Opinion ID: 2996057
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: Time, Place, and Manner

Text: Weinberg next contends, citing Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791 (1989), that the peddling law 8 No. 02-1372 is not content-neutral, not narrowly tailored to serve a significant government interest, and does not leave open ample alternative channels. We now consider whether the ordinance constitutes a reasonable time, place, and manner restriction. The City claims that the ordinance is a mere restriction on the place in which one can sell goods. The City, of course, has every right to maintain limitations on where and when such activities may occur. However, these limitations must be able to coexist with the First Amendment. The restrictions must be justified without reference to the content of the regulated speech, narrowly tailored to serve a significant government interest, and leave open ample alternative channels for communication. Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence, 468 U.S. 288, 293 (1984). The first determination of the time, place, and manner analysis is whether the law in question is content-neutral. Ward, 491 U.S. at 791. Restrictions on speech are contentneutral if they are “justified without reference to the content of the regulated speech.” Renton v. Play Time Theaters, Inc., 475 U.S. 41, 48 (1986). “The principal inquiry in determining content neutrality, in speech cases generally and in time, place, or manner cases in particular, is whether the government has adopted a regulation of speech because of disagreement with the message it conveys.” Ward, 491 U.S. at 791. Weinberg bases his contention that the ordinance is not content-neutral on the argument that the ordinance permits only “topical” speech while restricting all other types of speech. Weinberg points to the admission by the City that whether speech is considered “topical” is one of the criterion for determining whether something qualifies as a newspaper. Weinberg classifies his work as a “screed,” which is quite different from the speech typically associated No. 02-1372 9 with a newspaper. As a self-described screed, Career Misconduct documents evidence of Wirtz’s alleged actions and presents it in an in depth manner that is not compatible with a newspaper format. Weinberg concludes that because his speech does not fall under the auspice of “topical” speech its prohibition is a content-based restriction. Weinberg’s argument on content neutrality fails for a number of reasons, the most notable of which is that the City did not adopt this regulation of speech “because of disagreement with the message it conveys.” Ward, 491 U.S. at 791. Weinberg’s topical speech distinction ignores the fundamental framework of the Ward test. The peddling law makes no reference to the content of speech. It simply maintains a general prohibition on the sale of merchandise. As the City notes, the ordinance is wholly indifferent to any specific message or viewpoint. These regulations do not single out a certain message for different treatment. Schultz v. City of Cumberland, 228 F.3d 831, 840 (7th Cir. 2000). The peddling ordinance does not require one to consider the content of the speech, merely its format. Since the City treats those selling any type of book, regardless of its content, equally, we cannot agree that the ordinance is content-based. In enacting this ordinance, the City proposed to limit congestion on the sidewalk. See Potts v. City of Lafayette, 121 F.3d 1106, 1111 (7th Cir. 1997). The purpose of the legislation, enacted years before Weinberg wrote his book, was not to silence Mr. Weinberg’s message. The content of his message was of no interest to the City simply because he can still disseminate his message, albeit in a different format. While this may raise questions of whether the ordinance is narrowly tailored or leaves open ample alternatives, it does not raise concerns about the content neutrality of the ordinance. In addition, the fact that the ordinance adversely affects Weinberg while not 10 No. 02-1372 affecting a newspaper seller is of little persuasion because “[a] regulation that serves purposes unrelated to the content of expression is deemed neutral, even if it has an incidental effect on some speakers or messages but not others.” Ward, 491 U.S. at 791. Since the relevant inquiries regarding content neutrality have been satisfied, we find that the peddling ordinance is content-neutral. We now must consider whether the Chicago ordinance is narrowly tailored to achieve a significant governmental interest. There is no doubt the City has a legitimate interest in protecting its citizens and ensuring that its streets and sidewalks are safe for everyone. International Soc’y for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. v. Lee, 505 U.S. 672, 683-85 (1992). Its interest in maintaining the flow of pedestrian traffic is intertwined with the concern for public safety. See Heffron v. International Soc’y for Krishna Consciousness, Inc., 452 U.S. 640, 650-51 (1981); Jacobsen v. Petersen, 728 F.Supp. 1415, 1420 (C.D.S.D. 1990). Weinberg never explicitly questions the legitimacy of the state interest, likely because of the manifest weight of case law against him. See, e.g., Madsen v. Women’s Health