Opinion ID: 537726
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 4

Heading: testimonial and procedural challenges

Text: 80 Defendants raise a host of challenges regarding various testimonial and procedural issues that arose at trial. We consider each of their contentions.
81 At trial, the government called FBI Agents Arthur Eberhart and James Nelson to give expert testimony. Eberhart was the government's gambling expert and testified at length as to various defendants' roles in different gambling operations. Nelson gave more general expert testimony on the structure and operations of La Cosa Nostra and also gave his opinion, based on the wiretap tapes, regarding each defendant's role in the criminal organization. Among other things, it was his opinion that Raymond Patriarca was the boss of the Boston-Providence Family of La Cosa Nostra and that Gennaro Angiulo was the underboss. 82 Defendants raise two objections to this expert testimony. First, they argue that it violated their sixth amendment right to confrontation because the trial court allowed the agents to testify without requiring that they disclose the identity of, or information received from, certain government informants. Second, they contend that permitting the experts to testify as to the defendants' roles in various activities invaded the province of the jury by effectively telling the jury what results to reach.
83 Defendants raise a two-part challenge to the trial court's failure to require the disclosure of informant information. First, they contend that allowing the FBI agents' testimony without requiring the disclosure of informant information violated Rule 705 of the Federal Rules of Evidence, which states that on cross-examination, an expert witness may be required to disclose the facts and data underlying his opinion. 4 Second, defendants argue that their sixth amendment right to confrontation was violated because they could not effectively cross-examine the agents without the disclosure of the informant information. 84 In United States v. Angiulo, 847 F.2d 956 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 109 S.Ct. 314, 102 L.Ed.2d 332 (1988), we considered and rejected virtually identical arguments raised on appeal after the trial and conviction of Jason Angiulo, Gennaro's son, and various other associates of the Patriarca Family. In that trial, Agent Nelson also gave expert testimony on the operations of La Cosa Nostra and the roles of the defendants in the organization without being required to disclose the identity of informants. We upheld that testimony against sixth amendment and Rule 705 challenges on several grounds. First, we noted that the trial court had instructed Nelson not to answer any questions on direct examination that would be based on informant information he could not disclose on cross-examination. Second, we emphasized that Nelson had testified explicitly that his opinions regarding the defendants were based solely on the tapes presented at trial. Finally, we noted that defendants had the opportunity to cross-examine Nelson extensively on his opinions. In those circumstances, we found no error in the trial court's refusal to require the disclosure of informant information. See id. at 974. 85 We find the same reasoning to be dispositive here. The sole distinction between Angiulo and the situation before us is that the trial court here did not expressly instruct the expert witnesses not to answer any questions on direct examination that would be based on informant information that could not be disclosed on cross-examination, as had been done in Angiulo. This distinction, however, does not require a different result. The experts here gave the same type of testimony that was given in Angiulo, stating their opinions as to the roles played by defendants. As in Angiulo, the expert testimony was based solely on tape recordings presented at trial. Nelson repeatedly stated, both on direct examination and on cross-examination, that his testimony as to the roles played by the defendants was based only on the taped conversations that he had reviewed. 5 Although it might have been preferable for the trial court explicitly to instruct the experts as had been done in Angiulo, it was not reversible error to fail to do so where the experts testified that the opinions given were based only on the tape recordings. 86 Defendants attempt to distinguish Angiulo by pointing to various admissions by the experts that informant information had provided a basis for certain of their conclusions. We have carefully reviewed the relevant portions of the record and find that the experts testified only that information from past cooperating witnesses had contributed to their knowledge about La Cosa Nostra in general. Phrased another way, the experts acknowledged that information gleaned from informants over the course of their FBI careers was part of the vast mix of material that contributed to their background expertise on La Cosa Nostra. This expertise, in turn, enabled them to listen to the tapes and form opinions on defendants' criminal activities. The fact that informant information furnished some part of the experts' background knowledge does not implicate the sixth amendment. Regardless of the information that contributed to their background expertise, the experts' testimony regarding the particular charges against these defendants was based solely on an analysis of the tape recordings. We find no error in the trial court's failure to require the disclosure of informant information. 6
