Opinion ID: 2588498
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 4

Heading: unlawful stop or seizure

Text: The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution protects against unreasonable searches and seizures of persons. Henry v. United States, 361 U.S. 98, 100, 4 L. Ed. 2d 134, 80 S. Ct. 168 (1959). Section 15 of the Kansas Constitution Bill of Rights provides protection identical to that provided under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. See State v. Johnson, 253 Kan. 356, 362, 856 P.2d 134 (1993) ([T]he wording and scope of the two sections are identical for all practical purposes. If conduct is prohibited by one it is prohibited by the other.). The key to applying these protections, in light of Morris' argument, is determining when the seizure of his person occurred, because it is at that critical time that the officers must have had knowledge of facts giving rise to a reasonable and articulable suspicion that the defendant had committed, was committing, or was about to commit a crime. State v. Guy, 242 Kan. 840, 843, 752 P.2d 119 (1988); see Weaver, 259 Kan. at 852. In 1968, in Terry v. Ohio, the United States Supreme Court stated a person is seized, thereby triggering a Fourth Amendment analysis of the police action, when an officer, by means of physical force or show of authority, has in some way restrained the liberty of a citizen. 392 U.S. 1, 19 n.16, 20 L. Ed. 2d 889, 88 S. Ct. 1868 (1968). Subsequently, a different statement of the test was articulated by justice Stewart in his opinion in United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554, 64 L. Ed. 2d 497, 100 S. Ct. 1870 (1980), and later adopted by a majority of the Supreme Court in INS v. Delgado, 466 U.S. 210, 215, 80 L. Ed. 2d 247, 104 S. Ct. 1758 (1984). justice Stewart wrote that a seizure occurs only if, in view of all of the circumstances surrounding the incident, a reasonable person would have believed that be was not free to leave. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. at 554. In California v. Hodari D., 499 U.S. 621, 113 L. Ed. 2d 690, 111. S. Ct. 1547 (1991), the Supreme Court reviewed the test set out in Mendenhall and clarified that Mendenhall states a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for seizure  or more precisely, for seizure effected through a `show of authority.' Mendenhall establishes that the test for existence of a `show of authority' is an objective one: not whether the citizen perceived that he was being ordered to restrict his movement, but whether the officer's words and actions would have conveyed that to a reasonable person. Hodari, 499 U.S. at 628. In justifying the statement that a show of authority was necessary, but not sufficient, the majority in Hodari discussed prior cases. First, the Supreme Court distinguished Michigan v. Chesternut, 486 U.S. 567, 100 L. Ed. 2d 565, 108 S. Ct. 1975 (1984), where the Court held that the police cruiser's slow following of the defendant did not convey the message that he was not free to disregard the police and go about his business. Next, the majority in Hodari discussed Brower v. Inyo County, 489 U.S. 593, 596, 103 L. Ed. 2d 628, 109 S. Ct. 1378 (1989), in which police cars with flashing lights pursued the decedent for 20 miles during which he did not stop until fatally crashing into a police-erected blockade. The majority in Hodari noted: We did not even consider the possibility that a seizure could have occurred during the course of the chase because, as we explained, that `show of authority' did not produce his stop. Hodari, 499 U.S. at 628 (citing Brower, 489 U.S. at 597). Applying the same reasoning in Hodari, the Supreme Court considered when a seizure occurred where Hodari took flight, tossed away a small rock of crack cocaine, and then was tackled by officers. The Supreme Court stated: [A]ssuming that [the officer's] pursuit in the present case constituted a `show of authority' enjoining Hodari to halt, since Hodari did not comply with that injunction he was not seized until he was tackled. Hodari, 499 U.S. at 629. Therefore, under the holding of Hodari, a seizure of a person occurs if there is the application of physical force (499 U.S. at 624) or if there is a show of authority which, in view of all the circumstances surrounding the incident, would communicate to a reasonable person that he or she is not free to leave (499 U.S. at 628) and the person submits to the show of authority (499 U.S. at 629). Thus, as the State notes, voluntary encounters are not considered seizures and are not protected by the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. State v. Crowder, 20 Kan. App. 2d 117, 119, 887 P.2d 698 (1994) (citing United States v. Ward, 961 F.2d 1526, 1529 [10th Cir. 1992]). The State describes the officers' initial contact with Morris as a voluntary encounter. In support of its position, the State cites State v. Reason, 263 Kan. 405, 951 P.2d 538 (1997), in which this court quoted the United States Supreme Court in Florida v. Bostick, 501 U.S. 429, 434, 115 L. Ed. 2d 389, III S. Ct. 2382 (1991), for the proposition that `a seizure does not occur simply because a police officer approaches an individual and asks a few questions. So long as a reasonable person would feel free to disregard the police and go about his business, [citation omitted], the encounter is consensual and no reasonable suspicion is required. The encounter will not trigger Fourth Amendment scrutiny unless it loses its consensual nature.' Reason, 263 Kan. at 410. In State v. Reason , police approached a vehicle parked in a public parking lot where two persons were sleeping inside the car with the doors open. The police parked behind the vehicle, but the vehicle would have been able to leave by pulling forward. The officers woke the defendant to ask him why the vehicle was there and if he was okay. This court held the initial approach and questioning was a voluntary encounter and not a seizure of the defendant requiring reasonable suspicion. 