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Pillow took up a position at on Johnston , ordered January 14, 1862 January 14, 1862 , Johnston ordered Tilghman , Johnston ordered Tilghman to Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Union Navy gunboats , reduced quickly February 6, 1862 , Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced the defenses Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with He did order the commanders of Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner The fall of the forts exposed Nashville Johnston had various remaining military units scattered throughout Johnston himself retreated with the force With Johnston , decided Beauregard's help Johnston , decided Beauregard's help to Johnston decided to concentrate forces Johnston kept the Union forces , now Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates Johnston started his army in motion , the element felt of surprise the element felt of surprise had Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces Johnston , rallied personally the Union camps , Johnston personally rallied troops Johnston personally rallied troops up in he occurred when the battle he occurred when the battle witnessed he when occurred witnessed some " Johnston roared at the officer Johnston roared at the officer , The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery Johnston , observed was a few minutes Johnston was by observed his staff was by observed his staff to by observed his staff to be Among Isham G. Harris was his staff , Isham G. Harris was his staff , the Governor Johnston glanced down at his leg wound Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston Harris then sent an aide to , Johnston died from blood loss Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of the army , Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours Grant was by reinforced 20,000 fresh troops

was by reinforced 20,000 fresh troops from by reinforced 20,000 fresh troops from Don Carlos Buell's Army Johnston's body , taken was Corinth Johnston's body was taken to the home Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war Johnston was by survived his wife was by survived his wife Eliza by survived his wife Eliza and in Albert Jr. , was Los Angeles Albert Jr. , was Los Angeles on , Albert Jr. was on his way Albert Jr. was on his way out from a wave , swamped the ferry the ferry , a wave swamped the smaller boat , a wave swamped the smaller boat , a wave swamped the smaller boat , causing its boilers swamped , causing the smaller boat accounts : published were the Confederate government a joint resolution of passed was the Texas Legislature - interment occurred in 1867 The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near , the University of Texas at recognized Austin the University of Texas at Austin recognized several confederate veterans Johnston's statue , taken was America The "Oxford English Dictionary " traces the earliest use ( The term "android " appears in US patents was by in used a more modern sense by in a more modern sense used the French author This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly As by said the officer in by said the officer in the story Authors have used the term "android authors , used have other stories , authors have used the word authors have used the word "android Japanese robotics have been leading the field Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967 it allowed to measure distances WABOT-2 , revealed was 1984 Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet the Kokoro company , and demonstrated Osaka University , and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture In Kokoro , developed 2006 2006 , Kokoro developed a new "DER 2" android via the movement , is a servosystem

the movement , is a servosystem very DER2 realized a slimmer body than that to DER2 , has the previous model the previous model , DER2 has thinner arms , DER2 has thinner arms and DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire There are several other initiatives around the world first , the creators decided the positions , the creators decided the positions of the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to they , say the decided positions a year later , they made a couple , they made a couple of they made a couple of major improvements The robot features an elastic mask made from It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by This one has 17 facial points , for the WD-2's mask is fabricated with a highly elastic material Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind the researchers can also modify the shape " they , need a face a face , they need only a 3D scanner , they need only a 3D scanner to they need only a 3D scanner to determine Nadine is by powered software is by powered software similar by powered software similar to A remote user can control EDGAR with EveR-1's name derives from the Biblical Eve , EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables speech recognition and vocal synthesis An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression In the Ministry of Information and Communication , has South Korea South Korea , the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan , the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to put The new robot city will feature research and development centers for This Interface AI android was named after the infamous fictional robot Maria Bot is the first AI Android Teaching Assistant at the university level Maria Bot up , is the shoulders up , Maria Bot is a virtual being android , Maria Bot that is a virtual being android

Maria Bot that is a virtual being android has that a virtual being android is has complex facial expressions She uses AI to process Maria Bot was by built an international high-tech company was by built an international high-tech company for by built an international high-tech company for Barry of KAIST and produced Texas Texas and KAIST produced an android portrait and KAIST produced an android portrait of KAIST produced an android portrait of Albert Einstein This Einstein android , also called "Albert Hubo Androids are a staple of science fiction Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science One thing common to is most fictional androids to the real-life technological challenges is that most fictional androids the real-life technological challenges is that most fictional androids associated Some android heroes seek , like Pinocchio Perhaps the clearest example of is this the clearest example of this is John Brunner's 1968 novel Examples include the Greek myth of "Pygmalion Alberta ( ) is one It is part of Western Canada Alberta is by bordered British Columbia is by bordered British Columbia to by bordered British Columbia to the west It is one of the only two landlocked provinces The eastern part of occupied is the province of by is occupied the province the province is by occupied the Great Plains is by occupied the Great Plains , by occupied the Great Plains , while The province has a predominantly continental climate but experiences Alberta is the 4th largest province by area Alberta's capital is Edmonton , while Calgary is , while Edmonton The two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas ( two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas ( CMAs More than half of live Albertans in English is the official language of the province The oil and gas industry is also a part of Alberta's economy is based on hydrocarbons The oil industry has been a pillar of in it , provides hydrocarbons hydrocarbons , it provides 70% , it provides 70% of it provides 70% of the oil and natural gas of Alberta , was Canada Canada , Alberta was home

