Opinion ID: 543006
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: legislative jurisdiction

Text: 8 Davis contends that the provisions of the statute under which he was convicted, the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act, 46 U.S.C. app. Secs. 1903(a), 1903(j), do not apply to persons on foreign vessels outside the territory of the United States. The question of whether the United States may punish Davis' conduct involves three issues: 1) whether Congress has constitutional authority to give extraterritorial effect to the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act; if so, 2) whether the Constitution prohibits the United States from punishing Davis' conduct in this instance; and, if not, 3) does the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act apply to Davis' conduct? 9 Whether Congress may give extraterritorial effect to the statute in question is an issue of law which we review de novo. United States v. McConney, 728 F.2d 1195, 1201 (9th Cir.) (en banc), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 824, 105 S.Ct. 101, 83 L.Ed.2d 46 (1984). Whether application of a particular statute violates due process is a mixed question of law and fact which we review de novo. Id. at 1202. 10
11 The Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act, 46 U.S.C. app. Sec. 1903(a) and (j) state: 12 (a) It is unlawful for any person on board a vessel of the United States, or on board a vessel subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, to knowingly or intentionally manufacture or distribute, or to possess with intent to manufacture or distribute, a controlled substance. 13 (j) Any person who attempts or conspires to commit any offense defined in this Act [46 U.S.C. app. Secs. 1904] is punishable by imprisonment or fine, or both, which may not exceed the maximum punishment prescribed for the offense, the commission of which was the object of the attempt of the conspiracy. 14 The United States Congress sits as a legislature of enumerated and specific powers. See Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137, 176, 2 L.Ed. 60 (1803). The Constitution gives Congress the power to define and punish piracies and felonies on the high seas.... U.S. Const. Art. I, sec. 8, cl. 10. The high seas lie seaward of the territorial sea, defined as the three mile belt of sea measured from the low water mark. United States v. Rubies, 612 F.2d 397, 402 n. 2 (9th Cir.1979). We therefore find that the Constitution authorized Congress to give extraterritorial effect to the Act. 15
16 We next examine what limitations exist on the United States' power to exercise that authority. 17 Contrary to Davis' assertions, compliance with international law does not determine whether the United States may apply the Act to his conduct. 1 Only two restrictions exist on giving extraterritorial effect to Congress' directives. We require Congress make clear its intent to give extraterritorial effect to its statutes. United States v. Pinto-Mejia, 720 F.2d 248, 259 (2nd Cir.1983). And secondly, as a matter of constitutional law, we require that application of the statute to the acts in question not violate the due process clause of the fifth amendment. Thomas, at 1068. 18 In this case, Congress explicitly stated that it intended the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act to apply extraterritorially. 46 U.S.C. app. Sec. 1903(h) (Supp.IV 1986) (This section is intended to reach acts of possession, manufacture, or distribution outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States). Therefore, the only issue we must consider is whether application of the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act to Davis' conduct would violate due process. 19 In order to apply extraterritorially a federal criminal statute to a defendant consistently with due process, there must be a sufficient nexus between the defendant and the United States, see United States v. Peterson, 812 F.2d 486, 493 (9th Cir.1987), so that such application would not be arbitrary or fundamentally unfair. 2 20 In the instant case, a sufficient nexus exists so that the application of the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act to Davis' extraterritorial conduct does not violate the due process clause. Where an attempted transaction is aimed at causing criminal acts within the United States, there is a sufficient basis for the United States to exercise its jurisdiction. Id. The facts found by the district court in denying Davis' motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction support the reasonable conclusion that Davis intended to smuggle contraband into United States territory. At the time of its first detection, the Myth was 35 miles away from, and headed for, San Francisco. As the Coast Guard approached, the Myth changed its course for the Caribbean by way of Mexico, although the Myth was many miles from the Great Circle route from Hong Kong to Acapulco. The Myth is on a list of boats suspected of drug smuggling. It is unusual for a 58 foot sailing vessel to have sailed from the Myth 's asserted point of departure, Hong Kong. The foregoing evidence is sufficient to establish a nexus between the Myth and the United States. We therefore find that the Constitution does not prohibit the application of the Marijuana Drug Law Enforcement Act to Davis. 21
