Opinion ID: 722508
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: Jury Misconduct Issues

Text: 7 Appellants allege violations of their Sixth Amendment right to trial by an impartial jury and of their Fifth Amendment right to due process as a result of various forms of jury contamination and misconduct; independently they claim to be entitled to a new trial because of the trial court's failure to conduct a more searching inquiry into these allegations. We discuss each of the alleged [319 U.S.App.D.C. 272] violations in turn. First, we address private contacts between jurors and third parties, including alleged comments by the forewoman's husband and a telephone conversation between a juror and an alternate during deliberations. We then turn to juror exposure to more conventional sources of extrajudicial information, including media reports and use of a dictionary during deliberations. Finally, we examine a juror's failure to disclose information during voir dire and pre-deliberation discussions among the jurors. 8
9 There are two main assertions of illicit private communications to the jurors, one revolving around the forewoman's husband, the other about an alternate who communicated with one of the jurors after having been dismissed for the deliberations. Four jurors gave affidavits after trial saying that the forewoman said that her husband told her to nail the defendants. One alternate juror supplied dim support, saying that the forewoman talked a lot about what her husband thought of the case, but that she could not remember specific comments. She also claimed that the husband came to court frequently, maybe three or four times a week. The district court held a hearing to question the forewoman, who stated that she had discussed the evidence once with her husband during the trial but that he had not commented, and that he had come to see the trial on two occasions. The court credited the forewoman's statement that her husband didn't say anything about defendants' guilt, and noted the tensions that had existed among some of the jurors because of the forewoman's strong personality. 821 F.Supp. at 746-47. The court did not call the jurors who had given affidavits, concluding that even if the forewoman had relayed the alleged remark, it would not have been adequate to support a finding of actual prejudice. 10 The second claim arises from the post-trial affidavit of alternate juror Shalita Isaac, who was dismissed before deliberations began, saying that juror Carl Biggs called her during deliberations and said that he was trying to tell the marshal he needed to talk to the judge about the forewoman. Isaac claimed that Biggs said the forewoman wanted RICO badly, and that Isaac told Biggs not to take Nugent's houses and cars in forfeiture because Nugent had children who needed them. According to Isaac, Biggs said he was going to do the best he could. In other words, by her own account the dismissed alternate weighed in on the side of the defendants on the only merits issue as to which she expressed an opinion. 11 We start with the obviously more serious episode, the forewoman's husband's supposed exhortation to nail the defendants. Here appellants argue first that prejudice must be presumed, and second that the judge should have held a more extensive hearing. 12 The claim of presumption rests largely on Remmer v. United States, 347 U.S. 227, 74 S.Ct. 450, 98 L.Ed. 654 (1954), where the Court spoke of a presumption of prejudice from private contacts with the jurors: In a criminal case, any private communication, contact, or tampering, directly or indirectly, with a juror during a trial about the matter pending before the jury is ... deemed presumptively prejudicial.... Id. at 229, 74 S.Ct. at 451. The court stated that [t]he presumption is not conclusive, but the burden rests heavily on the Government to establish, after notice to and hearing of the defendant, that such contact with the juror was harmless to the defendant. In Remmer, a juror reported an attempt to bribe him to the judge, who then requested an FBI investigation. An FBI report concluded that the contact was made in jest, and the court consulted with the prosecutors, who agreed the contact was harmless. The Supreme Court seemed particularly concerned that the defense had no inkling of what had happened; hence the emphasis on notice to the defendant and a hearing: The trial court should not decide and take final action ex parte on information such as was received in this case, but should determine the circumstances, the impact thereof upon the juror, and whether or not it was prejudicial, in a hearing with all interested parties permitted to participate. Id. at 229-230, 74 S.Ct. at 451. 13 [319 U.S.App.D.C. 273] Remmer preceded adoption of Rule 606(b) of the Federal Rules of Evidence, which interestingly cut off the principal means by which one might directly dispel the presumption of prejudice--interrogation of jurors as to the impact of an improper contact: 14 Upon an inquiry into the validity of a verdict or indictment, a juror may not testify as to any matter or statement occurring during the course of the jury's deliberations or to the effect of anything upon that or any other juror's mind or emotions as influencing the juror to assent to or dissent from the verdict or indictment or concerning the juror's mental processes in connection therewith, except that a juror may testify on the questions whether extraneous prejudicial information was improperly brought to the jury's attention or whether any outside influence was improperly brought to bear upon any juror. 