Opinion ID: 1111699
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: employment status

Text: D. Every employee will be written a letter of appointment which will be considered a legal contract for employment. E. Every employee will be considered `temporary' until the prescribed probationary period has been successful [sic] completed.     D. DUE-PROCESS PROCEDURES 1. Each employee will be afforded protection of employment under due-process. (Emphasis added.) Etowah Quality of Life Council, Inc., Gadsden Neighborhood Health Clinic Policies, at 7, 9. (Not set out in Cunningham.) In the present case, plaintiff's employee handbook read in part: Your first six months on the job are a probationary period in which your supervisor will evaluate your capabilities and you can become acquainted with the responsibilities of your work. During this trial period, employees can be terminated at any time if their supervisors conclude that they will not meet job performance standards after reasonable training. At the end of the six months, you are considered a regular permanent employee. At another point, the present handbook provides under the heading Constructive Discipline, as follows: If disciplinary action is necessary, it generally is taken in the order below, although a serious offense might warrant taking more serious action. 1. Oral warnings in private are an effort to correct the employee's actions. 2. Written warnings are a more serious attempt at correction and become part of an employee's record. 3. Suspension occurs only with the approval of the department head and division personnel manager and is without pay. 4. Discharge occurs when management believes the employee will not change behavior patterns. The types of offenses for which the four-step disciplinary process would generally be followed include: tardiness, poor work performance because of negligence, excessive absenteeism, violation of company traffic or parking regulations, use of profane or abusive language, horseplay or pranks, unauthorized solicitations of any kind, posting or distributing unauthorized materials. (Emphasis added.) The employee manual in Cunningham, however, also contained a section on disciplinary procedures. In pertinent part, it read as follows: SUBJECT: DISCIPLINARY ACTION PURPOSE: To establish the responsibilities and procedures for taking disciplinary action against an employee. I. POLICY When work rules are broken, fair but firm corrective action will be taken promptly. Discipline will be designed to help the employee correct his faults and accept his work responsibilities rather than merely to punish him for breaking rules. In determining appropriate disciplinary action, the seriousness of the offense, any extenuating circumstances, and the employee's work record should be considered. Each case should be considered individually and on its own merits. Etowah Quality of Life Council, Inc., Gadsden Neighborhood Health Clinic Policies, at 22. The manual also contained sections dealing with the procedure to be followed in case of INFORMAL DISCIPLINARY ACTION and FORMAL DISCIPLINARY ACTION, and under the heading FORMAL DISCIPLINARY ACTION the manual specifically dealt with BEHAVIOR WARRANTING DISCIPLINARY ACTION and DISCHARGE, under which headings were listed examples of extremely serious offenses which normally will result in the employee's discharge. I find the principles set forth in White and Cunningham to be applicable to these handbook provisions; in my judgment the provisions of the handbook here and the provisions of the manual in Cunningham are indistinguishable; absent an agreement for a specified term or duration of employment, or other agreement limiting Roche's legal right to terminate, the employment is at-will. Admittedly, the contractual status of employee handbooks has been the subject of a great deal of litigation in recent years, and this is the third time this particular court has reviewed the principle. In the past this Court, and several other courts have rejected the notion that an employee handbook or manual can create a binding contractual obligation. Cunningham, supra ; White, supra ; Sabetay v. Sterling Drug, Inc., 69 N.Y.2d 329, 506 N.E.2d 919, 514 N.Y.S.2d 209 (1987); Wells v. Thomas, 569 F.Supp. 426 (E.D.Pa.1983); Uriarte v. Perez-Molina, 434 F.Supp. 76 (D.D.C.1977) (applying D.C. law); Heideck v. Kent General Hospital, Inc., 446 A.2d 1095 (Del.1982); Muller v. Stromberg Carlson Corp., 427 So.2d 266 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1983); Shaw v. S.S. Kresge Co., 167 Ind.App. 1, 328 N.E.2d 775 (1975); Johnson v. National Beef Packing Co., 220 Kan. 52, 551 P.2d 779 (1976); Sargent v. Illinois Institute of Technology, 78 Ill.App.3d 117, 33 Ill.Dec. 937, 397 N.E.2d 443 (1979); Mead Johnson & Co. v. Oppenheimer, 458 N.E.2d 668 (Ind.App.1984); Terrebonne v. Louisiana Ass'n. of Educators, 444 So.2d 206 (La.App.1983), cert. denied, 445 So.2d 1232 (La.1984); Longley v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 136 Mich. App. 336, 356 N.W.2d 20 (1984); Gates v. Life of Montana Ins. Co., 196 Mont. 178, 638 P.2d 1063 (1983); Buffolino v. Long Island Savings Bank, FSB, 126 A.D.2d 508, 510 N.Y.S.2d 628 (1987); Toshiba America, Inc. v. Simmons, 104 A.D.2d 649, 480 N.Y.S.2d 28 (1984); Patrowich v. Chemical Bank, 98 A.D.2d 318, 470 N.Y. S.2d 599, aff'd, 63 N.Y.2d 541, 473 N.E.2d 11, 483 N.Y.S.2d 659 (1984); Edwards v. Citibank, N.A., 100 Misc.2d 59, 418 N.Y. S.2d 269 (1979), aff'd, 74 A.D.2d 553, 425 N.Y.S.2d 327, app. dismissed, 51 N.Y.2d 875, 433 N.Y.S.2d 1020, 414 N.E.2d 400 (1980); Chin v. American Tel. & Tel. Co., 96 Misc.2d 1070, 410 N.Y.S.2d 737 (1978); Harris v. Duke Power Co., 83 N.C.App. 195, 349 S.E.2d 394 (1986), aff'd, 319 N.C. 627, 356 S.E.2d 357 (1987); Walker v. Westinghouse Elec. Corp., 77 N.C.App. 253, 335 S.E.2d 79 (1985), rev. denied, 315 N.C. 597, 341 S.E.2d 39 (1986); Richardson v. Charles Cole Memorial Hospital, 320 Pa. Super. 