Opinion ID: 4158229
Heading Depth: 4
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: Probable Cause and the Preference for Warrants

Text: Under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution9 and article I, section 7 of the Tennessee Constitution10 search warrants may not be issued unless a 9 The Fourth Amendment, which applies to the States through the Fourteenth Amendment, see Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 655 (1961), provides: - 15 - neutral and detached magistrate determines that probable cause exists for their issuance. Gates, 462 U.S. at 240; Henning, 975 S.W.2d at 294; Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 431. “„Articulating precisely what probable cause means is not possible.‟” State v. Reynolds, 504 S.W.3d 283, 300 (Tenn. 2016) (quoting Ornelas v. United States, 517 U.S. 690, 695 1996) (quotation marks and alterations omitted)). “Probable cause is more than a mere suspicion but less than absolute certainty.” Id. (internal citations and quotation marks omitted). “[T]he strength of the evidence necessary to establish probable cause . . . is significantly less than the strength of evidence necessary to find a defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.” State v. Bishop, 431 S.W.3d 22, 41 (Tenn. 2014); see also Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160, 174 (1949) (discussing the differences between the probable cause standard and the standard for proving guilt beyond a reasonable doubt). Probable cause, as its name implies, deals with probabilities. Brinegar, 338 U.S. at 175; Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 432. “These [probabilities] are not technical; they are the factual and practical considerations of everyday life on which reasonable and prudent men, not legal technicians, act.” Brinegar, 338 U.S. at 175; see also Reynolds, 504 S.W.3d at 300 (recognizing that the probable cause standard is practical and nontechnical). “Determinations of probable cause are extremely fact-dependent.” Bell, 429 S.W.3d at 534-35 (citing Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23, 33 (1963)). Reviewing courts afford “great deference” to a magistrate‟s determination that probable cause exists. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. U.S. Const. amend. IV. 10 Article I, section 7 provides: That the people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers and possessions, from unreasonable searches and seizures; and that general warrants, whereby an officer may be commanded to search suspected places, without evidence of the fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, whose offences are not particularly described and supported by evidence, are dangerous to liberty and ought not to be granted. Tenn. Const. art. I, § 7. - 16 - Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 431-32; see also State v. Saine, 297 S.W.3d 199, 207 (Tenn. 2009) (reiterating that appellate courts should afford deference to a magistrate‟s determination). “[I]n a doubtful or marginal case a search under a warrant may be sustainable where without one it would fall.” United States v. Ventresca, 380 U.S. 102, 106 (1965). The point of the Fourth Amendment . . . is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which reasonable men draw from evidence. Its protection consists in requiring that those inferences be drawn by a neutral and detached magistrate instead of being judged by the officer engaged in the often competitive enterprise of ferreting out crime. Ventresca, 380 U.S. at 106 (quoting Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 13-14 (1948)). 3. The Role of and Requirements for Search Warrant Affidavits In Tennessee, probable cause for issuance of a warrant is established by presenting “a sworn and written affidavit” to the magistrate. Saine, 297 S.W.3d at 205-06; see also Henning, 975 S.W.2d at 294; Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 432. “To ensure that the magistrate exercises independent judgment, the affidavit must contain more than mere conclusory allegations by the affiant.” Henning, 975 S.W.2d at 294. The affidavit must include facts from which the neutral and detached magistrate may determine, upon examining the affidavit in a commonsense and practical manner, whether probable cause exists. State v. Smotherman, 201 S.W.3d 657, 662 (Tenn. 2006); Henning, 975 S.W.2d at 294. When the affidavit seeks to establish probable cause for a search warrant, it must “set forth facts from which a reasonable conclusion might be drawn that the evidence is in the place to be searched.” State v. Smith, 868 S.W.2d 561, 572 (Tenn. 1993). In other words, the affidavit must demonstrate a nexus between the criminal activity, the place to be searched, and the items to be seized. Saine, 297 S.W.3d at 206 (citing State v. Reid, 91 S.W.3d 247, 273 (Tenn. 2002); Smith, 868 S.W.2d at 572). “The nexus between the place to be searched and the items to be seized may be established by the type of crime, the nature of the items, and the normal inferences where a criminal would hide the evidence.” Smith, 868 S.W.2d at 572. Additionally, in determining whether the nexus has been sufficiently established, courts may “„consider whether the criminal activity under investigation was an isolated event or a protracted pattern of conduct[,] . . . the nature of the property sought, the normal inferences as to where a criminal would hide the evidence, and the perpetrator‟s opportunity to dispose of incriminating evidence.