Opinion ID: 2626902
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: the de facto parent test and its application to jones

Text: ¶ 67 The determination that a de facto parent has standing to petition for visitation does not end the analysis, which must include consideration of what a petitioner must demonstrate to establish that he or she is a de facto parent. In Holtzman v. Knott (In re Custody of H.S.H-K.), 193 Wis.2d 649, 533 N.W.2d 419 (1995), cert. denied, 516 U.S. 975, 116 S.Ct. 475, 133 L.Ed.2d 404 (1995), the Wisconsin Supreme Court established a four-part test to determine whether the petitioner was a de facto parent. Id. at 435-36. Under that test, the petitioner must prove: (1) that the biological or adoptive parent consented to, and fostered, the petitioner's formation and establishment of a parent-like relationship with the child; (2) that the petitioner and the child lived together in the same household; (3) that the petitioner assumed obligations of parenthood by taking significant responsibility for the child's care, education and development, including contributing towards the child's support, without expectation of financial compensation; and (4) that the petitioner has been in a parental role for a length of time sufficient to have established with the child a bonded, dependent relationship parental in nature. Id.; see also V.C. v. M.J.B., 163 N.J. 200, 748 A.2d 539, 551-52 (2000), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 926, 121 S.Ct. 302, 148 L.Ed.2d 243 (2000) (adopting the H.S.H-K. four-part test to determine de facto parent standing); Carvin v. Britain (In re Parentage of L.B.), 155 Wash.2d 679, 122 P.3d 161, 177 (2005), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ____, 126 S.Ct. 2021, 164 L.Ed.2d 806 (2006) (same). ¶ 68 Although I find the Wisconsin test very helpful, I would revise it slightly. The elements requiring that the petitioner live with the child, assume parental obligations, and assume the role of a parent for a sufficient length of time all relate to the ultimate question of whether a parent-child relationship actually existed between the petitioner and the child. Thus, I would simplify the test by combining the second, third, and fourth parts of the Wisconsin test into one element requiring the petitioner to establish the existence of an actual parent-child relationship between the petitioner and the child. I would therefore require that a third party claiming de facto parent status establish by clear and convincing evidence that (1) the legal parent intended to create a permanent parent-child relationship between the third party and the child, and (2) an actual parent-child relationship was formed. To establish the second element, a third party must, at a minimum, present evidence demonstrating that the third party lived with and cared for the child and that, as a result, a parent-child bond developed between the third party and the child. ¶ 69 The facts in this case easily satisfy this test, although I recognize that other cases may not be so clear. I therefore emphasize that de facto parent status is limited to those adults who have fully and completely undertaken a permanent, unequivocal, committed, and responsible parental role in the child's life, C.E.W. v. D.E.W., 845 A.2d 1146, 1152 (Me.2004), and that undertaking must generally be with the full consent, encouragement, and cooperation of a fit custodial parent. I would therefore require that a petitioner claiming de facto parent status prove the two elements of our test by clear and convincing evidence. This burden of proof sets a high threshold, not easily cleared or automatically met by every person who lives with or cares for a child. ¶ 70 The majority suggests that the fact-intensive inquir[y] necessary to determine de facto parent status falls outside the bounds of the traditional role of standing as a gate-keeping tool in litigation. Supra ¶ 31. This court, however, has recognized that some cases require more extensive fact-finding in order to assess whether the plaintiff's interest in the dispute is sufficient to give rise to standing. Sierra Club v. Sevier Power Co., 2006 UT 74, ¶ 28 & n. 3, 148 P.3d 960 (noting that the determination of whether plaintiff's interests are sufficient or too attenuated must be made on a case-by-case basis, taking into account all relevant facts and the policies underlying our standing requirement); see also Washington County Water Conservancy v. Morgan, 2003 UT 58, 82 P.3d 1125 (requiring extensive fact-finding, including a trial and expert testimony, to determine if plaintiff had standing). While we noted in Sierra Club that instances of intensive factual development at the standing phase are rare, they do exist, 2006 UT 74, ¶ 28 n. 3, 148 P.3d 960, and de facto parenthood cases may present one such situation. While the inquiry into whether de facto parent status exists may require a fact intensive inquiry at the standing phase, it in no way supplants the ultimate issue in a visitation disputethe best interests of the child. Thus, a determination of de facto parenthood would not replace a trial on the merits. While the determination of de facto parenthood may burden the legal parent with litigation, in instances where the inquiry will be factually intensive, a legal parent has already allowed a significant relationship to develop between his or her child and a third party, and thus, the legal parent's rights must yield in favor of the best interests of the child. The issue of de facto parent status simply presents an example of the rare situation when the determination of standing may involve complex factual inquiries that a court must consider before it examines the merits of the case. I now proceed to discuss each part of the de facto parent test and its application to Jones.
