Opinion ID: 1182224
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: the informant's testimony

Text: As noted in Part 22, footnote 29, the majority declines to address the state's argument that the trial court erred in suppressing the informant's testimony. In this Part III, I address the state's argument by first setting forth the facts surrounding defendant's incarceration in the Pima County Jail, the dates on which the state charged defendant with kidnapping and murder, and the apparent rationale of the trial court's decision to suppress the informant's testimony. I then discuss the scope of the sixth amendment right to counsel and the remedy for its violation. After laying this factual and legal foundation, I bifurcate the state's argument and analyze first whether the trial court erred in suppressing the informant's testimony during the guilt proceedings against defendant, and second, whether the trial court erred in suppressing the informant's testimony during the sentencing proceedings against defendant as to the murder charge. A. The Facts Surrounding Defendant's Incarceration, the Dates on Which the State Charged Defendant with Kidnapping and Murder, and the Trial Court's Ruling on Defendant's Motion to Suppress the Informant's Testimony
Defendant was arrested on September 20, 1984 in Kerrville, Texas in connection with Mary's disappearance. One week later, on September 27, 1984, the state filed a felony criminal complaint against defendant charging him with Mary's kidnapping, in violation of A.R.S. §§ 13-1304(A)(3), -1304(B), -701, -702, -801, -803, -604(B), -604(D), and -604.01. On October 31, 1984, defendant was transferred to the Pima County Jail. Housed in the same pod was the informant, a convicted felon. The informant, who had been transferred to Arizona from another state pending a rule 32 determination, had previously testified for the state as an informant. Although the state knew of his reputation as an informant, it did not deliberately bring the informant and defendant together. The record indicates that although defendant did not speak to the informant for approximately one week, a rapport eventually developed between the two. On November 9, 1984, the informant left a message for Detective Leo Duffner of the Pima County Sheriff's Department stating that he wanted to talk to the detective. The next day, Det. Duffner met with the informant at the Pima County Jail. During that meeting, the informant told Det. Duffner that he, the informant, had obtained and would continue to obtain information from defendant relating to Mary's disappearance. (At that time, Mary's remains had not yet been found.) Det. Duffner replied by telling the informant not to obtain any additional information and that he did not want the informant working for him, the Pima County Sheriff's Department, or the County Attorney's office. Notwithstanding Det. Duffner's instruction not to obtain additional information from defendant, the informant continued to obtain information, which he recorded in copious notes. In addition, although Det. Duffner had told the informant to stop obtaining information, Det. Duffner continued meeting with the informant to receive the forthcoming information. In fact, Det. Duffner testified that after the November 10, 1984 meeting, he met with the informant again on November 14, November 26, December 3, and December 19 of 1984, and on April 17, 1985. Det. Duffner's testimony that he did not meet with the informant from December 19, 1984 to April 17, 1985 is significant and consistent with statements made by the informant during a rule 15, Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure, interview conducted from August 28, 1986 to September 18, 1986 by defendant's trial counsel. During that interview, the informant told of a December 18, 1984 discussion he had with defendant during which defendant detailed the events of September 17, 1984 and admitted kidnapping and murdering Mary. After the informant told about the December 18, 1984 discussion, the following colloquy took place: Q. [By defendant's trial counsel] Did you talk to [defendant] after that? A. [By the informant] After a while. Q. Did you talk to him for the next four months? A. Off and on, yes. Q. Did you take any notes? A. No. Q. What happened to all the notes that are in the conversations that you had from December until April? A. What more was there to find out? Q. More details. A. I felt I  I felt out that I had known everything that there was to know. Q. That's it, now. You really didn't (inaudible). A. No. Not from January to April. Q. Not one word about it. A. He surely talked about it from time to time. Q. But, all of it was repetitious. A. Redundant. Q. Not one piece of new information. A.  Q. Correct? A. Not that I can recall. After learning that the informant had obtained virtually no new information from defendant after December 18, 1984, defendant's trial counsel asked the informant about the April 17, 1985 meeting between Det. Duffner and the informant: Q. [By defendant's trial counsel] Now, you saw Duffner back on the 17th of April, 1985. A. [By the informant] That's correct. Q. You wanted to see him again. A. Right. Q. So, for four months you didn't need to see him anymore. A. That's correct. Q. Then you called him back. Now, you've got a new message, right? A. Right. Q. And what's that now. What do you got for him now? A. I heard the body had been found. And, I called him and told him I wanted to see him. And I gave him the last  uh, I gave him the notes on what [defendant] had said after the body had been found. On May 15, 1985  approximately one month after the April 17, 1985 meeting  defendant was indicted by a grand jury and charged with Mary's murder in violation of A.R.S. §§ 13-1105, -703, and -710. Although the record indicates that Det. Duffner and other state agents met with the informant in another state after April 17, 1985, there is no indication that the informant obtained any information from defendant on or after May 15, 1985.