87 Defendant Granito, joined by Gennaro Angiulo, raises an additional objection to the expert testimony. Specifically, Granito challenges Agent Eberhart's testimony regarding the roles played by various defendants in the North Margin Street poker operation--in particular, Eberhart's testimony that, based on his analysis of the tape recordings, it was his opinion that Granito was a partner in the poker game. 7 88 Granito contends that Eberhart's expert testimony should have been limited to a description of the general operation of gambling businesses and an explanation of any specialized terminology appearing on the tapes. With such testimony as background, the jury would have been more than competent to determine for itself the nature of Granito's involvement. In letting the expert state his opinion regarding Granito's role, the trial court impermissibly allowed the expert to give a legal conclusion and effectively tell the jury what result to reach, argues the defendant. 89 We disagree. The permissible scope of expert testimony under Fed.R.Evid. 702 is quite broad, 8 and encompasses an expert's statement of opinion on an ultimate fact at issue. See, e.g., United States v. Lamattina, 889 F.2d 1191, 1193-94 (1st Cir.1989); United States v. Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d 587, 591 (3d Cir.), mandamus denied, --- U.S. ----, 109 S.Ct. 1179, 103 L.Ed.2d 246 (1989). The only significant limitation is that the expert opinion be helpful to the trier of fact. See Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d at 591. Furthermore, the trial court has wide discretion in determining whether to admit expert testimony under this standard. See Lamattina, 889 F.2d at 1194. 90 Applying these principles to the facts at hand, we find that the trial court committed no error in allowing the expert to give his opinion as to the defendant's role in the criminal activities at issue here. We recently have upheld similar expert testimony in closely analogous circumstances. In United States v. Lamattina, we found no error in allowing an expert witness to testify that, after listening to the government's recorded conversation involving the defendant, it was his opinion that the conversation pertained to a loansharking transaction. See Lamattina, 889 F.2d at 1193-94. Similarly, in United States v. Angiulo, we found no error in allowing an expert to testify that, after listening to the government's tapes, it was his opinion that the defendants were close associates of the Patriarca Family. See Angiulo, 847 F.2d at 973-75. In both cases, we reasoned that the testimony was helpful to the jury in determining the meaning and significance of recorded conversations and the criminal jargon used in them. See Lamattina, 889 F.2d at 1194. We noted in Angiulo that, although this type of testimony posed some risk of prejudicing the defendants, it was particularly helpful in assisting the jury to understand the often complex structure of organized crime activities. See Angiulo, 847 F.2d at 975; see also Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d at 592. 91 The same reasoning is equally applicable here. Given the extensive criminal organization controlled by the Patriarca Family, the complexity of the interrelationships within the organization, and the use of criminal jargon by defendants in their conversations, we cannot find that the district court abused its discretion in permitting expert testimony as to defendants' roles in certain activities on the ground that such testimony would be helpful to the jury. As we did in Angiulo, we acknowledge that some risk exists that this type of testimony will be overly persuasive to the jury. We note with approval, however, that the trial court explicitly instructed the jury that it could accept or reject the expert testimony in whole or in part. Cf. Theodoropoulos, 866 F.2d at 592 (approving of a similar jury instruction). Considering the matter in its entirety, there was no error here.
92 Defendants' next claim of error pertains to the extortionate credit transaction involving a $200,000 loan to Joseph Palladino. To counter the government's evidence relating to this transaction, defendants intended to introduce the testimony of the alleged victim, Joseph Palladino, that he was not a loansharking victim at all, but rather a party to a legitimate business transaction with the defendants. Before calling Palladino to the stand, the defense moved to limit the government's cross-examination of Palladino to the subject of his intended direct examination--his alleged status as a loanshark victim. The motion informed the court that Palladino would assert his fifth amendment privilege in response to all other areas of inquiry. When this motion was denied, defendants then moved for judicial immunity for Palladino, claiming that he possessed exculpatory information and would not testify in the absence of immunity for fear of future prosecution. This motion also was denied, and Palladino did not testify. Defendants argue that the trial court's failure to order immunity denied them a fair trial on the count alleging the $200,000 extortionate loan to Palladino. 93 The government's response to this contention is simply that the trial court lacked the authority to grant or order use immunity for Palladino. We find this response inadequate to refute defendants' contentions on the immunity issue. Although it is clear that the district court lacked authority to grant immunity itself under the use immunity statute, 18 U.S.C. Sec. 6003(b), see United States v. Doe, 465 U.S. 605, 616-17, 104 S.Ct. 1237, 1244-45, 79 L.Ed.2d 552 (1984); Pillsbury Co. v. Conboy, 459 U.S. 248, 103 S.Ct. 608, 74 L.Ed.2d 430 (1983), it is a more difficult question whether the trial court had power, on fifth or sixth amendment grounds, to require a grant of immunity if the defendants' constitutional rights were being violated by the government's refusal to provide immunity. 