‟” Saine, 297 S.W.3d at 206 (quoting Reid, 91 S.W.3d at 275). Although a nexus between the place to be searched and the items to be seized must be established, unlike an affidavit in support of an arrest warrant, an affidavit seeking issuance of a search warrant need not implicate a particular person in - 17 - the crime under investigation. See Zurcher v. The Stanford Daily, 436 U.S. 547, 556 (1978); United States v. Burney, 778 F.3d 536, 540 (6th Cir. 2015). “The time of the occurrence of the facts relied upon by the affiant is [also] a prime element in establishing probable cause for the issuance of a search warrant. If the information contained in the affidavit is too old, it is considered stale” and will be insufficient to establish probable cause. W. Mark Ward, Tennessee Criminal Trial Practice, § 4.11 (2016-17 ed.) [hereinafter Tennessee Criminial Trial Practice]; see also Everett v. State, 184 S.W.2d 43, 45 (Tenn. 1944); Welchance v. State, 114 S.W.2d 781, 782 (Tenn. 1938). Nevertheless, there is no hard and fast rule defining staleness, and “[w]hen the illegal activity described is ongoing, courts have generally held that [an] affidavit does not become stale with the passage of time.” State v. Thomas, 818 S.W.2d 350, 357 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1991); see also State v. Norris, 47 S.W.3d 457, 470-71 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2000); State v. McCary, 119 S.W.3d 226, 249 (Tenn. Crim. App. 2003). An affidavit may include information that would not be admissible as evidence in a criminal trial, Brinegar, 338 U.S. at 172-73, and an affidavit need not reflect the direct personal observations of the affiant. Henning, 975 S.W.2d at 294; Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 432. The reliability of hearsay information included in an affidavit is evaluated differently, however, depending upon its source. State v. Williams, 193 S.W.3d 502, 507 (Tenn. 2006). If the source of the information is a law enforcement officer, “[n]o special showing of reliability is necessary.” Smotherman, 201 S.W.3d at 663 (citing Ventresca, 380 U.S. at 111). But this presumption of reliability applies only if the affidavit states that the “information [was] provided by other officers.” Id. (citing United States v. Kirk, 781 F.2d 1498, 1505 (11th Cir. 1986)). A presumption of reliability also applies to citizen informants, so long as the affidavit identifies the source of the information as a citizen informant. Williams, 193 S.W.3d at 507. By contrast, no presumption of reliability applies to information supplied by an unknown informant or an informant from the “criminal milieu.” Smotherman, 201 S.W.3d at 662 (citing Williams, 193 S.W.3d at 507; Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 436). In such circumstances, the affidavit must establish both the criminal informant‟s basis of knowledge and his or her veracity or credibility. Williams, 193 S.W.3d at 507 (citing Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 436; State v. Cauley, 863 S.W.2d 411, 417 (Tenn. 1993)). This two-pronged test derives from two United States Supreme Court decisions— Aguilar v. Texas, 378 U.S. 108 (1964) and Spinelli v. United States, 393 U.S. 410 (1969). However, in 1983 the United States Supreme Court abandoned the Aguilar/Spinelli test and adopted a totality-of-the-circumstances analysis for determining whether an affidavit that includes information from a criminal informant establishes probable cause. Gates, 462 U.S. at 238-39. Six years after Gates, however, this Court declined to follow Gates and chose to retain the Aguilar/Spinelli test as a matter of Tennessee constitutional law. - 18 - Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 436. In the order granting the State‟s application for permission to appeal in this case, we directed the parties to brief and argue the issue of “whether this Court should revisit the continuing vitality of State v. Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d 430 (Tenn. 1989).” We now take this opportunity to do so. 4. Aguilar/Spinelli Analysis vs. Gates Analysis In Aguilar, the United States Supreme Court held that the magistrate reviewing a search warrant affidavit “must be informed of some of the underlying circumstances from which the informant concluded that the narcotics were where he claimed they were, and some of the underlying circumstances from which the officer concluded that the informant, whose identity need not be disclosed . . . was „credible‟ or his information „reliable.‟” 378 U.S. at 114. Five years later, in Spinelli, the Supreme Court reiterated these requirements, but added that these prongs could be established through corroborating evidence. 393 U.S. at 415-16. Therefore, under the Aguilar/Spinelli test the affidavit must include facts from which the magistrate may determine the informant‟s “basis of knowledge” and “veracity” or credibility, and if the information provided fails to establish either prong, corroborating evidence may make up the deficit. Aguilar, 378 U.S. at 114; Spinelli, 393 U.S. at 415-16; Smotherman, 201 S.W.3d at 662; Cauley, 863 S.W.2d at 417; Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 432, 436. The first prong of the Aguilar/Spinelli test—“„basis of knowledge‟ . . . is concerned with the question, „How did the informant get the information?