Opinion ID: 976
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: VICAR Counts

Text: Next, Mahdi challenges the VICAR prosecution on three grounds. We find none of them persuasive. First, Mahdi asserts that VICAR is facially unconstitutional as it violates the Commerce Clause. We have already rejected this argument in United States v. Carson, 455 F.3d 336 (D.C.Cir.2006). As we explained there: [I]t is impossible to see how a statute regulating conduct within the District of Columbia could exceed congressional authority under the Commerce Clause. As in the U.S. Territories, Congress has plenary authority in the District of Columbia. See U.S. CONST. art. I, § 8, cl. 17; U.S. CONST. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2; see also, e.g., Binns v. United States, 194 U.S. 486, 491, 24 S.Ct. 816, 48 L.Ed. 1087 (1904). Within the District, Congress did not need to rely on its Commerce Clause authority. Even if there were some doubt about § 1959's constitutionality outside the District of Columbia, we need not find the language of [§ 1959] constitutional in all its possible applications in order to uphold its facial constitutionality. Griffin v. Breckenridge, 403 U.S. 88, 104, 91 S.Ct. 1790, 29 L.Ed.2d 338 (1971). Carson, 455 F.3d at 368 (footnote omitted). Our analysis in Carson remains both correct and controlling. See Nat'l Inst. of Military Justice v. U.S. Dep't of Def., 512 F.3d 677, 682 (D.C.Cir.2008) (We are, of course, bound to follow circuit precedent absent contrary authority from an en banc court or the Supreme Court.) (internal quotations and alterations omitted). Second, Mahdi contends VICAR is unconstitutional as applied because [e]ven if some criminal acts, such as murder for hire, may substantially affect interstate commerce and could be prosecuted under VICAR, the violent crimes at issue here are unrelated to interstate commercial activity. Appellant's Br. 42 (citing United States v. Garcia, 68 F.Supp.2d 802 (E.D.Mich.1999)). As we just explained, however, under Carson, the Commerce Clause is simply irrelevant to the VICAR statute as applied in the District. Third, Mahdi argues the VICAR prosecution in this case violates the Department of Justice VICAR prosecution manual which states: In deciding whether to approve a prosecution under Section 1959, the Organized Crime and Racketeering Section will analyze the prosecution memorandum and proposed indictment to determine whether there is a legitimate reason the offense cannot or should not be prosecuted by state or local authorities. For example, federal prosecution may be appropriate where local authorities do not have the resources to prosecute, where local authorities are reasonably believed to be corrupt, where local authorities have requested federal participation, or where the offense is closely related to a federal investigation or prosecution. A prosecution will not be authorized over the objection of local authorities in the absence of a compelling reason. Violent Crimes in Aid of Racketeering  18 U.S.C. § 1959: A Manual for Federal Prosecutors at 3-4 (Dec.2006). The gist of Mahdi's argument is that because the U.S. Attorney prosecutes all crimes in the District, there is no distinction between federal and local authorities to justify prosecuting under VICAR rather than under other federal or D.C. statutes. The manual itself, however, specifically provides that its policies and procedures are internal Department of Justice policies and guidance only and are not intended to, do not, and may not be relied upon to, create any right, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law by any party in any matter civil or criminal. Nor are any limitations [t]hereby placed on otherwise lawful litigative prerogatives of the Department of Justice. Id. at i. Accordingly, Mahdi's argument is foreclosed. See In re Grand Jury Subpoena (Judith Miller), 438 F.3d 1141, 1152-53 (D.C.Cir.2006) (upholding reservation in U.S. Attorney's Manual guidelines which expressly state[s] that they do `not create or recognize any legally enforceable right in any person') (quoting 28 C.F.R. § 50.10(n)).