Opinion ID: 312744
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Conspiracy to Commit the Substantive Offenses

Text: 48 Count one of the indictment charged that appellant conspired with Owens, Kmetz, Richards and another alleged coconspirator to commit the substantive acts of conversion and unlawful contributions to federal campaigns. Appellant does not contest that if the conversion and contribution were indeed unlawful, that there was sufficient evidence of a conspiracy to commit those crimes to permit the submission of the issue to the jury. Rather, he argues that the same proof was introduced to prove the conspiracy and the substantive counts, and that he was consequently convicted twice for the same offense in violation of the double jeopardy clause of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Under this theory, the substantive and conspiracy counts would have merged into a single offense and the Government could not have proceeded under both. Appellant also suggests that while the conspiracy conviction may have been proper in a narrow technical sense, this court, under its general supervisory power over federal criminal trials, may set aside the conspiracy conviction as being somehow unfair or unjust.
49 It is settled law in this country that the commission of a substantive offense and a conspiracy to commit it are separate and distinct crimes, and a plea of double jeopardy is no defense to a conviction for both. See Pinkerton v. United States, 328 U.S. 640, 643-644 [66 S.Ct. 1180, 90 L.Ed. 1489], and cases cited therein. Only if the substantive offense and the conspiracy are identical does a conviction for both constitute double jeopardy. 31 It is also irrelevant that the overt acts charged in the conspiracy counts were also charged and proved as substantive offenses. 32 This general rule is based on the fact that 50 a combination of persons to commit a wrong, either as an end or as a means to an end, is so much more dangerous because of its increased power to do wrong, because it is more difficult to guard against and prevent the evil designs of a group of persons than of a single person, and because of the terror which fear of such a combination tends to create in the minds of people. 33 51 Appellant argues that since the same proof was introduced to prove both the conspiracy and substantive offenses, there is an identity of offenses requiring a merger. The issue, however, does not turn on the identity of evidence actually produced but on whether the same evidence is required to prove the two offenses. In this case, the requirements for conviction under the conspiracy count were the agreement between Boyle and at least one co-conspirator and the doing of at least one overt act (not necessarily making the contribution) in furtherance of that agreement. Consummation, or success, of the conspiracy was unnecessary. In order to convict under any of the substantive counts, the crime must have been completed-i. e., the contribution actually made. It is also clear that appellant could have been convicted on the substantive counts without proving an agreement between himself and the co-conspirators charged in Count I. Therefore, Sec. 610 and the conspiracy statute do not punish the same thing. 34 52 There is, however, an exception for situations in which the conspiracy to commit a crime produces no additional danger to society. If the statute defining the substantive offense requires concerted action and none participated other than the necessary parties, there is no additional danger and a charge of conspiracy to violate the statute will not lie: 53 There are, of course, instances where a conspiracy charge may not be added to the substantive charge. One is where the agreement of two persons is necessary for the completion of the substantive crime and there is no ingredient in the conspiracy which is not present in the completed crime. See United States v. Katz, 271 U.S. 354, 355-356 [46 S.Ct. 513, 70 L.Ed. 986]; Gebardi v. United States, 287 U.S. 112, 121-122 [53 S.Ct. 35, 77 L. Ed. 206]. 35 54 Taking these principles as established, it is clear that both statutes here involved, 18 U.S.C. Sec. 610 and 29 U.S.C. Sec. 501(c), may be violated without necessarily involving any concerted effort of the alleged co-conspirators in this case. While Sec. 610 arguably might require the concert of both a union officer who consents to a political contribution and a candidate who receives the contribution, yet the conspiracy to violate Sec. 610 as charged here involved more than these two statutorily necessary parties; other union officers and employees in addition to appellant were involved in the conspiracy. Section 501(c), likewise, did not require the concert of the parties to this conspiracy. That statute may be violated by a union officer acting alone who willfully abstracts or converts union funds. Consequently the conspiracy to violate these statutes charged here does not fit within the narrow exception described above, but rather is governed by the principles set forth in Pereira v. United States, supra. 55 Appellant attempts to confuse the issue by arguing that on the facts of this case all of the alleged co-conspirators were required as a practical matter in order to violate Secs. 501(c) and 610. For example, appellant states that he could not have drawn the checks on the League account without the endorsing signature of one of the co-conspirators; this co-conspirator is therefore argued to be necessary for the completion of the offense in this case. 36 The practical test of what is necessary under given circumstances is not the decisive test; the critical factor is that this co-conspirator was not required to exist by the statute as an element of the offense. He was only necessary in the sense that a skillful getaway driver may be necessary to a successful bank robbery; he may have made the crime easier to commit, but he was not a necessary element of the crime as it is described in the statute. A participant is necessary to the commission of a crime, for purposes of merging substantive and conspiracy counts, if the substantive statute requires the person's existence as an abstract legal element of the crime. Here that is simply not the case.
56 Appellant argues that this court should exercise its supervisory power over federal criminal trials 37 and overturn his conviction for conspiracy. This argument is based essentially on the contention that the use of conspiracy offenses may be subject to abuse in the hands of zealous prosecutors, who may allege conspiracy in an effort to gain tactical advantages, e. g., otherwise irrelevant evidence admitted. Appellant does not argue on this point that the conspiracy conviction was rendered in violation of currently applicable legal standards. 57 In effect appellant is asking this court to change the law of conspiracy-because the current law is unfair or bad policy. He cites no authority compelling this limitation and does not suggest a standard which we might adopt for determining when a conspiracy conviction might be allowed. 38 He simply asks that we ignore the fact that his conviction is lawful under Supreme Court authority and reverse the trial court. Precedent, prudence, and modesty compel us to decline. 39