Center, 512 U.S. 753, 768, (1994) (finding the state “has a strong interest in ensuring the public safety and order, in promoting the free flow of traffic on public streets and sidewalks . . .”); Heffron v. International Soc’y for Krishna Consciousness, Inc., 452 U.S. 640, 650 (1981) (recognizing state interest in safety and convenience of citizens using public fora); Ayres v. City of Chicago, 125 F.3d 1010, 1015 (7th Cir. 1997) (“There are unquestionable benefits from regulating peddling, First Amendment or otherwise, [including] the control of congestion.”). Instead, he challenges the sufficiency of evidence the government introduced justifying the necessity of the ordinance. In the context of a First Amendment challenge under the narrowly tailored test, the government has the burden of showing that there is evidence supporting its proffered No. 02-1372 11 justification. DiMa Corp. v. Town of Hallie, 185 F.3d 823, 829 (7th Cir. 1999). The City contends that because there is heavy traffic around the United Center, safety concerns justify the ordinance. On its face, this contention is hard to dispute. However, First Amendment rights demand more than mere facial assertions. It is true that the government may rely upon its own “real-world experience” in enacting regulations, United States v. Kokinda, 497 U.S. 720, 735 (1990), but the City cannot blindly invoke safety and congestion concerns without more. Arguably, a government could cite safety concerns as its sole reason for banning all peddling on all sidewalks since a potential exists for crowding or congestion. The City presented testimony from police officers and security officials familiar with the United Center and its environs. These officials testified that the peddling of merchandise created congestion and that the enforcement of the ordinance essentially eliminated the traffic problems. This testimony conflicts with a videotape, shot at the request of the district court, of Weinberg selling his book outside the United Center. Both parties were present as the taping took place. The video shows no interference with any pedestrian traffic nor any congestion along the sidewalk. Moreover, the City fails to make a persuasive assessment of the tape or its worth. Despite this highly relevant and informative piece of evidence, the City wants to focus on the scant testimony of two arguably self-serving witnesses. Watseka v. Illinois Public Action Council, 796 F.2d 1547 (7th Cir. 1986), aff’d, 479 U.S. 1048 (1987), offers guidance on the question of what constitutes sufficient evidence to prove the government’s interest. In Watseka, we struck down an ordinance restricting solicitation for, among other reasons, lack of evidence supporting the city’s substantial interest. Finding that the city failed to offer, other 12 No. 02-1372 than testimony from the Mayor, any substantive evidence that the ordinance prevented fraud, we noted “[s]uch a conclusory assertion by an interested party, particularly when unsupported by any statistics or firsthand knowledge of any actual crimes, lends little if any support to [the city’s] claim.” Id. at 1556. This language is applicable to the situation before us. The City of Chicago has provided no objective evi- dence that traffic flow on the sidewalk or street is disrupted when Mr. Weinberg sells his book. The City offered no empirical studies, no police records, no reported injuries, nor evidence of any lawsuits filed. The City also fails to explain why there were no disturbances or problems when Weinberg was selling his book during the period prior to enforcement of the ordinance or after the lower court granted the temporary restraining order. Using a speech restrictive blanket with little or no factual justification flies in the face of preserving one of our most cherished rights. As Mr. Weinberg notes, the only evidence the City offered was based on speculation as to what might happen if booksellers could sell their books and the cumulative effect this might have on pedestrian traffic. This is problematic; “[w]e have never accepted mere conjecture as adequate to carry a First Amendment burden.” Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC, 528 U.S. 377, 392 (2000). In addition, there was no evidence that other booksellers were present around the United Center. As in Genusa v. Peoria, 619 F.2d 1203, 1213 (7th Cir. 1980), nothing in the record supports the City’s contention that Weinberg’s activity caused serious congestion or disturbance. In fact, a thorough examination of the record, and the video in particular, reveals not only that there is little basis for the City’s concerns, but also that the City’s concerns are not justified at all. In addition to the problems noted above, the ordinance contains other inconsistencies. The peddling ordinance No. 02-1372 13 bans peddling, but leaves open activities such as leafleting, newspaper sales, street performances, and charitable solicitations. The City’s position is that these categories of First Amendment activity somehow do not interfere with traffic congestion and pedestrian safety but selling a book has the potential to create chaos. Weinberg argues that this haphazard approach of permitting other forms of speech cannot advance the City’s interest in maintaining traffic congestion. We