Opinion ID: 2052142
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 5

Heading: Complete Defenses.

Text: In Iowa, we recognize substantial truth as an absolute defense in a defamation action. See Behr, 414 N.W.2d at 342. The libel defendant need not establish the literal truth of every detail of the broadcast so long as the gist or sting of the broadcast in question is substantially true. Id. The gist or sting of the broadcast is the heart of the matter in questionthe hurtfulness of the utterance. Id. We determine the gist or sting by look[ing] at the highlight of the [broadcast], the pertinent angle of it, and not to the items of secondary importance which are inoffensive details, immaterial to the truth of the defamatory statement. Id. at 342. If the underlying facts as to the gist or sting of the defamatory charge are undisputed, the court may determine substantial truth as a matter of law. Id. The test for summary judgment is whether the plaintiff would have been exposed to any more public disgrace had the publication been free of error. Id. In considering the content of any television broadcast, it is important to see the actual broadcast. A written summary is insufficient to provide the full impact of the telecast. In this case, we do not have the benefit of viewing the challenged statements in the context of the broadcast. We do know, however, that the broadcast incorrectly implied that Jones' training was entirely subsidized by taxpayers and that he read at a third-grade level when he actually read at a level comparable with the lower one-third of junior college students. We cannot say, as a matter of law, that these statements were of secondary importance to the broadcast concerning the dismissal of Jones. We are also unable to conclude that these statements did not, by themselves, cause damage to Jones' reputation. We therefore reject Palmer's defense of substantial truth.
Palmer asserts that the statements of Chief Armstrong and their broadcast are protected because they reflect only the opinions of the fire chief, not facts. Because this usually difficult question involves important first amendment issues, its determination is one for the court. The court must look to the totality of the circumstances to determine whether a statement may be actionable. Janklow v. Newsweek, Inc., 788 F.2d 1300, 1305 n. 7 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 883, 107 S.Ct. 272, 93 L.Ed.2d 249 (1986). Opinion is absolutely protected under the first amendment. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323, 339, 94 S.Ct. 2997, 3007, 41 L.Ed.2d 789, 805 (1974). It is difficult to draw a bright line between `fact' and `opinion.' Janklow, 788 F.2d at 1302. Ollman v. Evans, 750 F.2d 970 (D.C.Cir.1984), articulated several factors for determining whether a statement is fact or opinion. The Eighth Circuit adopted these factors in Janklow v. Newsweek, Inc., 788 F.2d at 1302 (8th Cir.1986). The first relevant factor is the precision and specificity of the disputed statement. Janklow, 788 F.2d at 1302. Related to this concept is the second factor of verifiability. Id. These two factors recognize that if a statement is precise and easy to verify, it is likely the statement is fact. The third factor is the literary context in which the disputed statement was made. Related to the literary context of the disputed statement is the social context, which focuses on the category of publication, its style of writing and intended audience. Id. at 1303. We also consider the public context or political arena in which the statements were made. Id.; Ollman, 750 F.2d at 1002-05 (Bork, Wilkey, Ginsburg, & MacKinnon, JJ., concurring). In considering these factors, the statement must be taken as part of a whole, including the tone of the broadcast and the use of cautionary language. Janklow, 788 F.2d at 1302. The statements that Jones read at a third-grade level and attended training at the expense of taxpayers are precise and specific statements which would have not been difficult to verify. These two factors tend to show the statements as fact. We are, however, unable to consider the literary, social or public context in which the statements were made because the record does not contain a recording or transcript of the broadcast. In order to classify a statement as opinion, the court must be able to consider all of the factors listed in Janklow in the context of the entire broadcast. Janklow, 788 F.2d at 1302. Failing this, Palmer's motion for summary judgment based on the defense of opinion was properly denied.
Palmer asserts that the statements by Chief Armstrong to the media were protected as a privileged communication of a public official. As such, the broadcast of the allegedly defamatory statements may also be protected by this privilege. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 612 (1977). In Iowa, there are two types of privileges concerning statements made by public officials. See generally Note, 62 Iowa L.Rev. at 1071-72. Within the executive branch of government, an absolute defense against liability for libel attaches to all statements made by certain officials in the context of their participation in government. Id. This complete defense extends only to the highest state officials and does not apply to Chief Armstrong. Id. A qualified privilege may attach to certain statements made by a lower-ranking government official which are necessary to the performance of official duties. See Brown v. First Nat'l Bank, 193 N.W.2d 547, 552-53 (1972). This qualified privilege does not provide a complete defense, rather, the plaintiff is required to demonstrate actual malice on the part of the public official. Vinson, 360 N.W.2d at 116. This qualified privilege can be defeated if it is abused. Excessive publication of otherwise privileged material will act to remove the protection afforded by this privilege. See Brown, 193 N.W.2d at 552-53 (The qualified privilege by its very nature does not allow widespread or unrestricted communication.); see also Restatement (Second) of Torts § 604 (1977). It is for the court to decide as a matter of law whether the qualified privilege is available for a particular statement. Brown, 193 N.W.2d at 552. The court must consider the relation of the statements to the duties of the public official and the underlying purpose of the qualified privilege, see Restatement (Second) of Torts § 603 (1977). In determining whether the publication of the statement was excessive, the court must find a valid interest on the part of the general public which necessitated or justified the broadcast. Brown, 193 N.W.2d at 552. The challenged statements must be considered in the complete context of statements made by the public official. To apply this privilege to a media defendant, it will be necessary to view the challenged statements in the context of the entire broadcast. The record in this case will not allow us to make this determination. We do not know the precise statements made by Chief Armstrong to Palmer or the context in which these statements were later broadcast. It would be speculation on our part to determine whether the broadcast centered on an important civil rights issue or the plight of an individual fire fighter. A motion for summary judgment based on this privilege was properly denied.
