Opinion ID: 381796
Heading Depth: 2
Heading Rank: 2

Heading: The Need for a Warrant

Text: 12 The appellants argue in the alternative that even if the search was supported by probable cause, the police had that probable cause well before they searched Whitfield's car and thus had ample time to obtain a warrant. Under these circumstances, according to the appellants, a warrantless search is no longer permissible, for the usual exigency that allows police to forgo a warrant is absent. We disagree. We believe that the mobility of a motor vehicle, without more, creates an exigency permitting a warrantless search based on probable cause and that the police need not carry out this search immediately upon the crystallization of probable cause. 13 In a long line of cases, the Supreme Court has held that (o)ne of the circumstances in which the Constitution does not require a search warrant is when the police stop an automobile on the street or highway because they have probable cause to believe it contains contraband or evidence of a crime. Arkansas v. Sanders, 442 U.S. 753, 760, 99 S.Ct. 2586, 2591, 61 L.Ed.2d 235 (1979). See, e. g., Chambers v. Maroney, 399 U.S. 42, 90 S.Ct. 1975, 26 L.Ed.2d 419 (1970); Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 45 S.Ct. 280, 69 L.Ed. 543 (1925). Due to their configuration, use, and regulation, only a limited expectation of privacy attaches to motor vehicles, 7 and their mobility creates an exigency that makes obtaining a warrant impracticable. Because this exigency outweighs the limited privacy interest in vehicles, police may search them without a warrant, as long as probable cause is present. See Arkansas v. Sanders, 442 U.S. at 761, 99 S.Ct. at 2591-92. The appellants contend, however, that this precedent is inapposite in the present case because the officers delayed after they had probable cause before they detained and searched the car. The appellants submit that this delay negates the existence of any exigency, for even the police themselves saw no need to act quickly. Given this decision to wait, the appellants argue that the police had no reason to forgo the important constitutional safeguard of obtaining a warrant. 14 Despite the appellants' contentions, we believe that the requirement of exigency is satisfied by the very nature of an operable motor vehicle; no further exigent factors are necessary. As the Supreme Court has observed, 15 Although the original justification advanced for treating automobiles differently from houses, insofar as warrantless searches of automobiles by federal officers was concerned, was the vagrant and mobile nature of the former, warrantless searches of vehicles by state officers have been sustained in cases in which the possibilities of the vehicle's being removed or evidence in it destroyed were remote, if not nonexistent. 16 Cady v. Dombrowski, 413 U.S. 433, 441-42, 93 S.Ct. 2523, 2528, 37 L.Ed.2d 706 (1973) (citations omitted). (T)he inherent mobility of automobiles creates circumstances of such exigency that, as a practical necessity, rigorous enforcement of the warrant requirement is impossible. South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364, 367, 96 S.Ct. 3092, 3096, 49 L.Ed.2d 1000 (1976). Indeed, this court recently stated categorically: Because of their mobility, automobiles on the public highway carry with them inherent exigent circumstances when it is believed that they contain contraband. United States v. Harris, 627 F.2d 474, at 476-477, (D.C.Cir. 1980). Thus, the exigency arises when the police are confronted with a motor vehicle, at least when it is in a public place and apparently in operating condition. When coupled with the reduced expectation of privacy one has in an automobile, this exigency allows a warrantless search on probable cause. 8 17 Moreover, we do not believe this exigency disappears when the police decide in good faith to delay their search for a more opportune time or place. A four-Justice plurality of the Supreme Court rejected a similar argument in Cardwell v. Lewis, 417 U.S. 583, 595, 94 S.Ct. 2464, 2472, 41 L.Ed.2d 325 (1974) (plurality opinion of Blackmun, J.) (we know of no case or principle that suggests that the right to search on probable cause and the reasonableness of seizing a car under exigent circumstances are foreclosed if a warrant was not obtained at the first practicable moment). 9 The Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, sitting en banc, has held expressly that a delay long enough to obtain a warrant does not mean that the police must obtain one. United States v. Mitchell, 538 F.2d 1230, 1232-34 (5th Cir. 1976) (en banc), cert. denied, 430 U.S. 945, 97 S.Ct. 1578, 51 L.Ed.2d 792 (1977). Accord, United States v. Brookins, 614 F.2d 1037 (5th Cir. 1980). 10 18 We find these precedents persuasive. A rule requiring police to search immediately or to jeopardize their ability to act quickly in the future very well might hamper legitimate police practices and increase the number of invasions into spheres of individual privacy. An officer often has good reason not to stop and search a car the moment he believes he has probable cause to do so. He may wish to reflect further on his belief or test it by looking for additional evidence, see, e. g., United States v. Ferrara, 539 F.2d 799, 802 (1st Cir. 1976), or consulting with his fellow officers. He may decide searching at another time or place would prove less dangerous to himself or others. He also may determine that an immediate confrontation would prevent him from obtaining additional evidence against the occupants or others involved in criminal activities. If the law were to require an officer to move immediately at the risk of being precluded from taking quick action later, he would have a strong incentive to act as soon as he thinks he might have sufficient cause to do so. Such hasty action might invade privacy interests he otherwise would leave intact because either time to reflect or additional information would alter his judgment on probable cause or his need for the items sought. Likewise, going forward immediately might needlessly impede efficient and thorough criminal investigations and endanger innocent persons. These multiple concerns lead us to hold that, absent unusual factors counselling otherwise in a particular case, police may search a motor vehicle based on probable cause without a warrant even though they have had time to obtain one. 19 In reaching this conclusion, we do not mean to discourage police from seeking warrants. On the contrary, if the officer believes that he has probable cause and that delaying will not hamper the effectiveness of his investigation, good judgment on his part would dictate applying for a warrant. If he obtains it, he avoids all the difficult questions presented by any warrantless search. If he fails, he still may be able to secure one later, based on additional evidence, and he has avoided the harsh penalty the exclusionary rule would have imposed had he proceeded without a warrant when he lacked probable cause. Moreover, with telephonic warrants now permissible, at least in federal cases, see Fed.R.Crim.P. 41(c)(2), the delay may not be long at all. Thus, we suggest, as other courts have, a simple rule of thumb for police to follow: When in doubt, get a warrant. United States v. Gooch, 603 F.2d 122, 126 n. 3 (10th Cir. 1979) (opinion on denial of rehearing).