Opinion ID: 590900
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 4

Heading: Seventh Amendment Implications

Text: 28 Carefully considering constitutional implications and pertinent policy arguments also fail to change our view that there has been a waiver here. Federal appellate courts generally will not reach non-jurisdictional issues not raised below and may decide, within their sound discretion, which prudential matters may be reviewed for the first time on appeal. Singleton v. Wulff, 428 U.S. 106, 120, 96 S.Ct. 2868, 2876, 49 L.Ed.2d 826 (1976). See also Yee v. City of Escondido, --- U.S. ----, ----, 112 S.Ct. 1522, 1531, 118 L.Ed.2d 153 (1992); Hormel v. Helvering, 312 U.S. 552, 556, 61 S.Ct. 719, 721, 85 L.Ed. 1037 (1941). That Seventh Amendment considerations may be raised by the entry of inconsistent verdicts does not require us to entertain the objection on appeal. 29 In suits at common law, the Seventh Amendment declares that no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. When a judgment is entered pursuant to inconsistent findings of fact--such as special verdicts or answers to interrogatories--the trial court necessarily is sanctioning one factual finding at the expense of its inconsistent counterpart. Thus, Seventh Amendment implications of re-examination by the court of a jury finding of fact are raised. But when a court enters judgment pursuant to inconsistent verdicts--without contradictory factual findings by the jury--the same unconstitutional re-examination of the jury's factual determinations is not present. 30 Moreover, objections raising constitutional protections may be waived or forfeited see, e.g., LaFave & Isreal, Criminal Procedure §§ 11.3(c) n. 7, 26.5(c) n. 13, in the same manner as lesser objections, for instance, those of a procedural nature. See, e.g., Yee, --- U.S. at ----, 112 S.Ct. at 1531 (substantive due process questions waived for failure to raise below); United States v. Benitez, 920 F.2d 1080, 1087-88 (2d Cir.1990) (evidentiary challenges claimed to raise Sixth Amendment Confrontation Clause implications waived); United States v. Colon, 905 F.2d 580, 588 (2d Cir.1990) (6th Amendment right to counsel claim waived); United States v. Torres, 901 F.2d 205, 228 (2d Cir.) (objection to jury instruction under the Ex Post Facto Clause may be waived), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 111 S.Ct. 273, 112 L.Ed.2d 229 (1990). Thus, to whatever extent inconsistent verdicts raise such implications, the Seventh Amendment right to a jury trial clearly may also be waived. See Fed.R.Civ.P. 38(d); Hodges v. Easton, 106 U.S. 408, 412, 1 S.Ct. 307, 310, 27 L.Ed. 169 (1882). 31 Further, as an adjunct to the fair administration of justice, courts sometimes entertain a challenge where a litigant had an insufficient opportunity to raise an objection before the trial court. Given the abundant opportunities defendant had, even after the jury was discharged, it may not avail itself of this policy exception from the waiver rule. Nor do we think this case presents so plain an error that it should be entertained in order to prevent a miscarriage of justice. Pacific's own failure to question the reconcilability of the verdicts, as well as the trial court's failure to do so, indicate the subtle, rather than plain, nature of the alleged error. As earlier noted, consistency between verdicts is not always required. See, e.g., Dunn v. U.S., 284 U.S. 390, 393, 52 S.Ct. 189, 190, 76 L.Ed. 356; Globus, 418 F.2d at 1290 n. 17; Malm v. United States Lines Co., 269 F.Supp. 731, 731-32, & nn. 1 & 2 (S.D.N.Y.1967) (provided challenged verdict is supported by facts and law, jury entitled to idiosyncratic, though inconsistent, verdicts). 32 In addition, Vermont courts permit plaintiffs to bring alternative claims of strict liability and negligence, and have not ruled that strict liability necessarily subsumes negligence. In fact, other courts are divided on the issue of whether a finding of negligence and a finding of no strict liability are inconsistent. Compare, e.g., Randall v. Warnaco, Inc., Hirsh-Weis Div., 677 F.2d 1226, 1231-32 & n. 5 (8th Cir.1982) (findings of no strict liability but negligence not necessarily inconsistent) with Witt v. Norfe, Inc., 725 F.2d 1277, 1280 (11th Cir.1984) (same findings inconsistent); Werner v. Upjohn Co., Inc., 628 F.2d 848, 860 (4th Cir.1980) (same), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 1080, 101 S.Ct. 862, 66 L.Ed.2d 804 (1981). We think the interests of finality and efficient use of scarce judicial resources, as well as the strong risk of strategic abuse by litigants, see, e.g., Strauss v. Stratojac Corp., 810 F.2d 679, 683 (7th Cir.1987); McIsaac v. Didriksen Fishing Corp., 809 F.2d 129, 133 (1st Cir.1987), militate against our reaching defendant's objection regarding the alleged inconsistent verdicts that it raises for the first time on appeal. III 33 Defendant's second contention is that insufficient evidence was presented at trial to support the jury finding of negligence. To begin, defendant contends plaintiff failed to present enough evidence to support a finding that it breached a post-sale duty to warn. It also asserts the conduct of Lavoie's co-workers constituted an efficient intervening cause of her injuries which relieved it of any liability. Neither argument is persuasive. 34 Pacific attempts to limit review of the evidence supporting a negligence claim by suggesting we consider only that theory of negligence that might co-exist with a finding of no strict liability. Having already determined that Pacific waived its objection based on an inconsistency, if any, in the verdicts, our review is not limited to the sufficiency of the evidence of that theory of negligence which is reconcilable with a finding that the manufacturer is not strictly liable. Instead, we review the evidence under the general and much broader theory of negligence: whether Pacific, as manufacturer of the press brake, failed to employ that degree of care, both during and after the sale, that a reasonably prudent manufacturer would have taken under similar circumstances. 