Opinion ID: 425244
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Ms. Jacquelyn Rice

Text: 26 Plaintiff Rice is the women's varsity intercollegiate field hockey and softball coach. At the time of trial, she was an associate professor in the Physical Education Department earning $18,063. Five-ninths of Ms. Rice's time is spent in athletics, either as an administrator or coach. As Women's Athletic Coordinator at OCE, Ms. Rice performs duties that include certification of team eligibility, budget preparation for both men's and women's athletics, and representation of OCE as delegate to the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. As a coach, Ms. Rice has taken individuals and teams to national tournaments at least five times. 27 There is an obvious difference in the duties of Ms. Rice and Mr. Boutin. Ms. Rice has administrative duties that have no counterpart among Mr. Boutin's duties. This, though, does not remove Ms. Rice's complaint from the ambit of the Equal Pay Act. As stated in the interpretive regulations: 28 [W]here employees of opposite sexes are employed in jobs in which the duties they are required to perform and the working conditions are substantially the same, except that an employee of one sex is required to perform some duty or duties involving a higher skill which an employee of the other sex is not required to perform, the fact that the duties are different in this respect is insufficient to remove the jobs from the application of the equal pay standard if it also appears that the employer is paying a lower wage rate to the employee performing the additional duties notwithstanding the additional skill which they involve. 29 29 C.F.R. Sec. 800.122(b). If an individual's Equal Pay Act claim could be defeated by showing that the plaintiff has additional duties that are not performed by the employees of the opposite sex, employers could easily subvert the intent of the Act by assigning additional duties to potential plaintiffs. Ms. Rice's additional administrative duties cannot, therefore, be a sufficient ground for overturning the district court's finding that Ms. Rice established a prima facie case. See Usery v. Allegheny County Institution District, 544 F.2d 148, 152-53 (3d Cir.1976), cert. denied, 430 U.S. 946, 97 S.Ct. 1582, 51 L.Ed.2d 793 (1977). 30 Ms. Rice's prima facie case is also challenged by OCE on the same basis that Dr. Campbell's prima facie case was challenged. In particular, OCE again argues that the district court was clearly erroneous when it decided that Ms. Rice and Mr. Boutin have jobs of substantially equal responsibility. Generally for the reasons discussed above in consideration of Dr. Campbell's prima facie case, we cannot say the district court's finding of substantial equality was clearly erroneous. Ms. Rice and Mr. Boutin are both teachers in the Physical Education Department who spend most of their time teaching physical education courses and also have duties coaching intercollegiate sports. Our review of the record does reveal that there are some differences between the positions of Ms. Rice and Mr. Boutin, but none compel reversal of the district court's finding of substantial equality. 31 Nevertheless, Ms. Rice's case suffers from the same infirmity as Dr. Campbell's. If both Dr. Campbell and Ms. Rice have jobs substantially equal to Mr. Boutin's, they both may have jobs substantially equal to that of Mr. Carey or other men in the Physical Education Department. The failure to consider at least Mr. Carey as a comparator for Ms. Rice thus calls Ms. Rice's showing of prima facie sex discrimination into substantial doubt. Accordingly, the judgment in favor of Ms. Rice is vacated and remanded for determining whether Mr. Carey or other men have jobs substantially equal to Ms. Rice's, and if so, whether Ms. Rice may still establish a prima facie case under the Equal Pay Act. IV 32 THE ELEMENTARY/SECONDARY EDUCATION DEPARTMENT PLAINTIFFS 33 Each of these plaintiffs has been compared to a separate male comparator. We first consider the correctness of the district court's finding of prima facie sex discrimination in favor of each of these plaintiffs. We then address the court's treatment of OCE's affirmative defenses. A. Prima Facie Cases
34 Plaintiff Hiatt has been teaching at OCE since 1949, when she was hired at a salary of $3,500. In 1956, she was awarded an Ed. D., and in 1963 attained her present rank of full professor. She has a national reputation in the field of education. At the time of trial, Dr. Hiatt was the second-highest paid person in her department, earning $28,209. 35 Dr. Hiatt's comparator is Dr. Jesse Garrison, the highest-paid member of the Elementary/Secondary Education Department. The district court found that Dr. Garrison's work is the same as Dr. Hiatt's: teaching and advising students in the same or similar courses in the same department, and serving on committees. Slip op. at 15. 36 OCE concedes that Dr. Hiatt presents the strongest prima facie case among the Elementary/Secondary Education plaintiffs, but argues that deficiencies in Dr. Hiatt's proof require us to overturn the district court's finding. In particular, OCE argues that the district court's finding of a prima facie case can only be upheld if we determine that all teaching positions within an academic department are fungible for purposes of the Equal Pay Act. Rejection of that dubious proposition does not require us to reverse the finding of a prima facie case. Dr. Hiatt's testimony that Dr. Garrison has exactly the same assignment in the same department that I am in, 1 R.T. 55, stands completely unrebutted. OCE has pointed to nothing in the record that would cause us to doubt this conclusion. 37 OCE further argues that because Dr. Hiatt is the second-highest paid member of her department and, by implication, there were lower paid males in her department, the finding of a prima facie case of sex discrimination is plainly wrong. The flaw in this argument is that there is no evidence that Dr. Hiatt's job is substantially equal to any men in her department other than Dr. Garrison. As we have noted above, supra p. 916, we look critically upon the use of a single comparator to make out a prima facie case. However, use of a single comparator is not clearly erroneous unless an appropriate comparator is wrongly excluded from comparison with the plaintiff. See Heymann v. Tetra Plastics Corp., 640 F.2d 115, 122 (8th Cir.1981); Melanson v. Rantoul, 536 F.Supp. 271, 287 (D.R.I.1982). OCE has not suggested anyone other than Dr. Garrison with whom Dr. Hiatt should be compared. 38 The district court's finding that Dr. Hiatt and Dr. Garrison had substantially equal jobs is not clearly erroneous.
