Opinion ID: 2272642
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: the sudden emergency doctrine retains a valid and useful place in kentucky jurisprudence

Text: In Bass v. Williams, 839 S.W.2d 559, 563 (Ky.App.1992), the Court of Appeals concluded that the shift from contributory negligence to comparative negligence eliminated the need for a sudden emergency instruction. The Bass court reasoned that the sudden emergency doctrine has a quality to it that diminishes the duties of the defendant-driver ... and is in violation of the `direct proportion to fault' concept in Hilen [ [6] ], and further, that it violates the concept that [a party] is liable for an amount equal to his degree of fault, no more and no less. Bass, 839 S.W.2d at 563; see also Stratton v. Parker, 793 S.W.2d 817, 820 (Ky.1990). The demise of the sudden emergency doctrine in Kentucky was short-lived. Twelve years later, in Regenstreif v. Phelps, 142 S.W.3d 1 (Ky.2004), this Court overruled Bass. Regenstreif rejected the notion that the sudden emergency doctrine was incompatible with comparative negligence, finding instead that it necessarily complements comparative negligence in those particular cases where additional circumstances alter the way in which one's degree of fault should be determined. Id. at 6. Despite Regenstreif the question of the sudden emergency doctrine's viability lingered. Now, we reaffirm its place as a necessary component of the process by which juries must determine the fault of parties who, finding themselves suddenly and unexpectedly in a position of imminent peril, respond in a way that might otherwise breach a specific duty of due care.
The sudden emergency doctrine is generally defined at 57A Am.Jur.2d, Negligence § 198 (2004): [W]hen an actor is faced with a sudden and unexpected circumstance which leaves little or no time for thought, deliberation, or consideration, or causes the actor to be reasonably so disturbed that the actor must make a speedy decision without weighing alternative courses of conduct, the actor is not negligent if the actions taken are reasonable and prudent in the emergency context, provided the actor has not created the emergency. The Restatement (Second) of Torts § 296 (1965) describes it as follows: (1) In determining whether conduct is negligent toward another, the fact that the actor is confronted with a sudden emergency which requires rapid decision is a factor in determining the reasonable character of his choice of action. (2) The fact that the actor is not negligent after the emergency has arisen does not preclude his liability for his tortious conduct which has produced the emergency. The rationale for the rule arises from the perception of human nature that a prudent person, when brought face to face with an unexpected danger, may fail to use the best judgment, may omit some precaution that otherwise might have been taken, and may not choose the best available method of meeting the dangers of the situation. 57A Am.Jur.2d, Negligence § 200 (2004). The principle embodied in [the sudden emergency] rule enjoys almost universal acceptance in the courts of the nation, founded as it is upon common sense and a proper recognition of prudent standards in human conduct. Breaux v. Roy Young, Inc., 397 So.2d 1384, 1388 (La.App. 1981). An important aspect in understanding how to transfer the doctrine from its abstract theoretical definition to a real-world practical context is emphasized in the following articulation of the concept, from Regenstreif, 142 S.W.3d at 4, (quoting Harris v. Thompson, 497 S.W.2d 422, 428 (Ky.App.1973)): [W]hen a defendant is confronted with a condition he has had no reason to anticipate and has not brought on by his own fault, but which alters the duties he would otherwise have been bound to observe, then the effect of that circumstance upon these duties must be covered by the instructions. (emphasis added). As explained below in Section C, without the specific sudden emergency instruction, the duties set out in standard comparative negligence instructions would be immutable. They would not permit the jury to base its finding of fault on whether it believed a party's conduct was a reasonable response to an emergency situation because the jury would not know that a qualifying emergency event alters the duties required of the affected party.
