Opinion ID: 2844076
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Heading: federal regulation of gaming on indian lands

Text: Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (“IGRA”), 18 U.S.C. §§ 1166-68, 25 U.S.C. §§ 2701-21, to address “the rapidly expanding field of Indian gaming.” Tamiami Partners, Ltd. v. Miccosukee Tribe of Indians (Tamiami II), 63 F.3d 1030, 1032 (11th Cir. 1995); 2 see also 25 U.S.C. § 2701(1) (explaining IGRA was enacted because “numerous Indian tribes have become engaged in or have licensed gaming activities on Indian lands”). IGRA was enacted in response to the United States Supreme Court’s decision in California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, 480 U.S. 202 (1987), which held that because Congress had not regulated Indian gaming, the states lacked authority to regulate gaming on Indian lands. See Michigan v. Bay Mills Indian Cmty., 134 S. Ct. 2024, 2034 (2014).3 IGRA regulates gaming that occurs on Indian lands, which include “any lands title to which is [] held in trust by the United States for the benefit of any Indian tribe . . . and over which an Indian tribe exercises governmental power.” 2 Tamiami, a case involving a contractual dispute over the management of a bingo gaming facility on Indian lands, came before our Court three times. The first Tamiami opinion is irrelevant to the issues presently before us. See Tamiami Partners, Ltd. v. Miccosukee Tribe of Indians, 999 F.2d 503 (11th Cir. 1993). 3 The lack of legislation regulating gaming on Indian lands meant that states could not limit such gaming because “unless and until Congress acts, [] tribes retain their historic sovereign authority.” Bay Mills, 134 S. Ct. at 2030 (internal quotation marks omitted). 3 Case: 14-12004 Date Filed: 09/03/2015 Page: 4 of 42 25 U.S.C. § 2703(4)(B). 4 IGRA does not govern gaming that occurs outside of Indian lands; a state’s authority to regulate such gaming is “capacious.” Bay Mills, 134 S. Ct. at 2034. As for gaming on Indian lands, IGRA provides “a comprehensive approach to the controversial subject of regulating tribal gaming, [and strikes] a careful balance among federal, state, and tribal interests.” Florida v. Seminole Tribe of Fla. (Seminole Tribe II), 181 F.3d 1237, 1247 (11th Cir. 1999). 5 IGRA “divides gaming on Indian lands into three classes—I, II, and III—and provides a different regulatory scheme for each class.” 6 Seminole Tribe of Fla. v. Florida (Seminole Tribe I), 517 U.S. 44, 48 (1996). IGRA defines class II gaming to include bingo and permits the use of “electronic, computer, or other technologic aids” in 4 A separate statute, the Indian Reorganization Act (“IRA”), 25 U.S.C. §§ 461-79, authorizes the Secretary to accept lands into trust for “the purpose of providing land for Indians.” 25 U.S.C. § 465. IRA defines Indians as “persons of Indian descent who are members of any recognized Indian tribe now under Federal jurisdiction.” Id. § 479. 5 In Florida v. Seminole Tribe of Florida, Florida sued the Seminole tribe and its chairperson, seeking to enjoin the tribe from engaging in unlawful gaming. 181 F.3d at 1239. Florida filed its lawsuit shortly after the Supreme Court held that a lawsuit in which the Seminole tribe had sued Florida and its governor under IGRA was barred by the state’s sovereign immunity. Seminole Tribe of Fla. v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996). Although the two decisions were issued by different courts in different cases, they are related because both cases involved the same parties and dealt with the state’s attempts to regulate gaming on the tribe’s lands. Because both decisions are central to our analysis in this case and for clarity, we refer to the Supreme Court’s decision as Seminole Tribe I and ours as Seminole Tribe II. 6 Class I gaming, not at issue here, includes “social games solely for prizes of minimal value or traditional forms of Indian gaming engaged in by individuals as a part of, or in connection with, tribal ceremonies or celebrations.” 25 U.S.C. § 2703(6). Class I gaming is “within the exclusive jurisdiction of the Indian tribes.” Id. § 2710(a)(1). 4 Case: 14-12004 Date Filed: 09/03/2015 Page: 5 of 42 connection with the game. 25 U.S.C. § 2703(7)(A)(i).7 Class III gaming is “all forms of gaming that are not class I gaming or class II gaming” and includes slot machines and other casino games. 25 U.S.C. § 2703(8); Seminole Tribe I, 517 U.S. at 48. Under IGRA, the extent to which a tribe may engage in class II or class III gaming depends on how the state where the Indian lands are located has chosen to regulate such games in the state as a whole. 8 With respect to class II and class III gaming, IGRA permits a tribe to conduct each class of gaming only if such gaming is allowed in some form within the state where the Indian lands are located. 