15 (Emphasis added.) The exception for improper outside influence allows testimony about the fact and nature of the contact (the input, as it were), but not about the effect it produced on the juror's state of mind. See Tanner v. United States, 483 U.S. 107, 116-27, 107 S.Ct. 2739, 2745-51, 97 L.Ed.2d 90 (1987) (explaining the origins of and rationale behind the rule); United States v. Maree, 934 F.2d 196, 201 (9th Cir.1991) (distinguishing between statement and its impact). Thus, if the Remmer presumption applied in full force, Rule 606(b) would generally make it difficult or impossible to overcome a presumption of prejudice once a jury had reached its verdict and a third-party contact were shown. The Tenth Circuit has suggested, accordingly, that [t]his effect of Rule 606(b) may require the courts to narrow [Remmer's] definition of 'presumptively prejudicial.'  United States v. Greer, 620 F.2d 1383, 1385 n. 1 (10th Cir.1980). 16 And narrow they have. In Smith v. Phillips, 455 U.S. 209, 102 S.Ct. 940, 71 L.Ed.2d 78 (1982), a habeas case, the Court addressed a claim of juror partiality based on the juror's having applied for a job with the prosecutor's office. Overturning the lower federal courts' insistence on a new trial, the Court said, This Court has long held that the remedy for allegations of juror partiality is a hearing in which the defendant has the opportunity to prove actual bias. 455 U.S. at 215, 102 S.Ct. at 945 (emphasis added). Of course one might distinguish between juror partiality and private contacts, but, far from doing so, the Court cited Remmer, and the attempted juror bribe there, as an illustration of the principle it was invoking. But assuring the defendant an opportunity to prove actual bias is out of synch with the Remmer presumption; why would a defendant enjoying a presumption in his favor need such an opportunity? Accordingly, the court in United States v. Pennell, 737 F.2d 521, 532-33 (6th Cir.1984), explicitly construed Phillips as working a substantive change in the law, eliminating any presumption of prejudice and placing on defendant a burden of showing prejudice. 17 The Supreme Court also seemed to reconfigure Remmer in United States v. Olano, 507 U.S. 725, 113 S.Ct. 1770, 123 L.Ed.2d 508 (1993) (applying the plain error standard). There, with the acquiescence of counsel, alternate jurors sat with the jury during deliberations but were told by the trial court not to participate. In its discussion of what it called intrusion jurisprudence (outside intrusions on the jury), the Court appeared to see Remmer largely as a case illustrating the importance of weighing the likelihood of prejudice rather than as a source of rigid rules. 18 There may be cases where an intrusion should be presumed prejudicial, ... but a presumption of prejudice as opposed to a specific analysis does not change the ultimate inquiry: Did the intrusion affect the jury's deliberations and thereby its verdict? We cannot imagine why egregious comments by a bailiff to a juror (Parker) or an apparent bribe followed by an official investigation (Remmer) should be evaluated in terms of prejudice, while the mere presence of alternate jurors during juror deliberations should not. 19 Id. at 739, 113 S.Ct. at 1780-81 (emphasis partially added). 20 Although often referring to Remmer, this court has in fact not treated the supposed presumption as particularly forceful, but rather has accepted the necessity of focusing [319 U.S.App.D.C. 274] on the specific facts of the alleged contact, and, as a result, has found broad discretion in the trial court to assess the effect of alleged intrusions. In United States v. Williams, 822 F.2d 1174, 1188 (D.C.Cir.1987), a defense witness told three jurors at the end of the first day's deliberations that they were deliberating so long only to collect more jurors' fees. Noting that assessment of the bias required consideration of a range of factors, including the nature of the communication, the length of the contact, the possibility of removing juror taint by a limiting instruction, and the impact of the communication on both the juror involved and the rest of the jury, id. at 1188-89, we said that the trial judge was best qualified to make the assessment, so that its rulings on a motion for a mistrial [for juror bias] will be overturned only for an abuse of discretion, id. at 1188. See also United States v. Fafowora, 865 F.2d 360, 363 (D.C.Cir.1989) (stressing deference to district court's assessment of effect of third-party communications); United States v. Butler, 822 F.2d 1191, 1196 (D.C.Cir.1987) (same). 21 Thus we think the district court was correct under the Supreme Court's and our cases to inquire whether any particular intrusion showed enough of a likelihood of prejudice to justify assigning the government a burden of proving harmlessness. See 821 F.Supp. at 738 (applying the analysis to exposure to newspaper articles). (In the case of the forewoman's husband's alleged remarks, the district court appeared to apply the same analysis as an alternative basis for its holding. Id. at 747.) We understand the court's decision in Stockton v. Commonwealth of Virginia, 852 F.2d 740 (4th Cir.1988), saying that while a presumption of prejudice attaches to an impermissible communication, the presumption is not one to be casually invoked, id. at 745, as effectively embracing that view. 22 As we said, the court credited the forewoman but, assuming in the alternative that the remark had been made, concluded that it would not have been prejudicial. Appellants say this was error, and cite several cases from other circuits to support their position. Thus the court remanded for a new trial in Maree, where a juror consulted with two friends who told her people like [defendant] should be incarcerated, 934 F.2d at 202; in Greer, where the jurors had chatted with a marshal about the defendant's possible sentencing (and expungement of conviction) under the Youth Corrections Act, 620 F.2d at 1385; and in Stockton, where the owner of a diner at which the jurors were lunching during deliberations told jurors they ought to fry the son of a bitch, 852 F.2d at 743-44. 