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electric motor

Elektromotor (wiktionary)

From elektro- +‎ Motor. Elektromotor m (mixed, genitive Elektromotors, plural Elektromotoren) electric motor “Elektromotor” in Duden online “Elektromotor” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache

From elektro- +‎ Motor. Elektromotor m (mixed, genitive Elektromotors, plural Elektromotoren) electric motor “Elektromotor” in Duden online “Elektromotor” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache

electric motor

elektromotor (wiktionary)

From elektro- +‎ motor. IPA(key): [ˈɛlɛktromotor] Rhymes: -otor elektromotor m inan electric motor See elektro- and motiv elektromotor in Příruční slovník jazyka českého, 1935–1957 elektromotor in Slovník spisovného jazyka českého, 1960–1971, 1989 elektromotor in Internetová jazyková příručka electromotor (superseded) From elektro- +‎ motor. IPA(key): /eːˈlɛk.troːˌmoː.tɔr/ Hyphenation: elek‧tro‧mo‧tor elektromotor m (plural elektromotoren) An electric motor. From elektro- +‎ motor. elektromotor m (definite singular elektromotoren, indefinite plural elektromotorer, definite plural elektromotorene) an electric motor elmotor elektrisk motor “elektromotor” in The Bokmål Dictionary. From elektro- +‎ motor. elektromotor m (definite singular elektromotoren, indefinite plural elektromotorar, definite plural elektromotorane) an electric motor elmotor elektrisk motor “elektromotor” in The Nynorsk Dictionary.

From elektro- +‎ motor. IPA(key): [ˈɛlɛktromotor] Rhymes: -otor elektromotor m inan electric motor See elektro- and motiv elektromotor in Příruční slovník jazyka českého, 1935–1957 elektromotor in Slovník spisovného jazyka českého, 1960–1971, 1989 elektromotor in Internetová jazyková příručka electromotor (superseded) From elektro- +‎ motor. IPA(key): /eːˈlɛk.troːˌmoː.tɔr/ Hyphenation: elek‧tro‧mo‧tor elektromotor m (plural elektromotoren) An electric motor. From elektro- +‎ motor. elektromotor m (definite singular elektromotoren, indefinite plural elektromotorer, definite plural elektromotorene) an electric motor elmotor elektrisk motor “elektromotor” in The Bokmål Dictionary. From elektro- +‎ motor. elektromotor m (definite singular elektromotoren, indefinite plural elektromotorar, definite plural elektromotorane) an electric motor elmotor elektrisk motor “elektromotor” in The Nynorsk Dictionary.

electric motor

electric motor (wiktionary)

electric motor (plural electric motors) A motor that converts electrical energy into kinetic energy. generator

electric motor (plural electric motors) A motor that converts electrical energy into kinetic energy. generator

electric motor

Electric motor (wikipedia)

