Opinion ID: 1428349
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: duty of police officer to third persons while effectuating arrest

Text: ¶ 9 We first consider the issue raised by the State's cross-petition for certiorari: Whether the Motor Vehicle Code imposes on a police officer engaged in pursuit of a suspect a duty of care to third parties on the highway. The Court of Appeals held that such a duty does exist. See Day, 882 P.2d at 1154. It addressed the duty issue first on the principle that a case should be decided on non-constitutional grounds if possible and that constitutional issues should be addressed only when necessary. See World Peace Movement v. Newspaper Agency Corp., 879 P.2d 253, 257 (Utah 1994); State v. Thurman, 846 P.2d 1256, 1262 (Utah 1993). We take the same approach. ¶ 10 In a personal injury case involving a defense of governmental immunity such as this case, we generally decide first whether the defendant owed a duty of due care to the plaintiff before deciding whether the defendant is entitled to the affirmative defense of governmental immunity. See Rollins v. Petersen, 813 P.2d 1156, 1162 & n. 3 (Utah 1991). On numerous occasions, this Court has held that certain government agencies and their employees owed no duty of care to the plaintiffs, even though such government agencies had a general duty to further and protect the public's health, safety, and welfare. In such cases, the immunity issue was not reached because the plaintiffs failed to make out prima facie cases of negligence. See Ferree, 784 P.2d at 152-53; Ledfors v. Emery County Sch. Dist., 849 P.2d 1162, 1164 (Utah 1993). By distinguishing between an absence of duty of due care on the part of a government agency to an injured person and the affirmative defense of governmental immunity, a court can more clearly define the scope of each body of law and the policies that underlie them. If Officer Colyar owed no duty of care to the Days, there can be no prima facie case of negligence as a matter of law, and immunity would be immaterial. See Rocky Mt. Thrift Stores, Inc. v. Salt Lake City Corp., 887 P.2d 848, 852 (Utah 1994); Rollins, 813 P.2d at 1162 & n. 3; see also Duncan v. Union Pac. R.R. Co., 842 P.2d 832, 836 n. 1 (Utah 1992) (Stewart, J., dissenting). ¶ 11 The State denies that it or Officer Colyar owed a duty of care to the Days. It relies on the position that the State's public duties cannot be the basis for a tort duty of due care that runs to specific individuals who are harmed by governmental action. The law states, For a governmental agency and its agents to be liable for negligently caused injury suffered by a member of the public, the plaintiff must show a breach of a duty owed him as an individual, not merely the breach of an obligation owed to the general public at large by the governmental official. Ferree, 784 P.2d at 151. The State denies that it owes any duty of care to third persons who are injured by a collision with one fleeing arrest, irrespective of the reason for the pursuit. ¶ 12 The public duty doctrine provides that although a government entity owes a general duty to all members of the public, that duty does not impose a specific duty of due care on the government with respect to individuals who may be harmed by governmental action or inaction, unless there is some specific connection between the government agency and the individuals that makes it reasonable to impose a duty. See, e.g., DeBry v. Noble, 889 P.2d 428, 440 n. 12 (Utah 1995); Madsen v. Borthick, 850 P.2d 442, 444 (Utah 1993); South v. Maryland, 59 U.S. (18 How.) 396, 15 L.Ed. 433 (1855). ¶ 13 At least four circumstances may give rise to a special relationship between the government and specific individuals. [1] A special relationship can be established (1) by a statute intended to protect a specific class of persons of which the plaintiff is a member from a particular type of harm; (2) when a government agent undertakes specific action to protect a person or property; (3) by governmental actions that reasonably induce detrimental reliance by a member of the public; and (4) under certain circumstances, when the agency has actual custody of the plaintiff or of a third person who causes harm to the plaintiff. [2] See, e.g., Nelson v. Salt Lake City, 919 P.2d 568 (Utah 1996) (city's maintenance of fence along waterway); Rollins v. Petersen, 813 P.2d 1156 (Utah 1991) (mental hospital patient); Ferree v. State, 784 P.2d 149 (Utah 