106, 466 A.2d 1084 (1983); Bringle v. Methodist Hosp., 701 S.W.2d 622 (Tenn. App.1985); Reynolds Manufacturing Co. v. Mendoza, 644 S.W.2d 536 (Tex.Civ.App. 1982); Holloway v. K-Mart Corp., 113 Wis.2d 143, 334 N.W.2d 570 (Wis.App. 1983). The majority wittingly or unwittingly follows Pine River State Bank v. Mettille, 333 N.W.2d 622 (Minn.1983), which criticizes the rule announced in Johnson v. National Beef Packing Co., a case this Court used as authority for the decision in White v. Chelsea Industries, Inc., 425 So.2d 1090 (Ala.1983). In White, this Court specifically cited the cases of Johnson v. National Beef Packing Co., 220 Kan. 52, 551 P.2d 779 (1976), and Chin v. American Tel. & Tel. Co., 96 Misc.2d 1070, 410 N.Y. S.2d 737 (1978), unam. aff'd. no op., 70 A.D.2d 791, 416 N.Y.S.2d 160 (1979). Of course, other courts, including a New Jersey court which considered a case against Hoffman-La Roche, and apparently involving the same handbook as that involved in this case, have held that an employee handbook may be contractually binding. See, e.g., Vinyard v. King, 728 F.2d 428 (10th Cir.1984) (applying Oklahoma law); Lincoln v. Sterling Drug, Inc., 622 F.Supp. 66 (D.Conn.1985) (Connecticut law); Barger v. General Electric Co., 599 F.Supp. 1154 (W.D.Va.1984) (Virginia law); Smith v. Teledyne Industries, Inc., 578 F.Supp. 353 (E.D.Mich.1984) (Ohio law); Brooks v. Trans World Airlines, Inc., 574 F.Supp. 805 (D.Colo.1983) (Colorado law); Leikvold v. Valley View Community Hospital, 141 Ariz. 544, 688 P.2d 170 (1984); Pugh v. See's Candies, Inc., 116 Cal. App.3d 311, 171 Cal.Rptr. 917 (1981); Salimi v. Farmers Insurance Group, 684 P.2d 264 (Colo.App.1984); Finley v. Aetna Life & Casualty Co., 5 Conn.App. 394, 499 A.2d 64 (1985); Jackson v. Minidoka Irrigation District, 98 Idaho 330, 563 P.2d 54 (1977); Wyman v. Osteopathic Hospital of Maine, Inc., 493 A.2d 330 (Me.1985); Staggs v. Blue Cross of Maryland, Inc., 61 Md.App. 381, 486 A.2d 798 (1985); Toussaint v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 408 Mich. 579, 292 N.W.2d 880 (1980); Pine River State Bank v. Mettille, 333 N.W.2d 622 (Minn. 1983); Enyeart v. Shelter Mutual Insurance Co., 693 S.W.2d 120 (Mo.App.1985); Morris v. Lutheran Medical Center, 215 Neb. 677, 340 N.W.2d 388 (1983); Southwest Gas Corp. v. Ahmad, 99 Nev. 594, 668 P.2d 261 (1983); Woolley v. Hoffmann-La Roche, Inc., 99 N.J. 284, 491 A.2d 1257 (1985); Forrester v. Parker, 93 N.M. 781, 606 P.2d 191 (1980); Bolling v. Clevepak Corp., 20 Ohio App.3d 113, 484 N.E.2d 1367 (1984); Langdon v. Saga Corp., 569 P.2d 524 (Okla.Ct.App.1976); Yartzoff v. Democrat-Herald Publishing Co., 281 Or. 651, 576 P.2d 356 (1978); Osterkamp v. Alkota Manufacturing, Inc., 332 N.W.2d 275 (S.D.1983); Hamby v. Genesco, Inc., 627 S.W.2d 373 (Tenn.App.1981); Piacitelli v. Southern Utah State College, 636 P.2d 1063 (Utah 1981); Thompson v. St. Regis Paper Co., 102 Wash.2d 219, 685 P.2d 1081 (1984); Mobil Coal Producing, Inc. v. Parks, 704 P.2d 702 (Wyo.1985). The two most recent cases on the effect of employee handbooks that my research has located are Sabetay v. Sterling Drug, Inc., 69 N.Y.2d 329, 506 N.E.2d 919, 514 N.Y.S.2d 209, (1987); and Duldulao v. Saint Mary of Nazareth Hosp., 115 Ill.2d 482, 106 Ill.Dec. 8, 505 N.E.2d 314 (1987). In Sabetay v. Sterling Drug, Inc ., the plaintiff alleged that he was wrongfully discharged from employment because he refused to participate in certain improper, unethical, and illegal activities, and because he blew the whistle on these alleged activities. He was employed by a division of the Bender Corporation without a written contract, and he alleged that his dismissal was in violation of two contractual obligations, the first arising from the Corporate Employee Relations Policy manual and the second arising from Sterling's Code of Corporate Conduct and Internal Control Guide (together referred to as the Accounting Code). In that case, the New York Court of Appeals held as follows: It is still settled law in New York that, absent an agreement establishing a fixed duration, an employment relationship is presumed to be a hiring at will, terminable at any time by either party ( Martin v. New York Life Ins. Co., 148 N.Y. 117, 121, 42 N.E. 416). The original purposes of the employment at-will doctrine were to afford employees the freedom to contract to suit their needs and to allow employers to exercise their best judgment with regard to employment matters. In recent years, however, the unfettered power of employers to dismiss employees without cause has come under sharp scrutiny (see, Blades, Employment At Will v. Individual Freedom on Limiting the Abusive Exercise of Employer Power, 67 Colum.L.Rev. 1404 (1967); and see generally, Note, Protecting Employees at Will Against Wrongful Discharge: The Public Policy Exception, 96 Harv.L.Rev. 