Before trial, defendant moved to suppress the informant's testimony. In his motion, defendant argued that the informant's conduct violated his fifth amendment right against compelled self-incrimination because the informant did not give him Miranda warnings. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966). This argument has been rendered meritless by the Supreme Court's recent ruling in Illinois v. Perkins, 496 U.S. 292, 110 S.Ct. 2394, 110 L.Ed.2d 243 (1990). In Perkins, the Court held that [c]onversations between suspects and undercover agents do not implicate the concerns underlying Miranda.  Perkins, 496 U.S. at 296, 110 S.Ct. at 2397.  Miranda was not meant to protect suspects from boasting about their criminal activities in front of persons whom they believe to be their cellmates. Perkins, 496 U.S. at 298, 110 S.Ct. at 2398. In addition, defendant has not argued, nor is there any evidence, that his statements to the informant were coerced in violation of the fifth amendment as interpreted by Arizona v. Fulminante, ___ U.S. ___, 111 S.Ct. 1246, 1261, 113 L.Ed.2d 302 (1991) (incriminating statements obtained by paid jailhouse informant through coercion held inadmissible), aff'g 161 Ariz. 237, 778 P.2d 602 (1988). Accordingly, I would find no violation of defendant's fifth amendment rights. Defendant also argued in support of his motion to suppress that the informant was a state agent and, therefore, his deliberate elicitation of incriminating statements from defendant violated defendant's sixth amendment right to counsel. In opposition to this argument, the state candidly recognized that defendant had been charged with kidnapping at the time the informant deliberately elicited the incriminating statements from him and, therefore, his right to counsel as to the kidnapping charge had attached. The state argued, however, that defendant had not been charged with murder at the time the informant obtained the incriminating statements and, therefore, defendant's right to counsel as to the murder charge had not attached. The state argued that, because defendant's right to counsel as to the murder charge had not attached at the time the informant obtained the incriminating statements from defendant, those statements were not obtained in violation of defendant's sixth amendment right to counsel, and, therefore, the informant's testimony should not be suppressed. At the hearing on defendant's motion to suppress the informant's testimony, the attention given by the trial court to the state's argument was eclipsed by the attention it gave to defendant's argument that the informant was a state agent. Ultimately, the trial court granted defendant's motion and ruled that [the informant] will not be a witness as to any of [defendant's incriminating] statements. The trial court granted defendant's motion based on its conclusion that the informant was, in fact, a state agent, and that defendant's right to counsel had attached and was violated as to both the kidnapping charge and the murder charge because those crimes were, as stated by the trial court, so interrelated. B. The Scope of the Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel and the Remedy for its Violation 1. The Right to Counsel The sixth amendment right to counsel does not apply to private conduct. Maine v. Moulton, 474 U.S. 159, 176, 106 S.Ct. 477, 487, 88 L.Ed.2d 481 (1985) ([T]he Sixth Amendment is not violated whenever  by luck or happenstance  the State obtains incriminating statements from the accused after the right to counsel has attached.). Rather, it applies only to conduct on the part of the state or its agents. Moulton, 474 U.S. at 176, 106 S.Ct. at 487 ([T]he Sixth Amendment is violated when the State obtains incriminating statements by knowingly circumventing the accused's right to have counsel present in a confrontation between the accused and a state agent. ) (emphasis added). The sixth amendment provides that [i]n all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right ... to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. U.S. Const. amend. 