25 U.S.C. § 2710(b)(1), (d)(1) (allowing class II or class III gaming when the state where the gaming occurs “permits such gaming for any purpose by any person, organization or entity”). IGRA imposes an additional requirement before a tribe can conduct class III gaming: the tribe and state must agree to a compact regulating the gaming, which the Secretary must approve. Id. § 2710(d)(1), (d)(3). A state must negotiate a tribal-state compact governing class III gaming in good faith. Id. § 2710(d)(3)(A). 7 Class II gaming also includes card games that either “(I) are explicitly authorized by the laws of the State, or (II) are not explicitly prohibited by the laws of the State and are played at any location in the State.” 25 U.S.C. § 2703(7)(A)(ii). 8 IGRA also requires a tribe to adopt an ordinance or resolution, approved by the chairperson of the National Indian Gaming Commission, authorizing class II or class III gaming. 25 U.S.C. § 2710(b)(1), (d)(1). The Commission consists of three members and operates within the Department of the Interior. See id. § 2704. 5 Case: 14-12004 Date Filed: 09/03/2015 Page: 6 of 42 IGRA expressly provides both tribes and states with limited express rights of action to sue in federal court with respect to tribal-state compacts. If a state fails to negotiate a tribal-state compact in good faith, a tribe may bring a civil action against the state in federal court. Id. § 2710(d)(7)(A)(i). But IGRA limits the remedies available to the tribe in such an action. The tribe may not obtain broad injunctive relief; the ultimate remedy available is that the Secretary may set forth the terms under which the tribe may engage in class III gaming on Indian lands within the state. Id. § 2710(d)(7)(B)(iv), (vii). IGRA also expressly provides states with a cause of action to sue to enjoin “class III gaming activity located on Indian lands” that is “conducted in violation of any Tribal-State compact.” Id. § 2710(d)(7)(A)(ii). No remedy other than an injunction is provided. See id. IGRA authorizes the National Indian Gaming Commission (the “NIGC”) to regulate gaming on Indian lands. The NIGC is tasked with “monitor[ing] class II gaming conducted on Indian lands on a continuing basis” and is authorized to “inspect and examine” the premises where class II gaming occurs. 9 Id. § 2706(b)(1), (b)(2). In addition, the NIGC may fine a tribe or close a gaming facility if it finds a tribe has conducted class III gaming on Indian lands without a compact. Id. § 2713(a)(1), (b). 9 A tribe may be exempt from inspection and examination by the NIGC if the tribe has a certificate for self-regulation. 25 U.S.C. § 2710(c)(5) 6 Case: 14-12004 Date Filed: 09/03/2015 Page: 7 of 42 In addition to this civil and regulatory scheme governing gaming on Indian lands, IGRA includes three provisions codified in the criminal code, only one of which is relevant here. 10 Section 1166, titled “Gambling in Indian country,” applies to class III gaming conducted in the absence of a tribal-state compact. 18 U.S.C. § 1166(c). This section incorporates “all State laws pertaining to the licensing, regulation, or prohibition of gambling, including but not limited to criminal sanctions applicable thereto” into federal law. Id. § 1166(a). These state laws “shall apply in Indian country in the same manner and to the same extent as such laws apply elsewhere in the State.”11 Id. Section 1166 makes it a federal crime to commit an act or omission involving gambling where the conduct “would be punishable if committed or omitted within the jurisdiction of the State in which the act or omission occurred,” under the state’s laws “governing the licensing, regulation, or prohibition of gambling.” Id. § 1166(b). The punishment for this federal crime is the same as the punishment would be under state law for the state 10 The two other provisions criminalize theft from, and theft by officers or employees of, gaming establishments on Indian lands. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 1167-68. 11 “Indian country” is defined as: (a) all land within the limits of any Indian reservation under the jurisdiction of the United States Government, notwithstanding the issuance of any patent, and, including rights-of-way running through the reservation, (b) all dependent Indian communities within the borders of the United States whether within the original or subsequently acquired territory thereof, and whether within or without the limits of a state, and (c) all Indian allotments, the Indian titles to which have not been extinguished, including rights-of-way running through the same. 18 U.S.C. § 1151. Lands taken into trust by the Secretary under IRA are considered part of Indian country. See United States v. John, 437 U.S. 634, 648-50 (1978). 7 Case: 14-12004 Date Filed: 09/03/2015 Page: 8 of 42 crime. The United States has the exclusive jurisdiction to bring criminal prosecutions for violations of § 1166(b). Id. § 1166(d).