1931 (1983)). To offset the harsh effect of the at-will doctrine and to afford workers a measure of job security, other courts have carved out exceptions to the common-law employment at-will doctrine (see, Petermann v. International Bhd. of Teamsters, 174 Cal.App.2d 184, 344 P.2d 25; Trombetta v. Detroit, Toledo & Ironton R.R. Co., 81 Mich.App. 489, 265 N.W.2d 385; Novosel v. Nationwide Ins. Co., 721 F.2d 894 (3d Cir.); Sheets v. Teddy's Frosted Foods, 179 Conn. 471, 427 A.2d 385) (recognizing claims of wrongful discharge based on dismissal for refusing to commit an unlawful act, or for performing a public obligation or for exercising a legal right); see also, Toussaint v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 408 Mich. 579, 292 N.W.2d 880 (recognizing an implied-in-law covenant of good faith and fair dealing in employment contracts which limits the right to discharge without just cause). In Weiner v. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 57 N.Y.2d 458, 457 N.Y.S.2d 193, 443 N.E.2d 441, this court dealt with its longstanding acceptance of the common-law rule. The plaintiff, who had begun his career with another publishing house, was invited to join the staff of McGraw-Hill. As part of its recruitment effort, McGraw-Hill's representative assured the plaintiff that it was company policy not to terminate employees without just cause, and that employment at McGraw-Hill would bring the advantage of job security. Moreover, the application form Weiner signed specified that his employment would be subject to the provisions of the McGraw-Hill handbook on personnel policies. The handbook stated that `the company will resort to dismissal for just and sufficient cause only, and only after all practical steps toward rehabilitation or salvage of the employee had been taken and failed. However, if the welfare of the company indicates that dismissal is necessary, then that decision is arrived at and is carried out forthrightly,' id., at 460-461, 457 N.Y.S.2d 193, 443 N.E.2d 441. Weiner alleged that he had relied on these assurances when he left his former employer, forfeiting accrued fringe benefits and a proffered salary increase. After eight years of employment, Weiner was advised that he was discharged for `lack of application,' id., at 461, 457 N.Y. S.2d 193, 443 N.E.2d 441. He sued, alleging a breach of contract. McGraw-Hill countered that there was no contract of employment and that its promises of job security were not binding. While we found for Weiner, we adhered to our view that an employer has the right to terminate an at-will employee at any time for any reason or for no reason, except where that right has been limited by express agreement. The language in the McGraw-Hill handbook, coupled with the reference to the handbook in the employment application, amounted to an express agreement between those parties limiting the employer's otherwise unfettered right to terminate its employees. We also noted that to support his breach of contract claim, Weiner had alleged the following significant factors: `[F]irst, plaintiff was induced to leave Prentice-Hall with the assurance that McGraw-Hill would not discharge him without cause. Second, this assurance was incorporated into the employment application. Third, plaintiff rejected other offers of employment in reliance on the assurance. Fourth, appellant alleged that, on several occasions when he had recommended that certain of his subordinates be dismissed, he was instructed by his supervisors to proceed in strict compliance with the handbook and policy manuals because employees could be discharged only for just cause. He also claims that he was told that, if he did not proceed in accordance with the strict procedures set forth in the handbook, McGraw-Hill would be liable for legal action.' Id., at 465-466, 457 N.Y.S.2d 193, 443 N.E.2d 441. Not surprisingly, because of the explicit and difficult pleading burden, post- Weiner plaintiffs alleging wrongful discharge have not fared well (see, O'Connor v. Eastman Kodak Co., 65 N.Y.2d 724, 492 N.Y.S.2d 9, 481 N.E.2d 549; Murphy v. American Home Prods. Corp., 58 N.Y.2d 293, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86; Collins v. Hoselton Datsun, 120 A.D.2d 952, 503 N.Y.S.2d 203; Citera v. Chemical Bank, 105 A.D.2d 636, 481 N.Y.S.2d 694; Patrowich v. Chemical Bank, 98 A.D.2d 318, 470 N.Y.S.2d 599) (claim dismissed because the language relied on was not sufficient to establish an express agreement); Rizzo v. International Bhd. of Teamsters, 109 A.D.2d 639, 486 N.Y.S.2d 220 (claim dismissed because employee failed to establish detrimental reliance on the assurance of job security). In Murphy v. American Home Prods. Corp., 58 N.Y.2d 293, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86, we not only refused to recognize a common-law tort theory of liability based on abusive or wrongful discharge but more important and relevant to the instant case, we refused to adopt the implied covenant of good-faith analysis recognized in some jurisdictions. Murphy had alleged that he had been discharged for internally reporting to top management certain alleged accounting improprieties. He contended that his company's internal regulation required him to refrain from engaging in such illegal activities and also compelled the reporting of such activities. On Murphy's breach of contract claim he urged