35 Defendant's burden in this regard is a substantial one. In Vermont, only verdicts that are not justified by 'any reasonable view of the evidence'  will be overturned. See Claude G. Dern Electric, Inc. v. Bernstein, 144 Vt. 423, 479 A.2d 136, 138 (1984) (quoting Crawford v. State Highway Board, 130 Vt. 18, 285 A.2d 760, 764 (1971)). A jury finding of negligence will be preserved unless reasonable persons reviewing the record, construed in favor of the prevailing party, Bernstein, 479 A.2d at 138, could not draw different conclusions and would reach a different result. Tufts v. Wyand, 148 Vt. 528, 536 A.2d 541, 541-42 (1987). Federal law applies a similar standard. See Mattivi v. South African Marine Corp., Huguenot, 618 F.2d 163, 169 (2d Cir.1980). The record reveals an ample basis for the finding of negligence by Pacific, and we therefore need not select between federal and state standards. See Simblest v. Maynard, 427 F.2d 1, 4-5 (2d Cir.1970); 5A Moore's Federal Practice p 50.06 (2d ed. 1992). 36 Defendant contends further that a finding of negligence against it may not stand because it was not a proximate cause of plaintiff's injuries. Pacific points to testimony that Lavoie would not have been injured if her co-workers had not turned off the non-integrated light curtain which GE had installed to protect operators of the machine. The alleged negligence of plaintiff's co-workers constituted, defendant continues, an efficient intervening cause of the injuries, making any negligence by defendant merely a contribution to but not a cause of the accident. We disagree. 37 Like the predicate question of negligence, the issue of proximate cause is one for the jury, Tufts, 536 A.2d at 541, and nonprevailing parties who seek to challenge such findings face similar substantial burdens. Id.; see also Roberts v. State of Vermont, 147 Vt. 160, 514 A.2d 694, 695-96 (1986). The law in Vermont makes clear that more than one act of negligence, each contributing to produce a harm, may be a concurring proximate cause. Tufts, 536 A.2d at 542. Proximate cause requires a causal connection between the act for which defendant is responsible and the resulting flow of injurious consequences. Rivers v. State of Vermont, 133 Vt. 11, 328 A.2d 398, 400 (1974). If negligent conduct by a third person was a foreseeable consequence that, in the eye of the law, the person charged was bound to anticipate, the causal connection is not broken. Beatty v. Dunn, 103 Vt. 340, 154 A. 770, 772 (1931); see also Paton v. Sawyer, 134 Vt. 598, 370 A.2d 215, 217 (1976). Defendant must anticipate the creation of danger to others through the negligent acts of third persons acting on its own negligence. The duty is to foresee, and the defendant will not be excused because of a failure to anticipate what he was bound to comprehend as a possible consequence. Paton, 370 A.2d at 217. [I]f the initial negligence creates a situation making it likely that some other force or action will occur and bring about harm, responsibility remains with the original actor. Dodge v. McArthur, 126 Vt. 81, 223 A.2d 453, 455 (1966). Our review of the jury instruction reveals that the trial court properly instructed the jury on Vermont's law of intervening proximate cause. 38 Once again defendant fails to sustain its heavy burden for overturning findings of the jury, this time that defendant's negligence was a proximate cause of plaintiff's injuries. Sufficient evidence is present in the record that supports the finding that Pacific should have anticipated, first, that GE would install a light curtain that was not integrated with the power supply to the press brake and, second, that a GE employee might turn on the press brake without using the light curtain. Reasonable persons could conclude that GE, a company not in the business of equipping press brakes with safety devices, might have become aware of the danger posed by the brake press but nevertheless failed adequately to retrofit the machine due to its own inexperience. Such a failure on GE's part would not work to absolve defendant of liability if Pacific should have anticipated that GE's efforts would not be adequate. Similarly, the jury could reasonably conclude it was foreseeable that operators of the press brake might improperly use the machine without the aid of the light curtain if it were not integrated with the machine. This apparent likelihood is best explained by the industry practice of integrating light curtains with the power supplies of the press brakes so operation of one without the other is impossible. 39 In determining whether defendant's original negligence was a proximate cause of plaintiff's injuries, the jury was not limited to considering the circumstances of the light curtain. It could reasonably have concluded the failure to include an employee handle bar, an emergency stop switch, and an adequately guarded foot pedal positioned at a safe distance from the machine were also concurring proximate causes of the accident. Testimony at trial indicated the presence of any of these devices might have prevented the accident. 40 Thus, the failure by GE to retrofit the press brake with safety devices and the failure of plaintiff's co-workers to turn on the light curtain are not efficient intervening proximate causes of plaintiff's injuries. Pacific's original negligence was not merely a contribution to the accident, but was the proximate cause of Lavoie's injuries. Responsibility remains with it as the original actor. On that basis, the verdict of the jury must be affirmed.