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Text: In 1986, Congress granted its consent under the Com­ pact Clause, U. S. Const., Art. I, §10, cl. 3, to seven inter­ state compacts providing for the creation of regional facili­ ties to dispose of low-level radioactive waste. Omnibus Low-Level Radioactive Waste Interstate Compact Consent Act, 99 Stat. 1859. One of those compacts was the South­ east Interstate Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Compact (Compact), entered into by Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. Id., at 1871–1880. That Com­ pact established an “instrument and framework for a cooperative effort” to develop new facilities for the long­ term disposal of low-level radioactive waste generated within the region. Art. 1, id., at 1872. The Compact was to be administered by a Southeast Interstate Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Commission (Commis­ sion), composed of two voting members from each party State. Art. 4(A), id., at 1874.

A pre-existing facility in Barnwell, South Carolina was to serve as the initial facility for regional generators to dispose of their low-level radioactive waste. Art. 2(10), id., at 1873. That facility was scheduled to close as the re­ gional-disposal facility for the Compact by the end of 1992, ibid., and so the Compact required the Commission to develop “procedures and criteria for identifying . . . a host [S]tate for the development of a second regional disposal facility,” and to “seek to ensure that such facility is li­ censed and ready to operate as soon as required but in no event later than 1991,” Art. 4(E)(6), id., at 1875. The Compact authorized the Commission to “designate” a party State as a host State for the facility. Art. 4(E)(7), ibid.

In September 1986, the Commission designated North Carolina as the host for the second facility. North Caro­ lina therefore became obligated to “take appropriate steps to ensure that an application for a license to construct and operate a [low-level radioactive waste storage facility] is filed with and issued by the appropriate authority.” Art. 5(C), id., at 1877. In 1987, North Carolina’s General Assembly created the North Carolina Low-Level Radioac­ tive Waste Management Authority (Authority) to fulfill the State’s obligation. N. C. Gen. Stat. §104G (1987), 1987 N. C. Sess. Laws ch. 850.

Although “[t]he Commission is not responsible for any costs associated with,” among other things, “the creation of any facility,” Art. 4(K)(1), 99 Stat. 1876, North Carolina asked the Commission for financial assistance with build­ ing and licensing costs. The Commission responded by adopting a resolution, which declared it was both “appro­ priate and necessary” for the Commission “to provide financial assistance” to North Carolina. App. 63. To that end, the Commission created a “Host States Assistance Fund” to help North Carolina with the “financial costs and burdens” of “preliminary planning, the administrative preparation, and other pre-operational” activities. Id., at 64.

The estimate in 1989 was that it would cost approxi­ mately $21 million and take two years to obtain a license for North Carolina’s regional-disposal facility. That proved to be wildly optimistic. By 1990, the cost estimate had ballooned to $45.8 million, and the estimated date for obtaining a license now extended far into 1993. At the beginning of 1994 there still was no license, and the esti­ mated cost had grown to $87.1 million. By end of 1994 the estimate was $112.5 million, and issuance of a license was not anticipated until 1997. And by December 1996 the estimated cost had increased by another $27 million and the projected date to receive a license had become August 2000.

North Carolina’s own appropriations—approximately $27 million from Fiscal Year 1988 through Fiscal Year (FY) 1995—did not cover the costs of the licensing phase. But during the same time period, the Commission pro­ vided North Carolina with approximately $67 million. The funds came from surcharges and access fees collected for that purpose from generators disposing of low-level radioactive waste at the pre-existing Barnwell facility. Id., at 71–74, 145.

In July 1995, however, South Carolina withdrew from the Compact, thereby depriving the Commission of contin­ ued revenues from the Barnwell facility. In 1996, the Commission accordingly informed North Carolina that it would no longer be able to provide financial support for licensing activities. The Governor of North Carolina responded that the State was not prepared to assume a greater portion of the project’s costs, and would not be able to proceed without continued Commission funding. Shortly thereafter the Commission adopted a resolution declaring that it was willing and able to provide additional funds, but calling on North Carolina to work with it to develop long-term funding sources for the facility. From FY 1996 through FY 1998, the Commission provided North Carolina approximately an additional $12.27 mil­ lion in financial assistance. North Carolina, for its part, continued to provide its own funds toward licensing activi­ ties—another $6 million during the same time period.

In August 1997, the Commission notified North Caro­ lina that absent a plan for funding the remaining steps of the licensing phase, it would not disburse additional funds to North Carolina after November 30, 1997. North Caro­ lina responded that it would not be able to continue with­ out additional guarantees of external funding. On Decem­ ber 1, 1997, the parties having failed to agree upon a long­ term financing plan, the Commission ceased financial assistance to North Carolina. By then it had provided almost $80 million.

