Opinion ID: 763759
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 8

Heading: Evidence of Rios' and Cruz's Participation in the Drug Conspiracy

Text: 120 Rios and Cruz contend that the district court erroneously denied their Fed.R.Crim.P. 29 motions for judgments of acquittal because the evidence was legally insufficient to support their convictions on the drug conspiracy count. Rios and Cruz therefore argue that their RICO and RICO conspiracy counts must be reversed because such counts were based in part on the predicate racketeering act of participating in the drug conspiracy. These contentions are without merit. 121 We have recognized that since [a] conspiracy by its very nature is a secretive operation, United States v. Provenzano, 615 F.2d 37, 45 (2d Cir.1980), the existence of, and a particular defendant's participation in, a conspiracy may be established through circumstantial evidence. See Gordon, 987 F.2d at 907; United States v. Rivera, 971 F.2d 876, 890 (2d Cir.1992); United States v. Pitre, 960 F.2d 1112, 1121 (2d Cir.1992). However, [i]n order to a prove conspiracy, the government must present some evidence from which it can reasonably be inferred that the person charged with conspiracy knew of the existence of the scheme alleged in the indictment and knowingly joined and participated in it. United States v. Giraldo, 80 F.3d 667, 673 (2d Cir.1996) (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting United States v. Sanchez Solis, 882 F.2d 693, 696 (2d Cir.1989) (quoting, in turn, United States v. Gaviria, 740 F.2d 174, 183 (2d Cir.1984))); see Podlog, 35 F.3d at 705. Moreover, a particular defendant's membership in a conspiracy requires proof of purposeful behavior aimed at furthering the goals of the conspiracy. Desimone, 119 F.3d at 223 (citing United States v. Torres, 901 F.2d 205, 220 (2d Cir.1990)). Finally, we have noted that  '[o]nce a conspiracy is shown to exist, the evidence sufficient to link another defendant to it need not be overwhelming.'  United States v. Amato, 15 F.3d 230, 235 (2d Cir.1994) (quoting Rivera, 971 F.2d at 891 (quoting, in turn, United States v. Tutino, 883 F.2d 1125, 1129 (2d Cir.1989))). 122 In this case, there was more than sufficient evidence for a reasonable jury to infer that Rios and Cruz were members of the Latin Kings' drug conspiracy and that they knowingly participated in it. As to Rios, testimony of co-conspirators and prison tape recorded conversations established that he knew the existence of, and participated in, the drug conspiracy in at least two ways. First, the evidence showed that Rios orchestrated the murder of Sydney Diaz (S.Diaz), a one-legged drug dealer in Bridgeport, in order to eliminate him as a threat to the Latin Kings who suspected him of being an informant to the police about the gang's drug operations. Second, after S. Diaz's murder, Rios assumed control and ran the operations at S. Diaz's former drug block with other Latin Kings. As to Cruz, there was also ample evidence presented at trial that he conspired to distribute drugs. The evidence demonstrated, as noted above, that Cruz was a Latin King member, that he had sold drugs on a block run by other Latin Kings and that he conspired to murder and murdered A. Diaz, a suspected informant, in order to eliminate a threat to the gang's narcotics operations. Accordingly, we conclude that the district court properly denied their Rule 29 motions because the evidence demonstrated that Rios and Cruz were part of the charged drug conspiracy.
123 We have carefully considered Vidro's and Zapata's arguments regarding the sufficiency of the evidence to sustain their convictions, as discussed below, for conspiracy to murder and murder of several persons, and we find them to be entirely without merit.
124 Defendants-appellants Rios, Vidro and Zapata contend that the district court's jury instructions were erroneous for several reasons. Their contentions lack merit. 125 A. Denial of Withdrawal from the Conspiracy Instruction 126 In 1992, after Rios murdered S. Diaz and took over S. Diaz's drug block, he was incarcerated. Rios contends that his incarceration, and his testimony that he was not involved in the nefarious activities of the Latin Kings upon his release from jail in 1994, constituted withdrawal from the charged conspiracy. Rios therefore asserts that the district court erred by refusing to give the jury an instruction on withdrawal from the conspiracy. We disagree. 127 A criminal defendant 'is entitled to have instructions presented relating to any theory of defense for which there is any foundation in the evidence, no matter how weak or incredible that evidence may be.'  Salameh, 152 F.3d at 150 (quoting United States v. LaMorte, 950 F.2d 80, 84 (2d Cir.1991)). To support a withdrawal defense, a defendant would have to prove some act that affirmatively establish[es] that he disavowed his criminal association with the conspiracy and that he communicated his withdrawal to the co-conspirators. United States v. Minicone, 960 F.2d 1099, 1108 (2d Cir.1992) (citations omitted). Unless a conspirator produces affirmative evidence of withdrawal, his participation in a conspiracy is presumed to continue until the last overt act by any of the conspirators. United States v. Greenfield, 44 F.3d 1141, 1150 (2d Cir.1995) (internal quotation marks and alteration omitted) (quoting United States v. Panebianco, 543 F.2d 447, 453 (2d Cir.1976)). 128 We have recognized that [a] conspirator who presents evidence of his imprisonment during the course of the conspiracy is entitled to a jury instruction on withdrawal. Salameh, 152 F.3d at 150 (citing Panebianco, 543 F.2d at 453). The issue of whether a conspirator's incarceration establishes withdrawal from the conspiracy must be decided by the jury in light of the length and location of the internment, the nature of the conspiracy, and any other available evidence. Panebianco, 543 F.2d at 454 n. 5. Here, since Rios was imprisoned in 1992 during the course of the charged conspiracy (which covered the period from November 1991 to the filing of the indictment in 1994), he was entitled to a jury instruction on withdrawal. Nevertheless, we find that the district court's refusal to instruct the jury on such a defense was harmless error and did not result in any prejudice to Rios. 129 Rios claims his imprisonment in 1992 constitutes evidence of his withdrawal from the conspiracy. His incarceration, however, took place after he committed the S. Diaz murder and engaged in drug trafficking for the Latin Kings, which were crimes that formed the basis of his racketeering and narcotics convictions in this case. Second, Rios has failed to carry his burden of proving withdrawal because [n]either authority nor reason would suggest that imprisonment necessarily shows a withdrawal. United States v. Borelli, 336 F.2d 376, 389 (2d Cir.1964); see United States v. Agueci, 310 F.2d 817, 839 (2d Cir.1962) ([W]hile ... incarceration may constitute a withdrawal from a conspiracy, it does not follow that in every instance it must.). Other than his incarceration, Rios did not present any affirmative evidence at trial or on appeal to demonstrate that he withdrew from the conspiracy after his incarceration. In fact, the government presented ample evidence that Rios' conduct, from his incarceration in 1992 to his release in 1994 and thereafter, showed that he continued to be involved in the conspiracy. The evidence demonstrated that Rios retained a leadership position within the Latin Kings while in jail. Moreover, upon his release, the evidence established that Rios attended Latin King meetings and had telephone conversations with Millet and other Latin King members about the gang's drug business. 130 Finally, even if the jury believed that Rios had withdrawn from the conspiracy in 1992, he suffered no prejudice from the lack of a withdrawal instruction to the jury. We have recognized that where there is substantial evidence of a defendant's participation in the conspiracy prior to incarceration, the significance of his withdrawal relates only to the improper use against him of subsequent acts and declarations of coconspirators. Agueci, 310 F.2d at 839. In this case, the government did not seek to hold Rios liable for the criminal acts of his co-conspirators committed after his incarceration, such as the double homicide of A. Diaz and White. Moreover, the district court carefully instructed the jury that they could not use a May 1994 conversation between Millet and a Latin King member against Rios. In addition, the court charged the jury on the issue of withdrawal, as well as the admissibility of the acts and declarations of his co-conspirators, thus sufficiently protecting Rios from improper use of such evidence against him. 131 B. Vidro's and Zapata's Pinkerton Liability for Several Murders 132 Vidro and Zapata were charged with (1) conspiring to murder Ricky Reyes and murdering Jesse Council; (2) conspiring to murder and murdering David Valedon; and (3) murdering Sammy Calo, Jr. and Edwin Villafane. Vidro and Zapata argue (1) that the district court erroneously instructed the jury that they could find Vidro and Zapata guilty under the Pinkerton theory of conspiratorial liability; and (2) the court erred by failing to look to state law to determine the propriety and language of the Pinkerton instruction. We disagree.
Liability Instruction 133 We have held that under the Pinkerton co-conspirator doctrine, as noted in our discussion of Morales' sufficiency claim above, a jury may find a conspirator can be held responsible for the substantive crimes committed by his co-conspirators to the extent those offenses were reasonably foreseeable consequences of acts furthering the unlawful agreement, even if [the conspirator] did not himself participate in the substantive crimes. Salameh, 152 F.3d at 151. Whether a particular crime is foreseeable and in furtherance of the conspiracy is a factual matter for the jury. United States v. Romero, 897 F.2d 47, 51 (2d Cir.1990). 134 With respect to the Council murder, the evidence, when taken in the light most favorable to the government, showed the following facts. On June 6, 1992, Reyes shot a Latin King associate. After learning of the shooting, Vidro, as President of the Latin Kings' New Haven chapter, held a meeting and issued a standing order to kill Reyes. On June 25, 1992, after Reyes shot another Latin King member, Vidro held an emergency meeting and ordered that Latin King members James Flynn, Edwin Ortiz and Raul Torres drive to Reyes' drug spot on Asylum Street in New Haven and kill Reyes that night. Zapata and Burgos provided multiple guns for the mission. As a result, Torres drove Flynn and Ortiz over to Asylum Street where they began shooting up the street. Afterwards, Flynn and Ortiz ran back to where Torres was waiting in the car and drove off. Flynn killed Council, an innocent bystander, with Zapata's gun during his attempt to kill Reyes. Shortly thereafter, Vidro then directed one of the three Latin King soldiers to put the murder weapons in her backyard. On July 2, 1992, New Haven police executed a search warrant of Vidro's residence and recovered the firearms that were used in the Council murder. 135 Thus, the evidence clearly established that Vidro and Zapata entered into a conspiracy to murder Reyes. Moreover, the factors involved in the Council murder (the decision to murder Reyes on a public street, the use of multiple firearms, the perpetration of the order through a drive-by shooting, and the haste in carrying out the murder), make it clear that the killing of someone other than Reyes was reasonably foreseeable. Therefore, we conclude that there was sufficient evidence for the jury to find beyond a reasonable doubt that Vidro and Zapata were responsible for Council's murder under the Pinkerton theory of conspiratorial liability. See, e.g., United States v. Alvarez, 755 F.2d 830, 849-50 (11th Cir.1985) (expanding Pinkerton liability to include reasonably foreseeable but originally unintended substantive crimes). 136 With respect to the triple homicide of Valedon, Calo and Villafane, the evidence, when taken in the light most favorable to the government, demonstrated the following facts. Vidro ordered the murder of Latin King Valedon because he disrespected her and threatened to join a rival gang. Vidro chose Zapata and Latin King Eddie Hernandez to assist her. Hernandez was the armed lieutenant for Vidro's and Zapata's drug operations. On October 13 and 14, 1992, Zapata and Hernandez lured Valedon and his Latin King friends Calo and Villafane to East Rock Park in New Haven where they shot and killed each of them, execution style. We conclude that this evidence was sufficient for a jury to have found beyond a reasonable doubt that Vidro and Zapata conspired to murder Valedon and that his murder was a reasonably foreseeable consequence of the conspiracy. Further, we conclude that under the facts of the case, it was reasonably foreseeable that others besides Valedon might be killed, such as his friends, Calo and Villafane. 137 We conclude that the district court properly instructed the jury that it could find Vidro and Zapata liable for the four homicides under the Pinkerton co-conspirator doctrine.