In City of Louisville v. Maresz, 835 S.W.2d 889, 892 (Ky.App.1992), the Court of Appeals briefly recited the historic underpinning of the sudden emergency doctrine, including its introduction into American law by the United States Supreme Court in Stokes v. Saltonstall, 38 U.S. (13 Pet.) 181, 193, 10 L.Ed. 115 (1839) (citing as authority the English case of Jones v. Boyce, 1 Starkie's Rep. 393, 171 Eng. Rep. 540 (N.P.1816)) and its introduction into Kentucky jurisprudence in South Covington & Cincinnati Street Ry. Co. v. Ware, 84 Ky. 267, 1 S.W. 493 (1886) (citing Stokes, and noting that [t]his rule is sustained by both reason and precedent.) The rule of law is that when a person is placed in a position of peril by the negligence of another, and is compelled to choose instantly what to do to save himself, if he chooses as a person of ordinary prudence would have in such a position and is injured, he has a right to recover, notwithstanding the fact that, if he had made a different choice, he would not have been injured. Illinois Central R. Co. v. Wilkins, 149 Ky. 35, 147 S.W. 759, 760 (1912). Although the sudden emergency doctrine initially appeared in cases, such as Illinois Central R. Co., absolving the plaintiff from the fatal effect of contributory negligence, the rationale behind the rule applied with equal force to those defending themselves against charges of negligence. By the early twentieth century, a review of reported cases shows that the rule was more often invoked by defendants, often transportation companies, as evidenced by its application in Kentucky Traction & Terminal Co. v. Roschi's Adm'r, 186 Ky. 371, 216 S.W. 579 (1919) and Consolidated Coach Corp. v. Hopkins' Adm'r, 238 Ky. 136, 37 S.W.2d 1 (1931) ([I]f the driver of the bus had turned to the right instead of turning to the left, he would have passed behind the Ford, and no one would have been injured, but, with only two-thirds of a second in which to act, the bus company is not responsible if he chose not the wisest course.) [7] We are aware of no boating accident cases in Kentucky that involve the sudden emergency doctrine, but we note that the concept has long been accepted in maritime litigation. See The Elizabeth Jones, 112 U.S. 514, 526, 5 S.Ct. 468, 28 L.Ed. 812 (1884) (quoting The Bywell Castle, L.R. 4 Prob. Div. 219) (where one ship has, by wrong maneuvers, placed another ship in a position of extreme danger, that other ship will not be held to blame if she has done something wrong, and has not been maneuvered with perfect skill and presence of mind.). In Sekerek v. Jutte, 153 Pa. 117, 25 A. 994, 995 (1893), the court noted: [T]he change in the movement of the [decedent's] boat which brought a portion of it in front of [appellants' steamboat] was sudden, unexpected, and disconcerting. The action of the appellants' servants must therefore be considered in the light of the situation which suddenly confronted them. They were in the presence of an emergency which imperiled the lives of the men in the boat, and ... had but a moment of time in which to think and act. The doctrine has also been recognized in modern recreational boating accidents. See Reed v. Reed, 182 Neb. 136, 153 N.W.2d 356 (1967) (whether defendant's conduct in motorboat collision was excusable under sudden emergency doctrine was question for jury); Del Vecchio v. Lund, 293 N.W.2d 474 (S.D.1980) (operator of motorboat that struck water skier held entitled to a sudden emergency instruction). We turn next to an examination of the practical application of the doctrine before and after the shift to comparative negligence.
