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http://www.153aw.ang.af.mil/resources/biographies/bio.asp?bioID=16671 | 2016-04-29T17:44:29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860111392.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161511-00061-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 0.892199 | 1,047 | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2016-18__0__81931580 | en | |CHIEF MASTER SERGEANT MICHAEL D. ABBOTT|
Chief Master Sergeant Michael D. Abbott is the Command Chief Master Sergeant, 153rd Airlift Wing, Wyoming Air National Guard. The 153rd Airlift Wing supports the State of Wyoming, the Air National Guard and the United States Air Force with peacetime and combat airlift missions throughout the world. The 153rd Airlift Wing is equipped with eight, C-130H aircraft and consists of more than 1,200 personnel across 20 squadrons. The 153rd Airlift Wing also has capabilities for aerial firefighting (Modular Airborne Fire Fighting System), aero-medical evacuation response, command and control missions, and air traffic control.
Chief Abbott began his career in January 1992 and became a full time employee shortly after graduating from the U.S. Air Force Security Forces Academy at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. During the following years, he has held positions as wing Anti-Terrorism Officer, Squadron Superintendent, Squadron Resource Advisor, member of the state Anti-Terrorism Joint Task Force through the state Attorney General's Office. Chief Abbott has worked with the Joint Staff working on several projects for the Governor's office through Operations (J3) and Strategic Plans and Policy (J5) offices.
Prior to his current position, he served as the Chief Enlisted Manager, 153rd Security Forces Squadron.
1994 USAF Noncommissioned Officer Leadership Course, by correspondence
1995 U.S Customs and Border Patrol Military Accepted, Cheyenne, Wyo.
2001 Urban Warfare School, Camp Gruber, Okla.
2002 USAF Noncommissioned Officer Academy, by correspondence
2002 Associates of Arts Psychology, Laramie County Community College, distinction, Cheyenne, Wy.
2003 Associate of Applied Science in Criminal Justice, Community College of the Air Force
2005 USAF Noncommissioned Officer Academy, by correspondence
2005 Army Corps of Engineers Security Engineering, F.E Warren AFB, Wyo.
2006 Anti-Terrorism Level II Course, Portland, Oregon
2006 Homeland Security Weapons of Mass Destruction Course, Cheyenne, Wyo.
2006 Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
2009 Integrated Defense Risk Management Course, Scott AFB, Ill.
2011 Air National Guard Chiefs Executive Course, Washington D.C
2011 Air Force Chiefs Leadership Course, Maxwell AFB, Ala.
2011 Security Forces Chief's Manager Course, Lackland AFB
2013 ANG Command Chief Orientation Course, Lackland AFB
2014 Enterprise Leadership Seminar, UNC Kegler School of Business, North Carolina
2014 Bachelors or Arts Human Development, Amridge University
1. April 1992 - May 1992, Trainee, Basic Military Training Lackland AFB, Texas
2. May 1992 - July 1992, Student, Security Forces, Lackland AFB, Texas
3. July 1992 - May 2000, Security Forces Journeyman, 153rd Security Forces Squadron, Cheyenne, Wyo.
4. May 2000 - May 2002, Security Forces Craftsman, 153rd Security Forces Squadron, Cheyenne, Wyo.
5. May 2002 - June 2006, Wing Anti-Terrorism Officer, 153rd Security Forces Squadron, Cheyenne, Wyo.
6. June 2006 - Dec 2009, Security Forces Superintendent, 153rd Security Forces Squadron, Cheyenne, Wyo.
7. December 2009 - March 2013, Security Forces Manager, 153rd Security Forces Squadron, Cheyenne, Wyo.
8. March 2013 - present, Command Chief Master Sergeant, 153rd Airlift Wing, Cheyenne, Wyo.
AWARDS AND DECORATIONS
Meritorious Service Medal with one oak leaf cluster
Air Force Commendation Medal
Army Commendation Medal with one oak leaf cluster
Air Force Achievement Medal with one oak leaf cluster
Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Valor
Air Reserve Forces Meritorious Service Medal with one silver oak leaf cluster and two bronze oak leaf clusters
National Defense Service Medal
Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal
Global War on Terrorism Service Medal
Air Force Overseas Short Tour Ribbon
Air Force Longevity Service with four bronze oak leaf clusters
Armed Forces Reserve Medal with mobilization device and silver hourglass
Small Arms Expert Marksmanship ribbon with bronze star
Air Force Training Ribbon
Wyoming National Guard Distinguished Service Medal
Wyoming National Guard Achievement Medal
Wyoming National Guard Service Ribbon
1992 Outstanding Young American
1995 Airman of the Quarter
2002 Outstanding performer state Quick Reaction Force
2004 Outstanding performer, Wing Inspection, Air Mobility Command Inspector General
2009 Resource Advisor of the Quarter
EFFECTIVE DATES OF PROMOTION
Airman Oct. 13, 1992
Airman First Class April 23, 1993
Senior Airman Nov. 25, 1993
Staff Sergeant Feb. 5, 1996
Technical Sergeant May 12, 2000
Master Sergeant May 12, 2002
Senior Master Sergeant June 19, 2006
Chief Master Sergeant July 1, 2010
(Current as of August 2014) | aerospace |
https://pcgamesup.info/x-plane-11-crack/ | 2023-12-06T21:45:33 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100603.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20231206194439-20231206224439-00448.warc.gz | 0.905806 | 1,145 | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2023-50__0__230014607 | en | X Plane 11 PC Game Download Full Version
X Plane 11 Free PC is an immersive and highly realistic flight simulation game for the PC platform that offers a complete and authentic flight experience. Developed by Laminar Research, X-Plane 11 builds on the success of its predecessor by offering improved graphics, improved physics, and a range of features suitable for casual gamers and aviation enthusiasts. This game is widely acclaimed for its realism and attention to detail, making it a staple of the flight simulation genre. At the heart of X-Plane 11 is an advanced flight physics engine that accurately models the behavior of different aircraft in different conditions. Whether you’re flying a small propeller plane, a passenger plane, or even an experimental aircraft, you can expect realistic flight dynamics that respond to changes in weather, wind, and other factors.
The game features various aircraft, from light general aviation aircraft to complex aircraft. These aircraft are carefully designed inside and out, with highly detailed cockpits and interactive instruments. Players can interact with switches, buttons and controls like real racers, enhancing the authenticity and gaming experience. The visual experience of X Plane 11 is exceptional. The game features highly detailed landscapes with precise topography and realistic weather phenomena. The world feels alive and dynamic, from densely populated cities to vast rural areas. The game’s use of high-resolution textures, realistic lighting, and weather effects such as rain, snow, and thunderstorms contribute to a visually stunning experience.
X Plane 11 PC Game Download
X-Plane 11’s global landscape covers a significant portion of the world, allowing players to explore various locations, airports, and landmarks. Additionally, the game supports a robust modding community that allows players to create and share their planes, stages, and mods, increasing the game’s content and replayability. For those looking for a more structured experience, X Plane 11 offers a variety of missions and challenges that test your flying skills. These missions range from simple takeoffs and landings to more complex scenarios and offer different challenges for player engagement. The game includes a large selection of aircraft, from small single-engine propeller planes to large aircraft.
Whether you’re an experienced aviator or new to the world of aviation, X-Plane 11 offers a rich, highly detailed flight simulation experience that can be tailored to your preferences. Its commitment to realism, a wide variety of aircraft, global landscapes, and an active modding community make it the first choice for those looking for it. While I don’t know of a specific version of 5000 Worlds, X-Plane 11 offers a wide variety of scenario options, including a global terrain grid and the ability for users to add custom scenarios and airports. X-Plane 11 is a highly realistic flight simulator designed to provide a detailed and immersive flight experience for both beginners and experienced virtual pilots. Below are some important features and aspects of the game.
One of the strong points of X-Plane 11 is its extensive library of third-party add-ons. These add-ons include additional aircraft, scenario upgrades, and expansions that can significantly expand and improve the simulator’s capabilities. As for the “Worlds” you mentioned, at the time of my last update, I was not aware of any specific feature or expansion pack called” associated with X-Plane 11. It may be a mod or a user. -Plugin created and released after my last update. Players can manipulate weather conditions to simulate different scenarios, from clear skies to violent storms. This feature adds depth to the exercises and increases overall realism.
Realistic Flight Physics:
- X-Plane is known for its highly accurate flight physics engine. It simulates the aerodynamics of aircraft in a very realistic manner, taking into account factors like airfoil design, weight, balance, and environmental conditions.
Wide Variety of Aircraft:
- X-Plane 11 includes a diverse selection of aircraft ranging from small general aviation planes to commercial airliners and military jets. Additionally, there’s a strong modding community that creates and shares custom aircraft models.
- X-Plane 11 offers a global database of scenery, including detailed terrain, airports, and landmarks.
- Weather simulation is a notable feature. It includes real-time weather updates, and the weather conditions can have a significant impact on the flight experience, affecting visibility, turbulence, and aircraft performance.
- You can plan and execute flights using the built-in GPS navigation or import flight plans from external sources. There’s also support for real-world navigation data.
- X-Plane 11 offers online multiplayer capabilities, allowing you to fly with or against other players. This can be used for cooperative flights, air traffic control simulations, or competitive racing.
- Virtual reality (VR) support was introduced in X-Plane 11, allowing users to experience flying in an immersive VR environment.
- Operating system: Windows 7+
- Processor: 1.70 GHz Intel Core i5 processor
- Memory: 2GB RAM
- Graphics card: Intel HD Graphics 3000
- Storage space: 200 MB free space
How To Install?
- First, click the given below Download Button.
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- When you complete the installation you can enjoy the X Plane 11 For free. | aerospace |
https://www.affordable-aviation.com/pages/about | 2024-04-13T15:59:09 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296816820.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20240413144933-20240413174933-00131.warc.gz | 0.966648 | 607 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-18__0__57919757 | en | OUR VISION: Is to live up to our name! Over the course of the next several years we will bring high quality FAA/PMA approved products to the market at substantially lower prices than the competition.
My name is Ray DePouli, the founder of Affordable Aviation, my son Adam DePouli is President/CEO. We are proudly producing safety related products that are needed and work!
I have been flying for 55 years, it started when my father (Army Aviation) bought me an introductory flight when I was 14 years old. I have owned the same PRISTINE 1973 Cessna 172M for 35 years. Adam has been flying since 2005, he is the third-generation pilot in the family and we hope to pass on the joy and privilege of flight to his children.
Both Adam and I are accomplished pilots, I am CFII, MEI with thousands of hours, Adam is an instrument rated Commercial pilot. I had the pleasure of helping Adam earn his PPL, Instrument rating and Commercial license. The next notch on Adam’s belt will be CFI so he can teach his children to fly and keep the tradition in the family alive.
We wanted to give back to the aviation community and the way we elected to do this is to bring, as our name implies, Affordable Aviation products to the marketplace. Our first PMA approval was for Cessna Headrest Assemblies, used Cessna headrest are nearly impossible to find in the open market.
Currently, Affordable Aviation has several FAA/PMA approved products, more projects are in various stages of development. Our target is 5 new FAA/PMA approved product per year. Prices we be reasonable and AFFORDABLE.
We have always felt that a problem unsolved is often an opportunity for creative success. The opportunities in aerospace manufacturing are unlimited! My role in the company is to coordinate all technical and administrative information, Adam’s role(s) are centered on engineering and prototype fabrication.
The Affordable Aviation business started by accident (almost literally), In September of 2020 I was at KHIO in Oregon for about 30 minutes, got back into the plane…, cleared for takeoff and before I turned crosswind I was stung twice by a couple of wasps! A lesson learned the hard way! This event made me realize how serious a problem bugs in the cockpit can be. A few months later after we completed the research we started producing air inlet plugs for Cessna 100/200 series aircraft, advertised mainly on Facebook, the global response has been amazing, the ongoing customer comments have inspired us to keep going and expand the product line for Beechcraft and Mooney models. The plugs are patent pending. Other aircraft model plugs will be developed over time.
Whether your plane is on the ramp or in the hangar Remove Before Flight Air Inlet Plugs are another step in the PAVE checklist that pilots can take to ensure a safe flight. | aerospace |
http://m.state.gov/md141673.htm | 2013-05-26T04:04:15 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706624988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121704-00098-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 0.945679 | 3,109 | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2013-20__0__93651610 | en | U.S. Missile Defense and Regional Security
Deputy Assistant Secretary, Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation
Thank you for your kind introduction. It’s great to be back here in Israel. I am very pleased and honored to be here on behalf of Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Under Secretary of State Ellen Tauscher. This conference serves to highlight the key challenges from the proliferation of ballistic missiles, particularly short-range and medium-range threats, and the importance of missile defense in responding to those challenges. Indeed, these threats affect the entire international community, and Israel faces some of the most severe of them.
In my remarks today, I’d like to accomplish three things. First, I’d like to explain the United States’ new approach to missile defense. Second, I’ll share why the new U.S. approach to missile defense outlined in the recently released Ballistic Missile Defense Review (BMDR) is important for Israel, and why we believe that improvements in the U.S. missile defense posture will benefit both regional stability and Israel's security. And third, I’ll explain why the Obama Administration supports missile defense cooperation with Israel.
THE NEW APPROACH TO MISSILE DEFENSE
Let me begin by saying that missile defense cooperation between the United States and Israel has been going on for a long time and is built on a solid foundation. Israel was one of the first U.S. partners in missile defense when we initiated the joint Arrow program over two decades ago.
Missile defense plays an important role in the broader U.S. international security strategy. Missile defense supports diplomacy and defense, two of the three pillars of our international security strategy (the third pillar being development). Missile defense assures our allies and partners that the United States has the will and the means to deter and, if necessary, defeat a ballistic missile attack against our allies and our forward deployed troops and assets. Missile defense also provides U.S. and allied forces with freedom of maneuver by helping to negate the ability of regional actors to inhibit or disrupt U.S. military access and operations in the region.
Less obvious, perhaps, is the role of missile defense in supporting our diplomatic objectives. Our potential adversaries use ballistic missiles in peacetime as tools to support their diplomatic objectives, and sometimes to intimidate or coerce their regional neighbors. By offering missile defense as a means of regional protection, we enhance the credibility of U.S. extended deterrence commitments for our allies and friends. This, in turn, enables us to build coalitions for accomplishing shared objectives. For example, our friends and allies are therefore free to respond diplomatically to these threats because they have confidence that an effective missile defense strategy is in place.
The presence of missile defense also provides more options for the peaceful resolution of disputes, thereby enhancing regional stability and extended deterrence. Finally, missile defense also provides us the ability and time to pursue diplomatic solutions to crises that we do not want to allow to escalate.
With that as background, let me next discuss the new U.S. approach to missile defense and how it was developed. This new U.S. approach was largely driven by two factors: growth in the regional ballistic missile threat, and new technology opportunities offered by increasingly capable missile defense systems.
The overwhelming ballistic missile threat to deployed U.S. forces and our friends and allies around the world comes from short- and medium-range ballistic missiles. Current global trends indicate that ballistic missile systems are becoming more flexible, mobile, survivable, reliable, and accurate, while also increasing in range. A number of states are working to increase the protection of their ballistic missiles from pre-launch attack and to increase their effectiveness in penetrating missile defenses. Several states are also developing missiles suitable for delivering nuclear, chemical, and/or biological payloads.
States like Iran and North Korea also continue to pursue technologies to support long-range missile development, such as space launch vehicles, but there remains uncertainty about when a missile threat to the U.S. homeland will mature. As a result of these two key factors, the United States has rebalanced the missile defense program to focus greater attention on countering the current threat to U.S. forces, Allies, and partners while maintaining our ability to defend the homeland.
This rebalancing of the missile defense program began in the Fiscal Year 2010 budget. In that budget, funding for regional missile defense systems, such as the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense and the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense systems, was increased by almost $1 billion. This trend toward increased funding for regional missile defense systems has continued in the President’s Fiscal Year 2011 budget. The Administration also made a number of other adjustments to the program, including capping the number of long-range interceptors based in Alaska and California at 30. In the FY11 budget, the United States is maintaining and improving our effective capability against long-range threats to the United States by continuing to invest and ensure that the system is well-tested and operationally effective.
This approach was crystallized in the Ballistic Missile Defense Review, or BMDR, which was submitted to Congress in February of this year. The BMDR comprehensively considered U.S. ballistic missile defense policy, strategy, plans, and programs. The BMDR endorses aligning the missile defense posture with the near-term regional threat while sustaining and technically enhancing our ability to defend the U.S. homeland against a limited long-range attack.
The BMDR established certain policy priorities based on Presidential guidance. They are:
- The United States will continue to defend the homeland against the threat of limited ballistic missile attack.
- The United States will defend against regional missile threats to U.S. forces, while protecting our allies and partners and enabling them to defend themselves.
- Before new capabilities are deployed, they must undergo testing that enables assessment under realistic operational conditions.
- The commitment to new capabilities must be fiscally sustainable over the long term.
- U.S. ballistic missile defense capabilities must be flexible enough to adapt as threats change.
- The United States will lead expanded international efforts for missile defense.
Let me expand on this last priority, international cooperation on missile defense.
The United States seeks to prevent the development, acquisition, deployment, and use of ballistic missiles by regional adversaries. By reducing our adversaries’ confidence in the effectiveness of such attacks, deterrence is enhanced. It is clear that regional differences in geography, history, and relationships influence the scope and focus of missile defense cooperation activities. The BMDR acknowledged the unique deterrence and defense requirements for each region. It recommended pursuing region-by-region approaches based on the following three principles:
- First, the United States will strengthen regional deterrence architectures by building them on a solid foundation of strong cooperative relationships and appropriate burden sharing with our allies.
- Second, the United States will pursue a Phased Adaptive Approach (PAA) within each region that is tailored to the threats unique to that region, including the scale, scope and pace of their development, and the capabilities available and most suited for deployment. By “phased” and “adaptive” we mean implementing the best available technology to meet existing and evolving threats. If the threat evolves differently or in an unforeseen manner, we can review and adapt the architecture as necessary. As more capable interceptor technology is tested, proven, and available, we will phase that technology in to counter the increasing range and complexity of missile threats that we, our allies, and partners face.
- Third, as demand for missile defense assets within each region is expected to exceed supply, the United States will develop capabilities that are mobile and can be relocated in times of crisis. This should help deter would-be adversaries in all regions from thinking they can gain some long-term advantage.
MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL COOPERATION
The United States is working bilaterally and multilaterally with our allies and friends throughout the world to develop and deploy missile defense. I’d like to give you a brief rundown of our efforts. In Europe, the Administration is committed to implementing the PAA within a NATO context. The PAA provides greater capability for defending our allies and deployed U.S. troops sooner from the growing threat posed by short- and medium-range ballistic missiles. It can also incorporate new technologies quickly to adapt as the threat emerges and our technologies continue to mature. The new approach will be deployed in four phases, from 2011 to about 2020, to respond as ballistic missile threats develop. The European PAA (EPAA) is representative of how we plan to apply in practice the policy priorities that I described earlier. Poland and Romania have agreed to participate in the EPAA, and NATO Allies have welcomed EPAA as playing an important role for the Alliance as part of a broader response to counter ballistic missile threats.
Also in Europe, we have collaborated with the United Kingdom and Denmark to upgrade the Fylingdales and Thule early warning radars, and are continuing the co-development of the Medium Extended Air Defense System with our partners, Germany and Italy.
In East Asia, the United States is taking a bilateral approach to missile defense cooperation with our friends and allies. We have made considerable strides in BMD cooperation and interoperability with Japan. Japan has acquired a layered integrated missile defense system that includes Aegis BMD ships, PAC-3 fire units, early warning radars, and a command and control system. One of our most significant cooperative efforts is the co-development of a next-generation SM-3 interceptor, called the Block IIA. We also worked cooperatively to deploy a forward-based X-band radar in Japan.
In the Middle East, in addition to our missile defense cooperation with Israel (which you will hear more about shortly), we are working with our partners in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).
Furthermore, as we have made clear numerous times, we also seek to cooperate with Russia. As Secretary Clinton said in January, the United States and Russia face similar threats from the proliferation of ballistic missiles, and so the United States would welcome the opportunity to cooperate with Russia on missile defense. I would also note the U.S. missile defense capabilities are not directed at Russia and represent no threat to Russia’s strategic deterrent.