6. The Supreme Court first discussed the sixth amendment right to counsel in Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45, 53 S.Ct. 55, 77 L.Ed. 158 (1932). Since Powell, the Court has developed a substantial body of sixth amendment right to counsel law which explains both the purpose of the sixth amendment right to counsel and when that right attaches. The overarching purpose of the right to counsel is to safeguard those rights deemed essential for the fair prosecution of a criminal proceeding. Moulton, 474 U.S. at 169, 106 S.Ct. at 483. More specifically, the right to counsel affords a defendant charged with a crime the right to be heard. Justice Sutherland expounded on this idea: The right to be heard would be, in many cases, of little avail if it did not comprehend the right to be heard by counsel. Even the intelligent and educated layman has small and sometimes no skill in the science of law. If charged with crime, he is incapable, generally, of determining for himself whether the indictment is good or bad. He is unfamiliar with the rules of evidence. Left without the aid of counsel he may be put on trial without a proper charge, and convicted upon incompetent evidence, or evidence irrelevant to the issue or otherwise inadmissible. He lacks both the skill and knowledge adequately to prepare his defense, even though he have a perfect one. He requires the guiding hand of counsel at every step in the proceedings against him. Powell, 287 U.S. at 68-69, 53 S.Ct. at 64; see also Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335, 83 S.Ct. 792, 9 L.Ed.2d 799 (1963); Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 82 L.Ed. 1461 (1938). More recently, the Court has said that the core purpose of the sixth amendment right to counsel is to assure aid at trial, `when the accused [is] confronted with both the intricacies of the law and the advocacy of the public prosecutor.' United States v. Gouveia, 467 U.S. 180, 188-89, 104 S.Ct. 2292, 2298, 81 L.Ed.2d 146 (1984), quoting United States v. Ash, 413 U.S. 300, 309, 93 S.Ct. 2568, 2573, 37 L.Ed.2d 619 (1973). As intimated in the language of the sixth amendment itself and in the Supreme Court precedent discussed immediately above, the purpose of the right to counsel is served, and therefore the right to counsel attaches, only after adversary judicial criminal proceedings have been initiated. Prior to that time, there is no criminal prosecution[], no accused, and no need for a defence. U.S. Const. amend. 6. Likewise, as Justice Sutherland recognized, the right to be heard becomes crucial only [i]f [a defendant is] charged with a crime for which he may be put on trial.... Powell, 287 U.S. at 69, 53 S.Ct. at 64 (emphasis added). In addition, only after the initiation of adversary judicial criminal proceedings does a defendant need to prepare a defense with the guiding hand of counsel.... Powell, 287 U.S. at 69, 53 S.Ct. at 64. Finally, it is only after the initiation of adversary judicial criminal proceedings that the government has committed itself to prosecute, and only then that the adverse positions of government and defendant have solidified. It is then that a defendant finds himself faced with the prosecutorial forces of organized society, and immersed in the intricacies of substantive and procedural criminal law. Gouveia, 467 U.S. at 189, 104 S.Ct. at 2298, quoting Kirby v. Illinois, 406 U.S. 682, 689, 92 S.Ct. 1877, 1882, 32 L.Ed.2d 411 (1972). For all of these reasons, the Supreme Court in Gouveia expressly held that the sixth amendment right to counsel attaches only after the initiation of adversary judicial criminal proceedings. Gouveia, 467 U.S. at 189, 104 S.Ct. at 2298. 2. The Exclusionary Rule Like the substantial body of law that developed around the sixth amendment right to counsel and Powell, a substantial body of law has developed since the Supreme Court first created the exclusionary rule in Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 34 S.Ct. 341, 58 L.Ed. 652 (1914). The exclusionary rule, originally applied only in federal prosecutions for fourth amendment violations, Weeks, 232 U.S. 383, 34 S.Ct. 341, has been expanded to apply to the states through the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment, Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 654-55, 81 S.Ct. 1684, 1691, 6 L.Ed.2d 1081 (1961), and to fifth amendment, Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 479, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 1630, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966), and sixth amendment, Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201, 206, 84 S.Ct. 1199, 1203, 12 L.Ed.2d 246 (1964), violations. The purpose of the exclusionary rule is simply stated: it is to discourage unconstitutional acts by law enforcement officials. United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. 