Opinion ID: 1998583
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: Was Stamness' Conduct Constitutionally Protected Speech?

Text: Stamness argues that the trial court improperly ruled that his actions did not constitute an exercise of First Amendment free speech. [3] He argues that his actions were constitutionally protected, and that the trial court therefore was required to exclude evidence of the activity. NDCC § 12.1-31.2-01(5)(d). If evidence of this protected activity were excluded, Stamness argues, there would not be enough evidence to support the reasonable grounds necessary to issue the restraining order. Id. We are unconvinced, however, that Stamness was engaged in constitutionally protected activity. Freedom of speech and freedom of the press are protected by the First Amendment from infringement by Congress. Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. 568, 570, 62 S.Ct. 766, 768, 86 L.Ed. 1031, 1034 (1942). They likewise are afforded protection from invasion by state action through the Fourteenth Amendment because they are fundamental personal rights and liberties. Id. at 570-71, 62 S.Ct. at 768, 86 L.Ed. at 1034. The First Amendment generally prohibits the government from proscribing speech based on disapproval of its content. R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, Minn., ___ U.S. ___, ___, 112 S.Ct. 2538, 2542, 120 L.Ed.2d 305, 317 (1992); Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15, 26, 91 S.Ct. 1780, 1788, 29 L.Ed.2d 284, 294 (1971). However, not all speech is constitutionally protected speech. See R.A.V. ___ U.S. at ___, 112 S.Ct. at 2543, 120 L.Ed.2d at 317 (recognizing the United States Supreme Court's approach to categories of speech which are not imbued with constitutional protection). We have always permitted restrictions upon the content of speech within certain limited parameters because certain areas of speech are `of such slight social value as a step to truth that any benefit that may be derived from them is clearly outweighed by the social interest in order and morality.' Id. at ___, 112 S.Ct. at 2543, 120 L.Ed.2d at 317 (quoting Chaplinsky, 315 U.S. at 572, 62 S.Ct. at 769, 86 L.Ed. at 1035). These categories of expression are said not [to be] within the area of constitutionally protected speech, Roth v. United States, 354 U.S. 476, 483, 77 S.Ct. 1304, 1308, 1 L.Ed.2d 1498, 1506 (1957); see also Chaplinsky, 315 U.S. at 571-72, 62 S.Ct. at 769, 86 L.Ed. at 1035; or that the protection of the First Amendment does not extend to these categories of speech. R.A.V., ___ U.S. at ___, 112 S.Ct. at 2543, 120 L.Ed.2d at 317 (quoting Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc., 466 U.S. 485, 504, 104 S.Ct. 1949, 1961, 80 L.Ed.2d 502, 519 (1984)). Before analyzing whether the state has impermissibly encroached upon a person's fundamental right of free speech it must be determined whether that expression is the type to which the First Amendment extends protection. In the context of the instant case the question is more appropriately whether Stamness' expression may be classified as fighting words. The United States Supreme Court has held that fighting words do not constitute an essential part of any exposition of ideas. Chaplinsky, 315 U.S. at 572, 62 S.Ct. at 769, 86 L.Ed. at 1035. Therefore, despite their verbal character, fighting words constitute a `non-speech' element of communication, and for First Amendment purposes are basically unprotected. R.A.V., ___ U.S. at ___, 112 S.Ct. at 2545, 120 L.Ed.2d at 319. Determining that fighting words are an unprotected form of communication is relatively effortless; however, determining what constitutes fighting words is infinitely more difficult. The basic test for what constitutes fighting words is enunciated in Chaplinsky: The test is what [a person] of common intelligence would understand would be words likely to cause an average addressee to fight.... The English language has a number of words and expressions which by general consent are `fighting words' when said without a disarming smile.... Derisive and annoying words can be taken as coming within the purview of the statute as heretofore interpreted only when they have this characteristic of plainly tending to excite the addressee to a breach of the peace.... Chaplinsky, 315 U.S. at 573, 62 S.Ct. at 770, 86 L.Ed. at 1036 (citing State