BILATERAL COOPERATION WITH ISRAEL
Of immediate interest to this audience is U.S. missile defense cooperation with Israel, which is central to our efforts to defend against ballistic missile threats emanating from the Middle East. Let me start off by discussing the threat, starting with Iran.
- Iran has developed and acquired ballistic missiles capable of striking deployed forces, allies, and partners in the Middle East and Southern Europe. It is fielding increased numbers of mobile regional ballistic missiles and claims to have incorporated anti-missile-defense tactics and capabilities into its ballistic missile forces. Iran has also flight-tested a solid-propellant medium range ballistic missile (MRBM) with a claimed range of 2,000 km. It is likely working to improve the accuracy of its short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs).
- Syria possesses hundreds of mobile SCUD-class and short-range ballistic missiles. These weapons are capable of reaching much of Israel and other states in the region. We are very concerned by reports that Syria has transferred SCUD missiles to Lebanese Hizballah. All states have an obligation under UN Security Council Resolution 1701 to prevent the importation of any weapons into Lebanon except as authorized by the Lebanese Government.
- Hizballah and Hamas (particularly the former) are capable of conducting irregular warfare campaigns that include, in the case of Hizballah, launching thousands of short-range rockets into Israeli population centers. Hizballah is attempting to expand its reach and effects by acquiring rockets with greater range and accuracy.
We are working with Israel on a number of missile defense activities to address these threats, from plans and operations to specific programs:
- BMD Operations and Plans: In addition to conducting the Biannual Juniper Cobra missile defense exercise with Israel in November 2009, the U.S. and Israel continue to meet regularly and coordinate extensively on a wide range of missile defense issues.
- Arrow Weapons System: The Arrow System provides Israel with an indigenous capability to defend against short- and medium-range ballistic missiles. The United States and Israel are co-producing the Arrow-2 missile defense system and engaged in additional BMD research and development activities. We are also working closely together on an improved version of the Arrow missile – the Arrow-3 – that will allow the system to engage threat missiles at greater ranges.
- X-band Radar: In September 2008, the United States and Israel worked together closely to deploy an X-band radar to Israel intended to enhance Israel’s defense.
- David’s Sling: The United States and Israel are co-developing the “David’s Sling” Weapon System (DSWS) to defend against short-range rocket and missile threats falling below the optimal capability for Israel’s Arrow interceptor.
All of these activities provide numerous benefits to Israeli security. They are built on a strong foundation of partnership that enables Israel and the United States to meet emerging security challenges, to focus on real threats, and to rely on proven system and technical solutions to those threats. Regional deterrence will be improved as missile-armed adversaries will find it difficult to threaten and coerce their neighbors in the Middle East and beyond.
However, the growing proliferation of missile threats, especially those with ranges of less than 1,000 kilometers, mean that regional demand for U.S. BMD assets is likely to exceed supply for some years to come. This places a premium on developing flexible, adaptable, and relocatable defense capabilities and in encouraging the development of missile defense capabilities by our regional partners.
This is why our collaborative missile defense efforts are so important. Together we can work to protect what we value and what our adversaries will seek to put at risk, both now and in the future. The combination of U.S-Israeli cooperation on BMD research and development, deployment of proven technologies and weapon systems such as the Arrow, and plans and operational experience through joint exercises and training, will go far in enhancing Israeli security and our mutual interests.
Let me conclude with a few thoughts.
First, missile defenses offer numerous advantages, including the opportunity to enhance the credibility of U.S. extended deterrence commitments for our allies and friends. Missile defenses also provide more options for the peaceful resolution of disputes.
Second, the new U.S. approach to missile defense outlined in the Ballistic Missile Defense Review is beneficial for Israel as well as our other regional allies, and builds on the strong foundation of U.S.-Israeli missile defense cooperation.
Finally, the United States remains committed to working closely with our friends, allies, and partners around the world, including Israel, to defend against the mutual threats we face, and we believe that our new approach allows us to more effectively accomplish this goal.
Thank you for the opportunity to speak to you today. I look forward to your questions. | aerospace |
https://australiasaudicouncil.com.au/experience-an-immersive-first-person-view-flying/ | 2024-04-24T09:54:12 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296819089.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20240424080812-20240424110812-00727.warc.gz | 0.922891 | 655 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-18__0__172788636 | en | Drone technology is still developing, pushing the limits of what is conceivable for aerial photography and filmmaking. The features, advantages, and overall experience of using FPV Goggles for an immersive first-person view (FPV) flying journey will be covered in this blog post.
What are FPV goggles?
For an immersive and real-time view of what your drone sees as it flies, DJI FPV Goggles provide a high-quality and high-definition view that transports you into the pilot’s seat. The goggles feature low-latency video transmission, allowing you to see and control your drone with remarkable precision and responsiveness.
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An unmatched immersive experience is possible by using FPV Goggles. You can see the drone’s surroundings clearly and vividly on the high-resolution displays, giving you the impression that you are flying through the air. You can even modify the visual characteristics and broaden the field of view to suit your preference and to enhance the FPV experience.
The low-latency video transmission is one of FPV Goggles’ most notable features. This means that the video feed from the drone to the goggles has minimal delay, allowing for real-time control and a seamless flying experience. The low latency ensures that the movements of the drone are accurately and instantly reflected in what you see through the goggles, enhancing control and responsiveness.
Advanced flight modes
FPV Goggles offer a range of flight modes that cater to both beginners and experienced FPV pilots. The goggles support different flight modes, including Manual Mode for full control, Attitude Mode for simplified flying, and GPS Mode for enhanced stability and safety. These modes provide flexibility and allow pilots of all skill levels to enjoy FPV flying with ease.
Intelligent features and safety
In addition to the immersive experience, FPV Goggles incorporate intelligent features to enhance safety and ease of use. Obstacle sensing sensors on the drone can provide alerts and warnings if obstacles are detected, helping you avoid collisions. The goggles also display key flight information, such as battery level, signal strength, and flight mode, allowing you to monitor important data during flight.
Compatibility and integration
FPV Goggles are designed to seamlessly integrate with other products and technologies. They work in tandem with FPV drones, allowing for a comprehensive and optimized FPV flying experience. The goggles can also be paired with motion controllers, providing an alternative and intuitive way to control the drone’s flight path.
When using FPV Goggles, it’s important to be aware of and comply with local drone regulations and flight restrictions. Understanding the legal requirements and flying responsibly ensures a safe and enjoyable experience for yourself and others.
FPV Goggles revolutionize the FPV flying experience, providing pilots with an immersive and exhilarating perspective. With their high-resolution screens, low-latency transmission, and advanced flight modes, these goggles offer seamless and precise control over the drone. Whether you’re a beginner exploring the world of FPV flying or an experienced pilot seeking new thrills, FPV Goggles open up a whole new realm of possibilities in aerial exploration and creative expression. | aerospace |
https://falconhobby.com/capabilities | 2024-04-15T10:07:33 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296816954.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20240415080257-20240415110257-00281.warc.gz | 0.872729 | 652 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-18__0__139186049 | en | We focus on revolutionary design, proven manufacturing processes and rigorous testing to deliver precision Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV) propeller, helicopter rotors, multirotor and other components. Our technology and experience enable us to meet the long endurance and high reliability requirements of the rapidly evolving UAV market.
We focus on innovative design, proven manufacturing processes and rigorous testing in a rapidly evolving marketplace.
Our Research and Development incorporates:
● Phases from concept definition through to series production
● The use of computer aided design & imitation/molding capabilities
● From concept to prototype verify by multiple materials and multiple facilities
● Professional test equipment analysis by our highly qualified engineering team
Iteration is achieved through product renew, facility update, and method renew.
FALCON's in-house Machining capability includes:
● Mold-level machine tools to ensure consistency from design accuracy to prototype
● 3D printing enabling us to quickly verify the feasibility of a design concept
● Vacuum Press:preset program,precise temperature and pressure control to ensure the integrity of molding
● Composite materials Autoclave:Autoclave molding technology can produce composite parts in different shapes, providing the necessary pressure and heat for the compaction and curing. Composite materials curing oven which produces a precise temperature control at each stage for better molding
All these equipments to facilitate the processing and manufacture of propellers and composite parts.
● Dynamic balancing machine improve the balance precision of propeller. Ensure the balance of the propeller to prolong the life of the engine and motor bearing
● Testing the torque, rotated speed, thrust, power consumption can help customer choose the right propeller for their applicaiton
● Providing natural frequency analysis and mode of vibration of propeller and blades, to reduce the resonance frequency when designing the helicopter
● Dynamic balance testing instrument:For further balancing after propeller installation, for precise balance matching of rotating parts to propellers or rotors
● Motor dynamometer
● Engine dynamometer
● Propeller testing facility
● With the expansion of the application field of UAV, the requirements for aircraft tend to be diversified. In order to meet this demand, according to the working conditions used by customer's, our vast range of experience provides the ability to extract extensive motor dynamometer data/engine dynamometer data and propeller test data, giving us the ability to select the best matching solutions, for each customers' specific requirement
● FALCON is comprised of highly qualified Aerospace Professionals and Senior Aerospace Engineers who have extensive research and development expertise. This breadth of knowledge and experience enables us to work in partnership with our customers to provide innovative solutions to real life projects
● State of the Art production tools are utilized to ensure consistency during the manufacturing process, we are able to produce large volumes within short timescales
● Our Quality Assurance processes further ensure that all propellers meet our top quality standards in line with customers specifications
● FALCON's purpose built 25,000 square meters factory and workshop supported by a dedicated Team of over 180 workers, can deliver high volumes of top quality propeller and other composite parts. We provide propellers and service to over 50 countries worldwide | aerospace |
https://mpowerlithium.com/collections/surveillance?page=2 | 2023-12-01T04:24:20 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100264.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20231201021234-20231201051234-00336.warc.gz | 0.905502 | 539 | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2023-50__0__74861924 | en | Are you searching for the most reliable and efficient power source for your surveillance drone?
Look no further than mPower Lithium. We understand that when it comes to a surveillance drone battery, performance is of utmost importance. That's why we offer the best surveillance drone batteries in India, designed to meet the demands of both professionals and enthusiasts alike.
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mPower Lithium takes pride in being a trusted name in the Indian market for surveillance drone batteries. Our commitment to quality and innovation has earned us a reputation as the go-to choice for drone enthusiasts and professionals. Here are some key features that set our batteries apart:
mPower Lithium specializes in lithium battery technology, and our team of experts is dedicated to staying at the forefront of the industry. We continuously research and develop new surveillance drone lithium battery solutions to meet the evolving needs of surveillance drone users. When you choose mPower Lithium, you invest in the expertise and innovation that can significantly impact your drone's performance.
Discover the best surveillance drone batteries for your needs with mPower Lithium. Whether you're a professional operator or an enthusiast, our batteries are designed to elevate your drone's capabilities. Don't settle for subpar power sources when you can equip your drone with the best.
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Contact us today to learn more about our products, competitive pricing, and how we can empower your surveillance missions.
“Make the smart choice for your drone – choose mPower Lithium, the ultimate battery solution for best surveillance drone batteries in India.” | aerospace |
https://web.ipac.caltech.edu/staff/chas/DiscoveryAndBeyond.htm | 2022-01-26T07:32:16 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320304928.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20220126071320-20220126101320-00340.warc.gz | 0.910253 | 1,720 | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2022-05__0__141276870 | en | Discovery and Beyond
Wall Street Journal Op-Ed (8/1/2005)
By Charles Beichman
The fact that the Space Shuttle Discovery's External Tank continues to
shed large pieces of insulating foam shows that the conditions that led
to the Columbia tragedy have not been completely eliminated.
Fortunately, there is no indication of any threat to Discovery itself,
but the problem serves to highlight the risks inherent to human
spaceflight. As NASA engineers work to understand the implications of
this recurring problem, NASA and the nation must debate how to balance
the nation's space program in the longer-term context of its two main
goals: science and exploration.
Many scientists are worried that they will be forced to pay the price of
delayed or cancelled missions for a renewed commitment to human
exploration and the ever more pressing need for a new, human-rated space
vehicle to replace the Shuttle. However, we must recognize that the
dichotomy between science and exploration is a false one: the best
science is exploration and true exploration builds on the best science.
In 1767, the British government sent Captain Cook and scientist Joseph
Banks to Tahiti for reasons of astronomical research, exploration, and
empire. In 1972, the United States achieved a similar milestone for
equally mixed reasons when we landed a practicing geologist, Harrison
Schmitt, on the moon to explore its surface. A successful space program
will support both science and exploration.
In the past decade, robotic spacecraft and telescopes have been our
primary vehicles of exploration. American and European scientists and
engineers, working together or in friendly competition, have forged
modern technology into extensions of our human senses to let us
investigate the planets and moons in our own and other planetary
systems. With our cameras on landers and rovers we see rocks and river
basins on Mars and Saturn's moon Titan; with the Spitzer telescope we
sense the heat of another Jupiter orbiting its parent star; with the
microphone on the Huygens lander we hear the sounds of the alien world
Titan; with our remote handling tools, spectrometers, and chromatographs
we bring the modern analogues of touch, taste and smell to chemical
analyses of planetary soils and even of planets orbiting other stars.
Even if the applications of this research are not immediate, the
questions are profound and long-standing, touching on the birth, life,
and death of the Universe, as well as on the creation, evolution and
ultimate fate of life. Is life an imperative of the laws of physics and
chemistry? Is the Universe habitable by chance or design? Does the
Universe teem with life or are we alone? These are debates of science,
of philosophy, and of belief stretching back more than 2,400 years as
suggested by a quote from the Greek philosopher Epicurus (ca 300 BC):
"There are infinite worlds both like and unlike this world of ours. . .
. We must believe that in all worlds there are living creatures and
plants and other things we see in this world." We can now reframe this
debate with new facts using 21st Century technology. The importance of
these questions and the excitement of discovery creates and nourishes
curious minds. Watching the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo launches
inspired the career choices of many of today's scientists and engineers.
The 12 billion hits on the Mars Rover Web sites suggest that today's
space science results are doing the same for the next generation.
While robotic space science has produced glorious results (and a few
inglorious debacles) over the past decade, human spaceflight has
languished without clear goals. If you think of the Space Shuttle as
tugboat in the harbor of low-earth orbit, then the International Space
Station is a man-made island built in the middle of the harbor for want
of a better destination for the tugboat. While both the Shuttle and the
Space Station are wonderful engineering accomplishments, no one can
really explain why were they built other than to keep the human
spaceflight program alive while waiting for something better to happen.
Unfortunately, instead, while we were waiting, something worse happened:
14 astronauts died in two horrible shuttle accidents. While the skill
and courage of our astronauts is beyond measure, the tasks we have given
them are not worthy of the risks they bear with each launch and each
It is valid to question whether humans should go into in space at all.
Instead of indulging our romantic notions of Star Wars, why not just
send R2-D2 and C3PO? Then, if a mission fails, a few review boards will
investigate the technical reasons for the failure, but no lives would be
lost and no bereft families would need a president's consolation. But
the urge to explore has defined humanity for tens of thousands of years
as we migrated from continent to continent, outward from Africa to
Europe, Polynesia and the Americas. In "Guns, Germs and Steel," Jared
Diamond describes an atavistic urge to go over the next mountain range
or beyond the ocean's horizon, to move from where we are to where we
might be. The modern expression of these urges leads to our search for
water and life on Mars, to the search for habitable planets orbiting
We will first expand our horizons robotically because it is cheapest and
safest, but when it becomes possible, we will eventually expand
humanity's physical presence to the only other planet capable of
supporting life as we know it, Mars. This exploration will not be cheap.
It certainly will not be risk-free and it will not happen soon. But once
we have used our robotic scouts to identify interesting places to visit,
e.g. geothermal hot spots where liquid water might be found or recently
discovered sites of methane gas, we will ultimately send human scouts to
continue a migration that started 100,000 years ago.
How can NASA balance science and exploration? For exploration, we should
acknowledge that humans have little more to learn in low earth orbit.
NASA should satisfy our international commitments by bringing the
International Space Station to a minimum level of completion as soon as
possible and then move onto more important business. Let Virgin Galactic
offer private harbor tours to rich tourists. We must leave the harbor
and venture again into the "blue water" of deep space. Following
President Bush's post-Columbia vision for space exploration and under
Dr. Griffin's leadership, NASA has started down this path, but long term
congressional support will be critical to this expensive undertaking and
the continuing problems with a fragile, ageing Space Shuttle fleet give
great urgency to the identification of a new approach.
For space science, the science community, working with NASA and through
the National Academy, has laid out programs that will search for
habitable environments on Mars and Jupiter's moon Europa, look for
potentially life-bearing planets orbiting nearby stars, identify the
first galaxies forming after the Big Bang, and study the birthplaces of
the first black holes. In today's difficult budget environment not all
new science projects will be affordable and not all existing projects
can be funded indefinitely into the future. Not if we are to gain the
most important new capabilities. Continual prioritization of scientific
goals, careful selection and management of projects of appropriate size
to ensure a continuous flow of new ideas, and competition between
talented teams of scientists and engineers will ensure the continuation
of the legacy of the Hubble Space Telescope and the Mars Rovers.
If, in the difficult debates over what to do next and what to give up,
we are guided by a critical self-examination to ensure that we are
addressing the most pressing scientific questions and daring the most
audacious goals in human exploration, then we will convince our fellow
citizens that our efforts are worthy of their continued support.
Congratulations to Discovery and godspeed you home.
Mr. Beichman is an astronomer and the executive director of the
Michelson Science Center at the California Institute of Technology. | aerospace |
https://www.toorco.com/spacex-to-launch-crew-6-mission-with-nasa-and-international-astronauts-on-board/ | 2024-04-18T08:15:44 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817200.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20240418061950-20240418091950-00766.warc.gz | 0.91319 | 333 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-18__0__50672974 | en | SpaceX is set to launch its Crew Dragon spacecraft on February 27, 2023, carrying four NASA astronauts and two international crew members to the International Space Station (ISS). This mission, known as Crew-6, will be the sixth operational flight of the Crew Dragon spacecraft and the 25th crewed mission to the ISS.
The Crew-6 astronauts will spend approximately six months on board the ISS, conducting research and performing maintenance tasks. They will also participate in a series of spacewalks to install new solar arrays and upgrade the station’s power systems. This mission marks the first time that a Crew Dragon spacecraft will dock at the ISS’s newly installed international docking adapter on the Harmony module.
The four NASA astronauts on board the spacecraft are Raja Chari, Tom Marshburn, Kayla Barron, and Matthias Maurer. The two international crew members are Samantha Cristoforetti from the European Space Agency and Soichi Noguchi from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.
The Crew Dragon spacecraft will launch atop a Falcon 9 rocket from Launch Complex 39A at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. This launch marks the third crewed mission to be launched from the United States since the end of the Space Shuttle program in 2011.
SpaceX has been working closely with NASA since 2014 as part of the Commercial Crew Program to develop a new generation of spacecraft capable of transporting astronauts to and from the ISS. The successful completion of the Crew-6 mission will further demonstrate the reliability and capabilities of SpaceX’s Crew Dragon spacecraft and Falcon 9 rocket, paving the way for future crewed missions to the ISS and beyond. | aerospace |
https://www.bodmanlaw.com/news/aviation-and-banking-attorney-brian-e-kersey-joins-bodman-plc-4-february-2020/ | 2023-05-28T10:42:47 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224643663.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20230528083025-20230528113025-00124.warc.gz | 0.963875 | 400 | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2023-23__0__9182321 | en | Aviation and Banking Attorney Brian E. Kersey Joins Bodman PLC
Bodman PLC is pleased to announce that experienced aviation and banking attorney Brian E. Kersey has joined the firm as a member in the Grand Rapids office.
Kersey has an extensive background in commercial finance and aviation law matters, including many complex transactions involving personal and corporate aircraft. His aviation law practice encompasses a wide variety of areas, including purchases and sales, regulatory compliance, risk management, tax planning, Part 91 and Part 135 operations, and management and leasing arrangements for both aircraft and hangar space. He has extensive experience in international aviation purchases and sales. His aviation clients range from individuals buying or selling single engine aircraft to family offices and corporate flight departments buying or selling large cabin jet aircraft, with the aircraft being based throughout the United States.