23 Whether we focus on the forewoman herself or the other jurors, however, we think the district court was within its discretion in concluding that the remark was not likely to have had any effect on the outcome. Although the supposed remark was forceful, it was isolated; the fifth juror's claim that more than one of the husband's opinions had been relayed was supported by no other jurors and contained no specifics. Further, the judge, who was in a position to observe and whose comment defendants do not contradict, said the forewoman had a strong personality, and had leaned heavily toward conviction during deliberations, 821 F.Supp. at 746, suggesting the improbability that the supposed remark either could have affected her own views or could have added much to any influence she may have had on fellow jurors. Thus, still indulging the assumption that the remark was made at all, the husband's two cents' worth appears subordinate in a way that could not possibly be said of the third-party comments that intruded in the cases relied on by appellants, which in any event display less deference to the district court than does this circuit and which in some cases seem to apply a strong presumption of prejudice to all or at least a very broad set of third-party contacts. 24 Moreover, the evidence against defendants was overwhelming. Cf., e.g., Dallago v. United States, 427 F.2d 546, 558 (D.C.Cir.1969) (reversal because of presence of unadmitted document in jury room would not be appropriate where other proof of guilt was overwhelming: Certainly the weight of the prosecution's evidence becomes relevant in estimating 'what effect the error had or reasonably may be taken to have had upon the jury's decision.' ) (quoting Sawyer v. [319 U.S.App.D.C. 275] United States, 303 F.2d 392, 395 (D.C.Cir.1962)); United States v. Smith, 85 F.3d 646, 646 (D.C.Cir.1996) (denying petition for rehearing). Here, the FBI recorded most of the 1990 conversations between defendants Williams-Davis and Nugent and their New York suppliers, defendant Restrepo and Jimmy Bynoe, through the go-between Claude Juggins. In these conversations, defendants worked out deals to buy (and sell, in the case of Restrepo) large amounts of cocaine. Williams-Davis and Nugent showed themselves to be familiar with the prices of such amounts and confident of their ability to move them. In November 1990, for example, in the midst of discussions about a new deal, Nugent told Juggins that it would take him only a week to sell ten kilograms of cocaine. This confidence was well-founded; searches of R Street Crew stash houses revealed an elaborate apparatus for distributing cocaine (as well as large amounts of drugs and cash). The various houses and apartments contained a heat sealer and extensive packaging materials, money counters, electric scales, guns, and bullet-proof vests. 25 Testimony showed that Williams-Davis, Nugent, and Darryl Williams were leaders of the Crew, supervising a wide array of lieutenants, second lieutenants, runners, packagers, stash house owners, and others. They enforced the Crew's control over the neighborhood with violence, deadly if need be. On April 3, 1985, an argument broke out between Leon Clea--a leader of a rival drug gang--and Williams-Davis, Nugent, Darryl Williams, and other R Street Crew members over the gangs' competing territorial claims. R Street Crew members armed themselves and started shooting. According to Kenneth Watts (a cousin of Clea's) and Leon Clea himself, Darryl Williams shot Alton Clea (brother of Leon) point-blank in the face, killing him. Leon Clea further testified that Sean Martin, an R Street Crew lieutenant and brother of Anthony Nugent, shot Leon's brother Andre Clea in the foot, and that Nugent shot and wounded Leon himself. Those accounts mesh with that of Tracy Cave, an R Street Crew member, and a police sergeant who arrived on the scene shortly after the shootings. During a territorial dispute with the Bailey clan (to which we return later), Nugent and Kevin Williams-Davis together with other Crew members went to the Baileys' car repair shop seeking revenge for the killing of Nugent's brother. During the fray, Freddie Bailey was hit about 10 times but somehow managed to survive. Francis Scrivener, who was in the shop, was not so lucky: he was shot once and died. 26 Dale Webster, a coconspirator but one who provided very detailed descriptions, many of which were confirmed by other evidence, testified that defendant Joyce Boyd--who is Kevin Williams-Davis's and Darryl Williams's aunt--joined the conspiracy early. In late 1984 or early 1985, Webster said, Boyd recruited Webster to operate a stash house for her nephews. One day in early 1985, when Boyd and Webster were in Webster's house together, police showed up outside and the two flushed several thousand dollars' worth of cocaine down the toilet. Webster, with Boyd present, later explained to Williams-Davis what had happened. R Street Crew member Kenneth Sparrow's testimony confirmed Webster's. He said, for example, that at one point Jeffrey Williams had told him to take a day's proceeds (about $1,500 in cash) to Joyce at the Ebony Connection (her beauty shop), which he did. On the money laundering counts (which of course also involve conscious assistance to the drug conspiracy), the government showed through bank records that Boyd paid over $85,000 to lease and eventually buy a Mercedes that Williams-Davis was arrested driving in December 1988. The title was in Boyd's name only, and Williams-Davis's name does not