263 Kan. at 412. In similar situations, we have found an encounter to be voluntary and not a seizure. See State v. Baacke, 261 Kan. 422, 437-38, 932 P.2d 396 (1997) (police notice car parked in the city park around 3 a.m., approach, and ask for identification; where defendant free to terminate, the encounter it is not a seizure); State v. Marks, 226 Kan. 704, 707-10, 602 P.2d 1344 (1979) (officer asking for identification from two men in parked car not a seizure). However, Morris argues that his contact was not voluntary because there was a show of authority. In Chesternut, 486 U.S. at 575, the Supreme Court noted some situations which would constitute a show of authority, including activation of sirens or flashers, a command to halt, a display of weapons, or attempt to control the ability to flee or the direction of travel during a chase. Consistent with this, in State v. Epperson, 237 Kan. 707, 708, 703 P.2d 761 (1985), we found a stop when an officer blocked a vehicle before approaching the car and cut off their avenue of escape by leaving his door open. 237 Kan. at 714. We hold that Morris' encounter was not voluntary, but rather occurred under a show of authority. The officers' conduct, the activation of the emergency lights in a remote area off a roadway, was a show of authority which would communicate to a reasonable person that there was an intent to intrude upon freedom of movement. Few, if any, reasonable citizens, while parked, would simply drive away and assume that the police, in turning on the emergency flashers, would be communicating something other than for them to remain. Lawson v. State, 120 Md. App. 610, 617, 707 A.2d 947 (1998). In fact, it is unlawful for a driver to fail to stop when a police officer signals the driver by using emergency lights. K.S.A. 8-1568 (fleeing and eluding). Since we find that there was a show of authority, as required by the holding in Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, we must consider the holding in Hodari and determine when Morris compl[ied] with the injunction to complete the seizure. In Hodari, the respondent's contention that he had been seized when police began to pursue him was rejected because Hodari did not yield to the show of authority. The Supreme Court stated: The word `seizure' readily bears the meaning of a laying on of hands or application of physical force to restrain movement, even when it is ultimately unsuccessful.. . . It does not remotely apply, however, to the prospect of a policeman yelling `Stop, in the name of the law!' at a fleeing form that continues to flee. That is no seizure. . . . An arrest requires either physical force . . . or, where that is absent, submission to the assertion of authority. 499 U.S. at 626. In this case, the Court of Appeals determined that there was not submission until Morris provided his identification. Slip op. at II. In doing so, they relied on Weaver, 259 Kan. 844. In Weaver, the officer decided to stop the defendant's vehicle and activated his emergency lights. The defendant, however, did not submit to that show of authority by pulling over to the side of the roadway. Instead, he sped away and a chase ensued during which the defendant drove through a private yard and into a wheat field. This court, relying upon Hodari, held that the stop occurred not when the officer activated his emergency lights, but when the defendant finally submitted to the officer's authority by stopping in the wheat field and providing his identification. 259 Kan. at 849. Thus, the officer's observations during the intervening chase could provide the basis for his reasonable suspicion of criminal activity. 259 Kan. at 853. Relying upon this analysis, the Court of Appeals concluded: [L]ike the defendant in Weaver, Morris could have ignored the flashing lights and refused to provide his identification upon their approach of his vehicle. Morris, Slip op. at 11. Morris argues that the Court of Appeals' ruling misinterprets Weaver, which is distinguishable on its facts. He contends that the activation of the officers' emergency lights was a clear signal he should stay where he was and that he submitted to the officers' authority by not attempting to leave. Morris' argument has merit. Weaver and Hodari announced a rule intended to address cases where a defendant, after a show of authority, does not yield to the officer's authority but takes other action, such as abandoning evidence or fleeing, before finally submitting to the officer's show of authority. The Hodari test is not helpful [in situations] . . . in which there is never any movement at all by the suspect. 4 LaFave, Search and Seizure § 9.3(d) p. 132 and 2003 Pocket Part p. 54 (1996). However, we note that the United States Supreme Court, in Hodari, carefully distinguished the facts of that case from a case where there was immediate, passive submission. For example, the Supreme Court stated: The narrow question before us is whether, with respect to a show of authority as with respect to application of physical force, a seizure occurs even though the subject does not yield. We hold that it does not. 499 U.S. at 626. Other statements of the Supreme Court's holding also contained qualifications such as  since Hodari did not comply with that injunction he was not seized until he was tackled. 