Opinion ID: 2972311
Heading Depth: 4
Heading Rank: 3

Heading: Goodrich’s Challenge to Greene’s Statement

Text: As an initial matter, Goodrich maintained on brief and during oral argument that Greene’s statement as recorded on the CVR, “Okay I think my gyro just quit,” was inadmissible hearsay. Goodrich says that the vertical gyroscopes feeding the helicopter’s ADIs were located in the nose of the helicopter. Thus, Goodrich argues, it would be impossible for Greene to see a vertical gyroscope or to know that it quit; rather, he only would be able to see the ADIs inside the cockpit that reflected data supplied by the gyroscopes. Additionally, Goodrich argues that there were at least six gyroscopes on the helicopter and that it did not manufacture all of them, so admitting Greene’s statement requires speculation as to which gyroscope Greene may have been referring. At the time the district court admitted Greene’s statement, it did not clearly articulate the hearsay exception on which it was relying. The district court did, however, address this issue with specificity when it denied Goodrich’s motions for judgment as a matter of law. The district court at that time found that the statement was admissible under two exceptions to the hearsay rule: (1) present sense impression and (2) excited utterance. We review whether the district court’s determination was an abuse of discretion. Mitroff v. Xomox Corp., 797 F.2d 271, 275 (6th Cir. 1986). Under the Federal Rules of Evidence, hearsay is defined as a “statement, other than one made by the declarant while 11 testifying at the trial or hearing, offered in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted.” FED. R. EVID. 801(c). Under FED. R. EVID. 803(1), the hearsay rule does not exclude “[a] statement describing or explaining an event or condition made while the declarant was perceiving the event or condition, or immediately thereafter.” The excited utterance exception to the hearsay rule under FED. R. EVID. 803(2) requires “[f]irst, there must be an event startling enough to cause nervous excitement. Second, the statement must be made before there is time to contrive or misrepresent. And, third, the statement must be made while the person is under the stress of the excitement caused by the event.” Haggins v. Warden, Fort Pillow State Farm, 715 F.2d 1050, 1057 (6th. Cir. 1983). As an initial note, it is unclear from the record if Greene’s out-of-court statement was even offered at trial to prove the truth of the matter asserted – the definition of hearsay. Even if it was, however, the district court did not err in admitting Greene’s statement as either a present sense impression or as an exited utterance. With respect to a present sense impression, certainly Greene could not personally observe the vertical gyroscopes in the nose of the helicopter as Goodrich argues. However, it is undisputed that Greene could see the ADIs in the cockpit that reflected data supplied by the vertical gyroscopes in the nose of the helicopter. Although Goodrich argues that it is unclear if Greene was referring to his ADI in his statement or another ADI in the cockpit, the fact that he said “I think my gyro just quit” (emphasis added) appears to indicate that he was referring to his ADI. Indeed, Herlihy, Greene’s expert, testified that it would make no difference to an experienced pilot like Greene that the gyroscope is in the nose of the 12 helicopter. Herlihy testified that if a pilot like Greene said “my gyro just quit,” he knows that the information displayed on the ADI is coming from the nose of the helicopter. To suggest that a pilot who is experiencing problems with an ADI display must physically view the gyroscope to reliably detect a malfunction is untenable. The district court also did not err in concluding that Greene’s statement was an excited utterance. Certainly Greene made the statement while under stress of the event that nineteen seconds later resulted in his death. To the extent that Goodrich argues again that Greene could not physically see the gyroscope that allegedly quit, the Advisory Committee Notes to FED. R. EVID. 803 provide that, with respect to a declarant’s perception of an event, “the statement need only ‘relate’ to the startling event or condition, thus affording a broader scope of subject matter coverage.” Overall, the district court did not abuse its discretion in admitting Greene’s statement. d. Whether Greene’s Evidence Was Sufficient to Prove a Manufacturing Defect At the heart of Goodrich’s argument is its position that Greene failed to meet her burden of proof because she failed to establish an issue of fact for the jury that there was a manufacturing defect in the pilot’s vertical gyroscope, i.e., Goodrich says that Greene’s evidence failed to “tilt the balance from possibility to probability” and thus show that there was a manufacturing defect in the pilot’s vertical gyroscope. See King, 209 F.3d at 893. After a review of the record and an examination of Greene’s proofs at trial, we agree with Goodrich that the evidence Greene proffered failed to show that there was a manufacturing defect in a vertical gyroscope. 