appear on any of the financing documents. In June 1991 a search of Boyd's apartment turned up a 1990 proof of insurance form for the Mercedes in the names of both Williams-Davis and Boyd. 27 It is possible--and appellants appear to argue--that the court erred in confining the hearing as it did, quite independently of its alternative ruling that the alleged statement would not have been prejudicial. But our cases say clearly that the trial court has broad discretion over the methodology of inquiries into third-party contacts with jurors. Williams, 822 [319 U.S.App.D.C. 276] F.2d at 1190. We have explicitly rejected any automatic rule that jurors are to be individually questioned. Id. at 1190 n. 162. This latitude explicitly covers trial courts' choices as to the proper procedures for post-trial hearings. United States v. Butler, 822 F.2d 1191, 1196 (D.C.Cir.1987). The inquiries put to the juror need only be sufficiently detailed to permit the judge to determine whether any prejudice is likely to result. Id. Further, we think the court could properly consider, among the factors militating against extending the inquiry, the risk that massive examination and cross-examination would in fact amount to juror harassment. See 821 F.Supp. at 735; Tanner, 483 U.S. at 119-20, 107 S.Ct. at 2746-48 (addressing asserted juror alcohol and drug use, Court observed that if juror affidavits were readily accepted to overturn verdicts,  '[j]urors would be harassed and beset by the defeated party in an effort to secure from them evidence of facts which might establish misconduct sufficient to set aside a verdict' ) (quoting McDonald v. Pless, 238 U.S. 264, 267-68, 35 S.Ct. 783, 784-85, 59 L.Ed. 1300 (1915)). In any event, we think that where the court conducts an inquiry broad enough to lead it to a reasonable judgment that there has been no prejudice, on an assumption as to the facts favorable to defendants' claim, it has fulfilled its procedural as well as its substantive duty. 28 The telephone call from Isaac, the dismissed alternate juror, to Biggs, illustrates the importance of a non-literalist interpretation of Remmer. Though appellants characterize it as an alternate juror's participation in deliberations, and say that the trial court erred in failing to conduct a hearing, the colloquy was trivial on its face. According to Isaac's own affidavit her comments were favorable to defendants. While we can imagine such an intervention having a boomerang effect, that was plainly not true here. The jury acquitted defendants on the RICO counts, and, because the trial court dismissed the government's forfeiture case involving Nugent's house, the jury never addressed that issue. While the jury decided in favor of the forfeiture of Nugent's Mercedes, contrary to Isaac's alleged advice, it seems a great stretch to view that rather trivial aspect of the outcome to a boomerang effect from the phone call. As even appellants grudgingly admit, On a superficial level, perhaps, one could say that this particular ex parte contact did not prejudice Appellants. There is no reason to think that the result is otherwise at a non-superficial level. 29

30 In the course of the trial two articles appeared in the Washington Post that led the court to conduct voir dires of the jurors to make sure there had been and would be no prejudice. While appellants do not claim error in the trial court's contemporaneous handling of these episodes, they object to the court's failure to recall the jurors when several of them signed post-trial affidavits asserting that there had been more exposure to the papers--particularly to these articles--than the jurors had acknowledged in the voir dires. But the material to which the jurors belatedly claimed exposure was in its essence cumulative of trial evidence. We find no error. 31 On March 13, 1992, about a month after the jury was sworn, the Post ran a front-page article, Michael York, Witness Threats Reported In R Street Drug Trial, saying that two government witnesses had been threatened and that signs had been posted in the R Street area warning snitchers. That morning defendants moved for a mistrial and the court, after verifying that there were no newspapers in the jury room, conducted an individual voir dire of each juror. Two jurors said they had heard a report about threats to witnesses, 821 F.Supp. at 736, but both said the report would not affect their ability to be impartial. All jurors said they would avoid press reports and would base their verdict solely upon the evidence at trial. Id. at 735-36. On May 18, 1992 the Post ran another front-page story called Enforcers Are D.C.'s Dealers of Death (by Pierre Thomas and Michael York), which mentioned Nugent by name as an example of an enforcer [319 U.S.App.D.C. 277] who maintained a drug gang's control over territory. Again the trial court conducted individual voir dire of the jurors, and all disclaimed familiarity with the article. 821 F.Supp. at 736. 