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in reverse, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type, construction, application and type of motion output. They can be brushed or brushless, single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase, axial or radial flux, and may be air-cooled or liquid-cooled. Standardized motors provide power for industrial use. The largest are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications, with output exceeding 100 megawatts. Applications include industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, vehicles, and disk drives. Small motors may be found in electric watches. In certain applications, such as in regenerative braking with traction motors, electric motors can be used in reverse as generators to recover energy that might otherwise be lost as heat and friction. Electric motors produce linear or rotary force (torque) intended to propel some external mechanism. This makes them a type of actuator. They are generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over a significant distance compared to its size. Solenoids also convert electrical power to mechanical motion, but over only a limited distance. == History == === Early motors === Before modern electromagnetic motors, experimental motors that worked by electrostatic force were investigated. The first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices described in experiments by Scottish monk Andrew Gordon and American experimenter Benjamin Franklin in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind them, Coulomb's law, was discovered but not published, by Henry Cavendish in 1771. This law was discovered independently by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in 1785, who published it so that it is now known with his name. Due to the difficulty of generating the high voltages they required, electrostatic motors were never used for practical purposes. The invention of the electrochemical battery by Alessandro Volta in 1799 made possible the production of persistent electric currents. Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current creates a magnetic field, which can exert a force on a magnet. It only took a few weeks for André-Marie Ampère to develop the first formulation of the electromagnetic interaction and present the Ampère's force law, that described the production of mechanical force by the interaction of an electric current and a magnetic field. The first demonstration of the effect with a rotary motion was given by Michael Faraday on 3 September 1821 in the basement of the Royal Institution. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet (PM) was placed. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. Faraday published the results of his discovery in the Quarterly Journal of Science, and sent copies of his paper along with pocket-sized models of his device to colleagues around the world so they could also witness the phenomenon of electromagnetic rotations. This motor is often demonstrated in physics experiments, substituting brine for (toxic) mercury. Barlow's wheel was an early refinement to this Faraday demonstration, although these and similar homopolar motors remained unsuited to practical application until late in the century. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils. After Jedlik solved the technical problems of continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices "electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for teaching, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of practical DC motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. === DC motors === The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by English scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor was built by American inventors Thomas Davenport and Emily Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools and a printing press. Due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and bankrupted the Davenports. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors, but all encountered the same battery cost issues. As no electricity distribution system was available at the time, no practical commercial market emerged for these motors. After many other more or less successful attempts with relatively weak rotating and reciprocating apparatus Prussian/Russian Moritz von Jacobi created the first real rotating electric motor in May 1834. It developed remarkable mechanical output power. His motor set a world record, which Jacobi improved four years later in September 1838. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river. It was also in 1839/40 that other developers managed to build motors with similar and then higher performance. In 1827–1828, Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work. He built a model electric vehicle that same year. A major turning point came in 1864, when Antonio Pacinotti first described the ring armature (although initially conceived in a DC generator, i.e. a dynamo). This featured symmetrically grouped coils closed upon themselves and connected to the bars of a commutator, the brushes of which delivered practically non-fluctuating current. The first commercially successful DC motors followed the developments by Zénobe Gramme who, in 1871, reinvented Pacinotti's design and adopted some solutions by Werner Siemens. A benefit to DC machines came from the discovery of the reversibility of the electric machine, which was announced by Siemens in 1867 and observed by Pacinotti in 1869. Gramme accidentally demonstrated it on the occasion of the 1873 Vienna World's Fair, when he connected two such DC devices up to 2 km from each other, using one of them as a generator and the other as motor. The drum rotor was introduced by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske to replace Pacinotti's ring armature in 1872, thus improving the machine efficiency. The laminated rotor was introduced by Siemens & Halske the following year, achieving reduced iron losses and increased induced voltages. In 1880, Jonas Wenström provided the rotor with slots for housing the winding, further increasing the efficiency. In 1886, Frank Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking device that maintained relatively constant speed under variable loads. Other Sprague electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric distribution (prior work done while employed by Thomas Edison), allowed power from electric motors to be returned to the electric grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the trolley pole, and provided control systems for electric operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric trolley system in 1887–88 in Richmond, Virginia, the electric elevator and control system in 1892, and the electric subway with independently powered centrally-controlled cars. The latter were first installed in 1892 in Chicago by the South Side Elevated Railroad, where it became popularly known as the "L". Sprague's motor and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry. The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure to recognize the extreme importance of an air gap between the rotor and stator. Efficient designs have a comparatively small air gap. The St. Louis motor, long used in classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is inefficient for the same reason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor. Electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer limited by power transmission using line shafts, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead, every machine could be equipped with its own power source, providing easy control at the point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water. Household uses (like in washing machines, dishwashers, fans, air conditioners and refrigerators (replacing ice boxes) of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of the electric energy produced in the US. === AC motors === In 1824, French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first primitive induction motor. In the 1880s many inventors were trying to develop workable AC motors because AC's advantages in long-distance high-voltage transmission were offset by the inability to operate motors on AC. The first alternating-current commutatorless induction motor was invented by Galileo Ferraris in 1885. Ferraris was able to improve his first design by producing more advanced setups in 1886. In 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferraris's research detailing the foundations of motor operation, while concluding at that time that "the apparatus based on that principle could not be of any commercial importance as motor." Possible industrial development was envisioned by Nikola Tesla, who invented independently his induction motor in 1887 and obtained a patent in May 1888. In the same year, Tesla presented his paper A New System of Alternate Current Motors and Transformers to the AIEE that described three patented two-phase four-stator-pole motor types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting reluctance motor, another with a wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and the third a true synchronous motor with separately excited DC supply to rotor winding. One of the patents Tesla filed in 1887, however, also described a shorted-winding-rotor induction motor. George Westinghouse, who had already acquired rights from Ferraris (US$1,000), promptly bought Tesla's patents (US$60,000 plus US$2.50 per sold hp, paid until 1897), employed Tesla to develop his motors, and assigned C.F. Scott to help Tesla; however, Tesla left for other pursuits in 1889. The constant speed AC induction motor was found not to be suitable for street cars, but Westinghouse engineers successfully adapted it to power a mining operation in Telluride, Colorado in 1891. Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, but these early Westinghouse motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors. B.G. Lamme later developed a rotating bar winding rotor. Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the three-phase induction motor in 1889, of both types cage-rotor and wound rotor with a starting rheostat, and the three-limb transformer in 1890. After an agreement between AEG and Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon, Doliwo-Dobrowolski and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown developed larger models, namely a 20-hp squirrel cage and a 100-hp wound rotor with a starting rheostat. These were the first three-phase asynchronous motors suitable for practical operation. Since 1889, similar developments of three-phase machinery were started Wenström. At the 1891 Frankfurt International Electrotechnical Exhibition, the first long distance three-phase system was successfully presented. It was rated 15 kV and extended over 175 km from the Lauffen waterfall on the Neckar river. The Lauffen power station included a 240 kW 86 V 40 Hz alternator and a step-up transformer while at the exhibition a step-down transformer fed a 100-hp three-phase induction motor that powered an artificial waterfall, representing the transfer of the original power source. The three-phase induction is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications. Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891. By 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower motor in 1897. === Twenty-first century === In 2022, electric motor sales were estimated to be 800 million units, increasing by 10% annually. Electric motors consume ≈50% of the world's electricity. Since the 1980s, the market share of DC motors has declined in favor of AC motors.: 89  == Components == An electric motor has two mechanical parts: the rotor, which moves, and the stator, which does not. Electrically, the motor consists of two parts, the field magnets and the armature, one of which is attached to the rotor and the other to the stator. Together they form a magnetic circuit. The magnets create a magnetic field that passes through the armature. These can be electromagnets or permanent magnets. The field magnet is usually on the stator and the armature on the rotor, but these may be reversed. === Rotor === The rotor is the moving part that delivers the mechanical power. The rotor typically holds conductors that carry currents, on which the magnetic field of the stator exerts force to turn the shaft. Some rotors carry permanent magnets. Permanent magnets offer high efficiency over a large operating speed and power range. === Stator === The stator surrounds the rotor, and usually holds field magnets, which are either electromagnets (wire windings around a ferromagnetic iron core) or permanent magnets. These create a magnetic field that passes through the rotor armature, exerting force on the rotor windings. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets that are insulated from each other, called laminations. These laminations are made of electrical steel, which has a specified magnetic permeability, hysteresis, and saturation. Laminations reduce losses that would result from induced circulating eddy currents that would flow if a solid core were used. Mains powered AC motors typically immobilize the wires within the windings by impregnating them with varnish in a vacuum. This prevents the wires in the winding from vibrating against each other which would abrade the wire insulation and cause premature failures. Resin-packed motors, used in deep well submersible pumps, washing machines, and air conditioners, encapsulate the stator in plastic resin to prevent corrosion and/or reduce conducted noise. === Gap === An air gap between the stator and rotor allows it to turn. The width of the gap has a significant effect on the motor's electrical characteristics. It is generally made as small as possible, as a large gap weakens performance. Conversely, gaps that are too small may create friction in addition to noise. === Armature === The armature consists of wire windings on a ferromagnetic core. Electric current passing through the wire causes the magnetic field to exert a force (Lorentz force) on it, turning the rotor. Windings are coiled wires, wrapped around a laminated, soft, iron, ferromagnetic core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current. Electric machines come in salient- and nonsalient-pole configurations. In a salient-pole motor the rotor and stator ferromagnetic cores have projections called poles that face each other. Wire is wound around each pole below the pole face, which become north or south poles when current flows through the wire. In a nonsalient-pole (distributed field or round-rotor) motor, the ferromagnetic core is a smooth cylinder, with the windings distributed evenly in slots around the circumference. Supplying alternating current in the windings creates poles in the core that rotate continuously. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole. === Commutator === A commutator is a rotary electrical switch that supplies current to the rotor. It periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft rotates. It consists of a cylinder composed of multiple metal contact segments on the armature. Two or more electrical contacts called "brushes" made of a soft conductive material like carbon press against the commutator. The brushes make sliding contact with successive commutator segments as the rotator turns, supplying current to the rotor. The windings on the rotor are connected to the commutator segments. The commutator reverses the current direction in the rotor windings with each half turn (180°), so the torque applied to the rotor is always in the same direction. Without this reversal, the direction of torque on each rotor winding would reverse with each half turn, stopping the rotor. Commutated motors have been mostly replaced by brushless motors, permanent magnet motors, and induction motors. === Shaft === The motor shaft extends outside of the motor, where it satisfies the load. Because the forces of the load are exerted beyond the outermost bearing, the load is said to be overhung. === Bearings === The rotor is supported by bearings, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis by transferring the force of axial and radial loads from the shaft to the motor housing. == Inputs == === Power supply === A DC motor is usually supplied through a split ring commutator as described above. AC motors' commutation can be achieved using either a slip ring commutator or external commutation. It can be fixed-speed or variable-speed control type, and can be synchronous or asynchronous. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC. === Control === DC motors can be operated at variable speeds by adjusting the voltage applied to the terminals or by using pulse-width modulation (PWM). AC motors operated at a fixed speed are generally powered directly from the grid or through motor soft starters. AC motors operated at variable speeds are powered with various power inverter, variable-frequency drive or electronic commutator technologies. The term electronic commutator is usually associated with self-commutated brushless DC motor and switched reluctance motor applications. == Types == Electric motors operate on one of three physical principles: magnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity. In magnetic motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and the stator. The product between these two fields gives rise to a force and thus a torque on the motor shaft. One or both of these fields changes as the rotor turns. This is done by switching the poles on and off at the right time, or varying the strength of the pole. Motors operate on either DC or AC current (or either). AC motors can be either asynchronous or synchronous. Synchronous motors require the rotor to turn at the same speed as the stator's rotating field. Asynchronous rotors relax this constraint. A fractional-horsepower motor either has a rating below about 1 horsepower (0.746 kW), or is manufactured with a frame size smaller than a standard 1 HP motor. Many household and industrial motors are in the fractional-horsepower class. Notes: 1. Rotation is independent of the frequency of the AC voltage. 2. Rotation is equal to synchronous speed (motor-stator-field speed). 3. In SCIM, fixed-speed operation rotation is equal to synchronous speed, less slip speed. 4. In non-slip energy-recovery systems, WRIM is usually used for motor-starting but can be used to vary load speed. 5. Variable-speed operation. 6. Whereas induction- and synchronous-motor drives are typically with either six-step or sinusoidal-waveform output, BLDC-motor drives are usually with trapezoidal-current waveform; the behavior of both sinusoidal and trapezoidal PM machines is, however, identical in terms of their fundamental aspects. 7. In variable-speed operation, WRIM is used in slip-energy recovery and double-fed induction-machine applications. 8. A cage winding is a short-circuited squirrel-cage rotor, a wound winding is connected externally through slip rings. 9. Mostly single-phase with some three-phase. Abbreviations: BLAC – Brushless AC BLDC – Brushless DC BLDM – Brushless DC motor EC – Electronic commutator PM – Permanent magnet IPMSM – Interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor PMSM – Permanent magnet synchronous motor SPMSM – Surface permanent magnet synchronous motor SCIM – Squirrel-cage induction motor SRM – Switched reluctance motor SyRM – Synchronous reluctance motor VFD – Variable-frequency drive WRIM – Wound-rotor induction motor WRSM – Wound-rotor synchronous motor LRA – Locked-rotor amps: The current you can expect under starting conditions when you apply full voltage. It occurs instantly during start-up. RLA – Rated-load amps: The maximum current a motor should draw under any operating conditions. Often mistakenly called running-load amps, which leads people to believe, incorrectly, that the motor should always pull these amps. FLA – Full-load amps: Changed in 1976 to "RLA – rated-load amps". == Self-commutated motor == === Brushed DC motor === Most DC motors are small permanent magnet (PM) types. They contain a brushed internal mechanical commutation to reverse motor windings' current in synchronism with rotation. ==== Electrically excited DC motor ==== A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that touch the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to the rotating armature. The rotating armature consists of one or more wire coils wound around a laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet). The magnetic field produced interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or another winding (a field coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic fields rotates the shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the poles from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor keeps turning as long as power is applied. Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to maintain contact with the commutator, creating friction. The brushes create sparks while crossing the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, the brushes may create short circuits between adjacent sections—and hence coil ends. Furthermore, the rotor coils' inductance causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit opens, increasing the sparking. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the motor's output. Crossing the gaps also generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance or replacement. The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the rotor. While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat, segmented discs mounted on an insulator. Large brushes create a large contact area, which maximizes motor output, while small brushes have low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without excessive sparking. (Small brushes are desirable for their lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, despite greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear. DC machines are defined as follows: Armature circuit – A winding that carries the load, either stationary or rotating. Field circuit – A set of windings that produces a magnetic field. Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or from which DC can be derived. The five types of brushed DC motor are: Shunt-wound Series-wound Compound (two configurations): Cumulative compound Differentially compounded Permanent magnet (not shown) Separately excited (not shown). ==== Permanent magnet ==== A permanent magnet (PM) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, relying instead on PMs to provide the magnetic field. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. This field is fixed and cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines. To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with neodymium; most are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets. === Electronic commutator (EC) === ==== Brushless DC ==== Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 85%+ efficient, reaching up to 96.5%, while brushed DC motors are typically 75–80% efficient. The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal counter-electromotive force (CEMF) waveform is derived partly from the stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's permanent magnets. Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside-out DC motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal BLDC motors can be single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and use Hall effect sensors mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and low cost closed-loop commutator control. BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk drives or video cassette recorders. The spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products, such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors: They are more efficient than AC fans using shaded-pole motors, running much cooler than the AC equivalents. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings. Without a commutator, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly longer compared to a brushed DC motor with a commutator. Commutation tends to cause electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a BLDC motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers. The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can provide a convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal as well as provide running speed feedback. The motor can be synchronized to an internal or external clock, providing precise speed control. BLDC motors do not spark, making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Sparking also generates ozone, which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings. BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used in fans to remove heat. They make little noise, which is an advantage in equipment that is affected by vibrations. Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC motors rated up to about 100 kW are used in electric vehicles. They also find use in electric model aircraft. ==== Switched reluctance motor ==== The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has no electric currents. Torque comes from a slight misalignment of poles on the rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field windings are sequentially energized to rotate the stator field. The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic sending the flux through rotor poles that are closest to the energized poles of the stator, thereby magnetizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns, different windings are energized, keeping the rotor turning. SRMs are used in some appliances and vehicles. === Universal AC/DC motor === A commutated, electrically excited, series or parallel wound motor is referred to as a universal motor because it can be designed to operate on either AC or DC power. A universal motor can operate well on AC because the current in both the field and the armature coils (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) synchronously reverse polarity, and hence the resulting mechanical force occurs in a constant direction of rotation. Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often used in sub-kilowatt applications. Universal motors formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, using AC power on a motor designed to run on DC would experience efficiency losses due to eddy current heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated) iron. They are now rarely used. An advantage is that AC power may be used on motors that specifically have high starting torque and compact design if high running speeds are used. By contrast, maintenance is higher and lifetimes are shortened. Such motors are used in devices that are not heavily used, and have high starting-torque demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders that advertise many speeds typically combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC). Universal motors also lend themselves to electronic speed control and, as such, are a choice for devices such as domestic washing machines. The motor can agitate the drum (both forwards and in reverse) by switching the field winding with respect to the armature. Whereas SCIMs cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line frequency, universal motors can run at much higher speeds. This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high speed and light weight are desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 rpm, while miniature grinders may exceed 30,000 rpm. == Externally commutated AC machine == AC induction and synchronous motors are optimized for operation on single-phase or polyphase sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal waveform power such as supplied for fixed-speed applications by the AC power grid or for variable-speed application from variable-frequency drive (VFD) controllers. === Induction motor === An induction motor is an asynchronous AC motor where power is transferred to the rotor by electromagnetic induction, much like transformer action. An induction motor resembles a rotating transformer, because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Polyphase induction motors are widely used in industry. ==== Cage and wound rotor ==== Induction motors may be divided into Squirrel Cage Induction Motors (SCIM) and Wound Rotor Induction Motors (WRIM). SCIMs have a heavy winding made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper, electrically connected by rings at the ends of the rotor. The bars and rings as a whole are much like an animal's rotating exercise cage. Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and tends to stay in the outer parts of the cage. As the motor accelerates, the slip frequency becomes lower, and more current reaches the interior. By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions in the interior and outer parts of the cage, a variable resistance is effectively inserted in the rotor circuit. However, most such motors employ uniform bars. In a WRIM, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire and is connected to slip rings on the motor shaft. An external resistor or other control device can be connected in the rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of the motor speed, although dissipating significant power. A converter can be fed from the rotor circuit and return the slip-frequency power that would otherwise be wasted into the power system through an inverter or separate motor-generator. WRIMs are used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply current from zero speed to full speed. Motor speed can be changed because the motor's torque curve is effectively modified by the amount of resistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing resistance lowers the speed of maximum torque. If the resistance is increased beyond the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the torque is further reduced. When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor operates at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load causes the motor to speed up, while increasing the load causes the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are again equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is poor. ==== Torque motor ==== A torque motor can operate indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor applies a steady torque to the load. A common application is the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven by a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors apply a steady light tension to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage (delivering a higher torque), torque motors can achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering wheels. Another common application is to control the throttle of an internal combustion engine with an electronic governor. The motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accord with the governor output. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current. If the engine slows down relative to the desired speed, the current increases, producing more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor reduces the current, allowing the return spring to pull back and reduce the throttle. === Synchronous motor === A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor. It includes a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same frequency as the AC and produces a magnetic field to drive it. It has zero slip under typical operating conditions. By contrast induction motors must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except that the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventional squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, as made by Hammond for its pre-World War II clocks, and in older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary starting motor connected by a spring-loaded manually operated switch. Hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-shifting capacitor for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a permanent magnet synchronous motor. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift. Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have multi-pole permanent magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting torque. Telechron clock motors have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor that performs like a discrete two-pole rotor. === Doubly-fed electric machine === Doubly fed electric motors have two independent multiphase winding sets, which contribute active (i.e., working) power to the energy conversion process, with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two independent multiphase winding sets (i.e., dual armature) are the maximum provided in a single package without topology duplication. Doubly-fed electric motors have an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set. A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties affect controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications. == Advanced types == === Rotary === ==== Ironless or coreless rotor motor ==== The coreless or ironless DC motor is a specialized permanent magnet DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, the rotor is constructed without an iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only wire and bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the motor housing, and provides a return path for the flux. Because the rotor is much lower mass than a conventional rotor, it can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under one millisecond. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than (heavier) copper. The rotor has no metal mass to act as a heat sink; even small motors must be cooled. Overheating can be an issue for these designs. The vibrating alert of cellular phones can be generated by cylindrical permanent-magnet motors, or disc-shaped types that have a thin multipolar disc field magnet, and an intentionally unbalanced molded-plastic rotor structure with two bonded coreless coils. Metal brushes and a flat commutator switch power to the rotor coils. Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives. Although the contemporary design differs considerably from that of loudspeakers, it is still loosely (and incorrectly) referred to as a "voice coil" structure, because some earlier rigid-disk-drive heads moved in straight lines, and had a drive structure much like that of a loudspeaker. ==== Pancake or axial rotor motor ==== The printed armature or pancake motor has windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle facing the rotor spaced to form an axial air gap. This design is commonly known as the pancake motor because of its flat profile. The armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin, rigid disc. The armature does not have a separate ring commutator. The brushes move directly on the armature surface making the whole design compact. An alternative design is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized with electrical epoxy potting systems. These are filled epoxies that have moderate, mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound insulated with 180 °C (356 °F), Class H rating. The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is the absence of cogging (torque variations caused by changing attraction between the iron and the magnets). Parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless, although iron rotors are laminated. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or DC because of decreased electromagnetic induction. These motors were invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos. Another approach (Magnax) is to use a single stator sandwiched between two rotors. One such design has produced peak power of 15 kW/kg, sustained power around 7.5 kW/kg. This yokeless axial flux motor offers a shorter flux path, keeping the magnets further from the axis. The design allows zero winding overhang; 100 percent of the windings are active. This is enhanced with the use of rectangular-crosssection copper wire. The motors can be stacked to work in parallel. Instabilities are minimized by ensuring that the two rotor discs put equal and opposing forces onto the stator disc. The rotors are connected directly to one another via a shaft ring, cancelling out the magnetic forces. ==== Servomotor ==== A servomotor is a motor that is used within a position-control or speed-control feedback system. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have predictable characteristics for speed, torque, and power. The speed/torque curve is important and is high ratio for a servomotor. Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are important; these factors limit performance. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback. As dynamic response requirements increase, more specialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors' superior power density and acceleration characteristics tends to favor permanent magnet synchronous, BLDC, induction, and SRM drive approaches. A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that position feedback is continuous while the motor is running. A stepper system inherently operates open-loop—relying on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy—with any feedback such as a "home" switch or position encoder external to the motor system. ==== Stepper motor ==== Stepper motors are typically used to provide precise rotations. An internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of electronically switched external magnets. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it moves in steps—starting and then stopping—advancing from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down at any time. Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions. Microstepping drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between cog points and rotate smoothly. Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile positioning systems, particularly as part of a digital servo-controlled system. Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head positioning in early disk drives, where the precision and speed they offered could correctly position the read/write head. As drive density increased, precision and speed limitations made them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a cone-type loudspeaker.) Stepper motors are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the active element, the print head carriage (inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers. So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, draw little power, and have a permanent magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs, contain more than one stepper motor. Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors, stepper motors and SRMs are classified as variable reluctance motor type. === Linear === A linear motor is essentially any electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of producing torque (rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length. Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. Linear motors are commonly found in roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail. They are also used in maglev trains, where the train "flies" over the ground. On a smaller scale, the 1978 era HP 7225A pen plotter used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along the X and Y axes. === Non-magnetic === ==== Electrostatic ==== An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Electrostatic motors find frequent use in micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. The molecular machinery that runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors. ==== Piezoelectric ==== A piezoelectric motor or piezo motor is a type of electric motor based upon the change in shape of a piezoelectric material when an electric field is applied. Piezoelectric motors make use of the converse piezoelectric effect whereby the material produces acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations to produce linear or rotary motion. In one mechanism, the elongation in a single plane is used to make a series of stretches and position holds, similar to the way a caterpillar moves. ==== Electric propulsion ==== An electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electric motor technology to propel spacecraft in outer space. Most systems are based on electrically accelerating propellant to high speed, while some systems are based on electrodynamic tethers principles of propulsion to the magnetosphere. == Comparison by major categories == == Operating principles == === Force and torque === An electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy through the force between two opposed magnetic fields. At least one of the two magnetic fields must be created by an electromagnet through the magnetic field caused by an electrical current. The force between a current I {\displaystyle I} in a conductor of length ℓ {\displaystyle \ell } perpendicular to a magnetic field B {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } may be calculated using the Lorentz force law: F = I ℓ × B {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =I\ell \times \mathbf {B} } Note: X denotes vector cross product. The most general approaches to calculating the forces in motors use tensor notation. === Power === Electric motor output power is given as P em = T ω = F v {\displaystyle P_{\text{em}}=T\omega =Fv} where: ω {\displaystyle \omega } : shaft angular speed, [radians per second] T {\displaystyle T} : torque, [Newton-meters] F {\displaystyle F} : force, [Newtons] v {\displaystyle v} : velocity, [meters per second]. In Imperial units a motor's mechanical power output is given by, P em = ω rpm T 5252 {\displaystyle P_{\text{em}}={\frac {\omega _{\text{rpm}}T}{5252}}} (horsepower) where: ω rpm {\displaystyle \omega _{\text{rpm}}} , shaft angular speed [rpm] T {\displaystyle T} : torque, [foot-pounds]. In an asynchronous or induction motor, the relationship between motor speed and air gap power is given by the following: P airgap = R r s I r 2 {\displaystyle P_{\text{airgap}}={\frac {R_{r}}{s}}I_{r}^{2}} , where Rr – rotor resistance Ir2 – square of current induced in the rotor s – motor slip; i.e., difference between synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides the relative movement needed for current induction in the rotor. === Back EMF === The movement of armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor through a magnetic field, induce a voltage in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "back electromotive force (EMF)". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back EMF of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes, must equal the voltage at the brushes. This provides the fundamental mechanism of speed regulation in a DC motor. If the mechanical load increases, the motor slows down; a lower back EMF results, and more current is drawn from the supply. This increased current provides the additional torque to balance the load. In AC machines, it is sometimes useful to consider a back EMF source within the machine; this is of particular concern for close speed regulation of induction motors on VFDs. === Losses === Motor losses are mainly due to resistive losses in windings, core losses and mechanical losses in bearings, and aerodynamic losses, particularly where cooling fans are present, also occur. Losses also occur in commutation, mechanical commutators spark; electronic commutators and also dissipate heat. === Efficiency === To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input power: η = P m P e {\displaystyle \eta ={\frac {P_{\text{m}}}{P_{\text{e}}}}} , where η {\displaystyle \eta } is energy conversion efficiency, P e {\displaystyle P_{\text{e}}} is electrical input power, and P m {\displaystyle P_{\text{m}}} is mechanical output power: P e = I V {\displaystyle P_{\text{e}}=IV} P m = T ω {\displaystyle P_{\text{m}}=T\omega } where V {\displaystyle V} is input voltage, I {\displaystyle I} is input current, T {\displaystyle T} is output torque, and ω {\displaystyle \omega } is output angular velocity. It is possible to derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is typically at less than 1/2 the stall torque. Various national regulatory authorities have enacted legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher-efficiency motors. Electric motors have efficiencies ranging from around 15%-20% for shaded pole motors, up to 98% for permanent magnet motors, with efficiency also dependent on load. Peak efficiency is usually at 75% of the rated load. So (as an example) a 10 HP motor is most efficient when driving a load that requires 7.5 HP. Efficiency also depends on motor size; larger motors tend to be more efficient. Some motors can not operate continually for more than a specified period of time (e.g. for more than an hour per run) === Goodness factor === Eric Laithwaite proposed a metric to determine the 'goodness' of an electric motor: G = ω resistance × reluctance = ω μ σ A m A e l m l e {\displaystyle G={\frac {\omega }{{\text{resistance}}\times {\text{reluctance}}}}={\frac {\omega \mu \sigma A_{\text{m}}A_{\text{e}}}{l_{\text{m}}l_{\text{e}}}}} Where: G {\displaystyle G} is the goodness factor (factors above 1 are likely to be efficient) A m , A e {\displaystyle A_{\text{m}},A_{\text{e}}} are the cross sectional areas of the magnetic and electric circuit l m , l e {\displaystyle l_{\text{m}},l_{\text{e}}} are the lengths of the magnetic and electric circuits μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the permeability of the core ω {\displaystyle \omega } is the angular frequency the motor is driven at From this, he showed that the most efficient motors are likely to have relatively large magnetic poles. However, the equation only directly relates to non PM motors. == Performance parameters == === Torque === Electromagnetic motors derive torque from the vector product of the interacting fields. Calculating torque requires knowledge of the fields in the air gap. Once these have been established, the torque is the integral of all the force vectors multiplied by the vector's radius. The current flowing in the winding produces the fields. For a motor using a magnetic material the field is not proportional to the current. A figure relating the current to the torque can inform motor selection. The maximum torque for a motor depends on the maximum current, absent thermal considerations. When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors/generators exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum, such as bursts to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum differs significantly across motor/generator types. Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as that of WRSMs or PMSMs, cannot provide torque bursts without saturating the magnetic core. At that point, additional current cannot increase torque. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PMSMs can be irreparably damaged. Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as induction machines, induction doubly-fed electric machines, and induction or synchronous wound-rotor doubly-fed (WRDF) machines, permit torque bursts because the EMF-induced active current on either side of the transformer oppose each other and thus contribute nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, avoiding core saturation. Electric machines that rely on induction or asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Torque bursts two to three times higher than the maximum design torque are realizable. The brushless wound-rotor synchronous doubly-fed (BWRSDF) machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during operation while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set, the active current of the BWRSDF machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated. === Continuous torque density === The continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or samarium-cobalt permanent magnets, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling and permissible operation period before destruction by overheating of windings or permanent magnet damage. Other sources state that various e-machine topologies have differing torque density. One source shows the following: where—specific torque density is normalized to 1.0 for the surface permanent magnet (SPM)—brushless ac, 180° current conduction. Torque density is approximately four times greater for liquid cooled motors, compared to those which are air cooled. A source comparing direct current, induction motors (IM), PMSM and SRM showed: Another source notes that PMSM up to 1 MW have considerably higher torque density than induction machines. === Continuous power density === The continuous power density is determined by the product of the continuous torque density and the constant torque speed range. Electric motors can achieve densities of up to 20 kW/kg, meaning 20 kilowatts of output power per kilogram. == Acoustic noise and vibrations == Acoustic noise and vibrations are usually classified in three sources: mechanical sources (e.g. due to bearings) aerodynamic sources (e.g. due to shaft-mounted fans) magnetic sources (e.g. due to magnetic forces such as Maxwell and magnetostriction forces acting on stator and rotor structures) The latter source, which can be responsible for the "whining noise" of electric motors, is called electromagnetically induced acoustic noise. == Standards == The following are major design, manufacturing, and testing standards covering electric motors: American Petroleum Institute: API 541 Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 375 kW (500 Horsepower) and Larger American Petroleum Institute: API 546 Brushless Synchronous Machines – 500 kVA and Larger American Petroleum Institute: API 547 General-purpose Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 250 Hp and Larger Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE Std 112 Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induction Motors and Generators Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE Std 115 Guide for Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE Std 841 Standard for Petroleum and Chemical Industry – Premium Efficiency Severe Duty Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – Up to and Including 370 kW (500 Hp) International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60072 Dimensions and output series for rotating electrical machines National Electrical Manufacturers Association: MG-1 Motors and Generators Underwriters Laboratories: UL 1004 – Standard for Electric Motors Indian Standard: IS:12615-2018 – Line Operated Three Phase a.c. Motors (IE CODE) "Efficiency Classes and Performance Specification" (Third Revision) == See also == Compensation winding Electric generator Electric vehicle motor Goodness factor Motor capacitor Motor controller Regenerative brake Traction motor == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == == Further reading == == External links == SparkMuseum: Early Electric Motors The Invention of the Electric Motor 1800 to 1893, hosted by Karlsrushe Institute of Technology's Martin Doppelbauer MAS.865 2018 How to Make Something that Makes (almost) Anything, slow motion gifs and oscillograms for many kinds of motors.

