Opinion ID: 2520871
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Federal Statutory Restrictions on the General Assembly's Authority to Redistrict

Text: Federal statutes also restrict how the states may redistrict. The states' authority to regulate the times, places and manner of congressional elections is not absolute. Instead, the United States Constitution gives Congress the power to make or alter election regulations at any time. U.S. Const. art. I, ง 4, cl. 1 (The times, places and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State, by the legislature thereof, but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations....). The times, places and manner clause was a very controversial provision in the U.S. Constitution. During the debates preceding ratification, the public expressed fear that Congress would usurp the states' powers to conduct elections. See I The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle over Ratification 429 (Bernard Bailyn ed., 1993). But the framers strongly believed that Congress must be empowered to step in and regulate elections if necessary to ensure that they are conducted fairly. Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1, 6, 84 S.Ct. 526, 11 L.Ed.2d 481 (1964); Hacker, Congressional Districting at 9, 12-14. Even so, the Constitution was silent regarding whether states were required to draw single-member districts, or whether they were allowed to elect their representatives in at-large, statewide elections. [7] Hacker, Congressional Districting at 40. After the states ratified the United States Constitution, many elected all of their members of Congress at large. Id. But in 1842, Congress exercised its authority to regulate elections and passed the Apportionment Act, which prohibited the winner-take-all, at-large elections, and required that states elect members of Congress from contiguous, single-member districts. Id. Congress allowed this requirement to lapse, however, and by 1962, many representatives were once again elected at large. Id. at 41. Shortly after the United States Supreme Court announced the one-person, one-vote doctrine in 1964, many lower courts began to implement that decision by replacing unconstitutional, disproportionate districts with at-large elections. Branch v. Smith, 538 U.S. 254, 123 S.Ct. 1429, 1439, 155 L.Ed.2d 407 (2003). These courts did so because they found they had no authority to draw new districts. Id. at 1439-40, 123 S.Ct. 1429. Congress disagreed, and in 1967 enacted 2 U.S.C. ง 2c, which once again required single-member congressional districts. Id. at 1441, 123 S.Ct. 1429. With this statute, Congress eliminated the option of at-large elections for states with more than one representative. [8] 2 U.S.C. ง 2c (2002). Thus, states must draw same-size, single-member districts. Another limitation on the General Assembly's freedom to redistrict is the Voting Rights Act. See 42 U.S.C. งง 1973 to 1973bb-1 (2002); Carstens v. Lamm, 543 F.Supp. 68, 82 n. 36a (D.Colo.1982). Even while complying with Section 2c and the one-person, one-vote doctrine by drawing same-size, single-member districts, some state legislatures were able to discriminate against racial minorities by drawing their districts in such a way as to render minority votes ineffective. In an attempt to combat discrimination against minority voters, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act. Specifically, the Act forbids diluting the voting strength of a minority group sufficiently large and geographically compact to constitute a majority in a single-member district. Sanchez v. State, 97 F.3d 1303, 1310 (10th Cir.1996) (citing Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 U.S. 30, 50, 106 S.Ct. 2752, 92 L.Ed.2d 25 (1986)). Section 5 of the Act requires jurisdictions with a history of discrimination to obtain federal approval before making any changes to voting laws or procedures. 42 U.S.C. ง 1973c (2002). The process of obtaining approval is known as preclearance. See Branch, 123 S.Ct. at 1446-47. In Colorado, El Paso County was once a covered jurisdiction, requiring preclearance. Thus, prior to implementing any voting change in El Paso County, including redistricting, the General Assembly was first required to obtain approval from either the United States Attorney General or a three-judge panel from the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Carstens, 543 F.Supp. at 82 n. 36a. As these examples demonstrate, the General Assembly has never had unfettered authority to create congressional districts. Under federal law, Colorado must redistrict after each federal census and before the ensuing election, must create single-member districts, must create racially neutral districts, and at certain times in the past, was required to obtain federal preclearance for its plan. Moreover, because the United States Constitution grants redistricting authority to the states, and not exclusively to the legislatures of the states, Colorado has the authority to further limit the power of its General Assembly through its laws or constitution. As we illustrate below, Colorado has done just that.