Opinion ID: 1058453
Heading Depth: 3
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: Reckless Infliction of Emotional Distress

Text: The primary issue before this Court is whether in order to be actionable reckless infliction of emotional distress must be based upon conduct that was directed at a specific person. Although this question was similarly raised before us in Lourcey v. Estate of Scarlett, 146 S.W.3d 48 (Tenn.2004), we chose not to address it because we determined that the tortious conduct in that case had been intentionally directed at the plaintiff. We now decide this issue of first impression. Because this issue concerns conclusions of law, our standard of review is de novo with no presumption of correctness. S. Constructors, Inc. v. Loudon County Bd. of Educ., 58 S.W.3d 706, 710 (Tenn.2001). The tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress, also known as the tort of outrageous conduct, was recognized in Tennessee in Medlin v. Allied Inv. Co., 217 Tenn. 469, 398 S.W.2d 270, 274-75 (1966). Claims based on this tort seek recovery for mental or emotional disturbance alone, unconnected with any independently actionable tort or with any contemporaneous or consequential objectively ascertainable injury. Id. at 272. Based on Medlin and its progeny, a plaintiff suing for outrageous conduct must satisfy three elements: first, the conduct complained of must be intentional or reckless; second, the conduct must be so outrageous that it is not tolerated by civilized society; and third, the conduct complained of must result in serious mental injury. Bain v. Wells, 936 S.W.2d 618, 622 (Tenn.1997); see Lourcey, 146 S.W.3d at 51; Miller v. Willbanks, 8 S.W.3d 607, 612 (Tenn.1999). A causation requirement is implicit in the third element which necessitates that the misconduct result in serious mental injury. These elements correspond with section 46(1) of the Restatement (Second) of Torts (1965) (Second Restatement). See Miller, 8 S.W.3d at 612 (stating that this Court has ground[ed] the cause of action for intentional infliction of emotional distress within the Restatement framework); Medlin, 398 S.W.2d at 274 (basing its holding on the Second Restatement). Tennessee thus stands in accord with the overwhelming majority of jurisdictions that have adopted fully or in part section 46 of the Second Restatement or that impose generally the same requirements even though they have not expressly adopted the Second Restatement. [16] Consequently, in resolving the issue presented by this appeal, we begin, as did the Court of Appeals, with section 46. It is important initially to clarify that section 46 divides the cause of action for outrageous conduct into direct, first-party claims and indirect, bystander claims. Section 46 provides as follows: (1) One who by extreme and outrageous conduct intentionally or recklessly causes severe emotional distress to another is subject to liability for such emotional distress, and if bodily harm to the other results from it, for such bodily harm. (2) Where such conduct is directed at a third person, the actor is subject to liability if he intentionally or recklessly causes severe emotional distress (a) to a member of such person's immediate family who is present at the time, whether or not such distress results in bodily harm, or (b) to any other person who is present at the time, if such distress results in bodily harm. A direct action under subsection 46(1) allows a plaintiff to mount a prima facie claim by satisfying with respect to himself or herself the standard elements of: (1) extreme and outrageous conduct; (2) intent or recklessness; (3) causation; and (4) severe emotional harm. However, a bystander claim under subsection 46(2) imposes somewhat different requirements. First, the tortfeasor's outrageous conduct must have been intentionally or recklessly directed at a third person in a way that satisfies as to the third party the outrageous conduct requirement of subsection 46(1). Second, the bystander plaintiff must have suffered severe emotional distress. Third, the plaintiff either must bear a close family relation to the third party or such severe emotional distress must be suffered that it results in physical harm. In both instances, the bystander plaintiff must have perceived contemporaneously and from close spatial proximity the emotional harm inflicted upon the third party. Dan B. Dobbs, The Law of Torts § 307, at 833-34 (2001). The Court of Appeals in this case inferred from the overall structure of section 46 that to be actionable direct claims must be based upon conduct that had been directed at the plaintiff. The Court of Appeals recognized that explicit directed-at language is contained solely in subsection 46(2). Nonetheless, the Court of Appeals stated, While [subsection] 46(1) does not expressly include the words, `directed