Opinion ID: 2365380
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Reporting of Co-worker's Suspected Criminal ActivityWhistleblower Protection

Text: Discussing, as we have, our prior bases for defining a public policy mandate under which a wrongful discharge claim may be pursued is intended not only to provide a historical development of this tort, but also to help demonstrate long-standing prerequisites for recognition of a public policy exception to the at-will employment doctrine, and hence, the propriety of adopting a policy mandate similar to that which is sought by the petitioner today, but for which he is not eligible. We explain. First, no statutory impediment to the tort cause of action sought by the petitioner exists because the Legislature, quite simply, has declined to provide a statutory remedy for private employee-whistleblowers. [11] Therefore, the purpose for recognizing the wrongful discharge torti.e. to provide a remedy for an otherwise unremedied violation of public policyhas maintained its vitality. Second, and most significantly, an express statutory mandate provides a discernible foundation for the public policy exception sought by the petitioner; namely, the Legislature has created a misdemeanor offense for a person who harms or injures another's person or property in retaliation for reporting a crime. See Md. Code, Art. 27, § 762 (1957, 1996 Repl.Vol., 2001 Supp.). [12] Section 762 specifically provides: (a) Prohibited acts. A person may not intentionally harm or injure any person or damage or destroy any property with the intent of retaliating against a victim or witness for giving testimony in an official proceeding or for reporting a crime or delinquent act. (b) Penalty. A person who violates this section is guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be sentenced to imprisonment for not more than 5 years. A witness is defined as a person who: (1) Has knowledge of the existence of facts relating to a crime or delinquent act; (2) Makes a declaration under oath that is received as evidence for any purpose; (3) Has reported a crime or delinquent act to a law enforcement officer, prosecutor, intake officer, correctional officer, or judicial officer; or (4) Has been served with a subpoena issued under the authority of a court of this State, of any other state, or of the United States. See Md.Code(1957, 1996 Repl.Vol., 2001 Supp.), Art. 27, § 760(e). The particular definitions of witness which are germane to the prohibition in Section 762 are found in subsections (2) and (3) of Section 760(d): A witness who [m]akes a declaration under oath that is received as evidence for any purpose pursuant to Section 760(d)(2) is a witness against whom retaliation is prohibited for giving testimony in an official proceeding pursuant to Section 762(a). A witness who [h]as reported a crime or delinquent act to a law enforcement officer, prosecutor, intake officer, correctional officer, or judicial officer pursuant to Section 760(d)(3) is a witness against whom retaliation is prohibited for reporting a crime or delinquent act. Md.Code, Art. 27, § 762(a). From these statutory provisions, a clearly definable public policy goal is derived: the Legislature sought to protect those witnesses who report suspected criminal activity to the appropriate law enforcement or judicial authority from being harmed for performing this important public task. From this clearly definable public policy, we are able to adopt a civil cause of action in wrongful discharge for employees who are discharged for reporting suspected criminal activity to the appropriate authorities. [13] It appears, then, that the Legislature has created a cognizable statutory interest in the ability to report crimes or testify at an official proceeding without fear of retaliation in terms of personal or property damage. Similar to our decision in Ewing, supra, where we held that while Article 101, Section 39A created a criminal cause against those employers who discharge an employee for filing workers' compensation claims, the tort of wrongful discharge provides a civil remedy, see Ewing, 312 Md. at 49-50, 537 A.2d at 1174-75, we now conclude that while Section 762 creates a criminal cause against those who retaliate against witnesses who report crimes, the tort of wrongful discharge provides a civil remedy. [14] See Makovi, 316 Md. at 612, 561 A.2d at 183 (discussing this Court's holding in Ewing and noting that a criminal statutory sanction would not preclude the wrongful discharge tort). Thus, we hold that terminating employment on