Opinion ID: 404154
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: introduction

Text: 25 The principal issue raised on appeal is whether the district court erred in modifying the 1980 Decree to prevent minority employment from being affected disproportionately by unanticipated layoffs. This issue, however, cannot be properly addressed until it is first determined whether the underlying consent decree is fair and reasonable. Only a reasonable consent decree can be validly modified. Thus, we must first discuss the procedure for approving consent decrees. PRELIMINARY APPROVAL 26 Before preliminarily approving a consent decree, a court must first determine that the decree is the result of good faith, arms-length negotiations. United States v. Miami, 614 F.2d 1322, 1330-31 on reh., 664 F.2d 435 (5th Cir. 1981); Flinn v. FMC Corp., 528 F.2d 1169, 1173 (2d Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 424 U.S. 967, 96 S.Ct. 1462, 47 L.Ed.2d 734 (1976). A preliminarily approved decree is presumptively reasonable. See Metropolitan Housing Development Corp. v. Village of Arlington Heights, 616 F.2d 1006, 1013 (7th Cir. 1980); United States v. Philadelphia, 499 F.Supp. 1196 (E.D.Pa.1980). Notice of the preliminarily approved decree must be given to class members and others who may be affected by the decree. See Village of Arlington Heights, 616 F.2d at 1014. A hearing should be held after an appropriate period of time. The hearing should be a forum in which any comments and objections to the decree can be aired. Village of Arlington Heights, 616 F.2d at 1014; Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. American Telephone and Telegraph Co., 556 F.2d 167, 173 (3d Cir. 1977), cert. denied sub nom; Communication Workers of America v. EEOC, 438 U.S. 915, 98 S.Ct. 3145, 57 L.Ed.2d 1161 (1978); Dennison v. Los Angeles, 658 F.2d 694, 695-96 (9th Cir. 1981); Baker v. Detroit, 504 F.Supp. 841, 847 (E.D.Mich.1980). 27 In the instant case, the parties engaged in extensive discovery and were fully prepared for trial before they reached a settlement. The City's behavior during discovery was described by the district court as obstructionist. The City bitterly contested the TRO which enjoined certain promotions in the Fire Department pending the outcome of the Stotts litigation. Four months before the 1980 Decree was announced, the City informed the court that settlement negotiations were continuing. On February 20, 1980, it appeared that settlement negotiations were nearly complete. Five days later, however, the parties appeared before the court and stated that the affirmative relief and monitoring sections of the decree were a source of disagreement. A final agreement on the terms of the 1980 Decree was not reached until nearly two months later on April 25, 1980. The court preliminarily approved the decree and posted it in the fire halls for two weeks. 7 At the end of the two week period, the court held a hearing to consider objections to the decree. Subsequently, the court determined that the decree was a product of arms-length negotiations. 8 The procedure adopted by Judge McRae in preliminarily approving the decree was adequate. REASONABLENESS HEARING 28 The determination of whether the decree is adequate, fair, and reasonable should only occur after the court has had an opportunity to hold a hearing to consider objections to the decree. See, e.g., Village of Arlington Heights, 616 F.2d at 1014; Airline Stewards and Stewardesses Assoc. v. American Airlines, 573 F.2d 960, 964 (7th Cir. 1978) (per curiam), cert. denied sub nom., Assoc. of Professional Flight Attendants v. Airline Stewards and Stewardesses Assoc., 439 U.S. 876, 99 S.Ct. 214, 58 L.Ed.2d 190 (1978); Culbreath v. Dukakis, 630 F.2d 15, 23 (1st Cir. 1980); Cotton v. Hinton, 559 F.2d 1326, 1330 (5th Cir. 1977); Miami, 614 F.2d at 1331-1334. This reasonableness determination is an issue of law to be determined by the court. See Setser v. Novack Invest. Co., 657 F.2d 962, 969 (8th Cir. 1981), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 102 S.Ct. 615, 70 L.Ed.2d 601 (1981); Baker, 504 F.Supp. at 843 n.1. The court should not determine the merits of the controversy or the precise facts underlying the legal positions of the litigants presenting the consent decree. See Swift & Co. v. United States, 276 U.S. 311, 324, 48 S.Ct. 311, 314, 72 L.Ed. 587 (1928); Airline Stewards and Stewardesses Assoc., 573 F.2d at 963-64. Instead, the court should merely satisfy itself that the decree is reasonable. 