Opinion ID: 3000180
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: Mr. Brown’s Motion to Suppress

Text: Mr. Brown asks that we review the ruling of the district court denying his motion to suppress the evidence obtained in the search of his home. Whether a warrant affidavit includes sufficient indicia of probable cause is a legal conclusion that we review de novo. United States v. Harris, 464 F.3d 733, 738 (7th Cir. 2006). We have stated: A magistrate’s determination of probable cause is to be given considerable weight and should be over- ruled only when the supporting affidavit, read as a whole in a realistic and common sense manner, does not allege specific facts and circumstances from which the magistrate could reasonably conclude that the items sought to be seized are associated with the crime and located in the place indicated. United States v. Newsom, 402 F.3d 780, 782 (7th Cir. 2005) (internal citation and quotation marks omitted). The probable cause inquiry “is practical, not technical, and we consider the totality of the circumstances.” United States v. Anderson, 450 F.3d 294, 302 (7th Cir. 2006) (internal citations and quotation marks omitted). However, where “an affidavit is all that was presented to the issuing judge, the warrant’s validity rests on the strength of the affidavit.” Id. When an affidavit is based on informant tips, our probable cause inquiry is also based on the totality of the circumstances. See Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213, 230 (1983). However, four factors are particularly relevant as a part of this inquiry. Specifically, we shall pay close atNos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 13 tention to: “(1) the extent to which the police have corroborated the informant’s statements; (2) the degree to which the informant has acquired knowledge of the events through firsthand observation; (3) the amount of detail provided; and (4) the interval between the date of the events and police officer’s application for the search warrant.” United States v. Koerth, 312 F.3d 862, 866 (7th Cir. 2002). Mr. Brown contends that various omissions demon- strate the absence of probable cause. First, Mr. Brown notes that the affidavit fails to establish the credibility of the informants on which it relies, particularly CI-1 and CI-2. With respect to the information provided by CI-1, Mr. Brown argues that the account does not provide a date on material facts, such as the observation of Mr. Brown cooking cocaine. Accordingly, he submits, the facts could be so stale that, at the time the warrant was obtained, probable cause no longer existed. With respect to CI-2, Mr. Brown notes that the affidavit does not provide any evidence of a link to the residence to be searched. Mr. Brown’s argument seeks to separate each assertion in the affidavit and to find an infirmity with all of them. The flaw in Mr. Brown’s approach is its failure to recognize the nature of the probable cause inquiry: We, like the issuing magistrate judge, assess the totality of circum- stances presented and make a practical, common-sense determination about the existence of probable cause on the basis of the affidavit as a whole. Credibility of informants, nexus to the searched premises and to illegal activity, and the age of the information are all relevant considerations in this inquiry, but no single piece of information need satisfy every relevant consideration 14 Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 before we may consider it.2 When specific facts and circumstances are alleged that reasonably could lead a magistrate judge to believe that the fruits or instrument- alities of a crime are to be found at a particular location, we shall give great weight to that determination. See Newsom, 402 F.3d at 782. We now turn to an examination of the facts relevant in assessing the existence of probable cause in the affidavit at issue. Three separate informants provided information linking Mr. Brown to drug activity; all claimed firsthand knowledge of Mr. Brown’s drug activities. CS was a source from which the DEA agent preparing the affidavit previously had received reliable information. CI-1’s information overlapped to some degree with CS’ information, insofar as it linked Mr. Brown to Britt, the controlled-buy target of CS and the DEA. CI-1’s information regarding Mr. Brown’s residence was corroborated by the independent investigation that revealed his free entry and exit from the home during the relevant period. CI-1’s information regarding Mr. Brown’s drug activities was corroborated by the information about the separate controlled buy from Hatfield; CI-1 stated that he and Mr. Brown had provided the original cocaine for that transaction. CI-2’s information admittedly adds little insofar as it relates to an entirely different drug and 2 This is not a case where the defendant alleges that the affidavit included false information (or material omissions) that must be excised (or must be added) before the determination of probable cause is made. See United States v. Merritt, 361 F.3d 1005, 1010 (7th Cir. 2004), vacated and remanded in light of United States v. Booker, 543 U.S. 220 (2005); see generally Franks v. Delaware, 438 U.S. 154 (1978). Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 15 points to no specific occurrences tending to corroborate anything the other informants had stated other than the general proposition that Mr. Brown trafficked in narcotics. Considering the totality of the circumstances described in the affidavit, we conclude that the district court was correct in its ruling that the magistrate judge had a sub- stantial basis for concluding that probable cause existed. We are not persuaded by Mr. Brown’s contentions to the contrary. We acknowledge that the affidavit does not provide any statements attesting to the credibility of either CI-1 or CI-2 and that, in fact, the information contained in the warrant about the individuals (that they were cooperating with law enforcement following their own arrests) does not strongly suggest that their accounts are unimpeachable. Nonetheless, CI-1’s statement, which provides the most material details, is corroborated generally by CS’ and CI-2’s identification of Mr. Brown as a narcotics trafficker. CI-1’s identification of Mr. Brown with cocaine trafficking specifically and his connection to Britt are both items which are corroborated by CS’ statement. On perhaps the affidavit’s most convincing and most damaging facts, as far as Mr. Brown is concerned, further corroboration was provided by independent investigation, such as the controlled buys from Britt and Hatfield, which add “great weight” to the reliability of an informant’s tip. United States v. McKinney, 143 F.3d 325, 329 (7th Cir. 1998). In addition, under the facts and circumstances presented here, staleness does not greatly limit the information presented because the information possessed by the DEA indicated an on-going pattern of criminal activity. United States v. Lamon, 930 F.2d 1183, 1187-88 (7th Cir. 1991). Finally, on the issue of nexus, “[p]robable cause does not require direct evidence linking a crime to a particular 16 Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 place. Instead, issuing judges are entitled to draw rea- sonable inferences about where evidence is likely to be found given the nature of the evidence and the type of offense. In the case of drug dealers, evidence is often found at their residences.” Anderson, 450 F.3d at 303 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). We agree with the district court that it would be inappropriate to adopt a categorical rule that would, in every case, uphold a finding of probable cause to search a particular location simply because a suspected drug trafficker resides there; we nevertheless conclude that, in this case, a belief that a sufficient nexus exists is supported by the affidavit itself. Specifically, Agent Zoltay states that CI-1 observed Mr. Brown cook cocaine into crack and that Poston, who CI-1 identifies as another narcotics trafficker linked to Mr. Brown, was observed by police entering the residence and leaving a bag inside. These statements directly connect the residence to Mr. Brown’s trafficking activities. In consideration of the totality of circumstances presented to the magistrate judge and given the practical nature of the probable cause determination, we conclude that the magistrate judge had a substantial basis to find probable cause for the warrant to issue. Even if probable cause was lacking, we still would not exclude the evidence obtained unless Mr. Brown also demonstrated that the officer could not reasonably have believed that the facts set forth in the affidavit were sufficient to support the magistrate judge’s determina- tion of probable cause. Koerth, 312 F.3d at 866 (citing United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897 (1984)). We review de novo the district court’s conclusion that law enforcement officers reasonably relied on a search warrant that is subsequently invalidated. United States v. Sidwell, 440 F.3d 865, 869 (7th Cir. 2006). The decision to Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 17 seek a warrant is prima facie evidence that an officer was acting in good faith. Koerth, 312 F.3d at 868. The defendant must defeat this presumption with evidence that the issuing magistrate judge wholly abandoned his judicial role or that the officer’s affidavit was so lacking in indicia of probable cause as to render official belief in its existence entirely unreasonable. Id. Mr. Brown’s argument on this point is relatively thin, and makes broad generalizations that “no facts” corroborate informant information, that “no facts” establish that Mr. Brown lived at the residence, and that “no nexus” was made between Brown’s dealing and the residence. Appellants’ Br. at 24. These statements are not supported by the record. Although corroboration of some elements of the informants’ statements is lacking, independent police corroboration was a significant factor in establishing the reliability of the informants. Likewise, some evidence, specifically Mr. Brown’s possession of a key and the statement of the postal inspector, established Mr. Brown’s residence, and statements from CI-1 connected the residence to the drug dealing activity. Accordingly, even if the warrant itself were infirm, Mr. Brown has not made substantial arguments that the good faith exception should not apply. Therefore, the evidence is admissible, and we affirm Mr. Brown’s conviction and sentence. B. The Cautionary Instruction at Mr. Wiley’s Trial Mr. Wiley asks that we review the language of the cautionary instruction. At the outset, we note that Mr. Wiley failed to object to this instruction at trial and, therefore, he has forfeited this argument. Forfeited objections to jury instructions are reviewed for plain error. United States v. Holmes, 93 F.3d 289, 292 (7th Cir. 1996). 18 Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 “[E]rror is plain, first of all, if it is clearly an error . . . . But it must also affect the defendant’s substantial rights and, in addition, seriously affect the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings.” United States v. Paladino, 401 F.3d 471, 481 (7th Cir. 2005) (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). It must be “so obvious, crucial, and egregious that we may and should correct it even though no objection was made below.” Backwater, Inc. v. Penn-American Ins. Co., 448 F.3d 962, 965 (7th Cir. 2006). The Supreme Court has stated that informant testimony presents special credibility problems, and accordingly, careful instructions to the jury regarding credibility are appropriate. Banks v. Dretke, 540 U.S. 668, 701-02 (2004); see also On Lee v. United States, 343 U.S. 747, 757 (1952) (“The use of informers, accessories, accomplices, false friends, or any of the other betrayals which are ‘dirty business’ may raise serious questions of credibility. To the extent that they do, a defendant is entitled to broad latitude to probe credibility by cross-examination and to have the issues submitted to the jury with careful instructions.”). In considering the matter of instructions regarding informant credibility, this court has held that a special instruction is not necessary as a matter of course and that, as a general matter, a general credibility instruction will suffice. United States v. Cook, 102 F.3d 249, 252-53 (7th Cir. 1996). Moreover, we have emphasized that the district court is “best situated to detect and deal with threats of unreliable testimony,” id. at 252, and therefore to determine when such an instruction is advisable or necessary. Mr. Wiley does not dispute the state of this circuit’s law. Nor does he dispute that our review is limited to plain Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 19 error because he failed to object at trial. He nonetheless challenges the instruction given by the district court. He contends essentially that the instruction was so ill-tailored to the actual facts of the case that the jury reasonably might not have understood to whom it was directed. Mr. Wiley argues that reversal is required because, by virtue of giving an instruction that is not required by this circuit’s precedent, the district court clearly signaled that it believed the testimony of the informant witnesses posed a special danger to the fairness of the trial and that a supplementary instruction was necessary under the circumstances. Appellants’ Br. at 12-13. Mr. Wiley bolsters his contention by pointing to record facts he believes demonstrate reason for particular apprehension regarding the informant testimony in this case, including a lack of a recording of the controlled buy from Bailey and the absence of visual contact by investigators during the buy. The instruction actually provided at trial refers generally to “witnesses who received a benefit from the government,” and identifies that benefit as the promise of a reduced sentence. R.75 at 322. The instruction also states that these witnesses were involved in and pleaded guilty to an offense arising out of the same occurrence for which the defendants are on trial. The problem with this instruction, in Mr. Wiley’s view, is that it deviates from the pattern instruction in failing to name specifically the witnesses to whom it should apply and that, on its facts, it cannot be applied to the informants involved in this case. Although the instruction that was given was ill-tailored to the facts of his case, we are persuaded that any error was harmless under the circumstances. 20 Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 The informant-witnesses in this case are Bailey and Collier. While the statements of each implicated themselves in the drug trade and in some involvement with Mr. Wiley in that regard, neither was involved directly in any occurrence for which Mr. Wiley currently stood trial and neither pleaded guilty to any conduct arising out of the conspiracy with which Mr. Wiley was charged. Bailey received a reduced sentence in state court in exchange for his cooperation with the investigation and prosecution of Mr. Wiley; Collier did not receive a sentence reduction, as stated in the instruction, but was the beneficiary of a decision not to seek an enhancement of his sentence on the basis of a prior felony drug conviction. Mr. Wiley’s argument first presupposes that, in the course of this relatively short trial with relatively few witnesses, the jury would have misunderstood to whom this instruction was meant to apply. He apparently believes that a detailed parsing of the instruction would have confused the jury to such an extent that it would not have applied its cautions to either Bailey or Collier. We cannot accept Mr. Wiley’s suggestion of the probable impact of the instruction. We further note that, even if the jury had concluded that the instruction did not apply to the informant-witnesses, the ultimate effect would simply be that the general instruction on credibility, which asked the jury to consider witnesses’ potential bias and prejudice in determining the weight to give their testimony, would be left to carry the day. It is our duty to consider whether the instructions in their entirety may have prejudiced the defendant by confusing or misleading the jury, see United States v. White, 443 F.3d 582, 587-88 (7th Cir. 2006), but Mr. Wiley’s argument suggests only the remote possibility that the jury could Nos. 05-2596 & 05-2633 21 have been misled into thinking that the specific informant instruction did not apply to any witness. If true, that leaves him in precisely the position this circuit’s precedent allows: no special instruction on informant credibility. In addition, both informants admitted the benefits they received during their testimony. In closing arguments, Mr. Wiley’s counsel separately drew attention to the particular credibility problem posed by informant testimony. These methods of informing the jury about the dangers of such testimony are specifically approved of by this court as generally providing adequate protection for a defendant facing informant witnesses. See Cook, 102 F.3d at 251 (“[T]he argument against giving [a special] instruction is . . . straightforward: the informant’s motive can be spelled out by counsel (if it is not admitted on crossexamination) and considered under the general credibility instruction.”). As noted above, we review the instruction to the jury in its entirety. United States v. Renner, 238 F.3d 810, 812-13 (7th Cir. 2001). Although we conclude that the instruction was not tailored properly to the facts of the case and failed to identify specifically the witnesses to whom it applied, the fact that the general credibility instruction was given, combined with the absence of any peculiar facts that would indicate the necessity of a special instruction, renders any error harmless.