion, it ignores the fact that this “intrusion” is taking place within the context of Indian welfare, an area in which Congress has plenary authority. U.S. CONST. art. I, § 8(3) (“The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce . . . with the Indian Tribes.”); see Cotton Petroleum Corp. v. New Mexico, 490 U.S. 163, 192 (1989) (“[T]he central function of the Indian Commerce Clause is to provide Congress with plenary power to legislate in the field of Indian affairs.”); Halloway, 732 P.2d at 967 (“The Supreme Court has made it clear that where Indian affairs are concerned, a broad test of preemption is to be applied.”). 36 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part ¶ 65 This authority encompasses family matters such as childraising. Wakefield v. Little Light, 347 A.2d 228, 234 (Md. 1975) (“We think it plain that child-rearing is an essential tribal relation.” (internal quotation marks omitted)); see also 25 U.S.C. § 1901(2)–(3) (stating that Congress has “assumed the responsibility for the protection and preservation of Indian tribes and their resources” and that “there is no resource that is more vital to the continued existence and integrity of Indian tribes than their children”). Indeed, the very point of ICWA is to regulate family law issues. 25 U.S.C. § 1902 (stating that the statute’s policy is to protect Indian children and families and establish standards for placing those children in foster or adoptive homes). By arguing that the definition of paternity in the context of Indian affairs is a state issue, the dissent’s position largely ignores the federal government’s plenary powers over Indian affairs, not to mention the purpose and text of ICWA as a whole. We are loath to pour state law back into ICWA when ICWA’s whole reason for being is to drain what, in Congress’s view, is an inequitable swamp—displacing state law on the matters on which ICWA speaks. ¶ 66 The danger that ICWA “would be impaired if state law were to control” presents an additional, compelling reason “for the presumption against the application of state law.” Holyfield, 490 U.S. at 44 (citation omitted). And hewing closely to this presumption in the Indian affairs arena, in which Congress enjoys plenary power, strikes us as particularly appropriate where “the congressional findings that are a part of the statute demonstrate that Congress perceived the States and their courts as partly responsible for the problem it intended to correct.” Id. at 45; see also Halloway, 732 P.2d at 969 (stating that Utah court’s receptivity to placing Indian children in non-Indian homes “is precisely one of the evils at which the ICWA was aimed”); 25 U.S.C. § 1901(4) (indicating “that an alarmingly high percentage of Indian families are broken up by the removal, often unwarranted, of their children from them by nontribal public and private agencies”); id. § 1901(5) (expressing concern “that the States . . . have often failed to recognize the essential tribal relations of Indian people and the cultural and social standards prevailing in Indian communities and families”). The U.S. Supreme Court praised our “scholarly and sensitive” decision in Halloway for its sensitivity to the risk that state law could “be used to frustrate the federal legislative judgment expressed in the ICWA.” Holyfield, 490 U.S. at 52–53 (quoting Halloway, 732 P.2d at 970). 37 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part ¶ 67 Furthermore, ICWA provides that “where State or Federal law applicable to a child custody proceeding under State or Federal law provides a higher standard of protection to the rights of the parent . . . of an Indian child than the rights provided under [ICWA], the State or Federal court shall apply the State or Federal standard,” thus ensuring that parents of Indian children enjoy the highest level of protection of their parental rights available. 25 U.S.C. § 1921. Applying state law to determine who is a parent under ICWA would, in some cases, provide a lower level of protection of parental rights than ICWA intends. Utah law serves as the perfect example of this problem. Whereas ICWA provides that an unmarried biological father may “acknowledge[] or establish[]” paternity, id. § 1903(9) (emphasis added), Utah law provides no viable procedure for acknowledging paternity in cases where the mother wants to place the child for adoption at birth and does not consent to the acknowledgment. For a biological father to acknowledge paternity through a declaration of paternity, Utah law requires the birth mother’s signature in addition to the unmarried biological father’s signature. UTAH CODE § 78B-15-302(1)(c). Thus, in cases where the birth mother declines to sign the declaration, the unmarried biological father is precluded from acknowledging paternity under ICWA, if we look to Utah law for the definition of that term. See In re Adoption of R.M., 2013 UT App 27, ¶ 8, 296 P.3d 