Opinion ID: 393154
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: The Reporter's Privilege

Text: 16 Appellants argue that the District Court erred when it denied their motion to compel Kantor to disclose his confidential sources. They claim that the First Amendment reporter's privilege should not prevail, since their interest in disclosure outweighs any public interest in protecting the sources. We begin by noting that the scope of review in this case is narrowly circumscribed. A motion to compel discovery is committed to the discretion of the trial court, and our function on appeal is solely to determine whether the trial court abused its discretion in entering the challenged order. See, e. g., Baker v. F & F Investment, 470 F.2d 778 (2d Cir. 1972), cert. denied, 411 U.S. 966, 93 S.Ct. 2147, 36 L.Ed.2d 686 (1973); Carter v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 152 F.2d 129 (D.C.Cir.1945); Montecatini Edison S. p. A. v. E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., 434 F.2d 70 (3d Cir. 1970); Tiedman v. American Pigment Corp., 253 F.2d 803 (4th Cir. 958). Given the record before us here, we must conclude that the District Court was well within the ambit of its discretionary authority when it denied appellants' motion to compel discovery. 17 Compelling a reporter to disclose the identity of a confidential source raises obvious First Amendment problems. The First Amendment guarantees a free press primarily because of the important role it can play as a vital source of public information. Grosjean v. American Press Co., 297 U.S. 233, 250, 56 S.Ct. 444, 80 L.Ed. 660 (1936). The press was protected so that it could bare the secrets of government and inform the people. New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713, 717, 91 S.Ct. 2140, 2143, 29 L.Ed.2d 822 (1971) (Black, J., concurring). Without an unfettered press, citizens would be far less able to make informed political, social, and economic choices. But the press' function as a vital source of information is weakened whenever the ability of journalists to gather news is impaired. 39 Compelling a reporter to disclose the identity of a source may significantly interfere with this news gathering ability; journalists frequently depend on informants to gather news, and confidentiality is often essential to establishing a relationship with an informant. 40 18 In Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665, 92 S.Ct. 2646, 33 L.Ed.2d 626 (1972), the Supreme Court held that a journalist does not have an absolute privilege under the First Amendment to refuse to disclose confidential sources to a grand jury conducting a criminal investigation, despite the potential interference with news gathering. The Court justified this decision by pointing to the traditional importance of grand juries and the strong public interest in effective criminal investigation. It recognized, however, that because news gathering is essential to a free press, it deserves some First Amendment protection. Thus the Court indicated that a qualified privilege would be available in some circumstances even where a reporter is called before a grand jury to testify. 408 U.S. at 707, 92 S.Ct. at 2669. 41 Moreover, Justice Powell, who cast the deciding vote in Branzburg, wrote a concurring opinion in which he stated that courts can determine whether a privilege applies by using a balancing test: 19 The asserted claim to privilege should be judged on its facts by the striking of a proper balance between freedom of the press and the obligation of all citizens to give relevant testimony with respect to criminal conduct. The balance of these vital constitutional and societal interests on a case-by-case basis accords with the tried and traditional way of adjudicating such questions. 20 Id. at 710, 92 S.Ct. at 2671 (footnote omitted). 21 Although Branzburg may limit the scope of the reporter's First Amendment privilege in criminal proceedings, this circuit has previously held that in civil cases, where the public interest in effective criminal law enforcement is absent, that case is not controlling. Carey v. Hume, 492 F.2d 631, 636 (D.C.Cir.), cert. dismissed, 417 U.S. 938, 94 S.Ct. 2654, 41 L.Ed.2d 661 (1974). 42 In Carey we considered the question whether a reporter being sued for libel could refuse to reveal the identity of confidential sources who provided the information on which the allegedly libelous news story was based. We decided that the circumstances of that case did not warrant application of a First Amendment privilege. We indicated, however, that a qualified reporter's privilege under the First Amendment should be readily available in civil cases. An approach similar to that described by Justice Powell in Branzburg was adopted. We held that to determine whether the privilege applies courts should look to the facts of each case, weighing the public interest in protecting the reporter's sources against the private interest in compelling disclosure. 492 F.2d at 636. 43 Every other circuit that has considered the question has also ruled that a privilege should be readily available in civil cases, and that a balancing approach should be applied. See Riley v. City of Chester, 612 F.2d 708, 715-716 (3d Cir. 1979) (upholding assertion of privilege); Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Corp., 563 F.2d 433, 436-438 (10th Cir. 1978) (same); Baker v. F & F Investment, supra, 470 F.2d at 783 (same); Cervantes v. Time, Inc., 464 F.2d 986 (8th Cir. 1972) (same); Miller v. Transamerican Press, Inc., 621 F.2d 721, 725 (5th Cir. 1980) (ruling that privilege does not prevail); see also Democratic Nat'l Committee v. McCord, 356 F.Supp. 1394, 1398 (D.D.C.1973) (upholding privilege); Gulliver's Periodicals, Ltd. v. Chas. Levy Circulating Co., 455 F.Supp. 1197, 1203 (N.D.Ill.1978) (same); Altemose Construction Co. v. Building & Construction Trades Council of Philadelphia, 443 F.Supp. 489, 491 (E.D.Pa.1977) (same); Gilbert v. Allied Chemical Corp., 411 F.Supp. 505, 508 (E.D.Va.1976) (same). 44 22 In general, when striking the balance between the civil litigant's interest in compelled disclosure and the public interest in protecting a newspaper's confidential sources, we will be mindful of the preferred position of the First Amendment and the importance of a vigorous press. Efforts will be taken to minimize impingement upon the reporter's ability to gather news. Carey v. Hume, supra, 492 F.2d at 639. Thus in the ordinary case the civil litigant's interest in disclosure should yield to the journalist's privilege. 