¶ 71 A party claiming de facto parent status must first show that the legal parent intended the third party and the child to form a permanent parent-child relationship. For this step to be satisfied, the court must find that the legal parent's own actions led to the creation of [a] parental bond between the third party and the child, J.C. v. C.T., 184 Misc.2d 935, 711 N.Y.S.2d 295, 299 (Fam.Ct.2000), and that at the time the bond formed, the legal parent intended it to be permanent, as opposed to temporary, however long. [8] In other words, the legal parent must have consented to and fostered the petitioner's formation and establishment of a parental relationship with the child. [9] See V.C., 163 N.J. 200, 748 A.2d 539, 552 (2000), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 926, 121 S.Ct. 302, 148 L.Ed.2d 243 (2000). A third party can prove this by showing that the legal parent ceded over to the third party a measure of parental authority and autonomy and granted to that third party rights and duties vis-a-vis the child that the third party's status would not otherwise warrant. Id. ¶ 72 The focus of this part of the test is on the legal parent's intent at the formation and during the pendency of the parent-child relationship, not at the termination of the relationship between the legal parent and a third party. Id.; see also T.B. v. L.R.M., 567 Pa. 222, 786 A.2d 913, 919 (2001) (noting that what is relevant to an in loco parentis determination is the method by which a third party gained authority to assume parental status, and holding that where the biological parent encouraged the partner to assume the status of parent and acquiesced as the partner carried out day-to-day care of the child, she could not erase the relationship created with the child after the parties separated). Once the legal parent intentionally creates a de facto parent for his or her child, the legal parent cannot later change his or her mind and unilaterally sever or alter the nature of that relationship. However, this does not mandate that a legal parent form this intent at the conception or birth of the child. The de facto parent's participation in the actual decision to have a child and the process of conception, while highly probative of intent where present, is not required. See V.C., 748 A.2d at 552-53 (recognizing that the situation in which the partner does not participate in the decision to conceive parallel[s] the situation in which a woman, already pregnant or a mother, becomes involved with or marries a man who is not the biological or adoptive father of the child, but thereafter fully functions in every respect as a father). A parent can intend to create a de facto parent-child relationship with a third party anytime during the child's life. ¶ 73 The intent requirement is critical because it ensures that the legal parent has the absolute ability to maintain a zone of autonomous privacy for herself and her child. Id. at 552. If the legal parent wishes to maintain that zone of privacy, he or she need only choose not to delegate parental authority or encourage the formation of a permanent, parent-like relationship between his or her child and another party, and avoid any overt acts in furtherance of such a relationship. Moreover, the intent requirement limits the people who can qualify as de facto parents. For example, under this standard, a nanny or other caretaker will not qualify as a de facto parent because a parent does not intend these relationships to be parental or permanent. Additionally, this part of the test prevents roommates, live-in boyfriends or girlfriends, or significant others from automatically qualifying as de facto parents. While a party that lives with a legal parent and his or her children will likely participate in parental responsibilities to some degree, that participation, by itself, is not enough. A claimant in this position would have to show by clear and convincing evidence that the legal parent intended to create a parent-child relationship and intentionally ceded over a sufficiently significant amount of parental responsibility to create a permanent parental relationship between the claimant and the child. I believe the intent requirement gives due consideration to a parent's right to maintain an autonomous zone of privacy. However, if the legal parent wishes to keep intact this zone of privacy, he or she cannot give a third party parental authority the exercise of which may create a profound bond with the child. Id. ¶ 74 A party claiming de facto parent status must do more than merely allege intent; the party must also point to specific behavior of the legal parent that clearly manifests that intent. This is a case-specific requirement that can be satisfied by a variety of behavioral evidence. There is not, therefore, any specific factor that is required or that will, on its own, be conclusive. Rather, a court must carefully examine all of the evidence to determine whether proof of the requisite intent is clear and convincing. ¶ 75 In the case before us, Barlow's behavior amply demonstrates that, even before the child's birth, Barlow intended Jones to be an equal, permanent parent. Shortly after becoming engaged, Barlow and Jones mutually decided to have children together and formulated a plan whereby Barlow would bear the first child and Jones would bear the second. Pursuant to this plan, Barlow allowed Jones to participate in the selection of a sperm donor, and together the parties selected a donor that shared both of their traits. Jones attended all prenatal matters relating to the artificial insemination and, following