Opinion ID: 548464
Heading Depth: 4
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: Comprehensive Remedial Structure

Text: 24 The magistrate's conclusion that section 504 precludes plaintiffs' section 1983 claims also is erroneous because the Rehabilitation Act does not contain a remedial structure sufficiently comprehensive to evince congressional intent to preclude section 1983 claims based on the First Amendment. Indeed, whether the remedial structure of the Rehabilitation Act demonstrates congressional intent to preclude any section 1983 claims is a matter of some disagreement. At least two lower courts have addressed the issue, and have permitted claims brought under both section 1983 and the Rehabilitation Act. 7 See Rothschild v. Grottenthaler, 716 F.Supp. 796, 801 (S.D.N.Y.1989) (Rehabilitation Act held to be not so comprehensive as to [leave] no room for additional private remedies under section 1983) (internal citations omitted), later proceeding, 725 F.Supp. 776 (S.D.N.Y.1989); Shuttleworth v. Broward County, 639 F.Supp. 654, 659-60 (S.D.Fla.1986) (Rehabilitation Act held not to preclude actions brought under section 1983; court noted reluctance of Supreme Court to infer congressional intent to preclude reliance on section 1983). Cf. Alexander v. Chicago Park Dist., 773 F.2d 850, 855-56 (7th Cir.1985) (Title VI and VII only preclude actions under section 1983 that are based on those titles; only if the right asserted was created by Title VII must it be vindicated through the procedural system set up in that Act), cert. denied, 475 U.S. 1095, 106 S.Ct. 1492, 89 L.Ed.2d 894 (1986). 25 The rights plaintiffs seek to vindicate in their section 1983 claim were not created by section 504, but rather by the First Amendment. While there is disagreement over whether Congress intended to foreclose section 1983 claims that could have been brought under the Rehabilitation Act, there is no indication that Congress intended to foreclose section 1983 claims that are unrelated to handicap discrimination. The Rehabilitation Act should not serve as a barrier to handicapped individuals who allege violations of their rights under the First Amendment. 26 The magistrate erred in granting summary judgment on plaintiffs' section 1983 claim alleging violation of their First Amendment rights. We reverse that portion of the magistrate's judgment and remand for proceedings consistent with this opinion. 8 II. RIGHT TO JURY TRIAL A. Standard of Review 27 Whether section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act provides a right to a jury trial is a question of law, receiving de novo review. United States v. McConney, 728 F.2d 1195, 1199-1204 (9th Cir.1984) (en banc), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 824, 105 S.Ct. 101, 83 L.Ed.2d 46 (1984). B. Analysis 28 Plaintiffs have requested a ruling on whether the Seventh Amendment right to a jury trial attaches to actions brought under section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. However, before addressing the constitutional issue, we first analyze whether the statute itself expresses any intent to grant plaintiffs a jury trial. See Tull v. United States, 481 U.S. 412, 417 n. 3, 107 S.Ct. 1831, 1835 n. 3, 95 L.Ed.2d 365 (1987). 29 Section 504 is silent with regard to the availability of a jury trial. However, several courts addressing the issue have suggested that no right to a jury trial exists under section 504. See, e.g., Doe v. Region 13 Mental Health-Mental Retardation Comm'n, 704 F.2d 1402, 1407 n. 3 (5th Cir.1983) (While we specifically do not decide this issue, jury trials do not appear to be a matter of right under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973); Shuttleworth, 639 F.Supp. at 661 (no right to jury trial in section 504 case). 30 Because the remedies, procedures, and rights available under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act apply to violations of section 504, 9 we next look to Title VI to determine whether a jury trial right exists under that statute. 10 Title VI itself contains no grant of a jury trial. Furthermore, cases interpreting Title VI generally have found no such right. See, e.g., Region 13 Mental Health, 704 F.2d at 1407 n. 3 (The 'remedies ... and rights' available under title VI, like those under title VII, are essentially equitable in nature, and the 'procedures' available do not include juries). 31 For additional guidance, we look to cases interpreting Title VII: because of the similarities between Title VI and Title VII, courts frequently have looked to Title VII in determining rights and procedures available under Title VI. Although still open to some debate, courts generally have found no right to a jury trial under Title VII. See Chauffeurs, Teamsters and Helpers, Local No. 391 v. Terry, --- U.S. ----, 110 S.Ct. 1339, 1348, 108 L.Ed.2d 519 (1990) (noting that the Court has never held that a plaintiff seeking backpay under Title VII has a right to a jury trial, and assuming, without deciding, that such a plaintiff does not have this right); Lehman v. Nakshian, 453 U.S. 156, 164, 101 S.Ct. 2698, 2703, 69 L.Ed.2d 548 (1981) (in determining that a plaintiff in an action against the United States under section 15(c) of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 is not entitled to a jury trial, the Court noted in dicta that there is no right to trial by jury in cases arising under Title VII); Slack v. Havens, 522 F.2d 1091, 1094 (9th Cir.1975) (no right to jury trial under Title VII). 32 Because neither section 504 nor Title VI explicitly provides for a jury trial, and because the caselaw interpreting Title VI and Title VII generally has not found a right to jury trial in those cases, we conclude that there is no statutory entitlement to jury trial in section 504 cases. Therefore, we next must evaluate whether a jury trial is required by the Constitution itself. 