agree. The recent Supreme Court decision, Watchtower Bible & Tract Soc’y of N.Y., Inc. v. Village of Stratton, 122 S. Ct. 2080 (2002), offers some insight into this problem. Watchtower concerned a First Amendment challenge to an ordinance requiring solicitors to obtain a permit prior to engaging in door-to-door advocacy. The Court recognized that the town had a substantial interest in the prevention of fraud and crime. However, the Court noted that it must consider “whether there is an appropriate balance between the affected speech and the governmental interests that the ordinance purports to serve.” Id. at 2089. The Court determined that the ordinance did not advance the town’s interest in combating fraud because criminals would be able to avoid the permit requirements described in the statute. In finding the ordinance violated the First Amendment, the Court based its determination on the fact that the ordinance is “not tailored to the Village’s stated interests.” Id. at 2090. Similarly, the City of Chicago’s inconsistent approach does not comport with its interests of maintaining traffic congestion. We do not find that the City has no substantial interest in maintaining safety around the United Center. We do, however, find that the City has not appropriately demonstrated that Weinberg or any other peddler creates the problems the City asserts they cause. Having found that the City has failed to show the ordinance advances a significant governmental interest, further 14 No. 02-1372 discussion of whether the ordinance is a reasonable time, place, and manner restriction is not mandatory. However, we believe the City’s failure to meet the other elements of this test warrants our attention. Notwithstanding the City’s inability to show that Weinberg, or any peddler for that matter, posed a threat to the safety and free flow of traffic surrounding the United Center, the peddling ordinance is not narrowly tailored. A regulation is narrowly tailored if it “promotes a substantial government interest that would be achieved less effectively absent the regulation.” Ward, 491 U.S. at 799. To satisfy the narrowly tailored test, an ordinance need not be the least restrictive method for achieving the government’s goal. Id. at 797. Nevertheless, while a regulation does not have to be a perfect fit for the government’s needs, it cannot substantially burden more speech than necessary. Ward, 491 U.S. at 800. The lower court notes that the 1,000-foot ban encompasses a majority of the United Center’s parking lot. It then finds that a restriction of this magnitude is justified because the ordinance bans peddling “in the area with the heaviest concentration of pedestrians and automobiles.” Weinberg v. City of Chicago, 179 F. Supp. 2d 869, 878 (2002). What the district court failed to consider, however, is the effect such a large restriction has on peddlers. The 1,000-foot restriction overcompensates for an alleged congestion problem on the sidewalks around the United Center. The concerns behind the enactment and enforcement of the ordinance were to alleviate sidewalk congestion and prevent pedestrian traffic from spilling into the streets. While laudable goals, we cannot see how this can justify a restriction which prevents a peddler from selling his wares in large parking lots, less congested walkways, or sidewalks in less proximity to the United Center. No. 02-1372 15 It appears that the City takes what amounts to be an allor-nothing approach with peddlers. It avoids finding any kind of middle ground, such as a ban of less distance, a ban on peddling on certain narrow walkways, or a ban on peddling on the sidewalks immediately surrounding the United Center. Restrictions such as these would be less encompassing and less intrusive on First Amendment rights. A 1,000-foot ban is too great of a restriction; it effectively eliminates any opportunity for Mr. Weinberg to sell his book to patrons of the United Center. Mr. Weinberg notes that a 1,000-foot restriction eliminates “any meaningful avenue of distribution” of goods because most parking lots at the United Center are within a 1,000-foot radius of the building. The City’s one-size-fits-all approach to restricting peddling cannot be reconciled with our First Amendment rights. Cox v. Louisiana, 379 U.S. 559 (1965). Given these concerns, we conclude that the ordinance burdens substantially more speech than is necessary. Because the City bans peddling even in areas where congestion would not be a hazard, we cannot say the City applied a sufficiently narrow law necessary to promote its legitimate interest. The last inquiry in determining whether the City’s ordinance is a reasonable time, place, and manner restriction is whether the law leaves open ample alternative channels. An adequate alternative does not have to be the speaker’s first choice. Heffron, 452 U.S. at 647; Gresham v. Peterson, 225 F.3d 899, 906 (7th Cir. 2000). However, an alternative is not adequate if it “foreclose[s] a speaker’s ability to reach one audience even if it allows the speaker to reach other groups.” Gresham, 225 F.3d at 907. See also Bery v. City of New York, 97 F.3d 689, 698 (2d Cir. 1996) (holding that a total ban on sidewalk art does not leave open alternative means of communication because alternative display in galleries or museums would not reach the same audience). 