1989) (no duty to protect from specific threats from halfway-house inmate); Little v. Division of Family Servs., 667 P.2d 49, 53-54 (Utah 1983) (state had legal custody of autistic child); Benally v. Robinson, 14 Utah 2d 6, 376 P.2d 388 (1962) (officer had duty of due care to drunk person taken into custody); Restatement (Second) of Torts § 314A (1965). ¶ 14 The first exception applies in this case. Officer Colyar had a statutory duty to exercise reasonable care in using his patrol car to pursue Floyd. The Motor Vehicle Code in effect at the time of the accident, Utah Code Ann. § 41-6-14 (1988), imposed a duty on operators of emergency vehicles such as police cars to act with due regard for the safety of other persons on the road, as the Court of Appeals held. See Day, 882 P.2d at 1154. Section 41-6-14 exempted drivers of emergency vehicles from compliance with (1) speed limits, if the operator does not endanger life or property, and (2) other traffic laws, if the operator provides audible and visual signals when in pursuit of an actual or suspected violator of the law. [3] However, section 41-6-14(3)(a), which was in effect at the time of the accident in this case, states that [t]he privilege[] [of disregarding traffic laws] do[es] not relieve the operator of an authorized emergency vehicle from the duty to operate the vehicle with regard for the safety of all persons.  Id. § 41-6-14(3)(a) (repealed effective July 1, 1993) (emphasis added). In addition, § 41-6-76 of the Motor Vehicle Code states that although all other motor vehicle operators have an obligation to yield the right-of-way to an emergency vehicle operating under the guidelines of § 41-6-14, the operator of an authorized emergency vehicle [is not relieved] from the duty to drive with regard for the safety of all persons using the highway. Id. § 41-6-76(2) (1988) (emphasis added). These provisions clearly state that operators of emergency vehicles must operate their vehicles in regard for the safety of all persons. [4] That language imposes on operators of emergency vehicles a duty of care with regard to others using the streets and highways. Utah cases decided under this provision and its antecedents have specifically imposed such a duty. Howe v. Jackson, 18 Utah 2d 269, 421 P.2d 159, 161-62 (1966), held that even though an ambulance driver was exempt from certain traffic regulations, he was nevertheless not excused from using reasonable care under the circumstances, and ... any careless, arbitrary or unreasonable exercise of those privileges would be negligence. Jensen v. Taylor, 2 Utah 2d 196, 271 P.2d 838 (1954), held that the statute imposed on a fire truck driver a duty of due care that was not satisfied merely by using a siren or warning lights. See also Cornwall v. Larsen, 571 P.2d 925, 928 (Utah 1977) (Ellett, C.J., concurring with explanation) (The driver of a police car, thus is liable in a civil action for a failure to drive with due regard for the safety of others.). ¶ 15 The State contends that the statute does not impose a duty on the emergency vehicle driver to control the manner in which another operates his vehicle on the road. We agree, but neither the Court of Appeals nor plaintiff has asserted that Officer Colyar had a duty to control Floyd. Plaintiff contends simply that Officer Colyar breached his duty to conduct his pursuit with due regard for the safety of all persons because it should have been reasonably foreseeable to Officer Colyar that his high-speed chase of Floyd through populated areas, if continued, would likely cause a collision between another vehicle and either Floyd's or Officer Colyar's vehicle, resulting in injury or death to the driver or passengers of the other vehicle. Had Officer Colyar terminated the pursuit, that risk would undoubtedly have terminated. At least that is an inference to which plaintiff was entitled on the motion for summary judgment. ¶ 16 The State correctly states that emergency vehicles in the above cases were directly involved in the accident that gave rise to the injuries for which suit was brought. Nevertheless, the instant case does not fall outside the scope of the legal principles applied in those cases. Whether the State might be liable in the instant case raises an issue of proximate cause as to whether it was reasonably foreseeable that Colyar's continuing the chase might result in Floyd's car colliding with another. That is not an issue for summary judgment. See Harline v. Barker, 