Instruction Under State Law 138 Vidro and Zapata claim that the district court was obliged to look to Connecticut law to determine the propriety and language of a Pinkerton instruction. This argument is meritless. As noted above, the racketeering statutes are not meant to incorporate state procedural and evidentiary law; rather, references to state law in these statutes merely serve a definitional purpose, that is, to identify generally the kind of conduct made illegal by the federal statute. See Coonan, 938 F.2d at 1564; Paone, 782 F.2d at 393. Therefore, the court was not required to consider state law in its Pinkerton instruction. C. Lesser Included Offense Instruction 139 Zapata requested at the charging conference that the district court instruct the jury on manslaughter as a lesser included offense for all the alleged murders in the case. As part of that instruction, Zapata asked the court to instruct the jury that if they found a defendant guilty of manslaughter, they must find him not guilty of the corresponding VICAR offense because manslaughter is not included among the crimes enumerated in the VICAR statute, 18 U.S.C. § 1959. Zapata therefore claims that the court's refusal to give the requested lesser included offense instruction on manslaughter for the Council murder is reversible error because the jury could have found that the Latin King shooters who killed Council acted recklessly instead of intentionally. This claim is without merit. 140 Fed.R.Crim.P. 31(c) permits a jury to return a verdict of guilty as to an offense necessarily included in the offense charged. In Schmuck v. United States, 489 U.S. 705, 109 S.Ct. 1443, 103 L.Ed.2d 734 (1989), the Supreme Court explained that a court should apply an elements test to determine whether a lesser-included-offense instruction is proper under Rule 31(c). See id. at 716, 109 S.Ct. 1443. Under this test, a defendant is entitled to a lesser-included offense instruction under federal law only if (1) the elements of the lesser offense are a subset of the elements of the charged offense, see id.; United States v. Hourihan, 66 F.3d 458, 464-65 (2d Cir.1995); and (2) the evidence at trial permits a rational jury to find the defendant guilty of the lesser offense and acquit him of the greater, see Keeble v. United States, 412 U.S. 205, 208, 93 S.Ct. 1993, 36 L.Ed.2d 844 (1973). 141 In determining, under the first prong of the test, whether an offense constitutes a lesser-included offense of the charged offense, we compare the statutory elements of the offenses in question, and not ... [the] conduct proved at trial. Schmuck, 489 U.S. at 716-17, 109 S.Ct. 1443. Therefore, regardless of the evidence adduced at trial, [w]here the lesser offense requires an element not required for the greater offense, no instruction is to be given under Rule 31(c). Id. at 716, 109 S.Ct. 1443. 142 In this case, all of the homicides were charged as either racketeering acts of murder under the RICO statute, see 18 U.S.C. § 1962(c), or murders in aid of racketeering under the VICAR statute, see 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a). Murder under either statute, however, is not simply a federalized version of the state crime. Rather, it is a distinct substantive offense that requires proof of its own particular elements. As such, under the elements test, manslaughter is not a lesser included offense of RICO and VICAR murder under federal law. Therefore, the district court properly declined to provide a lesser-included offense instruction for manslaughter. D. Reasonable Doubt Instruction 143 E. Rodriguez requested that the district court give the jury an instruction defining reasonable doubt to include the phrase: a reasonable doubt may arise not only from evidence produced, but also from a lack of evidence. Instead, the district court charged the jury in accordance with the pattern instruction contained in § 12.10 of 1 Devitt & Blackmar, Federal Jury Practice and Instructions (4th ed.1992), that did not contain the lack of evidence provision. Relying on jury charges given in New York and Connecticut state courts that include such a provision, E. Rodriguez argues that the court's refusal to charge the jury on his proposed instruction defining reasonable doubt deprived him of a fair trial and due process of law and, therefore, constituted reversible error. We disagree. 144 It is irrelevant that defendants in state courts in this jurisdiction, such as Connecticut and New York, are given a reasonable doubt charge that includes the term lack of evidence or lack or insufficiency of the evidence, while defendants in federal courts are charged differently. We have recognized that [a]lthough application of the reasonable-doubt standard in criminal cases is required as a matter of due process, 'the Constitution neither prohibits trial courts from defining reasonable doubt nor requires them to do so as a matter of course.'  Desimone, 119 F.3d at 226 (quoting Victor v. Nebraska, 511 U.S. 1, 5, 114 S.Ct. 1239, 127 L.Ed.2d 583 (1994)). Indeed, because of the difficulty inherent in trying to articulate an acceptable definition of reasonable doubt for the jury, several circuits, including this one, generally discourage district courts from trying to define the term. See id. Therefore, a district court's failure to define reasonable doubt cannot, by itself, constitute reversible error. See id. at 227. 145 Even if a failure to include the lack of evidence term could be construed as error, we examine the jury instructions as a whole, see Vargas v. Keane, 86 F.3d 1273, 1277 (2d Cir.1996) (citing Cupp v. Naughten, 414 U.S. 141, 146-47, 94 S.Ct. 396, 38 L.Ed.2d 368 (1973)), to assess 'whether there is a reasonable likelihood that the jury understood the instructions to allow conviction based on proof insufficient to meet' the standard of proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Id. (quoting Victor, 511 U.S. at 6, 114 S.Ct. 1239); see Desimone, 119 F.3d at 227; United States v. Birbal, 62 F.3d 456, 462 (2d Cir.1995). We have further noted that an asserted error in a reasonable doubt instruction may be innocuous or inconsequential when viewed in context of the charge as a whole. Vargas, 86 F.3d at 1277. 146 Here, it was not likely that the jury understood the district court's instruction on reasonable doubt to mean it could convict based on insufficient proof. We find that the court's use of the model instruction in § 12.10 of Devitt & Blackmar correctly conveyed the concept of reasonable doubt to the jury. Victor, 511 U.S. at 22, 114 S.Ct. 1239 (internal quotation marks omitted); see also United States v. Ivic, 700 F.2d 51, 69 (2d Cir.1983) (approving of same instruction, formerly § 11.14 of Devitt & Blackmar (3d ed.1977)); see also Birbal, 62 F.3d at 459-60 (noting a district court's failure to heed this Court's repeated warnings against embellishing upon the standards recommended in 1 Devitt & Blackmar (quoting United States v. Delibac, 925 F.2d 610, 614 (2d Cir.1991) (per curiam))). Moreover, when viewing the charges as a whole, the record reflects that the court referred to the concept of reasonable doubt at least eighteen times throughout the charge, that it charged the jury on four additional occasions that its verdict must be based solely upon the evidence developed at trial or the lack of evidence, and that, at one point, it instructed the jury that [y]our concern ... is to determine whether or not on the evidence or lack of evidence the defendant's guilt has been proven beyond a reasonable doubt. Accordingly, we conclude that E. Rodriguez was not prejudiced by the court's failure to define reasonable doubt with the lack of evidence term.
147 Defendants-appellants' other contentions include challenges to a variety of procedural and evidentiary rulings. None of their contentions has merit; only the following warrant discussion. A. Severance 148 Morales, Rios and Roman argue that the district court abused its discretion in denying their motions for severance, thereby depriving them of a fair trial. To support their claims of lack of due process: (1) Roman contends he suffered spillover prejudice from the admission of evidence concerning his co-defendants' acts of violence and other criminal activities; (2) all three claim prejudice from antagonistic or hostile defenses by co-defendants; and (3) Roman argues that jury confusion resulted from the length and complexity of the trial. These severance claims are without merit. 149 There is a preference, in the federal system, for defendants who are indicted together to be tried together. See Zafiro v. United States, 506 U.S. 534, 537, 113 S.Ct. 933, 122 L.Ed.2d 317 (1993); Salameh, 152 F.3d at 115. The decision to sever a joint trial of federal defendants is committed to the sound discretion of the trial judge. United States v. Casamento, 887 F.2d 1141, 1149 (2d Cir.1989). Considered virtually unreviewable, Miller, 116 F.3d at 679 (quoting United States v. Friedman, 854 F.2d 535, 563 (2d Cir.1988)), a district court's denial of a severance motion under Fed.R.Crim.P. 14 will be reversed only if a defendant can show prejudice so severe that his conviction constituted a miscarriage of justice and that the denial of his motion constituted an abuse of discretion, Rosa, 11 F.3d at 341 (citations omitted). To show an abuse of discretion, a defendant must demonstrate that the denial of the motion caused substantial prejudice, Casamento, 887 F.2d at 1150, that is, prejudice so severe as to amount to a denial of a constitutionally fair trial, see United States v. Cardascia, 951 F.2d 474, 482 (2d Cir.1991). If the denial of the motion causes some prejudice, but less than substantial prejudice, we are not apt to reverse, since, by and large, joinder promotes judicial efficiency. Casamento, 887 F.2d at 1150.
150 Roman argues that admission of evidence concerning alleged crimes by his co-defendants caused him substantial spillover prejudice which could have been avoided by a separate trial. Roman principally notes that although he was only implicated in one of nine murders charged (that of Robinson), he was tried over a three month period before the same jury which heard volumes of evidence that his co-defendants, inter alia, committed eight unrelated murders and other acts of violence, sold narcotics, and maintained and shared weapons for use in their criminal activities. He contends that since this evidence was introduced only to prove the existence of the Latin Kings organization, to which he already conceded, its spillover effect was highly prejudicial and, therefore, warrants a reversal of his conviction. We find there was no substantial spillover prejudice here to constitute a miscarriage of justice. 151 First, the evidence in dispute is relevant to the charges against all RICO defendants because it tended to prove (1) the existence and nature of the Latin Kings and their RICO enterprise; and (2) a pattern of racketeering activity on the part of each RICO defendant by providing the requisite relationship and continuity of illegal activities. See, e.g., DiNome, 954 F.2d at 843-44 (holding that there was no prejudicial spillover effect because contested evidence was relevant to RICO charges and would have been admitted against all defendants); Brady, 26 F.3d at 287 (holding that there was no prejudice from admission of evidence regarding murders as background evidence). Therefore, such evidence would have been admissible against all of these defendants even if each had been tried separately. See Miller, 116 F.3d at 679; Rosa, 11 F.3d at 341; DiNome, 954 F.2d at 844. Even though some of this evidence came in the form of statements from Roman's co-conspirators, tape recorded or otherwise, including statements that were made prior to Roman's joining of the Latin Kings, the result is the same. Such evidence was properly admitted against Roman pursuant to Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(2)(E) as statements in furtherance of the charged racketeering and drug conspiracies. See United States v. Badalamenti, 794 F.2d 821, 826-28 (2d Cir.1986). 152 Further, the district court gave limiting instructions to the jury during the trial and in its final jury charges to assess the evidence against each defendant separately from the evidence presented against other defendants. See United States v. Carson, 702 F.2d 351, 367 (2d Cir.1983) (holding that a judge's instructions to the jury to assess each defendant separately supports a finding of no spillover prejudice). The verdict against Millet, which included acquitting him of one VICAR count and one predicate act of racketeering of the RICO count, indicates that the jury heeded the court's instructions and carefully considered the evidence against each defendant separately. Because Roman has not shown that his joint trial substantially prejudiced him, we find that the district court did not abuse its discretion in denying his severance motions.