Palmer asserts the news broadcast is protected by the constitutional defense of neutral reporting. If adopted, this constitutional privilege would grant the press absolute immunity from libel judgments for accurately reporting newsworthy statements, regardless of the press' belief about the truth of the statements. This would be an exception to the common-law rule that republication of a defamatory statement was subject to the same liability as the original statement. See Morse v. Times-Republican Printing Co., 124 Iowa 707, 717-18, 100 N.W. 867, 870-71 (1904). According to Palmer, this defense protects the news media from republication of libelous material so long as that material is newsworthy. Palmer's argument stems from Edwards v. National Audubon Society, Inc., 556 F.2d 113 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, sub. nom, Edwards v. New York Times, 434 U.S. 1002, 98 S.Ct. 647, 54 L.Ed.2d 498 (1977). In Edwards, an Audubon Society publication, American Birds, charged that scientists who claimed that the pesticide DDT did not appreciably harm bird life were either being paid to lie, or ... parroting something [they knew] little about. Id. at 117. This article did not name the challenged scientists. The New York Times considered the Audubon Society article to be a significant development in the nationwide debate over the use of DDT. The Times published an article reporting the claims in American Birds and named the five prominent scientists which were the target of the accusations. In dismissing a defamation action against the Audubon Society and the New York Times, the Second Circuit asserted that where a responsible, prominent organization made serious charges against a public figure, the first amendment protected the accurate and disinterested reporting of those charges. Id. at 120. The court went on to state that [w]hat is newsworthy about such accusations is that they were made, and that this privilege would not be defeated by deviations in the literal accuracy of the report. Id. Since the inception of a constitutional defense based on neutral reporting, this defense has been the subject of considerable debate. See generally Note, The Developing Privilege of Neutral Reportage, 69 Va.L.Rev. 853 (1983). The Supreme Court has not ruled on whether this defense has a constitutional basis. Since Edwards, federal courts have provided additional precision to the boundaries of this defense. First, this defense will only apply when the defamed person is a public figure or public official. See Cianci v. New Times Publishing Co., 639 F.2d 54, 67 (2d Cir.1980); Dixon v. Newsweek, Inc., 562 F.2d 626, 631 (10th Cir.1977). Further, the republication of defamatory statements must be neutral and accurate. See Cianci, 639 F.2d at 69-70; Price v. Viking Press, Inc., 625 F.Supp. 641, 649 (D.Minn.1985). Determining whether the republication is neutral and accurate requires careful examination of the facts on a case-by-case basis. See Price, 625 F.Supp. at 649. Many courts have declined to adopt the constitutional defense of neutral reporting. See generally Barry v. Time, Inc., 584 F.Supp. 1110, 1122-23 & n. 15 (N.D.Cal.1984). One rationale advanced for the rejection of this defense is that the newsworthiness element discussed in Edwards conflicts with the Supreme Court's rejection of a public interest test in Gertz. See, e.g., Dickey v. CBS, Inc., 583 F.2d 1221, 1226 n. 5 (3d Cir.1978); Newell v. Field Enter., Inc., 91 Ill.App.3d 735, 756-57, 47 Ill.Dec. 429, 446-47, 415 N.E.2d 434, 451-52 (1980). Another reason used to reject Edwards characterizes this defense as superfluous because the press is already adequately protected by the actual malice standard articulated in New York Times. See, e.g., Postill v. Booth Newspapers, Inc., 118 Mich.App. 608, 622, 325 N.W.2d 511, 517-18 (1982). Other cases have criticized the legal reasoning used in Edwards. See Dickey, 583 F.2d at 1225; see also Barry, 584 F.Supp. at 1123 n. 15. On the other hand, some courts have approved the defense of neutral reporting. See, Note, 69 Va.L.Rev. at 863-64. Some courts have favorably cited Edwards in support of a holding based primarily on a state common-law privilege of fair report. See, e.g., Medico v. Time, Inc., 643 F.2d 134, 145 (3d Cir.) (casting doubt on the continued viability of Dickey ), cert. denied, 454 U.S. 836, 102 S.Ct. 139, 70 L.Ed.2d 116 (1981); McCracken v. Gainesville Tribune, Inc., 146 Ga.App. 274, 276, 246 S.E.2d 360, 362 (1978); Krauss v. Champaign News Gazette, Inc., 59 Ill.App.3d 745, 748, 17 Ill.Dec. 78, 80, 375 N.E.2d 1362, 1364 (1978). The elements and policy considerations of the defense of neutral reporting are often very similar to the common-law privilege of fair report. Because of this close relationship, any discussion of a constitutional defense of neutral reporting should include consideration of the fair report privilege. In Iowa, the fair report privilege protected statements of opinion on public figures or matters of public interest, so long as such opinions were not malicious and were based on truth. See Note, 62 Iowa L.Rev. at 1073-74. Under this privilege, it was not a defense that the allegedly defamatory statements were simply republished from another publication. See Morse, 124 Iowa at 716-17, 100 N.W. at 870-71 (1904). In this opinion, we need not reach the ultimate question of whether the defense of neutral reporting should be adopted in Iowa or whether it would apply to a person in Jones' situation. Even if Jones were a public figure, the record in this case is insufficient to support a determination of whether the broadcast was a neutral and accurate republication.