757 (“If the birth mother declines to acknowledge the unmarried biological father’s paternity and refuses to sign the declaration of paternity, he will have to comply with the paternity provisions in order for his consent to be required.”). The result is that, when applying Utah law, the unmarried biological father’s option to acknowledge paternity is essentially read out of ICWA. The district court’s opinion illustrates this result, as it does not seriously analyze whether Birth Father acknowledged paternity under Utah law, instead focusing on whether he complied with the requirements for establishing paternity under Utah law. ¶ 68 Also, as the district court recognized, “Utah’s requirements for establishment of paternity by unwed fathers are notoriously strict.” See In re Adoption of Baby E.Z., 2011 UT 38, ¶ 40, 266 P.3d 702 (“The Utah legislature has enacted strict requirements for unmarried birth fathers who seek to prevent adoption of their children.”).22 Applying state law 22 This is not to say that Utah’s standards for acknowledging paternity are unreasonable. Rather, we point out the strict nature of (cont.) 38 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part to a term as critical as the definition of a parent under ICWA is not in keeping with ICWA’s text and purpose. And applying Utah law specifically to eliminate the option of acknowledging paternity—and instead requiring an unmarried biological father of an Indian child to comply with some of the strictest requirements for establishing paternity in order to receive any protection of his parental rights under ICWA—“would, to a large extent, nullify the purpose the ICWA was intended to accomplish.” Holyfield, 490 U.S. at 52. ¶ 69 We also conclude that “Congress could hardly have intended the lack of nationwide uniformity that would result from state-law definitions of” who is a parent under ICWA. Id. at 45.23 In Holyfield, the U.S. Supreme Court concluded that ICWA did not incorporate statelaw definitions of domicile in large part to avoid the anomaly of different results depending on which state the mother traveled to in order to give birth. Id. at 46. It would be similarly anomalous—not to mention unfair and an unwarranted intrusion by states into Indian customs and practices—to make an unmarried biological Indian father’s status as a parent under ICWA depend on whether the mother gave birth in one state or another. “[A] statute under which different rules apply from time to time to the same” unmarried biological father, “simply as a result of” the mother’s decision to give birth in “one State [or] another, cannot be what Congress had in mind.” Id. Thus, we conclude that the interpretation of what is required to acknowledge or establish paternity under ICWA is not left up to state law. ¶ 70 We note that the dissent offers no persuasive reasoning for why we should presume that ICWA embraced state principles over those expressed in tribal law principles dealing with family issues. But, in any case, we likewise reject the notion that courts should look to tribal law to determine whether an unmarried biological father has acknowledged or established paternity under ICWA. As with state law, the application of tribal law to the definition of a parent under ICWA Utah law to show that actions outside of Utah’s paternity requirements are not per se unreasonable. 23 A principal reason for the presumption that Congress does not make “the application of . . . federal act[s] dependent on state law. . . . is that federal statutes are generally intended to have uniform nationwide application.” Holyfield, 490 U.S. at 43. 39 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part would result in a lack of nationwide uniformity. Based on Holyfield, we determine that Congress could hardly have intended that result. 3. A Federal Standard of Reasonableness Applies ¶ 71 Having rejected the application of state law to define the procedures and timing for acknowledging or establishing paternity under ICWA, we hold that a federal standard applies. 24 We acknowledge that ICWA does not explicitly define the procedures and timing required, but in light of the congressional findings and the purpose of ICWA as discussed above, as well as its protectiveness of parental rights pertaining to Indian children, we conclude that the requirements must be less exacting than those for establishing paternity under Utah law. Instead, we conclude that a reasonability standard applies to the time and manner in which an unwed father may acknowledge or establish his paternity. This comports with the canon of interpretation that where a statute is silent as to the time or manner of a subject, we presume a reasonability standard—an approach that is 24 We concede that the courts in some cases we cite today did not look to a federal definition for acknowledging or establishing paternity, see, e.g., In re Adoption of a Child of