conception, participated in prenatal care with Barlow and the physician. During the pregnancy, Jones and Barlow entered into a civil union which, at least in Vermont, conferred rights on each of them respecting children born during the union. Barlow allowed Jones to be present at the delivery and participate to the extent possible. After the child was born, Barlow and Jones chose a name that would reflect both of their surnames and listed that name on the birth certificate. ¶ 76 Barlow continued to openly exhibit her intent that Jones function in a parental role after the child's birth. Barlow, Jones, and the child lived together and held themselves out as the Jones-Barlow family. Barlow and Jones both held themselves out as the child's parents. The child and Barlow both called Jones Mommy, while Barlow was called Momma. Jones provided financial support for the child, attended pediatric appointments with her, and participated in her daily care through such activities as dressing her, feeding her, and taking her to child care. Jones would not have been able to participate in these activities, at least to the extent she did, without Barlow's consent. ¶ 77 Perhaps the most convincing fact is that Barlow designated Jones as the child's legal co-guardian. In fact, the Verified Petition for Appointment of Co-Guardians for a Minor stated that [Jones] is the only other parent that [the child] knows or will know and the Supporting Memorandum stated that [s]ince [the child's] birth, [Jones] has served as her other parent in all regards. Jones and Barlow took further steps to ensure that Jones could protect the child as she would if she were a legal parent, including preparing estate planning documents and naming each other as beneficiaries on life insurance policies to ensure that the child would be cared for in an emergency. ¶ 78 I do not mean to suggest that designating another party as a co-guardian, standing alone, is determinative. To the contrary, I do not believe that a co-guardianship, on its own, would be enough to satisfy this part of the test given that co-guardianships are established for a number of reasons, many of which do not involve the intent to create a permanent parent-child relationship. However, combined with Jones' participation in bringing the child into the world and her daily support thereafter, I find the language and content of the co-guardianship petition in this case particularly persuasive. ¶ 79 Other jurisdictions have relied on actions similar to Barlow's in determining whether a third party is a de facto parent. For example, in V.C., the mother and her partner jointly decided to have children, chose a sperm donor, and participated in prenatal care together. 748 A.2d at 542-43. The children called the partner Meema, and the biological mother referred to her partner as the mother of her children. Id. at 543. The parties and the children lived together as a family, and the partner assumed many day-to-day obligations of parenthood and provided financial support. Id. The New Jersey Supreme Court held that the record supported the conclusion that the mother had fostered and cultivated, in every way, the development of a parent-child bond between [her partner] and [her children]. Id. at 555. ¶ 80 Likewise, in E.N.O. v. L.M.M ., the court held that the mother's partner was a de facto parent. 429 Mass. 824, 711 N.E.2d 886, 892-93 (1999), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1005, 120 S.Ct. 500, 145 L.Ed.2d 386 (1999). There, the parties jointly decided to have a child, the partner cared for the mother during pregnancy, the child was given both parties' surnames, the parties sent out birth announcements listing them both as parents, and the partner assumed most of the financial responsibility for the family and assisted in caring for the child. Id. at 888-89; see also Carvin v. Britain (In re Parentage of L.B.), 155 Wash.2d 679, 122 P.3d 161, 163-65 (2005), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ____, 126 S.Ct. 2021, 164 L.Ed.2d 806 (2006) (looking to factors such as the parties' mutual decision to have a child and selection of a sperm donor, the partner's participation in prenatal care and delivery, the parties' choice to give the child a name that reflected both surnames, the parties' decision to live together as a family unit and hold themselves out as a family, the fact that the child called her mother mommy and the partner momma, and the parties' decision to share parenting responsibilities); T.B., 786 A.2d at 914-15 (holding that the partner was a de facto parent where the parties jointly decided to have a child and thereafter lived together, the mother named her partner as a guardian over the child in her will, they engaged in financial planning to provide for the child, and the partner participated in day-to-day child rearing responsibilities, such as taking the child to child care); H.S.H-K., 533 N.W.2d at 421-22 (holding that the partner was a de facto parent where the parties jointly decided to have a child, the partner was present during prenatal appointments and delivery, the parties gave the child a name that reflected both surnames, the partner provided primary financial support, and both women shared child care responsibilities). ¶ 81 Like the above courts, I find a significant amount of evidence manifesting Barlow's intent to give parental rights to Jones. Barlow's actions clearly and convincingly establish that, up until she and Jones separated, she intended Jones to be her child's other parent. I therefore would hold that in this case the intent requirement has been satisfied.