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in reverse, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type, construction, application and type of motion output. They can be brushed or brushless, single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase, axial or radial flux, and may be air-cooled or liquid-cooled. Standardized motors provide power for industrial use. The largest are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications, with output exceeding 100 megawatts. Applications include industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, vehicles, and disk drives. Small motors may be found in electric watches. In certain applications, such as in regenerative braking with traction motors, electric motors can be used in reverse as generators to recover energy that might otherwise be lost as heat and friction. Electric motors produce linear or rotary force (torque) intended to propel some external mechanism. This makes them a type of actuator. They are generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over a significant distance compared to its size. Solenoids also convert electrical power to mechanical motion, but over only a limited distance.

censorship

Zensur (wiktionary)

IPA(key): /t͡sɛnˈzuːɐ̯/ Zensur f (genitive Zensur, plural Zensuren) censorship (education) mark, grade “Zensur” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache “Zensur” in Uni Leipzig: Wortschatz-Lexikon “Zensur” in Duden online IPA(key): [t͡sænˈzuːɐ̯] Zensur f (plural Zensuren) school report censorship

IPA(key): /t͡sɛnˈzuːɐ̯/ Zensur f (genitive Zensur, plural Zensuren) censorship (education) mark, grade “Zensur” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache “Zensur” in Uni Leipzig: Wortschatz-Lexikon “Zensur” in Duden online IPA(key): [t͡sænˈzuːɐ̯] Zensur f (plural Zensuren) school report censorship

censorship

censorship (wiktionary)

From censor +‎ -ship. (Received Pronunciation) IPA(key): /ˈsɛnsəʃɪp/ (General American) IPA(key): /ˈsɛnsɚʃɪp/ Hyphenation: cen‧sor‧ship censorship (countable and uncountable, plural censorships) The use of state or group power to control freedom of expression or press, such as passing laws to prevent media from being published or propagated. (historical) The role of the censor (magistrate) in Ancient Rome. bleep censor censor censorware bowdlerisation media democracy moral panic sensorchip, sphericons

From censor +‎ -ship. (Received Pronunciation) IPA(key): /ˈsɛnsəʃɪp/ (General American) IPA(key): /ˈsɛnsɚʃɪp/ Hyphenation: cen‧sor‧ship censorship (countable and uncountable, plural censorships) The use of state or group power to control freedom of expression or press, such as passing laws to prevent media from being published or propagated. (historical) The role of the censor (magistrate) in Ancient Rome. bleep censor censor censorware bowdlerisation media democracy moral panic sensorchip, sphericons

censorship

Censorship (wikipedia)

Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments, private institutions, and other controlling bodies. Governments sometimes engage in censorship. Other groups or institutions may propose and petition for censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, it is referred to as self-censorship. General censorship occurs in a variety of different media, including speech, books, music, films, and other arts, the press, radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of claimed reasons including national security, to control obscenity, pornography, and hate speech, to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and libel. Specific rules and regulations regarding censorship vary between legal jurisdictions and/or private organizations. == History == In 399 BC, Greek philosopher, Socrates, while defying attempts by the Athenian state to censor his philosophical teachings, was accused of collateral charges related to the corruption of Athenian youth and sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock. The details of Socrates's conviction are recorded by Plato as follows. In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial and was subsequently found guilty of both corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and of impiety (asebeia, "not believing in the gods of the state"), and as a punishment sentenced to death, caused by the drinking of a mixture containing hemlock. Socrates' student, Plato, is said to have advocated censorship in his essay on The Republic, which opposed the existence of democracy. In contrast to Plato, Greek playwright Euripides (480–406 BC) defended the true liberty of freeborn men, including the right to speak freely. In 1766, Sweden became the first country to abolish censorship by law. == Rationale and criticism == Censorship has been criticized throughout history for being unfair and hindering progress. In a 1997 essay on Internet censorship, social commentator Michael Landier explains that censorship is counterproductive as it prevents the censored topic from being discussed. Landier expands his argument by claiming that those who impose censorship must consider what they censor to be true, as individuals believing themselves to be correct would welcome the opportunity to disprove those with opposing views. Censorship is often used to impose moral values on society, as in the censorship of material considered obscene. English novelist E. M. Forster was a staunch opponent of censoring material on the grounds that it was obscene or immoral, raising the issue of moral subjectivity and the constant changing of moral values. When the 1928 novel Lady Chatterley's Lover was put on trial in 1960, Forster wrote: Lady Chatterley's Lover is a literary work of importance...I do not think that it could be held obscene, but am in a difficulty here, for the reason that I have never been able to follow the legal definition of obscenity. The law tells me that obscenity may deprave and corrupt, but as far as I know, it offers no definition of depravity or corruption. Proponents have sought to justify it using different rationales for various types of information censored: Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are obscene or otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especially child pornography, which is illegal and censored in most jurisdictions in the world. Military censorship is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage. Political censorship occurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to exert control over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment rebellion. Religious censorship is the means by which any material considered objectionable by a certain religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones. Alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion. Corporate censorship is the process by which editors in corporate media outlets intervene to disrupt the publishing of information that portrays their business or business partners in a negative light, or intervene to prevent alternate offers from reaching public exposure. == Types == === Political === === State secrets and prevention of attention === In wartime, explicit censorship is carried out with the intent of preventing the release of information that might be useful to an enemy. Typically it involves keeping times or locations secret, or delaying the release of information (e.g., an operational objective) until it is of no possible use to enemy forces. The moral issues here are often seen as somewhat different, as the proponents of this form of censorship argue that the release of tactical information usually presents a greater risk of casualties among one's own forces and could possibly lead to loss of the overall conflict. During World War I letters written by British soldiers would have to go through censorship. This consisted of officers going through letters with a black marker and crossing out anything which might compromise operational secrecy before the letter was sent. The World War II catchphrase "Loose lips sink ships" was used as a common justification to exercise official wartime censorship and encourage individual restraint when sharing potentially sensitive information. An example of "sanitization" policies comes from the USSR under Joseph Stalin, where publicly used photographs were often altered to remove people whom Stalin had condemned to execution. Though past photographs may have been remembered or kept, this deliberate and systematic alteration to all of history in the public mind is seen as one of the central themes of Stalinism and totalitarianism. Censorship is occasionally carried out to aid authorities or to protect an individual, as with some kidnappings when attention and media coverage of the victim can sometimes be seen as unhelpful. === Religion === Censorship by religion is a form of censorship where freedom of expression is controlled or limited using religious authority or on the basis of the teachings of the religion. This form of censorship has a long history and is practiced in many societies and by many religions. Examples include the Galileo affair, Edict of Compiègne, the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (list of prohibited books) and the condemnation of Salman Rushdie's novel The Satanic Verses by Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Images of the Islamic figure Muhammad are also regularly censored. In some secular countries, this is sometimes done to prevent hurting religious sentiments. === Educational sources === The content of school textbooks is often an issue of debate, since their target audiences are young people. The term whitewashing is commonly used to refer to revisionism aimed at glossing over difficult or questionable historical events, or a biased presentation thereof. The reporting of military atrocities in history is extremely controversial, as in the case of the Holocaust (or Holocaust denial), Bombing of Dresden, the Nanking Massacre as found with Japanese history textbook controversies, the Armenian genocide, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, and the Winter Soldier Investigation of the Vietnam War. In the context of secondary school education, the way facts and history are presented greatly influences the interpretation of contemporary thought, opinion and socialization. One argument for censoring the type of information disseminated is based on the inappropriate quality of such material for the younger public. The use of the "inappropriate" distinction is in itself controversial, as it changed heavily. A Ballantine Books version of the book Fahrenheit 451 which is the version used by most school classes contained approximately 75 separate edits, omissions, and changes from the original Bradbury manuscript. In February 2006, a National Geographic cover was censored by the Nashravaran Journalistic Institute. The offending cover was about the subject of love and a picture of an embracing couple was hidden beneath a white sticker. === Economic induced censorship === Economic induced censorship is a type of censorship enacted by economic markets to favor, and disregard, types of information. Economic induced censorship, is also caused, by market forces which privatize and establish commodification of certain information that is not accessible by the general public, primarily because of the cost associated with commodified information such as academic journals, industry reports and pay to use repositories. The concept was illustrated as a censorship pyramid that was conceptualized by primarily Julian Assange, along with Andy Müller-Maguhn, Jacob Appelbaum and Jérémie Zimmermann, in the Cypherpunks (book). === Self-censorship === Self-censorship is the act of censoring or classifying one's own discourse. This is done out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship is often practiced by film producers, film directors, publishers, news anchors, journalists, musicians, and other kinds of authors including individuals who use social media. According to a Pew Research Center and the Columbia Journalism Review survey, "About one-quarter of the local and national journalists say they have purposely avoided newsworthy stories, while nearly as many acknowledge they have softened the tone of stories to benefit the interests of their news organizations. Fully four-in-ten (41%) admit they have engaged in either or both of these practices." Threats to media freedom have shown a significant increase in Europe in recent years, according to a study published in April 2017 by the Council of Europe. This results in a fear of physical or psychological violence, and the ultimate result is self-censorship by journalists. === Copy, picture, and writer approval === Copy approval is the right to read and amend an article, usually an interview, before publication. Many publications refuse to give copy approval but it is increasingly becoming common practice when dealing with publicity anxious celebrities. Picture approval is the right given to an individual to choose which photos will be published and which will not. Robert Redford is well known for insisting upon picture approval. Writer approval is when writers are chosen based on whether they will write flattering articles or not. Hollywood publicist Pat Kingsley is known for banning certain writers who wrote undesirably about one of her clients from interviewing any of her other clients. === Reverse censorship === Flooding the public, often through online social networks, with false or misleading information is sometimes called "reverse censorship". American legal scholar Tim Wu has explained that this type of information control, sometimes by state actors, can "distort or drown out disfavored speech through the creation and dissemination of fake news, the payment of fake commentators, and the deployment of propaganda robots." === Soft censorship === Soft, or indirect, censorship is the practice of influencing news coverage by applying financial pressure on media companies that are deemed critical of a government or its policies and rewarding media outlets and individual journalists who are seen as friendly to the government. == By media == === Books === Book censorship can be enacted at the national or sub-national level, and can carry legal penalties for their infraction. Books may also be challenged at a local, community level. As a result, books can be removed from schools or libraries, although these bans do not typically extend outside of that area. === Films === Aside from the usual justifications of pornography and obscenity, some films are censored due to changing racial attitudes or political correctness in order to avoid ethnic stereotyping and/or ethnic offense despite its historical or artistic value. One example is the still withdrawn "Censored Eleven" series of animated cartoons, which may have been innocent then, but are "incorrect" now. Film censorship is carried out by various countries. Film censorship is achieved by censoring the producer or restricting a state citizen. For example, in China the film industry censors LGBT-related films. Filmmakers must resort to finding funds from international investors such as the "Ford Foundations" and or produce through an independent film company. === Music === Music censorship has been implemented by states, religions, educational systems, families, retailers and lobbying groups – and in most cases they violate international conventions of human rights. === Maps === Censorship of maps is often employed for military purposes. For example, the technique was used in former East Germany, especially for the areas near the border to West Germany in order to make attempts of defection more difficult. Censorship of maps is also applied by Google Maps, where certain areas are grayed out or blacked or areas are purposely left outdated with old imagery. === Art === Art is loved and feared because of its evocative power. Destroying or oppressing art can potentially justify its meaning even more. British photographer and visual artist Graham Ovenden's photos and paintings were ordered to be destroyed by a London's magistrate court in 2015 for being "indecent" and their copies had been removed from the online Tate gallery. A 1980 Israeli law forbade banned artwork composed of the four colours of the Palestinian flag, and Palestinians were arrested for displaying such artwork or even for carrying sliced melons with the same pattern. Moath al-Alwi is a Guantanamo Bay prisoner who creates model ships as an expression of art. Alwi does so with the few tools he has at his disposal such as dental floss and shampoo bottles, and he is also allowed to use a small pair of scissors with rounded edges. A few of Alwi's pieces are on display at John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York. There are also other artworks on display at the College that were created by other inmates. The artwork that is being displayed might be the only way for some of the inmates to communicate with the outside. Recently things have changed though. The military has come up with a new policy that will not allow the artwork at Guantanamo Bay Military Prison to leave the prison. The artwork created by Alwi and other prisoners is now government property and can be destroyed or disposed of in whatever way the government choose, making it no longer the artist's property. Around 300 artists in Cuba are fighting for their artistic freedom due to new censorship rules Cuba's government has in place for artists. In December 2018, following the introduction of new rules that would ban music performances and artwork not authorized by the state, performance artist Tania Bruguera was detained upon arriving to Havana and released after four days. An example of extreme state censorship was the Nazis' requirements of using art as propaganda. Art was only allowed to be used as a political instrument to control people and failure to act in accordance with the censors was punishable by law, even fatal. The Degenerate Art Exhibition was a historical instance of this, the goal of which was to advertise Nazi values and slander others. === Internet === Internet censorship is control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the Internet. It may be carried out by governments or by private organizations either at the behest of the government or on their own initiative. Individuals and organizations may engage in self-censorship on their own or due to intimidation and fear. The issues associated with Internet censorship are similar to those for offline censorship of more traditional media. One difference is that national borders are more permeable online: residents of a country that bans certain information can find it on websites hosted outside the country. Thus censors must work to prevent access to information even though they lack physical or legal control over the websites themselves. This in turn requires the use of technical censorship methods that are unique to the Internet, such as site blocking and content filtering. Furthermore, the Domain Name System (DNS) a critical component of the Internet is dominated by centralized and few entities. The most widely used DNS root is administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). As an administrator they have rights to shut down and seize domain names when they deem necessary to do so and at most times the direction is from governments. This has been the case with Wikileaks shutdowns and name seizure events such as the ones executed by the National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center (IPR Center) managed by the Homeland Security Investigations (HSI). This makes it easy for internet censorship by authorities as they have control over what should or should not be on the Internet. Some activists and researchers have started opting for alternative DNS roots, though the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) does not support these DNS root providers. Unless the censor has total control over all Internet-connected computers, such as in North Korea or Cuba, total censorship of information is very difficult or impossible to achieve due to the underlying distributed technology of the Internet. Pseudonymity and data havens (such as Freenet) protect free speech using technologies that guarantee material cannot be removed and prevents the identification of authors. Technologically savvy users can often find ways to access blocked content. Nevertheless, blocking remains an effective means of limiting access to sensitive information for most users when censors, such as those in China, are able to devote significant resources to building and maintaining a comprehensive censorship system. Views about the feasibility and effectiveness of Internet censorship have evolved in parallel with the development of the Internet and censorship technologies: A 1993 Time magazine article quotes computer scientist John Gillmore, one of the founders of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, as saying "The Net interprets censorship as damage and routes around it." In November 2007, "Father of the Internet" Vint Cerf stated that he sees government control of the Internet failing because the Web is almost entirely privately owned. A report of research conducted in 2007 and published in 2009 by the Beckman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University stated that: "We are confident that the [censorship circumvention] tool developers will for the most part keep ahead of the governments' blocking efforts", but also that "...we believe that less than two percent of all filtered Internet users use circumvention tools". In contrast, a 2011 report by researchers at the Oxford Internet Institute published by UNESCO concludes "... the control of information on the Internet and Web is certainly feasible, and technological advances do not therefore guarantee greater freedom of speech." A BBC World Service poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users, was conducted between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010. The head of the polling organization felt, overall, that the poll showed that: Despite worries about privacy and fraud, people around the world see access to the internet as their fundamental right. They think the web is a force for good, and most don't want governments to regulate it. The poll found that nearly four in five (78%) Internet users felt that the Internet had brought them greater freedom, that most Internet users (53%) felt that "the internet should never be regulated by any level of government anywhere", and almost four in five Internet users and non-users around the world felt that access to the Internet was a fundamental right (50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed, 9% somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed, and 6% gave no opinion). ==== Social media ==== The rising use of social media in many nations has led to the emergence of citizens organizing protests through social media, sometimes called "Twitter Revolutions". The most notable of these social media-led protests were the Arab Spring uprisings, starting in 2010. In response to the use of social media in these protests, the Tunisian government began a hack of Tunisian citizens' Facebook accounts, and reports arose of accounts being deleted. Automated systems can be used to censor social media posts, and therefore limit what citizens can say online. This most notably occurs in China, where social media posts are automatically censored depending on content. In 2013, Harvard political science professor Gary King led a study to determine what caused social media posts to be censored and found that posts mentioning the government were not more or less likely to be deleted if they were supportive or critical of the government. Posts mentioning collective action were more likely to be deleted than those that had not mentioned collective action. Currently, social media censorship appears primarily as a way to restrict Internet users' ability to organize protests. For the Chinese government, seeing citizens unhappy with local governance is beneficial as state and national leaders can replace unpopular officials. King and his researchers were able to predict when certain officials would be removed based on the number of unfavorable social media posts. Research has proved that criticism is tolerable on social media sites, therefore it is not censored unless it has a higher chance of collective action. It is not important whether the criticism is supportive or unsupportive of the states' leaders, the main priority of censoring certain social media posts is to make sure that no big actions are being made due to something that was said on the internet. Posts that challenge the Party's political leading role in the Chinese government are more likely to be censored due to the challenges it poses to the Chinese Communist Party. In December 2022 Elon Musk, owner and CEO of Twitter released internal documents from the social media microblogging site to journalists Matt Taibbi, Michael Shellenberger and Bari Weiss. The analysis of these files on Twitter, collectively called, the Twitter Files, explored the content moderation and visibility filtering carried out in collaboration with the Federal Bureau of Investigation on the Hunter Biden laptop controversy. On the platform TikTok, certain hashtags have been categorized by the platform's code and determines how viewers can or cannot interact with the content or hashtag specifically. Some shadowbanned tags include: #acab, #GayArab, #gej due to their referencing of certain social movements and LGBTQ identity. As TikTok guidelines are becoming more localized around the world, some experts believe that this could result in more censorship than before. === Video games === Since the early 1980s, advocates of video games have emphasized their use as an expressive medium, arguing for their protection under the laws governing freedom of speech and also as an educational tool. Detractors argue that video games are harmful and therefore should be subject to legislative oversight and restrictions. Many video games have certain elements removed or edited due to regional rating standards. For example, in the Japanese and PAL Versions of No More Heroes, blood splatter and gore is removed from the gameplay. Decapitation scenes are implied, but not shown. Scenes of missing body parts after having been cut off, are replaced with the same scene, but showing the body parts fully intact. == Impact of surveillance == Surveillance and censorship are different. Surveillance can be performed without censorship, but it is harder to engage in censorship without some form of surveillance. Even when surveillance does not lead directly to censorship, the widespread knowledge or belief that a person, their computer, or their use of the Internet is under surveillance can have a "chilling effect" and lead to self-censorship. == Implementation == The former Soviet Union maintained a particularly extensive program of state-imposed censorship. The main organ for official censorship in the Soviet Union was the Chief Agency for Protection of Military and State Secrets generally known as the Glavlit, its Russian acronym. The Glavlit handled censorship matters arising from domestic writings of just about any kind – even beer and vodka labels. Glavlit censorship personnel were present in every large Soviet publishing house or newspaper; the agency employed some 70,000 censors to review information before it was disseminated by publishing houses, editorial offices, and broadcasting studios. No mass medium escaped Glavlit's control. All press agencies and radio and television stations had Glavlit representatives on their editorial staffs. Sometimes, public knowledge of the existence of a specific document is subtly suppressed, a situation resembling censorship. The authorities taking such action will justify it by declaring the work to be "subversive" or "inconvenient". An example is Michel Foucault's 1978 text Sexual Morality and the Law (later republished as The Danger of Child Sexuality), originally published as La loi de la pudeur [literally, "the law of decency"]. This work defends the decriminalization of statutory rape and the abolition of age of consent laws. When a publisher comes under pressure to suppress a book, but has already entered into a contract with the author, they will sometimes effectively censor the book by deliberately ordering a small print run and making minimal, if any, attempts to publicize it. This practice became known in the early 2000s as privishing (private publishing). an OpenNet Initiative (ONI) classifications: == By country == Censorship for individual countries is measured by Freedom House (FH) Freedom of the Press report, Reporters Without Borders (RWB) Press freedom index and V-Dem government censorship effort index. Censorship aspects are measured by Freedom on the Net and OpenNet Initiative (ONI) classifications. Censorship by country collects information on censorship, internet censorship, press freedom, freedom of speech, and human rights by country and presents it in a sortable table, together with links to articles with more information. In addition to countries, the table includes information on former countries, disputed countries, political sub-units within countries, and regional organizations. === Australia === === Canada === Very little is formally censored in Canada, aside from "obscenity" (as defined in the landmark criminal case of R v Butler) which is generally limited to pornography and child pornography depicting and/or advocating non-consensual sex, sexual violence, degradation, or dehumanization, in particular that which causes harm (as in R v Labaye). Most films are simply subject to classification by the British Columbia Film Classification Office under the non-profit Crown corporation by the name of Consumer Protection BC, whose classifications are officially used by the provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Ontario, and Manitoba. === Cuba === Cuban media used to be operated under the supervision of the Communist Party's Department of Revolutionary Orientation, which "develops and coordinates propaganda strategies". Connection to the Internet is restricted and censored. === China === The People's Republic of China employs sophisticated censorship mechanisms, referred to as the Golden Shield Project, to monitor the internet. Popular search engines such as Baidu also remove politically sensitive search results. === Eastern Bloc === Strict censorship existed in the Eastern Bloc. Throughout the bloc, the various ministries of culture held a tight rein on their writers. Cultural products there reflected the propaganda needs of the state. Party-approved censors exercised strict control in the early years. In the Stalinist period, even the weather forecasts were changed if they suggested that the sun might not shine on May Day. Under Nicolae Ceauşescu in Romania, weather reports were doctored so that the temperatures were not seen to rise above or fall below the levels which dictated that work must stop. Possession and use of copying machines was tightly controlled in order to hinder the production and distribution of samizdat, illegal self-published books and magazines. Possession of even a single samizdat manuscript such as a book by Andrei Sinyavsky was a serious crime which might involve a visit from the KGB. Another outlet for works which did not find favor with the authorities was publishing abroad. === France === Amid declining car sales in 2020, France banned a television ad by a Dutch bike company, saying the ad "unfairly discredited the automobile industry". === India === The Constitution of India guarantees freedom of expression, but places certain restrictions on content, with a view towards maintaining communal and religious harmony, given the history of communal tension in the nation. According to the Information Technology Rules 2011, objectionable content includes anything that "threatens the unity, integrity, defence, security or sovereignty of India, friendly relations with foreign states or public order". Notably many pornographic websites are blocked in India. === Iran === === Iraq === Iraq under Baathist Saddam Hussein had much the same techniques of press censorship as did Romania under Nicolae Ceauşescu but with greater potential violence. === Japan === During the GHQ occupation of Japan after WW2, any criticism of the Allies' pre-war policies, the SCAP, the Far East Military Tribunal, the inquiries against the United States and every direct and indirect references to the role played by the Allied High Command in drafting Japan's new constitution or to censorship of publications, movies, newspapers and magazines was subject to massive censorship, purges, media blackout. In the four years (September 1945–November 1949) since the CCD was active, 200 million pieces of mail and 136 million telegrams were opened, and telephones were tapped 800,000 times. Since no criticism of the occupying forces for crimes such as the dropping of the atomic bomb, rape and robbery by US soldiers was allowed, a strict check was carried out. Those who got caught were put on a blacklist called the watchlist, and the persons and the organizations to which they belonged were investigated in detail, which made it easier to dismiss or arrest the "disturbing molecule". === Malaysia === Under subsection 48(3) and (4) of the Penang Islamic Religious Administration Enactment 2004, non-Muslims in Malaysia are penalized for using the following words, or to write or publish them, in any form, version or translation in any language or for use in any publicity material in any medium: "Allah", "Firman Allah", "Ulama", "Hadith", "Ibadah", "Kaabah", "Qadhi'", "Illahi", "Wahyu", "Mubaligh", "Syariah", "Qiblat", "Haji", "Mufti", "Rasul", "Iman", "Dakwah", "Wali", "Fatwa", "Imam", "Nabi", "Sheikh", "Khutbah", "Tabligh", "Akhirat", "Azan", "Al Quran", "As Sunnah", "Auliya'", "Karamah", "False Moon God", "Syahadah", "Baitullah", "Musolla", "Zakat Fitrah", "Hajjah", "Taqwa" and "Soleh". === North Korea === === Russia === On 4 March 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law a bill introducing prison sentences of up to 15 years for those who publish "knowingly false information" about the Russian military and its operations, leading to some media outlets in Russia to stop reporting on Ukraine or shutting their media outlet. Although the 1993 Russian Constitution has an article expressly prohibiting censorship, the Russian censorship apparatus Roskomnadzor ordered the country's media to only use information from Russian state sources or face fines and blocks. As of December 2022, more than 4,000 people were prosecuted under "fake news" laws in connection with the war in Ukraine. Novaya Gazeta's editor-in-chief Dmitry Muratov was awarded the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize for his "efforts to safeguard freedom of expression". In March 2022, Novaya Gazeta suspended its print activities after receiving a second warning from Roskomnadzor. === Serbia === According to Christian Mihr, executive director of Reporters Without Borders, "censorship in Serbia is neither direct nor transparent, but is easy to prove." According to Mihr there are numerous examples of censorship and self-censorship in Serbia According to Mihr, Serbian prime minister Aleksandar Vučić has proved "very sensitive to criticism, even on critical questions," as was the case with Natalija Miletic, a correspondent for Deutsche Welle Radio, who questioned him in Berlin about the media situation in Serbia and about allegations that some ministers in the Serbian government had plagiarized their diplomas, and who later received threats and offensive articles on the Serbian press. Multiple news outlets have accused Vučić of anti-democratic strongman tendencies. In July 2014, journalists associations were concerned about the freedom of the media in Serbia, in which Vučić came under criticism. In September 2015 five members of United States Congress (Edie Bernice Johnson, Carlos Curbelo, Scott Perry, Adam Kinzinger, and Zoe Lofgren) have informed Vice President of the United States Joseph Biden that Aleksandar's brother, Andrej Vučić, is leading a group responsible for deteriorating media freedom in Serbia. === Singapore === In the Republic of Singapore, Section 33 of the Films Act originally banned the making, distribution and exhibition of "party political films", at the pain of a fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years. The Act further defines a "party political film" as any film or video (a) which is an advertisement made by or on behalf of any political party in Singapore or any body whose objects relate wholly or mainly to politics in Singapore, or any branch of such party or body; or (b) which is made by any person and directed towards any political end in Singapore In 2001, the short documentary called A Vision of Persistence on opposition politician J. B. Jeyaretnam was also banned for being a "party political film". The makers of the documentary, all lecturers at the Ngee Ann Polytechnic, later submitted written apologies and withdrew the documentary from being screened at the 2001 Singapore International Film Festival in April, having been told they could be charged in court. Another short documentary called Singapore Rebel by Martyn See, which documented Singapore Democratic Party leader Dr Chee Soon Juan's acts of civil disobedience, was banned from the 2005 Singapore International Film Festival on the same grounds and See is being investigated for possible violations of the Films Act. This law, however, is often disregarded when such political films are made supporting the ruling People's Action Party (PAP). Channel NewsAsia's five-part documentary series on Singapore's PAP ministers in 2005, for example, was not considered a party political film. Exceptions are also made when political films are made concerning political parties of other nations. Films such as Michael Moore's 2004 documentary Fahrenheit 911 are thus allowed to screen regardless of the law. Since March 2009, the Films Act has been amended to allow party political films as long as they were deemed factual and objective by a consultative committee. Some months later, this committee lifted the ban on Singapore Rebel. === Soviet Union === Independent journalism did not exist in the Soviet Union until Mikhail Gorbachev became its leader. Gorbachev adopted glasnost (openness), political reform aimed at reducing censorship; before glasnost all reporting was directed by the Communist Party or related organizations. Pravda, the predominant newspaper in the Soviet Union, had a monopoly. Foreign newspapers were available only if they were published by communist parties sympathetic to the Soviet Union. === Spain === === Turkey === Online access to all language versions of Wikipedia was blocked in Turkey on 29 April 2017 by Erdoğan's government. Article 299 of the Turkish Penal Code deems it illegal to "Insult the President of Turkey". A person who is sentenced for a violation of this article can be sentenced to a prison term between one and four years and if the violation was made in public the verdict can be elevated by a sixth. Prosecutions often target critics of the government, independent journalists, and political cartoonists. Between 2014 and 2019, 128,872 investigations were launched for this offense and prosecutors opened 27,717 criminal cases. === United Kingdom === From December 1956 until 1974 the Irish republican political party Sinn Féin was banned from participating in elections by the Northern Ireland Government. From 1988 until 1994 the British government prevented the UK media from broadcasting the voices (but not words) of Sinn Féin and ten Irish republican and Ulster loyalist groups. === United States === In the United States, most forms of censorship are self-imposed rather than enforced by the government. The government does not routinely censor material, although state and local governments often restrict what is provided in libraries and public schools. In addition, distribution, receipt, and transmission (but not mere private possession) of obscene material may be prohibited by law. Furthermore, under FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, the FCC has the power to prohibit the transmission of indecent material over broadcast. Additionally, critics of campaign finance reform in the United States say this reform imposes widespread restrictions on political speech. === Uruguay === In 1973, a military coup took power in Uruguay, and the State practiced censorship. For example, writer Eduardo Galeano was imprisoned and later was forced to flee. His book Open Veins of Latin America was banned by the right-wing military government, not only in Uruguay, but also in Chile and Argentina. == See also == Censor bars – Basic form of censorship Collateral censorship – Type of censorship of speech Deplatforming – Administrative or political action to deny access to a platform to express opinions Media regulation – Laws on mass mediaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Motion Picture Production Code, also known as Hays Code – U.S. film studio self-censorship rules (1930–1967)Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Nineteen Eighty-Four – 1949 novel by George Orwell Taboo – Societal or cultural prohibition Streisand effect – Increased awareness of information caused by efforts to suppress it == References == === Works cited === Crampton, R.J. (1997), Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century and After, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415164221 Major, Patrick; Mitter, Rana (2004), "East is East and West is West?", in Major, Patrick (ed.), Across the Blocs: Exploring Comparative Cold War Cultural and Social History, Taylor & Francis, Inc., ISBN 978-0714684642 == Further reading == Abbott, Randy. "A Critical Analysis of the Library-Related Literature Concerning Censorship in Public Libraries and Public School Libraries in the United States During the 1980s." Project for degree of Education Specialist, University of South Florida, December 1987. Biltereyst, Daniel, ed. Silencing Cinema. Palgrave/Macmillan, 2013.* Birmingham, Kevin, The Most Dangerous Book: The Battle for James Joyce's Ulysses, London (Head of Zeus Ltd), 2014, ISBN 978-1594203367 Burress, Lee. Battle of the Books. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. Butler, Judith, "Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative"(1997). Darnton, Robert, Censors at Work: How States Shaped Literature. New York: W. W. Norton. 2014. ISBN 978-0393242294. Demm, Eberhard. Censorship and Propaganda in World War I: A Comprehensive History (Bloomsbury Academic, 2019) online review Foucault, Michel, edited by Lawrence D. Kritzman. Philosophy, Culture: Interviews and Other Writings 1977–1984 (New York/London: 1988, Routledge, ISBN 0415900824) (The text Sexual Morality and the Law is Chapter 16 of the book). Gilbert, Nora. Better Left Unsaid: Victorian Novels, Hays Code Films, and the Benefits of Censorship. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013. Hoffman, Frank. Intellectual Freedom and Censorship. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. Mathiesen, Kay Censorship and Access to Information Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics, Kenneth E. Himma, Herman T. Tavani, eds., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2008 National Coalition against Censorship (NCAC). "Books on Trial: A Survey of Recent Cases." January 1985. Parker, Alison M. (1997). Purifying America: Women, Cultural Reform, and Pro-Censorship Activism, 1873–1933, University of Illinois Press. Ringmar, Erik A Blogger's Manifesto: Free Speech and Censorship in the Age of the Internet (London: Anthem Press, 2007) Terry, John David II. "Censorship: Post Pico." In School Law Update, 1986, edited by Thomas N. Jones and Darel P. Semler. Sandefur, Timothy (2008). "Censorship". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-1412965804. Silber, Radomír. Partisan Media and Modern Censorship: Media Influence On Czech Political Partisanship and the Media's Creation of Limits to Public Opposition and Control of Exercising Power in the Czech Republic in the 1990s. First edition. Brno: Tribun EU, 2017. 86 stran. Librix.eu. ISBN 978-8026311744. Silber, Radomír. (2018) On Modern Censorship in Public Service Broadcasting. Cultural and Religious Studies, Volume 3, 2018, ISSN 2328-2177. Wittern-Keller, Laura. Freedom of the Screen: Legal Challenges to State Film Censorship, 1915–1981. University Press of Kentucky 2008 Gosztonyi, Gergely. (2023) Censorship from Plato to Social Media Springer, Cham. ISBN 978-3-031-46528-4

Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments, private institutions, and other controlling bodies. Governments sometimes engage in censorship. Other groups or institutions may propose and petition for censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, it is referred to as self-censorship. General censorship occurs in a variety of different media, including speech, books, music, films, and other arts, the press, radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of claimed reasons including national security, to control obscenity, pornography, and hate speech, to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and libel. Specific rules and regulations regarding censorship vary between legal jurisdictions and/or private organizations.

censorship

Censorship (psychoanalysis) (wikipedia)

Censorship (psychoanalysis) (Zensur) is the force identified by Sigmund Freud as operating to separate consciousness from the unconscious mind. == In dreaming == In his 1899 The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud identified a force working to disguise the dream-thoughts so as to make them more acceptable to the dreamer. In his wartime lectures, he compared its operation to the contemporary newspapers, where blanks would reveal first-hand the work of the censor, but where allusions, circumlocutions, and other softening techniques also showed attempts to work round the censorship of thoughts in advance. He went on to characterise the motivating force, which he called "the self-observing agency as the ego-censor [Zensor], the conscience; it is this that exercises the dream-censorship [Zensur] during the night, from which the repressions of inadmissable wishful impulses proceed". Another tool used by the dream-censorship was regression to archaic symbolic forms of expression unfamiliar to the conscious mind. Where all such measures of censorship failed, however, the result could be the development of nightmares and insomnia. == Psychoanalytic extensions == Freud found the same effects of disguise and omission taking place in the construction of neurotic symptoms, under the influence of the censorship, as in dreams. He would eventually assign the role of censor to the mental agency he would term the superego. == Criticism == Sartre questioned how the censorship could operate unless it was already aware of the contents of the unconscious, and thought the phenomena Freud described could be better understood in terms of bad faith. == See also == Ego ideal Screen memory Superego resistance == References == == External links == About censorship (Freud)

Censorship (psychoanalysis) (Zensur) is the force identified by Sigmund Freud as operating to separate consciousness from the unconscious mind.

censorship

Censorship in France (wikipedia)

