Opinion ID: 2633459
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: The Right to a Unanimous Verdict

Text: The prosecution contends that the ICA erred by holding that Defendant was denied his right to a unanimous verdict because the ICA misapplied this court's holding in Arceo. [T]he right of an accused to a unanimous verdict in a criminal prosecution, tried before a jury in a court of this state, is guaranteed by article I, sections 5 and 14 of the Hawai`i Constitution [11] . Arceo, 84 Hawai`i at 30, 928 P.2d at 872. The jury must unanimously find that each material element of the offense has been proven-the conduct, the attendant circumstances, and the result of conduct-as well as the mental state requisite to each element. See id.; HRS §§ 702-204 (1993) and 702-205 (1993).
In Arceo, evidence of multiple acts of sexual contact and sexual penetration was introduced to support each of two counts of sexual assault. 84 Hawai`i at 3, 928 P.2d at 845. This court held that, when separate and distinct culpable acts are subsumed within a single count charging a sexual assault-any one of which could support a conviction thereunder-and the defendant is ultimately convicted by a jury of the charged offense, the defendant's constitutional right to a unanimous verdict is violated unless either the prosecution elects the specific conduct upon which it intends to rely to establish the conduct element of the offense or the trial court gives the jury a specific unanimity instruction. Id. at 32-33, 928 P.2d at 874-75. The prosecution argues that the unanimity requirement articulated in Arceo does not apply to the instant case because the various grounds upon which the jury could have found a lack of consent, i.e., the absence of consent or one of the four grounds for finding ineffective consent, did not amount to separate and distinct culpable acts that could support separate counts of an indictment or complaint. We agree with the prosecution. As this court recognized in Valentine, [t]he Arceo decision dealt with a situation in which the prosecution had adduced evidence regarding independent incidents, during each of which the defendant engaged in conduct that could constitute the offense charged, and each of which could have been, but were not, charged as separate offenses. Inasmuch as these independent instances of culpable conduct were submitted to the jury in a single count that charged but one offense, we held that a specific unanimity instruction was necessary to ensure that each juror convicted the defendant on the basis of the same incident of culpable conduct. Thus, two conditions must converge before an Arceo unanimity instruction, absent an election by the prosecution, is necessary: (1) at trial, the prosecution adduces proof of two or more separate and distinct culpable acts; and (2) the prosecution seeks to submit to the jury that only one offense was committed. Moreover, it bears repeating that the purpose of an Arceo unanimity instruction is to eliminate any ambiguity that might infect the jury's deliberations respecting the particular conduct in which the defendant is accused of engaging and that allegedly constitutes the charged offense. 93 Hawai`i at 208, 998 P.2d at 488 (emphases added) (citations omitted). In the instant case, although the prosecution adduced proof of two or more separate and distinct culpable acts or independent incidents, the prosecution correctly charged Defendant with separate counts of sexual assault with respect to each distinct culpable act or incident. [12] Thus, the danger present in Arceo that the jury did not agree upon which independent incident constituted the charged offense was not presented by the consent instruction in this case. See Valentine, 93 Hawai`i at 208, 998 P.2d at 488 ([T]here was no danger that the jury would be confused regarding the conduct of which [Defendant] was accused and that constituted the charged offense.). Rather, the problem presented by the consent instruction in this case, discussed infra, was that the jury was presented with alternative means of establishing a single element of each of the charged offenses, specifically, the lack of legal consent, where there was insufficient evidence to support one of those alternative means. Other state courts have made a distinction between alternative means cases and multiple acts cases. The distinction has been explained as follows: In an alternative means case, where a single offense may be committed in more than one way, there must be jury unanimity as to guilt for the single crime charged. Unanimity is not required, however, as to the means by which the crime was committed so long as substantial evidence supports each alternative means. [13] In reviewing an alternative means case, the court must determine whether a rational trier of fact could have found each means of committing the crime proved beyond a reasonable doubt. In multiple acts cases, on the other hand, several acts are alleged and any one of them could constitute the crime charged. In these cases, the jury must be unanimous as to which act or incident constitutes the crime. To ensure jury unanimity in multiple acts cases, we require that either the State elect the particular criminal act upon which it will rely for conviction, or that the trial court instruct the jury that all of them must agree that the same underlying criminal act has been proved beyond a reasonable doubt. State v. Timley, 255 Kan. 286, 875 P.2d 242, 246 (1994) (quoting State v. Kitchen, 110 Wash.2d 403, 756 P.2d 105, 109 (1988)) (citations and quotation marks omitted). The foregoing distinction is consistent with Arceo, which relied heavily on federal law, as well as cases from Washington, Alaska, Colorado, and Tennessee, in holding that unanimity is required, absent an election by the prosecution, as to each separate and distinct culpable act. Arceo, 84 Hawai`i at 32, 928 P.2d at 874 (In our view, the logic of [ State v.] Petrich, 101 Wash.2d 566, [683 P.2d 173, 177 (Wash. 1984), modified by Kitchen, 