912 P.2d 433, 439 (Utah 1996); Mitchell v. Pearson Enters., 697 P.2d 240, 245 (Utah 1985). In similar instances, we have held that such an issue is for the jury. See Cruz v. Middlekauff Lincoln-Mercury, Inc., 909 P.2d 1252, 1257 (Utah 1996) (holding that car dealership that left keys in cars parked on its lot that were stolen could be liable for injuries to third person negligently caused by thief); City of Pinellas Park v. Brown, 604 So.2d 1222, 1228 (Fla. 1992) (police chase presented jury proximate cause issue); Lowrimore v. Dimmitt, 310 Or. 291, 797 P.2d 1027, 1030-31 (1990) (recognizing that proximate cause could be satisfied in police chase context); Travis v. City of Mesquite, 830 S.W.2d 94, 98-99 (Tex.1992) (rejecting argument that there is no proximate cause as a matter of law in police chase context). ¶ 17 The issue of whether police officers owe a duty of care to third parties who are injured by fleeing suspects is an issue that a number of other states have decided. The majority of recent cases hold that an action will lie in such circumstances. The New Jersey Supreme Court, in Tice v. Cramer, 133 N.J. 347, 627 A.2d 1090, 1103-04 (1993), stated: The majority of recent cases, however, hold that a police officer or a governmental employer may be held liable for third-party injuries when the police officer is negligent in continuing a vehicular chase. Accord Biscoe v. Arlington County, 738 F.2d 1352, 1366 (D.C.Cir.1984) (stating numerous jurisdictions have recognized a cause of action for negligent conduct of a high-speed chase, where the pursued vehicle strikes and injures an innocent third party). See also Seals v. City of Columbia, 575 So.2d 1061 (Ala.1991); Tetro v. Town of Stratford, 189 Conn. 601, 458 A.2d 5 (1983); City of Miami v. Horne, 198 So.2d 10 (Fla.1967); Mixon v. City of Warner Robins, 264 Ga. 385, 444 S.E.2d 761 (1994); Boyer v. State, 323 Md. 558, 594 A.2d 121 (1991); Fiser v. City of Ann Arbor, 417 Mich. 461, 339 N.W.2d 413 (1983); Lee v. City of Omaha, 209 Neb. 345, 307 N.W.2d 800 (1981); Lowrimore v. Dimmitt, 310 Or. 291, 797 P.2d 1027 (1990); Haynes v. Hamilton County, 883 S.W.2d 606 (Tenn.1994); Travis v. City of Mesquite, 830 S.W.2d 94 (Tex.1992); Mason v. Bitton, 85 Wash.2d 321, 534 P.2d 1360 (1975). A few states, however, require a showing of gross negligence before imposing liability. See Breck v. Cortez, 141 Ill.App.3d 351, 95 Ill. Dec. 615, 490 N.E.2d 88 (1986); Bullins v. Schmidt, 322 N.C. 580, 369 S.E.2d 601 (1988); Peak v. Ratliff, 185 W.Va. 548, 408 S.E.2d 300 (1991). [5] ¶ 18 Several of these cases are closely on point. The Washington Supreme Court, in Mason v. Bitton, 85 Wash.2d 321, 534 P.2d 1360 (1975), construing an emergency vehicle statute with nearly identical provisions to Utah Code Ann. § 41-6-14, rejected the argument that the State advances in the instant case. The court concluded that the Washington Legislature, by enacting the statute, intended to protect persons and property from all consequences resulting from negligent behavior of the enforcement officers, including injury to third parties caused by fleeing suspects. Id. at 1363. ¶ 19 The Michigan Supreme Court in Fiser v. City of Ann Arbor, 417 Mich. 461, 339 N.W.2d 413 (1983), also construed a statute similar to Utah's and held that a police officer owes a duty to other drivers on the road who may be injured as a proximate result of his negligence. As in the instant case, Fiser involved a motorist whose vehicle was struck by a fleeing suspect. The court stated that the legislative intent behind the statute was clear: [E]mergency vehicles must be driven with due regard for the safety of others, id. at 417, and the jury, in deciding whether a police officer breached this duty, should consider, among other things, the speed and location of the chase, the presence of pedestrians and other vehicles, and the reason for initiating the pursuit. See id. ¶ 20 Maryland's highest court has also held that the state can be held liable for injuries to third persons arising from a high-speed chase. The court held that police officers owe a duty of care to a plaintiff injured by suspected criminals fleeing the officers if the officer set in motion a chain of events which they know or should have known would lead to ... [the plaintiff's] injury by the [party being pursued] or by the police effort to stop the vehicle. Boyer v. State, 323 Md. 558, 594 A.2d 121, 134 (1991) (quoting Keesling v. State, 288 Md. 579, 