153 Morales, Rios and Roman argue that because of the antagonism or hostility between their defenses, the district court abused its discretion by not granting their motions for severance and mistrial. Specifically, Rios contends that his defense of not being responsible for the murder of S. Diaz was prejudiced by Morales who testified that Rios killed S. Diaz. Likewise, Roman and Morales assert that they were prejudiced by Rios who testified that Roman and ... Morales was [sic] trying to kill me. Morales claims that he suffered prejudice because the remark refuted his defense that he was not responsible for any homicides. Roman does not claim that Rios' remark was antagonistic to his defense. Rather, Roman claims that because he investigated the murder of S. Diaz as Chairman of the Latin Kings, there was hostility between him and Rios and that this hostility showed when Rios testified during cross-examination, prejudicing Roman at trial. We find no prejudice here warranting reversal. 154 Even if prejudice is shown, or there are antagonistic or hostile defenses, severance is not necessarily required. See United States v. Beverly, 5 F.3d 633, 637-38 (2d Cir.1993). Rather, the tailoring of the relief to be granted, if any, [is left] to the district court's sound discretion. Zafiro, 506 U.S. at 539, 113 S.Ct. 933. Severance should be granted only if there is a serious risk that a joint trial would compromise a specific trial right of one of the defendants, or prevent the jury from making a reliable judgment about guilt or innocence. Id.; see United States v. Haynes, 16 F.3d 29, 32 (2d Cir.1994). However, even when the risk of prejudice is high, measures less drastic than severance, such as limiting instructions, often will suffice to cure any risk of prejudice. Zafiro, 506 U.S. at 539, 113 S.Ct. 933. 155 In the present case, the district court sufficiently cured any prejudice to Rios by (1) giving a limiting instruction to the jury on the proper consideration of Morales' blurted statement that Rios killed S. Diaz; (2) cautioning Morales for giving similar testimony; (3) striking comparable testimony and instructing the jury to disregard it; and (4) giving the jury cautionary instructions in its final jury charge on how to treat inadmissible evidence inadvertently presented to it. Furthermore, the overwhelming evidence introduced at trial permits the conclusion that Rios would have been convicted absent Morales' testimony. Thus, we find that Morales' remark did not substantially prejudice Rios. See, e.g., United States v. Marshall, 458 F.2d 446, 452 (2d Cir.1972) (holding that prejudice from spillover was too speculative); United States v. Rivera-Gomez, 67 F.3d 993, 999-1000 (1st Cir.1995) (holding that curative instructions along with strength of government's case and limited scope of spillover did not prejudice defendant). 156 As to Rios' testimony that Roman and Morales tried to kill him, Morales moved for mistrial, but he failed to ask for a limiting instruction or have the testimony stricken. Further, Morales did not object to Rios' direct testimony on the same point, and he elicited similar testimony when he cross-examined Rios. Such actions or lack thereof by Morales do not support a finding of prejudice. See Brady, 26 F.3d at 288-89; United States v. Calabro, 467 F.2d 973, 987-88 (2d Cir.1972). 157 Similarly, Roman did not offer substantive facts to support a showing that his joinder with Rios compromised a specific trial right or prevented the jury from making a reliable judgment about his guilt or innocence. As such, mere hostility between Roman and Rios does not warrant severance. See Casamento, 887 F.2d at 1153-54. We therefore find that the district court did not abuse its discretion in denying these motions for severance and mistrial.
158 Roman argues that, because of the length of trial, the complexity of factual and legal issues, and the large number of defendants, witnesses and crimes charged, the jury was prevented from adequately remembering and evaluating the evidence and failed to give individual consideration to each defendant. Thus, Roman claims that the district court's refusal to sever the Millet Trial caused significant jury confusion and thereby deprived him of a fair trial. We disagree. 159 First, Roman fails to make a showing that the issues were actually beyond the jury's competence. DiNome, 954 F.2d at 842. Although the jury had to evaluate an extensive amount of evidence, the nature of the evidence and legal issues involved in this case could be understood without difficulty. See, e.g., Casamento, 887 F.2d at 1150 (holding that the jury had no difficulty in grasping the legal significance of shipment of narcotics, sales of narcotics, and transfer of money.). The conclusion that the jury comprehended the case is supported by several factors, including jurors taking notes during trial, the requests for readbacks of testimony and the length of the deliberations. See, e.g., DiNome, 954 F.2d at 843. In addition, the district court carefully instructed the jury to consider the evidence against each defendant independently. Finally, the jury verdict itself, where Millet was acquitted on one of the VICAR counts, is a clear indication that the jury was able to sift through voluminous evidence and differentiate among various defendants. Casamento, 887 F.2d at 1150. We therefore conclude that Roman's allegation of jury confusion has no merit. B. Denial of Roman's Motion for a New Trial 160 On March 24, 1997, the government received a copy of a March 12, 1997, affidavit of Carmen Miranda, that was submitted in an unrelated case, United States v. Cintron, Crim. No. 3:95cr135(PCD). The government disclosed the affidavit to defense counsel in this case immediately thereafter. In her affidavit, Miranda alleged (1) that M. Soto committed perjury when she testified during the Millet Trial; and (2) that Rafael Segarra, a New Haven police detective who allegedly participated in the investigation of the Latin Kings, knew of this fact. Specifically, Miranda claimed in her affidavit that she was present when M. Soto told Detective Segarra that she would not reveal at trial that L. Rodriguez participated in the murder of Jonathan Thomas, a murder not charged in Roman's case. 12 Miranda also alleges in her affidavit that Detective Segarra knowingly suborned M. Soto's perjured testimony and that he had developed a sexual relationship with M. Soto during Roman's trial. In addition, Miranda testified during the Cintron case that she heard M. Soto state that, although she knew L. Rodriguez had something to do with the murder of Thomas, she did not give out the information to law enforcement; rather, M. Soto only told the government what was convenient in response to questions about L. Rodriguez during the Millet Trial. Miranda also testified that M. Soto withheld information on L. Rodriguez because she was dating him at the time. 161 Relying on Miranda's affidavit, Roman moved for a new trial in April 1997 under Fed.R.Crim.P. 33. First, Roman asserted that because Detective Segarra knew about M. Soto's perjury and that he was part of the prosecution team, his knowledge of the perjury was therefore imputed to the prosecution. Thus, Roman claimed that the prosecution knowingly used perjured testimony during his trial, but failed to inform him or the court about it. This failure denied him the opportunity to cross-examine M. Soto, a key government witness against him regarding the Robinson murder, 13 thereby warranting a new trial. Second, Roman claimed that the government violated its obligations under Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83, 87, 83 S.Ct. 1194, 10 L.Ed.2d 215 (1963), for it failed to disclose exculpatory information to him regarding Detective Segarra's contacts and relationship with M. Soto. 162 For purposes of considering Roman's motion for a new trial, the district court assumed that Miranda's affidavit constituted newly discovered evidence and that it showed M. Soto committed perjury at trial. Roman contends that the court erroneously denied his motion by finding (1) that there was no basis for imputing Detective Segarra's purported knowledge to the government because he only had an incidental role in the prosecution; (2) that evidence of M. Soto's perjury was cumulative and immaterial; (3) that M. Soto's testimony about Roman's role in the Robinson murder was fully corroborated; and (4) that the prosecution had not violated its Brady obligations. We disagree. 1. Newly Discovered Evidence 163 A motion for a new trial based on newly discovered evidence is not favored, and a district court must exercise great caution ... and may grant the motion only in the most extraordinary circumstances, United States v. Spencer, 4 F.3d 115, 118 (2d Cir.1993) (internal quotation marks omitted), where it is required in the interest of justice, Fed.R.Crim.P. 33. We will not reverse a district court's findings of fact concerning a motion for a new trial unless they are clearly erroneous; nor will we overturn the denial of such a motion unless there has been an abuse of discretion. See United States v. Diaz, 922 F.2d 998, 1006-07 (2d Cir.1990). 164 Newly discovered evidence does not warrant a new trial unless the defendant shows that: (1) the  'newly discovered evidence' could not with due diligence have been discovered before or during trial; (2) where the claim is that the evidence shows perjury by a prosecution witness, the evidence demonstrates that the witness in fact committed perjury; (3) the evidence is material to the jury's verdict, that is, relevant to the merits of the case; (4) the evidence is not cumulative of other evidence introduced at trial as to a fact; and (5) the evidence could have affected the jury's verdict if it had been introduced at trial. United States v. White, 972 F.2d 16, 20-21 (2d Cir.1992). If the newly discovered evidence indicates that perjured testimony was given at trial, the affect of such evidence on the verdict depends on whether the prosecution was aware of that perjury. See id. at 21; United States v. Wallach, 935 F.2d 445, 456 (2d Cir.1991). 165 There are two standards of review on whether the prosecution was aware of the perjury. See White, 972 F.2d at 21. First, if the prosecution knew or should have known of that perjury, a new trial must be granted if the court determines that new evidence 'might' alter the verdict of the jury. Sanders v. Sullivan, 863 F.2d 218, 225 (2d Cir.1988). The test is whether there is any reasonable likelihood that the perjured testimony could have influenced the jury. See Wallach, 935 F.2d at 456. Second, [i]f the prosecution was unaware of the perjury, a new trial is warranted if the court is left with a firm belief that but for the perjured testimony, the defendant would most likely not have been convicted. See White, 972 F.2d at 21 (internal quotation marks and alternation omitted). 166 On appeal, Roman argues that because the district court erroneously rejected his contention that Detective Segarra's knowledge of M. Soto's perjury should be imputed to the prosecution, it applied the wrong standard of review in denying his motion, that is, the court incorrectly employed the standard applicable when the prosecution is not aware of alleged perjury. We find this claim is without merit. 167 First, the only evidence that support's Roman's claim that Detective Segarra knew of M. Soto's perjury is Miranda's affidavit. In his own affidavit, however, Detective Segarra (1) denied that M. Soto told him anything about the substance of her testimony either before or after the Millet Trial; and (2) denied having a sexual relationship with M. Soto until after Roman's trial. 168 Even if we assume that Detective Segarra knew of M. Soto's perjury, there is no basis to impute his knowledge to the prosecution. Based on affidavits submitted by two FBI agents who were in charge of the federal, state and local Task Force that investigated the Connecticut Latin Kings, the district court found (1) that Detective Segarra was not a member of the Task Force; (2) as a local police officer assigned to assist the Task Force, Detective Segarra monitored wiretaps in April, May, and June, 1994, participated in arrests made in June 1994, and conducted surveillance during the investigation; and (3) that after Roman's arrest in June 1994, he returned to his role as a local police officer and had no other role in the investigation leading up to the indictment and subsequent prosecution of Roman. The court also found that after Detective Segarra informed the FBI that M. Soto wanted to talk to them in April 1994, he did not become involved in M. Soto's subsequent cooperation with the government nor was he assigned to her in connection with the investigation and prosecution of the Latin Kings. The court further noted that Detective Segarra did not act as a witness for or assist the prosecution during Roman's trial. Therefore, based on the limited scope of his actions, the district court concluded that Detective Segarra's purported awareness of M. Soto's perjury, if any, could not be imputed to the prosecution. 169 Additionally, the district court found that M. Soto's alleged perjury was unrelated to any of the crimes with which Roman or his co-defendants were charged; rather, her purportedly false testimony only concerned L. Rodriguez's supposed murder of Thomas, a crime which had no connection to the merits of Roman's case. Because this alleged newly discovered evidence failed to refute any of M. Soto's testimony against Roman, the district court found that it was immaterial. See Spencer, 4 F.3d at 119 (noting that [t]he discovery of new evidence which merely discredits a government witness and does not directly contradict the government's case ordinarily does not justify the grant of a new trial.) (internal quotation marks omitted and alteration in original). 170 Next, the district court concluded that M. Soto's alleged perjury relating to the Thomas murder was merely additional impeachment material against her credibility. The impeachment evidence presented at trial, inter alia, included (1) the testimony of her brother, Mike Soto, that L. Rodriguez killed Thomas; and (2) defense counsels' extensive cross-examinations of M. Soto, during which she (a) acknowledged her relationship with L. Rodriguez, and (b) was portrayed by defense counsel as cooperating with the government to protect L. Rodriguez from liability for his alleged role in the Robinson and Thomas murders. In addition, Roman's summation attacked the credibility of M. Soto and the court also carefully instructed the jury on examining a witness' credibility where there is a grant of immunity. See United States v. Gordils, 982 F.2d 64, 72 (2d Cir.1992) (affirming denial of Rule 33 motion where impeachment evidence was cumulative). 