‟ Its purpose is to prevent warrants from being issued based on conjecture or rumors. Generally speaking, facts and circumstances indicating that the information came from an informant who had obtained the information first[-] hand or by personal observation will satisfy this prong.” Tennessee Criminal Trial Practice at § 4:10. This prong may also be satisfied when the informant provides “highly detailed” information “such that the magistrate could know that the informant was relating something more than casual rumor or reputation.” Id. The second prong of the test, veracity or credibility, “may be satisfied either by (1) demonstrating the informant‟s credibility or (2) by showing that the information is reliable.” Id. In other words, “the affiant must provide some concrete reason why the magistrate should believe the informant,” although the “requisite volume or detail of information needed to establish the informant‟s credibility is not particularly great.” State v. Lowe, 949 S.W.2d 300, 305 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1996). Nevertheless, “each prong represents an independently important consideration that must be separately considered and satisfied or supplemented in some way.” Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 436 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted); see also Smotherman, 201 S.W.3d at 662 (recognizing that each prong must be separately satisfied to establish probable cause). - 19 - The Gates Court rejected the proposition (embraced by Jacumin) “that these elements should be understood as entirely separate and independent requirements to be rigidly exacted in every case . . . .” Gates, 462 U.S. at 230-31 & nn.5-6. The Gates Court held that Aguilar and Spinelli had been misinterpreted and applied in an overly rigid fashion. The Supreme Court declared that “[r]igid legal rules” are “ill-suited” to evaluate informants‟ tips, which, “„like all other clues and evidence coming to a policeman on the scene[,] may vary greatly in their value and reliability.‟” Id. at 232 (quoting Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143, 147 (1972)). The Gates Court commented that the Aguilar/Spinelli test “ha[d] encouraged an excessively technical dissection of informants‟ tips, with undue attention being focused on isolated issues that cannot sensibly be divorced from the other facts presented to the magistrate.” Id. at 234-35. The Gates Court theorized that “the type of scrutiny some courts ha[d] deemed appropriate” under the Aguilar/Spinelli test could actually discourage police officers from attempting to obtain warrants and encourage them to “resort to warrantless searches, with the hope of relying on consent or some other exception to the warrant clause that might develop at the time of the search.” Id. at 236. As a result, the Gates Court posited that the Aguilar/Spinelli test had served to frustrate the Court‟s preference for the warrant process, which was reflected in the standard of appellate review—whether the magistrate had a substantial basis for concluding that a search would uncover evidence of wrongdoing. Id. “The rigorous inquiry” and “complex superstructure of evidentiary and analytical rules” that had developed around the two-pronged test could not be reconciled with the reality that “many warrants are—quite properly—issued on the basis of nontechnical, commonsense judgments of laymen applying a standard less demanding than those used in more formal legal proceedings.” Id. at 235-36 (internal citations omitted). The Gates Court also opined that the Aguilar/Spinelli test, when applied rigidly, “poorly serve[d]” the government‟s most basic function of providing for the security of individual citizens and property because an “anonymous tip seldom could survive a rigorous application” of the two-pronged test, even though “such tips, particularly when supplemented by independent police investigation, frequently contribute to the solution of otherwise „perfect crimes.‟” Id. at 237-38. “While a conscientious assessment of the basis for crediting such tips is required by the Fourth Amendment, a standard that leaves virtually no place for anonymous citizen informants is not.” Id. at 238. The Gates Court emphasized, however, “that an informant‟s „veracity,‟ „reliability‟ and „basis of knowledge‟” remain “highly relevant in determining the value of his report” under the totality-of-the-circumstances analysis but “should be understood simply as closely intertwined issues that may usefully illuminate the commonsense, practical question whether there is „probable cause‟ to believe that contraband or evidence is located in a particular place.” Gates, 462 U.S. at 230. - 20 - The task of the issuing magistrate is simply to make a practical, commonsense decision whether, given all the circumstances set forth in the affidavit before him, including the “veracity” and “basis of knowledge” of persons supplying hearsay information, there is a fair probability that contraband or evidence of a crime will be found in a particular place. And the duty of a reviewing court is simply to ensure that the magistrate had a substantial basis for concluding