Opinion ID: 156393
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: anticipatory warrants

Text: This court first considered the constitutionality of anticipatory warrants in United States v. Hugoboom, 112 F.3d 1081 (10th Cir. 1997). In Hugoboom, the court joined the majority of other circuits in holding that anticipatory search warrants, or warrants “which only become[] effective upon the happening of a future event, [are] not unconstitutional per se.” Id. at 1085; see also United States v. Ricciardelli, 998 F.2d 8, 11 (1st Cir. 1993) (reviewing general approval of anticipatory warrants by federal circuits). The court further recognized that -7- anticipatory warrants are not “‘somehow suspect or legally disfavored,’” but have instead “repeatedly been upheld, assuming probable cause and so long as the conditions precedent to execution are clearly set forth in the warrant or in the affidavit in support of the anticipatory warrant.” Hugoboom, 112 F.3d at 1085 (quoting United States v. Gendron, 18 F.3d 955, 965 (1st Cir. 1994)). In determining that anticipatory warrants are not per se unconstitutional, the court noted that the United States Constitution only requires that “‘a search . . . not be “unreasonable,” and that warrants . . . be supported by “probable cause.”’” Id. (quoting Gendron, 18 F.3d at 965 (quoting U.S. Const. amend. IV)). The court recognized that “[t]here is nothing unreasonable about authorizing a search for tomorrow, not today, when reliable information indicates that [the contraband] will reach the house, not now, but then. Nor does it seem automatically unreasonable to tie the warrant’s search authority to the future event that brings with it the probable cause . . . . In principle, the use of a ‘triggering event’ can help assure that the search takes place only when justified by ‘probable cause.’” Id. (quoting Gendron, 18 F.3d at 965) (citation omitted). As the court indicated in Hugoboom, the two general requirements for a valid anticipatory warrant are (1) that it be supported by probable cause and (2) that the warrant or supporting affidavit clearly set out conditions precedent to the warrant’s execution. See id. -8-
Anticipatory warrants differ from traditional search warrants in that at the time of issuance they are not supported by probable cause to believe that contraband is currently located at the place to be searched. See United States v. Dennis, 115 F.3d 524, 528 (7th Cir. 1997). “In fact, a court issues an anticipatory warrant with the knowledge that the contraband does not presently exist at the location to be searched.” Id. This does not mean, however, that anticipatory warrants need not be supported by probable cause. Instead, before issuing an anticipatory warrant the magistrate must determine, based on the information presented in the warrant application, that there is probable cause to believe the items to be seized will be at the designated place when the search is to take place. See United States v. Garcia, 882 F.2d 699, 702 (2d Cir. 1989) (“[T]he fact that the contraband is not ‘presently located at the place described in the warrant’ is immaterial, so long as ‘there is probable cause to believe that it will be there when the search warrant is executed.’” (quoting United States v. Lowe, 575 F.2d 1193, 1194 (6th Cir. 1978))). Probable cause for anticipatory warrants is contingent on the occurrence of certain expected or “triggering” events, typically the future delivery, sale, or purchase of contraband. Therefore, in making the probable cause determination, the magistrate must “take into account the likelihood that the triggering event[s] -9- will occur on schedule and as predicted.” Ricciardelli, 998 F.2d at 11. If the triggering events do not occur, the anticipatory warrant is void. See Garcia, 882 F.2d at 702 (“An anticipatory warrant, by definition, is a warrant that has been issued before the necessary events have occurred which will allow a constitutional search of the premises; if those events do not transpire, the warrant is void.”). In addition to taking into account the likelihood that the triggering events will occur, the magistrate must also determine the likelihood that, after the triggering events have occurred, the contraband will be at the designated place when searched. As with all warrants, probable cause to support an anticipatory warrant “does not exist unless a sufficient nexus between the [contraband] and the place to be searched exists.” Dennis, 115 F.3d at 530.