His commercial finance practice includes extensive experience representing both lenders and borrowers in syndicated loan facilities, secured and unsecured term loans and revolving credit facilities, real estate and construction lending.
“We are excited to have an attorney of Brian Kersey’s stature in the Grand Rapids business community join the firm,” said Bodman Chair Carrie Leahy. “His commercial finance experience adds depth to our banking practice and his significant aviation law experience adds a new dimension to the services we offer.”
Before joining Bodman, Kersey practiced law with two highly respected Michigan-based business law firms and in the Grand Rapids office of an AmLaw 100 national law firm. He began his professional career as a commercial loan officer for a major regional bank.
Kersey is a former chair and the current treasurer of the State Bar of Michigan Aviation Law Section Council. He is a member of the National Business Aviation Association and The Economic Club of Grand Rapids. He serves as President of the Bills Lake Association and is a long-time volunteer fundraiser for Helen DeVos Children’s Hospital in Grand Rapids. | aerospace |
http://www.mljournal-digital.com/meleadershipjournal/april_2018?pg=9 | 2019-01-18T17:49:50 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583660258.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190118172438-20190118194438-00030.warc.gz | 0.928206 | 717 | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2019-04__0__224367832 | en | first incorporated his small start-up company in Seattle as the Pacific Aero Products Co., Boeing celebrated its centenary in 2016 as the world’s largest aerospace
company and America’s biggest exporter of manufactured products.
With revenues of $93 billion last year and 140,000+ employees in over 65
countries working on commercial jetliners, space and defense systems, and financial services, Boeing now has more than 10,000 commercial jetliners in active service around the world and its freighters carry almost 90 per cent of the world’s air cargo.
Determined to make its second century as
successful as its first, Boeing has recently un-dertaken a number of corporate initiatives to
capitalize on its long tradition of innovation and
customer focus by creating new internal organizations, including the Boeing Global Services
division, which consolidates its aftermarket expertise and solutions across engineering, digital
analytics, supply chain, and training; its Hori-zonX group, which is seeking out new business
ventures aimed at unlocking the next generation
of game-changing ideas, products, and markets;
Boeing AnalytX, bringing together 800 analytics experts from across the company to help turn
data into actionable insights and data-driven
customer services; and most recently, Boeing
Additive Manufacturing, which combines the
expertise and capabilities of a number of the
company’s 3D-printing design and production
activities across the organization.
Kim Smith, Vice President and General
Manager of Boeing Commercial Airplanes
Fabrication operations, is now leading the
implementation strategy for Boeing’s additive
manufacturing activities across the company.
In our latest Dialogue with a manufacturing industry thought leader, Smith talks with Executive
Editor Paul Tate about the transformational potential of additive manufacturing, understanding
the difference between data and meaningful information, and the importance of collaboration,
leadership empathy, and enterprise agility along
the journey to Manufacturing 4.0.
Q: What’s the scope of your current
role at Boeing?
A: I’ve been fortunate to have some diverse
experiences during my time with Boeing,
and I’m in an extraordinary assignment
now as Vice President and General Manager
of the Commercial Airplane Fabrication
team, which is the largest supplier to Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Fabrication is a
worldwide organization with operations at
12 major sites in four countries and approximately 15,000 employees. We have a diverse
set of capabilities where we engineer and
manufacture everything from electrical and
interior systems, to engine inlet assemblies,
advanced composite structures, and tooling.
I was also recently appointed to lead Boeing’s effort to integrate, leverage, and accelerate
our 3D printing capability across the company.
Q: What excites you most about your roles?
A: A lot of things excite me about working
here. I’m extremely passionate about serving
our customers and Fabrication gives me a
great opportunity to connect with them, understand the missions they are carrying out,
and find ways to better help their businesses.
I’m also excited by spending time with
the many talented employees in Boeing and
tapping into that talent. It’s hard to find me
happier than when I’m just out and about,
walking throughout any of our operations, | aerospace |
http://int.technion.ac.il/distributed-space-systems/ | 2020-07-15T17:54:34 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593657170639.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200715164155-20200715194155-00210.warc.gz | 0.762689 | 1,371 | CC-MAIN-2020-29 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2020-29__0__208942310 | en | This course, given as a graduate-level course (#088900) in the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, will expose the participants to the emerging technology of distributed space systems, a concept of distributing the functionality of a single spacecraft between several closely-flying satellites. The students will learn modeling techniques of relative spacecraft motion using various dynamical models, different control strategies that enable a myriad of cooperative tasks, and basic relative navigation methodologies. The students will also get acquainted with the fundamental system engineering tradeoffs associated with the design of multiple-spacecraft missions, and be exposed to a number of applications such as sparse-aperture imaging, geolocation and remote sensing.
2. Course Learning Objectives
The course is aimed at extending the knowledge and understanding of space systems by presenting the challenges associated with multi-spacecraft systems. Compared to traditional courses, this course will expose the students to the possibility of designing more efficient space systems by distributing the functionality among several cooperating spacecraft. The students will be thus familiar with the forefront of space systems technology, devoted to the development, research and design of multiple spacecraft missions. In particular, the course learning objectives are as follows:
1) To understand the description of non-Keplerian motion in rotating coordinates;
2) To be able to formulate astrodynamic problems using analytical methods;
3) To present the forefront of current research in spacecraft formation flying;
4) To learn how to model relative motion using orbital elements;
5) To be able to design and simulate cooperative control systems;
6) To gain a systematic view of the distributed space systems engineering;
7) To understand the design and operation of precision electric propulsion devices;
8) To be familiar with future applications that require multiple spacecraft.
3. Short Syllabus
Keplerian orbital mechanics. Orbital perturbations. The general relative motion problem. Impulsive stationkeeping. Linear formation flying dynamics and control. High-order relative motion equations. Formulation of relative motion using orbital elements. Canonical modeling of relative motion. Perturbation-invariant formations. Nonlinear formation control. Centralized and de-centralized formationkeeping. Low-thrust propulsion for formation flying. Relative navigation in space. Applications: Sparse-aperture imaging, geolocation, remote sensing.
|1-3||Keplerian orbital mechanics: Motion in a central field, conic sections, classical orbital elements, the time equation, coordinate system|
|4-6||Orbital perturbations: Gauss’s variational equations, Lagrange’s planetary equations, influence of oblateness, drag, solar pressure, third body effects.|
|7-9||The general relative motion problem: Nonlinear relative motion equations, the energy matching condition, impulsive formationkeeping, formulation using polar coordinates.|
|10-12||Linear relative motion dynamics: Hill-Clohessy-Wiltshire (HCW) equations, linear formation flying control strategies, LQR formationkeeping.|
|13-15||High-order relative motion equations: Lagrangian mechanics, Euler-Lagrange equations, Legendre polynomials.|
|16-18||Relative motion modeling using classical osculating orbital elements: Motion relative to circular and elliptic reference orbits.|
|19-21||Hamiltonian dynamics: Legendre transformation, canonical transformations, Hamilton’s equations.|
|22-24||Canonical modeling of relative motion: epicyclic orbital elements.|
|25-27||Perturbation-invariant relative motion: J2-invariant motion, frozen formations.|
|28-30||Nonlinear formation flying control: Lyapunov-based methods, feedback linearization, intelligent control, precision formation flying, deep-space formation flying, fuel optimization.|
|31-33||Systems engineering aspects: Centralized and de-centralized spacecraft formation flying control, survivability, adaptability, flexibility, safe-mode operation.|
|34-36||Propulsion for stationkeeping and formationkeeping: FEEPs, PPTs, Hall thrusters, propulsion tradeoffs.|
|37-40||Relative navigation; Applications: Future and existing projects, large-baseline interferometry, sparse-aperture imaging, geolocation, remote sensing.|
Alfriend, K.T., Vadali, S.R., Gurfil, P., How, J.P., Breger, L., Spacecraft Formation Flying: Dynamics, Control and Navigation, Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 2010.
Battin, R. H., An Introduction to the Mathematics and Methods of Astrodynamics, AIAA Education Series, 5th Ed., 1999.
Bate, R. R., Mueller, D. D., and White, J. E., Fundamentals of Astrodynamics, Dover, 1971.
Goldstein, H., Poole, C., and Safko, J., Classical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley , 3rd Ed., 2002.
Clohessy, W. H., and Wiltshire, R. S., “Terminal Guidance System for Satellite Rendezvous”, Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 27, No. 9, Sep. 1960, pp. 653-678.
Inalhan, G., Tillerson, M., and How, J. P., “Relative Dynamics and Control of Spacecraft Formations in Eccentric Orbits”, Journal of Guidance, Control and Dynamics, Vol. 25, No. 1, January 2002, pp. 48-60.
Alfriend, K. T., and Schaub, H., “Dynamics and Control of Spacecraft Formations: Challenges and Some Solutions”, The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 48, No. 2, April 2000, pp. 249-267.
Schaub, H., Vadali, S. R., and Alfriend, K. T., “Spacecraft Formation Flying Control Using Mean Orbital Elements”, The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. 48, No.1, 2000, pp.69-87.
Schaub, H., and Alfriend, K., “Hybrid Cartesian and Orbit Elements Feedback Law for Formation Flying Spacecraft”, Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 25, No. 2, March-April 2002, pp. 387-393. | aerospace |
https://sacsportsphoto.com/fly-like-never-before-unusual-air-sports-for-the/ | 2024-02-28T01:44:15 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474690.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20240228012542-20240228042542-00006.warc.gz | 0.925751 | 761 | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-10__0__114034030 | en | Fly Like Never Before: Unusual Air Sports for the Adventurous
When it comes to adventure sports, people often think about activities like bungee jumping, skydiving, or paragliding. However, there are some truly unique air sports that take the concept of adventure to a whole new level. If you have a thirst for adrenaline and want to experience the thrill of soaring through the skies in unconventional ways, here are some unusual air sports that you should definitely try:
1. Jet Wing Flying
Imagine having wings strapped to your back and propelling through the air like a superhero. Jet wing flying, also known as jetpack flying, offers you just that. This futuristic air sport involves strapping a backpack-like device equipped with jet engines to your back. With a skilled pilot controlling the thrust, you can experience the sensation of personal flight. It requires balance, control, and courage but promises an exhilarating experience like no other.
If you've ever dreamed of flying like a bird, paramotoring can make those dreams come true. Paramotoring involves a paramotor, which is essentially a motorized paraglider. This compact aircraft consists of a small engine and propeller strapped to your back, while a paragliding wing canopy above provides the lift. By running a few steps, the engine propels you into the air, and you can enjoy the sensation of free-flight. It combines the thrills of motorized aviation with the serenity of paragliding, giving you an unmatched flying experience.
3. Wing Suit Flying
Wing suit flying takes the art of skydiving to an entirely new level. A wing suit is a specialized jumpsuit with fabric under the arms and legs, creating a wing-like surface. This unique design allows flyers to glide through the air, imitating the flight of a bird or a flying squirrel. By utilizing this special suit, skydivers can achieve horizontal movement and steer themselves through the air. Wing suit flying requires extensive training and experience, but the sense of freedom and the breathtaking views it offers are well worth the effort.
4. Aerobatic Gliding
For those seeking a mix of adrenaline and precision flying, aerobatic gliding is the perfect choice. Aerobatic gliders are specially designed aircraft that excel in performing acrobatic maneuvers. Unlike traditional gliders, aerobatic gliders can execute daring stunts such as loops, rolls, and spins. Piloting these agile machines demands skill, coordination, and a strong stomach. Aerobatic gliding allows you to experience the thrill of gravity-defying maneuvers while also enjoying the peace and quiet of soaring through the sky.
5. Base Jumping
If you're an extreme adrenaline junkie, base jumping might be the ultimate air sport for you. BASE stands for Building, Antenna, Span, and Earth, which represents the four types of fixed objects participants can jump from. Unlike traditional skydiving, base jumping involves leaping from a fixed object and deploying a parachute at a low altitude. It offers an intense rush due to the close proximity to the ground and the relatively short freefall time. Base jumping requires enormous bravery, as even the smallest mistake can have dire consequences. However, it also provides an unmatched sense of exhilaration and accomplishment.
While traditional air sports provide plenty of excitement, trying something off the beaten path can elevate your adventurous spirit to new heights. Whether it's donning a jet wing, gliding through the air in a wing suit, or performing acrobatic stunts in a glider, these unusual air sports promise an adrenaline rush like never before. Embark on these unconventional experiences and discover the joy of soaring through the sky in ways you never thought possible. | aerospace |
https://thepress.purdue.edu/blog/2022/04/12/the-sky-above-a-qa-with-astronaut-john-casper/ | 2022-11-27T01:43:40 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710155.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20221127005113-20221127035113-00730.warc.gz | 0.952532 | 1,525 | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2022-49__0__33443492 | en | In this interview, we talk with author, Purdue alumnus, and astronaut Colonel John H. Casper, (USAF, Ret.) about his forthcoming autobiography, The Sky Above: An Astronaut’s Memoir of Adventure, Persistence, and Faith.
Q: Could you give a brief description of your book?
The Sky Above tells how persistence and determination led me to fly in space, after serving the nation as a combat fighter pilot and test pilot. Despite life-threatening experiences and failures, my spiritual faith was pivotal in overcoming life’s challenges.
Throughout flying stories told in “pilot lingo,” I invite the reader to ride alongside me in the cockpit, feeling the fear of enemy antiaircraft fire and the squeeze of high g-forces during combat maneuvering in jet fighters. I describe exhilarating Space Shuttle launches, the magical experience of weightlessness, and the magnificent beauty of Earth from hundreds of miles above.
Q: What is the goal of your book? What motivated you to write it?
The goal of my book is to tell readers my life story, which is a true adventure of overcoming adversity through dedication, perseverance, passion, and enduring faith to make a lifelong dream and vision a reality. I hope those trying to reach their dreams, whatever they are, will find inspiration; those unsure or challenged in their faith, encouragement.
Q: Military Service is a tradition in your family. You describe a “service before self” family mentality toward your dad’s service as a pilot. Was this mentality impacted by your family’s faith? Conversely, do you think this mentality affected the way you view(ed) and practice(ed) your faith?
Yes, I believe there is a link between my faith and military service, because both ask a person to “serve” something greater than oneself. Christian faith asks you to love God with all your mind, body, and spirit, and to love your neighbor—those around you—as you love yourself. Those in military or government service are serving our country by defending and upholding our foundational values and traditions. Both faith and the military emphasize the idea of serving others, rather than self-centeredness.
While growing up, I watched my grandparents and parents help others as an extension of their faith, and I witnessed their service to our country in both peace and wartime. They didn’t brag about it; they were merely helping those in need or helping our country defeat those who would destroy our way of life. I’m grateful for the strong example they set for me.
Q: Do you have any advice for aspiring astronauts?
My advice to anyone with a dream or vision is to work hard and not be discouraged if you don’t succeed the first time. For most of us, following our passion or dream takes determined, persistent effort over a period of time to reach the goal.
Those who want to be astronauts will need to study hard and perform well in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. NASA also selects a small number of medical doctors in each incoming group. It’s best that you study subjects and work in career areas that interest you or that you have a passion for. Then, if you don’t become an astronaut, you’ll be working in a career field you enjoy.
Q: Do you have any thoughts on what the future of NASA and American space missions might look like? What would you most like to see explored? What challenges do you think NASA and aspiring astronauts will face along the way?
Future missions to the International Space Station, or ISS, will continue as humankind learns how to live and work in space. ISS is a microgravity laboratory with a multi-nation crew (15 nations cooperate) orbiting Earth at 250 miles altitude. The space vehicle weighs nearly one million pounds, has been continuously crewed since 2000, and has conducted over 3000 experiments and technology demonstrations. Because ISS is also valuable as a primary testbed for future deep-space exploration to the Moon and Mars, NASA plans to operate it at least until 2031.
Artemis is NASA’s Moon landing program to learn how to live on other worlds. This time, the goal is to stay by establishing a true outpost on the lunar surface. The first Artemis mission will fly no earlier than June 2022, using the new Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and Orion spacecraft. The mission will be un-crewed to test the rocket and crew vehicle on a 3-week voyage beyond the Moon and back to Earth. Artemis 2 is planned about a year later with a crew of four NASA astronauts on a similar 21-day mission to check out the human support systems in deep space. A lunar-orbiting habitat called Gateway is being built to sustain our ability to explore the lunar surface.
The next step is Mars: NASA’s goal is to land humans on Mars before the end of this century. The commercial company SpaceX also plans to fly humans to Mars. A human mission to Mars is hard because Mars is much, much farther away than the Moon—Mars is 35 to 250 million miles distant from Earth, depending on the two planets’ orbital positions. At their closest point, a trip to Mars takes about nine months with current rocket technology. A round trip could theoretically be completed in 21 months, with three months on the surface to wait for favorable alignment of Earth and Mars orbits before returning.
Future astronauts will face challenges similar to the ones they face today on the International Space Station—reduced or zero gravity, confinement in a relatively small space, isolation and separation from family and friends on Earth, and risk of damage to their spacecraft from micrometeorites. Radiation is the number one threat for deep space missions: ISS is in a low Earth orbit and shielded from most solar radiation by the higher Van Allen belts. However, crews on Moon or Mars missions will be outside that protection and exposed to greater solar radiation and occasional solar flares. Deep space crewed vehicles will require additional radiation shielding to keep the crew healthy.
Q: Is there anything that shocked or surprised you while working on this project?
I was surprised by the amount of time and effort it took me to research, write, and edit even my own memoir, where I knew the storyline! I had written many technical papers before, but crafting a story that interests and inspires readers is another level of creativity and complexity. Someone advised me that producing the first draft was about 50% of the writing process and I found that to be true—editing, condensing, choosing which stories to tell and which to delete, all took enormous amounts of additional time. Choosing a publisher and negotiating a contract required a completely different expertise and I had to learn that skill.
Q: Any comments for the future readers of your book?
If you like to read adventure stories, especially true ones, where the character overcomes odds to reach a goal, you will enjoy this book. If you would like to know more about flying airplanes and flying in space, this book is for you. If you’re looking for a story about spiritual faith helping someone overcome obstacles in life, my story might interest and inspire you.
Thank you to Col. Casper for answering our questions!
You can get 30% off The Sky Above and other Purdue University Press books by ordering from our website and using the discount code PURDUE30. | aerospace |
https://new.thepinetree.net/?p=172795 | 2024-03-01T05:27:44 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474948.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20240301030138-20240301060138-00300.warc.gz | 0.952162 | 303 | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-10__0__174484469 | en | Miramar, CA…Five Marines with Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 361, Marine Aircraft Group 16, 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing have been confirmed deceased following a CH-53E helicopter crash on Feb. 6, 2024. Maj. Gen. Michael J. Borgschulte, commanding general of 3rd MAW issued the following statement, “It is with a heavy heart and profound sadness that I share the loss of five outstanding Marines from 3d Marine Aircraft Wing and the “Flying Tigers” while conducting a training flight last night. These pilots and crewmembers were serving a calling greater than self and were proud to do so. We will forever be grateful for their call to duty and selfless service. To the families of our fallen Marines, we send our deepest condolences and commit to ensuring your support and care during this incredibly difficult time.”
As a matter of policy, identities of deceased service members are not released until 24-hours after all next-of-kin notifications have been completed.
Efforts to recover the remains of the Marines and equipment have begun and an investigation is underway.
Though we understand the inherent risks of military service, any loss of life is always difficult. The 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing stands unwavering in its commitment to supporting the families, friends, and fellow service members of the fallen Marines.
For questions regarding this release, please contact the 3rd MAW Communication Strategy and Operations Office at email@example.com. | aerospace |
https://www.wottsup.com/man-dies-following-helicopter-crash-in-northern-tasmania/ | 2023-09-22T18:37:35 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506421.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20230922170343-20230922200343-00288.warc.gz | 0.966785 | 241 | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2023-40__0__245464280 | en | Man dies following helicopter crash in northern Tasmania
Following next of kin notifications to family, police can now confirm a 41 year old Northern Tasmanian man has died following a helicopter crash near Pipers Brook this afternoon.
Police and emergency services were called to the scene near Pipers Brook Road, Pipers Brook, about 3.20pm today.