756 P.2d at 109-10], Covington [v. State], [703 P.2d 436, 440, aff'd in part on reh 'g, State v. Covington, 711 P.2d 1183, 1185 (Alaska Ct.App.1985) (holding that, although trial court erred by failing to give unanimity instruction, error was not raised at trial and did not constitute plain error requiring reversal of conviction)], [ People v.] Aldrich, [849 P.2d 821 (Colo.Ct.App. 1992),] [ State v.] Brown, [762 S.W.2d 135, reh'g denied, 762 S.W.2d 135 (Tenn.1988)], and the line of federal decisions arising out of [ United States v. ]Echeverry [, 719 F.2d 974 (9th Cir.1983) ] is cogent, compelling, and ineluctable.). Some of the cases relied upon by the court in Arceo, like Timley, make the distinction between alternative means cases and multiple acts cases. See Petrich, 683 P.2d at 177 (distinguishing case involving several criminal acts from alternative means cases); Covington, 703 P.2d at 439-40 (distinguishing case involving separate criminal acts from a case involving different means of committing the same offense). Indeed, each of the jurisdictions relied upon in Arceo employs some form of alternative means analysis. See, e.g., Schad v. Arizona, 501 U.S. 624, 111 S.Ct. 2491, 115 L.Ed.2d 555, reh'g denied, 501 U.S. 1277, 112 S.Ct. 28, 115 L.Ed.2d 1109 (1991) (adopting rational and fair approach to alternative means analysis); Kitchen, 756 P.2d at 109 (making distinction between alternative means cases and multiple act cases, identifying Petrich as a multiple acts case); State v. James, 698 P.2d 1161, 1165-67 (Alaska 1985) (holding that juries need not unanimously agree upon particular statutory theory of crime charged if there is sufficient evidence in record to support either theory, where jury is instructed disjunctively or on alternative methods by which defendant may commit single offense; jury need only be unanimous in its conclusion that defendant committed single offense described in statute) (cited in and distinguished by Covington, 703 P.2d at 439-40); James v. People, 727 P.2d 850, 854-55 (Colo.1986) (recognizing the general principle that a defendant is not deprived of his right to a unanimous verdict in circumstances where the court instructs the jury that the crime can be committed in alternative ways and the jury returns a general verdict of guilty and holding that there must be sufficient evidence of each alternative to uphold the general verdict); State v. Lemacks, 996 S.W.2d 166, 169-71 (Tenn.1999) (holding that unanimity was not required as to alternative theories of establishing DUI offense and distinguishing case from multiple criminal acts cases such as Brown ). We agree with the foregoing distinction and emphasize that separate and distinct culpable acts, or independent incidents, each of which could support a separate count of an indictment or complaint, may not be treated as alternative means of proving the conduct element of an offense. [14] Each separate and distinct culpable act or independent incident that may be charged as a separate count includes the conduct, attendant circumstances, and result of conduct that may be present. To illustrate the conceptual difference between separate and distinct culpable acts or independent incidents and the conduct element, consider the following example. A defendant is charged with committing the offense of simple trespass upon two different properties on the same day. HRS § 708-815 (1993) provides that [a] person commits the offense of simple trespass if the person knowingly enters or remains unlawfully in or upon premises. Evidence is adduced that Defendant trespassed upon premises A (Incident A) and upon premises B (Incident B). If the prosecution has charged the defendant in a single count, then the analysis in Arceo applies and either the prosecution must elect which incident it is relying upon in the single count or a unanimity instruction is required. The prosecution may not treat the acts of entering premises A and B as alternative means of proving the conduct element of one count because they represent independent incidents. However, if the prosecution charges the defendant with separate counts as to each independent incident, then the requirements of Arceo are met. With respect to each individual count, the statutory alternatives of enters or remains may be treated as alternative means of proving the conduct element of the offense, as long as it is rational and fair to do so under the test set forth in Klinge. See discussion infra. Alternative means is a specific legal concept that addresses whether statutory alternatives, not multiple acts or incidents, may be treated as a single element of the crime. See Klinge, 92 Hawai`i at 586-89, 994 P.2d at 518-21. In an abstract sense, there may be a danger that separate and distinct culpable acts could be viewed as alternative ways of establishing the conduct element of the crime. However, this is precisely why we distinguish multiple act cases from alternative means cases. This distinction affirms the principles underlying both Arceo and Klinge and avoids the absurd result of requiring unanimity every time a criminal statute uses the word or. Cf. Klinge, 92 Hawai`i at 606 n. 12, 994 P.2d at 538 n. 12 (Ramil, J. dissenting) (It is elementary that the mere presence of the word `or' in a statute would not, in and of itself, implicate a defendant's right to a unanimous verdict.). [15] Because the prosecution correctly charged Defendant with separate counts of sexual assault with respect to each distinct culpable act or incident, the danger present in Arceo that the jury did not agree upon which independent incident constituted the charged offensewas not presented by the consent instruction in this case. Having determined that Arceo does not apply to the facts of this case, we now examine this court's recent decision in Klinge, which recognized that unanimity may not be required where the jury is presented with alternative means of establishing a single element of the offense charged. 92 Hawai`i at 589, 994 P.2d at 521.
