Opinion ID: 183973
Heading Depth: 3
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: Investigative Detention under Terry

Text: The government argues that reasonable suspicion under Terry existed to detain Bullock. We agree. Although an officer does not need probable cause to conduct an investigatory stop, the brief detention must be based on reasonable suspicion that the stopped individual has or is about to commit a crime. United States v. Booker, 579 F.3d 835, 838 (7th Cir.2009). When determining if seizure exceeds the bounds of Terry, the court should ask: (1) whether the police were aware of specific and articulable facts giving rise to reasonable suspicion; and (2) whether the degree of intrusion was reasonably related to the known facts. United States v. Tilmon, 19 F.3d 1221, 1224 (7th Cir.1994). An investigatory stop is proper if the officer making the stop is `able to point to specific and articulable facts' that give rise to a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity. Id. at 1224 (quoting Terry, 392 U.S. at 21-22, 88 S.Ct. 1868). Reasonable suspicion is a lower threshold than probable cause and does not deal with hard certainties, but with probabilities. Booker, 579 F.3d at 839 (quotation omitted). It requires more than a hunch but less than probable cause and considerably less than preponderance of the evidence. Gentry v. Sevier, 597 F.3d 838, 845 (7th Cir.2010) (quotations omitted). Because [r]easonable suspicion is a less demanding standard than probable cause[,] . . . [it] can arise from information that is less reliable. . . . Alabama v. White, 496 U.S. 325, 330, 110 S.Ct. 2412, 110 L.Ed.2d 301 (1990). The reasonableness of the stop is based on an objective standard: would the facts available to the officer at the moment of the seizure or the search `warrant a man of reasonable caution in the belief' that the action taken was appropriate? Tilmon, 19 F.3d at 1224 (quoting Terry, 392 U.S. at 22, 88 S.Ct. 1868). When determining whether an officer had reasonable suspicion, courts examine the totality of the circumstances known to the officer at the time of the stop, including the experience of the officer and the behavior and characteristics of the suspect. United States v. Lawshea, 461 F.3d 857, 859 (7th Cir.2006). The officer's subjective motivations for stopping and detaining a suspect are not relevant to the reasonableness inquiry. United States v. Barnett, 505 F.3d 637, 640 (7th Cir.2007); see also United States v. Van Dreel, 155 F.3d 902, 905 (7th Cir.1998) (subjective intentions play no role in Fourth Amendment analysis). The officers had reasonable suspicion of Bullock's criminal activity and could detain him briefly while they investigated their suspicion, i.e., while they searched the Euclid Street residence. Greenlee received an anonymous tip that an individual using the name Quick was selling narcotics out of a house on Euclid Street. The anonymous caller had purportedly been to the house, had spoken with Quick, and was aware that Quick was selling cocaine from that location. The caller did not know the address of the house, but described it to Greenlee, informed him what side of the street it was on, and that red and blue chairs were out front. The anonymous tip alone would not justify a Terry stop. See, e.g., Florida v. J.L., 529 U.S. 266, 270-71, 120 S.Ct. 1375, 146 L.Ed.2d 254 (2000) (holding that an anonymous tip, without more, was not sufficient to justify an officer's stop and frisk); see also United States v. Robinson, 537 F.3d 798, 802 (7th Cir.2008) (anonymous sources are less reliable because officers have no way to hold the source responsible if the information turns out to be fabricated). However, an anonymous tip, adequately corroborated, may provide sufficient indicia of reliability to provide reasonable suspicion for an investigatory stop. J.L., 529 U.S. at 270, 120 S.Ct. 1375. After receiving the anonymous tip, Greenlee undertook efforts to corroborate the caller's information. Greenlee identified Quick as Bullock through the police department's computer system, located the address of the residence based on the caller's description, observed Bullock leave the residence on four occasions during the course of eleven days, and observed Bullock on two occasions engage in behavior consistent with a drug courier or distributor upon leaving the residence. Specifically, Greenlee followed Bullock and observed him engage in short stay visits at various residences; individuals would get into Bullock's car for two to five minutes or they would approach the vehicle's window for a short period (up to a minute) and then walk away. Based on his training and experience, Greenlee testified that such actions were indicative of drug dealing. See, e.g., Burnside, 588 F.3d at 518 (In forming a reasonable belief that a drug transaction occurred, [police] were permitted to view the events through the prism of their training and experience.); United States v. Funches, 327 F.3d 582, 584, 586-87 (7th Cir.2003) (Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents had probable cause to believe that drug transaction had occurred based on their experience in narcotics enforcement; agents observed the exchange of shopping bags under circumstances they recognized as having common characteristics of drug transactions). On November 21, after observing these short-stay visits, officers pulled over Bullock and, during a search incident to arrest, found $500 on his person, mostly in $20 denominations. Upon investigation, Greenlee discovered