22 We must next determine whether the Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act by its terms applies to Davis' conduct. We hold that it does. Section 1903(a) and (j) proscribe possession and conspiracy to possess marijuana with intent to distribute on board a vessel subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. Section 1903(c)(1)(D) defines vessels subject to the jurisdiction of the United States as vessels located within the customs waters of the United States. In the case of a foreign vessel, 19 U.S.C. Sec. 1401(j) (1982) defines customs waters as follows: 23 The term customs waters means, in the case of a foreign vessel subject to a treaty or some other arrangement between a foreign government and the United States enabling or permitting the authorities of the United States to board, examine, search, seize, or otherwise to enforce upon such vessel upon the high seas the laws of the United States, the waters within such distance of the coast of the United States as the said authorities are or may be so enabled or permitted by such treaty or arrangement. 24 . . . . . 25 Prior to boarding the Myth, the Coast Guard obtained permission to board from the United Kingdom in a telex which allowed the United States Coast Guard to board, search and seize the Myth in accordance with the terms of the 1981 Agreement. 26 Whether the consent given by the United Kingdom constitutes an arrangement pursuant to section 1401(j) presents a question of law subject to de novo review. See United States v. Bent-Santana, 774 F.2d 1545, 1548 (11th Cir.1985). We have held that informal arrangements can satisfy section 1491(j). See, e.g., Peterson, 812 F.2d at 493 (Panamanian consent by telex constituted an arrangement satisfying section 1491(j)). As long as the foreign government has made clear its indication of consent, the arrangement necessary to create customs waters around a specific vessel may be informal. See United States v. Gonzalez, 776 F.2d 931, 933 (11th Cir.1985); United States v. Alomia-Riascos, 825 F.2d 769, 771 (4th Cir.1987). An arrangement is simply a settlement or adjustment and contemplates no particular form. Gonzalez, 776 F.2d at 936. Thus, even verbal, ad hoc consent by a vessel's flag country is sufficient to bring the vessel within the definition of customs waters. See, Bent-Santana, 774 F.2d at 1550; Alomia-Riascos, 825 F.2d at 771. 27 The telex sent by the United Kingdom stated: 28 1. HMG has verified registry of subj vessel and has authorized USG to board, search and seize, if evidence warrents [sic], under U.S. Law. HMG has indicated that the conditions and terms contained in 13 Nov 81 US/UK Agreemnt [sic] will be used in this case. 29 2. In view of the above, comdt has no objection to taking action against subj vessel under the terms of the US/UK Agreement. 30 3. Insure Amenbassy [sic] London is info addee on all related msc traffic. 31 Biermann, 678 F.Supp. at 1442 n. 2. We hold that the request for permission to board and the United Kingdom's reply telex constitutes an arrangement pursuant to section 1401(j). Therefore, Davis' vessel was located within the customs waters of the United States, and hence within its jurisdiction. 32 Davis argues that the Coast Guard failed to conduct its search pursuant to the terms and conditions of the 1981 Agreement, thereby vitiating the consent given by the United Kingdom. 3 In order to board a vessel of British registry, the 1981 Agreement requires that authorities of the United States reasonably believe that the vessel has on board a cargo of drugs for importation into the United States. 33 Reasonable suspicion must be based upon specific articulable facts, together with rational inferences from those facts. United States v. Reeh, 780 F.2d 1541, 1544 (11th Cir.1986). Reasonable suspicion turns on the totality of particular circumstances. Id. We hold that the Coast Guard had reasonable suspicion to believe that the Myth was importing drugs. The listing of the Myth as a boat suspected of smuggling, the Myth's unusual location, its attempt to change course, and its lowered position in the water, indicating that it was carrying cargo, could reasonably lead a Coast Guard officer to believe the Myth was smuggling contraband. We thus find that the Coast Guard satisfied the conditions of the United Kingdom's consent. 34