29 In making the reasonableness determination, the court is under a duty to evaluate three factors. First, the court must consider whether the decree is a fair and adequate resolution of the allegations contained in the complaint. 9 See FMC Corp., 528 F.2d at 1172; United States v. Trucking Employers, Inc., 561 F.2d 313, 317 (D.C.Cir.1977); later app., United States v. Trucking Management, Inc., 662 F.2d 36 (D.C.Cir.1981). Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1330. Ordinarily, the following factors will be considered: 1) the complexity, expense and likely duration of the litigation; 2) the stage of the proceedings and the amount of discovery completed; 3) the risks of litigation; 4) the resources of the defendant; and 5) the reasonableness of the settlement in light of the best possible recovery. See FMC Corp., 528 F.2d at 1173; Ingram v. Madison Square Garden Center, Inc., 21 EPD P 30,393, 13,254 (S.D.N.Y.1979); Women's Committee v. National Broadcasting Co., 76 F.R.D. 173, 175 (S.D.N.Y.1977). The court should be sensitive to the objections made by class members. FMC Corp., 528 F.2d at 1173; Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1331. 30 Second, the court must consider whether the decree is fair and reasonable to non-minorities who may be affected by it. Vulcan Society v. White Plains Fire Department, 505 F.Supp. 955 (S.D.N.Y.1981). Airline Stewards and Stewardesses, 573 F.2d at 964. An identifiable statistical disparity must exist before a decree may embody affirmative relief provisions. 10 See United Steelworkers v. Weber, 443 U.S. 193, 208, 99 S.Ct. 2721, 2729, 61 L.Ed.2d 480 (1979), on remand, Weber v. Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp., 611 F.2d 132 (5th Cir. 1980). The affirmative relief provisions must be reasonably related to the remedial purpose of correcting the racial imbalance in the workforce. See Valentine v. Smith, 654 F.2d 503, 510-511 (8th Cir. 1981); Lehman v. Yellow Freight System, Inc., 651 F.2d 520, 526-527 (7th Cir. 1981); Detroit Police Officers Association v. Young, 608 F.2d 671, 694-698 (6th Cir. 1979), cert. denied, 452 U.S. 938, 101 S.Ct. 3079, 69 L.Ed.2d 951 (1981); United States v. City of Alexandria, 614 F.2d 1358, 1366 (5th Cir. 1980); Setser, 657 F.2d at 968, 969. See also United Steelworkers v. Weber, supra. The terms of the decree cannot require the discharge of non-minority workers and their replacement with minorities. Id. The decree's provisions cannot bar absolutely the advancement opportunities of non-minorities. Id. Moreover, the decree must be a temporary remedy designed to terminate when it has eliminated the racial imbalance. Id. The decree cannot mandate the hiring or promotion of unqualified individuals. Id. Finally, the court shall retain jurisdiction over the administration of the decree and make such further orders as are necessary. 31 Specific race-conscious hiring and promotion goals and ratios are appropriate elements of consent decrees. The goal of achieving racial diversity in the top ranks of city government is not only reasonable, but a legitimate constitutionally permissible interest a city may pursue. See Talbert v. Richmond, 648 F.2d 925, 931 (4th Cir. 1981); Detroit Police Officers Assoc., supra. This interest justifies individual consideration of race. No decision of the Supreme Court has ever adopted the proposition that the Constitution must be color-blind. See Regents of University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, 336, 98 S.Ct. 2733, 2771, 57 L.Ed.2d 750 (1978); Miami, 614 F.2d at 1336. On the contrary, the Supreme Court has approved race-conscious affirmative action in a wide variety of situations where it is an attempt to ameliorate the effects of past discrimination. See United Jewish Organizations v. Carey, 430 U.S. 144, 97 S.Ct. 996, 51 L.Ed.2d 229 (1977) (reapportionment); McDaniel v. Barresi, 402 U.S. 39, 91 S.Ct. 1287, 28 L.Ed.2d 582 (1971) (school desegregation); Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, 98 S.Ct. 2733, 57 L.Ed.2d 750 (1978) (graduate school admissions policy); Weber, 443 U.S. 193, 99 S.Ct. 2721, 61 L.Ed.2d 480 (1979) (admission to union training program); Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448, 100 S.Ct. 2758, 65 L.Ed.2d 902 (1980) (government contracting). 