that, although his employment was of indefinite duration there was an implied obligation in all employment contracts to deal fairly and in good faith, and that a termination in violation of that obligation exposes the employer to liability. We rejected plaintiff's invitation to find an implied covenant of good faith in the employment contract. In so ruling, we distinguished an employment contract from other types of contract where the implied-in-law theory has been adopted. Noting that a covenant of good faith can be implied only where the implied term is consistent with other mutually agreed upon terms in the contract, we stated: `New York does recognize that in appropriate circumstances an obligation of good faith and fair dealing on the part of the party to a contract may be implied and, if implied, will be enforced (e.g., Wood v. Duff-Gordon, 222 N.Y. 88 (118 N.E. 214); Pernet v. Peabody Eng. Corp., 20 A.D.2d 781 (248 N.Y.S.2d 132)). In such instances the implied obligation is in aid and furtherance of other terms of the agreement of the parties. No obligation can be implied, however, which would be inconsistent with other terms of the contractual relationship   in which the law accords the employer an unfettered right to terminate employment at any time. In the context of such an employment it would be incongruous to say that an inference may be drawn that the employer impliedly agreed to a provision which would be destructive of his right of termination    to imply such a limitation from the existence of an unrestricted right would be internally inconsistent.' ( Id., [58 N.Y.2d] at 304-305, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86). Lastly, we concluded that Murphy had failed to establish an express limitation on the employer's right of discharge under the strict guidelines established in Weiner. Id., [58 N.Y.2d at 305, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86]. Dispositive in Murphy was plaintiff's failure to establish an express limitation on his employer's right of discharge, ( id., [58 N.Y.2d] at 305 [461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86]; accord, O'Connor v. Eastman Kodak Co., 65 N.Y.3d 724, 492 N.Y.S.2d 9, 481 N.E.2d 549, supra). Although plaintiff had made general references to an employer's manual, he cited no provisions pertinent to the right to terminationcertainly none rising to the explicit restriction that, in the circumstances of Weiner, was found to be actionable. Murphy v. American Home Prods. Corp., 58 N.Y.2d 293, 305, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86, supra. As in Murphy, plaintiff Sabetay has failed to demonstrate a limitation by express agreement on his employer's unfettered right to terminate at will, and all four of the breach of contract causes of action must be dismissed. To the contrary, the language in Sterling's personnel handbook, Accounting Code and employment application refutes any possible claim of an express limitation. The personnel manual was circulated to an extremely limited number of Sterling managerial employees solely for the purpose of determining post-termination benefits, and plaintiff was not one of those few employees authorized to receive a copy. Similarly, the Accounting Code and statement on the employment application requiring Sterling employees to abide by company rules do not, taken together, rise to an express agreement that Sterling would not dismiss an employee for following its policies of full disclosure of business improprieties. Rather, these two documents merely suggest standards set by Sterling for its employees' performance of their duties that, without more, cannot be actionable. We have noted that significant alteration of employment relationships, such as the plaintiff urges, is best left to the Legislature. See, Murphy v. American Home Prods. Corp., 58 N.Y.2d 293, 301-302, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86, because stability and predictability in contractual affairs is a highly desirable jurisprudential value. Indeed, the Legislature has responded to this appropriate sensitivity by enacting numerous protections against abusive discharge and by prohibiting employers from discharging at-will employees for reasons contrary to public policy (see, Judiciary Law § 519; Executive Law § 296(1)(e); Labor Law §§ 215, 740; Civil Service Law § 75-b). In sum, to sustain the plaintiff's complaint in this case, the court would have to relax the Weiner requirements, to expand the Weiner holding into the implied contract category, and to overrule the recently resolved Murphy rejection of implied covenants in employment relationships. Based on stare decisis principles and sound contractual and policy reasons, we do not believe we should do any of those things, no less all of them. In Duldulao v. Saint Mary of Nazareth Hosp ., the Illinois Supreme Court, following the case of Pine River State Bank v. Mettille, 333 N.W.2d 622 (Minn.1983), which is relied upon so heavily by the majority as persuasive authority, did hold, as follows: Nearly all courts agree on the general rule, that an employment relationship without a fixed duration is terminable at will by either party. Those courts which hold that an employee handbook can never create enforceable job security rights appear to apply this general rule as a limit on the parties' freedom to contract. The majority of courts, however, interpret