420 A.2d 261, 267 (1980)). The court grounded its decision on both statutory and common law. See id. (citing Maryland Code § 21-106(d); Martin v. Rossignol, 226 Md. 363, 174 A.2d 149 (1961); Sudbrook v. State, 153 Md. 194, 138 A. 12 (1927)). ¶ 21 The State argues that a pursuing officer owes no duty of care to protect other persons on the highway from a negligent or reckless fleeing suspect. Specifically, the State asserts that because Officer Colyar could not directly control Floyd's actions, Floyd alone was responsible for Mrs. Day's injuries and her husband's death. However, the cases discussed above and Utah Code Ann. § 41-6-14(3)(a) support the proposition that Officer Colyar had a duty of care to other users of the highways and streets. Those cases also support the proposition that his conduct could be found to be a proximate cause of the Days' injuries if they were reasonably foreseeable. This Court has held that one may be liable for the reckless or negligent acts of another if they are reasonably foreseeable. See Cruz v. Middlekauff Lincoln-Mercury, Inc., 909 P.2d 1252, 1257 (Utah 1996); cf. United States v. First Sec. Bank, 208 F.2d 424, 429-30 (10th Cir. 1953) (construing Utah law); see also Stark v. City of Los Angeles, 168 Cal.App.3d 276, 214 Cal.Rptr. 216 (1985) (police have duty to drive so as not to impose unreasonable risk of harm on others, even when pursued person collides with third party); Tetro v. Town of Stratford, 189 Conn. 601, 458 A.2d 5 (1983) (negligence of pursued does not foreclose liability of officers); 8 Am.Jur.2d Automobiles and Highway Traffic § 456 (1997); Restatement (Second) of Torts § 303 (1965). This duty is based on a reasonable person's obligation to refrain from actions that may foreseeably result in injury. See 2 Fowler V. Harper & Fleming James, Jr., The Law of Torts § 16.12, at 940 (1956). ¶ 22 According to the State, Officer Colyar owed only a generalized duty to the public at large to enforce the law; therefore, the State cannot be held liable for Floyd's conduct. The State relies on the following cases: Rollins v. Petersen, 813 P.2d 1156 (Utah 1991); Ferree v. State, 784 P.2d 149 (Utah 1989); see also Obray v. Malmberg, 26 Utah 2d 17, 484 P.2d 160 (1971) (sheriff held not liable for failing to investigate burglary); Cannon v. University of Utah, 866 P.2d 586 (Utah Ct.App.1993); Lamarr v. Utah Dep't of Transp., 828 P.2d 535 (Utah Ct.App.1992). ¶ 23 These cases are clearly distinguishable. First, none of them dealt with facts similar to those in the instant case. Second, in none of the cases was there a statute that imposed a duty of care on the government employee with respect to others in the particular circumstances. Third, the defendants in those cases were not, as here, acting in a continuous manner that created a direct, obvious, and imminent hazard to third persons that could have been obviated by the officer's ceasing the conduct creating the risk. Clearly, those cases in which injuries are caused by persons who have been chased or have escaped from custody, such as in Rollins and Ferree, stand for different principles than those applicable to this case. ¶ 24 The nature of Officer Colyar's pursuit of Floyd created an immediate, obvious, and significant threat of serious harm to other users of the highway that would no doubt have ended had he terminated his pursuit. Although law enforcement officers have a general duty to apprehend those who break the law, that duty is not absolute, especially where the violation is only a misdemeanor or an infraction  such as driving ten miles per hour over the speed limit  and the attempt to apprehend the person creates a serious risk of death or injury to third persons or the fugitive. It has been held that, in apprehending someone, a law enforcement officer must act reasonably and may not use all available means to apprehend a fleeing suspect to arrest him for a misdemeanor. Thus, officers may not use lethal force to stop one who has committed a misdemeanor. See Graham v. State, 31 Okla.Crim. 125, 237 P. 462 (1925); Gosczinski v. Carlson, 157 Wis. 551, 147 N.W. 1018, 1020 (1914) (Under the rules of the common law, officers were not justified to shoot persons attempting to escape from their custody in case of arrests for a misdemeanor....). The threat of injury to the safety of the person fleeing and to the safety of bystanders is significant enough, and the magnitude of the possible harm so momentous, to dictate that the