France has a long history of governmental censorship, particularly in the 16th to 19th centuries, but today freedom of press is guaranteed by the French Constitution and instances of governmental censorship are limited. There was strong governmental control over radio and television during the 1950s–1970s. Today, the CSA is only responsible for overseeing the observance of French law by the media, such as the 1990 Gayssot Act which prohibits racist and religious hate speech (which historical revisionism, in particular but not only Holocaust denial falls under), and time period allocated to each political party during pre-electoral periods. Furthermore, other laws prohibit homophobic hate speech, and a 1970 law prohibits the advocacy of illegal drugs. In 2016, a television ad which advocated that babies with Down Syndrome should not be aborted solely because of their syndrome ran. It was ruled anti-abortion speech and removed. Each of these laws has been criticized by some groups, either from the left (especially concerning the 1970 law on drugs) or from the far right (in particular concerning the 1990 Gayssot Act or the laws prohibiting homophobic attacks). Others express the need for minorities to be protected from hate speech which may lead, according to them, to heinous acts and hate crimes, while still others claim that one cannot tolerate free speech concerning drugs as it is a matter of public health and moral order. However, the 2005 vote of the law on colonialism voted by the UMP conservative parliamentary majority has lifted a debate, especially among historians, concerning the legitimacy and relevancy of such "memory laws." Although a fair amount of historians are opposed to such laws, few advocate their repeal because they think that repealing democratically agreed upon laws would be a greater evil. Finally, critics, in particular, but not only, from the left wing, have criticized economic censorship, in particular through concentration of media ownership (Bouygues' influence, for instance, on TF1), or the fact that Dassault or Lagardère, both military firms, control several newspapers in France, such as Le Figaro (owned by Dassault). Overall, freedom of press is guaranteed by the French Constitution but several effective cases of censorship against newspapers (Le Canard enchaîné, Charlie Hebdo and Hara-Kiri newspapers, etc.), films, or radio-shows, have been registered in the history of the Fifth Republic, founded in 1958. According to Human Rights Watch, 6 percent of French people investigated for "apology for terrorism" are under the age of 14. == History of freedom of press and censorship in France == === To the 18th century === Censorship in France may be traced to the Middle Ages. In 1275 Philip III of France put Parisian scriptoria under the control of the University of Paris which inspected manuscript books to verify that they were correctly copied. Correctness of text, not content, was the concern until the early 16th century, when tracts by Martin Luther were printed. On June 13, 1521, Francis I of France decreed that all (religious) books had to be read and approved by the Faculty of Theology of the university, and on August 3, 1521, Parlement ordered that all Lutheran books must be deposited within one week. In 1526, the Parlement of Paris and the Sorbonne issued a ban on the publishing of the Bible in French. On January 13, 1535, an extreme statute was enacted forbidding all printing under threat of hanging and closing all bookshops. This law was quickly abandoned, and Parlement formed a commission to review book printing. In 1536 it was ordered that all medical books must be approved by the Medical Faculty of the university, and actions were taken against certain publishers of books on medicine and astrology. In 1544, the university banned the printing of any book not approved by the appropriate University officials. In 1543, the Faculty of Theology issued its first Index of prohibited books, all religious, preceding by 16 years the Vatican's issuance of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum in 1559. The Edict of Châteaubriant issued on June 27, 1551, prohibited possessing any books listed on the university's Index; translating the Bible or works of the Church Fathers; importing books from Geneva and other places not under the Church's control; or printing or selling of any religious books written in the last 40 years. The state itself began to take a greater role in censorship over the university and in 1566, the Ordonnance of Moulins was issued, banning the writing, printing or selling of defamatory books attacking individuals' good reputations and requiring that all books published must be approved and include the privilege and the great seal. The state control was strengthened in 1571 by the edict of Gaillon which placed enforcement of the censorship laws in the Chancellor's office instead of the university. The concern of the censors was "heresy, sedition and personal libel" until 1629, when censorship began to focus also on immorality and indecency. "Nevertheless ... the government was never so much concerned about looseness of morals as it was about freedom of thought." Manuscripts had to be approved by the Chancellor before publication and a register of permits was maintained. During the 17th century, the university and the state fought over control of censorship, which was haphazard. In 1653, the university was stripped of authority and replaced by royal censors. The royal censors office expanded in the 18th century and banned hundreds of titles. Books that were approved were required to include the censor's name and certificate of approval. Censorship was eventually under the authority of the office of the Director of the Book Trade, the most famous of which was Lamoignon de Malesherbes. Penalties for violations ranged from confiscation of books which often were burned, fines, imprisonment and even death. In the later 18th century these rules were increasingly evaded by printers and booksellers. === 19th century === The loi sur la liberté de la presse of 29 July 1881 was passed under the French Third Republic in 1881 by the then-dominant Opportunist Republicans who sought to liberalise the press and promote free public discussion. The new law swept away a swathe of earlier statutes, stating at the outset the principle that "Printing and publication are free". Following Auguste Vaillant's assassination attempt, the first anti-terrorist laws was voted in 1893, which were quickly denounced as lois scélérates. These laws severely restricted freedom of expression. The first one condemned apology of any felony or crime as a felony itself, permitting widespread censorship of the press. The second one allowed to condemn any person directly or indirectly involved in a propaganda of the deed act, even if no killing was effectively carried on. The last one condemned any person or newspaper using anarchist propaganda (and, by extension, socialist libertarians present or former members of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA): 1. Either by provocation or apology [...] incited one or more persons to commit either robbery, or the crimes of murder, pillage, or arson [...]; 2. Or directed a provocation towards soldiers in the Army or Navy, with the aim of diverting them from their military duties and the obedience they owe their superiors ... would be referred to the police correctional courts and punished by imprisonment for three months to two years. === 20th century === ==== World War I ==== During World War I, postal censorship was in force, as the French state thought it necessary to control the public's morale and thus engaged in a sort of psychological warfare. Censorship was current during the war, leading to the 1915 creation of Le Canard enchaîné weekly, which used satires and other games of words to pass through "Anastasia's scissors", as was popularly called the censors (such word games still exist in Le Canard, for leisure purposes, such as the section named "Sur l'album de la Comtesse").. ==== World War II ==== France fell to German forces in May 1940. The occupying German military administration set up a propaganda effort headquartered in Paris, with branches (Propagandastaffel) in major cities. The propaganda effort included monitoring and censorship of the French press and of publishing, film, advertising and speeches. ==== Fifth Republic ==== Censorship laws were revoked with the founding of the Fifth Republic in 1958, although cases of censorship still occurred (in particular concerning films or satirical newspapers). The proclamation of the state of emergency, used during the Algerian War (1954–1962) and also in 2005, during the civil unrest, allows the state to legally censor news articles and other media productions (used during the Algerian War, this censorship disposition was not used in 2005).. Henri Alleg's book La Question denouncing torture by the French Army during the Algerian war was censored, as well as other similar books and films, such as The Battle of Algiers. In 2003 , UMP deputy Nadine Morano called on Interior Minister (UMP) Nicolas Sarkozy to prosecute the hip hop group Sniper for inciting violence against the police. after the 2005 riots 200 UMP deputies, led by François Grosdidier, brought a petition against several groups including Fabe, Sniper, 113, Lunatic, and others. In March 2006 Grosdidier, frustrated by failure of court actions, proposed a law (no.2957) to amend the law of 29 July 1881 to explicitly remove speech protections for music and sanction racism against the majority by a minority. In 1987 a law repressing inciting suicide was passed, after a best-selling book called Suicide, mode d'emploi was published in 1982. The bill was first adopted by the Senate in 1983; in 1987, during the debates before the National Assembly, the book was cited by name as a prime example of what was to be banned. This book, written by two anarchists (Claude Guillon and Yves Le Bonniec), contained a historic and theoretical account of suicide, as well as a critical overview of ways to commit suicide. The book could not be rereleased in 1989 because of that law. The book is thus censored de facto, unavailable in all libraries and bookshops in France. It has never been translated into English. === 21st century === In 2006, Interior Minister and former President of the Republic Nicolas Sarkozy was accused of interfering in the management of Paris Match after it published photos of Cécilia Sarkozy with another man in New York. The firing of the Paris Match director by Hachette Filipacchi Médias coincided with several other instances of self-censorship in French media. In April 2013 a volunteer with administrator's access to the French language Wikipedia was summoned by the direction centrale du Renseignement intérieur (Central Directorate of Homeland Intelligence, DCRI), a division of France's interior ministry. The volunteer was ordered to take down an article that had been online since 2009 concerning a military radio relay station at Pierre-sur Haute. DCRI claimed the article contained classified military information, for reasons that to date remain unclear, and broke French law. The volunteer, who had no connection with the article, explained "that's not how Wikipedia works" and told them he had no right to interfere with editorial content, but was told he would be held in custody and charged if he failed to comply. The article was promptly restored by a Swiss Wikipedia contributor. Christophe Henner, vice-president of Wikimedia France, said "if the DCRI comes up with the necessary legal papers we will take down the page. We have absolutely no problem with that and have made it a point of honour to respect legal injunctions; it's the method the DCRI used that is shocking." On 15 December 2017, France's Constitutional Court rejected a bill to make visiting terrorist websites a criminal offence, citing "inviolability of freedom of communication and expression" as a reason. In 2024, the sui generis collectivity of France, New Caledonia in the Pacific (also part of EEA) banned TikTok, after riots, and also banned public gatherings. == Political speech == Individuals in these cases have been prosecuted for expressing political agreement or disagreement in a particular manner. In 2008, left wing activist Herve Eon was convicted for a sign he had made and given a €30 fine. The sign, which was held near the car of former President Nicolas Sarkozy, read "get lost jerk", echoing a statement Sarkozy himself had made to a critic at a public event. In 2013, the European Court of Human Rights overturned the ruling and criticized the French decision, stating the remark was protected for being satirical. In 2013 Laure Pora, the head of a Paris chapter of LGBT rights group ACT UP, counter-protested at a rally against abortion. She called the President of an opposing group a "homophobe" and had activists distribute fliers with this message. In 2016, judges convicted Pora of a hate crime and fined her €2,300, ruling that "homophobe" was a slur in violation of French law. This conviction was however definitely cancelled by the Court of Cassation in January 2018: the Court found that Pora's words were within the acceptable limits of freedom of speech. In 2015, France upheld twelve convictions which prosecuted BDS activists for selling T-shirts which read "Long live Palestine, boycott Israel". This ruling was overturned by the European Court of Human Rights in 2020. == Linguistic censorship == The Toubon law enacted in 1994 has the cultural goal of "reaffirming the position of the French language". It requires "the compulsory use of the French language in all [public] written, ...radio and television advertising..." As a direct consequence, advertising industry workers in France have expressed "frustration with regards to what many of them perceive as linguistic censorship." Computer software developed outside France has to have its user interface and instruction manuals translated into French to be legally used by companies in France, due to the provision of the Toubon law applying to all workplaces that "any document that contains obligations for the employee or provisions whose knowledge is necessary for the performance of one's work must be written in French." Also under this law, French language is required in all audiovisual programs, with exceptions for musical works and 'original version' films. Under a related law for television, a minimum of 60 per cent of the movies and TV series must be produced in European countries and 40 per cent in Francophone countries, and these minimums must be met during evening prime-time as well as daily overall time. The latter law is not linguistic censorship because it applies to television programs that are dubbed into French; rather it is a restriction of foreign-produced cultural content. In another law that involves censorship of both linguistic and foreign-produced content, songs in the French language on radio are protected by a minimum quota system. == Press == The press is largely unrestricted by law in France, although indirect pressures are sometimes applied to prevent publication of materials against the interests of the government or influential industries. Involvement of the government and major industrial groups, sometimes with political ties, with certain press organizations sometimes raises questions as to the ability of the press to remain truly independent and unrestricted. Examples include: the Agence France-Presse (AFP), an internationally active news agency used by the media worldwide, is a public corporation nominally independent from the government, but derives a lot of its revenue from sales to government; Radio France International (RFI) is funded by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and is sometimes criticized for its cover of former French colonies Serge Dassault, businessman involved in warplanes, and thus in government procurement contracts, (see Dassault Aviation) and senator from the UMP party, owns newspapers including Le Figaro; he famously indicated that he intended his papers to reflect only "healthy ideas" (idées saines) and that left-wing ideas were unhealthy; the Bouygues group, a major operator of public works and thus of government procurement contracts, owns the TF1 TV channel, which has the largest audience. Specifically, the talk-show Droit de réponse (Right to reply), shown on prime-time Saturday evening by Michel Polac, was suppressed after criticizing the bridge of Ré Island built by Bouygues. In addition, most of the press depends on advertisement to generate revenue; the question of independence from advertisers is a constant and contentious one, with repeat assertions that undesirable investigations were taken away from TV broadcasts. However, there are examples of independence of the press, including the Canard enchaîné, a newspaper that is known for its scoops and publication thereof, even against the will of the government. In order to remain independent, the Canard does not accept advertising. Human rights defenders were alarmed regarding France's lower house of parliament debating a controversial bill advocated by President Macron's party, and say the measure would hurt press freedoms and will result in "massive" self-censorship. == Theatre == Victor Hugo's 1832 play Le roi s'amuse was banned after one performance. Though it depicts the escapades of Francis I of France, censors of the time believed that it also contained insulting references to King Louis-Philippe. Hugo brought a suit to permit the performance of the play, which he lost but it propelled him into celebrity as a defender of freedom of speech. == Cinema == All films intended for theatrical release have to be granted a visa by the Ministry of Culture, upon the recommendation of Commission for film classification (Commission de classification cinématographique), which can give a film one of five ratings: Tous publics (universal/U): suitable for all audiences Avertissement (!): some scenes may disturb young viewers. Can be used in conjunction with any rating as a warning. Interdit aux moins de 12 ans (-12): Forbidden for under 12s (likes as the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act, which the privacy law prohibits children under 13 years of age to use social media) Interdit aux moins de 16 ans (-16): Forbidden for under 16s Interdit aux moins de 18 ans (-18): Forbidden for under 18s but not pornographic. Usually used for movies containing unsimulated sex (e.g. Ken Park in 2003) or extreme violence/cruelty (e.g. 1971's A Clockwork Orange) Interdit aux moins de 18 ans classé X (-18 or X): Forbidden for under 18s and pornographic. This is not a rating per se and it is equivalent to the American "unrated" rank as such films are not played in movie theaters. Cinemas are bound by law to prevent underaged audiences from viewing films and may be fined if they fail to do so. The Commission cannot make cuts to a film, but it can ban it, although this latter power is rarely used. In practice, this means that most films in France are categorized rather than censored. Although there are no written guidelines as to what sort of content should receive which rating and ratings are given on a case-by-case basis, the commissioners typically cite violent, sexual and drug related content (especially if it is deemed to be graphic or gratuitous) as reasons for higher ratings. By contrast little attention is paid to strong language. However sexual content is much less likely to produce a high rating than in many other countries, including the United States. Films that have received mild ratings in France compared to the U.S. include: American Beauty, U (rated R in the US) Fat Girl, -12 (unrated in the US) Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, U (rated R in US) Eyes Wide Shut, U! reclassified to U (rated R in US) Kids, -12 (originally rated NC-17 in the US) Taxi Driver, -16, reclassified to -12 Braveheart, U! reclassified to U (rated R in US) The Exorcist, -16, reclassified to -12 Van Helsing, U, (rated PG-13 in the US) Showgirls, -12 (rated NC-17 in US) Shame (2011 film), -12 (rated NC-17 in US) Killer Joe (film), -12 (rated NC-17 in US) Blue Valentine (film), U (originally rated NC-17 in US, appealed to an R rating) The Royal Tenenbaums, U (rated R in US) Kick-Ass, U! (rated R in US) Team America: World Police (cut version), U! (rated R in US) Man Bites Dog, -12 (rated NC-17 in US) Mulholland Drive, U (rated R in US) Inland Empire, U (rated R in US) Baise-Moi, -16, reclassified to -18 (unrated in US) Fifty Shades of Grey, -12 (rated R in US) The Lobster, U! (rated R in US) Sausage Party, -12 (rated R in US) Parasite (2019 film), U! (rated R in US) Blue is the Warmest Colour, -12 (rated NC-17 in US) Spy × Family Code: White, U (rated PG-13 in US) == Television == The Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel (CSA) leaves the TV channels the choice of classification of a program, but can impose penalties if the classification is too low. There are five classifications for television programs: Tous publics (universal/U): suitable for all audiences Déconseillé aux moins de 10 ans (-10): Not recommended for anyone under 10s (excluded from shows for children) Déconseillé aux moins de 12 ans (-12): Not recommended for anyone under 12s (broadcast mostly after 10:00pm but occasionally after 8:30pm) Déconseillé aux moins de 16 ans (-16): Not recommended for anyone under 16s (broadcast after 10:30pm) Interdit aux moins de 18 ans (-18): Forbidden to anyone under 18s (broadcast between 0:00am and 5:00am) Classification of films can vary between the theatrical release and television broadcast. For example, Zombieland has been classified "Tous publics" in cinema, but when it was broadcast on TV, it was classified -16. The CSA is quite permissive about offensive language and sex in relation to the United States and in the United Kingdom. For example, South Park can be broadcast at any time of the day, except adjacent to youth programming, because it is classified -10. Note that cinema-only and VOD channels have different rules. === Classification details === Classification is made by the channels through a "viewing committee" which uses some guidelines proposed by the Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel (CSA) to decide of a classification. The CSA exerts control at the time of broadcasting, not before, and can investigate further either after a viewer's complaint or on its own behalf. Sanctions from the CSA can range from a simple warning to a broadcasting ban. Some of the questions that the CSA want to be asked by viewing committees when evaluating a show are the following. For a series, each episode is evaluated. The number and nature of the violent scenes Are the violent scenes gratuitous or important for the scenario? Are women depicted in a respectful or disrespectful way? Is sex being depicted? And how could young viewers react to such scenes? == List of censored books == Lamennais, Le Pays et le gouvernement (1840, led to Lammennais' imprisonment for a year) Henri Alleg, La Question (Minuit, 1958 — on the use of torture during the Algerian War) Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth (1961), with a preface from Jean-Paul Sartre (published by François Maspero) Mongo Beti's Cruel hand on Cameroon, autopsy of a decolonization (Maspero, 1972) censored by the Ministry of the Interior Raymond Marcellin on the request, brought forward by Jacques Foccart, of the Cameroon government, represented in Paris by the ambassador Ferdinand Oyono. Bagatelles pour un massacre, by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, for antisemitism, just like by the same author: L'Ecole des cadavres Les Beaux draps Léon Degrelle's Tintin mon copain == List of censored songs == Boris Vian, Le Déserteur (1954) JoeyStarr, "Sarkozy" (2006) == List of censored films == La Garçonne (1923) Zéro de conduite (1933) Jean-Luc Godard, Le Petit Soldat (1960) Claude Autant-Lara , Thou Shalt Not Kill (1961) from 1961 to 1963 Du - Zwischenzeichen der Sexualität (1968) Gillo Pontecorvo, The Battle of Algiers (1965) L'Essayeuse (1976) Le Mur (2011) Censored from 2012 to 2014. == CSA == The Conseil Supérieur de l'Audiovisuel (CSA) is charged to regulate televisions, both public and private. It surveys the respect of national legislation, as well as the respect of time allocated to each political party in the media during electoral periods. == Freedom of information == Freedom of information and the accountability of public servants is a constitutional right, according to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The implementing freedom of information legislation is the Loi n°78-753 du 17 juillet 1978 portant diverses mesures d'amélioration des relations entre l'administration et le public et diverses dispositions d'ordre administratif, social et fiscal (Act No. 78-753 of 17 July 1978. On various measures for improved relations between the Civil Service and the public and on various arrangements of administrative, social and fiscal nature). It sets as a general rule that citizens can demand a copy of any administrative document (in paper, digitized or other form). The commission on access to administrative documents (Commission d'Accès aux Documents Administratifs, CADA), an independent administrative authority, may help in the process. Regulations specify maximal fees of reproduction. Only final versions, not work documents, may be requested. There exist a number of exemptions: Documents established in the process of justice. Documents of cases before the national ombudsman. Documents carrying an appreciation or judgment over a named or easily identifiable person, or containing private information of that person (such as medical records), when the person requesting the document is not the person described in the document or, in some cases, from his or her family; such documents may often still be obtained after the names of the persons involved are erased; Documents for which that are already available to the public (for instance, publishing in the Journal Officiel). Documents with secrets regarding national defense or national foreign policy (though they may often be communicated after erasure of certain passages). Internal deliberations of the national executive. Documents from fiscal, customs, criminal enquiries. Certain exempted documents may still be available according to other statutes. For instance, some tax-related information about any taxpayer are available to any other taxpayer from the same tax district. CADA does not have the power to order administrations to surrender documents, though it may strongly incite them to do so. However, citizens can challenge the refusal of the administration before the administrative courts (i.e. courts hearing recourses against the executive). Unfortunately, these courts are overbooked, and citizens must often wait several years to have their rights examined in a fair trial. France has been declared guilty of excessive delays (more than 10 years) many times by the European Court of Human Rights.. == See also == Internet censorship in France Human rights in France Reporters Without Borders == Works cited == Pottinger, David Thomas (1958). The French Book Trade in the Ancien Régime, 1500-1791. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674432581. OCLC 7385496598. == References == == Further reading == Claude Guillon, Le droit à la mort. Suicide, mode d'emploi: ses lecteurs, ses juges, Paris, Hors Texte, 2004 (ISBN 2-915286-34-5) William Hanley, A biographical dictionary of French censors 1742–1789, Ferney, Centre international d'étude du XVIIIe siècle, 2005 (ISBN 978-2-84559031-1) Hesse, Carla. (1991). Publishing and Cultural Politics in Revolutionary Paris, 1789–1810. Berkeley: University of California Press. McLeod, Jane. (2011). Licensing Loyalty: Printers, Patrons, and the State in Early Modern France. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. == External links == CNC Centre National de la Cinématographie, parent organisation of the Commission for film classification CSA Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel IFEX International Freedom of Expression Exchange Specific Sites Excluded from Google.fr and or Google.de. La Censure cinématographique en France, thesis Report by the chairman of the French Commission of film classification