the grounds that the employee (as a victim or witness) gave testimony at an official proceeding or reported a suspected crime to the appropriate law enforcement or judicial officer is wrongful and contrary to public policy. This conclusion is in line with our analysis in Molesworth, supra, in which the decisional issue was whether Section 14 of Article 49B provided a sufficiently clear mandate of public policy to support a common law wrongful discharge cause of action. See 341 Md. at 630, 672 A.2d at 613. We resolved to determine whether the specific term employer as used in Section 14, included those employers who were exempt by Section 15(b). In so doing, we used the plain language of the statute to discern the legislative intent, namely that any employer was prohibited from discriminating in employment decisions. Id. at 630-31, 672 A.2d at 613; see also id. at 632, 672 A.2d at 614 (stating that where a public policy is as pervasive as Maryland's policy against sex discrimination, we presume the legislature does not intend to allow violations of that policy, absent some indication of a contrary intent). Similarly, in the case sub judice, we use the plain language of Article 27, Section 762 to discern that the Legislature intended to preclude retaliation against those who report criminal activity. That we so hold, however, does not mean that the petitioner has a successful claim for wrongful discharge. To qualify for the public policy exception to at-will employment, the employee must report the suspected criminal activity to the appropriate law enforcement or judicial official, not merely investigate suspected wrong-doing and discuss that investigation with co-employees or supervisors. [15] See Faust v. Ryder Comm. Leasing & Servs., 954 S.W.2d 383, 391 (Mo.Ct.App.1997)(recognizing that a wrongful discharge claim may exist where there is a clear mandate of public policy and where the `whistleblowing' actually occurred in that [the employee] reported the alleged criminal wrongdoing to the proper authorities )(emphasis added). In the limited times that the Legislature has enacted whistle-blower protection to protect private employees, the protection is only valid when the employee/whistle-blower reports the suspect activity externally. For example, Section 5-604(b) of the Labor and Employment Article protects an employee who files a complaint or brings an action for violations of the Occupational Safety and Health title by his or her employer. Maryland's anti-discrimination laws protect private employees who have opposed any unlawful discriminatory practice in which the employer engages, or reported or participated in an investigation or proceeding concerning the employer's discriminatory practices. See Md.Code, Art. 49b, § 16(f). [16] Similarly, with respect to Article 27, Section 762, the Legislature created a clear and unmistakable prohibition against retaliating against a person who reports criminal activity, externally, to the appropriate law enforcement authorities. We believe a corresponding common law cause of action must also require external reporting to the appropriate law enforcement authorities. The petitioner argues that his employment as an Anne Arundel County Sheriff's Deputy should affect the duties and obligations he undertook as a security officer at Sears; i.e., he was not merely carrying out his duties as a security officer in investigating employee theft at Sears, but rather he also had a duty to investigate criminal acts as a sworn deputy with the Sheriff's Office. As the Court of Special Appeals correctly observed, however, [The petitioner] conceded ... that he was acting at all times relevant to his case as an employee of Sears, that his investigation of the store manager was outside of his duties as a sheriff's deputy, and that he never had probable cause to suspect that the store manager had committed a crime, so as to trigger his duties as a deputy sheriff. Therefore, any legal duties that Wholey may have had in his role as a deputy sheriff were not implicated by his investigation of the store manager. Wholey, 139 Md.App. at 662-63 n. 7, 779 A.2d at 420 n. 7. Granted, one may have a viable claim of wrongful discharge if terminated for acting pursuant to a legal duty when the employee's failure to perform that duty could result in potential liability. See Thompson v. Memorial Hosp., 925 F.Supp. 400, 407-08 (D.Md.1996)(finding that the legal duty to report the misadministration of radiation belonged to the hospital as the licensee under the regulation, COMAR 26.12.01.01, § D.409(b), and