v. Brown, 68 N.H. 200, 38 A. 731 (1895); quoting State v. McConnell, 70 N.H. 294, 47 A. 267, 267 (1900)). It is not sufficient, however, if words merely offend, cause one to be indignant, or rouse anger in the person hearing the words; they must incite an addressee to breach the peace immediately. Lewis v. City of New Orleans, 415 U.S. 130, 133, 94 S.Ct. 970, 972, 39 L.Ed.2d 214, 219 (1974). This definition recognizes that to determine whether a particular expression constitutes fighting words is dependent upon the context in which it was used. See Chaplinsky, 315 U.S. at 573, 62 S.Ct. at 770, 86 L.Ed. at 1036 (recognizing that an expression delivered with a disarming smile may not comprise fighting words while the same expression delivered in another context may). Likewise, what may have constituted classical fighting words in 1942 might comprise nothing more than an innocuous expression in 2010. Because of the elusive nature of fighting words, and because the meaning and usage of words is continually evolving, the only workable definition must necessarily be contextual. As Justice Holmes wrote, [a] word is not a crystal, transparent and unchanged; it is the skin of a living thought and may vary greatly in color and content according to the circumstances and the time in which it is used. Towne v. Eisner, 245 U.S. 418, 425, 38 S.Ct. 158, 159, 62 L.Ed. 372, 376 (1918). [W]hether a specific act of communication is protected by the First Amendment always requires some consideration of both its content and its context. New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747, 778, 102 S.Ct. 3348, 3366, 73 L.Ed.2d 1113, 1137 (1982) (Stevens, J., concurring in judgment). While Justice Stevens' statement was meant as a criticism of the categorical approach to the First Amendment, it completely captures the essence of what a court must address in order to determine whether an expression constitutes fighting words. To determine if an expression constitutes fighting words, we must ask whether the expression, if delivered to a reasonable and prudent person of common intelligence, would cause the addressee immediately to breach the peace. Cf. Chaplinsky, 315 U.S. at 573, 62 S.Ct. at 770, 86 L.Ed. at 1036 (restating the essence of the fighting words test). This test is applied to identify fighting words when they are delivered in a face-to-face confrontation, and are directed at an individual addressee. [4] Chaplinsky, 315 U.S. at 573, 62 S.Ct. at 770, 86 L.Ed. at 1036. Additionally, this is an objective test. See id. (the test is not to be defined in terms of what a particular addressee thinks, but rather by what an objective addressee would think). This test, in essence, requires one to look at the context in which an expression was made. We hold that it is proper to consider the age of the addressee when determining the contextual setting. North Dakota courts have long recognized that actions and reactions of individuals differ according to age. See, e.g., Besette v. Enderlin Sch. Dist. No. 22, 310 N.W.2d 759, 763 (N.D.1981) (recognizing that the standard of care owed a child is greater than that owed an adult and increases with the immaturity of the child); Moe v. Kettwig, 68 N.W.2d 853, 860 (N.D. 1955) (recognizing that the standard of care imposed on a minor must be measured with regard to his age, capacity, intelligence, and experience). Logic demands that when determining whether an expression constitutes fighting words, the age of the addressee must be taken into account. No one would argue that a different reaction is likely if a thirteen-year-old boy and a seventy-five-year-old man are confronted with identical fighting words. Accordingly, we hold that to determine what constitutes fighting words, a court must consider both the content and the context of the expression, including the age of the participants. The judge in the instant case did not err when he accepted evidence regarding Stamness' taunts, threats including a threat to kill, and the public display of snow effigies which he concluded were constructed to harass Svedberg. In this context, when delivered to a fourteen-year-old, these actions when taken as a whole constitute fighting words, and are therefore unprotected by the First Amendment. Consequently, Stamness' argument that he was engaged in protected activity fails. Affirmed. SANDSTROM, J., concurs.