171 Finally, the district court concluded that, although M. Soto was the only government witness in a position to testify that Roman ordered the Robinson murder, there was an abundance of evidence that corroborated M. Soto's description of these events. In sum, the district court found that the newly discovered evidence of M. Soto's alleged perjury (1) could not be imputed to the prosecution; (2) was immaterial and cumulative; and (3) was fully corroborated in connection with the Robinson murder. 172 Having reviewed the record, we find that the district court's factual findings were supported by the evidence and were not clearly erroneous. We agree with the court's finding that Detective Segarra's purported knowledge of M. Soto's perjury could not be imputed to the prosecution. We do not believe that but for M. Soto's perjured testimony, Roman would most likely not have been convicted. On the contrary, the record supports the court's conclusion that there was an abundance of independent evidence of Roman's guilt, including his participation in the Robinson murder. See United States v. Wong, 78 F.3d 73, 82 (2d Cir.1996) (recognizing that where independent evidence supports a defendant's conviction, the subsequent discovery that a witness's testimony at trial was perjured will not warrant a new trial.). Accordingly, we conclude that the court did not abuse its discretion in denying Roman's first claim for a new trial. 2. Alleged Brady Violations 173 Roman asserts that the government violated the disclosure requirements of Brady, 373 U.S. at 87, 83 S.Ct. 1194, by failing to disclose the following three items of information that could have been used to impeach M. Soto: (1) the fact that it was Detective Segarra, not M. Soto herself, who made the first contact between his then 'neighbor' M. Soto and the FBI; (2) Detective Segarra's alleged presence at an FBI de-briefing of M. Soto in April 1994; and (3) the time period when a sexual relationship developed between Detective Segarra and M. Soto. On appeal, Roman argues that non-disclosure of these items warrants a new trial. Again, we disagree. 174 In Brady, the Supreme Court held that the suppression by the prosecution of evidence favorable to an accused upon request violates due process where the evidence is material either to guilt or to punishment, irrespective of the good faith or bad faith of the prosecution. Id. Thus, a new trial is warranted under Brady where the government suppressed favorable evidence, see Giglio v. United States, 405 U.S. 150, 154-55, 92 S.Ct. 763, 31 L.Ed.2d 104 (1972), including favorable impeachment evidence, and the suppressed evidence was material, see United States v. Amiel, 95 F.3d 135, 144-45 (2d Cir.1996). Suppressed evidence is material generally if  'there is a reasonable probability that, had the evidence been disclosed to the defense, the result of the proceeding would have been different.'  Id. (quoting United States v. Bagley, 473 U.S. 667, 682, 105 S.Ct. 3375, 87 L.Ed.2d 481 (1985)). A 'reasonable probability' of a different result is accordingly shown when the government's evidentiary suppression 'undermines confidence in the outcome of the trial.'  Kyles v. Whitley, 514 U.S. 419, 434, 115 S.Ct. 1555, 131 L.Ed.2d 490 (1995) (quoting Bagley, 473 U.S. at 678, 105 S.Ct. 3375). Suppressed impeachment evidence is material if the witness whose testimony is attacked supplied the only evidence linking the defendant(s) to the crime, or where the likely impact on the witness's credibility would have undermined a critical element of the prosecution's case. Wong, 78 F.3d at 79 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted, alteration in original) (quoting United States v. Payne, 63 F.3d 1200, 1210 (2d Cir.1995)). However, suppressed impeachment evidence is not material where the new evidence merely constitutes an additional basis on which to impeach a witness whose credibility has already been shown to be questionable. Payne, 63 F.3d at 1210. 175 With respect to Roman's first claim, we need not decide whether Detective Segarra's referral of M. Soto to the FBI was suppressed evidence because the mere referral of a witness to authorities does not constitute favorable impeachment evidence under Bradyand, therefore, is immaterial. See United States v. Gambino, 59 F.3d 353, 366-67 (2d Cir.1995) (holding where evidence is not material, court need not address whether or not the evidence was suppressed). Even if we assume this evidence was of some impeachment value, it merely constituted cumulative impeachment material because Roman was able to cross-examine M. Soto extensively about the timing of her decision to cooperate and her reasons for such cooperation. See Locascio, 6 F.3d at 949-50 (affirming denial of a new-trial motion without an evidentiary hearing where newly discovered reports would merely have been cumulative impeachment material against a witness' credibility). 176 Roman's second claim--that Detective Segarra was purportedly present at an FBI interview of M. Soto--does not constitute a Brady violation at all because the record clearly reflects that Detective Segarra was not present at any government debriefing of M. Soto and, therefore, there was no such information to suppress. Similarly, failure to disclose Detective Segarra's romantic relationship with M. Soto was not a Brady violation because the relationship did not occur until after Roman's trial; thus, the evidence could not have been suppressed by the prosecution during trial. Since only Roman's first claim raised a possible issue under Brady, which we found to be immaterial, our confidence in the outcome of the trial is not undermined. Accordingly, the district court did not abuse its discretion in rejecting Roman's Bradyclaims and denying him a new trial. 177 C. Denial of Roman's Motion to Suppress Wiretap Evidence 178 Prior to trial, Roman moved to suppress evidence obtained through use of court-authorized wiretaps, contending that the application and supporting affidavits (collectively the Affidavit) (1) contained stale information; (2) failed to establish probable cause; and (3) failed to establish the inadequacy of other investigative procedures. The district court referred his motion to United States District Judge T.F. Gilroy Daly, who denied it. Roman argues that the district judge erred in denying his motion. We disagree. 179 In reviewing a ruling on a motion to suppress wiretap evidence, we accord deference to the district court. Miller, 116 F.3d at 663 (quoting Torres, 901 F.2d at 231). Our role in reviewing the issuance of a wiretap order is not to make a de novo determination of the sufficiency of the application, but to decide if the facts set forth in the application were minimally adequate to support the determination that was made. Id. Here, we find that the Affidavit adequately supported the district judge's denial of Roman's motion. 1. Affidavit's Information 180 Roman argues that the Affidavit contained stale information and did not make the necessary connection between his home phone and the offenses under investigation. We previously have held that  'the principal factors in assessing whether or not the supporting facts have become stale are the age of those facts and the nature of the conduct alleged to have violated the law.'  United States v. Gallo, 863 F.2d 185, 192 (2d Cir.1988) (quoting United States v. Martino, 664 F.2d 860, 867 (2d Cir.1981)). Where a supporting affidavit presents a picture of continuing conduct as opposed to an isolated instance of wrongdoing. Thus, the passage of time between the last described act and the presentation of the application become less significant. Id. (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). This is especially true in a case involving an ongoing narcotics operation, where intervals of weeks or months between the last described act and the application for a wiretap do not necessarily make the information stale. Rivera v. United States, 928 F.2d 592, 602 (2d Cir.1991) (dealing with search warrants) (citing United States v. Rowell, 903 F.2d 899, 903 (2d Cir.1990) (holding that gap of 18 months did not render information stale); Martino, 664 F.2d at 867 (3 weeks); United States v. Fama, 758 F.2d 834, 838 (2d Cir.1985) (5 weeks)). 181 Here, the district judge properly concluded that the Affidavit did not contain stale information. First, the Affidavit stated that Roman and other members of the Latin Kings (1) were involved in drug trafficking activities as late as March 1994, within one month of the wiretap application; (2) used telephones to conduct their illegal drug activities; and (3) that Roman's phone was used to make calls to and receive calls from these individuals until March 1994. Moreover, as the district judge found, to the extent that there are acts of past criminal activity that in and of themselves might be stale, such acts can be sufficient if [an] affidavit also establishes a pattern of continuing criminal activity so there is reason to believe that the cited activity was probably not a one-time occurrence. United States v. Wagner, 989 F.2d 69, 75 (2d Cir.1993). 2. Probable Cause 182 Roman further argues that the Affidavit failed to establish probable cause that particular communications concerning criminal activity would be obtained by tapping his home phone. Again, the Affidavit belies this contention. 183 To the extent pertinent here, a federal court may issue a wiretap order under 18 U.S.C. § 2518 if it determines, on the basis of the facts submitted by the applicant, that there is probable cause to believe (1) that an individual was committing, had committed, or is about to commit a crime; (2) that communications concerning that crime will be obtained through the wiretap; and (3) that the premises to be wiretapped were being used for criminal purposes or are about to be used or owned by the target of the wiretap. See 18 U.S.C. § 2518(1)(b)(i), (3)(a), (b), (d) (1988). The standard for probable cause applicable to § 2518 is the same as the standard for a regular search warrant. United States v. Fury, 554 F.2d 522, 530 (2d Cir.1977). Under Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213, 103 S.Ct. 2317, 76 L.Ed.2d 527 (1983), probable cause for a search warrant is established if the totality-of-the-circumstances indicate a probability of criminal activity. See id. at 230-32, 103 S.Ct. 2317. On appellate review, a determination of probable cause is accorded great deference, and will be upheld so long as the magistrate or judge had a 'substantial basis for ... conclud[ing]' that a search would uncover evidence of wrongdoing. Id. at 236, 103 S.Ct. 2317 (alteration in original); see Wagner, 989 F.2d at 72. 184 In the case before us, there existed a substantial basis that wiretaps of Roman's home phone would uncover evidence of unlawful activity. The Affidavit stated, and Roman does not dispute, that he and other members of the Latin Kings were engaged in drug trafficking within Bridgeport and New Haven. Moreover, the Affidavit contained a detailed account of how Roman and the key Latin King members conducted their illegal activities over the target phones, and set forth specific instances where Roman used his home phone in this regard. Further, the district judge found that contrary to Roman's claim of no unusual criminal pattern, the pen register 14 analysis showed that, exclusive of calls to known family members or social acquaintances, Roman's home phone was used extensively to call other Latin Kings whom the Affidavit listed as engaged in drug trafficking and related criminal activities. Considering the totality of these circumstances, the issuance of the wiretap order was certainly justified. Accordingly, the district judge properly found probable cause. 185 3. Inadequacy of Other Investigative Procedures 186 Roman also contends that the Affidavit failed to establish another prerequisite for the issuance of a wiretap order, to wit, that other investigative techniques had been tried and failed or appeared too dangerous or unlikely to succeed. See 18 U.S.C. § 2518(1)(c). Specifically, Roman asserts that because the government had access to the Lompoc prison tape recordings and had ample confidential informants, the government failed to make the requisite statutory showing that it exhausted other investigative procedures. We disagree. 187 The purpose of the statutory requirements of § 2518 is not to preclude the government's resort to wiretapping  'until after all other possible means of investigation have been exhausted by investigative agents; rather, [the statute] only require[s] that the agents inform the authorizing judicial officer of the nature and progress of the investigation and of the difficulties inherent in the use of normal law enforcement methods.'  Torres, 901 F.2d at 231 (quoting United States v. Vazquez, 605 F.2d 1269, 1282 (2d Cir.1979) (quoting, in turn, United States v. Hinton, 543 F.2d 1002, 1011 (2d Cir.1976))). The issue of whether a normal investigative method has been exhausted must be tested in a practical and common sense manner. See id. at 232. 188 Here, contrary to Roman's claim, neither the Lompoc prison tape recordings nor informant information were adequate means of investigation. With respect to the Lompoc tapes, the Affidavit stated that although the tapes were helpful in identifying criminal participants and in determining the organizational structure of the Latin Kings, the overall value of the tapes was limited without the ability to monitor calls that follow the carefully coded directives of Millet on the prison tapes. Moreover, the government explained that information sought through its requested wire interceptions, such as the sources of drug supply and the location of drug proceeds, could not adequately be obtained through its informants, who were street dealers or individuals not operating at the core of the racketeering and drug conspiracies. 