16 No. 02-1372 In applying this test, we also consider the alternative channels of communication themselves. The mere existence of an alternative method of communication cannot be the end of the analysis. We must also give adequate consideration to whether the alternatives are ample. Whether an alternative is ample should be considered from the speaker’s point of view. The City argues and the district court agreed that alternative channels of communication exist for Weinberg to disseminate his message. Weinberg, 179 F. Supp. 2d at 879. The district court noted that Weinberg can sell his book via the Internet, through bookstores, or in other areas of the city.3 The City also points out that Weinberg still has the ability to disseminate his negative opinions of Mr. Wirtz outside the United Center. However, the simple fact that Weinberg is permitted to communicate his message elsewhere does not end our analysis if the intended message is rendered useless or is seriously burdened. See, e.g., City of Ladue v. Gilleo, 512 U.S. 43, 56-57 (1994) (alternatives to posting signs on residential property such as posting signs on commercial property are inadequate because residents may wish to reach neighbors); Bay Area Peace Navy v. United States, 914 F.2d 1224, 1229 (9th Cir. 1990) (seventyfive yard security zone prevented anti-war protestors’ demonstration from reaching the intended audience, mil- 3 The City adds additional alternatives in its brief, which include breaking up the book by chapter and selling it in newspaper fashion or handing his book out at no cost. The City relies upon Friends of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial v. Kennedy, 116 F.3d 495, 497 (D.C. Cir. 1997) and One World One Family Now v. City & County of Honolulu, 76 F.3d 1009, 1014-15 (9th Cir. 1996) as support for the alternative of giving the book away. However, as in Ayres, the magnitude of the no-peddling zone eliminates the possibility that Weinberg could sell his book in proximity to the prohibited area, making reliance on these cases suspect. Ayres, supra, 125 F.3d at 1016. No. 02-1372 17 itary leaders); Students Against Apartheid Coalition v. O’Neil, 660 F. Supp. 333, 339-40 (W.D. Va. 1987) (school regulation prohibiting protest shanties on lawn of building where Board of Visitors meets is not rendered valid by permission to erect shanties in other places not visible to members of Board, who were the intended audience); Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Movement, Inc. v. City of Chicago, 419 F. Supp. 667, 674 (N.D. Ill. 1976) (permitting a parade route through black neighborhood not a sufficient alternative to a route through white neighborhood when white people were the intended audience). As the Supreme Court has stated, “[t]he First Amendment mandates that we presume that speakers, not the government, know best both what they want to say and how to say it.” Riley v. National Fed’n of the Blind of N.C., Inc., 487 U.S. 781, 790-91 (1988). Mr. Weinberg is attempting to disseminate a message critical of the owner of the Chicago Blackhawks, Bill Wirtz. He has chosen to express his message in a self-authored book, for which he charges $13.00 a copy. His intended audience is Chicago Blackhawks fans. The most opportune time and place to reach this audience is outside the United Center, before and after Blackhawks home games. In evaluating First Amendment cases, we cannot check common sense at the door. As Weinberg notes, Blackhawk fans are a fundamentally different market than the market for bookstore readers or Internet users. The United Center is a unique location for the sale of Weinberg’s book, especially since the target market for his book is Blackhawk fans. In Bay Area Peace Navy v. United States, 914 F.2d 1224, 1229 (9th Cir. 1990), the Ninth Circuit held that “an alternative is not ample if the speaker is not permitted to reach the intended audience.” Weinberg is unable to sell his book to Blackhawks fans entering the United Center. The ordinance prevents him from reaching his intended book purchasing audience. The alternatives require 18 No. 02-1372 Herculean efforts by Weinberg or his customers to complete the sale.4 Thus, in light of Weinberg’s customer base and his unique marketplace, we cannot say the alternatives are ample, precisely because his “ability to communicate effectively is threatened.” City Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent, 466 U.S. 789, 812 (1984). We recognize that “an adequate alternative does not have to be the speaker’s first or best choice, or one that provides the same audience or impact for the speech.” Gresham v. Peterson, 225 F.3d 899, 906 (7th Cir. 2000). However, the City’s onerous and inconsistent approach to First Amendment activity coupled with the substantially detrimental effects on Mr. Weinberg’s free speech rights suggest to this Court that the ordinance does not provide ample alternatives. The City does not support its bare assertion that a peddler within 1,000 feet of the United Center causes congestion problems. The ordinance is also not narrowly tailored and does not provide for ample alternatives. For these reasons, we find the peddling ordinance is not a reasonable time, place, and manner restriction.