that probable cause existed. Id. at 238-39 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). The Gates Court was “convinced that this flexible, easily applied standard” would “better achieve the accommodation of public and private interests” required by the Fourth Amendment. Id. at 239. Nevertheless, the Gates Court cautioned that, “[s]ufficient information must be presented to the magistrate to allow that official to determine probable cause; his action cannot be a mere ratification of the bare conclusions of others. In order to ensure that such an abdication of the magistrate‟s duty does not occur,” the Gates Court reiterated that courts should conscientiously review affidavits and strike as insufficient “„bare bones‟ affidavits” containing conclusions rather than facts. Gates, 462 U.S. at 239. The Gates Court emphasized “the value of corroboration of details of an informant‟s tip by independent police work” to the totality-of-the-circumstances analysis, id. at 241, and did not discount the value of corroboration of innocent conduct, explaining, “[i]t is enough, for purposes of assessing probable cause, that „corroboration through other sources of information reduced the chances of a reckless or prevaricating tale,‟ thus providing „a substantial basis for crediting the hearsay.‟” Id. at 244-45 (quoting Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 269, 271 (1960)). 5. The Jacumin Decision In declining six years later to follow Gates, the Jacumin Court characterized the totality-of-the-circumstances test as “inadequate as a test of probable cause.” Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 435. The Jacumin Court conceded that “the task of the issuing magistrates and the duty of the reviewing court[s] . . . are the same under either the Gates standard or the Aguilar[/]Spinelli standard.” Id. at 435 n.2. Nevertheless, the Jacumin Court held that the Aguilar/Spinelli standard, “if not applied hypertechnically,” provides “a more appropriate structure for probable cause inquiries incident to the issuance of a search warrant than does Gates,” Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 436, and concluded that the Aguilar/Spinelli standard is “more in keeping with the specific requirement of [a]rticle I, [s]ection 7 of the Tennessee Constitution that a search warrant not issue „without evidence of the fact committed,‟” id. (quoting Tenn. Const. art. I, § 7). The Jacumin Court acknowledged that article I, section 7 of the Tennessee Constitution had previously been interpreted as “identical in intent and purpose” with the Fourth Amendment and that the Court of Criminal Appeals had already applied Gates in several decisions. Jacumin, - 21 - 778 S.W.2d at 435. The Jacumin Court justified its decision to part company with Gates by referring to prior Tennessee decisions interpreting the open fields doctrine under the state constitution as “somewhat more restrictive than federal cases,” id. (citing State v. Lakin, 588 S.W.2d 544, 549 (Tenn. 1979)), and by pointing out that courts in a few other states, specifically Alaska, Massachusetts, Washington, and New York, also had declined to adopt the totality-of-the-circumstances analysis on state constitutional law grounds, describing it as “unacceptably shapeless and permissive,” id. at 435-36, and “nebulous,” id. at 436 (internal quotations marks omitted). Nevertheless, in subsequent decisions applying the Aguilar/Spinelli standard, this Court, like the Gates Court, has emphasized the role of corroboration: The credibility of the informant‟s information may also be buttressed by independent corroboration of its details. However, it is not necessary to corroborate every detail of the informant‟s information, or to “directly link the suspect to the commission of the crime.” Corroboration of “only innocent aspects of the story” may suffice. Bishop, 431 S.W.3d at 38 (quoting State v. Melson, 638 S.W.2d 342, 355 (Tenn. 1982)) (internal citation omitted). 6. Reconsideration of Jacumin The overwhelming majority of states now apply the Gates totality-of-thecircumstances analysis for determining whether an affidavit establishes probable cause for issuance of a search warrant.11 Indeed, Tennessee is one of only a handful of states 11 See State v. Clayton, 155 So. 3d 290, 295-96 (Ala. 2014); State v. McCall, 677 P.2d 920, 929 n.2 (Ariz. 1983) (en banc); Thompson v. State, 658 S.W.2d 350, 352 (Ark. 1983); People v. Camarella, 818 P.2d 63, 67-68 (Cal. 1991) (en banc); People v. Quintana, 785 P.2d 934, 938 (Colo. 1990) (en banc); State v. Barton, 594 A.2d 917, 926-27 (Conn. 1991); Gardner v. State, 567 A.2d 404, 409 (Del. 1989); State v. Butler, 655 So. 2d 1123, 1125 (Fla. 1995); State v. Stephens, 311 S.E.2d 823, 826 (Ga. 1984); State v. Lang, 672 P.2d 561, 562 (Idaho 1983); People v. Tisler, 469 N.E.2d 147, 157 (Ill. 1984); State v. Bousman, 387 N.W.2d 605, 610 (Iowa 1986), subsequently modified by statute as explained in State v. Myers, 570 N.W.2d 70, 73-74 (Iowa 1997); State v. Abu-Isba, 685 P.2d 856, 860 (Kan. 1984); Beemer v. Commonwealth, 665 S.W.2d 912, 915 (Ky. 1984); State v. Ruffin, 448 So. 2d 1274, 1278 (La. 1984); State v. Knowlton, 489 A.2d 529, 533 (Me. 1985); Potts v. State, 479 A.2d 1335, 1340 (Md. 1984); People v. Levine, 600 N.W.2d 622, 626, 629 (Mich. 1999); State v. Zanter, 535 N.W.2d 624, 633 (Minn. 1995); McCommon v. State, 467 So. 2d 940, 941 (Miss. 1985); State v. Hosier, 454 S.W.3d 883, 892 n.6, 894 (Mo. 2015) (en banc); State v. Jensen, 704 P.2d 45, 47 (Mont. 1985); State v. Ildefonso, 634 N.W.2d - 22 - that still applies the two-pronged Aguilar/Spinelli test as a matter of state statutory or constitutional law.12 Having now reconsidered both tests, we conclude that the time has come to abandon the rigid Aguilar/Spinelli test and adopt the Gates totality-of-thecircumstances analysis. Overruling Jacumin and adopting the Gates totality-of-the-circumstances test is warranted for several reasons. First, the Aguilar/Spinelli test is often applied too rigidly. The decision of the intermediate appellate court in this appeal exemplifies the type of hypertechnical application that this Court warned against in Jacumin. For example, Mr. Davis, the criminal informant, described the DTO with which Son was involved, explained the basis of his own knowledge by admitting that he, too, had been involved with the same DTO, described the type and amount of drugs and the frequency of shipments to Son, identified Son from his driver‟s license photograph, provided law enforcement with Son‟s nickname, “Red,” described Son‟s vehicle, described the area where Son resided near Nashville, and stated that Son‟s whole family was involved in drug trafficking. Rather than seeking a search warrant based solely on the information Mr. Davis provided, law enforcement officials corroborated, in some fashion, almost every aspect of the information, including Mr. Davis‟s involvment with the DTO, the DTO‟s Tennessee client known as Red, the type of vehicle Son drove, the location of his residence, Son‟s meetings with agents of the DTO near the 4571 Dugger Road property, 252, 261-62 (Neb. 2001); Barrett v. State, 775 P.2d 1276, 1277 (Nev. 1989); State v. Carroll, 552 A.2d 69, 73-74 (N.H. 1988); State v. Novembrino, 519 A.2d 820, 836 n.11 (N.J. 1987); State v. Hughes, 539 S.E.2d 625, 628 (N.C. 2000); State v. Ringquist, 433 N.W.2d 207, 212 (N.D. 1988); State v. George, 544 N.E.2d 640, 643-45 (Ohio 1989); Langham v. State, 787 P.2d 1279, 1280-81 (Okla. Crim. App. 1990); Commonwealth v. Gray, 503 A.2d 921, 925-26 (Pa. 1985); State v. Pratt, 641 A.2d 732, 736 (R.I. 1994); State v. Jones, 536 S.E.2d 675, 678-79 (S.C. 2000); State v. Raveydts, 691 N.W.2d 290, 293 (S.D. 2004); Green v. State, 736 S.W.2d 218, 219 (Tex. App. 1987); State v. Espinoza, 723 P.2d 420, 421 (Utah 1986); Derr v. Commonwealth, 410 S.E.2d 662, 666 (Va. 1991); State v. Adkins, 346 S.E.2d 762, 773-74 (W. Va. 1986); State v. Robinson, 786 N.W.2d 463, 471-72 n.11 (Wis. 2010); Bonsness v. State, 672 P.2d 1291, 1293 (Wyo. 1983). 12 State v. Jones, 706 P.2d 317, 322-24 (Alaska 1985); Carlisle ex rel. State v. Ten Thousand Four Hundred Forty-Seven Dollars in U.S. Currency ($10,447.00), 89 P.3d 823, 830 n.9 (Haw. 2004); Commonwealth v. Upton, 476 N.E.2d 548, 556 (Mass. 1985); State v. Cordova, 784 P.2d 30, 36 (N.M. 1989); People v. DiFalco, 610 N.E.2d 352, 353 n.1 (N.Y. 1993); State v. Coffey, 788 P.2d 424, 426 n.4 (Or. 1990); State v. Goldberg, 872 A.2d 378, 381 (Vt. 2005); State v. Jackson, 688 P.2d 136, 141-43 (Wash. 1984) (en banc). - 23 - at which Son had previously concealed cash derived from the illegal drug trade, and even his family‟s previous involvement in Son‟s earlier drug trafficking activities. The intermediate appellate court majority correctly acknowledged that the affidavit was “replete” with corroboration of the information Mr. Davis provided implicating Son in drug trafficking activities, but it held the affidavit insufficient because it lacked facts connecting or implicating the defendant in Son‟s drug trafficking activities. In reaching this conclusion, the intermediate appellate court dissected and parsed Mr. Davis‟s statement and considered in isolation each aspect of the information, as well as the independent corroboration, searching for direct corroborating evidence of each detail, even though this Court has previously explained that it is not necessary to corroborate every detail of an informant‟s information. Bishop, 431 S.W.3d at 38. The intermediate appellate court also apparently failed to recognize that information implicating the defendant in the underlying crime was not necessary to establish probable cause for issuance of a search warrant for a certain property, so long as the affidavit included facts establishing a nexus between the 4571 Dugger Road property and the drugs. See Zurcher, 436 U.S. at 556 (“The critical element in a reasonable search is not that the owner of the property is suspected of crime but that there is reasonable cause to believe that the specific „things‟ to be searched for and seized are located on the property to which entry is sought.”) Second, unlike the Jacumin Court, we have the benefit of years of experience applying Jacumin and have had the opportunity to review numerous cases from other jurisdictions applying Gates. Time has proven that the totality-of-the-circumstances analysis is not inadequate or too nebulous as a test for determining probable cause. Under Gates, “an informant‟s „veracity,‟ „reliability,‟ and „basis of knowledge‟” remain “highly relevant in determining the value of his report,” Gates, 462 U.S. at 230. But by ensuring that these factors are not viewed as