32 The appropriateness of temporary race-conscious employment goals or ratios is a fact sensitive inquiry. The test is whether the technique is a reasonable response to the racial imbalance the decree was designed to erradicate. See Alexandria, 614 F.2d at 1363, 1366. Generally, there should be some relationship between the magnitude of the imbalance, the strength of the goals, and the reasonableness of the provision. Ratios are particularly appropriate where the racial imbalance is highly disproportionate. A goal which seeks the same racial proportion among employees as in the labor force will ordinarily be reasonable. Detroit Police Officers Assoc., 608 F.2d at 696; Alexandria, 614 F.2d at 1366, n.18. 33 Temporary hiring goals of 50% have been approved routinely as reasonable. See, e.g., Weber, 443 U.S. 193, 99 S.Ct. 2721, 61 L.Ed.2d 480 (reservation of 50% of all openings in apprenticeship craft training program reasonable); Vulcan Society, 505 F.Supp. 955 (50% hiring ratio reasonable where minority representation in population is 16% while workforce representation is only 3%); EEOC v. Bartenders International Union, 22 EPD P 30,700 (N.D.Cal.1979) (50% of job referrals from craft union reasonable); Alexandria, 614 F.2d 1358 (50% hiring goal reasonable); United States v. Jackson, 519 F.2d 1147 (5th Cir. 1975) (50% hiring goal reasonable); Firebird Society of New Haven v. New Haven Board of Fire Commissioners, 66 F.R.D. 457 (D.Conn.1975) (total freeze followed by 50% hiring reasonable where minority representation in workforce is 4% while minorities are 30% of the population); Bolden v. Pennsylvania State Police, 73 F.R.D. 370, aff'd., 578 F.2d 912 (3d Cir. 1978) (50% hiring goal reasonable). In Morrow v. Crisler, 491 F.2d 1053 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 895, 95 S.Ct. 173, 42 L.Ed.2d 139 (1974), the Fifth Circuit reversed an earlier panel decision which had affirmed an affirmative action plan which relied upon the good faith of the defendants where there was gross minority underrepresentation in the employer's workforce. The en banc court ordered the district court to consider temporary 1 to 1 or 1 to 2 hiring, the creation of hiring pools, or a freeze on non-minority hiring. 34 Temporary promotional ratios are also reasonable. See e.g., Baker, 504 F.Supp. 841 (50% promotion ratio reasonable); Dennison, 658 F.2d at 695 (Consent decree which awarded 50% of all promotions to minorities reasonable); Bolden, 73 F.R.D. at 373-74 (33% promotion ratio reasonable); United States v. Philadelphia, 499 F.Supp. 1196, 24 EPD P 31,327 (E.D.Penn.1980) (promotion of 17% of all incumbent female police officers reasonable); Firebird Society, 66 F.R.D. 457 (promotional goal of 33% for the position of lieutenant reasonable); Jackson 519 F.2d 1147 (accelerated promotions of incumbent blacks reasonable). In American Telephone and Telegraph Co., 556 F.2d 167, the consent decree directed the Bell System Companies to establish goals and intermediate targets to promote the full utilization of all race, sex and ethnic groups in each of fifteen job classifications. The intermediate targets reflected the representation of such groups in the external labor market in relevant pools for each operating company's workforce. When any operating company was unable to achieve its intermediate target, the decree required it to depart from normal standards and select basically qualified candidates. 