France has a long history of governmental censorship, particularly in the 16th to 19th centuries, but today freedom of press is guaranteed by the French Constitution and instances of governmental censorship are limited. There was strong governmental control over radio and television during the 1950s–1970s. Today, the CSA is only responsible for overseeing the observance of French law by the media, such as the 1990 Gayssot Act which prohibits racist and religious hate speech (which historical revisionism, in particular but not only Holocaust denial falls under), and time period allocated to each political party during pre-electoral periods. Furthermore, other laws prohibit homophobic hate speech, and a 1970 law prohibits the advocacy of illegal drugs. In 2016, a television ad which advocated that babies with Down Syndrome should not be aborted solely because of their syndrome ran. It was ruled anti-abortion speech and removed. Each of these laws has been criticized by some groups, either from the left (especially concerning the 1970 law on drugs) or from the far right (in particular concerning the 1990 Gayssot Act or the laws prohibiting homophobic attacks). Others express the need for minorities to be protected from hate speech which may lead, according to them, to heinous acts and hate crimes, while still others claim that one cannot tolerate free speech concerning drugs as it is a matter of public health and moral order. However, the 2005 vote of the law on colonialism voted by the UMP conservative parliamentary majority has lifted a debate, especially among historians, concerning the legitimacy and relevancy of such "memory laws." Although a fair amount of historians are opposed to such laws, few advocate their repeal because they think that repealing democratically agreed upon laws would be a greater evil. Finally, critics, in particular, but not only, from the left wing, have criticized economic censorship, in particular through concentration of media ownership (Bouygues' influence, for instance, on TF1), or the fact that Dassault or Lagardère, both military firms, control several newspapers in France, such as Le Figaro (owned by Dassault). Overall, freedom of press is guaranteed by the French Constitution but several effective cases of censorship against newspapers (Le Canard enchaîné, Charlie Hebdo and Hara-Kiri newspapers, etc.), films, or radio-shows, have been registered in the history of the Fifth Republic, founded in 1958. According to Human Rights Watch, 6 percent of French people investigated for "apology for terrorism" are under the age of 14.

ertu

ertu (wiktionary)

From ert (“[you] are”) + þú (“you”). Compare Swedish äru. IPA(key): /ˈɛr̥tʏ/ ertu you are, are you Ertu is much more used than ert þú which is most often used if the speaker wishes to sound very formal, or if he intends to add emphasis to "þú":

From ert (“[you] are”) + þú (“you”). Compare Swedish äru. IPA(key): /ˈɛr̥tʏ/ ertu you are, are you Ertu is much more used than ert þú which is most often used if the speaker wishes to sound very formal, or if he intends to add emphasis to "þú":

ertu

National Media Authority (wikipedia)

The National Media Authority (NTU; Arabic: الهيئة الوطنية للإعلام, romanized: al-Hayʾa l-Waṭaniyya li-l-ʾIʿlām), known until 2017 as Egyptian Radio and Television Union (ERTU; Arabic: اتحاد الإذاعة والتلفزيون المصري, romanized: Ittiḥād al-ʾIdhāʿa wa-t-Tilifizyōn al-Miṣrī), is the public broadcaster of Egypt, operated by the Egyptian government. It is a member of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and the Arab States Broadcasting Union (ABSU). == History == Egyptian Radio began broadcasting on 31 May 1934 in agreement with the Marconi Company. The General Manager of the station for the period was Said Basha Lotfi who presided over the station from May 1934 to December 1947. In December 1947, the contract with Marconi was suspended in favour of an Egyptian national broadcasting station. The station is known also for its call "This is Cairo" (Arabic: هنا القاهرة, romanized: Hunā l-Qāhira). It is considered the "First Program" (البرنامج الأول, al-Barnāmaj al-ʾAwwal) of the ERTU. Later on three main new radio channels were added, namely the pan-Arab Voice of the Arabs (صوت العرب, Ṣawt al-ʿArab) in 1953, Egyptian Radio's Second Programme (البرنامج الثاني, al-Barnāmaj ath-Thānī) in 1957, and the pan-Arab Middle East Radio (إذاعة الشرق الأوسط, ʾIdhāʿat ash-Sharq al-ʾAwsaṭ) in 1964. All four stations broadcast on high powered medium wave transmitters covering most of the Middle East and North and East Africa. Egyptian television began broadcasting six hours daily on 21 July 1960, with a state-run channel that held a monopoly on terrestrial broadcasts. In 1971, a new decree established the Arab Radio and Television Union, and created four distinct sectors: radio, television, engineering, and finance, each of which had a chairman who reported directly to the minister of information. The name of the Union was changed to the Egyptian Radio and Television Union, the name by which it is still known. Today, its total daily broadcast time on its various channels amounts to 490 hours. Already in 1950 its predecessor, the Egyptian State Broadcasting (الإذاعة الحكومية المصرية, al-ʾIdhāʿa l-Ḥukūmiyya l-Miṣriyya), was one of the founding members of the European Broadcasting Union in 1950. After the admittance of the Israel Broadcasting Service in 1958, it cancelled its active memberships, as did the Syrian Broadcasting Services. It was readmitted as an active member on 1 January 1985. Under previous secularist regimes, women employees wearing hijabs were not allowed on-screen until 2 September 2012, following the inauguration of the Morsi government. == Services & subsidiaries == The NMA is an Egyptian SOE that runs a large spectrum of radio, television and satellite channels, in addition to television and film production facilities. It does this directly as well as through a host of companies that include: Egyptian Media Production City Co SAE Sono Cairo Egyptian Satellites Co SAE (Nilesat) Nile Radio Network === Radio === ==== General stations ==== General Programme Radio (إذاعة البرنامج العام, ʾIdhāʿat al-Barnāmaj al-ʿĀmm) or Egyptian Radio – established in 1934 as the main channel of the network Voice of the Arabs (إذاعة صوت العرب, ʾIdhāʿat Ṣawt al-ʿArab) – established in 1953 as a pan-Arab station Second Program (البرنامج الثاني, al-Barnāmaj ath-Thānī) – established in 1957 (now replaced and converted into the Cultural Radio) Middle East Radio (إذاعة الشرق الأوسط, ʾIdhāʿat ash-Sharq al-ʾAwsaṭ) – established in 1964 as a pan-Arab station European Program Radio (إذاعة البرنامج الأوربي, ʾIdhāʿat al-Barnāmaj al-ʾŌrōbbī) – broadcasting in English, French, Greek, Italian and German ==== Specialized (thematic) stations ==== Cultural Radio (إذاعة البرنامج الثقافي, ʾIdhāʿat al-Barnāmaj ath-ʿThaqāfī) – replaced the Second Program Youth and Sports Radio (إذاعة الشباب والرياضة, ʾIdhāʿat ash-Shabāb wa-r-ʾRiyāḍa) – established in 1975) Radio Greater Cairo (إذاعة القاهرة الكبرى, ʾIdhāʿat al-Qāhira l-Kubrā) – established in 1981 Songs Radio (إذاعة الأغاني, ʾIdhāʿat al-ʾAghānī) – established in 2000 News and Music Radio (إذاعة الأخبار والموسيقى, ʾIdhāʿat al-ʾAkhbār wa-l-Mūsīqā) Radio Masr or (إذاعة راديو مصر, ʾIdhāʿat Rādiyō Miṣr) or Egypt Radio – established in 2009 Al Qur'an al Karim Radio (إذاعة القرآن الكريم, ʾIdhāʿat al-Qurʾān al-Karīm) – Muslim religious broadcasting Educational Radio (الإذاعة التعليمية, al-ʾIdhāʿa t-Taʿlīmiyya) Voice of Palestine (صوت فلسطين, Ṣawt Filasṭīn) ==== Regional programming radio stations ==== North of Saaeed Radio (إذاعة شمال الصعيد, ʾIdhāʿat Shamāl aṣ-Ṣaʿīd) Nile Valley Radio (إذاعة وادي النيل, ʾIdhāʿat Wādī n-Nīl) Middle Delta Radio (إذاعة وسط الدلتا, ʾIdhāʿat Wasṭ ad-Diltā) Radio Alexandria (إذاعة الإسكندرية, ʾIdhāʿat al-ʾIskandariyya) ==== International stations ==== Radio Cairo (International) including Radio Cairo World Service 1 to 7 (various channels, shortwave and satellite) === Television === ==== National ==== ERTU 1 – Generalist and informative programming. It began its broadcasts in 1960. ERTU 2 – focused on fiction, entertainment and current affairs programming, launched in 1961. Al Masriya – Channel aimed at the Egyptian diaspora, available since 1990. Channel Egypt ==== Regional ==== There are six state-owned broadcast and satellite channels in Egypt: Six regional channels, each providing specialized services for a number of governorates: Cairo Channel: broadcasting from Cairo and covering Greater Cairo governorates, i.e. Cairo, Giza and Qalioubia. Alexandria Channel: broadcasting from Alexandria and covering Alexandria, Al Buhayrah and parts of Matrouh. Canal Channel: broadcasting from Ismailia and covering Suez Canal governorates, i.e. Ismailia, Suez and Port Said. Delta Channel: broadcasting from Tanta and covering Central Delta governorates, i.e. Al Gharbiyah, Al Minufiyah, Ad Daqahliyah, Kafr ash Shaykh and Dimyat. Upper Channel: broadcasting from Minya and covering Northern Upper Egypt governorates, i.e. Minya, El-Fayoum, Beni Suef and Asiut. Thebes Channel: broadcasting from Aswan and covering Southern Upper Egypt governorates, i.e. Suhag, Qena, Al Uqsur and Aswan. === Nile Television === Nilesat allowed for the launch of several specialized TV channels in addition to Egyptian Satellite Channel (ESC) and Nile TV. All are owned by the Egyptian state. Specialized channels include: Al Nile Nile Culture channel Nile Comedy channel Nile Drama channel, specialized in Drama, mainly movies and TV series. Nile Educational channels, several channels for primary, preparatory, secondary, medical and language education. Nile Family channel Nile Sports channel Nile Variety channel, specialized in various forms of entertainment mainly concerts, music videos, contests and some talk shows. Tanweer channel == See also == List of radio stations in Egypt == References == == External links == Media related to Egyptian Radio and Television Union at Wikimedia Commons Official website (in Arabic) Official website (ERTU Building) (in Arabic)

The National Media Authority (NTU; Arabic: الهيئة الوطنية للإعلام, romanized: al-Hayʾa l-Waṭaniyya li-l-ʾIʿlām), known until 2017 as Egyptian Radio and Television Union (ERTU; Arabic: اتحاد الإذاعة والتلفزيون المصري, romanized: Ittiḥād al-ʾIdhāʿa wa-t-Tilifizyōn al-Miṣrī), is the public broadcaster of Egypt, operated by the Egyptian government. It is a member of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and the Arab States Broadcasting Union (ABSU).

printed circuit board

Leiterplatte (wiktionary)

Leiter (“conductor”) +‎ Platte (“plate”) Leiterplatte f (genitive Leiterplatte, plural Leiterplatten) circuit board, printed circuit board “Leiterplatte” in Duden online “Leiterplatte” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache

Leiter (“conductor”) +‎ Platte (“plate”) Leiterplatte f (genitive Leiterplatte, plural Leiterplatten) circuit board, printed circuit board “Leiterplatte” in Duden online “Leiterplatte” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache

printed circuit board

printed circuit board (wiktionary)

printed circuit board (plural printed circuit boards) (electronics) A flat board that holds chips and other electronic components in layers that interconnect via copper pathways, often called traces. PCB circuit board printed circuit printed circuit board on Wikipedia.Wikipedia

printed circuit board (plural printed circuit boards) (electronics) A flat board that holds chips and other electronic components in layers that interconnect via copper pathways, often called traces. PCB circuit board printed circuit printed circuit board on Wikipedia.Wikipedia