¶ 82 I now turn to the second part of the de facto parent test. To satisfy this part, the petitioner must prove that he or she and the child formed an actual parent-child relationship. Cf. Youmans v. Ramos, 429 Mass. 774, 711 N.E.2d 165 (1999) (holding that an aunt was a de facto parent where she and the child had developed a substantial mother-daughter relationship). A petitioner satisfies this requirement by establishing that (1) the petitioner lived with and cared for the child on a daily basis, and as a result (2) the petitioner and the child formed a parent-child bond.
¶ 83 In order for a third party and a child to develop an actual parent-child relationship, the third party must have lived with and cared for the child on a daily basis. See V.C., 748 A.2d at 551 (requiring that a petitioner lived in the same household as the child and assumed obligations of parenthood); H.S.H-K., 533 N.W.2d at 421 (same). There is no minimum period of time during which a third party must have lived with and cared for the child. It is, however, appropriate for a court to consider the amount of time during which the third party has functioned as a parent when determining whether an actual parent-child relationship has been created. See V.C., 748 A.2d at 553. In other words, the petitioner must have functioned in a parental role for a long enough period of time to allow a bonded parent-child relationship to develop. Id. How much time is necessary will turn on the facts of each case, including the child's age, [10] developmental stage, and the nature of the relationship. Id. ¶ 84 The care the third party provides to the child during this time must be equivalent to the care a biological or legal parent would provide. This does not require that the third party have the exact same relationship with the child or assume the same responsibilities toward the child as the legal parent. Rather, it demands that the third party assume the normal obligations of parenthood and do so without the expectation of financial compensation. Id. at 551. These obligations include taking significant responsibility for the child's care, education and development, H.S.H-K, 533 N.W.2d at 436, and may or may not include financial contributions to the child and the household. V.C., 748 A.2d at 553. As with the other parts of the de facto parent test, this inquiry is fact sensitive and will vary with each individual case. ¶ 85 Turning to the facts of this case, I believe that Jones has clearly and convincingly shown that she lived with and cared for the child on a daily basis. Jones lived with Barlow and the child from the child's birth until the child was two years old. During that time, Jones participated in the child's daily care as if she were a parent. She took her to doctor appointments, dropped her off at child care, and attended to the child's daily personal needs, such as eating and bathing. Jones also provided the child with financial security, not only by providing for the child in her will and securing a life insurance policy, but also by contributing to the household expenses. ¶ 86 As is the case in most two-parent households, Jones' parental obligations and responsibilities were not the same as Barlow's. For example, when the child was an infant, Barlow, as the nursing mother, nearly always fed the child. Likewise, during the first fifteen months of the child's life, Barlow stayed at home while Jones worked. As the child grew, the parties' roles evolved accordingly, with Barlow returning to work and Jones assuming more care-giving responsibilities. These differences, however, do not mean that Jones was not fulfilling a parental role. Indeed, this division of roles is nearly identical to that frequently found between married men and women with children. Like the district court, I am convinced that Jones assumed the obligations of parenthood by taking sufficient and significant responsibility for the child's care, upbringing, future education and well-being . . . without expectation of financial compensation. ¶ 87 I recognize that Jones' role had changed by the time she filed her petition for visitation. Barlow and the child had moved out, and therefore Jones was no longer living with the child and caring for her on a daily basis. This is not problematic, however. Unlike the doctrine of in loco parentis, a de facto parent need not still be living in the same household as the child at the time the petition is filed; in fact, it is highly unlikely that he or she will be. The third party need only petition the court for visitation within a reasonable time after the legal parent interferes with the third party's relationship with the child. As a practical matter, this interference often will not occur until the third party and the child no longer live together and the legal parent denies visitation. [11] In this case, Jones filed her petition within a reasonable time of Barlow's interference. The parties separated on November 7, 2003, Barlow denied Jones visitation with the child later that same month, and Jones filed her complaint on December 19, 2003. Thus, Jones satisfies our requirement that she lived with and cared for the child on a day-to-day basis.
