Opinion ID: 2263225
Heading Depth: 1
Heading Rank: 4

Heading: Federal Appellate Decisions

Text: The Ninth Circuit has held that Jett is no longer valid precedent. [11] In Federation of African American Contractors v. Oakland , the Ninth Circuit acknowledged that § 1981(c) does not provide an explicit cause of action against state actors. [12] Nevertheless, the Ninth Circuit concluded that, under the implied remedy doctrine, as applied in the four-step process set forth in Cort v. Ash, [13] there is a cause of action against state actors implied in § 1981(c). [14] The Fourth, Fifth and the Eleventh Circuits have held, however, that the 1991 amendment does not alter the holding of Jett. [15] While the Third Circuit has not directly addressed the issue, it has recently cited the holding in Jett with approval. [16]