In his analysis of the doctrine in Harris, Chief Justice Palmore wrote: [W]hether the instruction on a motorist's duties should be qualified by a proviso such as the sudden emergency theory does not depend upon whether the particular circumstance might be characterized in common parlance as a `sudden emergency,' but whether it changes or modifies the duties that would have been incumbent upon him in the absence of that circumstance. 497 S.W.2d at 428 (emphasis added.) Henson, adopting the views expressed in Bass and the Regenstreif dissent, argues that a sudden emergency instruction is not needed under a comparative negligence system because at the end of the [sudden emergency] analysis, the jury is back to the exact language of ordinary care. The following statement reveals the flaw of that view: It is our belief that the sudden emergency instruction so qualifies [Defendant's] duties to such an extent that they are lessened. Fault is determined by breach of duties and that is the sole factor upon which liability is fixed.... It is conclusively clear that such an instruction is not necessary because everything under the sudden emergency was already said in the instructions on general and specific duties of the driver. Bass, 839 S.W.2d at 563. Far from being a defect of the sudden emergency instruction, the lessening] of the duties applicable to individuals confronted with a sudden emergency is exactly what the doctrine requires. It is the essence of the doctrine as it developed in American law over the past 170 years. The sudden emergency instruction tells the jury that, if it believes an emergency existed, the relevant duties change. When the substantive law of the case admits to no specific duties, a sudden emergency instruction may be unnecessary. The general duty to exercise ordinary care for one's own safety and the safety of others is universally present and never changes, although the conduct that constitutes a violation of the general duty may depend on the circumstances. But in the modern world of litigation, most aspects of human conduct and interaction are governed by statutes and regulations that prescribe specific duties. A negligence claim resting exclusively on the general duty of ordinary care is rare indeed. When a statutory duty is supported by evidence, it must be incorporated into a jury instruction as a specific duty. Humana of Kentucky, Inc. v. McKee, 834 S.W.2d 711, 722 (Ky.App.1992) ([T]he court obviously is required to instruct the jury regarding that [statutory] duty because the violation of such a duty, standing alone, may be sufficient to support a claim of negligence.). Moreover, when a statutory duty is applicable, the jury instructions should, after explaining the general duty, specify that it includes certain enumerated specific duties because the breach of a duty imposed by statute or ordinance is negligence per se if the harm which occurred incident to violation of the statute is that type of harm which the statute was intended to prevent. See Wemyss v. Coleman, 729 S.W.2d 174, 180 (Ky.1987). Where one's ability to conform to a specific duty is arguably affected by the presence of a sudden and unexpected peril, the jury is not adequately or fairly informed of what the substantive law requires unless the specific duty is qualified with a sudden emergency instruction. Harris illustrates the point. There, a motorist crossed the centerline of a highway in apparent violation of his specific duties to keep his vehicle under reasonable control and on the right side of the road. As a result, he struck and killed two pedestrians. Harris pinpoints the reason why the sudden emergency instruction is necessary: In this case the [sudden emergency instruction] was made necessary because by not remaining on the right side of the road [the motorist] violated a specific duty unless the exceptional circumstance of the ice on the road had the effect of relieving him from it. Had the accident taken place in his own lane of travel, or on the right side of the highway, it would not have been necessary, because then the unexpected presence of the ice would have amounted to no more than a condition bearing upon the question of whether the accident resulted from a failure on his part to comply with the more generalized duties of ordinary care. The proper criterion is whether any of the specific duties set forth in the instruction would be subject to exception by reason of the claimed emergency. Harris, 497 S.W.2d at 428 (emphasis added.) The point bears repetition: had the accident occurred under circumstances that implicated only the generalized duty of ordinary care, no sudden emergency instruction was required. But, the specific duties implicated by the conduct in question would be subject to exception by reason of the claimed emergency. The presence of the emergency does not excuse the breach of a specific duty; under appropriate circumstances, it can eliminate the duty so that the conduct (crossing to the wrong side of the road) is not a breach at all. Harris accurately explained the consequences of failing to give the sudden emergency instruction when it is due: The next following duty, which was to operate his automobile on the right-hand side of the highway `and not to pass over the center medium (sic) at the point where the accident herein occurred,' was not modified so as to allow for an unanticipated emergency which, without fault on his part, may have prevented his so doing. As given in this instruction the duty was absolute, hence in the absence of some qualifying language appearing elsewhere in the instructions it would have amounted to a directed verdict against [the motorist], because obviously he did cross over the center line of the highway on the way toward striking the two pedestrians. Id. at 427. Without the qualifying language provided by a sudden emergency instruction, the jury would have no choice but to find the motorist at fault based on the obvious breach of specific duties, despite the law's recognition that in an emergency, with little time for deliberation, the obligation to obey a specific duty may yield. A simple ordinary care instruction under comparative negligence does not do that.