that Bullock was unemployed. Greenlee testified that based on his training and experience, he believed the cash found on Bullock was from drug sales even though no drugs were found. In forming his suspicions, [Greenlee] was entitled to assess the circumstances and the defendant['s] behavior in light of his experience as a police officer and his knowledge of drug courier activity. United States v. Finke, 85 F.3d 1275, 1280 (7th Cir. 1996). Although a wad of cash is not itself suspicious, it becomes suspicious when found in the hands of a person who the police have good reason to believe just received it in exchange for a delivery of illegal drugs[.] United States v. Cervantes, 19 F.3d 1151, 1153 (7th Cir.1994). Even though Greenlee did not observe drug-dealing activity taking place at the residence, Bullock's suspicious activity upon leaving the residence on two occasions, including the discovery of a relatively large sum of money on Bullock, corroborated the anonymous caller's tip of drug-dealing activity. In fact, it was Bullock's association with the Euclid Street residence that led to the search warrant. At the time of the stop, officers had reasonable suspicion that Bullock was and had been engaged in criminal activity and could detain him for a brief period upon further investigation. See, e.g., United States v. Vega, 72 F.3d 507, 515 (7th Cir. 1995) (finding reasonable suspicion where officers knew that 500 kilograms of cocaine was in garage, and they observed defendant enter the garage, stay for ten minutes and drive out); United States v. Chaidez, 919 F.2d 1193, 1199 (7th Cir.1991) (reasonable suspicion existed where agents received tip from reliable informant that defendant was major heroin dealer, defendant's name came up in other drug investigations, and police observed defendant driving evasively, engaging in brief and furtive meetings, scurrying in and out of restaurants known to be frequented by drug dealers, and carrying a plastic bag used in the drug trade); see also United States v. Sophie, 900 F.2d 1064, 1072-73 (7th Cir.1990) (finding higher standard of probable cause met where officers observed known drug dealer make and receive phone calls and a message on his pager before meeting with defendant for about 30 seconds, during which time they got inside defendant's car and passed a tote bag back and forth). Bullock contends that for officers to detain him pursuant to Terry there must be a basis for believing that the person is engaging (present tense) in criminal activity or is about to be engaged (future tense) in criminal activity. Reply Br. 3. However, officers can stop and detain a suspect for reasonable suspicion that the suspect has engaged in a completed felony. United States v. Hensley, 469 U.S. 221, 229, 105 S.Ct. 675, 83 L.Ed.2d 604 (1985) ([I]f police have a reasonable suspicion, grounded in specific and articulable facts, that a person they encounter was involved in . . . a completed felony, then a Terry stop may be made to investigate that suspicion.); Booker, 579 F.3d at 838-39 (reasonable suspicion existed to stop and detain defendant who was suspected of having committed battery). While it is true that during the stop and pat-down officers did not find evidence of ongoing criminal activity, Wilhelm told them that she had marijuana in her house in the dining room, providing further reasonable suspicion to detain Bullock during the search. Bullock had just left the residence and had been there on at least three prior occasions. The officers could reasonably suspect that he was aware of the marijuana. The officers therefore had this information, along with their reasonable suspicion that Bullock was a drug dealer and had sold drugs on previous occasions upon leaving the residence. [1] We acknowledge that unlike in this case, the police in Hensley had been unable to locate the suspect. 469 U.S. at 229, 105 S.Ct. 675. But that difference does not lessen the government's strong interest in detaining Bullock to prevent flight while they conducted their search. Further, Bullock's suspected drug-dealing activity was not completed in the sense that he was engaging in ongoing criminal behavior that posed an ongoing threat to the public. The next question is whether the degree of intrusion was reasonably related to the known facts. The reasonableness of the stop may depend, in part, on the extent of the intrusion. United States v. Ienco, 182 F.3d 517, 523 (7th Cir.1999). A Terry investigative stop is a brief detention which gives officers a chance to verify (or dispel) well-founded suspicions that a person has been, is, or is about to be engaged in criminal activity. Vega, 72 F.3d at 515 (quotation omitted). For an investigative stop based on reasonable suspicion to pass constitutional muster, the investigation following it must be reasonably related in scope and duration to the circumstances that justified the stop in the first instance so that it is a minimal intrusion on the individual's Fourth Amendment interests. United States v. Robinson, 30 F.3d 774, 784 (7th Cir.1994) (citing United States v. Sharpe, 470 U.S. 675, 685-86, 105 S.Ct. 1568, 84 L.Ed.2d 605 (1985)). We use a sliding-scale approach when addressing the reasonableness of an investigatory stop. Tilmon, 19 F.3d at 1226. [S]tops too intrusive to be justified by suspicion under Terry, but short of custodial arrest, are reasonable when the degree of suspicion is adequate in light of the degree and the duration of restraint. Chaidez, 919 F.2d at 1198. A Terry stop based on reasonable suspicion can ripen into a de facto arrest that must be based on probable cause if it continues too long or becomes unreasonably intrusive. Robinson, 30 F.3d at 784. The detention must be temporary and last no longer than is necessary to effectuate the purpose of the stop. Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 500, 103 S.Ct. 1319, 75 L.Ed.2d 229 (1983). There is no rigid time limit placed on Terry stops; common sense and ordinary human experience must govern over rigid criteria. Sharpe, 470 U.S. at 685, 105 S.Ct. 1568. When determining the reasonableness of the length of detention, the court should consider the law enforcement purposes to be served by the stop, the time reasonably needed to effectuate those purposes, and whether the police diligently pursued their investigation. Id. at 685-87, 105 S.Ct. 1568. Before being taken to the police station, Bullock was detained for thirty to forty minutes. The police diligently pursued their investigation in executing the search warrant. Bullock was taken to the residence ten to twenty minutes after the stop and when he arrived, the search was underway. When the search was complete, officers transported Bullock to the station. Nothing in the record suggests that the officers unnecessarily prolonged the search or acted less than diligently. Bullock's detention while officers investigated his suspected criminal activity was reasonable and justified under the circumstances. See, e.g., Sharpe, 470 U.S. at 687, 105 S.Ct. 1568 (twenty-minute delay waiting for DEA agent to arrive and investigate was not unreasonable); United States v. Adamson, 441 F.3d 513, 521 (7th Cir. 2006) (twenty-five minute delay reasonable to investigate whether defendant was taking part in drug activity in hotel room given number of subjects and their reluctance to reveal their names and why they were at motel); Robinson, 30 F.3d at 784 (twenty-minute detention reasonable while officers questioned suspects about their identities and activities, contacted other officers to inform them of the encounter, and made a number of calls to verify co-defendant's identity); Vega, 72 F.3d at 515-16 (sixty-two minute delay was reasonable given that defendant initially consented to search of garage but then changed his mind and drug-sniffing dog was called to examine the defendant's car); cf. United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696, 709, 103 S.Ct. 2637, 77 L.Ed.2d 110 (1983) (ninety-minute detention of luggage while police arranged for dog sniff was unreasonable where police did not diligently pursue investigation); Ienco, 182 F.3d at 525 (thirty-minute detention in locked squad car was too long where reasonable suspicion was weak and suspects were not dangerous). Whether Bullock's seizure amounted to a de facto arrest when he was handcuffed, placed in the squad car, and transported to the residence is a closer question. Admittedly, the facts here approach the outer boundaries of a permissible Terry stop. Subtle, and perhaps tenuous, distinctions exist between a Terry stop, a Terry stop rapidly evolving into an arrest and a de facto arrest. Tilmon, 19 F.3d at 1224. Police restraint may become so intrusive that, while not technically an arrest, it becomes tantamount to an arrest requiring probable cause. Id. (citing Dunaway v. New York, 442 U.S. 200, 212-16, 99 S.Ct. 2248, 60 L.Ed.2d 824 (1979)). Given the `endless variations in the facts and circumstances,' there is no `litmus-paper test for determining when a seizure exceeds the bounds of an investigative stop' and becomes an arrest. Id. (quoting Royer, 460 U.S. at 506, 103 S.Ct. 1319). The question is whether the officer's actions were reasonable under the circumstances and whether the surrounding circumstances gave rise to a justifiable fear for personal safety on the part of the officer. Jewett v. Anders, 521 F.3d 818, 824 (7th Cir.2008). We have previously found that using handcuffs, placing suspects in police cars, drawing weapons, and other measures of force more traditionally associated with arrests may be proper during an investigatory detention, depending on the circumstances. Tilmon, 19 F.3d at 1224-25, 1228; see also United States v. Shoals, 478 F.3d 850, 853 (7th Cir.2007) (stating that police officers do not convert Terry stop into full custodial arrest by drawing their weapons or handcuffing the subject, particularly where the situation is inherently dangerous); Chaidez, 919 F.2d at 1198-99 (detention did not turn into arrest even though agents drew guns, took car keys, gave Miranda warnings, took one defendant to police van to sign consent-to-search form, and detained defendants for ten to fifteen minutes during search of house; the intrusion was less than that involved in an arrest). Given that officers were conducting a search for drugs, it was reasonable to place Bullock in handcuffs and in the squad car for their safety while they pursued their investigation. Even though officers patted down Bullock and did not discover any weapons, the officers could take precautions against potentially violent behavior. Drug crimes are associated with dangerous and violent behavior and warrant a higher degree of precaution. United States v. Askew, 403 F.3d 496, 508 (7th Cir.2005) (Drug arrests can warrant intrusive tactics because of their inherent danger.). Officers could reasonably believe that Bullock was potentially dangerous and a flight risk because of his awareness of the search warrant, his association with the residence, and the officers' reasonable suspicion that he