Opinion ID: 1609069
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Heading: Determining the Appropriate Level of Constitutional Scrutiny

Text: The Supreme Court has indicated that in order to determine whether the confidentiality rule is constitutional, we must first determine whether the regulation is content-based or content-neutral. City of Ladue v. Gilleo, 512 U.S. 43, 59, 114 S.Ct. 2038, 2047, 129 L.Ed.2d 36 (1994) (O'Connor, J., concurring) (citing seven diverse free speech cases Justice O'Connor wrote, [t]he normal inquiry that our doctrine dictates is, first, to determine whether a regulation is content based or content neutral, and then, based on the answer to that question, to apply the proper level of scrutiny). The distinction between content-based and content-neutral laws plays a crucial role because the Supreme Court employs decidedly different modes of analysis to assess the constitutionality of laws in each category, subjecting content-based regulations to a far greater degree of scrutiny. Thus, we will review the principles the Supreme Court has established regarding this classification scheme and apply them to the question at hand.
Drawing on prior decisions, the Supreme Court in Boos v. Barry stated that content-neutral speech restrictions are those that are justified without reference to the content of the regulated speech. 485 U.S. 312, 320, 108 S.Ct. 1157, 1163, 99 L.Ed.2d 333 (1988) (plurality opinion) (quotations and citations omitted); See also Playboy Entertainment Group, 529 U.S. at 811, 120 S.Ct. at 1885. The Court has also held that, as a general rule, laws that confer benefits or impose burdens on speech without reference to the ideas or views expressed are in most instances content neutral. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC, 512 U.S. 622, 643, 114 S.Ct. 2445, 2459, 129 L.Ed.2d 497 (1994). Content-neutral laws are aimed at the noncommunicative impact of expressive conduct. Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 12-2, 790-792 (2d ed.1988). They are allowed to stand in certain circumstances because various methods of speech, regardless of their content, may frustrate legitimate governmental goals. Consolidated Edison Co. v. Public Service Comm'n, 447 U.S. 530, 536, 100 S.Ct. 2326, 2332, 65 L.Ed.2d 319 (1980). For example, in order to avoid undue disturbance of nearby residential areas a government entity may adopt a rule that limits sound levels at a concert arena, [50] bars sound trucks from broadcasting in a loud and raucous manner on the streets, [51] or prohibits Saturday morning parades. [52] [R]egulations that are unrelated to the content of speech are subject to an intermediate level of scrutiny. Turner Broadcasting, 512 U.S. at 642, 114 S.Ct. at 2459. The Court has phrased its First Amendment intermediate scrutiny test in two slightly different ways. John E. Nowak & Ronald D. Rotunda, Constitutional Law § 16.47, 1320 (7th ed.2004). First, the Court has enunciated the general principle that government regulation is permissible: if it is within the constitutional power of the Government; if it furthers an important or substantial governmental interest; if the governmental interest is unrelated to the suppression of free expression; and if the incidental restriction on alleged First Amendment freedoms is no greater than is essential to the furtherance of that interest. United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 377, 88 S.Ct. 1673, 1679, 20 L.Ed.2d 672 (1968); See also Turner Broadcasting, 512 U.S. at 662, 114 S.Ct. at 2469. The second method of analysis elaborates on this general principle by restating it in terms of a three-part test. Nowak, supra at 1320. The Court will uphold a reasonable restriction on the time, place, and manner of speech if the government can show: (1) that the restriction is justified without reference to the content of the regulated speech; (2) that it is narrowly tailored to serve a significant governmental interest; and (3) that the regulation leaves open ample alternative channels for communication of the information. See Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791, 109 S.Ct. 2746, 2753-2754, 105 L.Ed.2d 661 (1989) (citing Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence, 468 U.S. 288, 293, 104 S.Ct. 3065, 3069, 82 L.Ed.2d 221 (1984)).