189 Further, the Affidavit detailed the exhaustion of other investigative techniques, including the limitations or ineffectiveness of physical surveillance, grand jury subpoenas, confidential informants and cooperating sources, undercover police officers and agents, interviews of subjects or associates, search warrants and pen registers. In particular, the Affidavit noted that alternative techniques were unavailing in light of the Latin King's coordination of drug trafficking and organized sanctioning of assaults and killings, together with the secretive manner in which the illegal activities were carried out. We conclude that the district court properly found that conventional investigative techniques had been exhausted and that alternatives to wire interception would be unlikely to succeed or would be too dangerous. Thus, the motion to suppress was properly denied. D. Roman's Motion for Recusal 190 Roman claims that Judge Nevas should have recused himself under 28 U.S.C. § 455(a), (b)(1). Prior to trial, Roman moved for recusal, arguing that the district court pre-determined that all of the defendants and unindicted cooperating witnesses were part of one large conspiracy. Roman did not base his motion on any bias shown by the judge. Rather, his assertion of prejudice is based on two grounds: (1) the court's ruling on co-defendant Vidro's pre-trial motion to suppress evidence, in which the court stated that Vidro is an alleged leader of the Latin Kings, a violent criminal organization that is active in the Connecticut prison system; and (2) that in reviewing and authorizing wire intercepts in the case, the court heard and credited inadmissible hearsay evidence of a conspiracy. Roman asserts that Judge Nevas would not have been able to make open-minded and impartial determinations at trial regarding whether the government proved the existence of a conspiracy, which is a prerequisite to ruling on the admissibility of co-conspirator statements. Judge Nevas denied the motion to recuse himself, finding that judicial rulings are generally an insufficient predicate under § 455 for recusal, and that he did not have personal knowledge of the facts concerning this case as required under § 455(b)(1). On appeal, Roman argues that his conviction should be reversed because Judge Nevas erred in denying his motion for recusal. We disagree. 191 Under § 455(a), a federal judge must recuse himself in any proceeding in which his impartiality might reasonably be questioned. In deciding whether or not to affirm a judge's denial of a recusal motion, a court of appeals must ask the following question: ... would an objective, disinterested observer fully informed of the underlying facts, entertain significant doubt that justice would be done absent recusal? United States v. Lovaglia, 954 F.2d 811, 815 (2d Cir.1992) (citing DeLuca v. Long Island Lighting Co., Inc., 862 F.2d 427, 428-29 (2d Cir.1988)). A federal judge shall also recuse himself [w]here he has a personal bias or prejudice concerning a party, or personal knowledge of disputed evidentiary facts concerning the proceeding. § 455(b)(1). 192 We review a district judge's denial of a recusal motion only for abuse of discretion. See United States v. Morrison, 153 F.3d 34, 48 (2d Cir.1998). No abuse of discretion occurred here. In Liteky v. United States, 510 U.S. 540, 114 S.Ct. 1147, 127 L.Ed.2d 474 (1994), the Supreme Court held that judicial rulings alone almost never constitute a valid basis for a bias or partiality motion. Id. at 555, 114 S.Ct. 1147. The Court further stated that opinions formed by a judge on the basis of facts introduced or events occurring in the course of judicial proceedings do not constitute a basis for recusal unless they indicate that the judge has a deep-seated favoritism or antagonism that would make fair judgment impossible. Id.; In re Int'l Bus. Mach. Corp., 45 F.3d 641, 644 (2d Cir.1995). 193 Roman's motion for recusal relied on the judicial rulings on wiretap applications and a co-defendant's motion to suppress that were issued by the district court in the exercise of its judicial duties. Since the court's rulings were events that occurred in the course of judicial proceedings, and neither (1) relied upon knowledge acquired outside such proceedings nor (2) displayed deep-seated and unequivocal antagonism that would render fair judgment impossible, Liteky, 510 U.S. at 556, 114 S.Ct. 1147; see United States v. Conte, 99 F.3d 60, 65 (2d Cir.1996), Roman's motion failed to show that there was an objectively reasonable basis for questioning the judge's impartiality under § 455(a), see United States v. Colon, 961 F.2d 41, 44 (2d Cir.1992) (stating that earlier adverse rulings, without more, do not provide a reasonable basis for questioning a judge's impartiality.). Moreover, Judge Nevas noted that since he did not have any personal knowledge of the disputed evidentiary facts of the case, his recusal was not warranted under § 455(b)(1). Under these circumstances, Judge Nevas did not abuse his discretion in declining to recuse himself. E. Ineffective Assistance of Counsel 194 Burgos and G. Rivera claim that their respective trial counsels' performance was so deficient and prejudicial that it constituted ineffective assistance of counsel. Specifically, G. Rivera argues that his conviction should be reversed and his case remanded for a new trial because his counsel was ineffective by failing to (1) offer evidence of his brain damage and present a defense of mental incapacity; and (2) object to the admission of certain co-conspirator statements as hearsay. Burgos asserts, for the first time on direct appeal, that his counsel was also ineffective because he failed to conduct a proper pre-trial investigation and, therefore, that his case should be remanded for an evidentiary hearing to explore the issue. These contentions are without merit. 1. G. Rivera 195 A defendant challenging his conviction and sentence on the basis of ineffective assistance of counsel bears a heavy burden. In Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668, 104 S.Ct. 2052, 80 L.Ed.2d 674 (1984), the Supreme Court adopted a strong presumption that trial counsel provides effective assistance. To overcome this presumption, a defendant must show both (1) deficient performance, that is, that his trial counsel's performance fell below an objective standard of reasonableness under prevailing professional norms, id. at 688, 104 S.Ct. 2052; and (2) prejudice, that is, that there is a reasonable probability that, but for counsel's unprofessional errors, the result of the proceeding would have been different, id. at 694, 104 S.Ct. 2052. Here, G. Rivera has met neither prong of the Strickland test. 196 First, G. Rivera argues that because his trial counsel knew of facts which would have supported a diminished capacity defense, he was ineffective for not presenting that defense at trial. In particular, G. Rivera's appellate counsel cites several mental health reports from 1992 through 1993, concluding that G. Rivera was incompetent to stand trial and that he had brain damage from several serious head injuries. Because of this alleged brain damage, appellate counsel also asserts that G. Rivera did not have the ability to participate in the drug conspiracy or did not have the specific intent to distribute drugs. In addition, appellate counsel points out that a doctor who examined G. Rivera and determined that he was incompetent in a 1993 report, again determined in a 1996 report that G. Rivera remained totally incompetent. 197 Irrespective of such evidence, trial counsel was aware of at least five other diagnoses, reached on five different occasions from 1992 through 1995, that G. Rivera was either: (1) malingering his mental problems; (2) was not suffering from significant organic brain damage or severe mental disease or defect during the time of his drug conspiracy offense; or (3) was competent to stand trial. Since there was ample evidence that G. Rivera was possibly faking his mental illness, we find that trial counsel's decision not to present any of the mental reports or testimony of the doctor was a sound trial strategy that falls within the wide range of reasonable professional assistance. Strickland, 466 U.S. at 689, 104 S.Ct. 2052; see also United States v. Schmidt, 105 F.3d 82, 90 (2d Cir.) (finding that the tactical decision of whether to call specific witnesses--even ones that might offer exculpatory evidence--is ordinarily not viewed as a lapse in professional representation.), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 118 S.Ct. 130, 139 L.Ed.2d 80 (1997); Kieser v. New York, 56 F.3d 16, 18 (2d Cir.1995) (per curiam) (Actions or omissions by counsel that might be considered sound trial strategy do not constitute ineffective assistance.) (internal quotation marks omitted). 198 Furthermore, we find that trial counsel's failure to object to the testimony of co-conspirators as alleged hearsay does not amount to deficient performance. As noted above, there were sound evidentiary bases for the admission of the challenged co-conspirator statements and, therefore, trial counsel was not ineffective for failing to object. See United States v. Brooks, 82 F.3d 50, 53-54 (2d Cir.1996) (finding that trial counsel acted properly in not objecting to testimony that was admissible against his client as an admission by a co-conspirator); United States v. Boothe, 994 F.2d 63, 68-69 (2d Cir.1993) (holding that trial counsel did not render ineffective assistance of counsel by failing to object to co-conspirator statements as hearsay when such statements were admissible as non-hearsay under Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(2)(E)). 199 Finally, trial counsel's performance did not result in prejudice to G. Rivera. Here, there is no reason to believe that had trial counsel presented a diminished mental capacity defense, or objected and succeeded in excluding co-conspirator statements, that the outcome of the trial would have been different. The wiretap evidence where G. Rivera is heard speaking clearly to his co-conspirators about drug transactions provided strong proof that G. Rivera participated in the drug conspiracy. Thus, regardless of the possible impact of reports or testimony about his mental condition, the wiretap evidence provides a reasonable probability that the jury would have concluded, as did several professionals and the district court, that G. Rivera had malingered his mental illness to avoid being held responsible for his drug trafficking activities. Moreover, there was other evidence, aside from the co-conspirator statements, sufficient to convict G. Rivera. Therefore, we conclude that G. Rivera did not suffer prejudice. Hence, G. Rivera fails under both prongs of Strickland to overcome the strong presumption that his trial counsel provided effective assistance. 2. Burgos 200 Burgos claims, for the first time on appeal, that his trial counsel was ineffective, asserting that if his counsel had conducted a proper pre-trial investigation, Burgos would have made a different decision regarding his guilty plea. Citing Billy-Eko v. United States, 8 F.3d 111 (2d Cir.1993), Burgos submits that his claim is based on facts outside the record and requests that the issue be remanded to the district court for an evidentiary hearing. 201 In Billy-Eko, we stated that appellate counsel are encouraged to err on the side of including an ineffective assistance claim on direct appeal, even if there is a need for further extrinsic evidence, to preclude the possibility of procedural forfeiture. See id. at 116. We further stated in Billy-Eko that inclusion of such an ineffective assistance claim gives us the opportunity to either remand the claim to the district court or leave the defendant to his post-conviction remedies by declining to rule on the claim. Id. Nevertheless, we have clarified that the Billy-Eko doctrine is discretionary, Salameh, 152 F.3d at 160-61, and that remand is not  'a mandatory requirement, and [as] such claims are ordinarily pursued by a subsequent § 2255 petition.'  United States v. Workman, 80 F.3d 688, 701 (2d Cir.1996) (quoting Riascos-Prado v. United States, 66 F.3d 30, 35 (2d Cir.1995)). Given our disinclination to grant direct review of such a claim, and since there is an insufficient factual record and Burgos failed to explain why we should hear his ineffective assistance claim at this point, we decline to address his claim further and conclude that it would be more properly raised in a § 2255 petition. F. Burgos' Alleged Involuntary Guilty Plea 202 Burgos argues, for the first time on appeal, that he should be allowed to withdraw his guilty plea because it was made involuntarily. Specifically, Burgos claims that his plea of guilty was the result of a threat made by one of the jurors who had decided his guilt before hearing the evidence. Burgos asserts that during trial he became aware that a juror's son was incarcerated, but that the juror lied about it during voir dire because he wanted to ensure that all the Latin Kings went to jail like his son had. Burgos further claims that he told his counsel about it, but that counsel failed to act on this information. Burgos concedes this issue of an involuntary guilty plea presents facts which are outside of the record and, therefore, requests that the issue be remanded to the district court for an evidentiary hearing where it may be more fully developed. 203 We decline to remand this issue for there is nothing in the record to substantiate Burgos' claim. In fact, Burgos' sworn statements during his plea hearing directly contradict an involuntary guilty plea for he stated under oath, inter alia, that (1) he was satisfied with his counsel's representation of him; (2) the plea was of his own free will; (3) he was guilty and stated that he understood that the court would not accept his plea if he claimed to be innocent; and (4) he had no questions regarding the sentencing proceeding after the plea was entered. We find that these statements undermine Burgos' claim that his guilty plea was involuntary. See Blackledge v. Allison, 431 U.S. 63, 74, 97 S.Ct. 1621, 52 L.Ed.2d 136 (1977) (holding that sworn statements made during allocution are presumptively valid); United States v. Maher, 108 F.3d 1513, 1530 (2d Cir.1997) (same). G. Denial of Defense Witness Immunity 204 Vidro requested that the government grant immunity to defense witness Edwin Ortiz, a Latin King member incarcerated for his role in the Council murder, as described above. When the government refused, Vidro requested that the district court order the government to grant such immunity, but it denied her request. Vidro argues that this denial resulted in an unfair trial and deprivation of her due process rights. This claim lacks merit. 