Indian Heritage, 543 A.2d 925, 935 (N.J. 1988), but the dissent’s criticism on that issue misses the point. Infra ¶ 166 n.33. The federal standard of reasonableness sets the floor for how states can define acknowledging or establishing paternity in the context of ICWA. The fact that some state standards may be more protective of parents’ rights than the federal minimum does not mean they have rejected a reasonableness floor, and these standards are not inconsistent with our decision today. See 25 U.S.C. § 1921 (“In any case where State or Federal law applicable to a child custody proceeding under State or Federal law provides a higher standard of protection to the rights of the parent or Indian custodian of an Indian child than the rights provided under this subchapter, the State or Federal court shall apply the State or Federal standard.”); see also Yavapai-Apache Tribe v. Mejia, 906 S.W.2d 152, 173 (Tex. App. 1995) (“Congress intended to defer to state or tribal standards for establishing paternity, as long as [those] standards were within contemplation of Congress and provide [a] realistic opportunity for unwed father[s] to establish [the paternal] relationship with [the] child.” (citation omitted)). 40 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part consistent with ICWA case law25 and has been applied by many states over many years and many different topics of law.26 ICWA is silent 25 Other states have determined that an unmarried biological father of an Indian child can qualify as a parent under ICWA even if his actions were not sufficient to comply with state-law requirements for establishing paternity. For example, the Arizona Court of Appeals held that even though an unwed father had not complied with a state statute giving him thirty days after receiving notice of an adoption petition to serve the mother with notice that he had initiated a paternity proceeding—and therefore “the juvenile court would typically find he waived his right to further notification of any adoption hearing”—the record nonetheless reflected that he had taken adequate steps to acknowledge paternity for ICWA purposes. Jared P. v. Glade T., 209 P.3d 157, 160, 162 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2009). And the Alaska Supreme Court concluded, based on its analysis of cases from other states, “that to qualify as an ICWA parent an unwed father does not need to comply perfectly with state laws for establishing paternity, so long as he has made reasonable efforts to acknowledge paternity.” Bruce L. v. W.E., 247 P.3d 966, 979 (Alaska 2011). This is consistent with our conclusion that the definition of a parent under ICWA is not controlled by state law. 26 Coulter & Smith, Ltd. v. Russell, 966 P.2d 852, 858 (Utah 1998) (“[I]f a contract fails to specify a time of performance the law implies that it shall be done within a reasonable time under the circumstances.”); see Laurelle v. Bush, 119 P. 953, 956 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1911) (“It is a wellrecognized rule of statutory construction that a general grant of power, unaccompanied by specific directions as to the manner in which the power is to be exercised, implies the right and duty to adopt and employ such means and methods as may be reasonably necessary to a proper exercise of the power” in the context of granting a permit for a license.); Spiegelberg v. Gomez, 379 N.E.2d 1135, 1136 (N.Y. 1978) (implying a reasonableness condition on time before city may raise the rent on property it acquires); Lance Int’l, Inc. v. First Nat’l City Bank, 927 N.Y.S.2d 56, 58 (App. Div. 2011) (implying a reasonable period of time for winding up a dissolved corporation’s affairs when statute is silent on time periods); Jonathan Neil Corp. v. State Liquor Auth., 491 N.Y.S.2d 632, 633 (App. Div. 1985) (using a “reasonable time” standard for how long a party should keep records on its premises “[i]n (cont.) 41 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part both as to the manner in which an unwed father may acknowledge or establish paternity and as to the time in which he must do so. Applying a reasonability standard here creates obvious stop-gaps and prevents the slippery-slope concerns of the dissent, as it requires more than “any bare acknowledgement by a putative father,” infra ¶ 198, and would not allow “a putative Indian father [to] come forward months or even years later and assert a right to disrupt even a finalized adoption.” Infra ¶ 201.27 the absence of a fixed statutory period of time”); Nw. Ohio Bldg. & Constr. Trades Council v. Conrad, 750 N.E.2d 130, 135–36 (Ohio 2001) (noting requirement that absent specific language administrative agency actions be performed “in a reasonable manner”); State v. Gaul, 691 N.E.2d 760, 767 (Ohio Ct. App. 1997) (applying the “reasonable manner” standard to a statute that commanded a public official to invest public money but did not specify how it was to be done); Commonwealth v. Bd. of Supervisors of Arlington Cty., No. 18747, 1976 WL 22828, at  (Va. Cir. Ct. Oct. 1, 1976) (county board must exercise its general powers in a reasonable manner); see also Lora v. Shanahan, 804 F.3d 601, 614 (2d Cir. 2015), cert. denied, 136 S. Ct. 2494 (2016) (analyzing “reasonable” time limit for immigration detention). 