not the employee-physicist; therefore the employee could not claim protection from wrongful discharge under a public policy mandate); Bleich v. Florence Crittenton Serv., 98 Md.App. 123, 138-40, 632 A.2d 463, 470-71 (1993)(recognizing a wrongful discharge claim for an educator terminated for filing a report for child abuse and neglect, as she was explicitly required to do by Maryland law, COMAR 07.02.23.01.A and COMAR 07.02.23.06D(1)(c)); see also Shapiro v. Massengill, 105 Md.App. 743, 768-69, 661 A.2d 202, 215, cert. denied, 341 Md. 28, 668 A.2d 36 (1995)(refusing to consider a claim of wrongful discharge absent some clear mandate or duty which the employee himself actually could be held responsible for breaching). The petitioner cannot point to any statute or regulation pertaining to his duties as either a Sears security officer or a deputy sheriff that would have held him accountable for failing to investigate or report the suspicious activity of the store manager. We also shall consider the purpose of the petitioner's duties because such purpose, particularly as it relates to the general public, has also been a consideration in some jurisdictions. For example, the Connecticut Supreme Court, in Sheets v. Teddy's Frosted Foods, Inc., 179 Conn. 471, 427 A.2d 385 (1980), found a valid cause of action for wrongful discharge when an employee was fired for attempting to ensure that the employer's product complied with labeling and licensing laws of the state. As the quality control director of the company, the employee maintained responsibility for ensuring compliance with the regulations to which the company was bound under the Connecticut Uniform Drug and Cosmetic Act. Id. at 388. Therefore, the court stated that, an employee should not be put to an election whether to risk criminal sanction or to jeopardize his continued employment. Id. at 389. Contrary to the Connecticut case, the petitioner in the present case would not have risked criminal sanction for failing to pursue, on his employer's request, the continued investigation of the store manager. The reporting duties of the petitioner and Sheets are distinguishable. The petitioner was tasked with protecting the property of Sears from theft by customers and employees, and without question, in investigating the store manager, the petitioner was fulfilling the specific duties for which he was hired. The purpose of this duty, however, was to guard the private proprietary interests of Sears; Sheets, on the other hand, was responsible for ensuring compliance with a Connecticut regulation enacted to protect consumers, and thus the public, as a whole. Therefore, the petitioner cannot seek solace in the fact that his duties required him to investigate possible thefts. Nor can the petitioner seek protection from an esoteric theory about acting in the public good by investigating criminal activity. The public good is best served by reporting suspected criminal activity to law enforcement authorities; an action which the petitioner, in this case, did not take. Granted, in order to report some suspected criminal activity a certain amount of marshaling of the facts may occur, but the mere recognition of a potential problem and gathering of information are not per se in the public interest. Furthermore, we decline to create a tort cause of action based solely on transcendental notions of that which is in the public interest, particularly when our own Legislature has declined to make individual citizens criminally responsible for failing to investigate or report criminal activity. In Pope v. State, 284 Md. 309, 352, 396 A.2d 1054, 1078 (1979), we noted: If the Legislature finds it advisable that the people be obligated under peril of criminal penalty to disclose knowledge of criminal acts, it is, of course, free to create an offense to that end, within constitutional imitations, and, hopefully, with adequate safeguards. To date, our Legislature has not so acted, except to protect those who do report criminal activity from retaliation. This Court now adopts a public policy mandate for employees who report criminal activity to the appropriate law enforcement authorities; we use caution, however, when considering a case on which the petitioner primarily relies, Palmateer v. Int' l Harvester Co., 85 Ill.2d 124, 52 Ill.Dec. 13, 421 N.E.2d 876 (1981). The Illinois court in Palmateer held that the reporting of any type of crime is protected because the act of investigating and reporting criminal activity is, in and of itself, a public good. See Palmateer, 52 Ill.Dec. 13, 421 