at,' it is clear from the structure of the entire section on `Outrageous Conduct Causing Severe Emotional Distress' that the requirement is understood. In order to show that the directed-at requirement has been implicitly recognized in Tennessee, the Court of Appeals supplied a catalog of outrageous conduct decisions in which the tortfeasor's conduct as a matter of fact had been directed toward a particular person. See, e.g., Miller, 8 S.W.3d at 613-14 (doctor spreading false rumors that parent's illegal drug use affected newborn infant); Lawrence v. Stanford, 655 S.W.2d 927, 928 (Tenn.1983) (veterinarian threatening to kill dog unless owners paid bill); Goldfarb v. Baker, 547 S.W.2d 567, 568 (Tenn.1977) (professor falsely accusing student of misconduct and ejecting him from class); Dunn v. Moto Photo, Inc., 828 S.W.2d 747, 749 (Tenn.Ct.App.1991) (film developer falsely obtaining nude photo of plaintiff and entrusting it to fellow co-worker of plaintiff who displayed it at plaintiff's workplace). We do not disagree with the Court of Appeals' characterization of the facts of these prior cases. Yet these decisions do not compel us to conclude as a matter of law that no cause of action is available where the outrageous conduct was not in fact directed at a specific person. The Court of Appeals also found the directed-at requirement expressed as a matter of law in two Tennessee intermediate appellate court decisions. See Gann v. Key, 758 S.W.2d 538 (Tenn.Ct.App.1988); Thomas Stidham v. Mediquick of Bartlett, Inc., No. 02A01-9102-CV-00014, 1991 WL 116558 (Tenn.Ct.App. July 2, 1991), no Tenn. R.App. P. 11 application for permission to appeal filed. However, a careful reading of these cases reveals that neither case clearly adopted the directed-at requirement. [17] To the contrary, Gann actually acknowledges that outrageous conduct not specifically directed at a plaintiff could possibly be actionable. [18] The Court of Appeals also relied on case law from other jurisdictions. Our research reveals that only six states have clearly decided that direct claims for intentional or reckless infliction of emotional distress must be based upon conduct that had been directed at a specific person or performed in the presence of the plaintiff: California, Georgia, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina and Washington. See Christensen v.Superior Court, 54 Cal.3d 868, 2 Cal.Rptr.2d 79, 820 P.2d 181, 202-04 (1991); Ryckeley v. Callaway, 261 Ga. 828, 412 S.E.2d 826, 827 (1992); Meagher v. Lamb-Weston, Inc., 839 F.Supp. 1403, 1409 (D.Or.1993) (applying Oregon law); Johnson v. Caparelli, 425 Pa.Super. 404, 625 A.2d 668, 671-73 (1993); Upchurch v. N.Y. Times Co., 314 S.C. 531, 431 S.E.2d 558, 561 (1993); Reid v. Pierce County, 136 Wash.2d 195, 961 P.2d 333, 337 (1998). [19] These decisions lack persuasive force. Some of the decisions provide little or no basis for their holdings. For example, in Ryckeley, the Georgia Supreme Court held that intentional infliction of emotional distress must be directed at the plaintiff, explaining without further elaboration that such a requirement is an appropriate and logical corollary to the impact rule. 412 S.E.2d at 827. Similarly, in Johnson, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court simply pronounced without providing supporting analysis that direct claims under subsection 46(1) must be based upon conduct that had been directed at the plaintiff. 625 A.2d at 671. [20] Decisions from certain other jurisdictions suffer from fatal imprecision concerning matters central to their holding, typically by discounting recklessness [21] or by confusing direct and bystander claims. [22] The California Supreme Court has provided the most cogent rationale for the directed-at requirement in Christensen , 54 Cal.3d 868, 2 Cal.Rptr.2d 79, 820 P.2d at 201-04. [23] Christensen clearly holds that to mount a claim for intentional or reckless infliction of emotional distress, [i]t is not enough that the conduct be intentional and outrageous. It must be directed at the plaintiff, or occur in the presence of a plaintiff of whom the defendant is aware. Id. at 202. More specifically, intentional misconduct must be directed at the plaintiff, while reckless misconduct must occur in the presence of the plaintiff of whom the defendant is aware. Id. at 203-04. In Christensen , the Court was concerned above all with setting limits on the scope of recovery, and to support its holding the Court looked to the traditional characterization of outrageous conduct as an intentional tort. Id. at 203 ([T]he tort is properly categorized as intentional infliction of emotional distress, and presupposes action directed at the plaintiff or undertaken with knowledge that the plaintiff will suffer emotional distress.). The Court further reasoned that the directed-at and presence requirements