205 Absent extraordinary circumstances, the Due Process Clause imposes no requirement that defense witness immunity be ordered 'whenever it seems fair to grant it.'  Blissett v. Lefevre, 924 F.2d 434, 441 (2d Cir.1991) (quoting United States v. Turkish, 623 F.2d 769, 777 (2d Cir.1980)). We apply a three-part test for determining whether there are exceptional circumstances warranting a directive that the government grant immunity to a defense witness. See United States v. Ballistrea, 101 F.3d 827, 837 (2d Cir.1996); United States v. Bahadar, 954 F.2d 821, 826 (2d Cir.1992). First, the district court must find that the government, through its own overreaching, has forced the witness to invoke the Fifth Amendment or, that the government has engaged in discriminatory use of grants of immunity to gain a tactical advantage; second, the witness' testimony must be material, exculpatory and not cumulative; and third, the defendant has no other source to obtain the evidence. See Bahadar, 954 F.2d at 826. The defendant bears the burden of showing that each of these elements is present. See United States v. Pinto, 850 F.2d 927, 935 (2d Cir.1988). 206 With respect to the first prong, Vidro points to the government's granting of immunity to Torres, a Latin King member who, like Ortiz, was involved in the Council murder. Vidro claims that this granting of immunity to Torres, but not to Ortiz, gave the government a tactical advantage. We have rejected the argument that immunity must be granted to defense witnesses in order to redress a supposed government 'advantage' over the defense. Blissett, 924 F.2d at 442 (citing Turkish, 623 F.2d at 774). Only when a prosecutor has abused the government's ability to grant immunity by using it in a discriminatory fashion for the purpose of gaining a tactical advantage does due process require a grant of immunity for a defense witness. Id. Nothing in the record indicates such a discriminatory use of immunity. In fact, when Vidro requested the district court to order immunity, she stated that she was not claiming that there was any prosecutorial misconduct. Since Vidro has not satisfied the first prong of the test requiring prosecutorial misconduct or overreaching, we need not address the issues of the materiality of Ortiz' testimony and Vidro's access to such evidence. We conclude that the court properly declined to order the government to grant immunity to Ortiz. H. Zapata's Double Jeopardy Claim 207 The jury found that Zapata committed the following six predicate acts of racketeering under both the RICO and RICO conspiracy counts:(1) conspiracy to deal drugs; (2) conspiracy to murder Reyes; (3) murder of Council; (4) conspiracy to murder and murder of Valedon; (5) murder of Calo; and (6) murder of Villafane. On appeal, Zapata assumes that the racketeering acts of murder alleged against him under the RICO counts will be dismissed based on his sufficiency of the evidence claims, and thereby, the remaining racketeering acts only consist of conspiracies. Under this assumption, Zapata asserts that, because the district court allegedly charged the jury that proof of the elements of these conspiracies under the RICO count did not require proving elements different than those needed to convict under the RICO conspiracy count, he was charged with the same offense twice. Zapata therefore argues that the Fifth Amendment's Double Jeopardy Clause, which protects against both multiple prosecutions and multiple punishments for the same offense, was violated. We disagree. 208 First, in United States v. Sessa, 125 F.3d 68, 71-73 (2d Cir.1997), cert. denied sub nom. Scarpa v. United States, --- U.S. ----, 118 S.Ct. 731, 139 L.Ed.2d 669 (1998), we rejected an argument similar to the one Zapata raises and concluded that there is no double jeopardy violation where a defendant is charged and convicted of a substantive RICO offense based upon predicate acts which are themselves conspiracies and is subsequently charged with RICO conspiracy. Second, as noted above, we find no basis for reversing the jury's conclusions with respect to Zapata's predicate acts of murder. Accordingly, we find no double jeopardy violation here.
209 At the time Millet's federal charges arose, he was serving a state criminal sentence and had been imprisoned as a contract boarder at a federal prison in Lompoc, California. On January 13, 1995, the United States took custody of Millet in Connecticut and he was arraigned on January 17, 1995. On June 15, 1995, Millet moved to dismiss his case on the grounds that he had not been brought to trial within the 120-day time limit established under Article IV(c) of the Interstate Agreement on Detainers (Detainers Act). 15 The district court denied Millet's motion. 210 Absent tolling, the 120-day clock under the Detainers Act entitled Millet to be brought to trial on or before May 17, 1995. Although Millet did not file any pre-trial motions, his co-defendants had such motions pending throughout the period of January 17 to the time the trial commenced on July 5, 1995. Millet argues that the time taken to address his co-defendants' pre-trial motions, the primary reason for delay after May 17, should not have been used to toll the time in which Millet was brought to trial under the Detainers Act. This argument lacks merit. 211 A delay caused by the filing of pre-trial motions by co-defendants is excludable time under the Detainers Act and, therefore, tolls the 120-day clock. See United States v. Cephas, 937 F.2d 816, 821 (2d Cir.1991); see also United States v. Collins, 90 F.3d 1420, 1427 (9th Cir.1996); United States v. Odom, 674 F.2d 228, 231-32 (4th Cir.1982). In Millet's case, the 120-day Detainers Act clock started on January 17. All of the delay after May 17 and until the day before Millet's trial actually commenced was excludable time because of the pre-trial motions filed by his co-defendants. Therefore, there was no Detainers Act violation under Article IV(c).
212 Several defendants-appellants contend that the district court erred in calculating their respective sentences under the United States Sentencing Guidelines. Their contentions lack merit. A. Burgos' Claims 213 Burgos appeals the sentence he received under the Guidelines following his plea of guilty to assault in aid of racketeering and use of a telephone to facilitate a drug transaction. As part of his plea agreement with the government, Burgos stipulated to additional related offenses that included, inter alia, participating in the conduct of the Latin Kings through a pattern of racketeering activity, conspiring to distribute narcotics and conspiring to murder Reyes. 214 As to the drug conspiracy offense, Burgos' Presentence Report (PSR) noted the following facts. Burgos operated a Latin King drug block on Yale Street in Bridgeport from the fall of 1991 to the summer of 1993. From late 1991 to November 1992, Burgos employed Morales as his lieutenant for his Yale Street drug operations, Cyr as his primary drug bagger and numerous other Latin Kings as street sellers. Even after Burgos was incarcerated in November 1992 on unrelated state charges, the evidence indicated that Morales, Cyr and numerous street sellers continued to sell crack cocaine (that is, cocaine base) at Yale Street and provided money to Burgos and his family. Under Burgos' direction, at least 1.5 kilograms of crack cocaine were sold every week at Yale Street. Additionally, from the summer of 1992 to November 1992, Burgos supplied a kilogram of powder cocaine per week to Vidro and Zapata which they sold at a Latin King drug block in New Haven. Burgos also stipulated in his plea agreement that from November 1991 to October 1992 he was responsible for the distribution of between 50 to 150 kilograms of cocaine or cocaine base. Using conservative figures, the PSR determined that from November 1991 to October 1992 Burgos was responsible for the distribution of 50 kilograms of crack cocaine at Yale Street and that he was responsible for over 20 kilograms of powder cocaine during his association with Vidro and Zapata. 215 The PSR calculated a base offense level of 38 pursuant to U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(a)(3), (c) because more than 1.5 kilograms of cocaine base were involved, added two levels for possession of a dangerous weapon, id. at § 2D1.1(b)(1), added four levels because Burgos was an organizer or leader of the Yale Street drug block which involved five or more participants, id. at § 3B1.1(a), and subtracted two levels for acceptance of responsibility, id. at § 3E1.1(a), resulting in a total offense level of 42. Burgos' criminal history category was II, thus yielding a Guidelines imprisonment range of 360 months to life. Because the combined statutory maximum sentence for both offenses to which Burgos pled guilty was 288 months, the Guidelines range of 360 months to life reverted to a range of 288 months. Accordingly, the district court sentenced Burgos to a 288-month term of imprisonment, to be followed by a 3-year term of supervised release. 216
217 Burgos contends that the district court erred by increasing his offense level by four levels for his role as an organizer or leader pursuant to U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(a). In particular, he contends that the record does not support the court's offense-role enhancement because there was no showing that five individuals or more were involved in the drug offense, that he exercised direct control over another criminally culpable participant, or that his drug block's activities were extensive. He also asserts that the court failed to make specific factual findings at the sentencing hearing to allow for adequate appellate review in determining whether the enhancement was proper. He therefore argues that his sentence should be remanded for further factual findings. We disagree. 218 First, Burgos waived his right to contest the enhancement by failing to raise the issue before the district court.  'Generally, issues not raised in the trial court, including sentencing issues, will be deemed waived on appeal in the absence of plain errors or defects affecting substantial rights.'  United States v. Margiotti, 85 F.3d 100, 104 (2d Cir.1996) (per curiam) (quoting United States v. Liebman, 40 F.3d 544, 551(2d Cir.1994)). In order to preserve an issue for appeal, a defendant must either object to the presentence report or ... raise the objection at the time of sentencing. United States v. Rodriguez, 943 F.2d 215, 216 (2d Cir.1991). In his PSR objection letter, Burgos did not challenge the PSR's determination that he was an organizer or leader requiring a four-level enhancement pursuant to U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(a). Further, he failed to object to the enhancement at sentencing. Thus, Burgos waived this claim. 219 Nevertheless, we will consider an argument not raised below if there is plain error, that is, if the alleged errors or defects ... affect a defendant's substantial rights the violation of which would result in manifest injustice. United States v. Keppler, 2 F.3d 21, 24 (2d Cir.1993) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). Here, there is no plain error. First, Burgos conceded at sentencing that none of his objections regarding the offense-role enhancement would effect his Guidelines range. Second, even if his offense level was not enhanced by four-levels, Burgos' 288-month sentence would still fall within the resulting Guidelines range of 262 to 327 months. Further, the court found that under the facts there was no justification for downward departure from 288 months and, therefore, Burgos would still have received the same sentence. See United States v. Bermingham, 855 F.2d 925, 931 (2d Cir.1988) ([D]isputes about applicable guidelines need not be resolved where the sentence falls within either of two arguably applicable guideline ranges and the same sentence would have been imposed under either guideline range.). Accordingly, we have noted that when a defendant could have received exactly the same sentence in the absence of the alleged error, we cannot say that its occurrence affected defendant's substantial rights resulting in a manifest injustice. Keppler, 2 F.3d at 24 (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting United States v. Arigbodi, 924 F.2d 462, 464 (2d Cir.1991) (per curiam)). 220 Finally, we reject Burgos' claim that the district court failed to make specific factual findings to support the offense-role enhancement. At sentencing, the court determined the amount of drugs attributable to Burgos and the applicable offense level for his offenses. However, the court neglected to make an explicit finding that (1) he was an organizer or leader, and (2) his drug trafficking activities either involved five or more participants or [were] otherwise extensive as required for an enhancement under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(a). Instead, the court accepted the PSR's findings and Guideline calculations that emphasized Burgos' leadership role with the Yale Street drug block. 221 Certainly, a sentencing court, rather than simply adopting a PSR, must make specific factual findings to sustain an enhancement under § 3B1.1. See United States v. Greenfield, 44 F.3d 1141, 1147 n. 4 (2d Cir.1995) (stress[ing] that a sentencing court must make specific factual findings in support of any offense-role enhancement.). However, in order to preserve a sentencing claim for appeal, the defendant must either voice an objection at sentencing or object to the presentence report. See United States v. Gomez, 103 F.3d 249, 254 (2d Cir.1997); see also Rodriguez, 943 F.2d at 216-17 (noting that failure to object to sentencing enhancement presented in presentence report generally constitutes waiver of sentencing claim). Since Burgos failed to object to the PSR's four-level enhancement, and since we find that there is no plain error because the record clearly demonstrates that he had a leadership role and employed well over five participants on the Yale Street drug block, we decline to remand his enhancement issue for further findings.