In Klinge, the defendant (Klinge) was convicted of terroristic threatening in the first degree. 92 Hawai`i at 579, 994 P.2d at 511. HRS § 707-715 (1993) provides that a person commits the offense of terroristic threatening if the person threatens, by word or conduct, to cause bodily injury to another person or serious damage to property of another or to commit a felony: (1) With the intent to terrorize, or in reckless disregard of the risk of terrorizing, another person; or (2) With intent to cause, or in reckless disregard of the risk of causing evacuation of a building, place of assembly, or facility of public transportation. On appeal, Klinge argued that his constitutional right to a unanimous verdict was violated because the two alternative mental states upon which the jury could have convicted him of terroristic threatening gave rise to separate crimes and the trial court erred in failing to issue an instruction guaranteeing unanimity as to either intent. Id. at 579-80, 994 P.2d at 511-12. Rejecting Klinge's contentions, this court held that HRS § 707-715 defines a single criminal offense. . . . HRS §§ 707-715(1) and (2) constitute alternative means of establishing the mens rea of the offense of terroristic threateningeither one giving rise to the same criminal culpability. Accordingly, the trial court in [ Klinge ] did not err in its instruction to the jury. Id. at 589, 994 P.2d at 521 (emphasis omitted). In Klinge, the determination whether unanimity was required focused on whether the two alternative mental states, provided in the statute, defined separate crimes requiring individual proof of each offense [16] or merely constituted alternative means of establishing the state of mind element of a single offense. In order to determine whether jury unanimity was required as to the alternative mental states provided in the statute, this court in Klinge, relying on Schad v. Arizona, 501 U.S. 624, 111 S.Ct. 2491, 115 L.Ed.2d 555, reh'g denied, 501 U.S. 1277, 112 S.Ct. 28, 115 L.Ed.2d 1109 (1991), considered whether the level of verdict specificity required by the instructions was rational and fair, considering history and practice, and the degree of `blameworthiness and culpability.' Klinge, 92 Hawai`i at 586-87, 994 P.2d at 518-19 (citation omitted). [17] The discussion in Klinge makes clear that the determination whether it is rational and fair to treat statutory alternatives as alternative means must be made on a case-by-case basis. [18] In making such determination, we considered several factors, including, but not limited to, the language and legislative history of relevant statutes, the history and practice in Hawai`i and other jurisdictions, and whether the alternatives reflect equivalent notions of blameworthiness and culpability. Id. In holding that unanimity was not required as to the alternative mental states defined in the terroristic threatening statute applicable in Klinge, we declined to express any opinion on the necessity of unanimity in other situations not present in this case. Id. at 589 n. 12, 994 P.2d at 521 n. 12. Thus, although this court recognized that unanimity may not be required where the jury is presented with alternative means of satisfying the requisite state of mind element of a single offense, we did not address in Klinge the issues presented here: (a) whether jury unanimity is required when the jury is presented with alternative means of establishing an element other than mental state; and (b) whether due process requires sufficient evidence of each alternative means to uphold a verdict where it is impossible to tell which alternative the jury relied upon.
In addressing the first issue, we must determine whether the alternative theories of guilt presented to the jury regarding the lack of legal consent(1) the absence of consent or (2) ineffective consent (based on any of the four grounds of ineffective consent)define separate crimes or may be treated as alternative means of establishing an element of a single offense. As in Klinge, we examine the statutory provision, the history and practice in Hawai`i and other jurisdictions, and whether the alternatives reasonably reflect notions of equivalent blameworthiness and culpability. See Klinge, 92 Hawai`i at 587-89, 994 P.2d at 519-21. For the reasons set forth below, we hold that, based on the facts and the charged offenses in this case, the alternative theories of absence of consent and ineffective consent do not represent separate crimes; rather, they are alternative means of proving the attendant circumstance element of a single crime. Although one theory is based on the statute defining the crime and the other theory negatives a defense based on the statute prescribing when consent is not a defense, both alternatives deal with the same attendant circumstancethe lack of legal consent. The language and history of the relevant statutory provisions support treating the absence of consent and ineffective consent as alternative means of proving the element of lack of legal consent rather than as separate crimes. HRS §§ 702-233 (1993) and 702-235 (1993), located in HRS Chapter 702 (1993), entitled General Principles of Penal Liability, describe when consent is available as a defense. The General Principles of Penal Liability are applicable to all offenses. They do not create separate crimes. HRS §§ 702-233 and 702-235 are based on the Model Penal Code (MPC) § 2.11 (1962). The commentary to MPC § 2.11 makes clear that the consent provisions deal generally with the concept of consent and must be analyzed in the context of the particular offenses to which they apply. Model Penal Code and Commentaries § 2.11, comment 1 at 394 (Official Draft and Revised Comments 1985) [hereinafter, MPC Commentaries] (The question of whether consent can constitute a defense to a crime is best analyzed in the context of particular offenses and particular conduct.); MPC Commentaries, § 2.11, comment 3 at 398 (discussing why general provision dealing with ineffective consent lends completeness to Code, while avoiding repetition of the same ideas in the definitions of the various offenses to which they are applicable). Thus, because the general principles of liability, which include the ineffective consent statute, do not define discrete or separate offenses, the statutory scheme does not support treating the absence of consent and ineffective consent as elements of separate crimes. Moreover, as previously stated, the Commentary to HRS § 702-235 provides that the ineffective consent statute deprives the defendant of a defense based on consent in those situations where the complainant's apparent consent is meaningless. The commentary thus supports treating ineffective consent and the absence of consent as giving rise to the same criminal culpability. Hawai`i case law further supports the conclusion that, in the context of this case, absence of consent and ineffective consent reflect equivalent notions of blameworthiness. In State v. Oshiro, 5 Haw.App. 404, 