35 The final factor a court must consider is all objections to the decree and alternatives to the decree's provisions presented during the hearing. Miami, 614 F.2d at 1334; American Telephone and Telegraph, 556 F.2d at 178. The preliminarily approved decree is presumptively reasonable. Philadelphia, 24 EPD at 18,046, 499 F.Supp. at 1199; Miami, 614 F.2d at 1333. Consequently, one objecting to the decree bears the heavy burden of demonstrating that the decree is unreasonable. Philadelphia, 24 EPD at 18,047, 499 F.Supp. at 1199; Miami, 614 F.2d at 1334. A decree may be finally approved over the objections of class members and non-minorities who are affected by it. See Dennison, 658 F.2d at 696; Holmes v. Continental Can Co., 25 EPD P 31,490 (N.D.Ala.1980). If the decree is rejected, the principled reasons for the rejection must appear on the record. Miami, 614 F.2d at 1333; Philadelphia, 24 EPD at 18,047, 499 F.Supp. at 1199. A decree should be rejected only after the court informs the parties of its precise concerns and gives them an opportunity to reach a reasonable accommodation. Miami, 614 F.2d at 1333. 36 The court should not attempt to impose its perspective on the parties. The court should only determine whether the decree is within the range of reasonableness. Some reliance may be placed on the ability of competent counsel to accurately assess the strengths and weaknesses of each litigant's case. See Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1330; FMC Corp., 528 F.2d at 1173. The decree is a compromise. Neither litigant obtained all that they had hoped to gain initially through litigation. 37 A principal purpose of Title VII is to induce voluntary race-conscious affirmative action. Detroit Police Officers Assoc., 608 F.2d at 690. Courts have placed a high premium on the voluntary settlement of Title VII actions. See, e.g., Alexander v. Gardner-Denver Corp., 415 U.S. 36, 44, 94 S.Ct. 1011, 1017, 39 L.Ed.2d 147 (1974); Miami, 614 F.2d at 1331-33. Dennison, 658 F.2d at 696; Village of Arlington Heights, 616 F.2d at 1014-1016. Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1331; United States v. Allegheny-Ludlum Industries, Inc., 517 F.2d 826, 846 (5th Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 944, 96 S.Ct. 1684, 48 L.Ed.2d 187 (1976); Hutchings v. United States Industries, Inc., 428 F.2d 303, 309 (5th Cir. 1970). Consent decrees enhance the possibility of compliance with Title VII and other employment discrimination laws. Id. Consent decrees may produce more favorable results than more sweeping judicially imposed orders that might risk opposition and resistance. Id. Consent decrees also reduce the cost of litigation, engender judicial economy, and vindicate an important societal interest in affirmative action. 11 Id. 38 On appeal, the standard of review is abuse of discretion. Dawson v. Pastrick, 600 F.2d 70, 75 (7th Cir. 1979); Cotton, 559 F.2d at 1331, Village of Arlington Heights, 616 F.2d at 1015. Due deference will be given the trial court's greater familiarity with the strategy and the relative strengths of each litigant's case. See Alexandria, 614 F.2d at 1362. 39 In the instant case, all pretrial discovery had been completed. Thus, counsel and the court were in an excellent position to assess the relative strengths of each litigant's case. The parties agreed to the terms of the 1980 Decree. The court found that there was no evidence of collusion, stating no parroting had occurred throughout the pretrial period. The 1980 Decree represents a reasonable compromise of their competing interests. The City relinquished no more control over its personnel decisions than was absolutely necessary to avoid a trial on the merits. 12 Plaintiffs did not agree to the decree until it became apparent that they had obtained substantially all they could have obtained, given the risks of litigation. 40 The adequacy of the 1980 Decree can be assessed by considering the statistical evidence of discrimination in the record. This statistical evidence is sufficient to create a strong prima facie case of racial discrimination. In fact, the trial court thought that the evidence was so compelling that it could take judicial notice of the discriminatory employment practices of the City. 13 Minorities were excluded from meaningful participation in the Memphis Fire Department for decades. The goals embodied in the decree are reasonable. However, the goals are merely an adequate response to the gross underutilization of minorities within the Fire Department. The promotion and hiring goals embodied within the 1980 Decree supplement the relief provided in the 1974 Decree. The 1974 Decree contemplated the imposition of these goals if the utilization of minorities was not substantially increased. This contingency in the 1974 Decree is an additional factor enhancing the reasonableness of the 1980 Decree. Significantly, no class member objected to the terms of the 1980 Decree. 