27 The dissent’s arguments about a standard of reasonableness seem to stem not from a belief that ICWA could not have intended a reasonableness standard but from discomfort with any reasonableness standard. See infra ¶ 172 (equating “reasonably” with “vaguely”). We find it hard to believe that a state court would be baffled by application of a reasonableness standard in the federal context and would feel the need to resort to legislative-like hearings, see infra ¶ 175, given that we frequently are called upon to apply a federal standard of reasonableness in other contexts, such as interpreting the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. State v. Maxwell, 2011 UT 81, ¶ 14, 275 P.3d 220 (discussing “reasonableness” in Fourth Amendment context); State v. Simons, 2013 UT 3, ¶ 40, 296 P.3d 721 (Lee, J., concurring) (noting that “the touchstone under the Fourth Amendment is reasonableness, and that standard affords flexibility”). And although states may differ in their interpretation of “reasonableness,” see generally State v. Martinez, 2017 UT 43, ¶ 18, __ P.3d __ (rejecting New Mexico Court of Appeals’ holding on “reasonable Fourth Amendment privacy considerations of passengers” (citation omitted)), the country (cont.) 42 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part ¶ 72 This approach is consistent with ICWA’s liberal administration. Guidelines for State Courts; Indian Child Custody Proceedings, 44 Fed. Reg. 67,584, 67,586 (Nov. 26, 1979) (stating that ICWA “shall be liberally construed”); see also Brenda O. v. Ariz. Dep’t of Econ. Sec., 244 P.3d 574, 577 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2010) (“ICWA is to be interpreted ‘liberally in favor of the Indians’ interest in preserving family units.’” (citation omitted)); In re Esther V., 248 P.3d 863, 869 (N.M. 2011) (noting that ICWA is a remedial statute that must be interpreted “liberally to facilitate and accomplish [its] purposes and intent” (citation omitted)). The BIA guidelines also support a federal reasonableness standard.28 Indeed, courts assessing paternity by unwed has not devolved into “chaos and unpredictability” as “each court faced with the . . . question . . . offer[s] its own subjective assessment of what is . . . ‘reasonable.’” Infra ¶ 200. 28 The BIA considered including a federal standard for what constitutes acknowledgement or establishment of paternity. Some commenters for the BIA’s proposed rule “recommended language requiring an unwed father to ‘take reasonable steps to establish or acknowledge paternity’” and requested clarification on time limits for acknowledging or establishing paternity. Indian Child Welfare Act Proceedings, 81 Fed. Reg. 38,778, 38,795–96 (June 14, 2016). The BIA responded by stating that “[t]he Supreme Court and subsequent case law has already articulated a constitutional standard regarding the rights of unwed fathers” and that many states have held that, under ICWA, an unwed father “must make reasonable efforts to establish paternity, but need not strictly comply with State laws.” Id. (citing Bruce L., 247 P.3d at 978–79). Based on these holdings that a reasonableness standard for acknowledging or establishing paternity applies under ICWA—a set of holdings we join today—the BIA “d[id] not see a need to establish an ICWA-specific Federal definition for this term.” 81 Fed. Reg. at 38,796. The U.S. Supreme Court relied on similar language from BIA guidelines in Holyfield. The guidelines declined to articulate a federal standard on the basis that “[t]here is no indication that these state law definitions [of “residence” and “domicile”] tend to undermine in any way the purposes of the Act.” Guidelines for State Courts; Indian Child Custody Proceedings, 44 Fed. Reg. 67,584, 67,585 (Nov. 26, 1979). From this, the Supreme Court concluded that “[t]he clear implication is that (cont.) 43 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part putative fathers under other federal statutes have also looked to “the history and tradition of liberal administration of benefits” in rejecting “[a]pplication of rigorous state law schemes for proof of paternity.” St. John Stevedoring Co. v. Wilfred, 818 F.2d 397, 399 (5th Cir. 1987). Put another way, the BIA guidelines did not adopt a uniform standard of reasonableness because the BIA correctly presumed that state courts already understood that strict compliance with state law was not necessary. ¶ 73 By contrast, the dissent’s proposed standard would lead to absurd situations where an unwed father who clearly has acknowledged