39 Plaintiff McFadden has been with OCE since 1965. She is currently a full professor. At the time of trial, her salary was $21,874. Dr. McFadden's primary duty at OCE is working with undergraduate and graduate students in elementary education. This duty involves participation in an elementary block program that goes for two or three terms and is followed by supervised student teaching. Dr. McFadden's responsibilities also include advising students and participating on various committees. 40 The district court found that Dr. McFadden's job was substantially equal to that of Dr. Robert Albritton. Dr. Albritton, like Dr. McFadden, teaches in the elementary block program and supervises the subsequent student teaching. He also advises students and participates on college committees. Dr. Albritton earned an annual salary of $23,328 at the time of trial. 41 OCE's primary challenge to the court's finding of substantial equality is that over the course of their respective careers at OCE, Dr. Albritton had taught 20 different courses, of which four were in the 500 level category, while Dr. McFadden has taught but 10 different courses, of which only two were at the 500 level. Thus, argues OCE, Dr. Albritton's job requires more skill than does Dr. McFadden's. OCE further argues that Dr. McFadden's failure to prove that she taught the same number of students as Dr. Albritton, or taught the same number of courses, or even graded the same number of papers, precludes a finding that a prima facie case of job equivalence has been made out. 42 Even if we were to assume that it takes greater skill to teach 500 level courses (and there is nothing in the record to support this assertion), OCE has not shown that there was any significant difference in job content during the 1980-81 school year. Dr. Albritton's greater teaching experience may constitute a valid reason for paying him a higher salary based on merit, but does not compel the conclusion that his job was not substantially equal to Dr. McFadden's during the period in question. 43 As to OCE's other contention, we might agree in the abstract that a substantial disparity in the number of students or classes taught would render teaching jobs unequal. There is nothing in the record to suggest that such a disparity exists here. The district court's finding of substantial equality is supported by substantial evidence and is thus not clearly erroneous.
44 Plaintiff Ferguson has been at OCE since 1969, a full professor since 1979. She participates in the elementary block program and teaches classes entitled Learning and Instruction in the Elementary and Intermediate Schools, Teaching Reading in the Primary Grades, Teaching Reading in the Intermediate Grades, Diagnostic and Remedial Techniques of Reading, and Methods and Materials in Language Arts. Every four to six terms, Dr. Ferguson teaches a series of 3-hour courses or supervises student teachers. Her other duties include participation on various college committees, service on national and state accreditation teams and, at the time of trial, presiding over OCE's Faculty Senate. Dr. Ferguson's salary at the time of trial was $20,174. 45 Dr. Ferguson's comparator was Dr. Gerald Girod. Dr. Girod, like Dr. Ferguson, teaches in the elementary block program. He has supervised student teachers more frequently than Dr. Ferguson. Outside of the block program, Dr. Girod's courses have focused upon psychology, research procedures, and curriculum, while Dr. Ferguson's courses, as listed above, concern reading and language arts. Dr. Girod serves on many college committees. At the time of trial, he earned an annual salary of $21,266. 46 Dr. Ferguson's prima facie case is not as strong as the two other Elementary/Secondary Education plaintiffs, but it is strong enough to withstand clearly erroneous review. Both Dr. Ferguson and Dr. Girod devoted the bulk of their time to general preparation of teachers for the elementary grades. While the education specialties of the two teachers diverged outside of the block program, we cannot say that the divergence was so significant as to make the district court's finding clear error. Indeed, OCE has pointed to nothing in the record that would indicate any substantial difference in job content during the relevant 1980-81 school year. The joint and primary duties of Drs. Ferguson and Girod in the elementary block program is sufficient evidence to support a determination that the two teachers were similarly situated ... in the teaching structure. Melanson v. Rantoul, 536 F.Supp. 271, 287 (D.R.I.1982). B. OCE's Affirmative Defenses 47 Upon establishment of a prima facie case of sex discrimination, the burden shifted to OCE to establish that the differential in wages paid to workers of opposite sex was the result of (i) a seniority system; (ii) a merit system; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv) a differential based on any other factor other than sex. 29 U.S.C. Sec. 206(d)(1); Corning Glass Works v. Brennan, 417 U.S. 188, 196, 94 S.Ct. 2223, 2229, 41 L.Ed.2d 1 (1974). 