41 The court also considered the interests of non-minorities. The affirmative action provisions of the 1980 Decree do diminish the promotional expectations of non-minorities. A simple reduction in the expectations does not, however, necessarily make a consent decree unreasonable. For example, in Weber, 443 U.S. 193, 99 S.Ct. 2721, 61 L.Ed.2d 480, the expectations of non-minorities were adversely affected, yet the affirmative action plan was legal. In the instant case, the harm suffered by incumbent non-minority employees because of the promotional goal is de minimus. Many minorities would have been promoted even absent the consent decree. In fact, absent discrimination, the minority promotion rate should approximate the percentage of minorities in the community. 14 See International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. United States, 431 U.S. 324, 340 n.20, 97 S.Ct. 1843, 1856 n.20, 52 L.Ed.2d 396 (1977); Detroit Police Officers Assoc., 608 F.2d at 696-97. Minorities represent 35% of the Memphis Community, therefore, over the long-run the minority promotion rate should exceed the 20% promotion ratio in the 1980 Decree. Viewed in this light, the promotion ratio in the 1980 Decree is a floor and not a ceiling on minority promotions. The consent decree embodies a minority promotion ratio which is less than the 35% minority promotion ratio which presumptively would be the norm absent the City's past employment practices. Non-minorities allege the 1980 Decree's 20% promotion goal unduly interferes with their expectation of promotion. It appears, however, that the expectation of non-minorities is based upon a pre-decree minority promotion ratio which presumptively would have been significantly higher had the City's employment practices been non-discriminatory. The 1980 Decree eliminated only a portion of the promotional expectations of non-minorities which presumptively were based on the City's discriminatory promotional practices. 42 The court also held a hearing to enable the proposed intervenors to air their objections to the 1980 Decree. The proposed intervenors suggested that the court restructure the Fire Department, institute a constructive promotion procedure, or create more upper management positions so the promotional expectations of non-minorities would not be diminished. The district court rejected these alternatives. The court was correct in summarily rejecting the alternatives suggested by the intervenors. See Philadelphia, 24 EPD at 18,048, 499 F.Supp. at 1199-2000. The court had no authority to restructure the Memphis Fire Department. See National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U.S. 833, 96 S.Ct. 2465, 49 L.Ed.2d 245 (1976), on remand sub nom., National League of Cities v. Marshall, 429 F.Supp. 703 (D.C.D.C.1977). 43 Finally, the court determined that the decree was reasonable. We agree. The decree was reasonably related to correcting the underutilization of minorities in the Memphis Fire Department. The decree did not require the discharge of non-minority employees and only encompassed qualified minorities. Moreover, the decree is temporary and does not constitute an absolute bar to the advancement of non-minorities. More importantly, the court has retained jurisdiction to enter such further orders as are necessary to effectuate the purposes of the decree while not unduly trammeling the interests of non-minorities. OPERATION OF A CONSENT DECREE A. 44 A consent decree is essentially a contractual agreement subject to continued judicial policing. The terms of the decree, unlike those of a simple contract, have unique properties. A consent decree has attributes both of a contract and of a judicial act. See United States v. Motor Vehicles Manufacturers Association of United States, Inc., 643 F.2d 644, 648 (9th Cir. 1981); United States v. ITT Continental Baking Co., 420 U.S. 223, 236, n.10, 95 S.Ct. 926, 934, n.10, 43 L.Ed.2d 148 (1975). Consent decrees are construed for enforcement purposes as contracts. See ITT Continental Baking Co., 420 U.S. at 238, 95 S.Ct. at 935. Brown v. Neeb, 