N.E.2d at 879-80. While the factual circumstances in Palmateer an employee who was discharged after reporting to local law enforcement authorities that a fellow employee might be violating the criminal code may appear to harmonize with our holding today, the means by which the Illinois court arrived at this conclusion do not. The Palmateer court based its holding entirely on abstract notions of that which constitutes the public good. As the criticism extended by the dissent in Palmateer similarly alludes, such a policy mandate was unsupported by any legislative enactment and was grounded only in the obscure belief that public policy insists that all citizens become crime-fighters. See Palmateer, 52 Ill.Dec. 13, 421 N.E.2d at 884. The ends may be similar, but the means by which we achieve those ends are vastly different. Our decision today is grounded in, and supported by, a legislative enactment from which a public policy mandate clearly emanates. We refuse to take the specific factual circumstance before us and induce from it an all-encompassing exception, as the petitioner would like, which declares that the act of investigating criminal activity is a per se public benefit, the termination for which, is actionable in tort law. Our legislature has declined to encroach upon the employment decisions of private companies through creation of a general all-encompassing whistleblower protection statute which would protect employees who investigate and internally report suspected criminal activity; we, in turn, decline to act in its stead. [17] See Adler, 291 Md. at 45, 432 A.2d at 472 (stating that declaration of public policy is normally the function of the legislative branch and thus concluding that while a cause of action may be recognized at common law, the basis for that cause of action must come from some clear mandate of public policy). The Legislature clearly intended, however, to preclude retaliation for the reporting of criminal activity by creating a criminal cause against those who violate the mandate. We similarly limit the public policy exception to those who report criminal activity to the appropriate authorities. We digress momentarily to address concerns that our prior decision in Adler, supra, may appear to preclude the holding we adopt today. In Adler we neglected to find a cause of action for wrongful discharge when the employee reported illegal practices by management to his supervisors because Adler fail[ed] to provide any factual details to support the general and conclusory averments ... [n]or [did] he point to any specific statutory provision... that particularly prohibits the claimed misconduct. 291 Md. at 46, 432 A.2d at 472. The critical distinguishing factor between Adler and the case sub judice is at the time Adler was decided, the Legislature had not enacted the provision prohibiting retaliation against a witness for reporting a crime. Section 762, originally enacted as Section 768, see Md.Code (1957, 1992 Repl.Vol., 1993 Cum.Supp.), Art. 27, § 768, did not take effect until October of 1993. Id. Prior to the Acts of 1993, the Legislature had only prohibited intimidating, influencing or corrupting jurors or witnesses in the discharge of his duty, i.e. as a juror deciding the outcome of a case or a witness giving testimony, see Md.Code (1957, 1992 Repl.Vol.), Art. 27, § 27, therefore, no public policy mandate regarding the reporting of criminal activity was discernible. [18] Again, while no legal duty to report criminal activity exists in Maryland, at least with respect to the factual circumstances before us, the Legislature has determined that one who reports criminal activity to appropriate authorities should be statutorily protected from retaliation for such conduct. Therefore, we conclude that a public policy mandate exists for employees who report criminal activity to the appropriate authorities and are subsequently discharged from employment on this basis. We decline the petitioner's invitation to adopt a broader public policy mandate for conduct encompassing the investigation of suspected criminal activity of an employee, being of the opinion that such a significant change in our law is best left to the Legislature. See Sabetay v. Sterling Drug, Inc., 69 N.Y.2d 329, 514 N.Y.S.2d 209, 506 N.E.2d 919, 922, 923 (N.Y.1987)(refusing to recognize a tort cause of action for wrongful discharge in violation of public policy for a whistleblower who reported illegal tax avoidance schemes to his supervisor, stating that significant alteration of employment relationships... is best left to the