338, 347, 94 S.Ct. 613, 619-20, 38 L.Ed.2d 561 (1974). The scope of the rule is somewhat more difficult to state. I begin, however, by noting that the Supreme Court has expressly recognized that the rule is not absolute: Despite its broad deterrent purpose, the exclusionary rule has never been interpreted to proscribe the use of illegally seized evidence in all proceedings or against all persons. As with any remedial device, the application of the rule has been restricted to those areas where its remedial objectives are thought most efficaciously served. Calandra, 414 U.S. at 348, 94 S.Ct. at 620 (exclusionary rule not applied during grand jury proceedings); see also United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 926, 104 S.Ct. 3405, 3422, 82 L.Ed.2d 677 (1984) (exclusionary rule not applied when law enforcement officials relied in good faith upon invalid search warrant); Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465, 494, 96 S.Ct. 3037, 3052, 49 L.Ed.2d 1067 (1976) (exclusionary rule not applied during federal habeas corpus review); Walder v. United States, 347 U.S. 62, 66, 74 S.Ct. 354, 356, 98 L.Ed. 503 (1954) (exclusionary rule not applied during cross examination of defendant). Under Calandra and subsequent cases, then, the question whether to apply the exclusionary rule is determined by weighing the extent to which its application will deter law enforcement officials from committing unconstitutional acts against the extent to which its application will deflect the truthfinding process, free the guilty, and generate disrespect for the law and the administration of justice. Stone, 428 U.S. at 485-95, 96 S.Ct. at 3048-53; see also State v. Bolt, 142 Ariz. 260, 269-73, 689 P.2d 519, 528-532 (1984) (Cameron, J., and Hays, J., separately specially concurring) (proposing that courts, in determining whether the exclusionary rule should be applied, should weigh the costs of applying the rule against the benefits of applying the rule); State v. Alfaro, 127 Ariz. 578, 579-80, 623 P.2d 8, 9-10 (1980) (under weighing analysis, exclusionary rule held not applicable during probation revocation proceedings); James Duke Cameron & R. Lustiger, The Exclusionary Rule: A Cost Benefit Analysis, 101 F.R.D. 109 (1984) (reviewing the costs and benefits of the exclusionary rule and concluding that courts should adopt a balancing approach in determining whether the exclusionary rule should be applied). C. Did the Trial Court Err in Excluding the Informant's Testimony During the Guilt Proceedings Against Defendant? A trial court's decision on a motion to suppress is reviewed under a clear abuse of discretion standard. See State v. Fisher, 141 Ariz. 227, 236, 686 P.2d 750, 759 (1984) (It is well established in this state that a trial court's ruling on a motion to suppress will not be disturbed absent a clear abuse of discretion.), citing State v. Adamson, 136 Ariz. 250, 665 P.2d 972 (1983); State v. Ferreira, 128 Ariz. 530, 627 P.2d 681 (1981). I do not believe that the trial court clearly abused its discretion in excluding the informant's testimony during the guilt proceedings against defendant. I base this conclusion on (1) my finding that the trial court did not clearly abuse its discretion in finding that the informant was a state agent at the the time he obtained the incriminating statements from defendant; (2) the fact that defendant's right to counsel as to the kidnapping charge had attached and was violated when the informant obtained the incriminating statements from defendant; and (3) the fact that the weighing required in determining whether the exclusionary rule should be applied tipped in favor of excluding the informant's testimony. 1. The Informant as a State Agent I have reviewed the record to determine whether the trial court abused its discretion in finding that the informant was a state agent. Without giving any more detail than that provided in Part III(A)(1) of this Special Concurrence, but noting that numerous additional phone calls, personal visits, conversations, etc., were held between Det. Duffner and other state agents and the informant than those described in Part III(A)(1), and recognizing that the question whether the informant was a state agent is a close one, I would conclude that the trial court's finding that the informant was, in fact, a state agent at the time he obtained the incriminating statements from defendant is supported by both the facts and the law. See, e.g., Maine v. Moulton, 474 U.S. 159, 176-80, 106 S.Ct. 477, 487-89, 88 L.Ed.2d 481 (1985) (Court affirmed trial court's finding that informant was state agent); United States v. Henry, 447 U.S. 264, 270-71, 100 S.Ct. 2183, 2187, 65 L.Ed.2d 115 (1980) (Court upheld court of appeals' finding that informant's conduct was attributable to the government). 