13 Perhaps what is most problematic to us is Greene’s heavy reliance on data indicating the number of vertical gyroscopes and ADIs that had been removed and/or repaired in PHI-owned helicopters in the six months preceding the helicopter accident. The parties presented us with differing interpretations of this data. The NTSB report states that [a]ccording to company records, in the 6 months that preceded the accident, fleetwide, there had been a total of 40 vertical gyro replacements on 15 helicopters, and a total of 11 attitude indicator replacements on 7 helicopters. On N2743E[, the helicopter piloted by Greene and Jones], in the preceding 6 months, there were two attitude indicators, and three vertical gyros replaced. According to company records, fleetwide, in the preceding 6 months, the maximum number of attitude indicators replaced on a helicopter was three, and maximum number of vertical gyros replaced was six. Greene introduced Exhibit No. 21 at trial, titled “S-76 Vertical Gyro Removals” and “S- 76 Attitude Director Indicator Removals,” which purports to summarize the vertical gyroscopes and ADIs from PHI’s helicopter fleet that were removed, replaced, and/or sent to a repair facility between December 15, 1998 through June 14, 1999. Our review of the data contained in this exhibit does not seem to correlate with the figures recited above from the NTSB report. Our review of Exhibit No. 21 suggests that PHI removed 32 vertical gyroscopes and 12 ADIs from some of its helicopters in the relevant six-month period. Regardless of the sum total of vertical gyroscopes and ADIs that were removed, replaced, or repaired during the six months preceding the accident, however, it troubles us that Greene argues that the data from this exhibit suggest a “large number” of vertical gyroscope failures. The vertical gyroscopes and ADIs for which there were repair orders 14 were not sent solely to Goodrich; rather, PHI sent them to various facilities, including Goodrich; Masco; Helicopter Support, Inc.; Bell Helicopter Textron; and Honeywell, Inc.5 The evidence in Exhibit No. 21 does not suggest that there was a manufacturing defect in a vertical gyroscope. Indeed, including ADIs within the list of removals, replacements, and repairs does nothing to support Greene’s claim that there was a manufacturing defect in a vertical gyroscope. The evidence in the exhibit could equally suggest that there was a problem with an ADI. Indeed, counsel for Goodrich at oral argument told us that nothing in Greene’s proofs ruled out the possibility that an ADI malfunctioned. More significant, however, is the fact that Greene proffered no evidence that the reason for the removal or repairs of the vertical gyroscopes was unusual. Likewise, she proffered no evidence that the rate of replacement of vertical gyroscopes in the PHI fleet differed from the replacement rate of vertical gyroscopes made by other manufacturers. Because of our uncertainty after studying the record, we expressed concern to counsel at oral argument about the use of Greene’s data regarding vertical gyroscope and ADI removals, replacements, and repairs. We directly asked counsel for both Goodrich and Greene to direct us to the place in the record that would inform us as to the expected 5 It is unclear if Exhibit No. 21 shows that all vertical gyroscopes that PHI removed were manufactured by Goodrich because the gyroscopes were sent to various repair facilities. 15 useful life of a vertical gyroscope. Both counsel, however, informed us that the record is devoid of such information.6 This strikes us as a conspicuous omission, given the fact that without such a benchmark it is impossible to determine whether the vertical gyroscopes removed, replaced, or repaired in the PHI fleet occurred at a statistically significant rate compared with the average life expectancy of a vertical gyroscope. As counsel for Goodrich correctly noted during oral argument, the failure to adduce such evidence is correctly attributable to Greene – the party with the burden to prove a manufacturing defect. Simply put, Greene’s statistics regarding the removal, replacement, and repairs of vertical gyroscopes and ADIs in the PHI fleet are meaningless and are not, without more, probative of a manufacturing defect.7 Greene’s evidence also consisted of Exhibit No. 6, comprising 211 pages of work orders and inspection reports from Goodrich’s repair station in Austin, Texas. This exhibit documented work orders Goodrich received from PHI for model VG-204 A/B vertical gyroscopes along with details of the work Goodrich actually performed on each 6 The parties had an opportunity post-argument to respond to our concerns about the lack of this information, but we received no response. 