Regarding the identification of content-based laws, the Supreme Court has stated that, [a]s a general rule, laws that by their terms distinguish favored speech from disfavored speech on the basis of the ideas or views expressed are content based. Turner Broadcasting, 512 U.S. at 643, 114 S.Ct. at 2459. [53] Content-based laws include both regulations that target speech based on the viewpoints expressed and regulations that target speech on the basis of subject matter or topic. As the Court expressed in Consolidated Edison: The First Amendment's hostility to content-based regulation extends not only to restrictions on particular viewpoints, but also to prohibition of public discussion of an entire topic. As a general matter, the First Amendment means that government has no power to restrict expression because of its message, its ideas, its subject matter, or its content. 447 U.S. at 537, 100 S.Ct. at 2333 (internal quotations omitted and citation omitted); See also Burson v. Freeman, 504 U.S. 191, 197, 112 S.Ct. 1846, 1850, 119 L.Ed.2d 5 (1992) (plurality opinion); Accord Police Dept. of the City of Chicago v. Mosley, 408 U.S. 92, 95, 92 S.Ct. 2286, 2290, 33 L.Ed.2d 212 (1972). [54] Supreme Court jurisprudence provides several examples of content-based restrictions. We have selected three of these cases to illustrate the application of the principles explained above. In Burson, the Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of a Tennessee statute which prohibited the solicitation of votes and the display or distribution of campaign materials within 100 feet of a polling place entrance. 504 U.S. at 193-194, 112 S.Ct. 1846. The Court held the statute was a content-based restriction because the law applied only to speech related to a specific subject matter, it only applied to speech regarding political campaigns. Id., 504 U.S. at 197-198, 112 S.Ct. 1846. In Consolidated Edison, the Supreme Court evaluated the constitutionality of a policy adopted by the state Public Service Commission. 447 U.S. at 532-533, 100 S.Ct. 2326. The commission prohibited utility companies from inserting informational flyers into customers' bills that discussed `controversial issues of public policy' but allowed bill inserts which addressed topics that were not `controversial issues of public policy.' Id., 447 U.S. at 533, 100 S.Ct. 2326. The specific bill insert which triggered the suit advocated for the use of nuclear power. Id., 447 U.S. at 532, 100 S.Ct. 2326. The commission argued its policy was constitutional because it applied to all bill inserts discussing nuclear power, whether pro or con. Id., 447 U.S. at 537, 100 S.Ct. 2326. The Supreme Court held the policy was a content-based regulation which discriminated between categories of speech on the basis of subject matter. Id., 447 U.S. at 537-541, 100 S.Ct. 2326. Finally, in Simon & Schuster, the Supreme Court reviewed New York's Son of Sam law. 502 U.S. at 107-111, 112 S.Ct. 501. This law required that any money owed under contract to an accused or convicted criminal for a book or other work describing his or her crime be deposited into an escrow account. Id. These funds were then made available to victims of the crime who brought civil actions and secured money judgments against the accused or convicted criminal. Id. The Court held the law was a content-based regulation stating: [The Son of Sam law] singles out income derived from expressive activity for a burden the State places on no other income, and it is directed only at works with a specified content    the statute plainly imposes a financial disincentive only on speech of a particular content. Id., 502 U.S. at 116, 112 S.Ct. 501.
Regulations that are content-based are presumptively invalid. R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377, 382, 112 S.Ct. 2538, 2542, 120 L.Ed.2d 305 (1992). Except for a few well-defined exceptions, which do not apply in this case, [55] a content-based regulation will survive a constitutional challenge only if it passes the well-established two-part strict scrutiny test. Under strict scrutiny the government bears the burden of proving the constitutionality of the regulation by showing (1) that the regulation serves a compelling governmental interest, and (2) that the regulation is narrowly tailored to serve that compelling interest. Playboy Entertainment Group, 529 U.S. at 813, 120 S.Ct. at 1886; R.A.V., 505 U.S. at 395-396, 112 S.Ct. at 2549-2550; Simon & Schuster, 502 U.S. at 118, 112 S.Ct. at 509; Consolidated Edison, 447 U.S. at 540, 100 S.Ct. at 2335 (the government must show that the regulation is a precisely drawn means of serving a compelling state interest).
In R.A.V., the Supreme Court recognized some limited, well-defined exceptions to the general rules for content-based regulations. 505 U.S. at 382-384, 112 S.Ct. at 2542-2543. The Court explained that our society has long recognized that obscenity, defamation, and fighting words constitute proscribable speech. This speech is of only slight social value as a step to truth. Id., 505 U.S. at 383, 112 S.Ct. 2538 (quotations and citation omitted). Thus, these categories of expression receive far less First Amendment protection. Id., 505 U.S. at 383-396, 112 S.Ct. 2538. The parties have not argued, and we do not find, that the confidentiality rule is governed by any of these exceptions. The application of the confidentiality rule is in no way limited to these proscribable categories of speech. The ODC argues, however, that the Supreme Court's decision in Seattle Times Co. v. Rhinehart establishes another exception to the general rules for content-based regulations of speech and should lead this Court to assess the constitutionality of the confidentiality rule under an intermediate level of scrutiny. 