are what distinguish[] intentional infliction of emotional distress from the negligent infliction of such injury. Id. at 202 (citing Ochoa v. Superior Court, 39 Cal.3d 159, 216 Cal.Rptr. 661, 703 P.2d 1 (1985)). [24] A problem common to most, if not all, of the decisions holding that reckless infliction of emotional distress must be based upon conduct that was directed at a specific individual or that occurred in the presence of the plaintiff is the failure to pay adequate attention to the unique nature of recklessness. An action predicated ab initio upon recklessness, such as reckless infliction of emotional distress, is unusual in tort law because the fundamental analysis involves aspects which resemble both negligence and intent. Restatement (Third) of Torts § 2 cmt. b (Tentative Draft No. 1, 2001) (While there are general rules exposing persons to liability who cause harm intentionally or negligently, there is no similar general rule subjecting to liability the person who causes harm recklessly.); Dobbs § 27, at 51 (Courts often recognize a kind of third category of fault that is distinguishable from both intent and from negligence. This category is called recklessness or willful and wanton misconduct. Not surprisingly, reckless conduct resembles both intentional conduct and negligence, so this category adds a degree of confusion or uncertainty.); W. Page Keeton et al., Prosser & Keeton on the Law of Torts § 34, at 212 (5th ed.1984) (stating that the penumbra of recklessness or quasi-intent lies between the doctrines of intent to do harm and ordinary negligence). When it comes to the state-of-mind element of outrageous conduct, [25] courts have often failed to distinguish adequately recklessness from intent, thereby rendering recklessness ineffective as an independent predicate for satisfying the state-of-mind element. [26] By requiring the tortfeasor's reckless misconduct to take place in the immediate presence of a plaintiff of whom the defendant is aware, the majority position in Christensen, 54 Cal.3d 868, 2 Cal.Rptr.2d 79, 820 P.2d at 201-04, indeed reduces recklessness virtually to the same scope as intentional conduct. See Christensen, 54 Cal.3d 868, 2 Cal.Rptr.2d 79, 820 P.2d at 205 (Mosk, J., concurring and dissenting) ([T]he majority's requirement that defendants consciously direct outrageous conduct at plaintiffs makes the `recklessness' prong indistinguishable from the `subjective intent' prong.). Courts are not alone in failing to distinguish adequately recklessness from intent. Section 46 of the Second Restatement has similarly provided an insufficient treatment of recklessness within the context of the tort of outrageous conduct, thus itself serving as a source of confusion. Within the Restatements, reckless infliction of emotional distress developed as a matter of secondary importance. [27] Further, the Second Restatement position on reckless infliction of emotional distress is hampered by internal inconsistencies. Section 46 cross-references the definition of recklessness provided in Second Restatement section 500, Second Restatement § 46 cmt. i, but this definition contemplates recovery solely for physical harm, whereas section 46 allows recovery for emotional harm standing alone without physical impact or manifestation. Compare Second Restatement § 46 with Second Restatement § 500 (The actor's conduct is in reckless disregard of the safety of another if he does an act or intentionally fails to do an act which it is his duty to the other to do, knowing or having reason to know of facts which would lead a reasonable man to realize, not only that his conduct creates an unreasonable risk of physical harm to another, but also that such risk is substantially greater than that which is necessary to make his conduct negligent.) (emphasis added). More significantly, applying the Second Restatement's directed-at criterion to recklessness necessarily confines and erodes the general nature of recklessness as defined in section 500. [28] In Tennessee, reckless misconduct generally has not been perceived as conduct which must be directed toward specific, pre-identified victims. In Hodges v. S.C. Toof & Co., this Court explained that a person engages in reckless misconduct when the person is aware of, but consciously disregards, a substantial and unjustifiable risk of such a nature that its disregard constitutes a gross deviation from the standard of care that an ordinary person would exercise under all the circumstances. 