7 This case presents an important example of how the value of oral argument cannot be understated. Oral argument allowed us to further delve into issues of concern that were not adequately addressed by the parties in their briefs. “The intangible value of oral argument is, to my mind, considerable. . . . [O]ral argument offers an opportunity for a direct interchange of ideas between court and counsel. . . . Counsel can play a significant role in responding to the concerns of the judges, concerns that counsel won’t always be able to anticipate in preparing the briefs.” William H. Rehnquist, Oral Advocacy: A Disappearing Art, 35 MERCER L. REV. 1015, 1021 (1984). 16 vertical gyroscope submitted to the repair station for evaluation. The documents in Exhibit No. 6 detail work orders from PHI to Goodrich for the period November 1994 through April 1999. Two of the work orders and inspection reports within six months of the accident show that PHI sent two model VG-204 A/B vertical gyroscopes from the helicopter Greene was piloting, registration number N2743E, to Goodrich’s Texas facility. The first work order, number FK956, was received by Goodrich on January 25, 1999. The reason listed on the work order for the vertical gyroscope being removed was “#2 pitch kicks in flight.” The final inspection report by Goodrich on January 29, 1999, lists as the reason for failure “carbon build-up on slip rings and brushes due to electrical contact.” The inspection report states that Goodrich repaired the vertical gyroscope and that it met manufacturer specifications when it was returned to PHI on January 29, 1999. The second work order, number FT858, was received by Goodrich on April 13, 1999. The reason listed on the work order for the vertical gyroscope being removed was, again, “#2 pitch kicks in flight.” The final inspection report by Goodrich on April 16, 1999, states “couldn’t verify customer complaint, unit performs normally.” Before the vertical gyroscope was returned to PHI on April 16, 1999, the work performed on the unit was listed on the final inspection report as “open checked unit, cleaned all slip ring and brushes as a precaution, calibrated, tested and inspected to current mfg spec. . . .” This exhibit likewise is not probative of a manufacturing defect because it does nothing to suggest that any model VG-204 A/B vertical gyroscope listed in the series of work orders was defective at the time it left Goodrich’s manufacturing plant. 17 Another piece of evidence further supports our conclusion that Greene failed to prove that there was a manufacturing defect in a vertical gyroscope. Herlihy testified at trial that it was his opinion that “the accident was a result of instrument confusion in the cockpit created by the loss of vertical gyro input to the flying pilot’s A.D.I. or gyro horizon.” PHI lead pilot Thomas Methvin, however, testified that even if one ADI failed or was receiving incorrect information, Greene and/or pilot-in-command Jones should have relied upon the other ADIs in the cockpit to safely fly or land the aircraft. Additional testimony by Herlihy provided that the accident “had a number of factors that caused it.” Herlihy testified that “the factors include two primary causes,” including the weather and Herlihy’s opinion that “the helicopter experienced an instrument failure.” Given the evidence that it would be possible for a pilot to navigate the helicopter if an ADI failed; that multiple events could have caused the helicopter accident; and that replacements of vertical gyroscopes on PHI’s helicopters, including the one piloted by Greene and Jones, six months prior to the crash do not, standing alone, indicate a gyroscope defect, Greene’s proofs were simply insufficient to show that there was a manufacturing defect in a vertical gyroscope. Indeed, at no time did any witness identify a defect in manufacture of model VG-204 A/B vertical gyroscopes. e. Conclusion Viewing the totality of the evidence at the conclusion of Greene’s proofs leads us to conclude that the evidence amounted to “featureless generality.” See OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES, JR., THE COMMON LAW 89 (Mark DeWolfe Howe ed., Little, Brown 1963) 18 (1881). In the absence of evidence that one possible explanation was more probable than another, the jury was required to speculate as to whether there was a defect. It is well established that a jury verdict based on speculation, supposition, or surmise is impermissible: Although the jury may draw reasonable inferences from the evidence of a defect in manufacturing, it is incumbent on the plaintiff to introduce evidence that will support a reasonable inference that the defect was the “probable” cause of the accident as distinguished from a “possible” cause among other possibilities; otherwise, the jury verdict is based upon speculation or surmise. Midwestern V.W. Corp. v. Ringley, 503 S.W.2d 745, 747 (Ky. 1973). Our view of the evidence indicates that, at best, Greene only showed at trial that it was possible there was a manufacturing defect in a vertical gyroscope. She simply failed to satisfy her burden that there was such a defect. Because we conclude that the district court erred in failing to grant Goodrich’s motion for judgment as a matter of law at the conclusion of Greene’s case, Goodrich’s challenge to the district court’s denial