222 At sentencing, the district court concluded that Burgos was responsible for distributing at least 50 kilograms of cocaine and/or cocaine base. Burgos argues that the court erred in calculating his drug quantity on the basis of crack cocaine because there was insufficient proof that the form of cocaine base attributed to him was in fact crack, that is, he claims not all forms of cocaine base are crack. In particular, Burgos asserts that the government offered no scientific evidence that the substance was manufactured with sodium bicarbonate that he alleges is needed to make crack cocaine. For these reasons, he claims that his sentence should be remanded and determined solely on the basis of powder cocaine which carries a lower offense level under the Guidelines. Since this issue was not presented below, we review for plain error. 223 Section 2D1.1 is the operative section of the Guidelines for drug offenses involving cocaine base and cocaine. This section provides that  '[c]rack' is the street name for a form of cocaine base, usually prepared by processing cocaine hydrochloride and sodium bicarbonate, and usually appearing in a lumpy, rocklike form. U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(c), Note (D). In drafting this definition, the Sentencing Commission explained that forms of cocaine base other than crack ... will be treated as cocaine. U.S.S.G. app. C, amend. 487 (effective Nov. 1, 1993). 224 We conclude that the district court correctly sentenced Burgos based on a finding that the cocaine attributed to him was crack. First, in his PSR objection letter, Burgos failed to challenge the PSR's determination that he was responsible for distributing cocaine base at Yale Street. Rather, he objected to the PSR's drug quantity calculation in the event that Congress decides to equalize the penalties between amounts of cocaine and cocaine base. Second, Burgos did not object at sentencing to the court's reference to drugs distributed at the Yale Street drug block as crack. Third, the evidence presented at trial clearly established that the drug block distributed crack. For instance, Burgos' primary drug bagger Cyr testified that the Yale Street operation sold crack and he typically manufactured it with Morales. Finally, we conclude that in proving a substance is crack, the government is not required to show that the cocaine was processed with sodium bicarbonate. See U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(c), Note D; see also United States v. Abdul, 122 F.3d 477, 479 (7th Cir.1997) ([W]hile crack might generally be produced using sodium bicarbonate, production with sodium bicarbonate is not the exclusive preparation method recognized for purposes of § 2D1.1(c).). 225
226 Burgos further argues (1) that the district court erred in determining his relevant conduct for sentencing purposes by using drug quantities distributed by Latin King members at Yale Street after he was incarcerated in November 1992; (2) that the court failed to consider whether such distribution efforts were reasonably foreseeable to him and within the scope of his agreement with the conspiracy, given the fact that Burgos' personal participation ceased after his incarceration; and (3) that the probation office failed to consider whether payments to Burgos and his family received after he was incarcerated were charitable contributions rather than his share of the drug proceeds. These arguments are without merit. 227 As a preliminary matter, the issue of whether Burgos' relevant conduct should include drug quantities distributed after his incarceration in November 1992 is moot because the quantity of crack cocaine attributable to him before his incarceration was clearly greater than 1.5 kilograms as required by the Guidelines. Further, in his PSR objection letter, Burgos did not challenge the time period of the drug quantity calculation, that is, from the fall of 1991 until the summer of 1993. In addition, the record clearly supported that Burgos continued to run the Yale Street drug block until the summer of 1993. In fact, Burgos' counsel conceded at sentencing that Cyr continued to work for Burgos in 1993. As to the court's alleged lack of reasonable foreseeability analysis, the court indicated during sentencing, based on the testimony of Cyr, that Burgos continued to run the drug block after his incarceration. Therefore, Burgos' direct involvement did not require such analysis. See United States v. Chalarca, 95 F.3d 239, 243 (2d Cir.1996) (noting that the quantity of drugs attributed to a defendant need not be foreseeable to him when he personally participates, in a direct way, in a jointly undertaken drug transaction.). Burgos' direct participation also supports that the PSR's conclusion that the payments he received after his incarceration were in fact drug proceeds rather than charitable contributions to his family. B. Calderon's Claims 228 Calderon appeals from his sentence following his guilty plea to participating in the Latin Kings' drug conspiracy and receiving a firearm while under indictment for a felony offense. With respect to his drug offense, the PSR determined that Calderon was responsible for distributing 80 grams of crack cocaine at the East Main Street drug block in Bridgeport, which was run by Roman. The PSR also found that Calderon's base offense level was 32 pursuant to U.S.S.G. § 2D1.1(c)(4), the level applicable to offenses involving between 50 and 150 grams of crack cocaine. The PSR accorded Calderon a three-level increase pursuant to U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(b) because it determined that he was Roman's drug dealing lieutenant, that he had supervisory control over numerous street level dealers, supplied the block with drugs and collected drug proceeds. The PSR neglected to indicate the number of persons under Calderon's supervisory control. 229 Calderon argues that the district court erred in applying a base offense level of 32 to his drug conspiracy offense because it was allegedly based on an incorrect amount of crack cocaine attributed to him. He claims that although he received 80 grams of crack cocaine from a co-conspirator, he did not actually sell the entire amount and, therefore, he was responsible for less than 50 grams of crack cocaine, requiring a lower offense level. Calderon also contends that his enhancement for his supervisory role in the drug conspiracy was improper because he only held the position of secretary for the Bridgeport chapter of the Latin Kings, and thus, he did not supervise any persons. These arguments are without merit. 230 Since Calderon failed to object to the PSR's determinations or formally object to them at sentencing, he waived his claims. We therefore review for plain error and find none here. First, we find that the district court correctly attributed 80 grams of crack cocaine to Calderon. Under U.S.S.G. § 1B1.3(a)(1)(A), we have noted that a defendant who is a party to [a drug] conspiracy is accountable for the quantities of narcotics in which he had a direct, personal involvement. Chalarca, 95 F.3d at 243. Here, it is undisputed that Calderon had such an involvement. Moreover, although Calderon asserts that he did not actually sell the entire 80 grams of crack cocaine that he possessed, we find that he failed to offer any evidence to demonstrate this fact or to show that he should not be held responsible for the entire amount. In fact, Calderon agreed in his plea agreement that the drug conspiracy offense involved more that 50 grams of crack cocaine, an amount sufficient to apply a base offense level of 32. Second, although the PSR did not state the number of persons under his supervisory control, the evidence clearly supports that Calderon, as a lieutenant for Roman's drug operations, supervised at least five persons as needed under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(b) to warrant a three-level enhancement. C. Millet's Claims 231 Millet contends that the district court erred in sentencing him to life on the drug conspiracy count based on a finding that, as leader of the Latin Kings, he was responsible for all the drugs distributed by the gang and this amount was at least 1.5 kilograms of crack cocaine. Millet concedes that he entered into a conspiracy with Latin Kings J. Rodriguez and Vasquez to distribute drugs in Fair Haven, Connecticut, in September 1993, and that, as Vasquez testified at trial, there were 62 grams of crack cocaine involved in that conspiracy. However, Millet claims that there was insufficient evidence to establish that he was the leader of the Latin Kings' widespread drug conspiracy. Further, adopting Burgos' argument above (see VI.A.2), he argues that the court should have sentenced him based only on 62 grams of powder, rather than crack, cocaine because the identity of the substance was inadequately proven. These arguments are entirely without merit. 232 Since Millet did not raise the issue of the drug substance's identity below, we review for plain error and find none here. First, Millet and the district court made repeated references to crack cocaine during the sentencing proceedings. Second, his co-conspirators testified that crack cocaine was sold at the Fair Haven drug block. Indeed, this testimony is sufficient to prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the substance involved in the Latin Kings' drug conspiracy was crack, rather than powder, cocaine. See Miller, 116 F.3d at 684 (noting that [f]acts, for purposes of sentencing, need be established only by a preponderance of the evidence). 233 As to the court's finding Millet accountable for at least 1.5 kilograms of crack cocaine, we have noted that where a defendant was a member of a narcotics distribution conspiracy, all transactions entered into by him or by his coconspirators, if they were either known to him or reasonably foreseeable by him, may be attributed to him for purposes of calculating his sentence under the Guidelines. Id. Here, there is significant evidence of Millet's knowing involvement in the drug activities of the Connecticut Latin Kings, which involved amounts of crack cocaine far in excess of 1.5 kilograms. Contrary to Millet's claim, wiretapped conversations showed that he did act as the leader of the Latin Kings and that he was aware of almost every aspect of the gang's widespread drug conspiracy. For example, in these wiretapped conversations Millet: (1) discussed with Roman the need to establish a drug tax on Latin King dealers so drug proceeds could be used to pay for gang communications, meeting places, bond for incarcerated members and gun purchases; (2) participated and advised Roman on resolving conflicts between Latin King drug dealers; (3) encouraged Morales to establish a security squad to maintain harmony among the gang's drug dealers; (4) advocated that Latin King members and officers open new drug blocks; and (5) encouraged J. Rodriguez to discipline a suspected informant who threatened the gang's illegal activities. Considering Millet's involvement in almost all aspects of the drug conspiracy, the evidence demonstrates that Millet knew or reasonably should have known that his Latin Kings organization distributed at least 1.5 kilograms of crack cocaine. Accordingly, we conclude that the district court's life sentence on Millet's drug conspiracy offense based on 1.5 kilograms of crack cocaine was proper. D. Authority to Depart Downward 234 Morales was sentenced to three life terms and Zapata was sentenced to four life terms for their respective VICAR murders, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a). They argue that these life terms should be remanded for resentencing because Judge Nevas failed to recognize that he had discretionary authority under the Guidelines to depart downward. Their claims are without merit. 