Opinion ID: 1175974
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: Specific Resemblance as Evidence of Paternity.

Text: Just as a child's face is not inherited as a unit, neither is an individual feature inherited as a unit from any one parent. See authorities cited note 5 supra. Rather, inheritance has been traced to physical traits even more specific than a single feature. Consider, for example, the effect of heredity on the nose. Some studies might indicate that there is one key gene producing the general shape of the nose, but most authorities agree that quite a number of genes are at work, each on a different part. That is, there may be separate genes for the bridge (its shape, height and length); the nostrils (breadth, shape and size of apertures); the root of the nose and its juncture with the upper lip; and the bulb, or point of the nose. Often, it is true, the nose as an entire unit appears to be inherited from one parent. Where such resemblance occurs it could be assumed that the different genes involved were passed over in combination and were almost all of them dominant over those of the other parent. Equally often, on the other hand, a child has a nose which seems to be a cross between that of both parents. This would bear out the theory that several or many unit factors are involved. At any rate, it is clear that distinctive genes are at work, and that they sort out independently; otherwise, the nose of every child would be a blend of its parents' noses. Even in the most inbred peoples, however, noses of every shape and size appear, proving the Mendelian segregation and sorting out of the nose genes. A. Scheinfeld, Your Heredity and Environment 96-8 (1965). In short, the individual does not inherit characteristics but only the potentialities to develop in a certain way through the transmitted genes. [6] Moreover, since genes themselves interact, all genes probably affect all characteristics to a certain degree. Since only potentialities are inherited, other factors such as environment and age may also shape the visible manifestations of the inherited characteristic. See E. Hooton, Up from the Ape 443 (2d ed. 1946). Indeed, the number of factors involved in shaping any normal trait is so large that resemblance evidence has been regarded as highly unreliable. [7] Thus even where the inquiry is focused on the precise characteristics susceptible of establishing any scientifically ascertainable resemblance, other factors must be taken into account in the final analysis. Because the link between parent and child can be discerned only in these very specific instances and not by evidence of general resemblance or by a comparison of individual features, we now reach the question presented in this case: whether an exhibition of a child to a jury is probative and admissible demonstrative evidence. In light of the specialized knowledge required to judge the relevancy of corporeal conditions to the issue of paternity and the vast number of other non-hereditary factors involved in shaping a trait, we think any evidence concerning resemblance or non-resemblance must be given by the testimony of a qualified expert and not by an exhibition of the child to the jury. [8] The identification of a physical characteristic, whether that characteristic is in fact hereditary, what other factors may have helped shape it, and how the characteristic in question is linked to a similar characteristic possessed by the alleged parent are all questions for experts, not laymen. Even color [9] and form [10] may contain far more variations, than we as laymen may discern, when viewed by the experienced eye of the expert. If only an expert can inform the jury of any resemblance between parent and child, it follows that the exhibition of a child to a jury would be useless in determining paternity. The only way an exhibition might possibly be justified would be as an aid to the expert in pointing out the reasons for his findings or opinions. Certainly other visual aids are available to perform this function which would further the inquiry without prejudicing the jury against the defendant. [11] Were we to allow such an exhibition we would be subjecting the parties to a fanciful legal process which could only serve to prejudice the accused. The rule of evidence which governs resemblance in paternity cases must rest on demonstrable findings of science; the law must change accordingly. In sum, we agree that the specific resemblance between a child and the person alleged to be the father is a relevant issue in a paternity case but we cannot find any rule of reason, any policy of the law of evidence, or any fact of science which provides a basis for allowing the exhibition of a child to show resemblance. As we have stated, a jury gains nothing from an exhibition even when their attention is focused upon the relevant inherited traits since independent expert interpretation is required. An exhibition can only serve to expose the defendant to proven dangers. Therefore, we hold that the exhibition of a child to the finder of fact in a paternity case is not to be permitted. However, expert testimony concerning the resemblance of a child to the person alleged to be the father is admissible to prove or disprove the paternity of the child. In the case of In re Ah Sam, 24 Haw. 591 (1918) this court held that it was not error for the trial court to permit the alleged illegitimate child to remain in the courtroom in the presence of the jury and be carried by the mother to the witness stand while testifying. That portion of Ah Sam which approves of such exposure of the child to the jury is hereby over-ruled.