499 U.S. at 629. Where there is neither force nor obvious words or actions of submission, some courts have applied the Mendenhall approach without reference to Hodari. E.g., United States v. Buchanon, 72 F.3d 1217 (6th Cir. 1995). Other courts have determined that the individual's inaction, albeit passive, is a form of compliance and a submission to authority. E.g., Lawson, 120 Md. App. at 617-18. Applying one analysis or the other, most appellate courts considering the issue have concluded a seizure occurs when the officer activates emergency lights. See Hammons v. State, 327 Ark. 520, 528, 940 S.W.2d 424 (1997) (defendant sitting in parked automobile was seized when police activated blue light; light was display of authority that would indicate to reasonable person he was not free to leave); People v. Bailey, 176 Cal. App. 3d 402, 406, 222 Cal. Rptr. 235 (1985) (officer pulled in behind parked car and activated emergency lights; defendant seized, as reasonable person would not have felt free to leave); State v. Donahue, 251 Conn. 636, 643, 742 A.2d 775 (1999) (defendant was seized when officer pulled up behind parked vehicle and activated red, yellow, and blue flashing lights); Hrezo v. State, 780 So. 2d 194, 195 (Fla. Dist. App. 2001) (when a police officer turns on the emergency and takedown lights to a lawfully parked vehicle, a reasonable person would expect to be stopped if he or she drove away); Lawson, 120 Md. App. at 616-17 (the activation of the emergency lights was a show of authority that constituted a seizure because it communicated to a reasonable person in the parked car that there was an intent to intrude upon the defendant's freedom to move away); State v. Walp, 65 Or. App. 781, 784, 672 P.2d 374 (1983) (use of emergency lights after defendant had voluntarily stopped was sufficient show of authority and reasonable person would not have felt free to leave); State v. Gonzalez, 52 S.W.3d 90, 97 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2000) (a police officer clearly initiates a seizure by turning on his blue lights behind a parked vehicle because the lights convey the message that the occupants are not free to leave); State v. Burgess, 163 Vt. 259, 261, 657 A.2d 202 (1995) (even if officer subjectively intends to activate his blue lights for safety reasons, the use of the lights on the defendant served as a restraint to prevent his departure from the pull-off area of the road); Wallace v. Com., 32 Va. App. 497, 528 S.E.2d 739 (2000) (driver of parked vehicle seized because a reasonable person with a police cruiser parked behind him with its emergency lights flashing would not have felt free to leave); State v. Stroud, 30 Wash. App. 392, 396, 634 P.2d 316 (1981) (occupants of parked vehicle seized at moment where officers pulled up behind parked vehicle and switched on flashing light because the officers' attempt to summon the occupants of the parked car with both their emergency lights and high beam headlights constituted a show of authority sufficient to convey to any reasonable person that voluntary departure from the scene was not a realistic alternative and, had driver attempted to leave after being so signaled, he could arguably have been charged with misdemeanor). We join this line of cases in terms of outcome, doing so by following the line of cases which hold that Hodari, and in this state our decision in Weaver, requires a finding that the accused submitted to the show of authority. In this case, Morris did not attempt to leave when officers pulled in behind him with their emergency lights flashing. Upon seeing the flashing emergency lights of the officer's patrol car, Morris complied with the officer's show of authority enjoining him to remain. He did not flee; instead, he complied with the assertion of authority. We find that Morris was seized within the contemplation of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and Section 15 of the Kansas Constitution Bill of Rights when the lights were activated and he submitted by not fleeing. We do note that some courts have held that activation of emergency lights is not a seizure because the lights may be activated for safety reasons. See United States v. Dockter, 58 F.3d 1284, 1287 (8th Cir. 1995) (no behavior by officer to differentiate encounter from one where officer approaches stranded motorist to offer assistance), and State v. Baldonado, 115 N.M. 106, 110, 847 P.2d 751 (1992) (manner in which police officers approach car after it has been stopped in response to officers' use of their emergency lights is controlling for purposes of determining whether stop is seizure that would require probable cause or reasonable suspicion; trial court should ordinarily find seizure if officers approach in accusatory manner, asking for license and registration and account of occupants' activities, while seizure should ordinarily not be found if officers approach in deferential manner and ask first whether occupants need help). In this case, no such question arises because Morris was parked in a jetty area of the Douglas County State Lake where a reasonable person would not believe that the lights had been activated for safety reasons. There was no showing that other traffic necessitated activating the emergency lights. Thus, we do not reach this question. Under the facts of this case, Morris was seized at the moment when officers pulled up behind him and activated their emergency lights. No reasonable person would have felt free to terminate the encounter by driving away, and Morris complied with the officers' show of authority through his tacit submission. The only remaining question, then, is whether officers had reasonable suspicion of criminal activity at the time they pulled in behind Morris.