833 S.W.2d 896, 901 (Tenn.1992); see also Brown v. Hamilton County, 126 S.W.3d 43, 49-50 (Tenn.Ct.App.2003) (applying the Hodges definition of recklessness to a civil claim outside the context of punitive damages). To disregard means to give no thought to: [to] pay no attention to. Webster's Third New Int'l Dictionary 655 (1971). By contrast, to direct action to or toward a person or object means to aim fixedly: [to] concern or involve oneself primarily or totally with the target of one's action. Id. at 640. Recklessness as conscious disregard requires that the actor be aware of a substantial and unjustifiable risk of harm. However, as conscious disregard, recklessness cannot require that the actor aim the conduct toward a specific person or a specific result, for to do so would contradict the inattentive and thoughtless nature of disregard. In short, the directed-at requirement is incompatible with the concept of recklessness insofar as reckless misconduct has a general or random quality. James B. Brady, Recklessness, Negligence, Indifference, and Awareness, 43 Mod. L.Rev. 381, 386 (1980) (If the actor aims at the consequences, then even if the expectation of the consequences is slight, he acts intentionally rather than recklessly. From a negative viewpoint, then[,] desire for the possible consequences is necessarily excluded from the concept of recklessness.); cf. State v. Payne, 7 S.W.3d 25, 29 (Tenn.1999) (The criminal offense of reckless endangerment can be committed against the public at large ... if members of the public are in close enough proximity that there exists a reasonable probability of death or serious injury.); Cook ex rel. Uithoven v. Spinnaker's of Rivergate, Inc., 878 S.W.2d 934, 938 (Tenn.1994) (Driving while intoxicated on a public highway is gross negligence, or recklessness, given the significant risk of serious bodily injury or death, not only to the intoxicated driver, but [also] to unsuspecting motorists and pedestrians.). Recklessness is a hybrid concept which resembles both negligence and intent, yet which is distinct from both and can be reduced to neither. A person acts intentionally when it is the person's conscious objective or desire to engage in the conduct or cause the result. Hodges, 833 S.W.2d at 901. Although the reckless actor intends to act or not to act, the reckless actor lacks the conscious objective or desire to engage in harmful conduct or to cause a harmful result. See State v. Kimbrough, 924 S.W.2d 888, 891 (Tenn.1996) ([R]ecklessness and negligence are incompatible with desire or intention.); Dobbs § 147, at 351 (The reckless actor does not intentionally harm another, but he intentionally or consciously runs a very serious risk with no good reason to do so.). Nevertheless, recklessness contains an awareness component similar to intentional conduct which is not demanded of negligence. See Dobbs § 147, at 351 (Recklessness entails a mental element that is not necessarily required to establish gross negligence.); Brady, at 384 (The element of awareness of risk ... does distinguish between recklessness and negligence.). Further, although recklessness is typically a criterion for determining whether punitive damages are warranted in negligence cases, cf. Hodges, 833 S.W.2d at 901, claims for reckless infliction of emotional distress lack an underlying negligence claim. Therefore, a recklessness analysis is something unique which differs from analyses based strictly on either intent or negligence. Courts requiring the directed-at element generally have failed to recognize and to address the unique qualities of recklessness. In addressing the unique nature of recklessness and the directed-at issue, we are confronted with three options. First, we could simply eliminate recklessness as a means for satisfying the state-of-mind element of outrageous conduct. See Alsteen v. Gehl, 21 Wis.2d 349, 124 N.W.2d 312, 317 (1963) (refusing to recognize recklessness as a predicate state of mind for the tort of outrageous conduct). Second, we could require that claims for reckless infliction of emotional distress must be based upon conduct that had been directed at a specific individual or that occurred in the presence of the plaintiff, thereby effectively collapsing recklessness into intent. See supra; see also Brady, at 394 (In applying the aiming at or directed-at requirement, [t]he result is that every case of recklessness can be converted to `intentionally exposing to the risk' and so the distinction between recklessness and intention is collapsed.). Third, we could reaffirm our recognition of infliction of emotional distress predicated upon recklessness and expressly reject the directed-at requirement. We choose the third option. Therefore, we hold that a claim of reckless infliction of emotional distress need not be based upon conduct that was directed at a specific person or that occurred in the presence of the plaintiff. [29] Our holding is consistent with Tennessee law and advances important policy considerations. First, the courts shoulder the responsibility of providing a remedy to those who have been wrongly injured. See Camper v. Minor, 915 S.W.2d 437, 441 (Tenn.1996). To require a claim for reckless