The man – the pilot and only occupant of the helicopter – was seriously injured but sadly died at the scene.
Initial investigations suggest that the pilot was in the area undertaking duties relating to bushfires in the Lebrina area when it crashed in a paddock.
Our thoughts are with the man’s family and loved ones at this difficult time.
The Australian Transport Safety Bureau will be advised and will undertake an investigation.
A report will be prepared for the Coroner.
Anyone with information who may have seen the aircraft near Pipers Brook just before the crash should call Launceston Police on 131444 or report to Crime Stoppers on 1800333000 or crimestopperstas.com.au. Information can be provided anonymously.
The post Man dies following helicopter crash in northern Tasmania appeared first on Tasmania Police. | aerospace |
https://blogs.umsl.edu/news/2023/01/12/boeing-engineering-services-program/ | 2024-04-16T11:26:21 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817081.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20240416093441-20240416123441-00394.warc.gz | 0.966392 | 853 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-18__0__71198682 | en | Students in the University of Missouri–St. Louis/Washington University Joint Undergraduate Engineering Program will soon have an opportunity to receive technical training at Boeing while working toward their degrees.
UMSL and Boeing have signed an agreement to create an Engineering Services Program to recruit students in the joint engineering program to work on Boeing projects. The program is being funded for three years, and as many as 20 UMSL students could be hired to take part in it this semester. Interviews start Friday, and the program is expected to begin in February.
“This is a tremendous opportunity for students to be exposed to the Boeing work environment and participate in real-world projects,” said Haiyan Cai, a professor of mathematics and statistics and associate dean of the joint engineering program. “Boeing will provide technical training, and the students will have a chance to interact with the engineers in a real-world setting. Boeing is a leading engineering company with endless opportunities for these students.”
Students will be paid while working, and Cai said that financial support will also be a big help to UMSL students in the joint engineering program, many of whom are first-generation college students and who are in many cases Pell Grant-eligible.
This is not the first time Boeing has worked with UMSL to support joint engineering students. The company has contributed significant resources to fund scholarships for students in engineering and other disciplines at UMSL, and the university honored the company with the E. Desmond and Mary Ann Lee Medal for Philanthropy at the 2022 Founders Celebration.
“It’s clear Boeing is committed to helping the St. Louis community,” Cai said. “They try to do as much as they can to support the economy in the region. They’ve been a really good partner with UMSL, and we appreciate their support and partnership.”
Boeing has long been one of the leading employers of joint engineering program graduates.
Evelyn Bailey Moore, now the chief engineer for the company’s F/A-18 & EA-18G programs and the 2015 recipient of UMSL’s Outstanding Young Alumni Award, is a graduate of the joint engineering program, having earned her bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering in 2003. She went on to receive a master’s in engineering management from Washington University in St. Louis and also holds an executive master’s in international business from Saint Louis University.
Moore was invited to deliver the commencement address last May for the ceremony celebrating graduates of the joint engineering program, the College of Nursing and School of Social Work. That’s when she met Cai and the two began talking about developing the Engineering Services Program.
“This Engineering Services Program represents how a quality education from UMSL and a great career at Boeing are both beneficial for uplifting the St. Louis region and our community,” Moore said. “Our goal is to leverage the talent at UMSL and provide students with real-world engineering tasks that will ultimately help the students and Boeing. It’s a win-win, and I’m excited to get the program started.”
Administrators surveyed students over the summer to gauge their interest in potential opportunities to work at Boeing and received a positive response.
The program is structured so that upper-level engineering classes, held on the campus of Washington University, don’t begin until after 4 p.m., freeing up students to work and gain valuable real-world experience during the day without interrupting classroom learning. This provides an advantage over traditional programs in the region that only offer classes during the day.
Cai said he is working with UMSL’s Office of Human Resources to hire a program manager to oversee the Engineering Services Program, and they will work quickly to hire students to work in the program.
Students who are interested in working in the program should contact Mary McManus at email@example.com.
Interested students also can learn more about Boeing internships by visiting jobs.boeing.com/internships. | aerospace |
https://frtech.substack.com/p/enter-the-mega-constellation | 2024-03-03T12:31:12 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947476374.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20240303111005-20240303141005-00256.warc.gz | 0.943531 | 2,808 | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-10__0__149014946 | en | Enter the MEGA Constellation
Part IV in an exploration of the promise and perils of Starlink and planetary-scale internet service providers
IIridium and similar generations of satellites constellations that were deployed in the late 1990s and early 2000s consist of 25 to 75 satellites operating at an orbital height of 780 km to 1400 km, which allowed these network to provide low-bandwidth data and voice connections with relatively high latency (60ms to 120ms) using just a small number of satellites (see part II of this series for details).
At the time, deploying and managing a network of 75 satellites in constant communications seemed like an engineering marvel. Fast forward twenty years to today, and the scale of the deployed and planned satellite constellations has increased by several orders of magnitude to thousands and even tens of thousands of satellites!
These so-called Mega-constellations are designed to provide low-latency, high-bandwidth data service to consumers (potentially tens of millions of customers). To accomplish these goals, the orbital height of the satellites is lowered to 550km or even 340km. This lower orbit results in a much lower travel time for the signals between satellites and the earth, substantially reducing the connection's latency.
But reducing the orbital height comes with a cost: the area that each satellite can cover is also reduced substantially. More satellites are needed in each orbit to compensate for the reduced service area, and the number of orbits must also be increased. More satellites are also needed as the number of users increases, as each satellite has a limited amount of throughput.
Mega First Mover: Starlink
Not all future mega-constellations will be designed the same way, nor will they try to compete to deliver data services to consumers (several others will target defense or industrial users). However, the implications for our planet will be similar. Therefore it is worth examining Earth's most successful mega-constellation, SpaceX's Starlink, in detail.
After an initial test of three Starlink satellites in 2018, SpaceX developed a satellite production facility and started planning for the first phase of their networks. The figure below shows the orbits for the first phase. Starlink's configuration provides coverage for most of the earth's population without having many satellites flying over the uninhabited areas of the poles (there are a few in an elliptical orbit to provide coverage for the poles).
Starlink satellites orbiting at 550 km high travel at 27,000 km per hour or more, circling the globe every 90-110 minutes. The lower the orbit, the faster the satellite moves to maintain its height. The Table below shows Starlink's plan for their network and the status of the Starlink Constellation.
Rather than launch LEOs individually, Starlink satellites are typically launched in large batches (except when just a few are hitching a ride on a ride-share mission). Currently, SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket can launch 60 Starlink satellites simultaneously. Once operational, SpaceX's Starship system might launch as many as 400 at a time.
Before takeoff, the satellites are loaded into a carrier that holds them securely during the strains of launch and releases them once in space. The satellites are "flat packed" with solar panels and antennae unextended to minimize the space they take up.
Once the rocket and its payload are in an "injection" orbit (very close to the desired final orbit but not quite there yet), the individual satellites are released from the carrier attached to the front of the delivering stage of the rocket (usually the second stage).
To save fuel, thereby extending the useful life of the satellites, the devices slowly space themselves out and lift themselves (via onboard rockets) into the final operational orbit. Typically, a Starlink satellite will come into service three months after it is launched.
Living in LEO
There is no hard line between where earth's atmosphere ends and space begins. Even past the Kármán Line, there is a thin atmosphere, especially for objects traveling tens of thousands of miles per hour. The small amount of atmosphere these objects encounter makes them slow down, thereby losing altitude until they eventually fall back to earth. The lower the orbit, the worst the problem of atmospheric drag becomes.
The International Space Station has been in Low Earth Orbit for over two decades and has a lot of surface area, so its orbit is constantly decaying. To solve this problem, the ISS is periodically lifted back into higher orbit using either the ISS's two main rocket engines or the engines of docked spacecraft. Yearly, the ISS burns about 7.5 tonnes of fuel to maintain its orbit, costing $210 million to sustain its orbit (the fuel cost is minimal, but getting it to the ISS is very expensive).
While fuel can be delivered to the ISS, it is impractical to refuel an LEO satellite, so once it uses up the fuel it is launched with, a satellite in LEO will experience orbital decay until it burns up on reentry (hopefully within 5-10 years after its useful life). So no matter how robust the electronics and other components are, the useful life of a LEO satellite is limited. As such, spare and replacement satellites must be delivered into orbit to maintain a satellite constellation.
The need for constant replacement is one significant difference between satellite internet infrastructure and fiber optic cable installed on earth. Fiber optic cables deployed in the 1990s along the highways of my home state are still in use today and just as fast (the electronics that connect to the fiber is the "slow" part of any fiber connection, and this part of the system has been upgraded many times since 1990).
Satellite to Satellite Communications
The first generation of Starlink satellites act as a relay between users and ground stations and can communicate via radio between satellites (similar to the Iridium constellation described in part II). Newer generations of the Starlink satellite use light from small lasers to communicate with one another, increasing the connection's bandwidth and speed.
New satellites are being added to the Starlink network monthly, if not weekly. Several excellent websites track the development of Starlink and similar systems (OneWeb, for example) and provide the current status and location of each satellite in the network up to the second. The image below shows a screenshot of the status of the Starlink network from one of these websites, satellitemap.space. Here are some of the sites for tracking Starlink and the development of other mega-constellations.
Back on Earth
Starlink customers use a terminal with an antenna for communicating with the network overhead. The form factor can vary, but the smaller terminals use an antenna on a motorized mount and beamforming technology to focus on the satellites as they zoom overhead. Other designs are large, flat antennas for mounting on an aircraft, recreational vehicle (RV), or ship.
Starlink systems have been authorized for use in various applications besides residential and commercial use. They are especially popular with people who spend a lot of time traveling or living in an RV.
Commercial aircraft are also an emerging customer for Planetary ISPs. Commercial airlines that offer onboard internet access often do so via a connection to ground stations, which offer spotty and slow connections (the plane essentially acts as a high-flying hotspot) or through existing satellite systems. Starlink and similar services can substantially increase the bandwidth and reduce the latency for in-flight Wifi. Starlink has signed a contract to deliver onboard WI-FI for JSX airlines (a short-haul carrier in the southwest) and has conducted several tests with Delta airlines.
Quality of Service
Connection quality is directly related to the number of satellites over an area, the number of ground terminals those satellites have to service, and the usage of the service by end users. As such, bandwidth and latency experienced by Starlink customers vary with location and time. As more customers come online, the bandwidth can decrease, and latency can increase since the limited number of satellites overhead have to service more terminals. Likewise, when more satellites come online, the network capacity increases.
Adjustments to the constellation can also change the quality of the connections. Currently, the orbital height of Starlink satellites is 550 km, but the next generation of Starlink satellites will operate at a shallow orbit (340 km), dramatically reducing users' latency.
As of the end of 2022, Starlink has over 1,000,000 customers in 40 countries, with more customers and countries coming online quickly. SpaceX can't launch satellites fast enough to meet the demand for service, and as of this writing, they are floating the idea of data caps in some locations to limit high-volume users during peak demand times; data caps are already used for RV customers since they might roam into a geographic area that is already saturated with users.
Applications Beyond Internet
Besides providing internet access, there are several other services that Planetary ISPs can provide.
SpaceX has received approval from the FCC to deploy “direct-to-cellular” technology in its satellite fleet and has signed a deal with T-Mobile to deliver cellular services (at least data services) using existing smartphone handsets. This service might not include voice services at first, but would be allow for texting and low-bandwidth data services. Specialized handsets would allow for more applications.
In addition to allowing the passengers to keep up with their slack messages and emails, Planetary ISPs will allow better tracking of airplanes in uninhabited or sparsely inhabited parts of the world. When Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappeared in 2014, it was well outside any radar tracking and was initially presumed to have crashed somewhere in the South China Sea. Eventually, data from an Inmarsat satellite in GEO orbit indicated that it was last in the southern Indian Ocean, a vast area that is not monitored.
Even though there are no Internet consumers in the southern Indian Ocean, that area is now well covered by mega constellations like Starlink. These mega constellations could be used as a transponder network to locate aircraft and boats of all sizes.
In an interesting development, researchers from University of Texas at Austin have been able to use the radio emissions from Starlink satellites to determine one's location on planet earth. Lead researcher Todd Humphreys had originally approached SpaceX in attempt to co-develop an alternative GPS system based on Starlink, but was rebuffed, perhaps understandable as such a project was a distraction for Starlink. However Mr. Humphreys continued his work sans Starlink and has developed a basic GPS system based on Starlink.
Hundreds of Millions of dollars are spent by high-frequency traders to improve the speed of long-distance networks between exchanges. The Wall Street Journal reports that several trading firms are looking at Starlink as an alternative to land-based microwave and fiber networks. One startup is looking to launch a satellite constellation just for high-speed trading.
J Cooke, founder of London-based startup Azuries Space Mission Studios Ltd., has designed a satellite constellation that he projects will typically be about 20% faster than subsea fiber. Unlike Starlink, which plans to launch tens of thousands of satellites, Azuries’ proposed Angel network would have just 111 satellites. Mr. Cooke’s stripped-down constellation would be optimized to deliver data from New York to London, from Chicago to Tokyo and on several other routes important to traders.
The total price tag, he estimates, would be $155 million. Mr. Cooke, who is still raising money and has yet to launch any satellites, says his network could be up and running within three years of the startup closing its seed round.
Can we put the Internet in Space?
Content Delivery Networks or CDNs are ways for platforms and providers of streaming, photo sharing, and other high-bandwidth services to buffer or store content at locations closer to the user. For example, a popular Netflix movie will be automatically stored on a CDN, whereas a rarely watched film will be stored only in the platform's primary data center.
Currently, all the servers and services that a Starlink customer is accessing (including content on a CDN) are located back on earth, requiring an eventual connection to the land-based Internet and incurring the delay needed for the signal to travel back to earth. Placing CDNs in space would bypass the need to return to earth for the content.
It might seem far-fetched, but "unmanned" data center technology already exists. In 2018 Microsoft placed a data center in a waterproof container and sunk it off Scotland's Orkney Islands as an experiment to see if cooling costs for a data center could be reduced by placing it in the ocean and if data centers could be operated entirely remotely, after two years of operation, the project has been deemed a success. Microsoft wants to expand this idea into production data centers for its Azure cloud service.
Such a system could be deployed in space and would not need to be particularly complex—lots and lots of fast storage is required, not high-performance computing. Placing CDNs in space would save bandwidth and enhance the user experience. And in countries with many Starlink or other mega constellation users, using a data center directly tied to the network would be a logical choice. [Note: You might also have seen that there are several efforts to return humans to the moon. One company is already trying to figure out how to put data centers on the moon: Florida Startup Moves Closer to Building Data Centers on the Moon.]
Next Post: Mega Motivations: Current Projects.
And ICYMI here is the previous post in this series.
Continue the Conversation
Please join the conversation in the Substack chat (linked below), by commenting or simply replying to this email. I would love to hear your thoughts. | aerospace |
https://outrampark.my.id/2023/12/12/homecoming-retiring-air-canada-pilot-shares-cockpit-with-daughter-on-final-flight/ | 2024-04-16T23:21:47 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817112.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20240416222403-20240417012403-00464.warc.gz | 0.967415 | 1,267 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-18__0__18980265 | en | Captain Jean Castonguay’s retirement began nine minutes early — and it cost him a tie.
Air Canada Flight 879 from Toulouse, France landed at Montreal’s Trudeau International Airport Monday at 2:46 p.m., ahead of a scheduled 2:55 p.m. arrival. That brought the curtain down on the four-decade flying career of the airline’s Montreal-based Airbus A330 chief pilot.
Castonguay, who will turn 65 in March, had a familiar face beside him in the cockpit for his final transatlantic journey: his daughter Marie-Pierre, 28, a first officer with the airline. While this wasn’t the first time the pair had flown together, the special occasion will live long in their memories.
“It was very emotional. We felt so privileged to be experiencing this moment together,” the younger Castonguay, an Air Canada pilot since 2019 who took her first flying lessons at age 15, said Monday afternoon in Dorval after the pair had cleared customs. “He’s been such a great mentor for me. I’m lucky to be flying the same plane, the A330, which we both love. It’s as if his career is continuing through me.”
Added the beaming father: “I’m very proud to be passing the baton to her. She doesn’t need my advice. She’s very good.”
As he reached the arrivals terminal, Castonguay was greeted by family members and more than 20 current and former work colleagues, who gave him a thunderous ovation. He took time to shake hands and trade smiles with everyone, accepting wishes for a happy retirement.
He also had to stand stoically as his daughter cut his black tie in half with a pair of scissors, eliciting much laughter from the gathering.
Flying, the elder Castonguay said after the howling had died down, “is a passion that I will have all my life. Once a pilot, always a pilot.”
International Civil Aviation Organization standards require captains of large transport aircraft to be under age 65.
Castonguay began his career in general aviation, cutting his teeth on smaller planes such as the twin-engine Piper Navajo and the Convair 580 turboprop. He joined Air Canada in 1986, initially flying such jets as the Boeing 727, the Bombardier CRJ and the McDonnell Douglas DC-9.
After being laid off in the early 1990s, Castonguay spent about two years operating Boeing 727s and 757s for the now-defunct Quebec-based carriers Nationair and Royal Airlines, according to his LinkedIn page.
He then rejoined Air Canada, where he worked as a flight instructor, base manager and fleet manager before being named chief pilot for the A330 wide-body jetliner in August 2017.
A chief pilot handles technical issues regarding an aircraft and oversees all pilots qualified on that type of plane. He or she is also responsible for standard operating procedures and fleet manuals, while looking after the airline’s relationship with the aircraft manufacturer.
Castonguay’s career has taken him around the globe, with stops as distant from Montreal as Hong Kong, Seoul and Singapore.
Even today, he says the A330 — 18 units of which are part of the Air Canada fleet, with two more coming soon — remains his favourite aircraft. He’ll now be able to display a scale model of the plane at home, courtesy of Airbus officials, who gave him one Monday before takeoff. Toulouse is where the European plane manufacturer’s headquarters are located.
“I don’t know how the Airbus people found out about my retirement, but they came to congratulate me” Monday morning, Castonguay said. “I’ve been flying the A330 for about 15 years. I’ve had the opportunity to change for the (Boeing 787) Dreamliner and the 777, but I didn’t want to. I love how the plane behaves. We had a bit of turbulence today, but everything went smoothly.”
Castonguay says technological changes over the years haven’t dimmed his love of flying.
“I had as much fun flying an old DC-9 back then as I do now with an Airbus and its onboard computers,” he said. “Technology today, with GPS and all the navigation systems that we have, is so precise that it’s fascinating to see the predictions the plane gives you. You always end up bang on. With a plane like the old DC-9, It was a lot more haphazard.”
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Now that retirement time has arrived, Castonguay says he plans to spend the next few months relaxing at home before embarking on the first excursion of his post-Air Canada life. A road trip in Italy with his partner, possibly next spring, is in the works.
“All of Europe is fantastic, places like Nice or Toulouse in the summertime are so pretty, but I’m looking forward to driving around Italy,” he said. “Often as a pilot you don’t have time to enjoy the places that you fly to. You get to the hotel and don’t really have time to go sightseeing.”
And if the opportunity presents itself, Castonguay says he would, well, jump at the chance to sit in the cockpit jump seat on a flight operated by his daughter.
“That’s what we’re hoping,” Marie-Pierre Castonguay said. “We talked about it on the flight today.” | aerospace |
http://www.sns.ias.edu/~jnb/Papers/Popular/Hstsciamerspitzer/hstsciamerspitzer.html | 2023-12-05T08:10:06 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100550.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20231205073336-20231205103336-00113.warc.gz | 0.940532 | 10,192 | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2023-50__0__92503312 | en | The largest astronomical telescope designed to operate beyond the interfering effects of the earth's atmosphere is scheduled to be transported into orbit by the U.S. space shuttle in 1985
The earth's atmosphere is an imperfect window on the universe. Electromagnetic waves in the optical part of the spectrum (that is, waves longer than X rays and shorter than radio waves) penetrate to the surface of the earth only in a few narrow spectral bands. The widest of the transmitted bands corresponds roughly to the colors of visible light; waves in the flanking ultraviolet and infrared regions of the optical spectrum are almost totally absorbed by the atmosphere. In addition, atmospheric turbulence blurs the images of celestial objects, even when they are viewed through the most powerful ground-based telescopes.