the general `employment-at-will rule' as a rule of construction, mandating only a presumption that a hiring without a fixed term is at will, a presumption which can be overcome by demonstrating that the parties contracted otherwise. We agree with the latter interpretation. We find particularly persuasive the opinion of the Supreme Court of Minnesota in Pine River State Bank v. Mettille (Minn.1983), 333 N.W.2d 622, which analyzed an employee handbook in terms of the traditional requirements for contract formation; offer, acceptance, and consideration (333 N.W.2d 622, 625). In Pine River an employee handbook was distributed to the plaintiff several months after he began working for defendant. (333 N.W.2d 622, 624.) The handbook contained a section entitled `Job Security' which described the generally secure nature of employment in the banking industry. (333 N.W.2d 622, 625-26 & 626 n. 2.) The court held that this section of the handbook did not constitute an offer because it contained no definite promises. (333 N.W.2d 622, 630.) The handbook, however, also contained a section entitled `Disciplinary Policy,' which stated that `[i]f an employee has violated a company policy, the following procedure will apply   .' (333 N.W.2d 622, 626 n. 3), followed by a step-by-step process of progressive discipline ending with `[d]ischarge from employment for an employee whose conduct does not improve as a result of the previous action taken' (333 N.W.2d 622, 626 n. 3). The court held this to be a specific offer for a unilateral contractthe bank's promise in exchange for the employee's performance, i.e., the employee's labor. (333 N.W.2d 622, 630.) By performing, the employee both accepted the contract and provided the necessary consideration, and thus the bank's dismissal of the plaintiff without the benefit of the progressive disciplinary procedures constituted a breach of the employment contract. 333 N.W.2d 622, 630-31. Following the reasoning in Pine River, we hold that an employee handbook or other policy statement creates enforceable contractual rights if the traditional requirements for contract formation are present. First, the language of the policy statement must contain a promise clear enough that an employee would reasonably believe that an offer has been made. Second, the statement must be disseminated to the employee in such a manner that the employee is aware of its contents and reasonably believes it to be an offer. Third, the employee must accept the offer by commencing or continuing to work after learning of the policy statement. When these conditions are present, then the employee's continued work constitutes consideration for the promises contained in the statement, and under traditional principles a valid contract is formed. I would point out, however, that in Duldulao, the Court was considering the question for the first time. In Alabama, we have already considered the question and have direct authority to the contrary. Cunningham, supra ; White v. Chelsea Industries, Inc., supra . I am of the opinion that the Cunningham and White decisions are controlling in this case. White is cited in Duldulao as a decision that reached a result opposite from that of Duldulao. The New York court in Edwards v. Citibank, N.A., supra , set forth the contract principles that this Court applied in White, and which, in my opinion, are the law of this state: Plaintiff readily admits both that for the six years of his employment by defendant he had no formal written contract and no fixed term of employment. Rather, he contends that various staff handbooks and manuals, along with other literature setting out broad employment policy guidelines, comprise a written contract. Moreover, he claims that the effect of these documents is to give him a permanent position, unlimited in duration terminable by him at will, but by Citibank only for cause. Such a position is supported by neither logic nor law. First, it is utterly lacking in mutuality. Second, it is hornbook law that any contract for an indefinite period of time is terminable at the will of either party at any time. Watson v. Gugino, 204 N.Y. 535, 98 N.E. 18 (1912). Such a contract is terminable `fr any reason or for no reason.' Laiken v. American Bank & Trust Co., 34 A.D.2d 514, 308 N.Y.S.2d 111 (1st Dept., 1970). Third, the various manuals offered by plaintiff do not constitute a written employment contract, since they do not exclusively and completely define the terms and conditions of employment, its duration or the rate of compensation i.e., all the essential elements of a contract of employment. Chin v. American Telephone & Telegraph Co., 96 Misc.2d 1070, 410 N.Y. S.2d 737 (1978), unam. aff'd n.o. 70 A.D.2d 791, 416 N.Y.S.2d 160 (1979). Consequently, these documents are no more than broad internal policy guidelines which cannot be held to embody the exclusive procedures for termination. 100 Misc.2d at 60, 418 N.Y.S.2d at 270. In fact, the opinions in White and Edwards and the most recent decision of the New York Court of Appeals in Sabetay are like mirror images of each other. Ninety-six years ago, in Howard v. East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia Railroad, 91 Ala. 268, 8 So. 868 (1891), this Court adopted what is commonly known as the employment-at-will rule. The rule, stated simply, is that an employment contract at will may be terminated by either party with or without cause or justification. Hinrichs v. Tranquilaire Hospital, 352 So.2d 1130, 1131 (Ala.1977). The employer may fire, or the employee may quit, for a good reason, a wrong reason, or no reason.  