45 Indeed, if the privilege does not prevail in all but the most exceptional cases, its value will be substantially diminished. Unless potential sources are confident that compelled disclosure is unlikely, they will be reluctant to disclose any confidential information to reporters. 46 23 A number of more precise guidelines can be applied to determine how the balance should be struck in a particular case. The civil litigant's need for the information he seeks is of central importance. If the information sought goes to the heart of the matter, Carey v. Hume, supra, 492 F.2d at 636, 47 that is, if it is crucial to his case, then the argument in favor of compelled disclosure may be relatively strong. See also Miller v. Transamerican Press, Inc., supra, 621 F.2d at 726. In Carey v. Hume, for example, the privilege was not recognized in part because the identity of the reporter's source was central to the plaintiff's proof in his libel action. 48 On the other hand, if the information sought is only marginally relevant, disclosure may be very difficult to justify. See Baker v. F & F Investment, supra, 470 F.2d at 783-784 (recognizing privilege in part because information sought was not important). 49 24 The efforts made by the litigants to obtain the information from alternative sources is also of central importance. Even when the information is crucial to a litigant's case, reporters should be compelled to disclose their sources only after the litigant has shown that he has exhausted every reasonable alternative source of information. As we stated in Carey v. Hume, supra, 492 F.2d at 638, The values resident in the protection of the confidential sources of newsmen certainly point towards compelled disclosure from the newsman himself as normally the end, and not the beginning, of the inquiry. See also Riley v. City of Chester, supra, 612 F.2d at 717-718; Silkwood v. Kerr-McGee Corp., supra, 563 F.2d at 430; Baker v. F & F Investment, supra, 470 F.2d at 784; Miller v. Transamerican Press, Inc., supra, 621 F.2d at 726. To be sure, there are some limits to the obligation to pursue alternative sources. In Carey, for example, the reporter being sued had stated that his source was an employee of the national headquarters of the United Mine Workers of America. We decided that the litigant need not have deposed every one of the UMWA's employees. Nonetheless, the obligation is clearly very substantial. In Carey we suggested that an alternative requiring the taking of as many as 60 depositions might be a reasonable prerequisite to compelled disclosure. Carey v. Hume, supra, 492 F.2d at 639. 50 25 A distinction can also be drawn between civil cases in which the reporter is a party, as in a libel action, and cases in which the reporter is not a party. When the journalist is a party, and successful assertion of the privilege will effectively shield him from liability, the equities weigh somewhat more heavily in favor of disclosure. As we suggested in Carey v. Hume, supra, 492 F.2d at 634, 636-639, this will be particularly true in libel cases involving public officials or public figures where the rule of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 84 S.Ct. 710, 11 L.Ed.2d 686 (1964), applies. Plaintiffs in those cases must prove both that the allegedly defamatory publication was false, and that it was made with actual malice. Proof of actual malice will frequently depend on knowing the identity of the newspaper's informant, since a plaintiff will have to demonstrate that the informant was unreliable and that the journalist failed to take adequate steps to verify his story. Protecting the identity of the source would effectively prevent recovery in many Times -type libel cases. See Carey v. Hume, supra; Miller v. Transamerican Press, Inc., supra. 51 We take care to point out, however, that disclosure should by no means be automatic in libel cases. Where other relevant factors suggest disclosure is inappropriate, the privilege should prevail. See Cervantes v. Time, Inc., supra (ruling that privilege should prevail in libel case where information sought was not crucial). 26 Applying these guidelines to the facts of the case before us, we readily find that the District Court did not abuse its discretion when it concluded that a qualified First Amendment privilege should apply. It is true that appellants' suit is not frivolous. Moreover, the information they seek is crucial to their case. The success of their Privacy Act and Fourth Amendment claims may depend on the identities of the individuals who leaked the wiretap logs to Kantor. But appellants clearly have not fulfilled their obligation to exhaust possible alternative sources of information. 52 In response to appellants' interrogatories the Department of Justice provided a list of the names of four employees who knew most about the wiretap logs. During the 1971 criminal trial the Government also provided a list of employees who had been given access to the transcripts. Yet appellants made no attempt to depose any of these individuals. Appellants cannot escape their obligation to exhaust alternative sources simply because they feared that deposing Justice Department employees would be time-consuming, costly, and unproductive. At the very least, they could have deposed the four employees who had the greatest knowledge about the logs. 53 It is quite possible that interviewing these four individuals could have shed further light on the question whether the Justice Department was responsible for the leaks. 54 Nor can appellants escape their obligation to exhaust alternatives because they were willing to accept the Justice Department's statement that an internal investigation had not revealed any wrongdoing by employees. Permitting this kind of gamesmanship would poorly serve the First Amendment values at stake here. 55 Finally, we note that this is not a case like Carey v. Hume, supra, in which a reporter is being sued for libel under the rule of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, supra. Nor is Kantor a party to these Privacy Act and Fourth Amendment claims. He is not asserting the privilege in order to protect himself from liability.