94 A number of our sister circuits have considered this question, and two theories have emerged under which defendants would be entitled to a grant of immunity for prospective witnesses. The first theory, accepted in only a small minority of cases, can be labeled the effective defense theory; it holds that a court has the inherent power to immunize witnesses whose testimony is essential to an effective defense. The second theory, accepted by a number of circuits, can be called the prosecutorial misconduct theory; it holds that a court has the power to order the government to grant statutory immunity to a witness (or face a judgment of acquittal) where there exists prosecutorial misconduct arising from the government's deliberate intent to distort the fact-finding process. See, e.g., United States v. Pennell, 737 F.2d 521, 526 (6th Cir.1984) (describing the two theories), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 1158, 105 S.Ct. 906, 83 L.Ed.2d 921 (1985); United States v. Turkish, 623 F.2d 769, 773 (2d Cir.1980) (same), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 1077, 101 S.Ct. 856, 66 L.Ed.2d 800 (1981); see also United States v. Hooks, 848 F.2d 785, 803 (7th Cir.1988). In prior cases, we have acknowledged briefly the existence of these two theories, but have not discussed them in much depth, due to the defendants' clear failure to satisfy the requirements of either theory. See United States v. Drape, 668 F.2d 22, 26-27 (1st Cir.1982); United States v. Davis, 623 F.2d 188, 193 (1st Cir.1980). Defendants' allegations in this case warrant our examination of the theories in greater detail.
95 The effective defense theory was articulated by the Third Circuit in Government of the Virgin Islands v. Smith, 615 F.2d 964 (3d Cir.1980) and holds that: 96 when it is found that a potential defense witness can offer testimony which is clearly exculpatory and essential to the defense case and when the government has no strong interest in withholding use immunity, the court should grant judicial immunity to the witness in order to vindicate the defendant's constitutional right to a fair trial. 97 Id. at 974. Under this theory, the court itself has the inherent power to grant immunity. The power is grounded in a defendant's due process right to have exculpatory evidence presented to the jury. See id. at 969 et seq. 98 This theory has been rejected by virtually every other court that has considered the issue. See, e.g., United States v. Paris, 827 F.2d 395, 399 (9th Cir.1987); United States v. Tindle, 808 F.2d 319, 325 n. 4 (4th Cir.1986) (noting that the effective defense theory has been soundly criticized and is clearly the minority view, and citing cases); United States v. Sawyer, 799 F.2d 1494, 1506 (11th Cir.1986), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 1069, 107 S.Ct. 961, 93 L.Ed.2d 1009 (1987); Pennell, 737 F.2d at 527; United States v. Mendia, 731 F.2d 1412, 1414 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 1035, 105 S.Ct. 509, 83 L.Ed.2d 399 (1984); Turkish, 623 F.2d at 775-77. One of the most frequent rationales articulated in opposition to the theory is that it would pose separation of power problems for courts to assume inherent authority to grant judicial immunity themselves. The rationale is that the power to grant witness immunity is of legislative origin, and was granted to the executive branch. For the judiciary to exercise this power in the absence of a legislative grant would violate separation of power principles. See, e.g., Pennell, 737 F.2d at 527; see also Mendia, 731 F.2d at 1414. In addition to separation of power difficulties, those critical of the theory have articulated certain practical considerations that militate against courts' assuming the power to grant immunity to witnesses who possess exculpatory information. The Second Circuit has observed that acceptance of the effective defense theory would force judges to balance a defendant's need for particular witnesses against the prosecutor's reasons for not seeking immunity for the witnesses herself--an exercise not well-suited for judicial decisionmaking. See Turkish, 623 F.2d at 775-77; see also Pennell, 737 F.2d at 527-28 (articulating additional practical considerations). 99 We find these arguments to have considerable force and accordingly have substantial reservations about the effective defense theory. Even, however, if we accepted the theory as articulated by the Third Circuit in Government of Virgin Islands v. Smith, 615 F.2d 964, the defendants here would not satisfy its requirements. The Third Circuit stated in Smith that before a court should invoke any inherent power to grant immunity, it must be found that the prospective witness would offer clearly exculpatory and essential testimony and that the government has no strong interest in withholding immunity. See id. at 974. Accepting, for the sake of discussion only, that Palladino would have offered essential and exculpatory testimony, the defendants' immunity argument falls under the second requirement. Unlike in Smith, the government here has presented a number of significant reasons for withholding immunity. Specifically, the government has indicated a desire not to hinder possible future prosecutions of Palladino for alleged involvement in other organized crime activities, for a variety of likely tax violations, and for probable violations of state laws. These reasons certainly are adequate to constitute a strong governmental interest in withholding immunity. We therefore reject defendants' contentions under the effective defense theory.