¶ 88 In addition to the requirement that a petitioner live with and care for the child, to prove the existence of an actual parent-child relationship, the petitioner must show that the petitioner and the child share a relationship with deep emotional bonds such that the child recognizes the person, independent of the legal form of the relationship, as a parent from whom they receive daily guidance and nurturance. In re E.L.M.C., 100 P.3d 546, 559 (Colo.Ct.App.2004), cert. denied, 2004 WL 2377164, 2004 Colo. LEXIS 851, cert. denied, 545 U.S. 1111, 125 S.Ct. 2551, 162 L.Ed.2d 287 (2005). A child can form this type of relationship regardless of whether the potential de facto parent is biologically related to the child. See, e.g., J. Hammond Muench & Martin R. Levy, Psychological Parentage: A Natural Right, 13 Fam. L.Q. 129, 152 (1979) ([T]he child's development depends upon the continuity and character of [the] relationship with the adult he perceives as his parent, and . . . this perception rather than the fact of biological parenthood is the basis of their relationship. (citation omitted)); Smith v. Org. of Foster Families for Equality and Reform, 431 U.S. 816, 843, 97 S.Ct. 2094, 53 L.Ed.2d 14 (1977) ([B]iological relationships are not [the] exclusive determination of the existence of a family.). Rather, bonded parent-child relationships form when children receive sensitive and responsive care from familiar adults, who may or may not be biologically related, in the course of everyday caresuch as being fed, held, spoken to, played with, soothed, and stimulated. Joan B. Kelley & Michael E. Lamb, Using Child Development Research to Make Appropriate Custody and Access Decisions for Young Children, 38 Fam. & Conciliation Cts. Rev. 297, 298 (2000); see also Smith, 431 U.S. at 844, 97 S.Ct. 2094 ([T]he importance of the familial relationship, to the individuals involved and to the society, stems from the emotional attachments that derive from the intimacy of daily association, and from the role it plays in `promot[ing] a way of life' through the instruction of children. (citation omitted) (alteration in original)). In addition, parent-child bonds develop and grow stronger when the child spends time in the third party's general proximity. Kelley & Lamb, supra ¶ 88, at 298. ¶ 89 There is ample evidence of an actual parent-child bond in this case. As noted previously, Jones lived with and cared for the child for the first two years of the child's life. Jones testified that she felt bonded to the child during this time, particularly in the mornings when she and the child were alone. Moreover, as is evident by this lawsuit, Jones seriously wishes to maintain this relationship. I find it persuasive that family and friends testified that the relationship between Jones and the child mirrored a traditional parent-child relationship. The district judge found the testimony of these witnesses particularly persuasive because they witnessed this relationship in the home at times that were not merely social occasions, but rather in evenings and early mornings. The child's pediatrician echoed these witnesses, testifying that [i]n the office, both [Jones and Barlow] seemed to take a very active role in [the child's] well-being and be very genuinely interested in how she was doing. Like the district judge, I find this testimony extremely important. ¶ 90 It is undisputed that Barlow also shared a close mother-daughter relationship with the child. Like the district judge, I believe that Barlow may have had a closer relationship with the child given that she was the biological and nursing mother. I do not believe, however, that Barlow's closer relationship with the child prohibits the child and Jones from also developing an actual parent-child relationship. That the third party is not the child's primary caregiver does not imply that the third party and the child do not share a real parent-child bond. Research has shown that children generally form attachments to both parents at the same age, usually around six to seven months. Kelly & Lamb, supra ¶ 88, at 300. This is true even where one parent spends more time with the child than the other, as is the case in the traditional home. Id. Evidence that Barlow was the child's primary caregiver does not defeat a claim of an actual parent-child bond between Jones and the child. Thus, Jones meets the requirement that she formed an actual parental bond with the child.