Opinion ID: 1871258
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 7

Heading: Probable Cause to Search Voichahoske

Text: The Fourth Amendment provides that the people are to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures... and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause. U.S. Const. amend. IV. Warrantless searches and seizures are per se unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment, subject only to a few specifically established and well-delineated exceptions, which must be strictly confined by their justifications. See State v. Allen, 269 Neb. 69, 690 N.W.2d 582 (2005). The warrantless search exceptions recognized by this court include: (1) searches undertaken with consent or with probable cause, (2) searches under exigent circumstances, (3) inventory searches, (4) searches of evidence in plain view, and (5) searches incident to a valid arrest. State v. Roberts, 261 Neb. 403, 623 N.W.2d 298 (2001). In the case of a search and seizure conducted without a warrant, the State has the burden of showing the applicability of one or more of the exceptions to the warrant requirement. State v. Roberts, supra . The State argues that the drug dog's alert while the passengers were inside the car provides probable cause to search both the car and its passengers. However, as explained later, this statement sweeps too broadly. Probable cause escapes precise definition or quantification into percentages because it deals with probabilities and depends on the totality of the circumstances. Maryland v. Pringle, 540 U.S. 366, 124 S.Ct. 795, 157 L.Ed.2d 769 (2003). See, also, State v. Oltjenbruns, 187 Neb. 694, 193 N.W.2d 744 (1972). Moreover, we determine probable cause by an objective standard of reasonableness: whether the known facts and circumstances are sufficient to warrant a person of reasonable prudence in the belief that contraband or evidence of crime will be found. See State v. Craven, 253 Neb. 601, 571 N.W.2d 612 (1997). Here, Reilly had probable cause to search the car because of the dog's alert. A dog's identification of drugs in luggage or in a car provides probable cause that drugs are present. U.S. v. Bloomfield, 40 F.3d 910 (8th Cir.1994). But a person's mere proximity to others independently suspected of criminal activity does not, without more, give rise to probable cause to search that person. See Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. 85, 100 S.Ct. 338, 62 L.Ed.2d 238 (1979) (holding that search warrant for tavern and its bartender did not permit body searches of all bar's patrons). Specifically, probable cause to search a car does not necessarily justify searching the body of a passenger. United States v. Di Re, 332 U.S. 581, 68 S.Ct. 222, 92 L.Ed. 210 (1948). Even a limited search of the outer clothing ... constitutes a severe, though brief, intrusion upon cherished personal security, and it must surely be an annoying, frightening, and perhaps humiliating experience. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 24-25, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968). Thus, [w]here the standard is probable cause, a search or seizure of a person must be supported by probable cause particularized with respect to that person. This requirement cannot be undercut or avoided by simply pointing to the fact that coincidentally there exists probable cause to search or seize another or to search the premises where the person may happen to be. Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. at 91, 100 S.Ct. 338. We have echoed this standard, saying: Probable cause to arrest is not some vapor permeating a place, engulfing anyone who happens to be at a site where unlawful conduct may be occurring or may have occurred. Rather, probable cause to arrest is particularized and exists in reference to a specific individual. State v. Evans, 223 Neb. 383, 388, 389 N.W.2d 777, 781 (1986). So we focus on whether Reilly had probable cause sufficiently particularized to Voichahoske. In Maryland v. Pringle , the U.S. Supreme Court considered whether there was probable cause particularized to the defendant, the front seat passenger, when (1) $763 of rolled-up cash was found in the glove box directly in front of him, (2) five plastic baggies of cocaine were hidden within his reach, and (3) all of the car's occupants refused to claim ownership of the money and cocaine. The Court reasoned: We think it an entirely reasonable inference from these facts that any or all three of the occupants had knowledge of, and exercised dominion and control over, the cocaine. Thus a reasonable officer could conclude that there was probable cause to believe [the defendant] committed the crime of possession of cocaine, either solely or jointly. Maryland v. Pringle, 540 U.S. 366, 372, 124 S.Ct. 795, 157 L.Ed.2d 769 (2003). The Court also brushed aside the defendant's attempt to characterize the case as one of guilt-by-association. Id. It distinguished Ybarra and Di Re, pointing out that in Pringle, the evidence showed a `common enterprise' among the car's occupants, producing `the same interest in concealing the fruits or the evidence of their wrongdoing.' Maryland v. Pringle, 540 U.S. at 373, 124 S.Ct. 795 (quoting Wyoming v. Houghton, 526 U.S. 295, 119 S.Ct. 1297, 143 L.Ed.2d 408 (1999)). The Court stated that the evidence indicated that someone in the car was dealing drugs. This was significant because the Court reasoned that drug dealing is an enterprise not likely to be conducted in front of innocent persons who could testify against those involved. Maryland v. Pringle, supra . Voichahoske, however, argues that the State failed to establish probable cause for his arrest, detention, and strip search because no contraband was linked to him until after the strip search. Voichahoske's argument fails. Like the baggies in Pringle, the dog's alert provided probable cause to believe that someone in the car possessed drugs. Also like Pringle, Voichahoske is not guilty by association. He actively helped Roan conceal her identity by hiding her driver's license in his wallet and lying to Reilly about her identity. This complicity suggests a common enterprise with the same interest in concealing the evidence of wrongdoing. Moreover, the officers found no drugs during their preliminary search of the car, despite the drug dog's alert, and the passengers had ample time to conceal evidence. We determine Reilly had probable cause to believe that drugs would be found on Voichahoske.