Although the sudden emergency doctrine developed when contributory negligence denied damages to injured plaintiffs whose own breach of care contributed to their injuries, it is not in principle uniquely or exclusively applicable to contributory negligence. Moreover, nothing in the substance of the doctrine is incompatible with the more equitable principles of comparative negligence. Before the adoption of comparative negligence, juries routinely determined whether either party, or both parties, had breached general or specific duties of care. The sudden emergency qualification of those duties applies equally to both plaintiffs and defendants. Brown v. Todd, 425 S.W.2d 737, 739 (Ky. 1968) (the [sudden emergency] instruction qualifies the duties imposed on any party charged with negligence. In this case one of defendant's defenses was that the plaintiff driver was contributorily negligent. If the latter had a right to defend the charge of contributory negligence on the ground of sudden emergency, he would be entitled to the instruction the same as if he had been a defendant charged with original negligence.). Under both comparative negligence and contributory negligence principles, a judgment of liability is based on the answers to two questions. First, who was at fault? Second, upon what basis will the damages be allocated among those parties found to be at fault? Under comparative negligence, the determination of who was at fault follows exactly the same path as it did under contributory negligence. The question of fault has always been answered by determining whether the party breached an applicable duty and whether the breach was a substantial factor in causing the injury claimed. What comparative negligence changed was the way we allocate, or apportion, fault. Under contributory negligence, if the plaintiff was to any degree at fault for his injury, all the damage was allocated to him, and he could recover nothing from the defendant, regardless of the defendant's degree of culpability. Under comparative negligence, the finder of fact allocates to each party a percentage of the total fault, and hence a percentage of the damages, based upon that party's conduct and the relationship of that conduct to the injury. Because the sudden emergency doctrine relates only to the question of whether a duty was breached, and has no affect on the means by which damages are allocated, the shift to comparative negligence should not in any way alter our view about the necessity of a sudden emergency instruction. Whether we allocate damages under comparative negligence or contributory negligence, without a sudden emergency instruction, the jury has no way to know that one's obligation to conform to specific duties may be affected by the sudden presence of imminent peril. Eliminating the sudden emergency instruction effectively eliminates the sudden emergency doctrine. We decline to do so now, and thus we reaffirm the conclusions reached in Regenstreif.
Citing Brown v. Wilson, 401 S.W.2d 77 (Ky.1966), Henson correctly notes that an emergency will not pardon the breach of a specific duty when the party invoking the doctrine caused the emergency. She contends, however, that the sudden emergency instruction given by the trial court created a presumption that Klein was acting within his standard of care, essentially granting Klein a directed verdict. We do not agree. The jury instruction given by the trial court properly and clearly informed the jury that Klein's reaction to the sudden emergency could be considered only if such emergency was not brought about by any failure on [Klein's] part to perform the duties above set forth. Whether Klein was negligent, and whether his own negligence was a factor in creating the emergency were issues of fact to be resolved by a well informed and properly instructed jury. Pathways, Inc. v. Hammons, 113 S.W.3d 85, 89 (Ky.2003) (Breach and injury, are questions of fact for the jury to decide.). The instruction given did not impede the jury's ability to perform its role as the arbiter of the facts. Henson also argues that the sudden emergency instruction given by the trial court was too confusing and too difficult for a jury to follow. She suggests that, if we decline to abolish the doctrine, we should establish a bright line rule limiting the sudden emergency instruction to cases in which the party seeking its protection would, but for the emergency, be entitled to a directed verdict. The bright line rule urged by Henson would result in an unjust and uneven application of the sudden emergency doctrine. Under Henson's bright line rule, the instruction would be denied to those against whom there existed some evidence of negligence before the onset of the emergency even though they may ultimately be found faultless if their negligence did not contribute to the emergency and their response to the emergency was reasonable under the circumstances. We see no indication that Kentucky trial courts and juries, in more than a century of experience with the sudden emergency doctrine, have experienced any difficulty in understanding or applying it. Therefore, we see no reason to modify the rule.