2. Defendant's Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel The state charged defendant with Mary's kidnapping on September 27, 1984. Thus, defendant's right to counsel as to the kidnapping charge attached at that time. United States v. Gouveia, 467 U.S. 180, 188, 104 S.Ct. 2292, 2297, 81 L.Ed.2d 146 (1984). After being charged with kidnapping, defendant was taken to the Pima County Jail where he met the informant. Because the informant can properly be characterized as a state agent, and because the informant obtained the incriminating statements from defendant after defendant's right to counsel as to the kidnapping charge had attached, all statements obtained by the informant from defendant were obtained in violation of defendant's right to counsel as to the kidnapping charge. See Moulton, 474 U.S. at 176-80, 106 S.Ct. at 487-89; Henry, 447 U.S. at 270-75, 100 S.Ct. at 2186-89. While defendant's right to counsel had already attached as to the kidnapping charge at the time the informant obtained the incriminating statements from defendant, the informant appears to have obtained no statements from defendant after defendant's right to counsel as to the murder charge attached. In fact, by December 18, 1984, almost 5 full months before defendant's May 15, 1985 indictment for Mary's murder, the informant believed he [knew] everything that there was to know about the kidnapping and murder. Further, the only new statements the informant obtained after December 18, 1984 were defendant's statements relating to the finding of Mary's body; and those statements were provided to Det. Duffner on April 17, 1985, almost one month before defendant was indicted for Mary's murder. Accordingly, defendant's sixth amendment right to counsel as to the murder charge was not violated.
The trial court properly applied the exclusionary rule and suppressed the informant's testimony during the guilt proceedings against defendant. As stated above, the informant obtained the incriminating statements in violation of defendant's right to counsel as to the kidnapping charge. Although an argument could be made that the appropriate remedy in this case was to suppress the informant's testimony only as it might prejudice defendant as to the kidnapping charge, [31] the trial court did not clearly abuse its discretion in finding that, in this case, the kidnapping charge and murder charge were so interrelated that the appropriate remedy was to exclude the informant's testimony in its entirety during the guilt proceedings against defendant. The trial court reasonably could have concluded that the overarching purpose of the sixth amendment right to counsel  to safeguard those rights deemed essential for the fair prosecution of a criminal proceeding, Moulton, 474 U.S. at 169, 106 S.Ct. at 483  would have been frustrated if the informant's testimony was admitted. Specifically, the trial court reasonably could have concluded that any limiting instruction would have been ineffective, and the jury, although instructed otherwise, would have considered the informant's testimony as to the kidnapping charge as well as the murder charge. In fact, there appears to be no way that the jury could have considered the informant's testimony only as to the first degree murder charge, given the fact that in order for the jury to find defendant guilty of first degree murder, it had to find and did find that defendant killed Mary in the course of and in furtherance of the kidnapping, i.e., a prerequisite to finding defendant guilty of first degree felony murder was a finding that defendant kidnapped Mary. Moreover, the trial court reasonably could have concluded that the extent to which the application of the exclusionary rule during the guilt proceedings against defendant would deter unconstitutional acts by law enforcement officials outweighed the risk of deflecting the truthfinding process, freeing the guilty, or generating disrespect for the law and the administration of justice. Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465, 485-95, 96 S.Ct. 3037, 3048-53, 49 L.Ed.2d 1067 (1976). In sum, I would affirm the trial court's decision to suppress the informant's testimony in its entirety during the guilt proceedings against defendant. D. Did the Trial Court Err in Excluding the Informant's Testimony During the Sentencing Proceedings Against Defendant as to the Murder Charge? As an initial matter, the state properly preserved for appeal the trial court's decision to suppress the informant's testimony during the sentencing proceedings against defendant as to the murder charge. At the beginning of his remarks to the court during the sentencing proceeding, the prosecutor asked to have the informant's deposition marked as an offer of proof for appellate purposes. Specifically, the prosecutor