of Goodrich’s motion for judgment as a matter of law at the close of trial and the district court’s denial of Goodrich’s renewed motion for judgment as a matter of law is moot. B. Whether the District Court Erred in Granting Summary Judgment to Goodrich on Greene’s Failure to Warn Claim Greene argues in her cross-appeal that the district court erred when it granted summary judgment to Goodrich on Greene’s failure to warn claims. Greene argued that Goodrich breached its duty to warn users of aircraft that 19 contained a vertical gyroscope about the gyroscope’s manufacturing defects. Greene relied on Herlihy’s opinion that Goodrich “had no central database structure . . . to track malfunctions, to register employee concerns of gyro system weaknesses, or to communicate horizontally between Grand Rapids manufacturing, quality assurance and its field repair facilities.” Greene did not allege any violations of federal law with respect to the failure to warn claim. She also did not cite any authority regarding standards that encourage or require a company like Goodrich to maintain such a database. In granting Goodrich’s motion for summary judgment with respect to the failure to warn claim, the district court held that federal law preempts any state-law imposed duties in the realm of aviation. The district court found it significant that Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) guidelines do not propose or mandate a database like Herlihy suggested Goodrich should maintain. In reaching its conclusion, the district court relied on Abdullah v. Am. Airlines, Inc., 181 F.3d 363 (3d Cir. 1999). In Abdullah, the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit joined other circuits in recognizing that Congress intended aviation safety to be exclusively federal in nature. Id. at 371. The Supreme Court has stated that preemption may be inferred where “the pervasiveness of the federal regulation precludes supplementation by the States, where the federal interest in the field is sufficiently dominant, or where the object sought to be obtained by the federal law and the character of obligations imposed by it reveal the same purpose.” Schneidewind v. ANR Pipeline Co., 485 U.S. 293, 300 (1988) (internal quotations omitted). The Abdullah court noted that “[t]he federal courts that adjudicated the first major cases involving the 20 [Federal Aviation Act] interpreted its legislative history as evincing Congress’s intent to exercise supremacy over the field of aviation safety.” Abdullah, 181 F.3d at 369. The legislative history of the Federal Aviation Act notes that: [The purpose of the Federal Aviation Act was to give] [t]he Administrator of the new Federal Aviation Agency full responsibility and authority for the advancement and promulgation of civil aeronautics generally, including promulgation and enforcement of safety regulations. H.R. Rep. No. 2360, reprinted in 1958 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3741. The House Report also noted that “[i]t is essential that one agency of government, and one agency alone, be responsible for issuing safety regulations if we are to have timely and effective guidelines for safety in aviation.” Id. at 3761. After analyzing this legislative history, the Abdullah court concluded: It follows from the evident intent of Congress that there be federal supervision of air safety and from the decisions in which courts have found federal preemption of discrete, safety-related matters, that federal law preempts the general field of aviation safety. Abdullah, 181 F.3d at 371. We agree with the Third Circuit’s reasoning in Abdullah that federal law establishes the standards of care in the field of aviation safety and thus preempts the field from state regulation. The district court did not err in concluding that federal law preempted Greene’s state-law failure to warn claim. C. Whether the District Court Erred in Excluding Evidence of Gyroscope Repairs and Replacements Beyond a Six-Month Timeframe Greene also argues in her cross-appeal that the district court erred by excluding evidence of gyroscope repairs and replacements that occurred on PHI’s helicopters more 21 than six months prior to the crash. When examining a challenge to the exclusion of evidence, we will not reverse the district court’s decision “unless necessary to do ‘substantial justice.’” Martin v. Heideman, 106 F.3d 1308, 1311 (6th Cir. 1997). Greene does not adequately explain how evidence of gyroscope repairs and replacements beyond a six-month time period before the crash would help her case. Indeed, it appears as though such evidence is cumulative of the evidence she proffered that indicated that there had been several replacements of vertical gyroscopes on PHI’s helicopters. The district court correctly limited this type of evidence to a time period of six months prior to the crash so as to prevent the introduction of unnecessary and cumulative data for the jury’s consideration. Greene has failed to demonstrate how reversing the district court’s evidentiary decision is necessary to do substantial justice.