Id. The employment-at-will rule had gained widespread acceptance in this country by the turn of the century. Note, The Employment at Will Rule, 31 Ala.L.Rev. 421, 424 (1980). As an extension and reflection of the laissez-faire /freedom-of-contract philosophy of the day, the rule was perceived as a step forward from the preceding era's paternalistic attitude in employment relationships. Comment, Employment-at-Will: Defining the Parameters, 16 Cumb.L.Rev. 377, 390 (1986) (hereinafter cited as Comment, Employment-at-will ). See also, Note, Protecting Employees at Will Against Wrongful Discharge: The Public Policy Exception, 96 Harv.L.Rev. 1931 (1983) (hereinafter cited as Note, Protecting Employees at Will ). In recent years, the employment-at-will rule has been severely criticized by legal commentators as being unacceptable in light of today's economic, technological, and sociological realties. See Note, Protecting Employees at Will, supra, at 1931, n. 3. Comment, The At-Will Doctrine: A Proposal to Modify the Texas Employment Relationship, 36 Baylor L.Rev. 667, 668 (1984) (hereinafter cited as Comment, The At-Will Doctrine ). The rule's strict application has received criticism for protecting the employer who instead of terminating employees only when he has grounds to do so, discharges them with caprice, vindictiveness, or malice. Id. at 667. A majority of courts now recognize, or have indicated that they will recognize, some form of exception to the employment-at-will rule in an effort to ameliorate its sometimes unjust results. Id. at 668. This Court has not been blind to the fact that [t]he rule has been applied to obtain harsh and inequitable results in Alabama. Meredith v. C.E. Walther, Inc., 422 So.2d 761, 762 (Ala.1982). We have consistently refused, however, to recognize an exception to the employment-at-will rule. In Hinrichs v. Tranquilaire Hospital, 352 So.2d 1130 (Ala.1977), this Court, in a modern-day pronouncement of the rule, explained why it would not adopt an exception: An exception would (1) abrogate the inherent right to contract between employer and employee; (2) overrule existing Alabama law; and (3) invade the province of the legislature, the body best suited for the creation of such an exception. Id. at 1131. Following Tranquilaire, we received a deluge of appeals requesting that we overrule Tranquilaire and adopt a public policy exception to the employment-at-will rule. Williams v. Killough, 474 So.2d 680 (Ala. 1985); Meeks v. Opp Cotton Mills, Inc., 459 So.2d 814 (Ala.1984); Reich v. Holiday Inn, 454 So.2d 982 (Ala.1984); Johnson v. Gary, 443 So.2d 924 (Ala.1983); Kitsos v. Mobile Gas Service Corp., 431 So.2d 1150 (Ala.1983); White v. Chelsea Industries, Inc., 425 So.2d 1090 (Ala.1983); Dreyspring v. Kar Products, Inc., 422 So.2d 764 (Ala.1982); Meredith v. C.E. Walther, Inc., 422 So.2d 761 (Ala.1982); Bates v. Jim Walter Resources, Inc., 418 So.2d 903 (Ala. 1982); Bender Ship Repair, Inc. v. Stevens, 379 So.2d 594 (Ala.1980); Newby v. City of Andalusia, 376 So.2d 1374 (Ala. 1979); Bierley v. American Cast Iron Pipe Co., 374 So.2d 1341 (Ala.1979); Martin v. Tapley, 360 So.2d 708 (Ala.1978). In Bender Ship Repair, Inc. v. Stevens, 379 So.2d 594 (Ala.1980), we declined to adopt such an exception and upheld the right of an employer to discharge an employee for his absence from work based upon his response to a subpoena for jury duty. We again declined to modify the Tranquilaire employment-at-will rule in Meeks v. Opp Cotton Mills, Inc., 459 So.2d 814 (Ala. 1984). There, we upheld an employer's right to fire an employee for the sole reason that he brought against his employer a worker's compensation claim for job-related injuries. Our holdings in Bender Ship Repair and Meeks prompted the legislature to enact Code 1975, § 12-16-8.1 and § 25-5-11.1 (Cum.Supp.1985). These sections read as follows: § 12-16-8.1: (a) No employer in this state may discharge any employee solely because he serves on any jury empanelled under any state or federal statute; provided, however, that the employee reports for work on his next regularly scheduled hour after being dismissed from any jury. (b) Any employee who is so discharged shall have a cause of action against the employer for said discharge in any court of competent jurisdiction in this state and shall be entitled to recover both actual and punitive damages. (c) The provisions of this section are supplemental to any statutes, existing or to be enacted in the future, that are designed to protect and safeguard a citizen's right and duty to serve on a lawful jury, and the provisions of this section shall not repeal or supersede the provisions of any law not directly inconsistent herewith. § 25-5-11.1: No employee shall be terminated by an employer solely because the employee has instituted or maintained any action against the employer to recover worker's compensation benefits under this chapter or solely because the employee has filed a written notice of violation of a safety rule pursuant to subdivision (c)(4) of section 25-5-11. These expressions by our legislature concerning the public policy of this state as regards employment-at-will, shows that the