Opinion ID: 200824
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: The Coast Guard's Conduct Vis-a-vis the Private Salvor.

Text: 53 Plaintiffs' alternative argument is that evidence of Coast Guard's alleged discouragement or interference with the efforts of Michael Goodridge, the commercial salvor, warrants a remand for a determination of liability. The government has never advanced any protected policy reasons, and we can think of none, to explain its conduct vis-a-vis the commercial salvor. Rather, to the extent that conscious decisions were made, rather than mistakes, oversights, or misstatements, the decisions appear to be ordinary professional judgments. Accordingly, we turn to the issue of liability. 54 Plaintiffs suggest that the Coast Guard was negligent in delaying the start of Goodridge's response, instructing Goodridge to stay off the radio, and suppressing effective communication with him. Plaintiffs also suggest that Captain Haggerty detrimentally relied on the Coast Guard's assurance that it was working on getting commercial assistance, and, as a result, did not make independent radio calls of his own for such commercial assistance. Although we are unpersuaded by plaintiffs' arguments based on allegations of delay and reliance, we find sufficient evidence in the record to create a factual issue on the question whether the Coast Guard's interference with the commercial salvor's communications prevented Goodridge from pursuing salvage efforts and using his diving capacity to find and plug the leak. We explain, beginning with the relevant standard of negligence and then applying it to the facts of this case. 55
56 The parties agree that the standard of negligence in this context is the Good Samaritan rule which makes one person liable to another for breach of a duty voluntarily assumed by affirmative conduct, even when that assumption of duty is gratuitous. Good v. Ohio Edison Co., 149 F.3d 413, 420 (6th Cir.1998) (quoting Patentas v. United States, 687 F.2d 707, 713-14 (3d Cir.1982)). This doctrine is articulated in § 323 of the Second Restatement of Torts which provides: 57 One who undertakes, gratuitously or for consideration, to render services to another which he should recognize as necessary for the protection of the other's person or things, is subject to liability to the other for physical harm resulting from his failure to exercise reasonable care to perform his undertaking, if (a) his failure to exercise such care increases the risk of such harm, or (b) the harm is suffered because of the other's reliance upon the undertaking. 58 Restatement (Second) of Torts § 323. 59 A parallel rule in § 324A of the Second Restatement deals with liability to third persons: 60 One who undertakes, gratuitously or for consideration, to render services to another which he should recognize as necessary for the protection of a third person or his things, is subject to liability to the third person for physical harm resulting from his failure to exercise reasonable care to protect his undertaking, if (a) his failure to exercise reasonable care increases the risk of such harm, or (b) he has undertaken to perform a duty owed by the other to the third person, or (c) the harm is suffered because of reliance of the other or the third person upon the undertaking. 61 Restatement (Second) of Torts § 324A. 62 Under these provisions, Coast Guard liability based on negligence may be established provided it can be shown that the Coast Guard's negligence increase[d] the risk of harm. Plaintiffs must show that the Coast Guard through affirmative actions caused some physical change to the environment or some other material alteration of circumstances. Good, 149 F.3d at 421 (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). Thus, `[t]he test is not whether the risk was increased over what it would have been if the defendant had not been negligent,' but rather whether `[t]he risk [wa]s increased over what it would have been had the defendant not engaged in the undertaking at all.' Id. (quoting Myers v. United States, 17 F.3d 890, 903 (6th Cir.1994)); see also Sagan v. United States, 342 F.3d 493, 498 (6th Cir. 2003) (quoting Myers ). 63 Coast Guard liability may also be established in appropriate circumstances on a theory of induced reasonable, justifiable detrimental reliance. Myers, 17 F.3d at 904. The reliance must have caused another to forgo other remedies or precautions against the risk. Id. at 903 (quoting Restatement § 324A cmt. e). In the maritime context, detrimental reliance has been found where the Coast Guard's actions caused potential rescuers to rest on their oars ... in reliance on the Coast Guard's undertaking and its presumed, unless affirmatively disclaimed, competency. Fondow v. United States, 112 F.Supp.2d 119, 130 (D.Mass.2000) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). 