On December 19, 1997, North Carolina informed the Commission it would commence an orderly shutdown of its licensing project, and since that date has taken no further steps toward obtaining a license for the facility. But it did continue to fund the Authority for several more years, in the hope that the project would resume upon the restora­ tion of external financial assistance. North Carolina maintained the proposed facility site, preserved the work it had completed to date, and retained the Authority’s books and records. It also participated in discussions with the Commission, generators of low-level radioactive waste, and other stakeholders regarding options to resolve the financing shortfall. From FY 1988 through FY 2000, North Carolina had expended almost $34 million toward obtaining a license.

In June 1999, after attempts to resolve the funding impasse had failed, Florida and Tennessee filed with the Commission a complaint for sanctions against North Carolina. It alleged that North Carolina had failed to fulfill its obligations under the Compact, and requested (among other things) return of the almost $80 million paid to North Carolina by the Commission, plus interest, as well as damages and attorney’s fees. The next month, North Carolina withdrew from the Compact by enacting a law repealing its status as a party State, see 1999 N. C. Sess. Laws ch. 357, as required by Article 7(G) of the Compact.

More than four months later, in December 1999, the Commission held a sanctions hearing. North Carolina did not participate. After the hearing, the Commission con­ cluded that North Carolina had failed to fulfill its obliga­ tions under the Compact. It adopted a resolution demand­ ing that North Carolina repay approximately $80 million, plus interest, to the Commission; pay an additional $10 million penalty to compensate the Commission for the loss of future revenue (surcharges and access fees) it would have received had a facility been completed in North Carolina; and pay the Commission’s attorney’s fees. North Carolina did not comply.

In July 2000, seeking to enforce its sanctions resolution, the Commission moved for leave to file a bill of complaint under our original jurisdiction. Southeast Interstate LowLevel Radioactive Waste Management Commission v. North Carolina, No. 131, Orig. North Carolina opposed the motion on the grounds that the Commission could not invoke this Court’s original jurisdiction, and we invited the Solicitor General to express the views of the United States. 531 U. S. 942 (2000). The Solicitor General filed a brief urging denial of the Commission’s motion on the grounds that the Commission’s bill of complaint did not fall within our exclusive original jurisdiction over “contro­ versies between two or more States.” §1251(a). We denied the Commission’s motion. 533 U. S. 926 (2001).

In June 2002, the States of Alabama, Florida, Tennes­ see, and Virginia, joined by the Commission (collectively Plaintiffs), moved for leave to file a bill of complaint against North Carolina. North Carolina opposed the motion, and we again sought the views of the Solicitor General. 537 U. S. 806 (2002). The United States urged that we grant Plaintiffs’ motion, which we did. 539 U. S. 925 (2003). The bill of complaint contains five counts: violation of the party States’ rights under the Compact (Count I); breach of contract (Count II); unjust enrichment (Count III), promissory estoppel (Count IV); and money had and received (Count V). Plaintiffs’ prayer for relief requests a declaration that North Carolina is subject to sanctions and that the Commission’s sanctions resolution is valid and enforceable, as well as the award of damages, costs, and other relief.

We assigned the case to a Special Master, 540 U. S. 1014 (2003), who has conducted proceedings and now has filed two reports. The Master’s Preliminary Report ad­ dressed three motions filed by the parties. He recom­ mended denying without prejudice North Carolina’s mo­ tion to dismiss the Commission’s claims against North Carolina on the grounds of sovereign immunity. Prelimi­ nary Report 4–14. He recommended denying Plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment on Count I, which sought enforcement of the Commission’s sanctions resolution. Id., at 14–33. He recommended granting North Carolina’s cross-motion to dismiss Count I and other portions of the bill of complaint that sought enforcement of the sanctions resolution. Id., at 33–34. And he recommended denying North Carolina’s motion to dismiss the claims in Counts II–V. Id., at 34–43.

After the Special Master issued his Preliminary Report, the parties engaged in partial discovery and subsequently filed cross-motions for summary judgment. The Special Master’s Second Report recommended denying Plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment on Count II, Second Report 8–35, and granting North Carolina’s motion for summary judgment on Count II, id., at 35–40. Finally, he recom­ mended denying North Carolina’s motion for summary judgment on Plaintiffs’ remaining claims in Counts III–V. Id., at 41–45.