Opinion ID: 676036
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 1

Heading: Common Law Principles Recognizing Tort of Negligent

Text: Infliction of Emotional Distress 18 It has long been accepted by scholarly writers that if a negligent actor's conduct results in a physical injury for which there is liability, the actor is also liable for whatever emotional harm stems from the physical injury. See Restatement (Second) of Torts Sec. 456 (1965). One kind of emotional harm for which recovery may be had is a plaintiff's apprehension as to the effects of the physical injury received. See Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts Sec. 54, at 362-63 (W. Page Keeton et al. eds., 5th ed. 1984). Further, recovery for emotional harm does not depend on the seriousness or extent of the initial physical injury. See, e.g., Borras v. Sea-Land Serv., Inc., 586 F.2d 881, 885 (1st Cir.1978) (defendant liable for unforeseeable emotional disturbance resulting from the tortious conduct resulting from throwing spoon at plaintiff which caused but minor bodily harm). A majority of states now recognize a separate cause of action for negligent infliction of emotional distress. See Buell, 480 U.S. at 569 & n. 20, 107 S.Ct. at 1418 & n. 20. 19 1. Physical Impact. At first, common law cases in state courts permitted recovery for emotional harm only when the plaintiff suffered a physical injury or impact that led to the emotional distress. Some states still insist on that requirement. See, e.g., Howard v. Alexandria Hosp., 245 Va. 346, 429 S.E.2d 22, 24-25 (1993) (plaintiff operated on with unsterile instruments made out prima facie case of physical injury sufficient to support a claim of emotional distress for fear of developing AIDS where her body was invaded by intravenous tubes and needles giving pain relief and by instruments withdrawing blood); Bodine v. Federal Kemper Life Assurance Co., 912 F.2d 1373, 1376 (11th Cir.1990) (Florida law generally requires plaintiff suffer physical impact to recover for negligent infliction of emotional distress), cert. denied, 499 U.S. 905, 111 S.Ct. 1105, 113 L.Ed.2d 215 (1991). But, even in those states, it takes very little trauma to justify recovery for the tort of negligent infliction of emotional distress. See, e.g., Deutsch v. Shein, 597 S.W.2d 141, 146 (Ky.1980) (plaintiff's exposure to x-rays was sufficient physical contact to support a claim of emotional distress). And, in the majority of jurisdictions the physical injury or impact test has been discarded and recovery is now permitted in a broader range of circumstances. 20 2. Zone of Danger. In place of a physical injury requirement, some states apply a zone of danger test, allowing recovery where plaintiff has been threatened with physical injury by the defendant's conduct, and was in reasonable fear of injury, whether or not the plaintiff was actually impacted or suffered such physical injury. See, e.g., Kimelman v. Colorado Springs, 775 P.2d 51, 52 (Colo.Ct.App.1988) (denying recovery for emotional distress to plaintiffs who saw family member's casket fall headlong into grave, because they were not in the zone of danger), cert. denied, 493 U.S. 981, 110 S.Ct. 512, 107 L.Ed.2d 514 (1989); Farrall v. Armstrong Cork Co., 457 A.2d 763 (Del.Super.Ct.1983); Rickey v. Chicago Transit Auth., 98 Ill.2d 546, 75 Ill.Dec. 211, 457 N.E.2d 1 (1983). 21 3. Bystander Test. The bystander test, a variation on the zone of danger test, is followed in some jurisdictions and permits a plaintiff witnessing the death or severe injury to a family member to recover, even though not in the zone of physical danger. See, e.g., Dillon v. Legg, 68 Cal.2d 728, 69 Cal.Rptr. 72, 441 P.2d 912, 915-16, 920-21 & n. 5 (1968) (mother could recover for emotional distress caused by witnessing death of daughter even though there was no physical impact and she was not in the zone of physical danger). 22 4. Manifestation of Physical Injury. The common law of other states imposes a more expansive physical manifestation test, granting recovery when the plaintiff's emotional injury is severe enough to manifest itself in a physical injury. See, e.g., Stites v. Sundstrand Heat Transfer, Inc., 660 F.Supp. 1516, 1526 (W.D.Mich.1987) (under Michigan law plaintiff seeking recovery for fear of cancer must show that the emotional distress has manifested itself in definite and objective physical injury). 23 5. Foreseeability Test. A minority of states have done away with all formal tests and allow recovery for severe mental distress that was reasonably foreseeable. See, e.g., In re Hawaii Fed. Asbestos Cases, 734 F.Supp. 1563, 1568 (D.Haw.1990) (Hawaii law limits claims for negligent infliction of emotional distress to actions that would foreseeably inflict serious emotional distress on the reasonable person); Dempsey v. National Enquirer, 702 F.Supp. 927, 930 (D.Me.1988) (no recovery in suit against tabloid because not reasonably foreseeable that publication would cause plaintiff severe emotional distress). 24 The Supreme Court recently held that causes of action for negligent infliction of emotional distress are cognizable under FELA. See Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall, --- U.S. ----, ----, 114 S.Ct. 2396, 2406-08, 129 L.Ed.2d 427 (U.S.1994). But the Court limited recovery to those plaintiffs who meet the common law zone of danger test, that is, those plaintiffs who sustain a physical impact as a result of a defendant's negligent conduct, or who are placed in immediate risk of physical harm by that conduct. Id. at ---- - ----, 114 S.Ct. at 2399-400. It reasoned that this test best reconciled the state common law cases limiting potential liability with the remedial objectives of the federal statute. See id. at ----, 114 S.Ct. at 2408-10. Under this test, [r]ailroad employees thus will be able to recover for injuries--physical and emotional--caused by the negligent conduct of their employers that threatens them imminently with physical impact. Id. at ----, 114 S.Ct. at 2411. 25 We believe Marchica's claim meets this test. He sustained a puncture wound from a discarded hypodermic needle as a result of LIRR's negligent conduct. Because he suffered a physical impact, Marchica is entitled to receive compensation for all injuries--physical and emotional--proximately caused by the physical impact. Further, his emotional distress manifested itself physically in post traumatic stress disorder, accompanied by sleeplessness, weight loss, vomiting, rashes and anxiety, shortly after he sustained the physical impact. And his emotional injury was reasonably foreseeable, as it was of the sort that a person in his circumstances would ordinarily experience. 26