believed the deposition would support the state's argument that defendant killed the victim in an especially heinous, cruel, or depraved manner. See A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(6). Consistent with its earlier ruling, the trial court did not admit the informant's testimony for sentencing purposes, but, over defense counsel's objection, allowed the informant's deposition to be marked for appellate purposes as requested by the prosecutor. This offer properly preserved the issue for appeal. I believe that the trial court clearly abused its discretion in excluding the informant's testimony during the sentencing proceedings against defendant as to the murder charge. As stated above, defendant's right to counsel as to the murder charge was not violated. Thus, as to that charge, the exclusionary rule was not implicated. The critical inquiry thus becomes whether the exclusionary rule, as implicated by the violation of defendant's right to counsel as to the kidnapping charge, should be applied to suppress the informant's testimony during the sentencing proceedings against defendant as to the murder charge when defendant's right to counsel as to that charge was not violated and such testimony could not prejudice defendant as to the kidnapping charge for which he had already been found guilty and for which he was also being sentenced. Based on the weighing required under the exclusionary rule, I conclude that the answer to this inquiry is no. I find the analysis in United States v. Lee, 540 F.2d 1205 (4th Cir.1976), to be helpful to my weighing analysis. Defendant Lee was convicted of illegal possession of firearms. The district court judge, in sentencing Lee to the maximum term permitted, specifically relied on a prior conviction for possession of heroin, even though that conviction had been reversed on appeal because it was based on the fruits of an illegal search. Lee argued that the district court judge should not have been allowed to consider the heroin conviction in sentencing him. The court of appeals disagreed. In weighing the costs of applying the exclusionary rule against the extent to which its application fulfills its purpose of deterring unconstitutional acts by law enforcement officials, the Lee court first recognized the general rule that a judge may, before sentencing, `conduct an inquiry broad in scope, largely unlimited either as to kind of information he may consider, or the source from which it may come.' Lee, 540 F.2d at 1210, quoting United States v. Tucker, 404 U.S. 443, 446, 92 S.Ct. 589, 591, 30 L.Ed.2d 592 (1972). The court then recognized that [m]ost illegally-obtained evidence ... is not inherently unreliable.... Lee, 540 F.2d at 1211. The court considered the restriction on a sentencing judge's inquiry and the loss of potentially reliable information to be a significant cost. After recognizing the significant cost associated with suppressing the evidence, the court focused on the extent to which application of the exclusionary rule during sentencing would further the rule's purpose. The court concluded: We think that if the exclusionary rule were extended to sentencing in the ordinary case, its additional deterrent effect would be so minimal as to be insignificant. Generally, law enforcement officers conduct searches and seize evidence for purposes of prosecution and conviction  not for the purpose of increasing a sentence in a prosecution already pending or one not yet begun. If they are to be deterred from official lawlessness, it would seem obvious that the only effective deterrence is the threat that the prosecution arising out of the specific search and seizure in which they acted illegally would be rendered ineffective. The additional threat that a future sentence might be less severe because they acted unlawfully can be predicted to have little practical effect to accomplish its main objective. Lee, 540 F.2d at 1211; see also United States v. Graves, 785 F.2d 870, 876 (10th Cir.1986) (sentencing court entitled to consider prior dismissed charges and alleged offenses for which charges were not filed because of illegally obtained evidence); United States v. Butler, 680 F.2d 1055, 1056 (5th Cir.1982) (fruit of illegal search admissible during sentencing because no potential for inaccuracy and deterrent value of excluding illegally obtained evidence at sentencing substantially less than at trial); United States v. Larios, 640 F.2d 938, 941-42 (9th Cir.1981) (sentencing judge properly considered illegally obtained evidence). I now apply these considerations to the facts of this case. Initially, I believe that in determining whether to impose