entirely separate prerequisites to probable cause, requiring rigid, formulistic, and technical analysis, Gates actually improves upon the Aguilar/Spinelli test. Id. at 230-31. Moreover, as the Gates Court explained, the totality-of-the-circumstances analysis is much more consistent with the nontechnical, commonsense approach courts already apply when determining whether probable cause exists. Id. Indeed, although the Jacumin Court retained the Aguilar/Spinelli test, it expressly embraced the manner in which the Gates Court described the role of the magistrate in assessing probable cause, Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 435 n.2, and we have reaffirmed this standard as the governing law in Tennessee, see, e.g. Saine, 297 S.W.3d at 206 (stating that the task of the magistrate is to read the affidavit “in a commonsense and practical manner”); State v. Carter, 160 S.W.3d 526, 533 (Tenn. 2005) (same); Henning, 975 S.W.2d at 294 (same). - 24 - Finally, it is certainly true, as the Jacumin Court recognized, that this Court has the authority to interpret the Tennessee Constitution differently than the federal constitution and has recognized that textual differences between federal and state constitutional provisions may support doing so. State v. Watkins, 362 S.W.3d 530, 55455 (Tenn. 2012); State v. Vineyard, 958 S.W.2d 730, 733-34 (Tenn. 1997). It is also true, as the Jacumin Court pointed out, that the text of article I, section 7 differs from the text of the Fourth Amendment by precluding issuance of a warrant “without evidence of the fact committed.” Tenn. Const. art. I, § 7. However, the Jacumin Court failed to recognize that the Fourth Amendment has also been interpreted as precluding issuance of a warrant unless facts, rather than conclusions, are presented to a magistrate to establish probable cause. See, e.g., Lo-Ji Sales, Inc. v. New York, 442 U.S. 319, 325 (1979) (finding search warrant affidavit containing only conclusory statements of the police investigator without supporting facts insufficient to establish probable cause under the Fourth Amendment). Indeed, the Gates Court expressly reaffirmed this principle, stating, “[s]ufficient information must be presented to the magistrate to allow that official to determine probable cause; his action cannot be a mere ratification of the bare conclusions of others.” Gates, 462 U.S. at 239. Therefore, over time the Fourth Amendment has been interpreted by federal courts in a manner that is entirely consistent with the text of article I, section 7. Ironically, despite concluding that the text of article I, section 7 required adoption of a test distinct from that applied under the Fourth Amendment, the test the Jacumin Court adopted as the appropriate standard for the Tennessee Constitution derived from decisions of the United States Supreme Court interpreting the Fourth Amendment. The Jacumin Court actually acknowledged that the test it adopted did not derive from any settled development of Tennessee constitutional law founded in the text of article I, section 7. Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 435 (“[I]t is perhaps significant that amicus does not point to a settled development of state constitutional law in the area of probable cause to support a search warrant analogous to the „open fields‟ doctrine.”). The Jacumin Court also acknowledged that article I, section 7 had long been interpreted as “identical in intent and purpose” to the Fourth Amendment, with federal cases interpreting the Fourth Amendment regarded as particularly persuasive. Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d at 435 (citing Sneed v. State, 423 S.W.2d 857, 860 (Tenn. 1968)). We have recently reiterated these principles. See, e.g., State v. Willis, 496 S.W.3d 653, 719 (Tenn. 2016); State v. Davis, 484 S.W.3d 138, 143 (Tenn. 2016). We are not convinced that the textual difference between article I, section 7 and the Fourth Amendment ever supported departing from these general principles. For all these reasons, we overrule Jacumin, insofar as it retained the Aguilar/Spinelli test, and adopt the Gates totality-of-the-circumstances analysis, which is, in our judgment and that of the vast majority of courts in other states, a sufficiently definite standard for assessing probable cause and much better suited to evaluating the practicalities that underlie the probable cause inquiry. We reiterate that, under the - 25 - totality-of-the-circumstances analysis, the informant‟s basis of knowledge and veracity or credibility remain highly relevant considerations. Rather than separate and independent considerations, they “should [now] be understood simply as closely intertwined issues that may usefully illuminate the commonsense, practical question whether there is „probable cause‟ to believe that contraband or evidence is located in a particular place.” Gates, 462 U.S. at 230. Thus, we will apply the Gates test to determine whether the affidavit sufficiently established probable cause for issuance of the warrant. 