235 Although a sentencing court's discretionary refusal to depart downward is generally not appealable, an exception exists when the court mistakenly concluded as a matter of law that it lacked the legal authority to depart. See United States v. Martin, 78 F.3d 808, 814 (2d Cir.1996). In determining whether a district judge merely declined to exercise his discretion to depart or refused to depart because of a mistaken belief that he lacked the ability to do so, [w]e apply a presumption that district judges understand the much-discussed processes by which they may, in circumstances permitted by law, exercise discretion to depart from the sentence range prescribed by the Guidelines calculus. United States v. Brown, 98 F.3d 690, 694 (2d Cir.1996) (per curiam) (citing United States v. Sweeney, 90 F.3d 55, 58 (2d Cir.1996)). This Court do[es] not require that district judges by robotic incantations state 'for the record' or otherwise that they are aware of this or that arguable authority to depart but that they have consciously elected not to exercise it. Id. 236 In Morales' case, although Judge Nevas stated that he had no discretion and that he must impose a sentence of life, the record clearly establishes that the district judge knew he had the authority to depart and was imposing a life sentence because Morales did not present sufficient grounds to justify a downward departure. See id. at 693 (When a sentencing judge asserts that he has no authority to depart ... we do not infer that he is saying that the Guidelines never permit departure ... but that the facts of the case at hand do not provide any basis for lawful departure.). During the sentencing hearing, after addressing Morales' objections to the PSR and finding that the applicable Guidelines range was life, Judge Nevas asked for a downward departure argument. Judge Nevas determined that Morales was arguing for a downward departure based on certain circumstances and that the only way that this court could come off the life sentence was [if] there were compelling circumstances and reasons why there should be a downward departure. In that regard, Judge Nevas found that there were no unique circumstances present that would justify a downward departure. Likewise, after hearing Zapata's downward departure argument, Judge Nevas stated that he was declining to depart because [t]here's absolutely no basis to do so. Accordingly, we conclude that Judge Nevas understood his authority to depart and therefore refuse to remand Morales' and Zapata's VICAR convictions for resentencing. E. Roman's Claims 237 Roman was convicted of conspiring to murder and murdering Robinson under a predicate act of racketeering of the RICO count, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1962(c), and under two VICAR counts, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a). The substantive murder counts charged that Roman intentionally and knowingly murdered Robinson in violation of Conn. Gen.Stat. § 53a-54a. The Connecticut statute, the state's only degree of non-capital murder, provides in pertinent part that [a] person is guilty of murder when, with intent to cause the death of another person, he causes the death of such person or of a third person. Conn. Gen.Stat. § 53a-54a. 238 In order to calculate Roman's offense level for the murder of Robinson, felonious conduct that violated Connecticut law, Judge Nevas had to determine the most analogous federal offense, U.S.S.G. §§ 2E1.1 (RICO), Commentary, Application Note 2, 2E1.3 (VICAR), Commentary, Application Note 1, and select the most applicable sentencing guideline, U.S.S.G. § 1B1.2(a). Here, the district court found that federal first degree murder was the most analogous federal offense to state murder under Conn. Gen.Stat. § 53a-54a. Therefore, the district court applied the first degree murder guideline, U.S.S.G. § 2A1.1, to Roman's RICO and VICAR convictions for the Robinson murder. 239 Roman argues that because U.S.S.G. § 2A1.1 requires malice aforethought or premeditation, elements the government would not be required to prove under the state law offense to obtain a conviction, it was error for the district court to apply the first degree murder guideline to the Robinson murder convictions. Instead, he contends that the court should have applied the second degree murder guideline, U.S.S.G. § 2A1.2, which carries a lower offense level than the first degree guideline. We disagree. 240 In reviewing a sentence, we are required to accept a district court's factual findings unless they are clearly erroneous and shall give due deference to [the] court's application of the guidelines to the facts [of the case], 18 U.S.C. § 3742(e) (1994), rather than review them de novo, Miller, 116 F.3d at 677 (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting United States v. Cefalu, 85 F.3d 964, 968 n. 6 (2d Cir.1996)). Here, we find there is no error, much less clear error, in the district court's conclusion that federal first degree murder was the most analogous federal offense, and thus, that U.S.S.G. § 2A1.1 provided the appropriate offense level. Indeed, we have reached a similar conclusion in United States v. Minicone, 960 F.2d 1099 (2d Cir.1992). 241 In Minicone, involving New York law, the defendant argued, as Roman does here, that it was error to conclude that the most analogous federal offense was federal first degree murder because state law would have categorized the murder at issue only as second degree murder. This Court rejected that claim by comparing the language of New York's second degree murder statute, which is nearly identical to the Connecticut statute at issue here, 16 with 18 U.S.C. § 1111 (1988), which defines murder in the first degree as willful, deliberate, malicious, and premeditated killing. The Court held that the district court did not err in finding that the most analogous federal offense was first degree murder under § 1111. Minicone, 960 F.2d at 1110. Thus, contrary to Roman's claim, the absence of reference to premeditation or malice aforethought in § 53a-54a does not mean that federal first degree murder is not the most analogous federal offense. Clearly, § 1111's definition of federal first degree murder is similar to that of § 53a-54a and, therefore, we find no basis to disturb the district court's application of U.S.S.G. § 2A1.1. F. Vidro's Claims 242 1. Offense-Role Enhancement under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(a) 243 Vidro argues that she should not have received a four-level enhancement under U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(a) for her leadership role in the Council murder because there was no evidence that she controlled the Latin Kings who were involved in the murder. Since Vidro failed to preserve this issue for appeal because she did not raise it below, we review for plain error. Here, we find no error because the evidence clearly showed that Vidro was an organizer or leader in connection with this murder and that the criminal activity involved at least five participants under her supervisory control. See U.S.S.G. § 3B1.1(a). 244 2. Applicable Sentencing Guideline for Vidro's Murders 245 Vidro asserts that the district court erroneously applied the first degree murder guideline, U.S.S.G. § 2A1.1, to her convictions for the Council murder and the triple homicide of Valedon, Calo and Villafane. In particular, Vidro argues that the evidence does not show she willfully, deliberately, maliciously, and with premeditation, killed these persons as required under the federal definition of first degree murder. She therefore contends that the court should have departed downward and applied the second degree murder guideline, U.S.S.G. § 2A1.2, to her murders. Vidro also claims that she should not have been held accountable for murders committed by other Latin Kings because such murders were not reasonably foreseeable by her. Further, Vidro argues that even if they were reasonably foreseeable, such acts were not in furtherance of criminal activity as required by U.S.S.G. § 1B1.3(a)(1)(B) and United States v. Martinez, 16 F.3d 202 (7th Cir.1994), a case involving the felony-murder doctrine. Instead, she asserts that her liability for felony murder should be confined to deaths that occurred during the course of the underlying felony. These contentions are entirely without merit. 246 We review this sentence for clear error and find none here. First, as noted above, Vidro was responsible for the Council murder and the triple homicide under the Pinkerton doctrine, in violation of Conn. Gen.Stat. §§ 53a-8, 53a-54a. Because her underlying conduct--that is, the four murders--violated state laws that are most analogous to federal first degree murder, we find that the district court correctly applied the first degree murder guideline to her murders. See U.S.S.G. §§ 2E1.1 (RICO), Commentary, Application Note 2, 2E1.3 (VICAR), Commentary, Application Note 1. 247 Second, Vidro's reliance on Martinez is misplaced. The example provided in Martinez, which supports the proposition of confining felony murder liability to deaths that occur during the course of a felony, states that [i]f your confederate, with whom you had agreed to rob one store, robs a second store and someone dies in the course of that robbery, you are not guilty of felony murder even if the second robbery was foreseeable. Martinez, 16 F.3d at 208. Vidro's case is factually distinguishable. As noted above, Vidro conspired with Flynn and other Latin King members to kill Reyes, and during the course of that felonious plan, Council was murdered by Flynn. Thus, Vidro is liable for the Council murder because it was done by confederate Flynn in the course of, and in furtherance of, the conspiracy to kill Reyes. Further, when Vidro ordered the murder of Reyes and confederates Zapata and Burgos supplied Flynn and other Latin King soldiers with guns to shoot up a street in New Haven and kill Reyes, it was certainly foreseeable to Vidro that someone other than Reyes would be murdered. Likewise, Vidro is liable because the murders of Calo and Villafane because the record clearly demonstrates that when Vidro ordered confederates Zapata and Hernandez to kill Valedon, it was reasonably foreseeable that in the course of, and in furtherance of, the conspiracy to murder Valedon, others beside Valedon might be killed. 248 3. Challenge to the Drug Quantity Calculation 249 Vidro was charged with participating in the Latin Kings' drug conspiracy. The PSR determined that she was responsible for distributing 5 kilograms of cocaine from her Clay Street residence in New Haven from December 1991 to April 1992 and 10 kilograms of pink cocaine from her Pine Street residence in New Haven from May 1992 until her arrest in October 1992. Co-conspirators' testimony confirmed that Vidro distributed cocaine from these two residences and drug seizures from her residences supported such testimony. A search of her Clay Street residence resulted in the seizure of drugs from a co-conspirator at the premises and in the discovery of one ounce of cocaine within her house. The district court found that Vidro was accountable for 15 kilograms of cocaine and thereby sentenced her to life on the drug conspiracy charge. 250 Vidro argues that there was insufficient evidence for the district court to hold her accountable for 15 kilograms of cocaine. Specifically, Vidro asserts, without agreeing she possessed or distributed cocaine, that she should be held accountable for at most the one ounce of cocaine found at her Clay Street residence. Vidro further contends that the drug quantity calculation should not include amounts distributed by her co-conspirators either before she joined or after she left the conspiracy. These arguments are frivolous. 251 First, co-conspirators testified that the amounts distributed by Vidro far exceeded the drug quantity seized from her Clay Street residence and that such amounts were well over 15 kilograms. Second, Vidro's PSR makes clear that the amount attributable to her was limited to the cocaine distributed at the Clay and Pine Street operations during the time she directed them. Accordingly, we find that there was sufficient evidence that Vidro was responsible for 15 kilograms of cocaine, and therefore, the district court correctly sentenced her to life on the drug conspiracy count. G. Zapata's Claims 252 Zapata argues that his life sentence on the drug conspiracy count should be vacated and remanded for resentencing because the district court did not state its reasons for imposing such sentence as required by 18 U.S.C. § 3553(c)(1). This argument lacks merit. 253 When the Guidelines range exceeds 24 months, § 3553(c)(1) requires the district court to state its reason for imposing a sentence at a particular point within the range. Because Zapata's Guidelines range for a base offense level of 43 mandated life imprisonment, there was no applicable range and therefore § 3553(c)(1) does not apply. Further, the court explained in detail its reasons for its life sentence on the drug conspiracy count. Accordingly, we find the court's sentencing of Zapata to life on the drug conspiracy count was proper.