32 After the trial, four jurors gave affidavits stating that other jurors read newspaper accounts of the trial and discussed them in the jury room. Interestingly, only one of these affiants participated in the final verdict, as two were alternates and one was dismissed midway through the deliberations. (Dews and Isaac, and Scott, respectively.) A fifth juror, Garnett, uniquely admitted reading an article himself, saying that he had seen, and had falsely denied seeing, the article on death threats to witness, presumably referring to the March 13, 1992 article. He also said the jurors had read articles that the judge did not inquire about, citing the one where the government was saying they had to use different means to get witnesses to cooperate. (An article submitted in post-trial proceedings matching this description is Michael York & Sari Horwitz, Threats to Witnesses Increasing in District, Wash. Post, Mar. 16, 1992, at D1, mentioning problems with persuading witnesses to testify for the government in the R Street trial.) And Garnett claimed that [w]e also heard about the case on the radio and TV. 33 The trial court ruled that the affidavits would warrant a hearing only if they showed a likelihood of prejudice, 821 F.Supp. at 738, and concluded that they did not. Although finding the jurors' responses on voir dire more credible than their recantations, id. at 736, the court also found that neither [of the two articles occasioning a voir dire] contained extraneous, extra-judicial information about defendants that could have prejudiced their right to a fair trial. Id. at 737. In particular, the court detailed government evidence at trial for the murders of rival drug dealers mentioned in the May 18 article. Id. The court's approach here, inquiring into whether the alleged improper exposures were cumulative, fully accords with our treatment of other types of exposures to extra-judicial material. See, e.g., Dallago, 427 F.2d at 559 (delivery into jury room of unadmitted document is harmless error where it was merely cumulative of properly admitted evidence); United States v. Treadwell, 760 F.2d 327, 339 (D.C.Cir.1985) (similar). The court found that [w]hat little extra-judicial information each article did contain about defendants was merely duplicative of evidence already introduced in open court.... 821 F.Supp. at 738. 34 Appellants do not contest that finding except as to the Post articles alluding to threats to witnesses. While the government argues that this was cumulative because the witness Rosalind Cherry revealed these threats to the jury, appellants correctly point out that she denied ever being threatened by defendants. The record, nonetheless, shows that Cherry intensely feared retaliation; given her familiarity with defendants, one would have to be quite obtuse not to suppose that the fear derived from that familiarity. She admitted that she was scared to testify, that the government had recently given her money to move out of Southeast Washington, and that three or four agents surrounded her when she went to court to testify. Given this information, coupled with the defendants' practice of removing or attempting to remove other people who proved inconvenient, which was amply shown at trial, the material in the article appears largely cumulative. 35 There are, in addition, juror Garnett's allegations of exposure to other sources, such as radio and television reports. But Garnett offered no detail from which one could infer that this added anything to the trial evidence itself. Further, the court found Garnett's affidavit to be particularly suspect because of a likely motive to impeach his verdict. 821 F.Supp. at 755. Garnett was quoted in a post-trial Post article, Michael York & Linda Wheeler, Fear Said to Affect R St. Jury, July 24, 1992, at B1, saying that he was surprised to learn that three defendants would receive life without parole despite acquittal on the RICO charges. He said he had focused on the racketeering charges, knew that this was the first time prosecutors had attempted to get convictions for a local drug gang using RICO, and expressed his disapproval of the effort. The U.S. Attorney's office had brought the charges, he said,  'to satisfy the public,'  [319 U.S.App.D.C. 278] and he was  'disturbed'  that the government appeared more concerned with prosecuting the R Street defendants than their cocaine suppliers in Central America. Id. Given Garnett's self-description as a person who entered the jury room with an agenda of limiting the damage to defendants, we think the district court was well within its discretion in declining to summon the jurors back. 36 On these media exposures we note again the overwhelming character of the evidence against defendants, making the chance that these exposures could have affected the verdict exceedingly remote. See pages 274-75 above. 37 We note, finally, that the one shred of evidence as to whether the jurors allowed the press to influence them suggests that they did not. Isaac's affidavit refers to an April 23, 1992 Post article that mentioned the purchase of a pair of custom-made baby alligator shoes costing about $2,200, apparently for Williams-Davis. Michael York, R Street Crew Leaders Were Big Spenders, Wash. Post, Apr. 23, 1992, at C3. Isaac says of the article, Once there was a mistake in the paper about the $2,000 shoes. The comment indicates that Isaac, quite properly, trusted her own recollection of the evidence over the Post reporter's. Cf. 821 F.Supp. at 741 (observing that the matters in the article were merely duplicative of trial evidence). 38 In affirming the trial court, we endorse its view that defendants bringing post-trial claims of mid-trial media exposure must make a threshold showing of a likelihood of prejudice. We reach this conclusion quite independently of our earlier conclusion that the presumption of prejudice stated in Remmer's initial formulation has eroded; we think Remmer never applied at all outside the area of private contacts with jurors. 