33 The Seventh Amendment guarantees a jury trial [i]n suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed $20.00.... When the right to a jury trial is invoked in an action based on a statute, as is the case here, Tull v. United States, 481 U.S. 412, 107 S.Ct. 1831, 95 L.Ed.2d 365 (1987), provides the appropriate analysis. There, the Court stated that the Seventh Amendment requires a jury trial on the merits in those actions that are analogous to 'Suits at common law.'  Id. at 417, 107 S.Ct. at 1835. Determining whether statutory actions are more similar to cases that were tried in courts of law than to suits tried in courts of equity or admiralty, requires an analysis of both the nature of the action and the remedy sought. First, we compare the statutory action to 18th-century actions brought in the courts of England prior to the merger of the courts of law and equity (citations omitted). Second, we examine the remedy sought and determine whether it is legal or equitable in nature. Id. at 417-18, 107 S.Ct. at 1835. The Court reiterated an earlier conclusion that the second inquiry, characterizing the relief sought, is more important than finding a precisely analogous common law cause of action. Id. at 421, 107 S.Ct. at 1837 (citing Curtis v. Loether, 415 U.S. 189, 196, 94 S.Ct. 1005, 1009, 39 L.Ed.2d 260 (1974)). See also Terry, 110 S.Ct. at 1345; Granfinanciera, S.A. v. Nordberg, 492 U.S. ----, ----, 109 S.Ct. 2782, 2790, 106 L.Ed.2d 26 (1989). 34 Although there were no discrimination actions at common law, plaintiffs' action is most closely analogous either to an 18th-century tort action or an action brought to enforce an express or implied employment contract. Such actions could have been brought in either courts of law or courts of equity, depending on the relief sought. See generally Heinsz, The Assault on the Employment at Will Doctrine: Management Considerations, 48 Mo.L.Rev. 855, 858-862 (1983) (providing historical background of the employment-at-will doctrine, and the evolution of employee protection). Therefore, this first factor is not persuasive authority either for or against the jury trial, and leaves us in equipoise as to whether [plaintiffs] are entitled to a jury trial. Terry, 110 S.Ct. at 1347. However, the second prong of the Tull analysis convinces us that plaintiffs are entitled to a jury trial on their section 504 claims. 35 The second, and more important factor, requires analysis and characterization of the relief sought by plaintiffs. In addition to seeking injunctive and declaratory relief, which relief here would be equitable in nature, see Weinberger v. Romero-Barcelo, 456 U.S. 305, 311, 102 S.Ct. 1798, 1802, 72 L.Ed.2d 91 (1982) (injunction), and United States v. New Mexico, 642 F.2d 397 (9th Cir.1981) (declaratory judgment), plaintiffs also seek compensatory money damages. Money damages are the traditional form of relief offered in the courts of law. Curtis, 415 U.S. at 196, 94 S.Ct. at 1009. The award of monetary relief is not necessarily always legal. Id. For example, damages may be equitable where they are restitutionary, such as in 'action[s] for disgorgement of improper profits,'  Terry, 110 S.Ct. at 1348 (quoting Tull, 481 U.S. at 424, 107 S.Ct. at 1839). 36 However, the damages sought here are not merely incidental to or intertwined with injunctive relief, as are front pay and back pay, in which case they may be equitable. 11 See Terry, 110 S.Ct. at 1348. Although plaintiffs have requested injunctive relief, their request for damages is not incidental to that relief. They have sought damages to compensate them for their alleged loss of job responsibilities, status, and administrative leadership occasioned by defendants' actions. Monetary compensation for those losses would be in addition to, and distinct from, injunctive reinstatement. Therefore, because the remedies plaintiffs seek have none of the attributes that must be present before we will find an exception to the general rule and characterize damages as equitable, we conclude that the remedies sought are legal. Id. at 1348. 37 Furthermore, money damages are available in the Ninth Circuit for violations of section 504. For example, in Kling v. County of Los Angeles, 769 F.2d 532, 534 (9th Cir.1985), the Ninth Circuit relied on Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Darrone, 465 U.S. 624, 104 S.Ct. 1248, 79 L.Ed.2d 568 (1984) in awarding damages for a section 504 violation. Although Kling was reversed on other grounds, 474 U.S. 936, 106 S.Ct. 300, 88 L.Ed.2d 277 (1985), this position was later reaffirmed in Greater Los Angeles Council on Deafness, Inc. v. Zolin, 812 F.2d 1103, 1107 (9th Cir.1987). There, the court stated that plaintiffs suing under section 504 of the rehabilitation act may pursue the full panoply of remedies, including equitable relief and monetary damages. This leaves little room for doubt as to the viability of that remedy in this circuit. 12 38 Because money damages were sought in this case, and because that remedy is available in the Ninth Circuit, we conclude that the Seventh Amendment does entitle plaintiffs to a jury trial on their claims under section 504, and the magistrate erred in denying plaintiffs such right. 39 We emphasize that plaintiffs are not entitled to a jury trial merely because they brought claims under section 504. First, section 504 itself does not provide such a right, and the few cases addressing this issue have found that no such right exists under section 504. Second, most courts agree that there is no right to a jury trial under either Title VI or Title VII, both of which are used as guides for determining rights and privileges under section 504. Rather, plaintiffs' right to jury trial arises from the Seventh Amendment, because they seek relief that is legal in nature. Section 504 actions seeking only equitable relief will be unaffected, and preliminary injunctive relief remains available without a jury trial even in damage actions. Curtis, 415 U.S. at 198, 94 S.Ct. at 1010.