644 F.2d 551 (6th Cir. 1981); Strouse v. J. Kinson Cook, Inc., 634 F.2d 883, 885 (5th Cir. 1981). Aids such as the circumstances surrounding the formation of the decree help determine the purpose for which the decree was entered. See Brown v. Neeb, 644 F.2d at 562; United States v. Bechtel Corp., 648 F.2d 660, 665 (9th Cir. 1981), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 102 S.Ct. 638, 70 L.Ed.2d 617 (1981); ITT Continental Baking Co., 420 U.S. at 238, 95 S.Ct. at 935. The binding substantive commands of a consent decree are embodied within the decree's four corners. See United States v. Armour & Co., 402 U.S. 673, 682, 91 S.Ct. 1752, 1757, 29 L.Ed.2d 256 (1971); Strouse, 634 F.2d at 885. A decree embodies the legal constraints which govern the behavior of the parties during the life of the decree. See ITT Continental Baking Co., 420 U.S. at 236, 95 S.Ct. at 934. In interpreting a decree, courts may not depart from its four corners unless its language is ambiguous. See Id.; Motor Vehicles Manufacturers Assoc., 643 F.2d at 648. B. 45 A decree is always specifically enforceable as written. See ITT Continental Baking Co., 420 U.S. at 238, 95 S.Ct. at 935; Miami, 614 F.2d at 1333; Strouse, 634 F.2d at 885. The subject matter of a decree in an employment discrimination action, the right to litigate the issue of discrimination, is always unique. Both parties relinquish this valuable right in reliance upon the decree. Plaintiff forgoes the right to be made whole by proving a violation of Title VII. 15 A defendant, on the other hand, relinquishes the right to rebut the allegations of discrimination and avoid the affirmative responsibilities imposed by a judicial finding of discrimination. A party cannot simultaneously benefit from a decree and ignore its corresponding affirmative obligations. See Strouse, 634 F.2d at 886. The specific performance ordered should ordinarily accomplish that progress which would have occurred but for a party's failure to abide by the terms of the decree. See EEOC v. Local Union No. 38, 25 EPD P 31,553 (N.D.Cal.1981); Bolden, 73 F.R.D. at 370. A trial court has continuing jurisdiction to modify a decree should its operation become unreasonable. See United States v. Chicago, 663 F.2d 1354 (7th Cir. 1981) (en banc); Miami, 614 F.2d at 1333-34. 46 Quite apart from the contractual mandate of specific performance, the court has an independent duty to ensure that the terms of the decree are effectuated. The reasonableness determination is a judicial act and a final order of the court. This determination places the weight and authority of the court behind the terms of the decree. An approved consent decree is not simply a compact between former litigants, rather it is a court order. Consequently, a court has an affirmative duty to protect the integrity of its decree. This duty arises where the performance of one party threatens to frustrate the purpose of the decree. 16 For example, in Local Union No. 38, 25 EPD P 31,553, a union was held in contempt for failing to comply with the terms of a consent decree which it had entered. The court increased the number of minorities affected by the decree's affirmative action plan in the amount which the union had failed to meet the plan's goals. In EEOC v. Bartenders International Union, Local No. 41, 22 EPD P 30,700 (N.D.Cal.1979), the court extended the duration of a consent decree and increased the percentage goal of integration where the union fell short of meeting its minority membership goal, the statistical disparity between minority and non-minority in the union workforce continued to exist, and the long-range goal of the decree had not been met. In Bolden, 73 F.R.D. 370, the court modified a consent decree after an unanticipated economic crisis prevented the employer from being able to afford to comply with the terms of a decree which mandated affirmative action. The court increased the minority hiring goal from 33 to 50 percent and the minority promotion ratio from 25 to 33 percent. 17 C. 47 The operation of the promotion section of the 1980 Decree does not constitute unconstitutional reverse discrimination. The proposed intervenors suggest that monetary damages, constructive promotions, and front pay are appropriate compensation for non-minority employees who allegedly are adversely affected by the decree's operation. The district court rejected this argument as substantively incorrect. We agree. 