was involved in narcotics distribution. His detention in the squad car was therefore reasonable. This is not a case where officers attempted to exploit the situation by asking Bullock questions or requesting to search his belongings. Cf. Royer, 460 U.S. at 504-05, 103 S.Ct. 1319 (holding legitimate law enforcement purposes which justified detention in the first instance were not furthered by removing suspect to small interrogation-type room in an apparent effort to obtain his consent to search his luggage). Rather, the restraints were used to meet the officers' legitimate interest in safety and security while briefly investigating suspected drug activity. Under the circumstances, Bullock's short transport back to the residence was also proper. Bullock had just left the residence and was ten to fifteen blocks away at the time of the traffic stop. It was logical to take him back to the residence where other officers were performing a search that could implicate him in criminal activity. See, e.g., United States v. Yang, 286 F.3d 940, 950 (7th Cir.2002) (transportation from airport tarmac to international terminal did not transform stop for suspected drug activity into arrest where it was of short duration and necessary to confirm the officer's suspicion given that drug-testing equipment was at the customs office); Vega, 72 F.3d at 515-16 (holding that defendant's stop was not tantamount to an arrest even though the officers drew their weapons, asked [defendant] to accompany them [back to the crime scene] in one of their cars, and kept him in the officer's vehicle for a little over an hour where officers had reasonable suspicion that the defendant was involved in massive cocaine importation conspiracy). In fact, returning Bullock to the private residence he just left was less intrusive than continuing to detain him roadside in public view. The manner of seizure in this case was reasonable in light of the circumstances. Even assuming the manner of seizure was overly intrusive, the length of Bullock's detention was reasonable and the officers would have inevitably arrested him after the residence search. As further discussed below, once officers searched the house, they had probable cause to arrest Bullock for visiting a common nuisance, at which point they could take Bullock to the station and search him. [2] He would have been arrested and searched even if merely detained at the traffic stop without restraints. In United States v. Swift, 220 F.3d 502, 504 (7th Cir.2000), officers stopped the defendants in their vehicle and seized them, having reasonable suspicion to believe they just committed bank robbery. The officers contacted Captain Sherbun who said the names of the suspects rang a bell and believed they were involved in past robberies that were carried out in a similar pattern. Id. at 504-05. Sherbun directed the officers to take the defendants to the station where police confiscated a pager that later led to evidence linking the defendants to the robbery. Id. at 505. Shortly after the defendants were taken to the station, Sherbun arrived at the scene of the stop, looked inside the vehicle, and discovered items connecting the defendants to the crime. Id. We stated in Swift that when the defendants were taken to the station they were under arrest, arguably without probable cause. Id. at 508. The information the officers had, though, provided a sufficient basis to continue detaining the defendants until Sherbun showed up at the scene of the stop. Probable cause was established once Sherbun saw the incriminating evidence in the vehicle. Id. We noted that at the time the defendants were taken to the station, officers were continuing to investigate the crime and if the defendants had been held at the scene, they would have been lawfully detained for thirty-two minutes under an investigatory stop. Id. at 509. We reasoned that in some situations, maintaining the status quo while obtaining more information . . . might be the most reasonable action to take. Id. We determined that if the defendants had been detained at the scene, the police would have inevitably seized the pager. Therefore, [t]he pager and the evidence to which it led [were] not fruit of the poisonous tree and should not have been suppressed. Id. at 510; see also United States v. Simms, 626 F.3d 966, 971 (7th Cir.2010) (stating that even if the police did not have probable cause to search defendant's car, defendant was about to be arrested and jailed indefinitely, his car would have eventually been impounded by the police and subject to an inventory search, so the discovery of the gun therein was inevitable). We find the reasoning in Swift instructive here. Officers could have detained Bullock at the scene of the traffic stop to maintain the status quo while they continued their brief investigation. They had the search warrant in hand and within about ten minutes of the stop, the search was underway. The length of Bullock's detention was reasonable and the officers acted diligently. If Bullock had been detained at the scene without restraints, instead of placed in the squad car and taken to the residence, officers would still have found the marijuana and evidence of drug-dealing activity, thereby providing (if not bolstering) probable cause to arrest Bullock. Once arrested, a search of his person would have revealed the crack. Accordingly, Bullock's detention was reasonable under Terry; officers acted diligently in searching the residence to investigate their well-founded suspicions of his criminal activity.