100 Despite the nearly universal rejection of the effective defense theory, courts have held that the due process clause does constrain the prosecutor to a certain extent in her decision to grant or not to grant immunity. If a prosecutor abuses her discretion by intentionally attempting to distort the fact-finding process, then a due process violation exists and a court may order the prosecutor to grant immunity or face a judgment of acquittal. See United States v. Hooks, 848 F.2d 785, 799 (7th Cir.1988). 101 Such intentional distortion could occur in two ways. First, the government could intimidate or harass potential defense witnesses to discourage them from testifying--for example, by threatening them with prosecution for perjury or other offenses. Where such intimidation tactics cause a potential witness to invoke the fifth amendment and withhold testimony that otherwise would have been available to the defendant, a court may order the prosecutor to grant immunity to the witness or face a judgment of acquittal. See, e.g., United States v. Pinto, 850 F.2d 927, 932 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 109 S.Ct. 174, 102 L.Ed.2d 143 (1988); Hooks, 848 F.2d at 799; United States v. Lord, 711 F.2d 887, 891 (9th Cir.1983); United States v. Morrison, 535 F.2d 223, 229 (3d Cir.1976). Cf. Webb v. Texas, 409 U.S. 95, 98, 93 S.Ct. 351, 353, 34 L.Ed.2d 330 (1972) (holding that a judge's lengthy perjury warnings to a defense witness effectively drove the witness off the stand, thereby denying the defendant his due process right to present his defense). Second, the government could intentionally distort the fact-finding process by deliberately withholding immunity from certain prospective defense witnesses for the purpose of keeping exculpatory evidence from the jury. See Hooks, 848 F.2d at 802; Government of the Virgin Islands v. Smith, 615 F.2d at 968; see also Pennell, 737 F.2d at 526; United States v. Burns, 684 F.2d 1066, 1077 (2d Cir.1982), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 1174, 103 S.Ct. 823, 74 L.Ed.2d 1019 (1983). 102 We find that the defendants have failed to make an adequate showing of either type of prosecutorial misconduct. With respect to their claims of governmental intimidation, the defendants have pointed to four instances of alleged prosecutorial misconduct: (1) the government's informing the court that it thought Palladino would lie if he testified; (2) the government's transmission of pertinent information on Palladino to the Internal Revenue Service's (IRS) Criminal Division; (3) the government's recital to the court of the criminal activities of which Palladino was suspected; and (4) the notification given to Palladino by the Internal Revenue Service that he was under investigation for possible tax violations. 103 None of this conduct is sufficient to warrant a finding of witness intimidation by the prosecution. The government arguably was justified in telling the court it thought Palladino would lie and in detailing his suspected criminal activities to explain its reasons for not granting him immunity. In addition, it is difficult to see how these communications could be deemed an intimidation of the witness when they were made to the court. Neither can we fault the prosecution's transmission of information to the IRS. The defendants have not shown that it is anything but a routine practice for one investigatory arm of government to forward information to other arms that also have an interest in the information. Finally, we cannot hold the prosecution liable for the actions of the IRS in choosing to notify Palladino that he was under investigation for suspected tax violations. There has been no indication whatsoever that the prosecution suggested to the IRS that it contact Palladino, or that the prosecution even knew of the contact in advance. 104 Furthermore, the conduct complained of by defendants here falls far short of the type of prosecutorial conduct condemned by other courts as witness intimidation. For example, in United States v. Morrison, 535 F.2d 223, the prosecutor on at least three occasions had sent messages to a prospective defense witness warning her that she was liable to prosecution on drug charges; that if she testified, the testimony could be used as evidence against her; and that if she lied, federal perjury charges could be brought. The prosecutor then subpoenaed the witness to his office and again warned her, in the presence of three law enforcement officers, of the risks of testifying. After these warnings, the witness took the stand and repeatedly invoked her privilege against self-incrimination. See id. at 225-26; see also Lord, 711 F.2d at 891-92. The defendants here have not pointed to any prosecutor-witness communication that even remotely approaches the conduct involved in Morrison. Indeed, the defendants have not pointed to any direct communication between the prosecution and Palladino at all. Nor have the defendants established the requisite causal nexus between the government's conduct and Palladino's decision not to testify. See United States v. Hoffman, 832 F.2d 1299, 1303-05 (1st Cir.1987). Given these circumstances, we find that defendants have failed to make a showing of governmental intimidation. 105 We also find no indication that the prosecution intentionally distorted the fact-finding process by deliberately withholding immunity from Palladino for the purpose of keeping his exculpatory testimony from the jury. The government gave several reasons for its objection to the immunization of Palladino, including its desire not to hinder possible state and federal prosecutions of Palladino for his suspected involvement in other criminal activities. These reasons clearly show that the government's conduct was motivated by something other than the sole desire to keep Palladino's exculpatory testimony from the jury. Accordingly, we reject defendants' prosecutorial misconduct theory, and find no error in the government's failure to offer immunity to Joseph Palladino.