696 P.2d 846 (1985), the defendant, a dentist, raised the defense of consent to a charge of rape in the third degree based upon his assault upon his dental assistant while she was mentally incapacitated due to the defendant's administration of nitrous oxide. With the intent of engaging in sexual intercourse with his newly hired dental assistant, the defendant induced her to try nitrous oxide by telling her that she would be able to explain to patients what it felt like to be under nitrous oxide. At the time the offense occurred, HRS § 707-732(1) defined rape in the third degree as follows: A male commits the offense of rape in the third degree if he intentionally engages in sexual intercourse with a female who is mentally defective, mentally incapacitated, or physically helpless. Oshiro, 5 Haw.App. at 405 n. 1, 696 P.2d at 848 n. 1. The defendant argued that the trial court's finding of mental incapacitation was erroneous because his deception did not vitiate the complainant's consent to the gas. Id. at 407, 696 P.2d at 849-50. Rejecting the defendant's argument, the ICA reasoned as follows: The term mentally incapacitated is defined in HRS § 707-700(13) as the state of a person who is temporarily incapable of appraising or controlling his conduct due to a substance administered to him without his consent. Under HRS § 702-235(4) (1976)[, the ineffective consent statute,] consent will not constitute a defense if . . . [i]t is induced by . . . deception. Defendant argues that the trial court incorrectly applied the consent statute to the mentally incapacitated statute, as the factor of consent in HRS § 707-700(13) is not a defense, but an element. Therefore, he contends, the trial court's finding that his deception negated the victim's consent is erroneous. . . . It is true that consent here is an element so HRS § 702-235(4) is not directly applicable. However, both common law and common sense impel the logical conclusion that the denomination of consent as an element or a defense should not affect its basic nature. Extrinsic factors such as the burden of proof may change, but the essence of what constitutes consent does not. No other term in the legal lexicon is subject to such a dichotomy. Thus, if consent as a defense is subject to the ten qualifications of HRS § 702-235, then consent as an element is similarly restricted. We therefore agree with the trial court and hold that the deception did vitiate the victim's consent. Id. at 407-08, 696 P.2d at 849-50 (footnote omitted) (some emphases added and some omitted). Therefore, in practice, this jurisdiction has treated the absence of consent and ineffective consent as giving rise to the same culpability. The history and practice in other jurisdictions also supports the conclusion that treating absence of consent and ineffective consent as alternative means of proving the element of lack of consent is rational and fair. For example, in State v. Ice, 27 Kan. App.2d 1, 997 P.2d 737 (2000), the jury was presented with the following alternative theories, based on statutory alternatives, of establishing that sexual intercourse was committed without the consent of the complainant under circumstances when: (1) she was overcome by force or fear; or (2) she was physically powerless; or (3) she was incapable of giving valid consent because of mental deficiency or disease; or (4) she was incapable of giving valid consent because of the effect of alcoholic liquor. Id. at 739. Although the Kansas Court of Appeals reversed the defendant's rape conviction because one of the alternative theories was not supported by sufficient evidence, see discussion infra, the court treated the alternatives as alternative means by which the jury could have determined lack of consent rather than as separate crimes. Id. Although the Kansas statute at issue in Ice is substantially different than the statutes at issue in this case, the Kansas court's analysis supports the conclusion that it is rational and fair to treat the alternative theories in this case as alternative means rather than separate crimes. Id.; see also State v. Ortega-Martinez, 124 Wash.2d 702, 881 P.2d 231, 234-35 (1994) (holding that jury unanimity as to alternative means of committing rape was not required where there was sufficient evidence of either alternative: (1) by forcible compulsion; or (2) with someone incapable of consent by reason of mental incapacity). Cf. State v. Timley, 255 Kan. 286, 875 P.2d 242, 245-46 (1994) (holding that unanimity not required where there was sufficient evidence of both of the alternative means of perpetrating sexual act presented to the jury: by the use of force or by the use of fear). With respect to whether the statutory alternatives in this case may be treated as alternative means, it is not significant that the jury may have reached different conclusions regarding whether Complainant did not consent or any apparent consent was ineffective, i.e., meaningless, because such differences do not reflect disagreement as to the specific incident charged. Cf. Arceo, 84 Hawai`i at 32-33, 928 P.2d at 875-75 (requiring juror agreement as to the specific criminal act committed by the defendant); Valentine, 93 Hawai`i at 208, 998 P.2d at 488 (unanimity instruction was necessary [in Arceo ] to ensure that each juror convicted the defendant on the basis of the same incident of culpable conduct.). Although we recognize that the absence of consent and the giving of consent that is legally ineffective are mutually exclusive circumstances, such mutual exclusivity does not preclude a determination that they may be treated as alternative means in this case because the jury's verdict as to each count was based on the same incident of culpable conduct. Cf. Rice v. State, 311 Md. 116, 532 A.2d 1357 (1987) (where relevant statute provided, by means of different subsections, that theft could be committed by either taking the property of another or by merely possessing it with the knowledge or belief that it had been stolen, the court concluded that statutory alternatives could be treated as alternative means of committing one crime even though alternatives were mutually exclusive). The sole issue is whether Complainant legally consented. Cf. Oshiro, 5 Haw.App. at 408, 696 P.2d at 850 (stating that the denomination of consent as an element or a defense should not affect its basic nature). [19] Based on the foregoing, we hold that the absence of consent and the relevant grounds of proving ineffective consent may be treated as alternative means of establishing that Complainant did not legally consent to the sexual conduct alleged in this case. We acknowledge that the jury should be instructed on only those grounds of ineffective consent that have a basis in the evidence. If more than one ground is relevant, they may be treated as alternative means of proving ineffective consent. We turn next to the question whether sufficient evidence of each alternative means submitted to the jury is required to uphold the verdict.