48 Compensatory relief is generally intended to make a litigant whole for any losses occasioned by wrongdoing. Thus, the proposed intervenors implicitly contend that the operation of the decree constitutes a compensable wrong. We hold that a reasonable consent decree does not constitute a compensable wrong. In fact, a reasonable consent decree does not adversely affect any legally protected interest of a non-minority. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. McCall Corporation, 633 F.2d 1232 (6th Cir. 1980) is instructive on this point. In McCall, male carloaders alleged that a consent decree which granted retroactive seniority to female employees constituted an act of discrimination. Judge Kennedy, speaking for this Court, held: 49 Acceptance of plaintiffs' theory that a conciliation agreement and consent decree resulting from a Title VII action can itself be an act of discrimination would create major problems. 50 This court is convinced that the consideration of a conciliation agreement which results in a consent decree as an act of discrimination against employees not benefitted by that agreement would create a situation in which each settlement would spark new rounds of litigation, settlement of claims would be discouraged, and the courts would continually be faced with stale claims. Consequently, we hold that conciliation agreement resulting in consent decrees may not be considered independent acts of discrimination, as a matter of law, unless there are allegations of bad faith in making the agreement, that is allegations that the agreement was not a bona fide attempt to conciliate a claim but rather an attempt to bestow unequal employment benefits under the guise of remedying discrimination. Id. at 1238; Freeze v. Aro, Inc., 503 F.Supp. 1045, 1047 (E.D.Tenn.1980). Accord, Setser v. Novack Investment Co., 657 F.2d 962, 970 (8th Cir. 1981) (en banc). 51 A consent decree may be attacked only on the ground that its substantive provisions unlawfully infringe the rights of the complainant. See Society Hill Civic Assoc. v. Harris, 632 F.2d 1045, 1059 (3d Cir. 1980). We hold that a reasonable consent decree which embodies an affirmative action plan does not affect any legally protected interest of non-minorities. See McCall, 633 F.2d at 1238. Therefore, reverse discrimination challenges to reasonable consent decrees are impermissible collateral attacks. See Dennison, 658 F.2d at 695. Prate v. Freedman, 430 F.Supp. 1373 (W.D.N.Y.), aff'd., 573 F.2d 1294 (2d Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 436 U.S. 922, 98 S.Ct. 2274, 56 L.Ed.2d 765 (1978); O'Burn v. Shapp, 70 F.R.D. 549 (E.D.Pa.), aff'd., 546 F.2d 418 (3d Cir. 1976), cert. denied, 430 U.S. 968, 97 S.Ct. 1650, 52 L.Ed.2d 359 (1977). See also, Miami, 614 F.2d at 1329 (Consent decree cannot be challenged by a party whose rights are not affected by it). 52 The proposed intervenors have not alleged that the 1980 Decree was the product of collusion. Indeed, this record would not support such an allegation. Moreover, the 1980 Decree is reasonable. Thus, the proposed intervenors' action is an impermissible collateral attack. See Dennison, 658 F.2d at 695-96. 53 Moreover, awarding compensatory relief to non-minority employees would impose conflicting or inconsistent obligations on the City. This is particularly true of the constructive promotion suggestion. Under this alternative, each time the City attempted to promote minorities, it would be required to provide an equivalent amount of compensation to a non-minority employee who allegedly would have been promoted but for the decree. This extra compensation would drastically increase the cost of each promotion and the cost of complying with the 1980 Decree. This increased cost would destroy a primary incentive which motivated the City to enter the 1980 Decree. Thus, permitting the proposed intervenors to sue for compensation would be inimical to the policy of encouraging the settlement of Title VII actions. 