7. False Information in the Affidavit Before applying the totality-of-the circumstances analysis in this case, we must first review the Court of Criminal Appealsʼ ruling that Trooper Boyd recklessly included false statements in paragraphs eighteen and thirty-seven of the affidavit. This ruling, if upheld, would require us to exclude the information in those paragraphs when assessing whether the affidavit sufficiently established probable cause. “[T]here are two circumstances that authorize the impeachment of an affidavit sufficient on its face[:] (1) a false statement made with intent to deceive the Court, whether material or immaterial to the issue of probable cause[;] and (2) a false statement, essential to the establishment of probable cause, recklessly made.” State v. Little, 560 S.W.2d 403, 407 (Tenn. 1978). “Allegations of negligence or innocent mistakes are insufficient to invalidate the search warrant.” State v. Yeomans, 10 S.W.3d 293, 297 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1999) (citing Franks v. Delaware, 438 U.S. 154, 171 (1978)). The defendant bears the burden of proving the allegation of falsity by a preponderance of the evidence. Id. (citing Franks, 438 U.S. at 156). As already noted, the defendant here alleged that false statements were included in paragraphs eighteen and thirty-seven of the affidavit. The trial court agreed with the defendant as to paragraph eighteen, concluding that the following statement in that paragraph falsely indicated that Trooper Boyd had observed the offloading of marijuana at the defendant‟s residence: “As further described below [Son] used this residence on March 16, 2012 and April 2, 2012 to off load shipments of marijuana in excess of 100 pounds.” But the trial court concluded that Trooper Boyd‟s description of the GPS ping of Mr. Medina‟s cell phone as the same “location” where Son‟s truck had been observed three weeks earlier was not false. Furthermore, the trial court concluded that, while paragraph eighteen included a false statement, the statement had not been recklessly made and was not material to probable cause. The Court of Criminal Appeals disagreed, concluding that both statements were false, were recklessly made, and were material to establishing probable cause. We are of the opinion that neither statement was false. Nowhere in paragraph eighteen did Trooper Boyd state or imply that he, or anyone else, had observed the offloading of marijuana at the defendant‟s residence. Rather, he merely expressed his belief, “[a]s further described below” that Son “had used the - 26 - residence on March 16, 2012 and April 2, 2012 to off load shipments of marijuana in excess of 100 pounds.” Furthermore, in the portions of the affidavit that followed this statement of his belief, Trooper Boyd did not state, suggest, or imply that he or anyone else had actually observed drugs being offloaded on the property or at the defendant‟s residence. The magistrate was free to review the description Trooper Boyd provided and either agree or disagree with Trooper Boyd‟s belief regarding Son‟s use of the “residence” to offload drugs. During his testimony at the suppression hearing Trooper Boyd agreed that he should have used “property” rather than “residence” in paragraph eighteen, because he did not actually believe the drugs had been offloaded at the defendant‟s “residence.” We, too, believe “property” would have been a better word choice, given that the property in question comprised nearly six acres. However, “affidavits for search warrants . . . must be tested and interpreted by magistrates and courts in a commonsense and realistic fashion. They are normally drafted by nonlawyers in the midst and haste of a criminal investigation. Technical requirements of elaborate specificity . . . have no proper place in this arena.” Ventresca, 380 U.S. at 108; see also Norris, 47 S.W.3d at 468 (explaining that an affiant‟s words should be given their ordinary meaning and interpretation). Hypertechnical judicial review of affidavits “„tends to demean our system of justice and to weaken society‟s confidence in it.‟” Bishop, 431 S.W.3d at 38 (quoting State v. Moon, 841 S.W.2d 336, 342 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1992)). Tested against this standard, we have no hesitation in concluding that the language in paragraph eighteen, although admittedly imprecise and perhaps resulting from negligence, does not constitute a false statement. The same is true of the language in paragraph thirty-seven. As the trial court recognized, GPS has a range of accuracy. All of the testimony at the suppression hearing indicated that Google identified the location of the GPS coordinates listed in paragraph thirty-seven as 4571 Dugger Road. In reversing the trial court, the intermediate appellate court appears to have interpreted “location” in paragraph thirty-seven as denoting a particular spot on the driveway outside the defendant‟s residence where Son‟s truck had been observed three weeks earlier. This interpretation is simply overly technical and unrealistic. Trooper Boyd did not say that the GPS coordinates placed Mr. Medina‟s cell phone on the driveway where Son‟s vehicle was parked. He said only that the GPS ping placed it at the same “location” where the Son‟s vehicle had been seen three weeks earlier. The proof at the suppression hearing established that the GPS coordinates included in paragraph thirty-seven accurately reflected where the drug transaction occurred on the 4571 Dugger Road property. Accordingly, while the record establishes that Trooper Boyd could have chosen more precise language, it fails to establish that he