legislature has changed the pure application of the employment-at-will rule. Also the socio-economic reasons that produced the employment-at-will rule in this country in the first place, and made its pure application desirable, may no longer exist, but this Court, until today, has refused to adopt even a narrow public policy exception to the rule. Jones v. Ethridge, 497 So.2d 1107 (Ala.1986). Until today this Court has refused to expand the principles of contract law in handbook cases. Cunningham, supra ; White, supra . The majority correctly states that an increasing number of jurisdictions have given contractual effect to language contained in handbooks, but most of those cases have been decided since 1980, and that is no reason to distinguish or overrule Cunningham and White, decided in 1983 and 1986 respectively. Most states do not follow the rule this Court adopted in Hinrichs v. Tranquilaire Hospital, 352 So.2d 1130 (Ala.1977), and followed in Jones v. Ethridge, supra , and while I have not independently checked the law of each of the jurisdictions that have recognized that an employee handbook can create an implied, binding obligation on the employer, I know that various states have rules of law applicable to employment contracts which are different from the Alabama rule. Many states may regulate hiring and firing practices more minutely than does Alabama. Some of these principles are set out in Sabetay, from which I quote extensively, because it states what I thought the Alabama rule was. While this Court has the power to distinguish the Cunningham and White cases, or to overrule them, I believe the principle of stare decisis is especially applicable to cases of such recent vintage, particularly where the public policy reasons behind the cases has not been changed, either legislatively or judicially. Sabetay, supra . Assuming, however, that Cunningham and White stand only for the proposition that each employer-employee dispute involving an employee handbook or manual will be reviewed on a case-by-case basis, I still, nevertheless, cannot find the cases to be distinguishable. In White, the employee contended that he could be discharged only for cause, because of handbook language stating: TERMINATION Any employee will be discharged if he cannot or will not do satisfactory work after proper instruction and trial, or if his behavior or attendance record does not meet the company's minimum acceptable standards. We reserve the right to terminate any employee during the first 90 days of employment without cause .... (Emphasis added.) This Court concluded that, contrary to the employee's contention, the handbook language did not limit the employer's right to discharge its employees for any reason. In the present case, the plaintiff's employee handbook read, in part: Your first six months on the job are a probationary period in which your supervisor will evaluate your capabilities and you can become acquainted with the responsibilities of your work. During this trial period, employees can be terminated at any time if their supervisors conclude that they will not meet job performance standards after reasonable training. At the end of the six months, you are considered a regular permanent employee. At another point, the handbook in this case provides, under the heading Constructive Discipline, as follows: If disciplinary action is necessary, it generally is taken in the order below, although a serious offense might warrant taking more serious action. 1. Oral warnings in private are an effort to correct the employee's actions. 2. Written warnings are a more serious attempt at correction and become part of an employee's record. 3. Suspension occurs only with the approval of the department head and division personnel manager and is without pay. 4. Discharge occurs when management believes the employee will not change behavior patterns. The types of offenses for which the four-step disciplinary process would generally be followed include: tardiness, poor work performance because of negligence, excessive absenteeism, violation of company traffic or parking regulations, use of profane or abusive language, horseplay or pranks, unauthorized solicitations of any kind, posting or distributing unauthorized materials. (Emphasis added.) The word generally, which is used in the handbook, in my opinion, means usually, and the words generally and normally are used in the manual in Cunningham, but even if the handbook here was held to create a binding obligation, I believe the language used in this handbook and the language used in the handbook in the Pine River case cited by the majority are easily distinguishable. In that case, the handbook section entitled Disciplinary Policy provided as follows: In the interest of fairness to all employees the Company establishes reasonable standards of conduct for all employees to follow in their employment at Pine River State Bank. These standards are not intended to place unreasonable restrictions on you but are considered necessary for us to conduct our business in an orderly and efficient manner. If an employee has violated a company policy, the following procedure will apply: 1. An oral reprimand by the immediate supervisor for the first offense, with a written notice sent to the Executive Vice President. 2. A written reprimand for the second offense. 