infliction of emotional distress to be based upon conduct that was directed at a specific individual would leave a gap in tort law where persons wrongly harmed would be deprived of a remedy. Cf. Christensen, 54 Cal.3d 868, 2 Cal.Rptr.2d 79, 820 P.2d at 205 (Mosk, J., concurring and dissenting). Second, this Court has strongly affirmed the validity and significance of purely emotional harm as a basis for recovery, recognizing that emotional harm in the absence of physical impact can be as damaging if not more damaging than harm caused by physical impact. Medlin, 398 S.W.2d at 272-73. Third, we express confidence in the court system to winnow out false and frivolous claims through the pretrial and trial processes and through conscientious application of the elements necessary to establish causes of action for solely emotional harm. The elements of intentional and reckless infliction of emotional distress themselves perform an important gatekeeping function for the purposes of ensuring the reliability of claims and of preventing liability from extending unreasonably. Cf. Miller, 8 S.W.3d at 612. The outrageous conduct requirement is a high standard which has consistently been regarded as a significant limitation on recovery. To qualify as outrageous, conduct must be `so outrageous in character, and so extreme in degree, as to go beyond all bounds of decency, and to be regarded as atrocious, and utterly [i]ntolerable in a civilized community.' Medlin, 398 S.W.2d at 274 (quoting Second Restatement § 46 cmt. d). In Miller, this Court pointed out that the outrageousness requirement is an exacting standard which provides the primary safeguard against fraudulent and trivial claims. 8 S.W.3d at 614 (The risk of frivolous litigation ... is alleviated in claims for intentional infliction of emotional distress by the requirement that a plaintiff prove that the offending conduct was so outrageous that it is not tolerated by a civilized society.). The mental harm which the plaintiff suffered also must be demonstrated to have been particularly serious. Further, the state-of-mind element of intent or recklessness places significant limitation on recovery. Being required to prove the tortfeasor's intent or recklessness imposes a significantly higher burden than is required for mere negligence actions. See Christensen, 54 Cal.3d 868, 2 Cal.Rptr.2d 79, 820 P.2d at 205 (Mosk, J., concurring and dissenting) (The tort of outrageous conduct may be distinguished from negligent infliction of emotional distress ... because recklessness requires a higher degree of fault than simple negligence.); Dobbs § 27, at 52. The recklessness element requires the defendant to be aware of, but consciously to disregard, a substantial and unjustifiable risk of such a nature that its disregard constitutes a gross deviation from the standard of care which, under all the circumstances, an ordinary person would have exercised. Hodges, 833 S.W.2d at 901. The reckless tortfeasor will be liable only to persons who fall within the reasonably foreseeable scope of the particular substantial and unjustifiable risk consciously disregarded by the tortfeasor. See Tommy's Elbow Room v. Kavorkian, 727 P.2d 1038, 1044 (Alaska 1986) (holding that in cases where the plaintiff alleges that the defendant acted recklessly, it must be shown that the defendant acted in deliberate disregard of a high degree of probability that the emotional distress will follow ) (emphasis added); Public Fin. Corp. v. Davis, 66 Ill.2d 85, 4 Ill.Dec. 652, 360 N.E.2d 765, 767 (1976) (holding that liability for reckless infliction of emotional distress extends to situations in which there is a high degree of probability that severe emotional distress will follow and the actor goes ahead in conscious disregard of it) (emphasis added); cf. McClenahan v. Cooley, 806 S.W.2d 767, 775-76 (Tenn.1991) (discussing foreseeability and proximate causation in the context of negligence actions). We acknowledge that our holding herein eliminates the distinction between direct claims and bystander claims when the infliction of emotional distress claim is predicated upon recklessness. Under section 46 of the Second Restatement, the criterion by which direct and bystander claims are differentiated is the determination whether the misconduct was directed at the plaintiff or at a third party. However, by holding that reckless infliction of emotional distress need not be directed at a specific individual, the criterion for differentiating between direct and bystander claims in that context is thus removed. [30] Although this Court has never expressly recognized subsection 46(2) bystander claims, we note that subsection 46(2) involves the kind of arbitrary requirements which we analyzed and rejected within the context of negligent infliction of emotional distress in Camper, 915 S.W.2d at 440-46. [31]