or established paternity under ICWA would not qualify under Utah law. Take, for example, a situation where a biological mother abandons a child with the unmarried biological father. If the father acted as the sole caretaker for his child, that would surely be a clear-cut case of acknowledgement of paternity. But under Utah law, the father would not have acknowledged paternity if he did not have a written agreement that the mother had also signed. Supra ¶ 67. This would provide the father with fewer rights than a reasonability standard under ICWA. We believe a common-sense reading of ICWA prohibits the dissent’s strict interpretation. See In re Adoption of Baby E.Z., 2011 UT 38, ¶ 40; In re J.S., 321 P.3d 103, 110 (Mont. 2014) (applying a “[c]ommon sense construction of the meaning of ‘active efforts’” in ICWA (alteration in original)); see also In re Adoption of Sara J., 123 P.3d 1017, 1036 (Alaska 2005) (applying “[c]ommon sense” to interpret ICWA’s placement preferences); In re T.S.W., 276 P.3d 133, 144 (Kan. 2012) (same). ¶ 74 Thus, we hold that Birth Father’s actions satisfied the requirements for acknowledging paternity under ICWA using a reasonability standard. Birth Father and Birth Mother resided together at the time of conception and for the first six months of Birth Mother’s pregnancy. During that time, Birth Father supported Birth Mother, paying for their rent, utilities, and groceries and Birth Mother’s phone bill. When Birth Mother moved to Utah six months into the pregnancy, the plan was for Birth Father to join her later, once she was settled into their new apartment. Birth Father stayed in contact with Birth Mother state law that did tend to undermine the ICWA’s purposes could not be taken to express Congress’ intent.” Holyfield, 490 U.S. at 51 n.26. 44 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part over the phone for the first few weeks after her move, until Birth Mother cut off communication with him. Birth Father was then told by family friends that Birth Mother was fine and would return to South Dakota soon. Birth Father indicated that he believed Birth Mother needed some space and that she would either return to South Dakota to deliver their baby or that she would return with the baby after the delivery. Instead, Birth Mother placed their child for adoption. Upon learning of the proceedings shortly after the September 25, 2014 order terminating parental rights was issued, Birth Father informed the tribe of the situation and consulted with Dakota Plains Legal Services. After being referred to Utah Legal Services, Birth Father filed a motion to intervene, a motion for paternity testing, and a paternity affidavit expressly acknowledging that he was the Child’s biological father. He also filed an Answer, Objection, and Verified Counterpetition to the Verified Petition for Adoption. When new ICWA guidelines were released on the day of the hearing on his motions, Birth Father acted immediately: the very same day, he submitted those guidelines to the court with a motion requesting the court to review them and drawing the court’s attention to pertinent provisions in the guidelines. In the April 21, 2015 order denying Birth Father’s motion to intervene on the basis that he was not a parent under ICWA, the district court itself stated that Birth Father has filed numerous documents with the Court in this case asserting paternity. In connection with this case, [Birth Father] has filed an affidavit setting forth his willingness and ability to parent the Child, his plans for care of the Child, and his willingness to pay child support and expenses related to the pregnancy and birth. He has filed a notice, with the Utah Department of Health, Office of Vital Records and Statistics, indicating that he has filed a paternity action regarding the Child (identifying this case as the paternity action). Thus, if one construes this action as a ‘paternity action,’ then [Birth Father] has now accomplished all of the tasks required by Utah’s statute. 45 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part ¶ 75 These actions, we hold, were both timely and sufficient for Birth Father to acknowledge paternity under ICWA, making Birth Father a “parent” for purposes of section 1914.29 C. Birth Father Is a Parent Under Utah Law ¶ 76 As an alternative basis, I would hold that Birth Father also timely acknowledged and established his paternity under Utah law. As the district court indicated, Birth Father “accomplished all of the tasks required” by Utah Code section 78B-6-121(3), which relates to the consent of an unmarried biological father. And Birth Father accomplished these tasks within the timeframe required by Utah law. See UTAH CODE § 78B-6-121(3) (requiring the unmarried biological father to accomplish those tasks “prior to the time the mother executes her consent for adoption or relinquishes the child for adoption”). The district court