fleeing person be allowed to escape rather than imperiling his safety or the safety of others. See Edgin v. Talley, 169 Ark. 662, 276 S.W. 591, 594 (1925) (officer who fired at misdemeanant's auto, injuring passenger, could be held liable for negligent and careless use of firearms); Davis v. Hellwig, 21 N.J. 412, 122 A.2d 497 (1956) (negligence claim stated where officer fired at fleeing misdemeanant and bullet ricocheted and hit bystander); Moore v. Foster, 182 Miss. 15, 180 So. 73, 74 (1938) (officers who hit plaintiff when they fired above heads of fleeing misdemeanants to frighten them into stopping, acted negligently and wrongfully); see also Shaw v. Lord, 41 Okla. 347, 137 P. 885, 886-87 (1914) (peace officer's privilege to use firearm in attempt to arrest felony fugitive did not relieve officer of duty to avoid injuring bystander); Askay v. Maloney, 92 Or. 566, 179 P. 899, 903-04 (1919) (same). ¶ 25 The State also argues that Officer Colyar's pursuit was nonactionable because he was engaged in a discretionary function. For reasons discussed infra, the law that governs is not the law at the time of statehood with respect to whether a cause of action lies against a law enforcement officer for actions taken in trying to apprehend a misdemeanant, as the State argues and the Court of Appeals ruled. Rather, the issue is determined by the standards imposed by section 41-6-14 (1988) and the current general principles governing police conduct. Implicit in the cases discussed above that hold officers liable for carelessly injuring others while engaged in hot pursuit is the proposition that the discretion which an officer uses in such a pursuit is not sufficient to bar such an action. ¶ 26 The general rule with respect to whether police conduct and its endangerment of others is actionable is stated in K.C. Davis & R.J. Pierce, Jr., Administrative Law Treatise ¶ 19.3 at 217 (3d ed. 1994): Although much police work is highly discretionary, the courts over long period have classified police action as ministerial; that means that a [police] officer generally has only qualified immunity, not absolute immunity, even when what he does is clearly discretionary. That proposition is implicitly and firmly established in Utah law. See Cornwall v. Larsen, 571 P.2d 925, 927 (Utah 1977); Benally v. Robinson, 14 Utah 2d 6, 376 P.2d 388 (1962); Jackson v. Harries, 65 Utah 282, 236 P. 234 (1925); Geros v. Harries, 65 Utah 227, 236 P. 220 (1925); see also Payne v. Myers, 743 P.2d 186 (Utah 1987); Frank v. State, 613 P.2d 517 (Utah 1980). ¶ 27 Indeed, older cases say little or nothing about the official immunity of police officers, but they clearly support holding police officers liable for their negligent acts, particularly when attempting arrests. See, e.g., Restatement (Second) of Torts § 895D (1979); Annotations, Personal Liability of Peace Officer or His Bond for Negligence Causing Personal Injury or Death, 18 A.L.R. 197 (1922), 39 A.L.R. 1306 (1925); Annotation, Personal Liability of Policeman, Sheriff, or Other Peace Officer, or Bond, for Negligently Causing Personal Injury or Death, 60 A.L.R.2d 873 (1958); 80 C.J.S. Sheriffs and Constables § 52 (1953); 70 Am. Jur.2d Sheriffs, Police, and Constables § 90 (1987). ¶ 28 Officers have also been liable for negligently injuring bystanders while trying to apprehend a fleeing misdemeanant. E.g., Edgin v. Talley, 169 Ark. 662, 276 S.W. 591 (1925) (officer shot at car driven by misdemeanant with intent to force car to stop, but hit passenger; court observed that officer has no right to use firearms in such a negligent manner); Davis v. Hellwig, 21 N.J. 412, 122 A.2d 497 (1956) (where officer shot at misdemeanant and bullet ricocheted and hit bystander, court found that bystander stated negligence claim); Young v. Kelley, 60 Ohio App. 382, 21 N.E.2d 602 (1938) (officer could be held liable for injury to woman on street where he fired at drunk who had escaped custody, trying to frighten drunk into stopping). This duty of care toward bystanders in attempting an arrest has also been imposed where the degree of force used was lawful. See Shaw v. Lord, 41 Okla. 347, 137 P. 885, 886-87 (1914) (officer's privilege to shoot at felony fugitive in attempting arrest did not relieve him of duty to exercise such care to avoid injury to other persons as a person of ordinary prudence would usually exercise in doing so under like circumstances, so bystander hit by bullet stated jury negligence issue); Askay