Opinion ID: 2332619
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Heading: Strict Liability in Tort and Negligence Disclaimer

Text: In Ritter v. Narragansett Electric Co., 109 R.I. 176, 187, 283 A.2d 255, 261 (1971), we adopted the rule of strict liability in tort in cases involving injury resulting from defective chattels. We noted that the Restatement (Second) Torts § 402A (1965) properly set forth the doctrine of strict liability in tort. Ritter, 109 R.I. at 188, 283 A.2d at 261. Section 402A provides: Special Liability of Seller of Product for Physical Harm to User or Consumer (1) One who sells any product in a defective condition unreasonably dangerous to the user or consumer or to his property is subject to liability for physical harm thereby caused to the ultimate user or consumer, or to his property, if (a) the seller is engaged in the business of selling such a product, and (b) it is expected to and does reach the user or consumer without substantial change in the condition in which it is sold. (2) The rule stated in Subsection (1) applies although (a) the seller has exercised all possible care in the preparation and sale of his product, and (b) the user or consumer has not bought the product from or entered into any contractual relation with the seller. Our adoption in Ritter of strict liability in tort was therefore guided by the rationale underlying § 402A. [6] We noted in Ritter that [i]t is generally accepted that § 402A had its genesis in the doctrine of strict liability in tort formulated by    the Supreme Court of California in Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc., 59 Cal.2d 57, 27 Cal.Rptr. 697, 377 P.2d 897. Ritter, 109 R.I. at 188, 283 A.2d at 262; see also Romano v. Westinghouse Electric Co., 114 R.I. 451, 457, 336 A.2d 555, 558 (1975). In Ritter, we quoted the doctrine espoused in Greenman : `[a] manufacturer is strictly liable in tort when an article he places on the market, knowing that it is to be used without inspection for defects, proves to have a defect that causes injury to a human being.'    `The purpose of such liability is to insure that the costs of injuries resulting from defective products are borne by the manufacturers that put such products on the market rather than by the injured persons who are powerless to protect themselves.    To establish the manufacturer's liability, it was sufficient that plaintiff proved that he was injured while using the [product] in a way it was intended to be used as a result of a defect in design and manufacture of which plaintiff was not aware that made the [product] unsafe for its intended use.' Ritter, 109 R.I. at 189, 283 A.2d at 262. In Ritter, we further recognized the extension of the concept of strict liability in tort for injuries resulting from a defectively designed product to the retailer selling the product. Id. (citing Vandermark v. Ford Motor Co., 61 Cal.2d 256, 37 Cal.Rptr. 896, 391 P.2d 168 (1964)). We note that § 402A expressly refers only to the liability of sellers of consumer products, therefore because the majority of jurisdictions also were guided by § 402A, strict liability in tort originally developed in cases involving sales by manufacturers and retailers of unreasonably dangerous and defective products. See Restatement (Second) Torts § 402A, cmt. f at 350-51; see also Brimbau v. Ausdale Equipment Rental Corp., 440 A.2d 1292, 1297 (R.I.1982) (citing Suvada v. White Motor Co., 32 Ill.2d 612, 210 N.E.2d 182 (1965)). However, in Brimbau, 440 A.2d at 1298, we extended the doctrine of strict liability in tort to commercial lessors of personal property. In so holding, we noted that [t]he policy considerations that impel imposition of strict liability upon manufacturers and sellers of dangerously defective goods apply with equal or greater force to lessors of potentially dangerous products or instrumentalities. Id. We likened lessors to manufacturers and sellers because they too continually introduce potentially dangerous goods into the stream of commerce and are in a far better financial and technical position than lessees to insure against, prevent, and spread the costs of product-related injuries. Id. Moreover, we noted in Brimbau that lessees rely more upon the assurances of the lessor that the product is fit for its intended purpose, because they may have less of an opportunity to inspect the leased item than would an ordinary purchaser. Id. Further, lessors put a given product to a more sustained use than do retailers; thus a single product may be introduced and reintroduced into the stream of commerce, thereby exposing a greater number of persons to potential injury. Id. The instant case pertains to a lease of a product, and therefore in light of Brimbau, we are satisfied that strict liability in tort principles apply to the facts of this case. As noted, our analysis of strict liability in