64 A related principle, set forth in § 327 of the Second Restatement, is also relevant and has been applied in the maritime context. See Hood v. United States, 695 F.Supp. 237, 243-44 (E.D.La.1988). Section 327 provides: 65 One who knows or has reason to know that a third person is giving or is ready to give to another aid necessary to prevent physical harm to him, and negligently prevents or disables the third person from giving such aid, is subject to liability for physical harm caused to the other by the absence of the aid which he has prevented the third party from giving. 66 Restatement (Second) of Torts § 327. 67 Our decision in Sandra & Dennis Fishing Corp. is consistent with the Good Samaritan rule as articulated above. In Sandra & Dennis Fishing Corp., the Coast Guard clearly worsened the position of the towed vessel which, when taken in tow, was in no imminent peril. See Rodrigue v. United States, 968 F.2d 1430, 1434-35 (1st Cir.1992) (observing that, in Sandra & Dennis Fishing Corp., the district court made the significant finding that there would have been no stranding but for the Coast Guard's misconduct). Additionally, in Sandra & Dennis Fishing Corp., we emphasized that the Coast Guard had induced reliance upon a belief that it would perform its functions with reasonable care. 372 F.2d at 195; see also Daley v. United States, 499 F.Supp. 1005, 1010 n. 6 (D.Mass.1980) (Aldrich, J., sitting by designation) (explaining that this comment in Sandra & Dennis must be understood against a record which showed that the disabled vessel had refrained from seeking other available assistance). 68 More recently, this Court discussed the Good Samaritan rule in a case where parents of an airman who drowned after being carried out to sea by strong currents at a recreational beach sued the Air Force based on its four-hour delay after notification in sending a rescue helicopter. See Rodrigue, 968 F.2d at 1434-35. We emphasized that the plaintiffs could not state a case simply by alleging that the Air Force was negligent. See id. at 1435. Rather, it was necessary to show, more likely than not, that by its negligence the Air Force had worsened the airman's position. Id. 69 Finally, we note that in evaluating Coast Guard conduct under the Good Samaritan rule, courts must consider the Coast Guard's actions and decisions in light of the information known during the rescue and not with the benefit of hindsight. See Fondow, 112 F.Supp.2d at 131 (citing cases). Accordingly, conduct that might ordinarily be negligent may be non-negligent in the pressure cooker circumstances of a rescue. Id. 70
71
72 The evidence of detrimental reliance is insufficient as a matter of law to support a finding of Coast Guard liability, and, thus, by itself would not warrant a remand. In his sworn declaration, Captain Haggerty states that [b]ecause the Coast Guard had told me that they were working on arranging commercial assistance, I did not make any calls on the radio. However, he does not state exactly what the Coast Guard said or when. See Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(e) (requiring affidavits to set forth specific facts showing that there is a genuine issue for trial). 73 The only other evidence we have on this point is Haggerty's vague deposition testimony that he asked Station Gloucester if there was anybody available, if there was any more pumps and the response was [w]e're working on that. The Coast Guard's response, without more, falls short of a representation that the Coast Guard was working on obtaining commercial assistance. 12 We do not think that a reasonable jury could find that Haggerty justifiably relied on the Coast Guard's vague response and reasonably refrained from making any efforts of his own to contact commercial assistance. 74
75 Similarly, the evidence tending to suggest that the Coast Guard delayed Goodridge's departure by reason of its initial response discouraging his participation in the rescue operation is insufficient as a matter of law to warrant a remand. Goodridge's initial phone call to the Coast Guard was at 9:03 a.m. He was told they were going to handle it. But by 9:15 a.m., notwithstanding that response, he was on the telephone to Cape Ann Divers to see who might be available to assist him. In addition, some time during that period, Goodridge took time to load his truck before notifying the Coast Guard at 9:33 a.m. that he was on his way to assist. Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to plaintiffs, the delay was, at most, twelve minutes. We do not think a reasonable jury could find that this brief delay was material. Plaintiffs' expert opined that Goodridge's boat was in a position to reach the NORTHERN VOYAGER on or about 10:50 a.m. Even if Goodridge had arrived at the vessel roughly twelve minutes earlier than expected, at 10:38 a.m., it would have been after the evacuation. Indeed, by 10:38 a.m. the Coast Guard 47-footer was already en route to Station Gloucester with the Northern Voyager crew on board. 13 76 We add, moreover, that we see nothing wrong in the Coast Guard's response at 9:03 a.m. that they were going to handle it. Captain Haggerty had, in fact, called the Coast Guard; they were planning to go to the NORTHERN VOYAGER's assistance; and at 9:03 a.m. the Coast Guard had yet to be informed as to many of the details that might have indicated a need for Goodridge's additional assistance. 77