In this case, the jury was instructed that it could find Defendant guilty based on the absence of consent or any of the four grounds of ineffective consent, essentially giving the jury five alternative means of establishing that Complainant did not legally consent to the conduct. The ICA concluded that the consent instruction amounted to plain error based in part on the possibility that jurors may have found that Complainant consented to the conduct but that such consent was ineffective, where the prosecution did not present legally sufficient evidence of ineffective consent. In its application for a writ of certiorari, the prosecution contends that, although the ineffective consent instruction was erroneously given, it was so inapplicable that it could not have contributed to the verdict. It is undisputed that there was legally sufficient evidence to support a jury finding of absence of consent. The prosecution also conceded that, although there was some evidence to support a finding of ineffective consent based on two of the four statutory grounds, [20] the evidence adduced in support of those grounds was legally insufficient. Thus, the issue before this court is whether the ineffective consent instruction constituted reversible error where it is possible that the jury found Defendant guilty based upon one of the grounds of ineffective consent, despite the prosecution's failure to meet its burden of proof as to that ground. In other words, in an alternative means case where it is impossible to tell which alternative the jury's verdict is based upon, does due process require that each of the alternative means presented to the jury be supported by legally sufficient evidence? In Griffin v. United States, 502 U.S. 46, 112 S.Ct. 466, 116 L.Ed.2d 371 (1991), the United States Supreme Court addressed whether, in an alternative means case where the jury was not instructed to reach unanimity on one of the alternatives, legally sufficient evidence of each alternative submitted to the jury is required to comply with due process. In Griffin, the defendant was charged with a single count of conspiring to defraud an agency of the federal government, [21] and the conspiracy was alleged to have had two objects: (1) impairing the efforts of the Internal Revenue Service to ascertain income tax liability; and (2) impairing the efforts of the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) to identify forfeitable assets. Id. at 47, 112 S.Ct. 466. The two objects were treated as alternative means of establishing the offense. [22] At trial, the government failed to produce any evidence to prove interference with the DEA. Id. at 48, 112 S.Ct. 466. The jury returned a general verdict of guilt against Griffin and her two codefendants. Id. The Court held that the due process clause of the fifth amendment to the federal constitution does not require that a general guilty verdict in a multiple object conspiracy case be set aside where the verdict left in doubt whether the jury had convicted the defendant of the first or second object, regardless whether the evidence is insufficient to support a conviction as to one of the objects. See id. at 56-60, 112 S.Ct. 466. In affirming the defendant's conviction, the Court relied primarily on its holding in Turner v. United States, 396 U.S. 398, 90 S.Ct. 642, 24 L.Ed.2d 610 (1970). See Griffin, 502 U.S. at 56-57, 112 S.Ct. 466. As discussed by the Court in Griffin, Turner involved a claim that the evidence was insufficient to support a general guilty verdict under a one-count indictment charging the defendant with knowingly purchasing, possessing, dispensing, and distributing heroin not in or from the original stamped package, in violation of 26 U.S.C. § 4704(a)(1964 ed.). [The Court in Turner ] held that the conviction would have to be sustained if there was sufficient evidence of distribution alone. [ Turner ] set forth as the prevailing rule: [W]hen a jury returns a guilty verdict on an indictment charging several acts in the conjunctive, as Turner's indictment did, the verdict stands if the evidence is sufficient with respect to any one of the acts charged. [ Turner, 396 U.S.] at 420, [90 S.Ct. 642][.] Griffin, 502 U.S. at 56-57, 112 S.Ct. 466 (emphasis in original). The Court in Griffin concluded that, where one of the possible bases of conviction was neither unconstitutional [23] nor illegal, [24] but merely unsupported by sufficient evidence, there was no violation of the due process clause. Id. at 59-60, 112 S.Ct. 466. The Court made a distinction between a jury instruction that misstates the law and one that presents a theory of conviction not supported by the evidence, reasoning that, although jurors are generally not equipped to discern a mistake in the law as charged to them, the Court may be more confident that the jury would reject a legal theory not supported by the facts. Id. at 59, 112 S.Ct. 466. The petitioner in Griffin sought to distinguish Turner on the basis that it applies only where one can be sure that the jury did not use the inadequately supported