39 The few decisions in the courts of appeals that explicitly address juror exposure to mid-trial publicity have not applied the Remmer presumption. See, e.g., Waldorf v. Shuta, 3 F.3d 705, 710 (3d Cir.1993) (stating that defendants have burden of showing likelihood of actual prejudice); United States v. Boylan, 898 F.2d 230, 258-60 (1st Cir.1990). In Boylan the court confined Remmer on the grounds that the media exposure lacked the characteristics stressed by the Remmer Court as justifying the presumption, namely, the paucity of data about the event (an attempted bribe) and its extreme nature. Boylan specifically notes that the absence of third party involvement makes it much easier to secure a picture of what has happened, id. at 260; that absence is, of course, typical of media exposure episodes. Cf. United States v. Herring, 568 F.2d 1099, 1103 (5th Cir.1978) (presumption of prejudice nominally applied, but with court finding specific timing and content of article highly prejudicial); United States v. Manzella, 782 F.2d 533, 542 (5th Cir.1986) (no prejudice although jurors read article telling of defendant's prior conviction, where in mid-trial voir dire they said that they had noticed only facts brought out at trial). Indeed, on its face Remmer refers only to a private communication, contact, or tampering with a juror. 347 U.S. at 229, 74 S.Ct. at 451. We agree that not even a diluted version of the Remmer presumption applies in cases of juror exposure to media coverage about the case (except perhaps in an instance where someone was deliberately using the media to contact the jurors). But see United States v. Posner, 644 F.Supp. 885, 887 (S.D.Fla.1986) (applying Remmer presumption to case of mid-trial juror media exposure; reversing conviction), aff'd. sub nom. United States v. Scharrer, 828 F.2d 773 (11th Cir.1987) (table). 40 The Third Circuit in Waldorf v. Shuta set forth an approach for mid-trial claims of media exposure that seems to us a basis, with suitable adjustments, for post-trial claims. That decision directed district courts to (1) determine if material is prejudicial; (2) determine whether jurors were exposed to it; and (3) examine exposed jurors to determine if their impartiality was compromised, 3 F.3d at 709-10, and it assigned defendants the burden of showing the likelihood of actual prejudice, id. Where the issue is raised post-trial, of course, F.R.E. 606(b) forbids examining jurors directly on their impartiality (the third step), and because they have dispersed it is far more burdensome to query them even on the aspect permitted by Rule 606(b)--the degree of [319 U.S.App.D.C. 279] exposure (the second step). Accordingly, then, the court should address the first step (as it did here), taking into account the degree to which the material was cumulative and whether the evidence against defendants was (as here) overwhelming. If prejudice is likely, then inquiries as to the degree of exposure are necessary, and, ultimately, some judgment as to the likely impact on impartiality. Our review of the district court findings is deferential, as it is for review of trial court handling of pre-trial publicity, Childress, 58 F.3d at 706 (trial court's finding of juror impartiality only reviewed for manifest error), and of private communications to jurors, see pages 273-74 above. As our analysis above makes clear, in applying these standards we find no error in the scope of the district court's inquiry and its finding of no prejudice from the almost entirely cumulative material.
41 In their affidavits, two jurors stated that during deliberations the forewoman looked up the word enterprise in a dictionary and read out the definition to persuade jurors to convict. According to juror Scott, the forewoman was trying to persuade fellow jurors on the continuing criminal enterprise count. The district court found this use of a dictionary to be not prejudicial because the term enterprise was legally significant only for the RICO counts, see 18 U.S.C. §§ 1961(4), 1962, and the jury acquitted defendants of these charges. As to the CCE counts, the statute uses the term enterprise only in labelling the crime, not in identifying any of the criteria that must be satisfied to show the crime's commission. 21 U.S.C. § 848(c). The court therefore decided that jury consideration of a dictionary definition of that word does not implicate the dangers usually associated with this form of juror misconduct. 821 F.Supp. at 739. Appellants contend that because the jury could have looked up other words in the dictionary, and because the use of a dictionary definition of enterprise could have been prejudicial on the CCE counts despite its irrelevance to the necessary jury findings, the trial court should have recalled the jury for questioning. 42 Again we see no reason why a presumption of prejudice should be suitable for this sort of extraneous material, any more than it would be for media exposure. Cases from other circuits are mixed. The Eighth Circuit has declined to apply a Remmer presumption to jurors' use of extraneous material for resolution of a legal as opposed to a factual issue, United States v. Blumeyer, 62 F.3d 1013, 1016-17 (8th Cir.1995), a distinction that the court does not explain and that does not on its face seem convincing. The Sixth Circuit has applied concepts in accord with our general treatment of extraneous materials, saying that prejudice is not to be automatically inferred even if jurors in fact studied a dictionary definition. United States v. Gillespie, 61 F.3d 457, 460 (6th Cir.1995). On that court's view the trial court has extensive discretion to fashion its inquiry, and review is for abuse of discretion. Id. See also United States v. Duncan, 598 F.2d 839, 866 (4th Cir.1979) (same). While United States v. Martinez, 14 F.3d 543, 550 (11th Cir.1994), applied a Remmer presumption to jurors' use of a dictionary, the case involved intrusion of many other extraneous materials, which the court in fact found prejudicial. And in a civil case the Tenth Circuit spoke of its application of Remmer to any external information, but in fact the court delineated a range of factors to be considered in estimating the likelihood of prejudice. Mayhue v. St. Francis Hospital, 969 F.2d 919, 922-23 (10th Cir.1992). Cf. United States v. Console, 13 F.3d 641, 665-66 (3d Cir.1993) (purporting to apply Remmer presumption to erroneous definition originating in juror's sister). Obviously where the word is critical to a necessary determination, a finding of prejudice is likely. See, e.g., Marino v. Vasquez, 812 F.2d 499, 505-06 (9th Cir.1987) (presence of malice, which jurors looked up in the dictionary after thirty days' deliberation, was crucial to conviction); Mayhue, 969 F.2d at 924. 