Opinion ID: 507327
Heading Depth: 3
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: Relationships Between the Three Branches

Text: 21 The first, structural component examines the separate and independent relationship between the judiciary and the other two branches of government. Schor, 106 S.Ct. at 3256. Although separation of powers refers to the division of the federal government into three separate branches, the branches are not unconnected from each other. James Madison argued that unless these departments be ... blended as to give to each a constitutional control over the others, the degree of separation ... essential to a free government, can never ... be duly maintained. The Federalist No. 48, at 308 (J. Madison) (New American Library ed. 1961). 22 The concept of blended branches has been best capsulized by Justice Jackson, who observed how the Constitution diffused power between the three branches to secure liberty, but at the same time contemplated the integration of the three branches so as to have a workable government: It enjoins upon its branches separateness but interdependence, autonomy but reciprocity. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 635, 72 S.Ct. 863, 870, 96 L.Ed. 1153 (1952) (Jackson, J., concurring). Each branch does not exist in its own separate, airtight compartment. In determining whether an act of Congress violates the integrity of one branch the question focuses on the extent to which the statute prevents that branch from accomplishing its constitutionally assigned functions. Nixon v. Administrator of Gen. Servs., 433 U.S. 425, 443, 97 S.Ct. 2777, 2790, 53 L.Ed.2d 867 (1977). Such an approach implements separation of powers concerns and also the theory of checks and balances--an integral component of the constitutional structure--which serves to prevent each branch from encroaching on the power of the other. The Federalist, supra, No. 51, at 321-22 (J. Madison). 23 With this background, we turn first to Congress' purpose. Congress aimed through the Federal Magistrates Act to make federal courts more efficient by the expanded use of magistrates. See H.R.Rep. No. 1629, 90th Cong., 2d Sess., reprinted in 1968 U.S. Code Cong. & Admin. News 4252, 4257; Federal Magistrates Act: Hearings before Subcomm. No. 4 of the House Comm. on the Judiciary, 90th Cong., 2d Sess. 81 (1968) (testimony of Sen. Tydings) (We hope and think that innovative, imaginative judges who want to clean up their caseload backlog will utilize the U.S. magistrates in these areas and perhaps even come up with new areas to increase the efficiency of their courts.). Although laudable, efficiency does not resolve separation of powers concerns, for  'the fact that a given law or procedure is efficient, convenient, and useful in facilitating functions of government, standing alone, will not save it if it is contrary to the Constitution. Convenience and efficiency are not the primary objectives--or the hallmarks--of democractic government....'  Bowsher v. Synar, 478 U.S. 714, 106 S.Ct. 3181, 3193-94, 92 L.Ed.2d 583 (1986) (quoting INS v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 944, 103 S.Ct. 2764, 2780, 77 L.Ed.2d 317 (1983)). 24 In the instant case, appellants argue that jury selection is an inherently judicial task that cannot be delegated to a non-Article III judge. [G]uided by the principle that 'practical attention to substance rather than doctrinaire reliance on formal categories should inform application of Article III,'  Schor, 106 S.Ct. at 3256 (quoting Thomas v. Union Carbide Agricultural Prods. Co., 473 U.S. 568, 105 S.Ct. 3325, 3336, 87 L.Ed.2d 409 (1985)), we examine the effect of such a delegation. The Federal Magistrates Act simply enables a district judge to appoint an additional set of eyes and ears to aid in jury selection. At the same time, magistrates are completely subject to Article III judges because the district judges appoint, 28 U.S.C. Sec. 631(a), remove, id. Sec. 631(b), and decide what matters are assigned magistrates, id. Sec. 636(b)(4). Significantly, a trial court is not required to appoint a magistrate to preside over jury selection. Rather, the decision is left entirely to the Article III court's discretion. In sum, the delegation of authority here occurs entirely within the judicial branch, a circumstance which alleviates greatly the underlying structural separation of powers concern with one branch's encroaching upon the power of another. Cf. United States v. Raddatz, 447 U.S. 667, 682-83, 100 S.Ct. 2406, 2415-16, 65 L.Ed.2d 424 (1980) (distinguishing administrative agencies from officers of the court). 25 Even assuming the delegated task itself might be labelled inherently judicial, Article III concerns are not necessarily implicated when the task is not delegated conclusively to a non-Article III tribunal. See Raddatz, 447 U.S. at 681-84, 100 S.Ct. at 2415-17 (upholding suppression hearing referred to magistrate with review); Mathews v. Weber, 423 U.S. 261, 271-72, 96 S.Ct. 549, 554-55, 46 L.Ed.2d 483 (1976) (upholding social security benefit cases referred to magistrate with review); see also Ford, 824 F.2d at 1444-45 (Rubin, J., dissenting) (rejecting inherently judicial argument); United States v. Saunders, 641 F.2d 659, 663 (9th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 452 U.S. 918, 101 S.Ct. 3055, 69 L.Ed.2d 422 (1981) (same). So long as the  'essential attributes' of judicial power are retained in the Art. III Court, see Northern Pipeline Constr. Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 U.S. 50, 81, 102 S.Ct. 2858, 2876, 73 L.Ed.2d 598 (1982) (plurality opinion of Brennan, J.), the delegation of power in a statute does not contravene Article III. 26 The availability of de novo review in this case vested the ultimate decision regarding the composition of the jury with the trial court. Thus, the trial court retained the inherently judicial power to make the final decision. Significantly, retention by an Article III court of this power has been considered crucial in Article III cases. In Raddatz, for example, the Supreme Court held that referral of a suppression motion to a magistrate under Sec. 636(b)(1) did not violate Article III or the defendant's due process rights. 447 U.S. at 680-81, 684, 100 S.Ct. at 2414-15, 2416. Distinguishing the question of whether final decisionmaking power on a suppression motion could be delegated to a non-Article III tribunal, id. at 681, 100 S.Ct. at 2415, the Court stated that delegation does not violate Art. III so long as the ultimate decision is made by the district court, id. at 683, 100 S.Ct. at 2416. As Justice Blackmun commented, there is little threat to the independence and authority of the judicial branch when the district judge--insulated by life tenure and irreducible salary--is waiting in the wings, fully able to correct errors. Id. at 686, 100 S.Ct. at 2417 (Blackmun, J., concurring); see also Northern Pipeline, 458 U.S. at 81-83 (opinion of Brennan, J.) (discussing Raddatz ); Mathews, 432 U.S. at 271, 96 S.Ct. at 554 (final decision remains with judge); Fallon, Of Legislative Courts, Administrative Agencies, and Article III, 101 Harv.L.Rev. 915, 933 (1988) (advocating theory that sufficiently searching review of a legislative court's or administrative agency's decisions by a constitutional court will always satisfy the requirements of article III). 27 Similarly, the trial judge here was waiting in the wings and offered de novo review, which the appellants declined. Nor do appellants claim that de novo review would have been ineffective. Raddatz compels the conclusion that neither delegation of voir dire per se nor delegation under the facts of this case erodes the power and independence of the judiciary. Consequently, we perceive no conflict with the first component of the separation of powers doctrine.