ground as the basis of the conviction. That assurance exists, petitioner claim[ed], when the prosecution presents no evidence whatever to support the insufficient theory; if the prosecution offers some, but insufficient, evidence on the point, as it did in [ Griffin ], then the verdict must be set aside because it is impossible to determine the theory upon which the jury relied. Id. at 58, 112 S.Ct. 466 (emphases in original). The Court rejected a rule, advanced by the petitioner, that distinguished situations where there was absolutely no evidence in support of a theory from situations where there was some evidence, although insufficient. Id. The Court reasoned that such a rule would reward the greater failure of proof, was full of practical difficulty, and was not supported by Turner. Id. The Court recognized, however, that it would generally be preferable for the trial court to remove unsupported theories from the jury's consideration. Id. at 60, 112 S.Ct. 466. [25] Although Griffin established that, under federal law, sufficient evidence was required for only one of the alternative means supporting a conviction, a number of state courts have rejected such analysis on state law grounds, holding that there must be sufficient evidence to support each alternative theory submitted to the jury to uphold a general verdict of guilty. See e.g., Commonwealth v. Plunkett, 422 Mass. 634, 664 N.E.2d 833, 837 (1996) (rejecting Griffin on state law grounds); Ortega-Martinez, 881 P.2d at 234-35 (rejecting Griffin on state law grounds); People v. Rodriguez, 914 P.2d 230, 273 (Colo.1996) (citing James v. People, 727 P.2d 850 (Colo.1986) (rejecting Turner on state law grounds)); see also Bloomquist v. State, 914 P.2d 812 (Wyo.1996) (upholding general verdict in alternative means case based on state law that requires legally sufficient evidence of each alternative ground for conviction); Timley, 875 P.2d at 246 (citing Kitchen, 756 P.2d at 109, for the proposition that unanimity is not required in an alternative means case provided that substantial evidence supports each alternative means); cf. Ice, 997 P.2d at 741 (distinguishing Griffin, where there was strong evidence supporting one theory and none on another, from case where evidence of alternative theory was legally insufficient despite significant testimony and prosecutorial effort). But see, e.g., Atwater v. State, 626 So.2d 1325, 1327-28 n. 1 (Fla.1993) (adopting Griffin with approval), cert. denied, 511 U.S. 1046, 114 S.Ct. 1578, 128 L.Ed.2d 221 (1994); Guiton, 17 Cal.Rptr.2d 365, 847 P.2d at 53 (harmonizing Griffin rule with state law, holding that, on appeal of a conviction by a jury that was presented with alternate legal theories of conviction, one of which is factually inadequate, the appellate court should affirm the judgment unless a review of the entire record affirmatively demonstrates a reasonable probability that the jury in fact found the defendant guilty solely on the unsupported theory); State v. Enyeart, 123 Idaho 452, 849 P.2d 125, 128-29 (1993) (citing Griffin for the proposition that a general verdict stands even if one of the alternative bases for conviction was not supported by sufficient evidence). In Plunkett, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court held that a new trial on the charge of murder was required where the jury was presented with two alternative theories of first degree murder, there was insufficient evidence as to one of the theories, and it was impossible to tell upon which theory the jury relied. Rejecting the United States Supreme Court's analysis in Griffin, the Massachusetts court stated: We do not accept the Supreme Court's premise that, in such a situation, the jurors will have obviously rejected the theory for which there was no evidentiary support. If the judge tells a jury that they may find the defendant guilty on a theory that is factually unsupported (in effect committing an error of law), the jurors understandably might believe that there must be some evidence to support that theory. The law of homicide is not uncomplicated in this Commonwealth. If judges at all levels have difficulty with it from time to time, it is obvious that lay jurors can easily be confused. The premise of the Supreme Court's position, that obviously the jury did the right thing, is not so well founded as to attract our acceptance of it. See People v. Guiton, 4 Cal.4th 1116, 1132-33, 17 Cal.Rptr.2d 365, 847 P.2d 45 (1993) (Mosk, J., concurring) (the premise of jury `infallibility' is unsupported). If the premise of the Supreme Court's position were correct, a jury would never return a guilty verdict when the evidence was insufficient to warrant that verdict, and we know that is not so. If a person is to be incarcerated, . . . in fairness there must be evidentiary support for each theory of guilt on which the judge tells the jury they may find the defendant guilty. Plunkett, 664 N.E.2d at 837 (emphasis added). [26] Indeed, there are numerous examples of cases in Hawai`i where this court has reversed a defendant's conviction because the jury's verdict was not supported by legally sufficient evidence as a matter of law. See, e.g., State v. Balanza, 93 Hawai`i 279, 288, 1 P.3d 281, 290 (2000); State v. Bautista, 86 Hawai`i 207, 214, 948 P.2d 1048, 1055 (1997); State v. Malufau, 80 Hawai`i 126, 133, 906 P.2d 612, 619, vacated in part on other grounds, 80 Hawai`i 126, 906 P.2d 612 (1995); State v. Lucks, 56 Haw. 129, 132, 531 P.2d 855, 858 (1975). In Ice, the Kansas Court of Appeals reversed the defendant's rape conviction where one of the alternative theories of guilt presented to the jury was not supported by sufficient evidence. 