3. A written reprimand and a meeting with the Executive Vice President and possible suspension from work without pay for five days. 4. Discharge from employment for an employee whose conduct does not improve as a result of the previous action taken. In no instance will a person be discharged from employment without a review of the facts by the Executive Officer. (Emphasis added.) Pine River, 333 N.W.2d at 626 n. 3. The language in the Pine River handbook is mandatory, whereas the language in the Roche handbook could be described as hortatory. The plaintiff cites this Court to several of its decisions involving employee relationships with American Cast Iron Pipe Company (ACIPCO). See Farlow v. Adams, 474 So.2d 53 (Ala.1985); Smith v. American Cast Iron Pipe Co., 370 So.2d 283 (Ala. 1979); Duff v. American Cast Iron Pipe Co., 362 So.2d 886 (Ala.1978). The majority relies on these decisions to support the result it reaches here. Duff was decided in 1978, long before the decisions in Cunningham and White, and this Court, in Cunningham and White, apparently attached no significance to the ACIPCO cases. I believe those case are inapposite here. ACIPCO's relationship with its employees is unique to the world of business and must be considered sui generis. As was discussed in Farlow, supra, the employment relationship at ACIPCO is a hybrid of employment contract principles and trust principles, and the employees actually have a role in managing the company; therefore, decisions in those cases are not controlling on the case at hand. Because I believe no enforceable obligation was breached by Roche, I believe the trial court erred in failing to direct a verdict in Roche's favor on the contract count. For that reason, I would reverse the judgment of the trial court. It is possible that I should apply the principle Judge Cardozo advanced: `That court best serves the law which recognizes that the rules of law which grew up in a remote generation may, in the fullness of experience, be found to serve another generation badly, and which discards the old rule when it finds that another rule of law represents what should be according to the established and settled judgment of society.' B. Cardozo, The Nature of the Judicial Process 151 (1921) (quoting Dwy v. Connecticut Co., 89 Conn. 74, 99 [92 A. 883] (1915)). Nevertheless, the doctrine of stare decisis is a powerful force in our jurisprudence. While I recognize that it should never be used to perpetuate error, it seems inappropriate for this Court to overrule two cases decided within the past four years and to establish a principle of contract law in employer-employee relationships that can be expanded to cover oral agreements or implied agreements. The litigant here is afforded better treatment than were the litigants in Cunningham and White. Personally, I do not favor a termination-at-will doctrine that allows an employer to fire an employee under circumstances like those in Hinrichs and in Jones v. Ethridge , but the legislature has convened several times since the Hinrichs case was decided, and has not overturned the doctrine of that case. It has, as pointed out in this dissent, addressed two of our cases, Meeks, supra, and Bender Ship Repair, supra, but it has not dealt with the whole termination-at-will doctrine; therefore, it is aware of the public policy issues. Sabetay, supra . I believe that the legislature is the appropriate body of government to address the policy considerations arising out of employer-employee relationships. Many employees are granted job security and fringe benefits by civil service laws, union contracts, or specific individual contracts, which state the term of employment and the benefits available and the rights of the parties in case of disagreement. There are many laws, state and federal, which restrict employer hiring and firing practices that are discriminatory or constitute an unfair labor practice. As I have already pointed out, the termination-at-will doctrine has been severely criticized, and several jurisdictions admittedly follow the new rule announced by this Court today when there is an employee handbook or manual, and maybe I should join the majority in this case and determine that the old termination-at-will doctrine, and the requirement of mutuality of contract in employer-employee relationships should no longer be followed, but I cannot do so in this case. Sabetay, supra . At the very least, I would give the legislature a chance to adopt a state policy before declaring it by case law. See Utica Mutual Ins. Co. v. Tuscaloosa Motor Co., 295 Ala. 309, 329 So.2d 82 (1976), wherein a three-judge plurality wrote: If, in the future, the Commissioner of Insurance, because of limitations of manpower and time, is not able to cause filed forms of policies of insurance to be scrutinized under the standards set out in § 322 [Tit. 28A, Code of 1940] and in particular § 322(5), this court may be compelled to declare the public policy of this State per the views expressed by Justices Jones and Shores in their dissent in this case.  (As quoted in my dissenting opinion in Wixom Bros. Co. v. Truck Insurance Exchange, 435 So.2d 1231, at 1235 (Ala.1983).) The legislature is in a better position to determine the specific public policy considerations and to strike a balance between the competing interests, in my opinion; therefore, for those reasons, I must respectfully dissent. HOUSTON, J., concurs.