Accordingly the advantages of making astronomical observations from outside the atmosphere have long been recognized. In the past few decades considerable experience has been gained in the remote operation of telescopes that have been carried above most or all of the atmosphere by suborbital rockets, high-altitude balloons and artificial earth satellites. Significant findings have come from these efforts, altering theories of the structure and evolution of the universe.
The next stage in this program of exploration is the Space Telescope, which is scheduled to be put into orbit around the earth by the U.S. space shuttle in 1985. The Space Telescope will be a conventional reflecting telescope with unconventional capabilities. It will be the largest astronomical telescope ever orbited. It will also be the first long-term international scientific facility in space.
The Space Telescope, which is now under construction, is designed as a multi-purpose astronomical observatory. It will have a 2.4-meter (94-inch) primary mirror capable of concentrating electromagnetic radiation in the entire optical part of the spectrum. It will be equipped initially with an assortment of scientific instruments for recording extraordinarily high-resolution astronomical images, for detecting extremely faint objects, for collecting various kinds of spectrographic data and for making very precise measurements of the position of radiant sources in the sky. The observations will be made from an altitude of some 500 kilometers (300 miles), well above the obscuring layers of the atmosphere.
The plans for the Space Telescope have been developed by a large number of scientists and engineers, working for almost a decade under the supervision of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The prime contractors charged with the actual construction are the Perkin-Elmer Corporation (responsible for the telescope itself) and the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Inc. (responsible for the supporting spacecraft system and for the integration of the components into a working whole). The total cost of the project is currently estimated at S750 million.
The projected lifetime of the Space Telescope is 15 years, although in principle there is no reason it could not be operated for many decades. An essential element in ensuring such a long lifetime (and in keeping costs within reasonable limits) is the availability of the space shuttle, which not only will deploy the telescope but also will service it on a regular basis. Astronauts from the shuttle will visit the Space Telescope whenever the instruments on board the observatory need maintenance, repair or replacement. At longer intervals (perhaps every five years) the entire Space Telescope will be returned to the earth by the shuttle for refurbishment of the mirror and other major components. The telescope will then be returned to orbit.
With suitable instrumentation the Space Telescope should be able to respond to electromagnetic waves ranging in length from about 115 nanometers (billionths of a meter) in the far-ultraviolet region of the spectrum to about a million nanometers (or one millimeter) in the far-infrared. Thus the spectral band accessible to the telescope could extend over a range of wavelengths that differ by a factor of 10,000. In contrast, ground-based telescopes have a clear view of colors that range in wavelength from about 300 to 1,000 nanometers, a span of less than a factor of 10.
Because the Space Telescope will be immune to the blurring effects of atmospheric turbulence it will be able to obtain much sharper images of celestial objects than ground-based telescopes can, even at the same wavelengths that are observable from the ground. The maximum spatial resolution attainable with the Space Telescope will be on the order of a tenth of an arc-second, most astronomical images made with ground-based instruments have a resolution not much better than an arc-second. The tenfold improvement in resolution will make possible more detailed observations of extended objects. It is also expected to enable astronomers to see stars some seven times farther from the solar system than is now possible.
The observing program for the Space Telescope will be administered for NASA by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), a consortium of 17 universities organized originally to operate several facilities for the National Science Foundation, including the national astronomical observatories at Kitt Peak in Arizona and at Cerro Tololo in Chile. The center for the initial processing and analysis of data from the telescope will be the Space Telescope Science Institute, a new facility that is being established by AURA on the campus of Johns Hopkins University. The first director of the institute is Riccardo Giacconi, who led the scientific teams for the highly successful Uhuru and Einstein X-ray satellites. The operation of the Space Telescope will be the joint responsibility of the institute and of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. The Goddard center will have direct control of the satellite and will serve as the collection point for the data transmitted back to the earth.
The European Space Agency (ESA) is covering approximately 15 percent of the cost of the Space Telescope and will have an independent data-analysis center at the headquarters of the European Southern Observatory in Munich. The ESA is supplying the solar panels for powering the observatory, a high-resolution faint-object camera for the instrument section and a number of scientists and technicians for the staff of the Space Telescope Science Institute. In return European astronomers will be entitled to 15 percent of the observing time. Astronomers from other parts of the world will also work with the telescope, making it a truly international observatory.
The first astronomical observations from space were made in the late 1940's with captured German V-2 rockets. Some of these early liquid-fuel rockets were brought to the U.S. after World War II and were used to send various scientific instruments far above the atmosphere for several minutes of observation. Smaller solid-fuel rockets were later developed specifically for scientific research; they typically lifted a payload of about 100 pounds to a maximum altitude of 100 miles, giving an observation time of a few minutes above the obscuring layers of the atmosphere. The subsequent development of lightweight, solid-state electronic devices has made it possible to build increasingly complex and capable scientific instruments for such missions without prohibitive increases in the power needed to lift them.
The first application of the high-altitude technology was to the study of the sun. In 1946 a rocket-launched spectrometer developed by workers at the U.S. Naval Observatory obtained the first ultraviolet solar spectrogram, revealing absorption features not previously detected in the radiation from any celestial object. It was not until 1957 that ultraviolet radiation from a star was recorded. The spectrographic resolution of this early measurement was quite coarse, with a measuring bandwidth of several tens of nanometers. The early rockets could not be aimed accurately; they rotated freely in space and so could not give the long exposure needed for a precise measurement of the faint radiation from a distant star. In the 1960's techniques were developed for pointing rocket-borne instruments at a star, utilizing small gyroscopes to provide an inertial reference system. As a result stellar spectrograms were recorded with a measuring bandwidth of about a tenth of a nanometer. This achievement marked the beginning of active research on many aspects of stellar atmospheres and interstellar matter.
Meanwhile another group of astronomers employed balloons to lift optical telescopes to altitudes of about 20 miles, above the densest part of the atmosphere. In the late 1950's a 12-inch telescope of this type, named Stratoscope I, obtained extraordinarily sharp pictures of the sun. In the following decade its successor, the 36-inch Stratoscope II, made several photographs of planets and star systems with a resolution close to a tenth of an arc-second.
An artificial earth satellite, which can operate in orbit for years, offers a much better platform for mounting an optical telescope than either a suborbital rocket or a balloon. As aerospace technology has progressed satellites have become the primary vehicles for extraterrestrial astronomy.
With satellites as with the earlier rockets and balloons the first observations made were of the sun. The process of finding an object in the sky and pointing a telescope at it is much easier with the sun than with a more distant star. Beginning in the 1960's NASA built and operated a series of Orbiting Solar Observatories, equipped with various instruments for studying the solar atmosphere.
The first NASA satellites designed for stellar observations were named the Orbiting Astronomical Observatories. Two satellites of this type were operated successfully, one from 1968 to 1973 and the other from 1972 to 1981. Both of them were used mainly for analyzing ultraviolet radiation from stars. The first one had a fairly low spectrographic resolution: its measuring bandwidth was 1.2 nanometers. The second, named Copernicus, was far superior in this respect: its measuring bandwidth was .005 nanometer. The development of precise guidance systems for such satellites was a major technological achievement. The Copernicus telescope, which had a mirror 32 inches in diameter, could stay pointed toward a star for several minutes with a maximum deviation of about .02 arc-second.
The two Orbiting Astronomical Observatories yielded a wealth of data. For example, observations made with the Copernicus satellite showed that much of the hydrogen in interstellar clouds is in the form of molecules rather than individual atoms.
COLOR-CODED TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS of the surface of the primary mirror were made on the screen of a computer-graphics terminal as an aid in determining the corrective action needed for each of the 24 cycles in the final, eight-month polishing process. The maps were based on precise interferometric measurements of the shape of the surface. The two maps shown were made at the start and the finish of the computer-controlled polishing process. The white areas represent the average surface of the mirror; the dark blue and dark red areas correspond respectively to highs and lows. At the start deviations from the prescribed shape were as great as 100 millionths of an inch; at the finish the maximum deviation was less than a millionth of an inch over most of the surface. The finished primary is the finest large astronomical mirror ever made. According to Perkin-Elmer, ``so nearly perfect is the surface that if the mirror were scaled up to the width of the continental United States, no hill or valley would depart from the mean surface by more than about 2 1/2 inches.''
Moreover, many oxygen atoms in the regions between the clouds were found to be highly ionized, indicating that the gas between the clouds is very hot: on the order of a million degrees Kelvin. The satellite data also showed that the cosmic ratio of atoms of deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, to atoms of ordinary hydrogen is about one to 100,000. According to certain cosmological theories, this measurement supports the view that the universe will continue to expand forever.
The most recent optical telescope in space is the International Ultraviolet Explorer, a satellite developed jointly by NASA, the ESA and the British Science Research Council; it has been measuring the ultraviolet spectrum of comparatively faint objects since 1978. Although the performance of this instrument is limited by the size of its mirror (which is 18 inches in diameter), it has been particularly effective in obtaining ultraviolet spectrograms of galactic nuclei and in analyzing the interstellar gas in remote parts of our galaxy.
The concept of a much larger space telescope has evolved slowly over the past two decades. The first official notice of such a project appeared in 1962 in the report of a group of scientists organized for NASA by the National Academy of Sciences to study the future of space science. The group recommended the development of a large space telescope as a logical long-range goal of the U.S. space-science program. The recommendation was repeated by a similar study group in 1965. Soon afterward the National Academy established a committee chaired by one of us (Spitzer) to define the scientific objectives of a proposed space telescope with an aperture of approximately three meters. The report of this group was issued in 1969. In spite of the many advantages cited for such a large space telescope, most astronomers were simply too busy at the time to take an active part in promoting its development. Ground-based astronomy had entered an exciting ``olden era'' with the discovery of phenomena such as quasars, the cosmic microwave background radiation and pulsating neutron stars, and few people were prepared to devote the many years of effort needed to develop a facility as complex and costly as a large space telescope.
In 1972 another committee of the National Academy of Sciences, chaired by Jesse L. Greenstein of the California Institute of Technology, reviewed the needs and priorities of astronomy in the 1970's and again drew attention to the capabilities of a large space telescope. Although the nature and cost of such a device were then only partially defined, it was viewed as a realistic and desirable long-range goal.
Meanwhile NASA had assembled a small group of astronomers under the direction of Nancy G. Roman to provide scientific guidance for the space-telescope feasibility studies then being done at Goddard and at the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. Representatives of academic institutions, NASA research centers and industrial contractors assisted in the initial effort.
In 1973 NASA selected a group of scientists from several academic institutions to help establish the basic design of the telescope and its instruments. The group worked with NASA scientists and engineers to determine what objectives for the telescope were feasible and which of them should be given priority. The main scientific guidance was provided by a 12-member working group (on which both of us served) chaired by C. R. O'Dell of the University of Chicago. In order to head the scientific effort for the still unfunded Space Telescope project O'Dell left his positions as professor and chairman of the astronomy department at Chicago and as director of the Yerkes Observatory.
In 1977 NASA selected a new group of 60 scientists from 38 institutions to participate in the design and development of the proposed observatory. The scientific direction of this effort is again guided by a science working group headed by O'Dell; the current membership of the working group includes key NASA employees, the principal investigators responsible for the initial scientific instruments, several interdisciplinary scientists (including Bahcall) and specialists in data handling, spacecraft operations and telescope optics.
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION of electromagnetic radiation limits ground-based optical astronomy primarily to the narrow spectral band corresponding to visible light. Radiation in the flanking ultraviolet and infrared regions is almost totally blocked. The upper edge of the gray areas indicates the boundary where the intensity of the radiation at each wavelength is reduced to half its original value. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10 angstrom units.
The Space Telescope program almost didn't happen. Between 1974 and 1978 the project was repeatedly in danger of being canceled or postponed indefinitely as a result of congressional and executive budgetary reviews. After an intensive lobbying effort, joined not only by hundreds of astronomers but also by many interested scientists in other fields, construction was finally authorized in 1977. The program survived its first appropriations test in Congress in 1978, and since then it has consistently met with a sympathetic and informed response on Capitol Hill.
|SPACE SHUTTLE will carry the Space Telescope to an altitude of approximately 500 kilometers (300 miles) and then release it into orbit with the aid of a mechanical arm The solar-power panels, communications antennas and aperture door, which will be stowed while the satellite is being carried in the shuttle's cargo bay, will be deployed by the satellite after its release. The telescope will be visited by the shuttle for maintenance, repair and replacement of parts. Every five years or so the entire satellite will be returned to the earth for refurbishment.|
By the time the Space Telescope was formally approved detailed NASA studies had led to a comprehensive design, which is being followed for the most part in the actual construction of the observatory. The telescope itself consists of two hyperboloidal reflecting surfaces: the 94-inch concave primary mirror and a much smaller convex secondary mirror mounted about 16 feet in front of the primary. Light striking the primary mirror is reflected to the secondary, where it is directed through a hole in the center of the primary; the image comes to a focus several feet be hind the primary. The telescope is described as a Ritchey-Chretien type of Cassegrain optical system.
The scientific instruments that detect and measure the radiation concentrated in the focal plane are installed in an array of boxes mounted behind the primary mirror. Four of the boxes are aligned parallel to the optical axis of the telescope and four are arranged radially around the axis. Of the four radial boxes three house the telescope's fine-guidance system. The tube of the telescope extends more than 10 feet in front of the secondary in order to shield the optical system from stray light, most of which is direct light from the sun and scattered sunlight from the earth and the moon. A system of internal baffles provides additional shielding. Electronic equipment and other devices are housed in a toroidal section surrounding the telescope tube at its base. Two panels of solar cells for powering the equipment and two dish-shaped radio antennas for communicating with the earth extend from the midsection. The cylindrical body of the satellite is about 42 feet long and 14 feet in diameter.
The most remarkable feature of the Space Telescope will be the unprecedented quality of the images formed at its focal plane. The optical surfaces will be as nearly perfect as modern technology can make them: the average deviation of the two reflecting surfaces from their ideal contour will not exceed 10 nanometers. To avoid thermal distortions the mirrors are made of fused silica glass with an extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion. In addition they will be maintained thermostatically at a nearly constant temperature while they are in space. The position of the two mirrors with respect to each other and to the focal surface will be adjustable by remote control to yield the sharpest images possible. The fine-guidance system, which will take a fix on stellar images in the outer part of the telescope's field of view, is expected to be able to hold the optical axis steady to within .01 arc-second for as long as 10 hours. (Internal reaction wheels will serve to aim the telescope and hold it steady; commanding such a wheel to rotate faster in one direction will cause the entire telescope to turn in the opposite direction.)
Six major scientific instruments are scheduled to be included in the Space Telescope's instrument section from the time it is launched through its first few years of operation. The first five are called the wide-field/planetary camera, the faint-object camera, the faint-object spectrograph, the high-resolution spectrograph and the high-speed photometer. In addition the fine-guidance system will give the telescope an astrometric capability, that is, an ability to measure the exact position of stars. Although the two mirrors will have a high reflection efficiency for radiation at all wavelengths in the optical region of the spectrum, no infrared-sensitive instrument will be included in the initial stage. Nevertheless, all aspects of the observatory are planned to be consistent with the possible future inclusion of an instrument sensitive to radiation with wavelengths as long as a millimeter.
The entrance apertures of the four axially mounted instruments are at the focal plane of the telescope. There the total field of view, which measures 28 arc-minutes in angular units, is almost half a meter in linear diameter; the resulting scale of the image at the focal plane is 3.58 arc-seconds per millimeter. With suitable pointing commands the image of any object in the field of view can be directed toward any one of the four axial instruments or toward the fifth, radially mounted one. Each instrument is designed so that it can be removed in orbit and a new instrument installed in its place by a space-suited astronaut operating from the space shuttle.
An on-board computer, external to the scientific instruments, will control the operation of the observatory and handle the flow of data. The computer will be reprogrammable, making it possible to modify the procedures as experience is gained with the instruments. Astronomers and spacecraft controllers will communicate with the Space Telescope by means of the NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System. All data will be relayed back to the earth through this system also, for delivery ultimately to the Space Telescope Science Institute.
The principal investigators responsible for developing the initial set of instruments were chosen after intense competition. By the time the satellite is launched each of these investigators and his colleagues will have spent more than eight years building a general-purpose instrument for the potential use of all astronomers. In recognition of this effort each principal investigator and his team will be awarded more than a month of observing time.
INTERNAL COMPONENTS are drawn in black and external components in color in this overall perspective view of the Space Telescope in its deployed configuration. The cylindrical body of the satellite is approximately 42 feet long and 14 feet in diameter. The scientific instruments are designed so that they can be replaced in orbit by a space-suited astronaut operating from the space shuttle.
The principal investigator for the wide-field/planetary camera is James A. Westphal of Cal Tech. This instrument, as its name suggests, can be operated in either of two modes: as a wide-field camera or as a higher-resolution camera suitable for, among other things, planetary observations. In each mode the detection system consists of four charge-coupled devices (CCD's): microelectronic silicon ``chips'' that convert a pattern of incident light into a sequence of electrical signals. Each chip is a square measuring almost half an inch on a side and is subdivided into an array of pixels, or individual picture elements, with 800 pixels on a side. A single chip therefore has a total of 640,000 pixels, and the four part mosaic image formed by a set of four CCD's has more than 2.5 million pixels. Each pixel yields an electrical signal proportional to the number of photons, or quanta of electromagnetic radiation, reaching it during an exposure.
The wide field/planetary camera is mounted on the side of the telescope that will generally be kept away from the sun. Incoming light passing along the optical axis of the telescope is directed outward at a right angle by means of a flat ``pick-off'' mirror held by a rigid arm at a 45-degree angle to the optical axis. The diagonal mirror diverts only the central part of the incoming beam; the rest of the light passes around the mirror to the other instruments.
In the wide field mode the camera has a square field of view 2.67 arc-minutes on a side, the largest field of any of the instruments. Each pixel in this mode subtends an angle of .1 arc-second. In a sense the wide field camera compromises the angular resolution of the telescope in order to provide a field of view large enough for the study of extended sources such as planetary nebulas, galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Even so, the field of view is much smaller than the field that can be recorded on a photographic plate by a ground-based telescope. In the Space Telescope the field is limited by the size of the microelectronic detectors available for remotely acquiring, storing and digitizing pictures. The CCD's for the wide field/planetary camera, which are being supplied by Texas Instruments, Inc., have more pixels than any other CCD's used for astronomical purposes.
In the planetary mode the square field of view of the camera covers an area of the sky about a fifth as large as it does in the wide field mode; the field in the planetary mode measures 68.7 arc-seconds on a side, and an individual pixel subtends an angle of .043 arc-second. The planetary camera takes advantage of almost the full resolution of the optical system while providing a field of view that is more than adequate for full disk images of the planets. The high sensitivity of the CCD detection system makes possible the short exposure time required for certain planetary observations. The planetary mode will also be employed by many observers for high resolution studies of extended galactic and extragalactic objects.
The wide field/planetary camera is unique among the Space Telescope's instruments in several respects. It will gather by far the greatest number of bits of information: more than 30 million bits per picture. The spectral response of the detector will also be the widest available with any of the telescope's instruments: the camera will be sensitive to wavelengths ranging from 115 nanometers in the far-ultraviolet region to 1,100 nanometers in the near infrared. The wide spectral coverage is made possible by coating the CCD's with an organic phosphor, called Coronene, that converts photons of ultraviolet radiation into photons of visible light, which the silicon sensors can detect. The excellent response at the red end of the visible band is attributable to the natural sensitivity of the CCD's.
The CCD's used in both the wide field mode and the planetary mode have a low level of background electrical ``noise'' and hence are well suited for making pictures of faint sources. Part of the noise in such a device is thermal, and it will be reduced by cooling the detector elements thermoelectrically to about -95 degrees Celsius. The heat generated by the cooling system will be dissipated by a radiator that will form part of the outside surface of the satellite.
The incoming light to the instrument can be directed onto either the four CCD's of the wide field camera or the four CCD's of the planetary camera by means of a pyramidal mirror that can be rotated by 45 degrees about its axis, thereby allowing two essentially independent optical systems to be housed in one instrument compartment. Any of 48 filters can be inserted into the optical path. Thus the wide field/planetary camera is an extremely versatile instrument that will serve a broad range of astronomical purposes. We shall mention here just two of the many investigations that will be undertaken with this instrument.