tort has been gleaned from § 402A of the Restatement (Second) Torts. However, here, as in Ritter, we note that § 402A is accompanied by a comprehensive commentary as to its meaning and application, and therefore we do not believe it necessary to enter into a full discussion of the application of § 402A other than to direct attention primarily to comment m, which declares that strict liability is a cause of action in tort, and therefore traditional notions of contract law do not apply. In addressing the issue of strict liability, comment m attempts to clarify the application of liability, including a notation that many courts have analogized this liability to that of a warranty theory in that the liability attaches by either running with the goods sold or by being made directly to the consumer without privity of contract. Although recognizing that this theoretical basis may be helpful in understanding the concept of strict liability, the comment contains a warning that by analogizing this liability to a warranty theory, courts may be apt to confuse this liability with a contract of sale and thus apply traditional contract principles. Thus, the drafters were careful to point out that the warranty theory of strict liability is a very different kind of warranty from those usually found in the sale of goods, and that it is not subject to the various contract rules which have grown up to surround such sales. Restatement (Second) Torts § 402A, cmt. m. Therefore, having established that strict liability in tort is a different kind of animal, not subject to the UCC as it applies to warranties and disclaimers, we shall examine its application as it applies to the snake in this case. Notably, comment m provides: The consumer's cause of action does not depend upon the validity of his contract with the person from whom he acquires the product, and it is not affected by any disclaimer or other agreement, whether it bebetween the seller and his immediate buyer, or attached to and accompanying the product into the consumer's hands. (Emphasis added.) Thus, we are satisfied that the motion justice erred when he determined that the disclaimer provision was a bar to Ruzzo's strict liability in tort claim. In so doing, the motion justice misapplied the law and incorrectly invoked traditional principles of contract law in rejecting this tort claim. We conclude that Ruzzo's strict liability cause of action is independent of the contract, and therefore any contractual provisions, agreements or disclaimers are unenforceable with respect to this claim. We hold that as a matter of law, strict liability in tort for personal injuries resulting from a defectively designed product cannot be disclaimed by one who `places [a product] on the market, knowing that it is to be used without inspection for defects, [that] proves to have a defect that causes injury to a human being.' Ritter, 109 R.I. at 189, 283 A.2d at 262. Therefore, we conclude that the motion justice committed error when he entered summary judgment as to Ruzzo's strict liability in tort claim on the basis of the disclaimer clause. Further, we are persuaded that the policy considerations that underlie the rejection of disclaimers for strict liability in tort apply with equal force to personal injuries arising out of a defendant's negligence. In Brimbau, we declared that it is typically the manufacturer, seller, or lessor who is in a far better position to insure and guard against the risk of personal injury resulting from a defect in the product. 440 A.2d at 1298. This policy must necessarily apply to cases in which the injury arises from the negligence of the manufacturer, seller, or lessor. Here, Ruzzo had signed the preprinted standard form contract for a three-hour rental of a snake that he previously had used numerous times. The snake was subject to constant use and, with the exception of the rental periods, was under the custody, control, and maintenance of Taylor. We recognize that it would be overly harsh and against publicpolicy to require Ruzzo (or any lessee or purchaser for that matter) to insure against or assume the risk of personal injuries resulting from Taylor's negligent failure to inspect and repair. Rather, it is the manufacturer, supplier, seller or lessor who can best insure against this risk, and may in turn factor the annual premiums into [their] overhead, and thus spread the cost of the injury among the general public. Romano, 114 R.I. at 462, 336 A.2d at 561. Therefore, we hold that as a matter of law, manufacturers, sellers, or lessors who enter a defective product into the stream of commerce cannot disclaim liability for personal injuries arising out of their own negligence. Thus, we conclude that the motion justice committed error when he enforced the disclaimer provision against Ruzzo's negligence claims and entered summary judgment on that basis.