106 Defendants object to the admission at trial of certain pretrial government motions to unseal and reseal tape recordings. To understand the defendants' objection, it is necessary first to review the underlying factual context. 107 In his opening statement to the jury, counsel for Francesco Angiulo challenged the government's handling of the wiretap tapes, suggesting that the procedures by which the tapes were handled did not adequately ensure their protection from tampering, and insinuating that the tapes very well may have been tampered with by the government. He acknowledged that the government had taken steps to seal the original recordings, but then noted that the tapes had been unsealed and resealed for various reasons, thereby creating the opportunity for alteration. Defense counsel even went so far as to suggest that government attorneys had misled the court on certain occasions when requesting that particular tapes be unsealed and resealed. The purpose of these statements obviously was to cast doubt on the integrity of the tape recordings that formed the heart of the government's case. 108 To respond to these assertions, the government elaborately laid out, through testimony and documentation, the procedures by which the tapes were handled. Included in the documentation were certain pretrial motions that had been filed by the government to unseal and reseal tape recordings. The motions were introduced and allowed in evidence not for the truth of the matters asserted, but rather to establish the reasons the government had articulated to the court in its requests for unsealing and resealing, and when these reasons had been stated. Put another way, the government was not offering the motions to prove that it had been truthful in the reasons it had given to the court for unsealing and resealing the tape recordings; rather, it was seeking only to show what the motions had stated and when they had been filed. The jury was explicitly instructed to this effect--that it was not to consider the motions for the truth of the matters asserted. 109 Defendants objected to the admission of the motions at trial, and they reiterate their objections on appeal. They argue that because the motions contained factual assertions made by government attorneys under oath, the admission of the motions at trial caused the government attorneys effectively to become witnesses on disputed factual issues. In particular, defendants object to the assertion made in one motion by the lead prosecutor that the integrity of the tapes had been maintained. Invoking the prohibition against an attorney's serving as both advocate and witness, defendants contend that once the motions were admitted, the lead prosecutor should either have been disqualified or subjected to cross-examination on his sworn statements contained in the admitted motions. The trial court's failure to require either, according to defendants, is reversible error. 110 Defendants' arguments can be dispensed with fairly quickly. We acknowledge the existence of the advocate-witness rule, which generally bars an attorney from appearing as both an advocate and a witness in the same litigation. United States v. LaRouche Campaign, 695 F.Supp. 1290, 1315 (D.Mass.1988). We are also aware that where an attorney improperly appears as both an advocate and a witness in the same litigation, the sanction of reversal and a new trial may be justified. See United States v. Birdman, 602 F.2d 547, 556-60 (3d Cir.1979), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 1032, 100 S.Ct. 703, 62 L.Ed.2d 668 (1980). 9 111 That situation, however, does not confront us here. We find it highly significant that the motions to unseal and reseal were not admitted for the truth of the matters asserted, and that the jury explicitly was instructed to this effect. It follows that if the assertions made by government attorneys were not introduced for their truth, then the attorneys cannot be considered to have become witnesses, and there was no violation of the advocate-witness rule. Because defendants have articulated no other compelling need to justify calling the lead prosecutor as a witness, see United States v. Prantil, 764 F.2d 548, 551-54 (9th Cir.1985); United States v. Schwartzbaum, 527 F.2d 249, 253 (2d Cir.1975), cert. denied, 424 U.S. 942, 96 S.Ct. 1410, 47 L.Ed.2d 348 (1976), we find no error in the trial court's failure either to disqualify the lead prosecutor or require him to submit to cross-examination.