v. Maloney, 92 Or. 566, 179 P. 899, 903-04 (1919) (although officers were within their authority in firing on fleeing robbery suspects, innocent bystanders were nevertheless owed duty of care, and thus bystander injured by stray bullet could state negligence claim). ¶ 29 The Court of Appeals relied on Garff v. Smith, 31 Utah 102, 86 P. 772 (1906), for the conclusion that a cause of action would not lie at common law against Trooper Colyar. Day, 882 P.2d at 1158. Garff held that an administrative officer was not liable in performing a quasi-judicial function pursuant to statute. See 86 P. at 774. Trooper Colyar's actions here were not quasi-judicial; they were not directed by statute; and although they involved some discretion in performing an operational task, they were not discretionary as our cases define that word for purposes of governmental immunity. Frank v. State, 613 P.2d 517 (Utah 1980), held that the discretionary function exception should be confined to those decisions and acts occurring at the `basic policy-making level,' and not extended to those acts and decisions taking place at the operational level... `which concern routine, everyday matters, not requiring evaluation of broad policy factors.' Id. at 520 (quoting Carroll v. State Road Comm'n, 27 Utah 2d 384, 388, 496 P.2d 888, 891 (1972)). ¶ 30 After initially clocking Floyd at ten miles per hour above the speed limit, Officer Colyar commenced pursuit and also inquired over the radio whether Floyd's vehicle was stolen. The dispatcher reported that there was no indication it was stolen, yet Officer Colyar continued the pursuit at speeds on and off the freeway in urban areas up to 120 miles per hour. [6] The fact finder on remand will have to determine whether it was or should have been reasonably foreseeable to Officer Colyar that the high-speed pursuit through highly populated areas would endanger the lives of others on the road and whether, if he had terminated the pursuit, Floyd would likely have substantially reduced his speed and terminated his otherwise reckless driving. Officer Colyar had a statutory duty to use care for the safety of other persons on the road. See Utah Code Ann. § 41-6-14. Whether he failed to comply with the statute and breached his duty is a question for the jury. ¶ 31 In conclusion, while police officers and drivers of other emergency vehicles are not bound by all traffic laws and do not necessarily violate a duty of due care when they exceed the speed limit or do not comply with certain other safety regulations, a police officer in pursuing another on a public highway or street nevertheless does owe a duty of reasonable care under the circumstances to other motorists on the road. We certainly do not suggest that police officers are never justified in engaging in high-speed pursuits. The need to apprehend a person who is a danger to others because of the serious and violent nature of the crime for which he or she is sought or because his or her presence on the highway presents a threat to public safety may well outweigh the risks that a high-speed pursuit poses to innocent third parties. [7] See City of Pinellas Park v. Brown, 604 So.2d 1222, 1227 (Fla.1992) (police required to use reasonable means in light of the nature of the offense and threats to safety involved); see also Mixon v. City of Warner Robins, 264 Ga. 385, 444 S.E.2d 761, 763-64 (1994) (holding that decision to initiate or continue pursuit may be negligent when heightened risk of injury to third parties is unreasonable in relation to need to apprehend suspects); Travis v. City of Mesquite, 830 S.W.2d 94, 99 (Tex.1992) (same). ¶ 32 The test is whether the driver of the emergency vehicle acted reasonably and with appropriate care for the safety of others in light of all the circumstances. Among the factors that should be considered in deciding whether an officer acts with reasonable care for the safety of others using the highways and streets are the density of traffic and population of the area in which the pursuit occurs; whether the area is rural or urban; the nature of the street, e.g., whether freeway or city streets with stop signs and semaphores; the presence of pedestrians and school zones; the weather and visibility; and, of course, the urgency of apprehending the fleeing person and whether allowing that person to escape may itself pose a serious threat to the safety of others. See Peak v. Ratliff, 185 W.Va. 548, 408 S.E.2d 300, 308 (1991).