Legislature... because stability and predictability in contractual affairs is a highly desirable jurisprudential value and further noting that its Legislature had appropriately responded by enacting a myriad of statutes to protect at-will employees from terminations which run contrary to public policy)(citing Murphy v. American Home Prods. Corp., 58 N.Y.2d 293, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232, 448 N.E.2d 86 (1983)). Furthermore, as the Supreme Court of California declared in Gantt v. Sentry Ins., 1 Cal.4th 1083, 4 Cal.Rptr.2d 874, 824 P.2d 680 (1992): A public policy exception carefully tethered to fundamental policies that are delineated in constitutional or statutory provisions strikes the proper balance among the interests of employers, employees and the public. The employer is bound, at a minimum, to know the fundamental public policies of the state and nation as expressed in their constitutions and statutes; so limited, the public policy exception presents no impediment to employers that operate within the bounds of law. Employees are protected against employer actions that contravene fundamental state policy. And society's interests are served through a more stable job market, in which its most important policies are safeguarded. Id. at 687-88 (emphasis added). We believe that the proper balance is achieved by proceeding cautiously when called upon to declare public policy absent some legislative or judicial expression on the subject and in so doing, we limit the adoption of a tort cause of action for wrongful discharge to circumstances where an employee reports criminal activity to the proper authorities and is discharged as a result of this reporting. See Ewing, 312 Md. at 49, 537 A.2d at 1175 (explaining that the recognized tort action was not intended to reach every wrongful discharge, but rather only those where a clear mandate of public policy is violated). JUDGMENT OF THE COURT OF SPECIAL APPEALS AFFIRMED WITH COSTS. RAKER and WILNER, JJ. concur. BELL, C.J. and ELDRIDGE, J. dissent. Concurring opinion by RAKER, Judge., in which WILNER, Judge., joins. I join in the judgment of the plurality opinion affirming the judgment of the Court of Special Appeals. Unlike the plurality, I would affirm on the basis of the well-reasoned opinion of the Court of Special Appeals. The plurality holds that a clear public policy mandate exists in the State of Maryland which protects employees from a termination based upon the reporting of suspected criminal activities to the appropriate law enforcement authorities. See ante at 484. The case before us, however, involves an employee reporting to his supervisors, not to law enforcement officials. There is no clear public policy mandate that protects workers who report suspected crimes to their superiors. Therefore, I would not reach out to create a new exception to the at-will employment doctrine in a case not ripe for such decision. Inasmuch as the plaintiff herein has not stated facts to justify any exception to the at-will employment doctrine, this Court should not introduce expansive public policy dicta into the opinion. The Court pays lip service to the notion that we should proceed cautiously when called upon to declare public policy absent some legislative or judicial expression on the subject. See ante at 501. Nonetheless, the Court creates a tort cause of action in a case where the facts alleged by the plaintiff do not constitute a cause of action. See ante at 501. Even if it were necessary to touch on the question addressed by the plurality, I would reach a different conclusion. This Court has recognized an exception to the at-will employment doctrine where the discharge of an employee violates a clear mandate of public policy. Adler v. American Standard Corp., 291 Md. 31, 40, 432 A.2d 464, 469 (1981). This exception, however, is a narrow one. Maryland courts have found a violation of a clear mandate of public policy only in limited circumstances: where an employee has been fired for refusing to violate the law or the legal rights of a third party, see Kessler v. Equity Management, Inc., 82 Md.App. 577, 572 A.2d 1144 (1990) (holding that firing an at-will employee for refusing to commit the tort of invasion of privacy constitutes wrongful discharge), and where an employee has been terminated for exercising a specific legal right or duty. See Watson v. Peoples Sec. Life Ins. Co., 322 Md. 467, 588 A.2d 760 (1991) (holding that is contrary to a clear mandate of public policy for an employer to discharge an employee for seeking legal redress