recklessly included false information in the affidavit. At most, he made two innocent mistakes in wording the affidavit—mistakes that are typical when nonlawyers draft affidavits “in the midst and haste of a criminal investigation.” Ventresca, 380 U.S. at 108. Having so concluded, we turn next to consider whether the affidavit sufficiently established probable cause. - 27 - 8. Sufficiency of Trooper Boyd’s Affidavit under the Gates Standard Applying the previously discussed standards, we conclude that Trooper Boyd‟s affidavit provided the magistrate with a substantial basis for concluding from the totality of the circumstances that a search warrant for the almost six-acre 4571 Dugger Road property would uncover evidence of wrongdoing. The affidavit explained how the investigation began, recited the information Mr. Davis had provided, including: that an out-of-state DTO, represented by Mr. Medina, was delivering large quantities of marijuana to Son in Tennessee multiple times each month; that Son drove a white Nissan Truck and went by the nickname Red; and that Son‟s whole family was involved in trafficking drugs. The affidavit also described the ways in which law enforcement officials had corroborated Mr. Davis‟s information, including confirming his involvement with the same DTO. The affidavit explained that Son had pleaded guilty in 2002 to criminal offenses arising from his involvement in drug trafficking activities and that Son had concealed cash derived from his earlier drug trafficking activities at the defendant‟s residence located on the 4571 Dugger Road property. The affidavit detailed how wiretaps and surveillance had confirmed that the DTO with which Mr. Medina was affiliated had been transporting large shipments of marijuana from other states into Tennessee and that the DTO had previously dealt with Mr. Davis. The affidavit also relayed how wiretaps and surveillance had confirmed that Son was working with Mr. Medina‟s DTO and that Son was known as Red. The affidavit described how law enforcement officials had observed Son meeting with agents of the DTO twice at markets just off Interstate 65 and near the 4571 Dugger Road property and had observed the DTO agent follow Son onto a rural road leading to the 4571 Dugger Road Property. The affidavit explained that officers were unable to follow Son and the DTO agent onto the rural road, but on the first occasion, later observed Son‟s vehicle parked in the driveway of the defendant‟s residence on the 4571 Dugger Road property, and on the second occasion, a GPS ping of Mr. Medina‟s cellphone indicated that the phone was located on the 4571 Dugger Road property. Additionally, the affidavit listed a great deal of information that Trooper Boyd had learned from his own experience and training about how drug traffickers function, including the typical locations that are used to conceal drugs and proceeds from drug trafficking. When the totality of the circumstances detailed in the affidavit are viewed in a commonsense and practical manner, we have no hesitation in concluding that the affidavit provided the magistrate with a substantial basis for determining that a search of the 4571 Dugger Road property would uncover evidence of wrongdoing. In reaching this conclusion, we necessarily reject the defendant‟s argument that the affidavit failed to provide a sufficient nexus between the drugs and the 4571 Dugger Road property and his assertion that the facts purporting to do so were stale. In our judgment, a sufficient nexus between the drugs and the property was established because the officers twice observed Son and an agent of the DTO meeting near the 4571 Dugger Road property and driving onto a rural road leading to the property. Although officers were unable to follow them - 28 - onto the rural road for fear of discovery, on one occasion officers observed Son‟s truck parked in the driveway of the defendant‟s residence, and on the second occasion, officers obtained a GPS ping placing Mr. Medina‟s cell phone on the property. Although it is true that officers waited until April 23, 2012, three weeks after Son met Mr. Medina on April 2, 2012, to seek a search warrant, the affidavit included subsequently obtained information establishing that Son‟s drug trafficking activities with Mr. Medina were ongoing. For example, the affidavit quotes portions of an April 11, 2012 conversation between Son and Mr. Medina in which Son is complaining that he had received only 157 pounds of marijuana when he had paid for 170 pounds, and Mr. Medina assuring Son that he would receive credit for the shortage, which Trooper Boyd interpreted, based on his experience, as meaning that Son would receive credit in future shipments. This conversation occurred only twelve days before the officers sought the warrant. As already noted, “[w]hen the illegal activity described is ongoing, courts have generally held that [an] affidavit does not become stale with the passage of time.” Thomas, 818 S.W.2d at 357. This rule applies here, where the affidavit included facts indicating that the illegal drug trafficking was ongoing. Accordingly, we hold that the affidavit sufficiently established probable cause, reverse the decision of the Court of Criminal Appeals holding otherwise, and reinstate the judgment of the trial court denying the defendant‟s motion to suppress.