concluded that Birth Father’s actions were untimely because he “completed these tasks no earlier than January 26, 2015,” which the court determined was after “the time the mother execute[d] her consent for adoption or relinquishe[d] the child for adoption.” Id. However, because Birth Mother never gave valid consent, supra ¶ 44, and because Birth Father has accomplished all the necessary actions, Birth Father timely established paternity even under Utah law. Thus, even if Utah law applied to define how to acknowledge or establish paternity under ICWA, Birth Father satisfies the statutory definition of a “parent.” ¶ 77 The actions Birth Father took illustrate that this case is a poster child for application of ICWA. Against the backdrop of 25 U.S.C. section 1902’s declaration of policy stating that ICWA is designed “to promote the stability and security of Indian tribes and families” and 29 The dissent’s skepticism that “the actions [Birth Father] took prior to the custody proceedings satisfied” a reasonability standard, infra ¶ 171 n.37, echoes socioeconomic and cultural assumptions that ICWA itself aims to uproot. See 25 U.S.C. § 1901(5) (stating “that the States . . . have often failed to recognize the essential tribal relations of Indian people and the cultural and social standards prevailing in Indian communities and families”); H.R. REP. No. 95-1386, at 10 (1978) (discussing how “many social workers [are] ignorant of Indian cultural values and social norms” and therefore “make decisions that are wholly inappropriate in the context of Indian family life”). 46 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part guard against state courts’ unnecessary removals of Indian children from their families, the majority would hold that an Indian father who took every necessary action to acknowledge paternity of his Indian child did too little, too late. I disagree. Because Birth Father acknowledged his paternity under both a federal reasonableness standard and a stricter Utah standard, he is a “parent” for purposes of ICWA. This status as a parent gives him standing under section 1914 to challenge the order terminating Birth Mother’s parental rights due to her invalid consent. 25 U.S.C. § 1914 (“[A]ny parent . . . may petition any court of competent jurisdiction to invalidate such action upon a showing that such action violated any provision of sections 1911, 1912, and 1913 of this title.”). D. Birth Father’s Status as a Parent, Along with His Custody of the Child, Gives Him the Right to Intervene ¶ 78 Because we conclude that Birth Father is a “parent” under ICWA, we now look to language in section 1914 that arguably requires not just that a person bringing a challenge to a termination action be a “parent” but also that he be a parent “from whose custody such child was removed.” Birth Father may bring an action under this section because, as a parent, he had legal custody of the Child, and to the extent he did not have physical custody of the Child, it was because of Birth Mother’s misrepresentations. ¶ 79 We first note that legal custody alone suffices for section 1914 purposes. To hold otherwise would exclude a large number of fathers who were unable to obtain physical custody through circumstances that are out of their control. We believe that result would be seriously troubling, especially given that ICWA should be “liberally construed.” Guidelines for State Courts; Indian Child Custody Proceedings, 44 Fed. Reg. at 67,586. ¶ 80 Our approach is consistent with how courts have interpreted “custody” in other ICWA settings. For example, section 1912(f), which states that “[n]o termination of parental rights may be ordered in such proceeding in the absence of a determination . . . that the continued custody of the child by the parent or Indian custodian is likely to result in serious emotional or physical damage to the child,” refers to either physical or legal custody. D.J. v. P.C., 36 P.3d 663, 670 (Alaska 2001); see also Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl, 133 S. Ct. 2552, 2562 (2013) (addressing whether unwed father had “legal or physical custody” of the child (emphasis added)). 47 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part ¶ 81 In this case, Birth Father had legal custody of the Child by virtue of his paternity. “[A] parent possesses a fundamental liberty interest in the care, custody, and management of the parent’s child.” UTAH CODE § 78A-6-503(1).30 This includes not just physical custody, but also legal custody, which is defined as a relationship including “the right to physical custody,” id. § 78A-6-105(22)(a), “the right and duty to protect, train, and discipline” the child, id. § 105(22)(b), and “the right to determine where and with whom the minor shall live,” id. § 105(22)(d). And Utah law appears to presume that a parent automatically enjoys legal custody, stating that the “fundamental liberty interest of a parent