against a co-worker for sexual harassment); Ewing v. Koppers Co., 312 Md. 45, 537 A.2d 1173 (1988) (holding that discharging an employee for filing a worker's compensation claim contravenes clear mandate of public policy); see also Milton v. ITT Research Inst., 138 F.3d 519 (4th Cir.1998); Adler v. American Standard Corp., 830 F.2d 1303 (4th Cir.1987). In the case sub judice, the Court of Special Appeals found that petitioner's claim did not fit under either of these categories, and that petitioner was therefore precluded from maintaining a cause of action for wrongful discharge. Sears v. Wholey, 139 Md.App. 642, 779 A.2d 408 (2001). I agree with this conclusion. Even assuming that this Court would recognize an exception to the at-will employment doctrine in a case where an employee is required to report a crime to the authorities and is then discharged by an employer for doing so, the plurality has adopted a much broader exception. The plurality states that [c]ourts must ... use care in creating new public policy .... Ante at 489, 498 (holding that [t]his court now adopts a public policy mandate for employees who report criminal activity to the appropriate law enforcement authorities....). Ironically, it is lack of caution or care that is the Achilles heel of the plurality opinion. In creating exceptions to the at-will employment doctrine, courts do not create new public policy. Rather, we look to a clear mandate of public policy that necessitates the adoption of an exception to the at-will employment doctrine. See Makovi v. Sherwin-Williams Co., 316 Md. 603, 561 A.2d 179 (1989). This Court should not be creating public policy to justify an exception to the at will employment doctrine. See Magee v. O'Neill, 19 S.C. 170, 185 (S.C.1883) (stating that [t]he subjects in which the court undertakes to make the law by mere declaration of public policy should not be increased in number without the clearest reasons and the most pressing necessity.). This is particularly true in a case where, even if the tort did exist, the facts do not fit the tort. The plurality's opinion is also out of synch with our precedent regarding wrongful discharge. We have stated that this Court is not confined to legislative enactments, prior judicial decisions or administrative regulations when determining the public policy of this State. Adler, 291 Md. at 45, 432 A.2d at 472. Recognition of an otherwise undeclared public policy, however, involves the application of a very nebulous concept to the facts of a given case. Id. Therefore, absent a statute expressing a clear mandate of public policy, there ordinarily is no violation of public policy by an employer's discharging an at will employee. See Molesworth v. Brandon, 341 Md. 621, 630, 672 A.2d 608, 613 (1996) (quoting Watson v. Peoples Ins. Co., 322 Md. 467, 588 A.2d 760 (1991)); Felder v. Butler, 292 Md. 174, 184, 438 A.2d 494, 499 (1981) (noting that [i]n determining the public policy of the State, courts consider, as a primary source, statutory or constitutional provisions.). The plurality opinion points to Article 27, § 762 in an effort to find statutory support for its conclusion that there is a clear public policy mandate protecting employees who report suspected criminal activity to law enforcement officials. See ante at 493. That statute, however, does not place any duty upon an employee and is not an expression of clearly mandated public policy that would support the exception created today. Moreover, the plurality's reading of the statute expands the class of people protected under § 762, which only protects a victim or witness who gives testimony or reports a crime. [19] Under the plurality opinion, the protection of the statute applies to any employee who reports suspected criminal activity to the appropriate law enforcement officials, irrespective of whether there is a duty to report, or whether the employee was a testifying victim or witness. Many courts have commented on dangers inherent in judicial involvement in the formation of public policy. Judge Levine, writing for Court in Maryland-Nat'l Capital Park and Planning Comm'n v. Washington Nat'l Arena, 282 Md. 588, 386 A.2d 1216 (1978), discussed the meaning of public policy as follows: ANearly 150 years ago Lord Truro set forth what has become the classical formulation of the public policy doctrine that to which we adhere in Maryland: `Public policy is that principle of the law which holds that no subject can lawfully do that which has a tendency to be injurious to the public, or against the public good, which may be termed, as