112 Defendant Gennaro Angiulo raises the final procedural challenge, contending that the trial court erred in denying his motion to be severed from the trial of Granito due to antagonistic defenses. 10 To address this issue, it is again necessary to review the underlying factual context. 113 Granito was charged with: (1) conspiring to murder Angelo Patrizzi, and (2) owning and operating an illegal gambling business (the North Margin Street poker games). 11 The government's evidence against Granito consisted of taperecorded conversations in which, inter alia, Granito discussed with Gennaro prior unsuccessful attempts to kill Patrizzi, and also inquired as to the division of profits from the North Margin Street poker game. In defense to these charges, Granito argued that he had withdrawn from any conspiracy to murder Patrizzi and that he had inquired about the poker game proceeds, not for himself, but as a favor for an individual named Nicola Giso. 114 Gennaro also was charged with these offenses. The government's evidence against him consisted of the same tape recordings introduced against Granito, as well as some others. Gennaro's defense to the charges, consistent with his defense to virtually all of the charges, was a combination of two arguments: (1) that the tapes were unintelligible, and (2) that there was insufficient evidence to prove his guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. Gennaro contends that these defenses were antagonistic to those of Granito, and as a result, the trial court erred in denying his motion to sever. We are not persuaded. 115 A motion for severance is addressed to the discretion of the trial court, and the court's denial of such motion will be overturned only when there has been a clear abuse of discretion. See, e.g., United States v. Drougas, 748 F.2d 8, 18 (1st Cir.1984); United States v. Arruda, 715 F.2d 671, 679 (1st Cir.1983); United States v. Davis, 623 F.2d 188, 194 (1st Cir.1980). Furthermore, [a]ntagonism of defenses requires severance only where the defenses are so inconsistent that the jury would have to believe one defendant at the expense of the other; the conflict alone establishes the guilt of a defendant. Drougas, 748 F.2d at 20 (quoting Arruda, 715 F.2d at 679). It is not enough that the defendants are hostile, casting blame on one another; the antagonism in defenses must be such that if the jury believes one defense, it is compelled to convict the other defendant. See id. at 19; Arruda, 715 F.2d at 679; see also United States v. Porter, 764 F.2d 1, 13 (1st Cir.1985); United States v. Talavera, 668 F.2d 625, 630 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, 456 U.S. 978, 102 S.Ct. 2245, 72 L.Ed.2d 853 (1982); Davis, 623 F.2d at 194-95. 116 Applying these standards to the facts at hand, we find that Gennaro and Granito's defenses were insufficiently antagonistic to require severance. Granito's theory of defense was simply that he had withdrawn or was not involved in the crimes charged. We recognize that this theory did not always mesh perfectly with Gennaro's defense. Thus, while Gennaro argued that conversations on certain crucial tapes were unintelligible, Granito chose not to challenge the tapes but rather focused on furnishing innocent explanations for the conversations attributed to him by the government. Furthermore, some of Granito's explanations could have been accepted by the jury as compatible with a determination that Gennaro was guilty on the offenses charged. For example, Granito's explanation that he inquired about the poker game proceeds only as a favor for Nicola Giso could have been accepted by the jury as compatible with a determination that Gennaro was in charge of the poker games. But this does not make the defenses antagonistic. To conclude that defenses are antagonistic, we must find that the jury's belief of one defendant's theory necessarily compels a finding that the other defendant is guilty. This is not the situation here. The jury could have believed that Granito withdrew from the murder conspiracy and never participated in the gambling enterprise without being compelled to find Gennaro guilty of these offenses. Phrased another way, the jury could have believed Granito's withdrawal/noninvolvement defense while also accepting Gennaro's contention that there was insufficient evidence to convict him. Thus, no antagonistic defenses existed sufficient to require severance. 117 We are supported in this conclusion by prior cases in which we have denied severance despite the presence of even more sharply antagonistic defense theories than are involved here. In United States v. Arruda, 715 F.2d 671, we found no sufficiently antagonistic defenses even though one defendant's theory consisted of blaming his co-defendant for the crime while proclaiming his own innocence. In declining to require severance, we stated that the first defendant's theory consisted of nothing more than fingerpointing and tattling, which does not justify severance. Id. at 679. Similarly, in United States v. Luciano Pacheco, 794 F.2d 7 (1st Cir.1986), we again rejected a claim of antagonistic defenses where one defendant's theory consisted explicitly of blaming his two co-defendants. See id. at 9-10. Granito's defense and Gennaro's defense did not even reach this level of antagonism. Accordingly, we reject defendants' severance argument.