The camera will be employed in both modes to make a series of images of certain nearby stars to see if they have planetary companions. The 10 or so stars selected for the study have been chosen because they all have a large proper motion (that is, motion across the sky). If any of the stars does have a planetary system, it may be possible, given the extraordinary resolution and accurate guidance of the Space Telescope, to detect periodic ``wobbles'' in the path of the star caused by the gravitational attraction of an unseen companion. The measurements are difficult ones, but the Space Telescope may finally resolve the long standing question of whether there are planetary systems similar to the solar system among the nearby stars.
OPTICAL PATH in the Space Telescope is said to be folded: light from the concave primary mirror is reflected from the convex secondary mirror and passes through a hole in the center of the primary before coming to a focus at the image plane in the instrument section several feet behind the primary. Technically the telescope is described as a Ritchey-Chrétien type of Cassegrain optical system.
Quasars are the most distant and the most energetic objects known in the universe. Each of these compact sources emits on the order of 100 times as much energy as a bright galaxy made up of 10 billion stars. Several competing theories have been put forward to explain how a quasar produces such an enormous amount of energy in such a small space, but some crucial observational tests required to settle the matter are not feasible with ground-based instruments. Some of the theories are based on the idea that quasars are ``sick'' galaxies; in other words, the quasars are supposed to represent a transient, disease-like stage in the evolution of an otherwise normal galaxy. To test these theories high-resolution images of quasars will be obtained with the wide-field/planetary camera to determine whether the bright objects that appear as point sources from the earth are surrounded by the fainter, more diffuse light of a galaxy. It should even be possible to tell whether the quasar stage is a disease of young galaxies or of old ones. This fundamental question is currently unanswerable because of the fuzziness of the images obtained with ground-based instruments.
The faint-object camera that will be supplied by the ESA is one of the four axially mounted instruments. The primary purpose of this second camera is to exploit the full optical power of the Space Telescope. It will detect the faintest objects visible with the telescope and will record images having the highest angular resolution attainable with the optical system. The project scientist for the faint-object camera is F. Macchetto of the ESA.
The faint-object camera is complementary in several ways to the wide- field/planetary camera. The faint-object camera will have a higher spatial resolution, whereas the wide-field/planetary camera will have a larger field of view. In the spectral region between 120 and 400 nanometers the faint-object camera will acquire an image more rapidly than the wide-field/planetary camera will. In the longer-wavelength, redward regions of the spectrum, however, the wide-field/planetary camera will be faster. In addition to forming images the faint-object camera will be able to determine the polarization of the detected radiation and to make spectroscopic measurements of both point objects and extended objects. The two cameras are not redundant, but they are designed to be sufficiently similar in function to ensure that an operable camera of some kind will be among the initial instruments even if a camera were to fail in orbit.
In the faint-object camera two similar but independent optical systems are provided to form an image of a point source. One system has a very small, square field of view, measuring 11 arc-seconds on a side; it has a pixel size of only .022 arc-second. The other system has a square field of view 22 arc-seconds on a side and a pixel size of .044 arc-second. In each system the detector consists of an image-intensifying device similar to the light-sensitive cathode-ray tube in a television camera. Unlike the CCD's in the wide-field/planetary camera, a detector of this kind counts individual photons.
INCOMING LIGHT is routed in different directions by an array of small ``pick-off'' mirrors positioned near the center of the Space Telescope's scientific-instrument section behind the primary mirror. The diamond-shaped flat mirror mounted diagonally on the optical axis directs light outward to the radially mounted wide-field/planetary camera. The three arc-shaped flat mirrors arranged around the outside of the incoming beam send light to the three fine-guidance sensors, which are also radially mounted. The light that bypasses these four mirrors comes to a focus at an image plane at the entrance apertures near at the front of the four axially mounted instrument boxes. The projections of the pick-off mirrors on this focal plane are shown in dark gray in the plan view at the bottom. Because the incoming beam is interrupted by the pick-off mirrors well in advance of the focal plane the areas blocked by the mirrors are slightly enlarged; the additional vignetted zones are represented by the light gray bands outlining the projected mirror zones. At the focal plane the field of view is 28 arc-minutes in angular diameter. The wide-field/planetary camera views a square region about three arc-minutes on a side in the center of the field. The remainder of the field out to a radius of about nine arc-minutes is divided into quadrants, each of which is viewed by one of the four axially mounted instruments. The outermost part of the field, roughly between nine and 14 arcminutes from the optical axis, is sampled by the fine-guidance system, which is designed not only to point the telescope but also to make precise measurements of the position of stars.
The faint-object camera is designed so that each point-source image produced by the telescope is sampled by several pixels. Hence it will be the instrument of choice when the highest possible resolution and the maximum contrast against the background sky are required. The camera will also be able to carry out spectroscopic and polarimetric studies of comparatively faint objects. In addition the camera will be able to view extremely narrow fields with an even smaller pixel size (approximately .007 arc-second).
The scientific tasks of the wide-field/ planetary camera and the faint-object camera are expected to overlap. Depending on the specific resolution, field of view and spectral region required, an observer may choose to work with one camera or the other. We shall mention here only one type of observation for which the faint-object camera should be particularly suited.
Globular clusters are spherical collections of millions of stars that can be seen from the ground on a clear night with a small telescope or even with binoculars. Because all the stars in a cluster are at approximately the same distance from the solar system one can test theoretical models of stellar evolution simply by counting the stars of various types in a cluster. The standard theory predicts that each globular cluster should include between about 10,000 and 100,000 of the stars called white dwarfs. These compact objects represent the last stage in the evolution of stars that have exhausted their nuclear fuels, cooled and collapsed. Because white dwarfs are very faint they cannot be seen at the great distances of the globular clusters with ground-based instruments. The Space Telescope's faint-object camera, however, should be able to detect many white dwarfs in globular clusters. By studying their properties it will be possible to learn much more about the evolution of stars.
The Space Telescope will have two spectrographs: optical devices that divide the incoming light from an astronomical source into separate beams according to wavelength. In spectroscopy resolution is usually defined as the ratio of the wavelength of the incoming light to the smallest separation that can be measured between two wavelengths. One of the two spectrographs on board the observatory, the faint-object spectrograph, will be able to observe faint stellar objects with a spectrographic resolution of 1,000 (equivalent to a measuring bandwidth of 1/1,000th of the wavelength). The principal investigator for this instrument is Richard J. Harms of the University of California at San Diego.
The faint-object spectrograph will be equipped with two systems of detectors. Both detectors are devices called Digicons; one is sensitive to red light and the other to blue light and ultraviolet radiation. A Digicon sensor operates on the basis of the photoelectric effect. The incoming light is spread out according to wavelength by a diffraction grating and strikes the surface of a thin photocathode layer deposited on a transparent plate. Light of a particular wavelength reaches a particular position along the photocathode, producing a spray of free electrons known as photoelectrons. A magnetic field focuses the photoelectrons at a point whose position depends on where they emerge from the photocathode and hence on the wavelength of the incident light. The photoelectrons are collected by a linear array of 512 diodes, each of which records the intensity of the incident light at a particular wavelength.
The faint-object spectrograph will be sensitive to radiation ranging in wavelength from about 115 to 800 nanometers. In addition the instrument will have two special features: it will be able to measure the polarization of the incoming light and to detect extremely fast variations (perhaps as brief as a few milliseconds) in the spectrum of radiation emitted by bright sources. Because the investigation of many astronomical problems depends on the spectral analysis of the radiation from extremely faint objects, this instrument is expected to be one of the busiest on the Space Telescope. By measuring the spectra of very distant quasars, for example, it should be possible to study the properties of the universe more than 10 billion years ago, perhaps 85 percent of the way back to the beginning of time (if, as the standard big-bang model of cosmology assumes, time actually had a beginning). Spectrograms of the most distant quasars are expected to indicate the chemical constitution of matter at that early stage in the evolution of the universe.
WlDE-FlELD/PLANETARY CAMERA is one of the instruments scheduled to be included in the Space Telescope during its first few years of operation The camera is designed to operate in either of two modes. In each mode the detection system consists of a rectangular array of four light-sensitive silicon ``chips'' called charge-coupled devices (CCD's). The incoming light reflected into the radially mounted instrument compartment by the diagonal pick-off mirror can be directed onto either the four CCD's of the wide-field camera or the four CCD's of the higher-resolution planetary camera by means of a pyramidal mirror that can be rotated by 45 degrees about its axis. Any of 48 filters can be inserted into the optical path. The external radiator serves to dissipate the heat generated by the cooling system associated with the detectors.
The investigation of some astronomical questions requires a higher spectrographic resolution than can be attained with the faint-object spectrograph, because the width of many emission and absorption features is narrower than the measuring bandwidth of the instrument. The high-resolution spectrograph will meet this need. Under normal operating conditions it will have a spectrographic resolution of 20,000. Narrow spectral features that might not even be detected with the lower-resolution faint-object spectrograph will be accurately measured, yielding information about the physical conditions under which the radiation was emitted. The high-resolution spectrograph will also have an ultrahigh-resolution mode of operation in which the spectrographic resolution will be improved by an additional factor of five to about 100,000. The principal investigator for the high-resolution spectrograph is John C. Brandt of Goddard.
Of course, there is a price to be paid for the higher resolution of this second spectrograph. Dividing the spectrum into a much larger number of bands in order to measure the flux of photons separately in each band has the effect of decreasing the number of photons detected per band. Thus higher resolution results in lower sensitivity, and the larger quantity of information provided by the high-resolution spectrograph can be obtained only for stars that are some 60 times brighter than those that can be studied with the faint-object spectrograph. This difference amounts to about 4.5 stellar magnitudes. For the ultrahigh-resolution mode the difference in brightness is a factor of more than 300, or the equivalent of about six stellar magnitudes.
The high-resolution spectrograph has six interchangeable diffraction gratings, each of which disperses light of different wavelengths in different directions. A camera mirror or grating then forms an image of the spectrum on the photoelectron-emitting surface of a Digicon sensor. By rotating the carousel on which the gratings are mounted, any one of them can be brought into the optical path of the instrument, making it possible to obtain a spectrographic reading at any wavelength between 110 and 320 nanometers.
This spectrograph with its normal resolution should be able to observe stars as faint as the 13th magnitude, or about six stellar magnitudes fainter than those observed by the Copernicus telescope. The gain in sensitivity over the spectrograph on the International Ultraviolet Explorer is not as great-about four magnitudes-but the spectrographic resolution and the photometric accuracy will be significantly better for the instrument on the Space Telescope.
The power of this instrument should open up a number of interesting new lines of inquiry. For example, the high-resolution spectrograph will make possible the study of interstellar gas at places in our galaxy and other galaxies where it cannot now be observed. Preliminary measurements by the International Ultraviolet Explorer have shown that the gas in the galactic ``halo'' between the earth and the nearest neighboring galaxy (one of the two Magellanic clouds) includes carbon atoms that have been stripped of three electrons indicating that the temperature in this region is about 100,000 degrees Kelvin. With the high-resolution spectrograph much more accurate data will be obtainable, perhaps revealing the relation between this gas and the even hotter material detected by Copernicus. Measurements of the way in which the properties of our galaxy vary from place to place will provide much-needed clues to the evolution of the system as a whole.
The high-resolution spectrograph will also be applied to the study of interstellar clouds. Ground-based observations of such clouds are able to detect only a few dark lines in the spectrum, created when the gas of the cloud absorbs radiation from background stars. In many instances each absorption line is split into multiple subfeatures, which can be attributed to separate clouds along the same line of sight. The clouds are moving with somewhat different speeds toward the solar system or away from it, altering the characteristic wavelengths at which they absorb radiation. The splitting of the absorption lines makes it possible to study each cloud separately, provided the spectrographic resolution is high enough. With the high-resolution spectrograph it will be possible to analyze a wide range of ultraviolet absorption features from various atoms and molecules and to determine the physical conditions in each cloud. Our understanding of how such interstellar clouds come together and contract to form stars may depend critically on the results of such studies.
The high-speed photometer, which is being developed by Robert C. Bless and his colleagues at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, is designed to make highly accurate measurements, with an extraordinary temporal resolution, of the intensity of the light from astronomical sources over a wide range of wavelengths. The photometer will be capable of distinguishing events separated in time by only 10 microseconds. Observations of sources that vary over time scales this short are difficult or impossible with ground-based instruments because of fluctuations in the atmosphere.
RANGE OF WAVELENGTHS potentially accessible to the Space Telescope extends from the far-ultraviolet part of the spectrum (left) to the far-infrared (right). For comparison the spectral bands that can be observed with the unaided human eye and with a large ground-based telescope (in this case the 200-inch Hale telescope on Palomar Mountain) under normal observing conditions are also indicated. The vertical scale gives the relative brightness (in terms of stellar magnitude) of the faintest celestial object that can be imaged; an increase of one unit in stellar magnitude corresponds to a decrease in apparent brightness by a factor of about 2.5.
The high-speed photometer is the simplest of the instruments in the initial group on board the Space Telescope. It has no moving parts and relies entirely on the fine pointing of the spacecraft to direct the light from an astronomical target onto one of its 100 or so combinations of spectral filters and entrance apertures. The photometer has four independent, magnetically focused detectors, called image dissectors; they resemble photomultiplier tubes in operation, except that they can be made to respond only to photoelectrons coming from the small region of the photocathode on which the light is focused. Each image dissector is mounted behind a plate that holds an assortment of filters and entrance apertures.
The overall spectral response of the image dissectors extends from about 115 to 650 nanometers. The instrument is also equipped with a red-sensitive photomultiplier tube and a system for measuring the polarization of ultraviolet radiation with the aid of one of the image dissectors.
The high-speed photometer will be capable in principle of detecting the smallest objects observable with any of the instruments on the Space Telescope. The ability to distinguish events that are separated in time by only 10 micro-seconds implies (according to the special theory of relativity) that variations in the light output of a star as small as three kilometers across could be detected. This is an extraordinarily small linear dimension for a star; indeed, it is very close to the diameter the sun would have if it were compressed to such a high density that it formed a black hole. Accordingly, one program scheduled for the high-speed photometer is to search for extremely fast variations in astronomical systems that are suspected of harboring a black hole, in the hope of finding further evidence of these elusive entities. The high-speed photometer will also be used for less exotic observations, including an attempt to identify optically faint objects observed mainly at radio or X-ray wavelengths.
Under the best observing conditions ground-based measurements of the position of any star are limited by the size of the star's blurry ``seeing disk,'' which is generally at least one arc-second in diameter. In determining the angular distance between two stars an uncertainty of about .1 arc-second, or a tenth of the diameter of the stellar image, is typical for a single observation. By averaging many exposures the uncertainty can be reduced to about .01 arc-second. Random errors result in corresponding uncertainties in the determination of a star's parallax. (Parallax is the average angular change in the apparent position of a star resulting from the revolution of the earth about the sun.) The determination of distance beyond the solar system is based largely on measurements of the parallax of comparatively nearby stars. Since the measurement of a stellar image with the Space Telescope will be accurate to within about .002 arc-second, the determination of stellar position, and hence of stellar parallax, should be about five times better than it is with ground-based telescopes. The fivefold improvement in the accuracy of stellar- parallax measurements is of fundamental importance to all of stellar astronomy. For example, knowing the precise distance of certain comparatively young star clusters in our galaxy will enable astronomers to determine the absolute brightness of the stars in the clusters. This knowledge in turn will make it possible to extend the calibrated distance scale, which is based on the comparison of apparent brightness and absolute brightness, to stars that are much farther away.
The Space Telescope has not been equipped with a separate instrument for astrometry because the fine-guidance system will be accurate enough to make the necessary measurements of the angular distance between stars. The leader of the team for astrometry is William H. Jefferys of the University of Texas at Austin.
Observing time on the Space Telescope will be allocated to astronomers from all parts of the world by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which will be responsible for facilitating the most effective scientific use of the powerful new observatory. To provide visiting astronomers with the most efficient operating systems, to assist and advise observers on the optimum use of the various instruments and to help create a stimulating atmosphere for research with the Space Telescope outstanding astronomers from the U.S. and abroad are being recruited to serve on the institute's staff. It is expected that half of their time will be devoted to the diverse tasks of the institute, with the other half available for their own research programs. The new institute will also make recommendations to NASA on broad policy matters pertaining to the Space Telescope. The involvement of outside astronomers in determining the policies of the institute is being ensured through a number of external committees.
The institute will solicit outside proposals for specific observing programs for the Space Telescope. With the aid of peer-review groups the institute will evaluate the proposals and select the most promising programs for inclusion in the telescope's schedule. In many cases the programs selected will be combined with those submitted by the original scientific-instrument teams, by other members of the Space Telescope working group and by the European groups. The final scheduling and the preparation of a complete list of commands for the operating computer will be done by NASA, which will retain responsibility for the day-to-day operation of the observatory.
Astronomers on the staff of the institute will advise outside astronomers on the formulation of observing plans. Other staff astronomers will be responsible for maintaining the calibration of the instruments and for the initial processing of data. Computer specialists will help to develop suitable programs for use by the astronomers in analyzing the data. Finally, the Space Telescope Science Institute will assist astronomers in communicating the results of their studies to other scientists, to NASA, to Congress and to the public.
The Space Telescope will help to solve many outstanding astronomical puzzles. The greatest excitement, however, will come when the pictures returned from the satellite reveal things no one in this generation of astronomers has dreamed of, phenomena that only the next generation will be privileged to understand.
TENFOLD IMPROVEMENT in spatial resolution expected with the Space Telescope will enable astronomers to make more detailed observations of extended objects. In this simulation the picture at the top represents the image of a distant spiral galaxy obtained with the 200-inch Hale telescope and the picture at the bottom represents the corresponding image obtained with the Space Telescope. Actually the picture at the bottom is a digitized version of a photograph of a nearby galaxy made with the 200-inch telescope and the picture at the top is a blurred version of the same image made by defocusing the original by an amount proportional to the difference in the effective resolution obtainable with the two instruments. The simulation was prepared by John L. Tonry of the Institute for Advanced Study. | aerospace |
https://amazingtoday43.com/british-french-interconnector-illuminates-recovered-wwii-plane-crash-2/ | 2024-02-28T00:22:24 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474688.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227220707-20240228010707-00185.warc.gz | 0.95713 | 557 | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-10__0__173374270 | en | In a remarkable turn of events, the discovery of a crashed World War II plane has been made possible thanks to the construction of a British-French interconnector. This interconnector, a joint venture between the two nations, was built to enhance the electricity transmission capacity between the two countries. However, during the laying of underwater cables for the interconnector, an unexpected find emerged from the depths of the English Channel.
The wreckage of the plane, believed to be a fighter aircraft from the Second World War era, had lain undisturbed for over seven decades beneath the ocean’s surface. The interconnector project involved extensive dredging and excavation of the seabed to lay the necessary cables. It was during this process that the remnants of the aircraft were unexpectedly uncovered.
The discovery sparked immediate interest among historians and aviation enthusiasts worldwide. Efforts were quickly mobilized to identify the aircraft and uncover its historical significance. Experts from both the British and French military history departments were brought in to study the wreckage and determine its origin.
Initial investigations suggest that the crashed plane belonged to the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and was lost during a combat mission over the English Channel. The aircraft’s identification numbers and other markings, though weathered by time and the corrosive effects of the saltwater environment, provided vital clues for identification purposes.
The finding of the crashed WW2 plane not only offers a unique glimpse into the past but also raises questions about the circumstances surrounding its demise. Further examination of the wreckage and its associated artifacts, such as munitions and personal effects, may provide valuable insights into the air battles fought during World War II and the experiences of the pilots involved.
The British-French interconnector project, originally intended to bolster energy infrastructure and foster closer cooperation between the two nations, has inadvertently become a catalyst for historical discovery. The unearthing of this crashed plane serves as a poignant reminder of the sacrifices made by countless individuals during one of the most significant conflicts in human history.
The respective governments, in collaboration with historical organizations and military experts, are now undertaking the delicate process of recovering and preserving the remains of the aircraft. Plans are underway to restore and exhibit the wreckage, allowing the public to learn from this tangible piece of history and pay tribute to those who served.