Because the probable cause for an anticipatory warrant is contingent on the occurrence of anticipated events, the warrant or affidavit should express conditions permitting the search to be conducted only after the anticipated events have taken place. 2 See id. at 528 (“[A]t the time a court issues an anticipatory 2 Although the preferred practice is for the anticipatory warrant to itself set out, or incorporate by reference, the conditions for the warrant’s execution, this court has held that the failure to state the conditions in the warrant does not necessarily render the warrant invalid. See Hugoboom, 112 F.3d at 1087. As the court indicated in Hugoboom, there is no Fourth Amendment violation requiring suppression when the conditions for execution of the anticipatory warrant are “‘stated in the affidavit that solicits the warrant, accepted by the issuing -10- warrant, probable cause exists to believe that contraband will be located at the premises to be searched after certain events transpire. Thus, conditions precedent to the execution of an anticipatory warrant are integral to its validity.” (citation omitted)). This not only ensures against premature execution of the warrant, see Garcia, 882 F.2d at 703-04, but also maintains judicial control over the probable cause determination and over the circumstances of the warrant’s execution, see generally Ricciardelli, 998 F.2d at 12 (stating that because warrants conditioned on future events present potential for abuse beyond that of traditional warrants, magistrates issuing such warrants must protect against opportunities for government agents to exercise unfettered discretion, in part by explicitly placing conditions on execution). Consistent with these purposes, the conditions governing the warrant’s execution should be “explicit, clear, and narrowly drawn so as to avoid misunderstanding or manipulation by government agents.” Garcia, 882 F.2d at 703-04; accord Dennis, 115 F.3d at 528; Ricciardelli, 998 F.2d at 12. The particularity with which the magistrate should specify the conditions, however, will vary based on the individual facts of each case. Although the conditions precedent ensure that an anticipatory warrant will magistrate, and actually satisfied in the execution of the warrant.’” 112 F.3d at 1087 (quoting United States v. Moetamedi, 46 F.3d 225, 229 (2d Cir. 1995). -11- not be executed prematurely, such conditions do not serve as a substitute for the magistrate’s probable cause determination. See United States v. Hendricks, 743 F.2d 653, 654-56 (9th Cir. 1984) (holding anticipatory warrant for search of defendant’s home was invalid because affidavit provided no assurance that defendant would take package to his home after collecting it at the airport, despite fact that warrant contained condition that it was not to be executed until package arrived at defendant’s house). If an anticipatory warrant is based solely on speculation that contraband will be found at a given location at some time in the future, it lacks a probable cause foundation at the moment of its issuance and is therefore invalid regardless of the extent to which the warrant’s provisions assure that no search will be commenced until probable cause exists. See State v. Gutman, 670 P.2d 1166, 1172 (Alaska Ct. App. 1983). The conditions precedent to execution of an anticipatory warrant are mere guarantees that the probable cause determination at the time of issuance has reached fruition when the warrant is executed. In sum, the magistrate must not abdicate the judicial function of determining probable cause at the time the warrant is sought by relying on police assurances that the search warrant will not be executed unless probable cause exists. Instead, the magistrate must require a particularized showing, based on facts existing when the warrant is issued, that the items to be seized will be at the -12- designated location when the search takes place. See Hendricks, 743 F.2d at 655; see generally State v. Wright, 772 P.2d 250, 258-59 (Idaho Ct. App. 1989) (Burnett, J., concurring) (discussing risk of judicial abdication of probable cause determination as one of the possible dangers of anticipatory warrants); State v. Lee, 613 A.2d 395, 398-400 (Md. Ct. Spec. App. 1992) (same), aff’d, 624 A.2d 492 (Md. 1993). C. Anticipatory Warrants Based on Delivery of Contraband As recognized in Hugoboom, when the warrant application indicates there will be a government-controlled delivery of contraband to the place to be searched, probable cause for a search is established and an anticipatory warrant may be issued, provided the warrant’s execution is conditioned on the contraband’s delivery to, or receipt at, the designated place. See 112 F.3d at 1086-87; see also Garcia, 882 F.2d at 702-03. In this context, the Hugoboom court indicated that when the warrant affidavit refers to a controlled delivery of contraband to the place designated for search, the nexus requirement of probable cause is satisfied and the affidavit need not provide additional independent evidence linking the place to be searched to criminal activity. See 112 F.3d at 1086. When the delivery of contraband is not completely within the government’s control, however, or when the delivery is to be made to a place other than the -13- premises designated for search, additional reliable information in the warrant application must indicate that the contraband will be at the designated premises at the time of the search. For example, when the delivery of contraband is not within the control of the government, the supporting affidavit should show not only that the agent applying for the warrant believes a delivery of contraband is going to occur, but also how the agent learned of the expected delivery, how reliable the information is, and what the role of law enforcement officers will be in the expected delivery. See Garcia, 882 F.2d at 703; United States v. Leidner , 99 F.3d 1423, 1426 (7th Cir. 1996); see also 2 Wayne R. LaFave, Search & Seizure: A Treatise on the Fourth Amendment § 3.7(c), at 366-67 (3d ed. 1996) (stating that to establish probable cause for anticipatory warrant, affidavit must “indicate how it is known that the items to be seized will on a later occasion be at the place specified” and stating that more details will be necessary in noncontrolled delivery cases). Similarly, when a controlled delivery is not made to the place to be searched, such as when a defendant is required to pick up a package containing contraband at a post office, the warrant application must present additional facts establishing the contraband will be taken to the place designated for search. Cf. Hendricks, 743 F.2d at 654-55 (holding anticipatory warrant for search of defendant’s home was invalid when defendant was required -14- to pick up suitcase containing contraband at airport and there was no assurance at time warrant was issued that defendant would take suitcase to his home).