997 P.2d at 741. The jury was presented with alternative theories of establishing that sexual intercourse was committed without the consent of the complainant, including: (1) that she was overcome by force or fear; or (2) that she was incapable of giving valid consent. Id. at 739. The court held that there was legally insufficient evidence of incapacity and that there was a real possibility that one or more of the jurors convicted the defendant based on that theory. Id. at 741. In reversing the defendant's conviction, the court in Ice distinguished Griffin as a case where one can reasonably assume the jury did not behave capriciously and convict on a theory in which there was no evidence, when there was strong evidence supporting another theory. Id. The court in Ice reasoned that, [w]ith so much testimony and prosecutorial effort invested into the `no capacity' theory, we cannot say there is no real possibility that the verdict here was based only on the force [or] fear theory. Id. Thus, the Kansas court adopted a rule, rejected by Griffin, recognizing that courts could reasonably assume that a jury would reject a theory where there was no evidence or argument, but that courts could not reasonably assume that a jury would not convict on a theory supported by argument and some evidence, although legally insufficient. A defendant's rights are clearly prejudiced where the jury is instructed that it may find him guilty based upon a theory of guilt that is not supported by sufficient evidence as a matter of law. The source of a defendant's right to the establishment of proof beyond a reasonable doubt in a criminal case is found in the due process clause of article I, section 5 of the Hawai`i State Constitution, independent of the United States Constitution. State v. Perez, 90 Hawai`i 113, 129, 976 P.2d 427, 443 (App.1998), rev'd in part on other grounds, 90 Hawai`i 65, 976 P.2d 379 (1999). In Turner and Griffin, the Court held that, where a jury is presented with alternative means of establishing a crime and only one is supported by sufficient evidence, the federal constitution does not require proof beyond a reasonable doubt of each alternative theory. Turner, 396 U.S. at 420, 90 S.Ct. 642; Griffin, 502 U.S. at 56-57, 112 S.Ct. 466. However, this court has recognized that the due process protection under the Hawai`i constitution is not necessarily limited to that provided by the United States Constitution. State v. Bernades, 71 Haw. 485, 487, 795 P.2d 842, 843 (1990) (citing State v. Santiago, 53 Haw. 254, 492 P.2d 657 (1971)). We are not convinced by the reasoning of the Supreme Court in Griffin that the jury will necessarily reject a theory unsupported by legally sufficient evidence, particularly where there is some evidence adduced and considerable argument presented to the jury. However, we recognize, as did the Kansas Court of Appeals, that, where there is no real possibility that the jury convicted based on an unsupported theory, e.g., where there is overwhelming evidence of one theory and absolutely no argument or evidence presented on another, there may be no reversible error. See Ice, 997 P.2d at 741; see also State v. Chapman, 229 Conn. 529, 643 A.2d 1213, 1221-22 (1994) (in an alternative means case, the court held that, although the trial court erroneously instructed jury on an alternative for which there was no evidence, the instruction was harmless error). Thus, based on our analysis of Defendant's rights to a unanimous verdict and to due process under article I of the Hawai`i Constitution, we hold that unanimity is not required where alternative means of establishing an element of an offense are submitted to the jury, provided that there is no reasonable possibility that the jury's verdict was based on an alternative unsupported by sufficient evidence. We further hold that: (1) separate and distinct culpable acts may not be treated as alternative means of proving the conduct element of an offense, see section III.B.1.; and (2) whether the alternative theories may be treated as alternative means or constitute separate crimes is an initial determination to be made on a case-by-case basis. See Section III.B.2.a. Having determined that the absence of consent and ineffective consent may be treated as alternative means of proving the lack of legal consent, we now examine whether there was legally sufficient evidence of each alternative submitted to the jury in this case.