The British-French interconnector, while fulfilling its primary objective of enhancing energy transmission, has inadvertently illuminated a forgotten chapter of the past. It stands as a testament to the profound impact of historical events and the unexpected intersections between technology, infrastructure, and the remnants of human endeavors. As the recovered plane emerges from the depths, it offers a poignant reminder of the human stories behind the machinery of war and the importance of remembering and understanding our shared history. | aerospace |
https://blankhearts.com/all/which-animal-was-the-first-to-go-to-space/ | 2024-02-21T21:40:53 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947473558.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20240221202132-20240221232132-00351.warc.gz | 0.943568 | 1,069 | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-10__0__208354336 | en | The exploration of outer space has been a remarkable journey for humanity, marked by groundbreaking achievements and historic milestones. Among the pioneers of space exploration, one notable chapter involves the journey of Laika, a brave and pioneering canine who became the first living being to orbit the Earth. In this comprehensive article, we delve into the captivating story of Laika, shedding light on the circumstances, preparations, and legacy of the first animal to go to space.
The Space Race and the Birth of Cosmonauts:
The mid-20th century witnessed a fervent competition between the United States and the Soviet Union known as the Space Race. Both nations sought to demonstrate technological and scientific superiority, and space exploration became a symbol of national prestige. The era saw the launch of artificial satellites, humans into space, and even living beings, laying the foundation for future space endeavors.
The Soviet Union’s Bold Step:
In the midst of the Space Race, the Soviet Union embarked on an audacious mission to send a living being into space. The decision to launch an animal into orbit was driven by the need to understand the physiological and psychological effects of space travel on living organisms before risking human lives. It was a daring venture that marked a significant milestone in the history of space exploration.
Laika: The Canine Cosmonaut:
Chosen for her small size, calm demeanor, and adaptability, Laika, a stray dog from the streets of Moscow, was selected as the occupant of the spacecraft. The decision to send a dog into space was met with mixed emotions, sparking both admiration for the courage of the mission and concerns for the well-being of the animal. Laika was trained rigorously to acclimate to the conditions she would face during the space journey.
Sputnik 2: The Historic Mission:
On November 3, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 2, a spacecraft designed to carry Laika into orbit. The mission aimed to gather valuable data on the effects of space travel, including the impact of weightlessness and cosmic radiation on a living organism. While Sputnik 1, launched a month earlier, was the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 2 marked the first instance of a living being venturing beyond Earth’s atmosphere.
The Journey into Space:
As Sputnik 2 soared into space, Laika experienced conditions that no living being had encountered before. She was equipped with sensors to monitor her vital signs, providing valuable insights into the physiological responses to space travel. However, the spacecraft lacked technology for a safe return to Earth, as the primary objective was to study the effects of space on a living organism.
The mission, although historic, was not without controversy and ethical concerns. At the time, technology for safely returning a living being from orbit had not been developed, and it was known that Laika’s journey would be one-way. The Soviet authorities initially claimed that Laika survived in orbit for several days, but later disclosures revealed that she perished a few hours after the launch due to overheating and stress.
The fate of Laika stirred public outcry and sparked discussions about the ethical treatment of animals in scientific experiments. Despite the controversy, Laika’s mission paved the way for future advancements in space exploration, leading to the development of life support systems and technologies that would eventually enable human space travel.
Legacy and Contributions to Space Exploration:
Laika’s sacrifice had a profound impact on the course of space exploration. The data collected during her mission contributed significantly to the understanding of the challenges posed by space travel on living organisms. The lessons learned from Laika’s journey played a crucial role in developing life support systems, ensuring the safety and well-being of future astronauts.
The pioneering mission of Laika also exemplified the dedication and determination of the Soviet space program. While her journey was a one-way trip, the knowledge gained from her mission laid the groundwork for subsequent space missions that aimed to explore the cosmos with a broader scope.
Commemorating Laika’s Legacy:
In recognition of her historic mission, Laika became an enduring symbol of courage and exploration. Her contribution to space science was commemorated through various tributes and memorials. In 2008, a monument featuring Laika was unveiled at Star City, the Russian cosmonaut training center, honoring her role as the first living being to journey into space.
Ethical Considerations and Modern Space Exploration:
The legacy of Laika’s mission prompted a reevaluation of ethical standards in animal experimentation. Subsequent space missions, particularly those involving animals, incorporated ethical guidelines and considerations for the well-being of the subjects. Advances in technology and a growing understanding of animal welfare have led to more humane practices in scientific research.
In modern space exploration, the focus has shifted to robotic missions and experiments that minimize the use of animals. The development of sophisticated robotic probes and artificial intelligence has allowed scientists to gather valuable data without subjecting living beings to the harsh conditions of space.
Laika’s journey into space remains a poignant chapter in the history of space exploration. Her mission, while controversial, contributed valuable insights that paved the way for future advancements in human space travel. | aerospace |
https://www.44sqn.com/newsletters/march-2018/in-memoriam/ | 2021-05-09T21:59:52 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243989018.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20210509213453-20210510003453-00226.warc.gz | 0.986486 | 1,207 | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2021-21__0__54280282 | en | Sadly the following members have died since publication of the last newsletter. We extend our deepest sympathy to their families and friends.
Gp Capt J I S Digman OBE DFC
Mrs Bessie Hanson
Joe L’Estrange AFC AFM
M J O’Leary
Mrs M Shorthouse
Group Captain John Ivor Spenser Digman OBE DFC
Group Captain John Digman passed away on December 11th 2017, aged 94 years.
He had a long and distinguished career of 29 years in the Royal Air Force. In March 1942 he undertook his navigator officer training in Canada. Four months later, as Flying Officer, he was sent to Bomber Command to a Wellington Operational Training Unit and crewed up with a multinational crew. They remained together throughout the war. In September 1944 they were assigned to 44 (Rhodesia) Squadron flying Lancasters based at Spilsby in Lincolnshire. From here they completed 36 sorties over Germany, Norway and Poland. John recalled “My abiding memory is of feeling extremely apprehensive when nearing the target area and then of hearing the calm voice of the master bomber over the radio who was directing the pathfinders in marking the target. His measured tones helped no end in settling my mind.” He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross in October 1945.
Shortly after being posted to Spilsby, John married (Ethel) Babs Pilbeam. In October 2017 they celebrated their 73rd wedding anniversary.
In 1947 John became a navigation instructor. On a liaison flight to the South Africa Air Force, he was part of a world record-breaking crew by completing the flight via Kano in 26 hours and 57 minutes. In 1948 he was stationed at RAF Upwood as Station Navigator officer. Two years later as Squadron Leader he moved to the Central Navigation and Control School as Officer Commanding Specialist Navigation Courses. In 1953 John was the first officer to take specialist navigation course students to the geographic North Pole.
Between 1956 and 1958 a posting took John and family to the Far East Air Force base in Singapore. In 1959 he was promoted to Wing Commander and spent 4 years at the Air Ministry in charge of policy for navigator, air electronics officer and combat survival training.
In 1963 John went to RAF Coningsby as Wing Commander Operations of three Vulcan nuclear bomber squadrons. In November 1964 the Squadrons moved to RAF Cottesmore. In January 1966, as the senior navigator, John took his final flight in a Vulcan to Auckland, New Zealand, to display at the opening of the new airport – flying time of fifty five and a half hours.
At the end of 1966 John was awarded the OBE for his valuable service to the RAF. The next 5 years were spent at the Ministry of Defence and in 1969 he was promoted to Group Captain as Deputy Director RAF Security. He took early retirement in 1971.
John remained an active member of the RAFA and Aircrew Association. He raised thousands of pounds for the Wings Appeal and the RAF Benevolent Fund.
John kept in touch with two of his crew and this ceased only in 2017 when they both passed away.
He is survived by his wife Babs, their 2 daughters, granddaughter and 3 great grandchildren. John was a man proud of and devoted to family and country. Like others of his generation who fought during the Second World War, these remarkable men showed courage and modesty in equal measure and their passing is mourned deeply as their numbers diminish.
Joe L’Estrange AFC AFM
Sadly we have to report Joe’s passing on 14 January 2018, following illness. He had been active up until the autumn but his illness finally took its toll.
Joe had a distinguished career with the RAF. After joining in August 1944, training initially as an Air Gunner on Wellingtons and Lancasters, he went on to retrain as a pilot in 1950. This led him to fly Hornets, Vampires and Venoms, as well as many other different aircraft throughout the 1950s. Joe also flew naval aircraft from the aircraft carriers Ark Royal, Albion, Centaur and Victorious during a two-year exchange posting with the Fleet Air Arm.
In 1962 Joe was posted to 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU) at Finningley to begin his 21-year association with the Vulcan. He joined 35 Squadron at Coningsby in May 1963 and gave the first of many Vulcan displays at Honington in July the following year. After four years as a Vulcan QFI, he was posted to the Vulcan force at Akrotiri in 1969. Returning to the UK with 101 Squadron in 1975, Joe began a second spell with 230 OCU and, in June 1979, led the Trooping of the Colour Flypast over Buckingham Palace, a task he would repeat in the following three years.
Joe was a vastly experienced Vulcan pilot, with 6,102 hours on type. He was renowned as a display pilot, something which put him in demand for air displays and other ceremonies. He flew our own XL426 many times, including displaying 426 at 50 Squadron’s disbandment ceremony at the end of March 1984, which marked the withdrawal of the Vulcan from operational service. He also captained Vulcan XM655 for its delivery flight to Wellesbourne Mountford, where she is now cared for by the 655 Maintenance & Preservation Society.
After leaving the RAF, Joe continued flying, holding a Private Pilot’s Licence for many years. He continued his connection with the Vulcan through his Honorary Membership of the Trust and was at XL426’s controls for taxy-runs at London Southend Airport on a number of occasions.
Joe was a thoroughly nice man who was always willing to share his memories of his career in the RAF, in particular his time on the Vulcan, with anyone who was keen to listen. | aerospace |
https://www.superyachtdigest.com/ebace2015-lands-in-geneva-next-month/ | 2023-09-28T13:58:41 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510412.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20230928130936-20230928160936-00893.warc.gz | 0.935584 | 1,428 | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2023-40__0__101280379 | en | [dropcap]T[/dropcap]he 2015 European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (EBACE2015) is Europe’s must-attend business aviation event, which provides an unprecedented opportunity to learn about business aviation in Europe, see the latest products and services and meet with customers and colleagues – all in one location. Sponsored by the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) and the European Business Aviation Association (EBAA), EBACE2015 takes places in Geneva, Switzerland from 19 to 21 May.
“On top of the usual – and invaluable – networking and business opportunities at EBACE, this year’s show will feature highly insightful keynotes and education sessions on the relevant issues for our industry in 2015 and beyond. We expect this 15th show to be one of the best,” said Brian Humphries, president, EBAA.
EBACE 2015 Will Mark 15th Anniversary as Premier European Business Aviation Event
This year’s European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (EBACE2015) will celebrate its 15th year as the leading European business aviation trade show, education and networking event, with several special new features to help mark this milestone.
“We are excited to commemorate this great anniversary,” said Chris Strong, NBAA’s senior vice president of conventions and membership. “Obviously the business aviation community has faced significant challenges over the past decade and a half, but we’ve also experienced great innovation in equipment, safety and management methodology. Those innovations will be celebrated at EBACE2015.”
The EBACE2015 Opening General Session, on Tuesday, May 19, will highlight the show’s history, including a look at original exhibitors and events. An awards luncheon later that day will honor four individuals who were instrumental in the show’s initial success: Kathleen Blouin, NBAA’s former senior vice president of conventions and forums; Brian Humphries, president of show co-host European Business Aviation Association (EBAA); former NBAA President Jack Olcott and former EBAA CEO Fernand Francois, who will be recognized for their commitment to EBACE in its conception and initial years.
NBAA and EBAA plan to co-host a coffee social to celebrate the anniversary at their booths on the exhibit floor during the show, and throughout EBACE2015 attendees will have an opportunity to mark their participation at the anniversary event on a large signing wall on the exhibit floor. Signage hung throughout the exhibit hall will feature historic moments from the show’s inaugural year in 2000.
“While we look forward to celebrating the anniversary of EBACE and the exciting moments of the event’s past, we are also looking to the future by introducing new events and activities,” said Strong. “Our aim is to provide attendees with a fresh experience at EBACE2015.”
These new events will include the “Innovation Zone,” a dedicated area of the exhibit hall that will feature education sessions on hot topics like unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), a Women in Aviation Networking event and a look at business aviation skills and careers. A young professionals networking event on Wednesday, May 20, and an exhibit area for UAS on the exhibit floor are other new activities offered at EBACE2015.
“The young professionals networking event aims to support individuals with new careers in business aviation,” said Strong. “Development of young talent is critical to the sustained success of our industry and this event will provide an opportunity for young professionals to network with peers at this important juncture of their careers.”
EBACE2015 will be held May 19 to 21 at the Palexpo conference center and Geneva International Airport in Switzerland.
Large Number of Exhibitors to Take Part in EBACE2015
EBACE2015 will feature more than 450 exhibitors on a show floor covering three halls of the Geneva Palexpo conference center. EBACE exhibitors have represented more than 60 countries in recent years, with the highest percentage of exhibiting companies from Europe and beyond increasing.
“We at NBAA and EBAA are honored to host exhibiting companies from around the globe at EBACE2015,” said Chris Strong, NBAA’s senior vice president of conventions and membership. “Typically, European companies represent just over half of all exhibiting companies, but we also see exhibitors from China, India and other regions.”
Static Display More Convenient Than Ever
The static display of aircraft at the European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (EBACE2015) will be every bit as exciting, and more easily maneuverable for attendees, than ever before, organizers said. EBACE is a frequent platform for significant new aircraft model announcements, and EBACE2015 is no exception.
This year’s static display at Geneva international Airport will feature more than 60 aircraft, including a new-model introduction and a first-time European appearance for another aircraft model. It also includes dozens of previously owned aircraft.
“EBACE is a must-attend show for business aviation professionals and end-users alike, particularly those who like to be up-to-date on the latest in new aircraft and product announcements,” said Joe Hart, NBAA director of static displays. “This show is unrivaled in Europe for a potential aircraft buyer’s ability to see different aircraft manufacturers, models and equipment side-by-side.“
New to EBACE2015 is a single, contiguous static display footprint at the airport, which will ease the flow of traffic for visitors.
“EBACE is one of the most convenient locations for business aviation professionals and users, and this new layout for our static display will offer attendees an easier opportunity to compare aircraft models and features and see exciting new developments from many different aircraft manufacturers,” said Hart.
EBACE has traditionally been a popular platform for manufacturers to make significant new aircraft model announcements. In recent years, new aircraft announcements at EBACE have included the Pilatus PC-24, Textron Aviation’s Cessna Longitude and Bombardier’s Learjet 70 and 75. Variant and upgrade announcements are also popular at the show, including Bombardier’s Global Vision Cockpit for the Global 6000 and Dassault’s Falcon 2000S variant of the 2000LX.
EBACE2015 will include an exciting new feature – an exhibit area for UAS manufacturers. This display will be located in the Palexpo exhibition hall and will allow attendees to see the capabilities and features of a wide range of UAS.
“One highlight of EBACE is exploring new aircraft, equipment and technology,” said Hart. “EBACE2015 promises to deliver a great experience for business aviation pilots, operators and potential buyers.”
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http://www.vbgov.com/government/departments/emergency-medical-services/Air_medical/Landing_zone/Pages/default.aspx | 2016-05-06T01:41:24 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461861700326.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428164140-00211-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 0.926543 | 1,124 | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2016-18__0__118950522 | en | Optimal Landing Zone (LZ) Set-up
- 100 x 100 foot area close to the incident scene and free from obstructions is the best selection
- The landing zone should be a flat surface that is firm, free of overhead obstructions and free of any debris that can blow up into the rotor system. The maximum allowable slope is 10 degrees.
- Obstacles such as wires, poles, signs, etc. can be difficult to see from the aircraft. If wires are present at or near the scene, this information must be relayed to the flight crew prior to landing.
- Advise the flight crew on overhead radio contact if there are any obstructions in the area, obstructions at the edge of the LZ, or any obstructions in-line with the departure or approach path.
- If the roadway is too narrow, or numerous trees or other obstacles are present, another area must be selected as an alternate LZ and checked for obstacles and other unsafe conditions. After the on-scene officer-in-charge has evaluated all areas, the best unobstructed landing site must be secured, and the flight crew advised of any unsafe conditions they may encounter during the landing.
NOTE: In determining landing zones, be aware that helicopter take-offs and landings can be done in a vertical manner; however, these landings limit the pilot's visibility of the LZ. Increased power requirements on the helicopter may eliminate land-back areas should an engine malfunction occur making the approach slower, causing extended periods of rotor wash
Additional Landing Zone Tips
The LZ Officer should walk the area on both sides of the LZ and check for hazards. During night operations, walk the LZ with a flashlight that is directed up and down to detect wires in and around the LZ.
- 45 Degree Test- The LZ Officer should stand in the middle of the LZ with one arm extended at a 45 degree angle in front of him/her. Any objects at or above this line are obstacles and need to be All traffic must be stopped in both directions of the roadway, even on multi-lane highways or interstates.
- Do not allow traffic to use the roadway until after the aircraft has departed. Traffic should be stopped at least 200 feet in both directions from the landing zone.
- Do not recommend landing zones that contain loose material such as gravel. The rotor wash will cause stones or gravel to become airborne, striking personnel and/or damaging vehicles.
- Do not use flares or cones to mark the landing zone: they will become airborne during the landing. (Weighted cones/lights that are designed for aircraft operations are generally acceptable.)
- The pilot is the final authority when selecting an LZ. On some occasions, the pilot may not choose to utilize the ground personnel's suggested LZ and choose an alternate LZ. This decision is usually based on information that is unknown to the ground personnel (e.g., wind, aircraft performance limitations, etc).
Approaching the aircraft
Hearing and eye protection shall be utilized at all times when approaching the aircraft.
Personnel should approach the aircraft only when accompanied by an MSP flight crew member.
Response personnel are usually limited to four when loading patients. The Flight medic will provide additional guidance prior to these personnel approaching the aircraft.
Only approach the aircraft from the Safe Zone (see diagram).
Never approach the aircraft from the rear areas due to the hazards existing from the tail rotor.
If it becomes necessary to go from one side of the aircraft to the other, this will be done by walking around the front of the aircraft; however, do not walk under the rotor blades.
Personnel shall not wear hats and loose clothing when approaching the aircraft. Do not lift anything above shoulder height (e.g. IV bags).
If the aircraft has landed on a slope or hill, care must be taken when approaching the aircraft. Approaching from the downhill side is preferred. Uphill side approaches should be avoided, as the main rotor blade is spinning and is lower to the ground on the uphill side of the aircraft. The Flight medic will provide additional guidance in this situation.
Never bring the patient to the aircraft prior to advising the Flight medic of the patient's information. Very high noise levels found in the general proximity of the aircraft make communication and patient turnover impossible.
If debris gets in the eyes and it impairs vision - do not continue to approach or egress from the aircraft - immediately "take a knee" and the Flight medic will provide assistance.
In an emergency situation it may be necessary to render assistance or rescue occupants of the helicopter. In such cases DO NOT APPROACH THE AIRCRAFT UNLESS THE MAIN ROTOR HAS STOPPED! REMAIN CLEAR OF THE REAR AND TAIL ROTOR AT ALL TIMES!
Miscellaneous Safety Tips
Personnel should not attempt to open or close any aircraft doors. If a person is in the aircraft, they should remain inside until the flight crew member opens the door for them, thus preventing damage to the door and greatly reducing the risk of an aircraft door opening inadvertently in-flight.
No vehicles or personnel shall be permitted within 200 feet of the aircraft.
Do not direct spotlights onto the landing area or at the aircraft, but keep vehicle's emergency lights displayed until the aircraft is overhead. Once the LZ has been confirmed and verified by the flight crew, vehicle lighting can be reduced to running lights or parking lights for night vision purposes. | aerospace |
https://dronefund.vc/en/feature/faa-remote-id-rule/ | 2024-04-18T23:04:17 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817249.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20240418222029-20240419012029-00855.warc.gz | 0.92635 | 1,334 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | webtext-fineweb__CC-MAIN-2024-18__0__972650 | en | What is the New Remote ID Rule and Why do We Need It? — An Important Tool for the Advancement of Drone Technology.