the death sentence, the trial judge should, within the parameters of A.R.S. § 13-703 and rule 15.1(g)(2), Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure, be able to `conduct an inquiry broad in scope, largely unlimited either as to kind of information he may consider, or the source from which it may come.' Lee, 540 F.2d at 1210, quoting United States v. Tucker, 404 U.S. at 446, 92 S.Ct. at 591; see also Larios, 640 F.2d at 942 (judges given broad discretion during sentencing so sentence is properly in tune with defendant); United States v. Schipani, 435 F.2d 26, 27 (2d Cir.1970) (A sentencing judge's access to information should be almost completely unfettered in order that he may `acquire a thorough acquaintance with the character and history of the man before [him].'), quoting United States v. Doyle, 348 F.2d 715, 721 (2d Cir.1965). Because the trial court rejected the informant's evidence on other grounds, no finding was made as to reliability, and the record does not lead me to believe that the incriminating statements made by defendant to the informant are inherently unreliable. See Lee, 540 F.2d at 1211. Thus, the costs associated with applying the exclusionary rule in the Lee case are also present here. Moreover, I believe that the exclusionary rule's deterrent effect was sufficiently achieved by the trial court's suppression of the informant's testimony during the guilt proceedings against defendant. I agree with the Schipani court that applying the exclusionary rule for a second time at sentencing after having already applied it once at the trial itself would not add in any significant way to the deterrent effect of the rule. Schipani, 435 F.2d at 28; see also Lee, 540 F.2d at 1210-12 (exclusionary rule not applied during sentencing proceeding); United States v. Lynch, 934 F.2d 1226 (11th Cir.1991) (same), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 112 S.Ct. 885, 116 L.Ed.2d 788 (1992); United States v. McCrory, 930 F.2d 63 (D.C. Cir.1991) (same), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 112 S.Ct. 885, 116 L.Ed.2d 788 (1992); United States v. Torres, 926 F.2d 321 (3rd Cir.1991) (same); United States v. Graves, 785 F.2d 870 (10th Cir.1986) (same); United States v. Vandemark, 522 F.2d 1019 (9th Cir.1975) (same); but see Verdugo v. United States, 402 F.2d 599 (9th Cir.1968) (exclusionary rule applied during sentencing proceeding when evidence was illegally obtained for the purpose of increasing the defendant's sentence). This is especially true where, as here, the evidence was obtained not in violation of defendant's right to counsel as to the crime for which defendant was being sentenced  murder  but rather in violation of defendant's right to counsel as to the kidnapping. In concluding that the trial court clearly abused its discretion in suppressing the informant's testimony during the sentencing proceedings against defendant as to the murder charge, I do not rely on the language in Moulton that [i]ncriminating statements pertaining to other crimes, as to which the Sixth Amendment right has not yet attached, are, of course, admissible.... Moulton, 474 U.S. at 180 n. 16, 106 S.Ct. at 489 n. 16 (emphasis added). I could not, in good faith, call Mary's murder an other crime[] as I believe the Supreme Court meant that term. See, e.g., Moran v. Burbine, 475 U.S. 412, 431-32, 106 S.Ct. 1135, 1146-47, 89 L.Ed.2d 410 (1986) (no sixth amendment violation when the state deliberately instigated meeting between defendant and government informant and recorded incriminating statements relating to ongoing cocaine investigation even though defendant had been charged for the sale of marijuana). Rather, I recognize that Mary's kidnapping and murder were transactionally related. The fact that the crimes were transactionally related, however, does not dilute my belief that, on these facts, the exclusionary rule's application at the sentencing proceedings against defendant as to the murder charge was improper. Even though I would find that the trial court erred in suppressing the informant's testimony during the sentencing proceedings as to the murder charge, I would not remand this case for a hearing to determine whether the informant's testimony established a § 13-703(F)(6) aggravating circumstance. I would not do so because the state, presumably knowing that a remand in this case would result in additional and unforeseen delays and possibly the proliferation of issues, has not asked this court to remand. However, in the event defendant is resentenced for any reason in the future, I would allow the state to seek to introduce the informant's testimony at that time.