78 Plaintiffs have a stronger argument of Coast Guard interference with Goodridge's efforts based on Station Gloucester's misstatement to Goodridge at 10:03 a.m. that it need[ed] to keep this frequency clear. See note 1, supra. As noted, one who negligently prevents or disables a third person from giving aid necessary to prevent physical harm is subject to liability for that harm caused by the absence of the prevented aid. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 327, supra p. 262. 14 Here a fact-finder could determine that the Coast Guard's negative responses to Goodridge, after assuming control itself of the rescue operation, prevented or disabled Goodridge from giving aid that could have prevented the NORTHERN VOYAGER from sinking. 79 By 10:03 a.m., Coast Guard personnel had been told by the captain that the vessel might, ah, dropped the rudder. And in his 10:03 a.m. transmission to the Coast Guard, Goodridge indicated both that he was on his way and could offer diving assistance. Diving capability, given the character of the leak — an open rudder tube allowing a pathway for the sea water to enter the ship — could be found to have been just what the NORTHERN VOYAGER needed. The record contains expert testimony that such a leak could be contained by a diver's inserting of objects like a life preserver or lobster buoy into the opening. Goodridge testified he had the equipment and skill to have plugged the rudder leak in a matter of minutes. Yet the Coast Guard's only response was to tell Goodridge to clear the air waves. 80 In his deposition, Goodridge testified that the reason he did not later seek to radio the master of the NORTHERN VOYAGER, after the master had been evacuated to the Coast Guard's 47-footer, was that he [had] been told twice to stay off the radio. We think there is sufficient evidence for a reasonable fact-finder to find that the Coast Guard's rebuff at 10:03 a.m. discouraged Goodridge from further attempts to communicate with the Coast Guard or, directly, with the NORTHERN VOYAGER, as he motored to the scene. Had he done so, plans might have developed that would have led to saving the vessel. In particular, had Goodridge communicated with Captain Haggerty, or even a knowledgeable Coast Guard officer involved in the rescue operation, advance plans could have been discussed for Goodridge to dive under the NORTHERN VOYAGER while it was still afloat. 15 81 The Coast Guard's witness, Chief Warrant Officer Dittes, conceded that the information that Goodridge was coming was a significant piece of information and the sort they would normally pass to the person that's in trouble. Yet the Coast Guard did not advise the NORTHERN VOYAGER that Goodridge was on the way, much less did it note the fact that Goodridge had a diving capability which might be put to good use. Had Captain Haggerty been alerted that Goodridge was coming, and had he then communicated by radio with Goodridge, advance plans could have been laid for Goodridge to dive under the NORTHERN VOYAGER and plug the leak. There is evidence from which to infer that even if Goodridge arrived shortly after Haggerty had been removed from his sinking vessel, the dive might have been consummated had Haggerty prepared for it before leaving the NORTHERN VOYAGER. See note 15, supra. 82 We do not suggest the Coast Guard had an independent duty of its own to provide a commercial diver. 16 Even if it exercised poor judgment in not doing so, it would not be civilly liable unless its negligence worsened the situation over what it would have been had the Coast Guard not come to the aid of the NORTHERN VOYAGER. But its announcement to Goodridge that it was handling the rescue operation and its later insistence when Goodridge called that he keep the frequency clear, coupled with its failure to tell Captain Haggerty about Goodridge, could be found to have discouraged Goodridge from further attempts to communicate and so to assist the NORTHERN VOYAGER. The Coast Guard had a duty not to throw roadblocks in the path of Goodridge's independent efforts to help. A fact-finder might find that by announcing it was handling the rescue, and then that it needed to keep the frequency clear, the Coast Guard in effect declared exclusive control over rescue-related communications, leading Goodridge to forgo further efforts either to call the NORTHERN VOYAGER directly or to discuss salvage options with Coast Guard officers handling the rescue. 