concerning the care, custody, and management of the parent’s child is recognized, protected, and does not cease to exist simply because a parent may fail to be a model parent or because the parent’s child is placed in the temporary custody of the state,” id. § 78A-6-503(4), and that “a parent has the right, obligation, responsibility, and authority to raise, manage, train, educate, provide for, and reasonably discipline the parent’s children,” id. § 503(10)(a). Thus, as a parent under ICWA, Birth Father had legal custody of the Child. ¶ 82 Although Birth Father’s legal custody of the Child is sufficient, we also note that his lack of physical custody was due to Birth Mother’s misrepresentations, which we will not hold against him for section 1914 purposes. We believe there is a meaningful distinction between a father who, albeit unsuccessfully, attempts to obtain physical custody and one who makes no such efforts. Compare In re Adoption of Baby Girl B., 67 P.3d 359, 366 (Okla. Civ. App. 2003) (stating that, in keeping with “the policies and purposes” of ICWA, where “a father has no reasonable notice of fatherhood, then [federal and state versions of ICWA] do not preclude him from asserting rights under those Acts simply because he had not been, through no fault of his own, a custodial parent”), with In re J.S., 321 P.3d 103, 113 (Mont. 2014) (holding that father never had custody of child where he “was not 30 Under ICWA, “legal custody” is defined by reference to tribal or state law. See 25 U.S.C. § 1903(6) (defining “Indian custodian” as “any Indian person who has legal custody of an Indian child under tribal law or custom or under State law”); Indian Child Welfare Act Proceedings, 81 Fed. Reg. at 38,792 (stating that a parent may have legal custody “under any applicable Tribal law or Tribal custom or State law”). 48 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part involved in the child’s life for the significant part of 15 years and only became interested in the action ten years after significant State involvement refocused his attention to the matter”); see also Adoptive Couple, 133 S. Ct. at 2571 (Breyer, J., concurring) (stating that majority’s conclusion that father lacked physical and legal custody did not address situations where a father has paid “all of his child support obligations” or “was deceived about the existence of the child or . . . prevented from supporting his child”). In this case, Birth Father lacked physical custody of the Child only because Birth Mother left the state, refused to communicate with him, and did not tell him when or where the Child was born. Until Birth Mother left, however, Birth Father had taken significant steps to care for his unborn child, including providing financial support during Birth Mother’s pregnancy. And after Birth Father found out about the Child’s birth, he filed numerous documents with the district court stating his willingness to care for and support the Child. Where, as here, a father took every reasonable step to obtain physical custody but was thwarted by the mother’s misrepresentations, we hold that he is not barred from challenging an action under section 1914. ¶ 83 We also note that the majority of courts, including our court of appeals, have adopted a similar view in rejecting the idea that ICWA’s language about “the removal of Indian children from their families” requires an existing Indian family for the child to be removed from. State ex rel. D.A.C., 933 P.2d 993, 999–1000 (Utah Ct. App. 1997) (stating that ICWA’s policies support application of the Act even where there was no existing Indian family); see also In re Baby Boy Doe, 849 P.2d 925, 932 (Idaho 1993) (calling “existing Indian family” exception an inappropriate “judicially created exception” that “circumvent[s] the mandates of ICWA”); In re A.J.S., 204 P.3d 543, 549 (Kan. 2009) (stating that the exception “appears to be at odds with the clear language of ICWA”); In re Baby Boy C., 805 N.Y.S.2d 313, 323 (App. Div. 2005) (noting that “the word ‘existing’ is not found anywhere in ICWA’s definitions sections and appears to have been supplied by judicial interpretation”). These courts have held that interpreting the “removal” language to mean that ICWA does not apply where there was no existing Indian family would frustrate the policies of ICWA.31 State ex 31 We see important parallels between the rise and fall of the “existing Indian family” doctrine and the case before us today. In the (cont.) 49 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part rel. D.A.C., 933 P.2d at 1000; In re Baby Boy C., 805 N.Y.S.2d at 324 (“Since ICWA was passed, in part, to curtail state authorities from making child custody determinations based on misconceptions of Indian family life, the [“existing Indian family”] exception, which necessitates such an inquiry, clearly frustrates this purpose[.]”). To hold that a parent who has never