467 U.S. 20, 104 S.Ct. 2199, 81 L.Ed.2d 17 (1984). [56] Accordingly, we will briefly review this decision. In Rhinehart, the Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of a protective order issued by a trial court, on a showing of good cause, which barred the defendant in the civil suit from publicly divulging a segment [57] of the information obtained through the pretrial discovery process. Id., 467 U.S. at 24-27, 104 S.Ct. 2199. The protective order in question was issued in accordance with a rule of civil procedure which was virtually identical to its counterpart in the federal rules and to similar rules in many states. Id., 467 U.S. at 30 n. 14, 104 S.Ct. 2199; 467 U.S. at 26 n. 7, 104 S.Ct. 2199; 467 U.S. at 29, 104 S.Ct. 2199. As a threshold question, the Court had to determine the level of constitutional scrutiny which would apply to orders issued under these rules. Id., 467 U.S. at 32-34, 104 S.Ct. 2199; 467 U.S. at 36, 104 S.Ct. 2199. We note the protective order in question clearly targeted speech based on its content. Not surprisingly, petitioners argued that the protective order should be subject to strict scrutiny. Id., 467 U.S. at 30-31, 104 S.Ct. 2199. However, the Court rejected this standard, stating the rule urged by petitioners would impose an unwarranted restriction on the duty and discretion of a trial court to oversee the discovery process. Id., 467 U.S. at 31, 104 S.Ct. 2199. Instead, the Court held that the protective order at issue in Rhinehart, and by logical extension all those like it, would be subjected to a form of intermediate scrutiny. [58] Id., 467 U.S. at 32, 104 S.Ct. 2199. The Court justified the decision to apply lesser scrutiny on two grounds: (1) the nature of the information suppressed, and (2) the unique role the trial court plays in managing discovery. [59] Id., 467 U.S. at 32-36, 104 S.Ct. 2199. Addressing both of these points, the Supreme Court stated that: A litigant has no First Amendment right of access to information made available only for purposes of trying his suit . . . Thus, continued court control over the discovered information does not raise the same specter of government censorship that such control might suggest in other situations. (emphasis added). Id., 467 U.S. at 32, 104 S.Ct. 2199 (citations omitted). As to the unique role of the trial court, the Court further stated: The trial court is in the best position to weigh fairly the competing needs and interests of parties affected by discovery. The unique character of the discovery process requires that the trial court have substantial latitude to fashion protective orders. Id., 467 U.S. at 36, 104 S.Ct. 2199. The Supreme Court's holding in Rhinehart does not govern the question presently before this Court. We are not presented here with a limited protective order issued by an impartial authority on a finding of good cause after considering all of the issues and competing interest in a particular case. We herein review the constitutionality of a rule which generally prohibits all participants in all attorney disciplinary proceedings from divulging any information regarding the attorney disciplinary proceedings in which they are involved. Furthermore, the confidentiality rule suppresses a broader class of speech than the protective order at issue in Rhinehart, see supra note 56. In other words, it is quite plain that the two key elements in Rhinehart which jointly triggered a lower degree of scrutiny are not present in this case: the considered decision of a trial court based on good cause shown in a particular case and a protective order limited to information obtained through pretrial discovery. Thus, the holding in Rhinehart does not govern our present inquiry. Accordingly, should we find that the confidentiality rule is a content-based regulation of speech, the general rules for content-based regulations will apply, and we will be required to review the confidentiality rule under strict scrutiny.
Applying the principles established in the jurisprudence described above to the case at hand, we must conclude that the confidentiality rule created by La. S.Ct. Rule XIX, § 16(A) and (I) is a content-based regulation of speech subject to strict scrutiny. We note that [a] determination of what speech is subject to the confidentiality requirement cannot be made without reference to the content of the speech. Doe v. Doe, 127 S.W.3d at 732; See Playboy Entertainment Group, 529 U.S. at 811, 120 S.Ct. at 1885 ([t]he speech in question is defined by its content). Whether an individual may exercise their free speech rights under the confidentiality rule depends entirely on whether their speech is related to a particular subject matter, i.e., the attorney disciplinary proceedings. Burson, 504 U.S. at 197, 112 S.Ct. at 1850. This regulation prohibits public discussion of an entire topic. Id.; Consolidated Edison, 447 U.S. at 537, 100 S.Ct. at 2333. The confidentiality rule is not a content-neutral regulation. It cannot be likened to a regulation that seeks to protect the peaceful habitation of nearby dwellings by limiting the decibel level of a concert or restricting the audio output of vehicles traveling through neighborhoods. It cannot be said that the confidentiality rule involves an incidental interference with speech merely as a byproduct of the government's effort to regulate some evil unconnected with the content of the affected speech. Lind v. Grimmer, 859 F.Supp. 1317, 1323 n. 4 (D.Haw.1993) (summarizing and citing Ward, 491 U.S. at 797-801, 109 S.Ct. at 2757-2759). In fact, in an attempt to justify this regulation, the ODC has asserted several interests explicitly based on the effects of the content of the abridged speech, such as injury to professional reputation. Accordingly, we must recognize that the confidentiality provisions are not justified without reference to the content of the regulated speech. Playboy Entertainment Group, 529 U.S. at 811, 120 S.Ct. at 1885 (quotations and citations omitted); Boos, 485 U.S. at 320, 108 S.Ct. at 1163 (quotations and citations omitted). Our finding that the confidentiality rule is a content-based restriction of speech subject to strict scrutiny is in accord with the findings of the four courts that have previously tendered an in-depth First Amendment analysis of a confidentiality rule in the context of an attorney disciplinary system. [60] Our decision is also in agreement with the decisions of several federal courts which have considered constitutional challenges to confidentiality rules applied in the context of investigations conducted by government agencies. [61]