43 We see no need for further proliferation of categories, and think the alleged contamination is properly assessed in accordance with the standards outlined above for post-trial claims of media exposure--the burden is on defendant to show prejudice, which at the [319 U.S.App.D.C. 280] outset is to be done by examination of the alleged illicit exposure in the full context of the trial. Here the defendants have not gotten past the first step. They have not shown that the portion of the dictionary to which the jurors were exposed could, in its nature, have played a prejudicial role. The word looked up had no legal relevance to the findings necessary for the charges on which the jury convicted, and the defendants, despite their counsel's access to quite a few evidently regretful jurors, offer no reason to believe that the jury looked up other words. 44
45 Alternate juror Isaac's affidavit claimed that juror Biggs used to live on R Street and could place [Williams-Davis's and Nugent's] faces from growing up on R Street. At the initial voir dire jurors were asked whether they were familiar with the R Street and Lincoln Road neighborhood, and Biggs had not responded. At a post-trial hearing the court questioned Biggs, who said that he had lived in Washington for 13 years, and that he had lived at 1630 Lincoln Road for four months when he first moved to the area in June 1980. He had then moved to Florida Avenue and had not been back to the R Street neighborhood since. He said he had never seen defendants before the trial. When asked why he had not responded at voir dire, he said (without further elaboration) that he had not thought it was necessary. 821 F.Supp. at 748-49. The court credited his testimony and concluded that Biggs had been making a sincere effort to respond truthfully and was not biased against defendants, noting that [h]is sojourn in that neighborhood was brief and ended well before any of the criminal activities at issue in this trial occurred. Id. at 749. Appellants argue that a new trial is needed because of Biggs' knowledge of the R Street neighborhood and drug dealers whose names frequently surfaced at trial, such as Rayful Edmond, III--the last item evidently referring simply to Biggs's knowledge of the name Rayful Edmond, a much-publicized District drug dealer. 46 For reversal because of a juror's failure to disclose information at voir dire, the Supreme Court requires the complaining party to show that the juror failed to answer honestly a material question on voir dire, and then further show that a correct response would have provided a valid basis for a challenge for cause. The motives for concealing information may vary, but only those reasons that affect a juror's impartiality can truly be said to affect the fairness of a trial. McDonough Power Equip., Inc. v. Greenwood, 464 U.S. 548, 556, 104 S.Ct. 845, 850, 78 L.Ed.2d 663 (1984). We applied the McDonough standard in United States v. North, 910 F.2d 843, 903-04 (D.C.Cir.1990), reading it to require a showing of actual bias, id. at 904. We upheld the trial court's finding that there was no actual bias, even though the trial court disbelieved the juror's post-trial forgetfulness explanation of her failure to reveal that several of her brothers had been charged with criminal conduct, that one had been sent to prison, and that she herself had testified before a grand jury investigating a robbery allegedly committed by one of her brothers. We review the trial court's decision for abuse of discretion. United States v. Boney, 68 F.3d 497, 502 (D.C.Cir.1995). 47 Plainly the omission here does not remotely satisfy the daunting McDonough-North standard. Apart from the comparative triviality of the omission, the only specific indications about Biggs suggest that he was favorably disposed to the defendants, as he had told Isaac, according to her report of her mid-deliberations phone conversation with him, that he was going to do the best he could to carry out her plea to prevent the forfeiture of Nugent's houses and cars. And juror Scott stated that Biggs, Scott himself, and several other jurors were all in agreement that we needed to have all of the evidence and take our time deliberating without being coerced to just find them guilty. 48 There is a loose end here. Isaac's claim that Biggs could place [Williams-Davis's and Nugent's] faces from growing up on R Street was based, she said, on a drive the two took together around the R Street neighborhood because she (Isaac) didn't know where it was at. She said Biggs [319 U.S.App.D.C. 281] pointed out where various members of the R Street Crew used to live. The trial court questioned Biggs about the trip after the trial and concluded that the drive could not possibly have been prejudicial because, during trial, the jurors had repeatedly viewed enlargements of aerial photographs and street photographs of the R Street neighborhood. 821 F.Supp. at 741. Thus the information gained from the illicit drive appears to be entirely cumulative. Cf. Bibbins v. Dalsheim, 21 F.3d 13, 17 (2d Cir.1994) (in light of introduction of crime scene photographs at trial, relaying of extra-record information by juror familiar with the crime scene was cumulative). Defendants do not claim that Biggs actually knew any defendant, or that more inquiry was needed on that red herring.