had physical custody—through no fault of his own—could not bring an action under section 1914 would have the same baffling effect of barring the very people the Act is intended to benefit. ¶ 84 Thus, we hold that Birth Father was a parent who had custody of the Child. But we are split on the implications of this holding. A minority of the court would hold that he has statutory standing to raise the subject matter jurisdictional issues of Birth Mother’s consent, and, because he has standing to place them before our court, we have a responsibility to reach them.32 But, aside from the “existing Indian family” context, several courts at first relied heavily on the plain language of “removal” in various sections of ICWA, thereby denying Indian children ICWA’s heightened protections. But such a strangled view of ICWA was widely abandoned after the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Holyfield, as state courts recognized the “existing Indian family” doctrine’s “deviation from ICWA’s core purpose of ‘preserving and protecting the interests of Indian tribes in their children.’” In re A.J.S., 204 P.3d 543, 550 (Kan. 2009) (citation omitted); see also In re Adoption of Baade, 462 N.W.2d 485, 489 (S.D. 1990) (“Such a practice fails to recognize the legitimate concerns of the tribe that are protected under the Act.”). We therefore reject the dissent’s idea that giving force to ICWA’s stated purpose is a “purposivist approach” that will lead us on “an endless journey.” Infra ¶ 197 n.51. Rather, our opinion today is a recognition that the plain language of ICWA is informed by its “core purpose of preserving and protecting the interests of Indian tribes in their children,” In re Baby Boy C., 805 N.Y.S.2d 313, 323 (App. Div. 2005), and that this purpose argues for an interpretation that embraces a minimum federal standard—reasonableness—for an Indian father’s acknowledgement or establishment of paternity. 32 Because I believe that Birth Mother’s consent was invalid, I would hold that this should result in a remand for a lack of subject matter jurisdiction. I reject the majority’s notion that a lack of subject matter jurisdiction would bind the court to an order of vacatur and dismissal. (cont.) 50 Cite as: 2017 UT 59 Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part subject matter jurisdictional implications of Birth Father’s status as a parent, the majority holds that he was entitled to intervene in the adoption proceedings. We therefore remand on that basis. ¶ 85 In remanding for the district court to allow Birth Father to intervene, we are not blind to “the potential traumatic impact of a sudden, precipitous separation of a child from the only parents [he] has ever known.” In re Adoption of Baby Girl P., 242 P.3d 1168, 1176 (Kan. 2010). But “[w]hatever feelings we might have as to where [the Child] should live, . . . it is not for us to decide that question.” Holyfield, 490 U.S. at 53. It is our task to decide whether the district court exercised proper jurisdiction, but we are not tasked with deciding “what the outcome of that determination should be.” Id. And we hope that our guidance to district courts in adoption proceedings will prevent future heart-wrenching situations. See id. at 53–54 (“Had the mandate of the ICWA been followed [by the district court], much potential anguish might have been avoided, and in any case the law cannot be applied so as automatically to ‘reward those who obtain custody, whether lawfully or otherwise, and maintain it during any ensuing (and protracted) litigation.’” (quoting In re Adoption of Halloway, 732 P.2d 962, 972 (Utah 1986))).33 See infra ¶ 154. The district court lacked jurisdiction to proceed with the adoption, but it had proper jurisdiction to obtain consent from the birth parents and terminate their rights if appropriate. Therefore, I would hold that a remand to that stage of the court’s proceedings is appropriate. See In re Adoption of L.D.S., 155 P.3d 1, 8–9 (Okla. 2006), as supplemented on reh’g, No. 250 (Mar. 6, 2007) (finding decree of adoption void and directing the trial court on remand “to return the parties to the legal status they held before the erroneous declaration that the child was available for adoption without parental consent”). Among other outcomes, this could include Birth Mother’s providing valid consent, in which event Birth Father may be able to timely petition to intervene, or Birth Father, Birth Mother, and the prospective adoptive parents may file petitions for custody. 33 The majority notes possible procedural due process problems if Birth Mother does not receive notice. Infra ¶ 110. But Birth Mother had both notice and an opportunity to be heard on this appeal when her motion to withdraw her consent was denied. See Nelson v. Jacobsen, 669 P.2d 1207, 1211 (Utah 1983) (“Timely and adequate notice and an (cont.) 51 Adoption of B.B. Himonas, J., Opinion of the Court in part