In the near future, when millions of drones are buzzing in, around, and above the city, doing everything from carrying packages, conducting inspections of construction sites and rooftops, monitoring climate and live traffic conditions and more, it will be important to have regulations that ensure the safe and secure operation of traditional manned aircraft, as well as unmanned drones and UASs. One critical component of that safe operation will be the ability to quickly and reliably identify each and every aircraft and drone sharing the airspace.
To that end, the FAA recently published the final version of the new Remote ID rules and regulations, requiring that registered drones be able to broadcast important information during operation. The rules will affect both manufacturers and operators, and will, by design, make the presence and operation of drones more transparent for everyone.
What is Remote ID?
Remote ID is different from the current drone registration and labeling requirements that require operators to register their drones and mark all aircraft with the registration number.
Remote ID is the ability (soon the requirement) for drones and other UASs (Unmanned Aircraft System) in flight to broadcast (likely via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth) their flight and location information for identification from the ground.
The Remote ID broadcast will be receivable by most personal wireless devices within range of the drone. The broadcast will contain the UA ID (serial number of the device or session ID), flight information (e.g., latitude/longitude, altitude, and speed), location of the control station or takeoff location, time mark(s), and emergency status. The broadcast data will not include information on the pilot, or other registration data from the FAA database in order to protect the identity of the operator. That information will be limited to the FAA and made available to authorized law enforcement agencies when appropriate.
Why Do We Need Remote ID?
Remote ID is an important tool that helps the FAA, law enforcement, federal agencies, and the public identify critical information about the drone and its control station or take-off location.
Just as we require vehicles to be identifiable on the roads and waterways, so too must airborne vehicles have a way to transmit their data reliably for identification and classification.
When Do the Remote ID Rules Take Effect?
The FAA published the final version of the new rules and regulations for Remote Identification in the Federal Register on January 15, 2021. These rules go into effect April 21, 2021. The rules were originally slated to take effect March 16, but corrections made to the Federal Register on March 10 pushed the effective date back to April 21.
Manufacturers will have 18 months from the effective date to ensure that they are in compliance with the new regulations. Operators will receive an additional year (12 months) after that to meet the operational requirements and ensure that they are piloting a Standard ID Drone, one with a Remote ID broadcast module, or piloting within a FRIA.
How Do the Remote ID Rules work?
The remote ID rule will require that all unmanned aircraft requiring registration with the FAA be capable of broadcasting their information. Operators of UASs will have three (3) ways to meet the identification requirements.
(1) Standard Remote ID Drone Operation
The first is to operate a standard Remote ID drone. These are drones that have built-in remote broadcast ability, and broadcast directly from the drone/UAS. From takeoff to shut down, the drone broadcasts:
- UA ID
- Drone location and altitude
- Control station location and elevation
- Time mark
- Emergency status
(2) Drone with Remote ID Broadcast Module
The second is to operate a drone with a Remote ID broadcast module attached. The broadcast module is a separate device that may be attached onto a drone/UAS that does not have Remote ID capability built in. This module will allow operators to retrofit drones and UASs without built-in capability to comply with the new Remote ID rules.
Operators will be required to enter the broadcast module serial number into the registration record for the aircraft. Operators will also be limited to Visual Line-of-Sight (VLOS) when flying with a Remote ID broadcast module. From takeoff to shut down, the module broadcasts:
- UA ID
- Drone location and altitude
- Takeoff location and elevation
- Time mark
(3) Operation within FAA-Recognized Identification Area (FRIA)
Finally, pilots may operate a drone/UAS not equipped with Remote ID within certain designated areas recognized by the FAA.
Community-based organizations, primary and secondary education institutions, and other organizations recognized by the FAA may apply for the establishment of FRIAs. Drones operating within an FRIA are limited to Visual Line-of-Sight (VLOS) and must remain within the designated area.
Other specifics of the Remote ID rules include:
- UA Self Test (The drone cannot take off if Remote ID is not functioning)
- Remote ID cannot be disabled by the operator
- Remote ID must be sent over unlicensed radio frequency (e.g., Wi-Fi or Bluetooth)
- Standard Remote ID and the Remote ID Broadcast Modules must be designed by manufacturers to maximize the range at which the broadcasts can be received
The new Remote ID rules and regulations are an important step forward for the realization of a drone and air-mobility enabled society. Increasing airspace awareness is critical to a future where manned and unmanned aircraft will share the skies. These rules will also help continue to build public trust in drones and other emerging air-mobility technology.
Most importantly, it shows the potential for regulatory agencies, specialists, and manufacturers to come together to craft appropriate rules and regulations that ensure the safe and secure operation of drones without unnecessarily stifling the growing industry. The FAA first published the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) on Remote ID on December 31, 2019. This allowed industry experts, professionals, and the public to comment on the specifics of the rule(s) during the 60-day comment period. The FAA received over 53,000 comments, and took a number of those into consideration for the final rule. This is a prime example of the type of collaboration that will continue to bear fruit as the drone industry reaches new heights in the very near future.
Written by Tavis Sartin
For more information see the FAA’s materials on Remote ID: | aerospace |
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in Dataset Viewer.
FineFineWeb: A Comprehensive Study on Fine-Grained Domain Web Corpus
arXiv: Coming Soon
Project Page: Coming Soon
Blog: Coming Soon
Data Statistics
| Domain (#tokens/#samples) | Iteration 1 Tokens | Iteration 2 Tokens | Iteration 3 Tokens | Total Tokens | Iteration 1 Count | Iteration 2 Count | Iteration 3 Count | Total Count |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| aerospace | 5.77B | 261.63M | 309.33M | 6.34B | 9100000 | 688505 | 611034 | 10399539 |
| agronomy | 13.08B | 947.41M | 229.04M | 14.26B | 15752828 | 2711790 | 649404 | 19114022 |
| artistic | 178.25B | 5.79B | 3.75B | 187.80B | 314279703 | 16113512 | 9957104 | 340350319 |
| astronomy | 5.20B | 134.39M | 54.66M | 5.38B | 7596521 | 357647 | 145832 | 8100000 |
| atmospheric_science | 2.80B | 102.04M | 259.25M | 3.16B | 5709537 | 267789 | 525969 | 6503295 |
| automotive | 36.72B | 436.34M | 911.65M | 38.07B | 60239679 | 1166729 | 1535882 | 62942290 |
| beauty | 19.10B | 671.88M | 1.01B | 20.78B | 34787376 | 1808382 | 2201810 | 38797568 |
| biology | 85.84B | 371.29M | 776.99M | 86.99B | 81413569 | 995384 | 1350348 | 83759301 |
| celebrity | 9.63B | 706.41M | 4.22B | 14.56B | 19831188 | 1803788 | 7949240 | 29584216 |
| chemistry | 27.80B | 588.92M | 131.46M | 28.52B | 31188189 | 1499085 | 328038 | 33015312 |
| christianity | 47.72B | 403.68M | 732.55M | 48.86B | 55013147 | 1349874 | 2021458 | 58384479 |
| civil_engineering | 8.85B | 1.27B | 402.91M | 10.52B | 13591632 | 2683940 | 940742 | 17216314 |
| communication_engineering | 9.21B | 3.60B | 327.66M | 13.14B | 13001767 | 5959526 | 746495 | 19707788 |
| computer_science_and_technology | 194.46B | 3.95B | 4.76B | 203.16B | 278420434 | 10263521 | 8654255 | 297338210 |
| design | 96.58B | 3.80B | 450.00M | 100.82B | 190275603 | 16653588 | 2090515 | 209019706 |
| drama_and_film | 19.12B | 10.86B | 206.27M | 30.19B | 33117478 | 18443259 | 564251 | 52124988 |
| economics | 205.01B | 1.23B | 2.63B | 208.87B | 263965085 | 3874091 | 5505880 | 273345056 |
| electronic_science | 30.19B | 7.76B | 482.62M | 38.43B | 42745767 | 12572747 | 1115605 | 56434119 |
| entertainment | 152.92B | 1.67B | 5.06B | 159.65B | 256935144 | 5801081 | 9648023 | 272384248 |
| environmental_science | 56.98B | 1.48B | 920.77M | 59.37B | 84500393 | 3557056 | 1966731 | 90024180 |
| fashion | 18.72B | 977.27M | 264.01M | 19.96B | 53465628 | 3926500 | 1346988 | 58739116 |
| finance | 146.39B | 327.45M | 1.13B | 147.85B | 187797764 | 1295893 | 3058801 | 192152458 |
| food | 56.10B | 136.32M | 978.91M | 57.22B | 96485838 | 613875 | 3051981 | 100151694 |
| gamble | 30.12B | 696.52M | 158.48M | 30.98B | 24909037 | 770540 | 164168 | 25843745 |
| game | 43.47B | 2.36B | 2.68B | 48.51B | 65680699 | 4670033 | 3720700 | 74071432 |
| geography | 110.18B | 1.16B | 192.67M | 111.53B | 161677214 | 3835932 | 559447 | 166072593 |
| health | 191.20B | 427.93M | 18.43B | 210.06B | 215747152 | 1291215 | 23975955 | 241014322 |
| history | 45.27B | 1.56B | 1.69B | 48.52B | 55710432 | 4167508 | 3463033 | 63340973 |
| hobby | 150.23B | 42.78B | 44.05B | 237.06B | 276636362 | 81360893 | 71407735 | 429404990 |
| hydraulic_engineering | 57.36M | 75.40M | 3.65M | 136.41M | 135079 | 163299 | 13453 | 311831 |
| instrument_science | 5.35B | 2.02B | 165.43M | 7.54B | 8307736 | 2904274 | 462256 | 11674266 |
| journalism_and_media_communication | 440.98B | 21.00B | 1.55B | 463.53B | 645801807 | 50657668 | 4909008 | 701368483 |
| landscape_architecture | 3.07B | 557.66M | 64.76M | 3.70B | 5613141 | 1138409 | 166526 | 6918076 |
| law | 128.58B | 455.19M | 2.38B | 131.42B | 166473205 | 1660944 | 6145032 | 174279181 |
| library | 57.16B | 5.01B | 36.56M | 62.21B | 86592305 | 10440991 | 153014 | 97186310 |
| literature | 71.07B | 7.01B | 67.53B | 145.61B | 71191075 | 13247806 | 54760578 | 139199459 |
| materials_science | 17.79B | 1.11B | 303.66M | 19.20B | 22136519 | 1663376 | 708384 | 24508279 |
| mathematics | 5.87B | 50.33M | 261.65M | 6.18B | 10131933 | 179592 | 653050 | 10964575 |
| mechanical_engineering | 86.13B | 1.24B | 129.96M | 87.49B | 111778813 | 3201605 | 428714 | 115409132 |
| medical | 140.03B | 813.46M | 4.97B | 145.81B | 149594634 | 2266477 | 8527901 | 160389012 |
| mining_engineering | 7.26B | 206.05M | 529.02M | 8.00B | 5540631 | 236145 | 468458 | 6245234 |
| movie | 13.09B | 639.20M | 124.67M | 13.86B | 22938808 | 1577576 | 511882 | 25028266 |
| music_and_dance | 15.42B | 10.38B | 618.46M | 26.42B | 29566554 | 20233446 | 1998272 | 51798272 |
| news | 328.47B | 12.37B | 11.34B | 352.18B | 508567768 | 33206709 | 23482422 | 565256899 |
| nuclear_science | 559.05M | 79.89M | 78.79M | 717.72M | 784847 | 170282 | 133598 | 1088727 |
| ocean_science | 2.36B | 537.82M | 229.43M | 3.13B | 3700000 | 853052 | 425792 | 4978844 |
| optical_engineering | 2.33B | 253.06M | 263.99M | 2.85B | 3510836 | 535026 | 400371 | 4446233 |
| painting | 374.41M | 429.63M | 96.57M | 900.61M | 875783 | 824217 | 336203 | 2036203 |
| pet | 12.12B | 154.14M | 307.28M | 12.58B | 19624688 | 457635 | 778970 | 20861293 |
| petroleum_and_natural_gas_engineering | 950.08M | 515.05M | 121.56M | 1.59B | 1669447 | 899860 | 237843 | 2807150 |
| philosophy | 47.99B | 121.26M | 335.77M | 48.44B | 50396964 | 505275 | 1030405 | 51932644 |
| photo | 6.56B | 1.74B | 41.44M | 8.34B | 16194329 | 3901598 | 179607 | 20275534 |
| physics | 21.56B | 372.21M | 191.17M | 22.12B | 24640373 | 843508 | 473758 | 25957639 |
| politics | 79.52B | 253.26M | 930.96M | 80.70B | 97403603 | 1026315 | 2504127 | 100934045 |
| psychology | 51.53B | 688.50M | 2.56B | 54.78B | 58829917 | 1881452 | 4066667 | 64778036 |
| public_administration | 100.13B | 5.54B | 716.81M | 106.39B | 160247751 | 10657768 | 1785347 | 172690866 |
| relationship | 21.87B | 3.69B | 129.60M | 25.69B | 28153321 | 6794774 | 321268 | 35269363 |
| sociology | 76.34B | 3.59B | 8.88B | 88.82B | 106447186 | 7836896 | 13040695 | 127324777 |
| sports | 118.64B | 379.18M | 1.79B | 120.80B | 173243631 | 1286718 | 4212540 | 178742889 |
| statistics | 19.59B | 1.15B | 1.75B | 22.49B | 29958726 | 2746797 | 3390606 | 36096129 |
| systems_science | 24.58B | 11.30B | 163.99M | 36.05B | 32879249 | 15120751 | 470001 | 48470001 |
| textile_science | 2.59B | 2.89B | 94.56M | 5.57B | 8018141 | 8022001 | 456668 | 16496810 |
| topicality | 34.87M | 5.22M | 0 | 40.09M | 137789 | 13506 | 0 | 151295 |
| transportation_engineering | 12.80B | 6.61B | 972.50M | 20.38B | 23595624 | 11005933 | 2027812 | 36629369 |
| travel | 78.87B | 584.78M | 957.26M | 80.41B | 127250195 | 1851342 | 2430704 | 131532241 |
| urban_planning | 12.13B | 2.93B | 53.24M | 15.12B | 20040937 | 6176104 | 201963 | 26419004 |
| weapons_science | 80.62M | 3.32B | 140.89M | 3.54B | 215544 | 5695154 | 369541 | 6280239 |
| Grand Total | 4010.76B | 206.51B | 208.02B | 4425.30B | 5781764055 | 442387964 | 311920860 | 6536072879 |
Data Construction Workflow
The data construction workflow can be summarized as follows:
Deduplicate: The FineWeb dataset is deduplicated using exact deduplication and MinHash techniques to remove redundant data.
URL Labeling: Root URLs from FineWeb are counted, and the top 1 million URLs are labeled using GPT-4. This step generates DoI (Domain-of-Interest) Coarse-Grained URLs and DoNI (Domain-of-Non-Interest) Coarse-Grained URLs as seed data sources.
Coarse Recall:
a. Based on the labeled root URLs, data is sampled for each domain.
b. The sampled data is labeled using Qwen2-7B-Instruct, producing 500K DoI Positive Data and 500K DoI Negative Data (note that for N>1 iterations, each 500K samples are composed of 250K sampled original seed data and 250K refined data after Fine Recall).
c. A binary FastText model is trained per domain using the labeled data.
d. The FastText model performs coarse recall on FineWeb, generating Coarse DoI Data.
Fine Recall:
a. The Coarse DoI Data is labeled using Qwen2-72B-Instruct to produce 100K DoI Positive Data and 50K DoI Negative Data, with the latter further augmented with 50K negative samples from earlier FastText training.
b. A BERT model is trained using this labeled data.
c. The BERT model performs fine recall on the Coarse DoI Data, producing a refined dataset, which is the DoI subset of FineFineWeb.
Coarse-Fine Recall Iteration: The workflow of coarse and fine recall iterates for 3 rounds with the following adjustments:
a. FastText is re-trained using updated seed data, which combines BERT-recalled samples, BERT-dropped samples, and previously labeled seed data.
b. The BERT model keeps frozen during subsequent iterations.
c. Steps for training FastText, coarse recall, and fine recall are repeated without re-labeling data with Qwen2-Instruct models.
Domain-Domain Similarity Analysis
- Perform proportional weighted sampling of the domain subsets based on the sample size of each domain, with a total of 1 billion tokens sampled from the domain subsets.
- Use the BGE-M3 model to compute the embeddings of the samples in each domain subset, referred to as domain embeddings.
- Use the BGE-M3 model to compute the embeddings of the samples in each benchmark, referred to as benchmark embeddings (bench embeddings).
- Calculate the MMD distance and the Wasserstein distance between the domain embeddings and the benchmark embeddings.
The results above reveal the following observations:
- The two code-related benchmarks, MBPP and HumanEval, exhibit relatively large distances from nearly all domains, indicating that the proportion of code data in the training set is relatively small. Notably, their distance to the mathematics domain is comparatively smaller, suggesting a certain degree of overlap between mathematics data and code data.
- Benchmarks such as Hellaswag, ARC, MMLU, and BoolQ have distances that are close to almost all domains, except for the gamble domain. This indicates that the samples in these benchmarks involve synergetic effects across multiple domains of knowledge, with a wide distribution.
- GSM8K and TriviaQA show significant discrepancies with a small number of domains, suggesting that the distribution differences between domains are more pronounced for samples involving grade-school mathematics and fact-based question answering. Some domains contain a substantial amount of this type of data, while others do not.
- The gamble domain exhibits substantial differences from other domains and has large distances from all benchmarks, indicating that pretraining data related to gambling provides limited benefits for these benchmarks.
Domain-Domain Duplication
Let represent distinct domains, where we select top-20 URLs for each domain , denoted as ,. The total set of URLs across all domains is represented as , and the total number of URLs is .
For each URL , the term frequency (TF) is defined as the proportion of in the total set of URLs:
where is the number of times appears in . Additionally, the document frequency of is the number of domains in which appears. Based on this, the inverse document frequency (IDF) is calculated as:
The TF-IDF value for each URL in a specific domain is then computed as:
Using the TF-IDF values of all URLs within a domain, the domain-domain duplicate rate can be analyzed by comparing the distribution of TF-IDF values across domains. If a domain has many URLs with high TF-IDF values, it indicates that the domain’s URLs are relatively unique and significant within the entire set of URLs. Conversely, if a domain has many URLs with low TF-IDF values, it suggests that the domain's URLs are more common across other domains. Analyzing these values helps assess how similar or redundant a domain's content is in relation to others based on its URL composition.
As shown in the figure, most domains have low duplication rates, except for topicality, pet, and atmospheric science.
Domain-Benchmark BPC-Acc Correlation
Experimental method: Using 28 models (see the paper), we first calculate BPC for all domains to obtain a model ranking . Similarly, we compute scores across all benchmarks to obtain a model ranking . We then calculate the Spearman correlation between and .
- For benchmarks like ARC, MMLU, GSM8K, HumanEval, and MBPP, STEM-related domains show higher correlation rankings, particularly mathematics, physics, and systems science.
- For TriviaQA, which emphasizes factual knowledge over reasoning, domains rich in world knowledge such as literature, history, and library science demonstrate higher correlation rankings.
Bibtex
@misc{
title={FineFineWeb: A Comprehensive Study on Fine-grained Domain Web Corpus},
url={[https://huggingface.co/datasets/m-a-p/FineFineWeb](https://huggingface.co/datasets/m-a-p/FineFineWeb)},
author = {M-A-P, Ge Zhang*, Xinrun Du*, Zhimiao Yu*, Zili Wang*, Zekun Wang, Shuyue Guo, Tianyu Zheng, Kang Zhu, Jerry Liu, Shawn Yue, Binbin Liu, Zhongyuan Peng, Yifan Yao, Jack Yang, Ziming Li, Bingni Zhang, Minghao Liu, Tianyu Liu, Yang Gao, Wenhu Chen, Xiaohuan Zhou, Qian Liu, Taifeng Wang+, Wenhao Huang+},
publisher={huggingface},
verision={v0.1.0},
month={December},
year={2024}
}
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