49 The five juror affiants all indicated that jurors discussed the case before deliberations. Because the only extraneous material shown as having been discussed was the article restating the alligator shoes testimony, see page 278 above, the court held that the jurors' statements about the conversations were inadmissible under Rule 606(b). 821 F.Supp. at 741-42. 50 Appellants argue that Rule 606(b) does not apply to pre-deliberation discussions, since the Rule on its face applies only to deliberations. Accordingly, they say, the court should have questioned the entire jury on this point. The government counters that Rule 606(b) does not apply to pre-deliberation discussions discovered mid-trial, but does apply to the same discussions discovered post-trial. 51 While the law is slightly obscure, it appears that even if Rule 606(b) does not actually bar receipt of evidence of pre-deliberation discussions, a trial court is virtually automatically justified in declining to pursue such an inquiry. In Tanner v. United States, 483 U.S. 107, 107 S.Ct. 2739, 97 L.Ed.2d 90 (1987), the Court considered post-trial claims that members of the jury had, during the trial, consumed so much alcohol at lunch that they had slept through afternoon sessions of the trial. The Court read Rule 606(b) as drawing a distinction between external influences (admissible under the exception) and internal matters, among which the common law had firmly classified the jurors' physical or mental incompetence. Id. at 117-18, 107 S.Ct. at 2745-46. The trial judge had refused to pursue the defendants' allegations of drinking and sleeping, and the Supreme Court said that it did not err in deciding, based on the inadmissibility of juror testimony and the clear insufficiency of the nonjuror evidence offered by petitioners, that an additional postverdict evidentiary hearing was unnecessary. Id. at 127, 107 S.Ct. at 2751. The Court reserved the question whether Rule 606(b) might preserve a common-law exception allowing postverdict inquiry of juror incompetence after it had been shown by powerful extrinsic evidence. Id. at 125, 107 S.Ct. at 2750. 52 We have drawn the same line, coupled with the same ambiguous hint that under some circumstances the district court could query the jurors on purely internal matters. See United States v. Wilson, 534 F.2d 375, 378-79 (D.C.Cir.1976) (quoting with approval Government of the Virgin Islands v. Gereau, 523 F.2d 140, 148-50 (3d Cir.1975), which draws such a line, but ultimately affirming on the basis of the trial judge's discretion in handling claims of irregularity); United States v. Campbell, 684 F.2d 141, 151 (D.C.Cir.1982) (similar). In a case involving mid-trial discovery of pre-deliberation discussions, the Third Circuit seems to have somewhat retreated from Gereau, saying that it was no basis for holding that premature jury deliberations, as a form of intra-jury influence, can never be the grounds for overturning a verdict. United States v. Resko, 3 F.3d 684, 694 n. 8 (3d Cir.1993). See also United States v. Bertoli, 40 F.3d 1384, 1395-96 & n. 5 (3d Cir.1994). It is worth noting, in thinking of the Third Circuit's position, that Rule 606(b)'s ban applies not only to statements made during the course of the jury's deliberations but also 53 to the effect of anything upon that or any other juror's mind or emotions as influencing the juror to assent to or dissent from the verdict or indictment or concerning the [319 U.S.App.D.C. 282] juror's mental processes in connection therewith.... 54 Of course this might encompass only individual jurors' internal cognitive processes, but Tanner, in upholding the trial court's refusal to take evidence from jurors as to other jurors' imbibing and sleeping, clearly states a broader rule, based on its understanding of the common law background norm. Further, other courts besides ours have followed Gereau. See United States v. Tierney, 947 F.2d 854, 869 (8th Cir.1991) (adopting Gereau approach); United States v. Cuthel, 903 F.2d 1381, 1383 (11th Cir.1990) (holding that pre-deliberation intra-jury communications cannot serve as the basis for a challenge to the verdict). 55 Preserving the finality of jury verdicts militates strongly in favor of barring post-trial juror assertions of pre-deliberation discussion. The probability of some adverse effect on the verdict is far less than for extraneous influences. [W]hen there are premature deliberations among jurors with no allegations of external influence on the jury, the proper process for jury decisionmaking has been violated, but there is no reason to doubt that the jury based its ultimate decision only on evidence formally presented at trial. United States v. Resko, 3 F.3d at 690. And admission of such affidavits would place a powerful weapon in the hands of a juror who senses that his viewpoint is not shared by his fellows--deliberate promotion of pre-deliberation conversations, a move that fellow jurors would be far less likely to report to the court than references to outside materials. 56 Of course some reformers have proposed completely doing away with the rule against intra-jury discussion of the case before the formal start of deliberations, presumably reasoning that jurors are mature enough to discuss the case during the trial in a tentative way, without settling into final opinions until the case is fully in. 1 One panel recommending such changes has argued that allowing the discussions prevents secretive conversations and formation of cliques, 2 presumably reasoning that jurors, whose salient common interest must be the trial unfolding before them for several hours a day, are most unlikely to obey the strictures of the standard rule. 57 But we can resolve this issue without regard to such radical ideas. Even if Rule 606(b) and the common law allow jurors to make post-verdict claims of pre-deliberation discussions, we have, along with other circuits, left trial courts especially broad discretion  'to determine what manner of hearing, if any, is warranted'  about intra-jury misconduct. Campbell, 684 F.2d at 151 (quoting Wilson, 534 F.2d at 379). See also, e.g., Resko, 3 F.3d at 690; United States v. Edwards, 696 F.2d 1277, 1282 (11th Cir.1983); Grooms v. Wainwright, 610 F.2d 344, 347 (5th Cir.1980). The decision of the trial court not to hold a post-trial hearing on the subject was clearly within that discretion.