48 The district court found that the differentials in salary between the Elementary/Secondary Education plaintiffs and their male comparators were caused by the higher wages received by the male teachers when they began their employment with OCE. The court found that salary increases at OCE tend to perpetuate the differential in starting salaries. All parties seem to accept this conclusion as correct. 49 Salary differentials that stem from unequal starting salaries do not violate the Equal Pay Act if the original salary inequity can be justified by one of the four exceptions to the Equal Pay Act. In other words, salary differentials based on unequal starting salaries do not violate the Equal Pay Act if the employer can show that the original disparity was based on a legitimate factor other than sex. See Padway v. Palches, 665 F.2d 965, 969-70 (9th Cir.1982). 50 OCE presented considerable evidence that at the times of hiring, the male comparators deserved higher salaries than their respective female counterparts based on the abilities or capabilities of the teachers or the needs of the institution. 7 The court declined to make a finding as to whether OCE succeeded in proving that the salary differentials were legitimate. Instead, the court stated: 51 Each teacher brought to OCE unique qualities, experiences, and educational backgrounds. The court has no way to compare the value of 1949 dollars with 1959 dollars. The court does not know the teacher supply and demand for 1949, 1959, 1965, or 1969, nor does it know OCE's budget constraints or the competing needs of different departments during those years. There are many other factors that would be needed in order for the court to attempt to determine, using only these six teachers, whether the reasons for the differences in their starting salaries are related to sex. In fact, it is the court's opinion that such a determination cannot be made by scrutinizing the facts surrounding the hiring of six people, even if all of the factors mentioned above were known. 52 Slip op. at 27. Because of these enumerated difficulties, the court did not even address OCE's rebuttal arguments. Rather, the court relied upon statistical evidence showing that, on the whole, female OCE faculty members are paid less than male OCE faculty members, as the sole ground for determining that the salary differentials in the Elementary/Secondary Education Department could not be justified by a factor other than sex. This was clear error requiring remand for further factfinding. 53 We agree with the district court that it is difficult to evaluate whether a pay differential is or is not based on a factor other than sex. But that does not mean that the question can be avoided by reference to generalized and, we think, irrelevant data. The question for each plaintiff is: Can OCE justify a starting wage lower than her comparator? If so, OCE has satisfied its burden, regardless of whether, on the whole, male faculty members earn more than female faculty members. It is irrelevant that the individual plaintiffs were hired in different years in light of the court's specific holding that all differentials were caused by starting salaries. The evidence shows that as a matter of fact, only Dr. Hiatt was hired in a year different from her comparator; this difference in starting years only makes it more difficult to determine whether Dr. Hiatt started at a relatively lower salary than Dr. Garrison, a question that the court specifically decided in the affirmative. 54 It is true that each faculty member considered here brought unique qualities to OCE. This special characteristic of an academic community, the uniqueness of its members, serves to emphasize the necessity for a thorough and sensitive appraisal of OCE's affirmative defenses. Post-hoc rationalizations, of course, will not permit OCE to carry its burden of proving the legitimacy of its payment of unequal starting salaries. However, as part of a sensitive inquiry into the roots of the salary differentials, it must be remembered that [t]he Equal Pay Act entrusts employers, not judges, with making the often uncertain decision of how to accomplish business objectives. Kouba v. Allstate Insurance Co., 691 F.2d 873, 876 (9th Cir.1982) (citation omitted). On remand, if OCE can justify the differentials with legitimate institutional interests, the court should be slow to reject OCE's defense unless it determines that OCE's justifications do not reasonably explain the differences in starting salaries. See id. at 878. In this way, the court can steer a careful course between excessive intervention in the affairs of the university and the unwarranted tolerance of unlawful behavior. Powell v. Syracuse University, 580 F.2d 1150, 1154 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 984, 99 S.Ct. 576, 58 L.Ed.2d 656 (1978). V