it sometimes has been, the policy of the law, or public policy in relation to the administration of the law.' But beyond this relatively indeterminate description of the doctrine, jurists to this day have been unable to fashion a truly workable definition of public policy. Not being restricted to the conventional sources of positive law (constitutions, statutes and judicial decisions), judges are frequently called upon to discern the dictates of sound social policy and human welfare based on nothing more than their own personal experience and intellectual capacity. Inevitably, conceptions of public policy tend to ebb and flow with the tides of public opinion, making it difficult for courts to apply the principle with any degree of certainty. `[P]ublic policy ... is but a shifting and variable notion appealed to only when no other argument is available, and which, if relied upon today, may be utterly repudiated tomorrow.' Id. at 605-606, 386 A.2d at 1226 (citations omitted). Thus, in Adler, we stated: We have always been aware ... that recognition or an otherwise undeclared public policy as a basis of a judicial decision involves the application of a very nebulous concept to the facts of a given case, and that declaration of public policy is normally the function of the legislative branch. We have been consistently reluctant, for example, to strike down voluntary contractual arrangements on public policy grounds. Adler, 291 Md. at 45, 432 A.2d at 472 (citations omitted). See also Milton, 138 F.3d at 523 (noting that [t]his search for a specific legal duty is no mere formality. Rather it limits judicial forays into the wilderness of discerning `public policy' without clear direction from a legislative or regulatory search.). Accordingly, I would decide the case before us and leave for another day the consideration of whether there exists a clear mandate of public policy that would justify an exception in other circumstances. Judge WILNER has authorized me to state that he joins in the views expressed herein. Dissenting Opinion by ELDRIDGE, Judge., in which BELL, Chief Judge., joins. In my view, the decision today and Judge Battaglia's plurality opinion are inconsistent with this Court's holding in Molesworth v. Brandon, 341 Md. 621, 672 A.2d 608 (1996). In Molesworth, a former employee of a veterinarian brought a common law abusive discharge action against the veterinarian. The former employee claimed that her employment had been terminated because of her gender. This Court, in an opinion by Chief Judge Murphy, held that Maryland Code (1957, 1998 Repl.Vol.), Art. 49B, §§ 14 and 15, prohibiting employers from discriminating based on gender, provided a sufficiently clear mandate of public policy to support Molesworth's common law wrongful discharge cause of action, even though the defendant veterinarian was not an employer within the meaning of the statutory provisions. Molesworth v. Brandon, supra, 341 Md. at 630-632, 672 A.2d at 613-614. Similarly, the enactments by the General Assembly protecting various categories of employee-whistleblowers, cited in the plurality opinion, furnish a sufficiently clear mandate of public policy to support the petitioner Wholey's cause of action. In addition, I continue to disagree with the extremely narrow scope which majorities of this Court have repeatedly accorded the tort of abusive discharge. This Court unanimously recognized the tort of abusive discharge in Adler v. American Standard Corp., 291 Md. 31, 432 A.2d 464 (1981). Subsequently, however, the Court has so limited the tort action that numerous discharges from employment, which are abusive and clearly contrary to public policy as a matter of common sense, are held to be beyond the scope of the tort. It is illogical to recognize a tort action and then hold that virtually nothing falls within the action. See Caldor v. Bowden, 330 Md. 632, 677-678, 625 A.2d 959, 980-981 (1993) (Eldridge, J., joined by Bell, J., dissenting); Watson v. Peoples Ins. Co., 322 Md. 467, 487-493, 588 A.2d 760, 770-772 (1991) (Eldridge, J., dissenting in part); Chappell v. Southern Maryland Hospital, 320 Md. 483, 498-503, 578 A.2d 766, 774-776 (1990) (Adkins, J., joined by Eldridge, J., and Cole, J., dissenting); Makovi v. Sherwin-Williams Co., 316 Md. 603, 626-646, 561 A.2d 179, 190-200 (1989) (Adkins, J., joined by Eldridge, J., and Cole, J., dissenting). See also Insignia v. Ashton, 359 Md. 560, 574-575, 755 A.2d 1080, 1087-1088 (2000) (Eldridge, J., concurring). Chief Judge BELL agrees with the views here expressed and joins this opinion.