83 The Coast Guard's comment about the need to keep the frequency clear came at a critical time when the decision whether to evacuate was under consideration. If Goodridge had not been discouraged from further contact at this time, before the evacuation, there is evidence suggesting the outcome could have been different. Had Captain Haggerty spoken to Goodridge or even been told by the Coast Guard he was on the way with a diver, he could have notified Goodridge that he wished his assistance. By itself, such an expression would likely have caused Goodridge to have increased and prolonged his efforts to reach and assist the sinking vessel. Further, communication could have allowed Goodridge to arrange with Captain Haggerty to dive under the vessel. Even if the Coast Guard still believed that safety considerations required Haggerty to leave the vessel before Goodridge could reach it, the captain stated in his affidavit that he could have taken steps to facilitate a dive before leaving by, for example, making sure to shut off the engines (and to assure Goodridge of the fact), and rigging a Jacobs ladder in order to facilitate a possible return to the vessel. Thus, a fact-finder could determine that even without Haggerty on board, a dive to plug the leak could have been arranged. Indeed, the record supports a possible inference that the first step, alone, would have been sufficient, and that if Goodridge had been engaged by Haggerty and had then simply been assured that the main engines were turned off, he would have been willing to dive under the vessel and seek to plug the rudder tube, thereby checking the influx of water and quite possibly stabilizing the situation so as to permit further salvage efforts that would have ultimately saved the vessel. 84 A similar argument can be made based on Station Gloucester's unhelpful response to Goodridge on or about 10:47 a.m. when Goodridge contacted the station by radio hoping to get in touch with the captain. At this point, both Goodridge and the captain, who was by then on board the 47-foot Coast Guard vessel, were roughly one mile from the sinking NORTHERN VOYAGER. Station Gloucester first told Goodridge to call back by land line and, then, when Goodridge called by cellular phone, told him that he could speak to the captain back at the station. Captain Haggerty was not immediately informed of the call nor were efforts made to allow contact via the radio of the Coast Guard's vessel bearing Haggerty. A fact-finder could reasonably infer that the Coast Guard's response to Goodridge had the effect of interfering with the last opportunity to arrange for a dive. The only way in which Goodridge could have contacted the captain meaningfully once he was aboard the Coast Guard vessel would have been via the latter's radio. At 10:47 a.m., with both Goodridge and the captain not far from the scene, it remained possible that, had they spoken, Goodridge might still have taken effective measures to dive and plug the leak. Or, at least, the record suffices to raise a factual issue on this point. 85 In sum, we think the evidence, viewed in the light most favorable to appellants, was such that a reasonable fact-finder could conclude that the Coast Guard had reason to know that a third party was ready to give aid of a potentially useful type that the Coast Guard could not provide, and that it negligently engaged in actions that tended to prevent or disable such person from giving such aid. Further, we think that a fact-finder could conclude from such evidence, viewed most favorably, that this negligence was a proximate cause of the sinking of the NORTHERN VOYAGER. Under the circumstances, a remand for further proceedings is warranted. 86 It is true that under the Good Samaritan rule the appellants have the burden of demonstrating that the Coast Guard increased the risk of the NORTHERN VOYAGER's sinking over what it would have been had there been no Coast Guard involvement at all. Arguably, appellants have not established that, absent the Coast Guard's pumping assistance, the NORTHERN VOYAGER would have stayed afloat for a sufficient time to permit Goodridge to reach it and effectively plug the leak, (i.e., that the loss of the NORTHERN VOYAGER could have been prevented by the private salvor, acting alone, had the Coast Guard not become involved). However, according to plaintiffs' experts, there are various things that Captain Haggerty and his crew could have done to contain the flooding temporarily and stabilize the situation, such as closing certain doors and making them watertight. While there is little or no evidence in the record that the captain and his crew actually did or thought of any of these things at the time of the emergency, there was evidence to suggest that at least one of the doors was not shut because of the presence of the hose of a Coast Guard pump. While the evidence is perhaps minimal that the ship would have survived until Goodridge could have saved it without help from the Coast Guard's pumps, we find it sufficient, viewed in the light most favorable to appellants, to establish a factual issue and warrant a trial on the question of whether the Coast Guard worsened the plight of the NORTHERN VOYAGER by its negative handling of Goodridge's attempts to become involved by radio.