54 In addition, the compensatory relief sought by the proposed intervenors frustrates the purpose of the decree. The purpose of the decree is to correct the effects of those past employment practices of the City which may have been racially discriminatory. The decree provides that minorities are entitled to certain affirmative treatment and consideration in future promotions because of the City's past employment practices. Evidence contained in this record not only supports this entitlement, but is sufficient to establish a prima facie case of racial discrimination. The decree is designed to correct past employment practices which illegally benefited non-minorities. The proposed intervenors seek to confer indirectly the benefits of the decree on non-minorities. Therefore, the relief sought by the proposed intervenors is patently inconsistent with the purpose of the decree. 55 Finally, if the consent decree could constitute an actionable wrong, the City would be subject to dual obligations. The failure to enter a consent decree would leave the City potentially liable in the Plaintiffs' employment discrimination action. On the other hand, the proposed intervenors imply that compliance with the decree would subject the City to reverse discrimination suits seeking comparable relief for non-minorities. The proposed intervenors' position places the City in a Catch-22 position of incurring liability for employment discrimination without regard to the action taken. The absurdity of placing employers in this position has been noted by several courts. See Telephone Workers Union of New Jersey Local 827 v. New Jersey Bell Telephone, 450 F.Supp. 284, 298 (D.N.J.1977), aff'd., 584 F.2d 31 (1978); Dennison, 658 F.2d at 695-6; Hunter v. St. Louis-San Francisco Ry. Co., 639 F.2d 424, 425 n.2 (8th Cir. 1981). See also Alexandria, 614 F.2d at 1366. 56 The proposed intervenors contend that this potential double liability is necessary to ensure that an employer bears the full price of its past wrongdoing. Permitting double liability in this situation would clearly maintain the status quo. At a minimum, double liability would so escalate the cost of affirmative action that an employer's ability to implement an affirmative action plan would be severely crippled. As a result, affirmative action would be impractically expensive. 57 It is unfortunate that the City engaged in the employment practices which precipitated the decree. However, non-minorities benefitted from, practiced, and acquiesced in those practices. The 1980 Decree is a reasonable means to correct the adverse effects which minorities shouldered as a result of those employment practices. The decree does not adversely affect any legally protected interest of non-minorities. 58 The proposed intervenors apparently agree that some action must be taken to ensure that discrimination does not prevent minorities from receiving a fair share of the economic opportunities available. They disagree, however, on the means selected to accomplish this end. The proposed intervenors assert that non-minorities are unhappy with the promotion section of the 1980 Decree. This temporary measure only partially realigns promotional expectations to reflect minority employment levels which would have occurred absent the discrimination. This realignment vindicates a societal interest in remedying the effects of racial and more than justifies the displeasure some non-minorities may experience. Moreover, the proposed intervenors disregard the fact that minorities may also be dissatisfied with the temporary relief afforded by the 1980 Decree. In fact, minorities may be less than totally satisfied that the remedial provisions of the decrees are adequate compensation for the many opportunities foreclosed to them for decades. The dissatisfaction which non-minorities and minorities may experience is inherent in the compromise which the 1980 Decree represents. A consent decree reached after negotiation and consultation is the preferred means of balancing the conflicting societal and individual interests inherent in any employment discrimination action. The only alternative to a consent decree is a costly and lengthy trial which would only confront the court with the difficult question of how much affirmative action must be imposed to correct the effects of past employment discrimination.