When reviewing the sufficiency of the evidence presented at trial, we have repeatedly stated that evidence adduced in the trial court must be considered in the strongest light for the prosecution when the appellate court passes on the legal sufficiency of such evidence to support a conviction; the same standard applies whether the case was before a judge or jury. The test on appeal is not whether guilt is established beyond a reasonable doubt, but whether there was substantial evidence to support the conclusion of the trier of fact. State v. Quitog, 85 Hawai`i 128, 145, 938 P.2d 559, 576 (1997) (quoting State v. Eastman, 81 Hawai`i 131, 135, 913 P.2d 57, 61 (1996)) (emphasis omitted). `Substantial evidence' as to every material element of the offense charged is credible evidence which is of sufficient quality and probative value to enable a person of reasonable caution to support a conclusion. Eastman, 81 Hawai`i at 135, 913 P.2d at 61. State v. Birdsall, 88 Hawai`i 1, 8, 960 P.2d 729, 736, reconsideration denied, 88 Hawai`i 1, 960 P.2d 729 (1998). Here, the jury was presented with the following alternative means of establishing a lack of consent: (1) the absence of consent; or (2) ineffective consent, based on any of four grounds. It is undisputed that there was legally sufficient evidence to support the jury's consideration of the absence of consent alternative. As to the jury instruction regarding the ineffective consent alternative, the prosecution concedes that the evidence presented at trial simply [did] not support an ineffective consent instruction in this case[,] but argues that the instruction was so inapplicable that there is no real possibility that the erroneous instruction contributed to the verdict. Our review of the record reveals that, although there was no argument presented or evidence adduced in support of grounds one and three of the ineffective consent statute, [27] the prosecution presented considerable argument and adduced some evidence in support of the theory that, even if Complainant gave apparent consent, it was ineffective based on either ground two or ground four. Under ground two, consent is ineffective if [i]t was given by a person who by reason of youth, mental disease, disorder or defect . . . is manifestly unable or known by the defendant to be unable to make a reasonable judgment as to the nature of harmfulness of the conduct alleged [.] (Emphasis added.) Proof of the complainant's youth alone does not satisfy the elements of Ground two. Ground two of the ineffective consent statute is thus distinguishable from the strict liability offense described in HRS § 707-732(1)(b), wherein the offense is described as sexual contact with a person less than fourteen years old. See supra note 5; cf. State v. Buch, 83 Hawai`i 308, 316 n. 5, 926 P.2d 599, 607 n. 5 (1996) (noting that [t]he Commentary to HRS § 702-235, . . . to the extent that it suggests that the Code eliminates absolute liability with respect to the victim's age in a sex offense, is directly contrary to the unequivocally expressed legislative intent [in imposing strict liability under 707-732(1)(b)]). In order to prove Ground two, the prosecution must prove that Defendant knew or should have known, i.e., that it was manifest, that Complainant was unable to exercise reasonable judgment as to the nature of the harmfulness of the conduct alleged. HRS § 702-235(2). During trial, the prosecution spent considerable time focusing on Complainant's youth to explain why she did not ask to go home and chose to stay in the hotel room with Defendant, even after the earlier assaults, distinguishing Complainant's actions from an adult response. The prosecution's arguments also repeatedly referred to the effect of Defendant's mental manipulation and mental coercion upon Complainant as a young girl who was easily influenced. [28] There was evidence that Complainant was fourteen-years-old. She also testified that nothing like this had happened to her before, that she was embarrassed by Defendant's sexual advances, and that, when Defendant made these advances, she tried to avoid him or push him away. However, even if Complainant was inexperienced or embarrassed, there was no evidence adduced that Defendant knew or should have known that Complainant was unable to make a reasonable judgment as to the nature or the harmfulness of the conduct alleged. Thus, although there was considerable argument regarding Complainant's youth and some evidence of her inexperience, there was legally insufficient evidence to establish ineffective consent under Ground two. Under Ground four, consent is ineffective if, inter alia, [i]t is induced by . . . deception. (Emphasis added.) The prosecution repeatedly referred to Defendant's use of deception and manipulation to lure this young girl to spend time with him and come to his hotel, referring to Defendant as a pied piper and a con artist. [29] The record contains evidence that Defendant talked about his connection to rock groups and modeling agencies. However, there is no evidence that Defendant was untruthful about his connections. Defendant began his relationship with the Complainant, her family, and her friends by procuring concert tickets for them. At best, the evidence supports an inference that Defendant used his connections and procured concert tickets in order to attract Complainant to spend time with him. If the jury believed that she consented to the sexual conduct, was induced by deception that would render such consent meaningless. Thus, although there was significant prosecutorial effort expended on Defendant's use of deception and a trace of evidence that he tried to impress the Complainant with his connections, such evidence was legally insufficient to establish ineffective consent based on Ground four. Based on the foregoing, if the jury believed that Complainant consented to the sexual conduct, Defendant should have been acquitted because there was no legally sufficient evidence in support of any of the four grounds of ineffective consent. However, the jury was instructed that they could find Defendant guilty, even if they believed Complainant consented, based upon ineffective consent. Because there was considerable argument and some evidence presented to the jury regarding the Complainant's youth and Defendant's mental manipulation and deception, it is possible that some or all of the jurors believed they could find guilt based on ineffective consent, despite the lack of legally sufficient evidence as to any of the ineffective consent grounds. See Ice, 997 P.2d at 741 (stating that, [w]ith so much testimony and prosecutorial effort invested into [legally insufficient] theory, we cannot say there is no real possibility that the verdict here was based only on the [legally sufficient] theory.). Further, as recognized by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, [i]f the judge tells a jury that they may find the defendant guilty on a theory that is factually unsupported (in effect committing an error of law), the jurors understandably might believe that there must be some evidence to support that theory. Plunkett, 664 N.E.2d at 837. We cannot assume that the jurors rejected the ineffective consent theories presented to them. Therefore, we hold that the instruction as to ineffective consent prejudicially affected Defendant's right to due process because (1) the jury was instructed that it could convict Defendant based on the absence of consent or any of the four grounds of ineffective consent, (2) there was a reasonable possibility that the verdict was based upon at least one of the four grounds of ineffective consent, and (3) there was legally insufficient evidence to support any of the four grounds of ineffective consent presented to the jury. In other words, the erroneous jury instruction regarding ineffective consent was not harmless because there was a reasonable possibility that the verdict was based on an alternative that was unsupported by legally sufficient evidence.