, Alberta was home to Alberta was home to several First Nations Canada that acquired the lands would that acquired the lands would become Alberta , separated was September 1, 1905 Alberta was separated from the NWT to many immigrants , arrived early 1900s many immigrants , arrived early 1900s , the biggest wave , arrived of which Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty Alberta is home to six UNESCO World Heritage Sites Alberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell Alberta's southern border which is , the 49th parallel north which is , the 49th parallel north separates The province extends north to south of the province , has the south-eastern section the south-eastern section , the province has adequate water resources There are numerous rivers and lakes There are three large lakes , Lake Claire The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow It is the most northerly major city in Canada to the region , has Canada's largest oil fields Canada's largest oil fields , the region has most , the region has most of the region has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity Calgary is about south of Almost 75% of lives the province's population in the Rocky Mountains is , while boreal forest The southern quarter of is the province prairie The Alberta badlands are located in southeastern Alberta The presence of influences also the Rocky Mountains the weather systems of Alberta cause the Pacific Ocean of Alberta cause the Pacific Ocean to Alberta cause the Pacific Ocean to have Alberta cause to have a dry climate is mostly by covered boreal forest mostly by covered boreal forest and by covered boreal forest and has The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a semi-arid steppe climate southern Alberta the annual precipitation has because a semi-arid steppe climate the annual precipitation has because a semi-arid steppe climate is Western Alberta is by protected the mountains is by protected the mountains and by protected the mountains and enjoys Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers

The province is open to cold arctic weather systems the temperature , change can Alberta continental air masses , produced have the summer , continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight , by with pushed great speed by with great speed pushed the continental polar jetstream are frequently by interrupted warm, dry chinook winds frequently by interrupted warm, dry chinook winds blowing by interrupted warm, dry chinook winds blowing from at temperatures , soared Pincher Creek temperatures , soared Pincher Creek from temperatures soared from in just one hour The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks After Alberta , experiences Saskatchewan Saskatchewan , Alberta experiences the most tornadoes , Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada The southern and east central parts of covered are Alberta of by are covered Alberta Alberta are by covered short prairie grass are by covered short prairie grass , which by covered , short prairie grass of evergreen forests , prevail the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests , prevail the North Saskatchewan River for , evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres , and paper birch are the primary large deciduous species The south and central prairie was the homeland of the American bison Herbivorous animals are found throughout the province Alberta is home to many large carnivores of feline families and include the canine the canine and feline families include coyotes and feline families include coyotes , feline families include coyotes , red foxes Turtles are found in some water bodies Alberta is the only province in Canada the Government of operated has Alberta has which operated , a rat-control program which operated , a rat-control program has the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats have been that domesticated rats been that domesticated rats have that domesticated rats have been be by in kept the province by in the province kept zoos Alberta has one of the greatest diversities Taxa are by represented complete fossil skeletons are by represented complete fossil skeletons ,

by represented complete fossil skeletons , isolated material At least 38 dinosaur type specimens were collected in the province The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation In there exposed are the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed Horseshoe Canyon facies The latter two have a lower diversity latter two have a lower diversity of two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered that have produced are only a few fossils The Bearpaw Formation represents strata deposited during Paleo-Indians arrived in Alberta at which part of became Rupert's Land The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond the Athabasca region who was , Peter Pond who was , Peter Pond learned Fur traders formed the North West Company ( NWC The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on Lac la Biche Roderick Mackenzie built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca he there was discovered the mighty outflow river Fur trade expanded in the north , The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta First Nations negotiated treaties with the Crown The District of created was Alberta local representatives to added were the North-West Legislative Assembly the District of enlarged was Alberta Less than a decade later , the First World War presented special challenges , the First World War presented special challenges to the First World War presented special challenges to the new province June 21, 2013 , Alberta during the 2013 Alberta floods , Alberta during the 2013 Alberta floods experienced Alberta the 2013 Alberta floods during experienced heavy rainfall The 2016 census Alberta reported had a population Alberta reported had a population of it of , had a land area of , it had a population density , it had a population density of it had a population density of in Alberta's population , experienced has 2000 , Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of Between 2003 and 2004 , the province had high birthrates

, the province had high birthrates ( the province had high birthrates ( on In Alberta , continued 2016 Alberta , continued 2016 to Alberta continued to have the youngest population About 81% of lives the population in The Calgary – Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area – Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province to Alberta , has the 2016 census the 2016 census , Alberta has 779,155 residents , Alberta has 779,155 residents ( Alberta has 779,155 residents ( 19.2% English is the most common mother tongue , with This is by followed Tagalog is by followed Tagalog , by followed Tagalog , with 253,460 residents identify as Aboriginal , There who also are 933,165 residents who also are 933,165 residents identify The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97,275 native speakers Other mother tongues include : Punjabi , The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17,215 ( Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers many , descended are Canada many are descended from immigrants to Alberta , is Statistics Canada Statistics Canada , Alberta is home , Alberta is home to Alberta is home to the second-highest proportion Despite relatively few Albertans , claim this this , relatively few Albertans claim French , relatively few Albertans claim French as relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue Many of live Alberta's French-speaking residents in in the Chinese , represented the 2001 census the 2001 census , the Chinese represented nearly four percent , the Chinese represented nearly four percent of the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns Calgary have , and historic Chinatowns The Chinese presence began with workers employed , the most commonly reported ethnic origins among were Albertans the most commonly reported ethnic origins among were Albertans : ( Each person could choose as many ethnicities Each person could choose as many ethnicities as Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms Aboriginal Identity Peoples made up 5.8% of

There are also a small number of of the largest religious group , was the 2011 National Household Survey the 2011 National Household Survey , the largest religious group was Roman Catholic , the largest religious group was Roman Catholic , the largest religious group was Roman Catholic , representing Alberta had the second-highest percentage of non-religious residents , 7.5% of identified the population 7.5% of the population identified themselves Lutherans made up 3.3% of Alberta has a population of Hutterites Alberta is home to several Byzantine Rite Churches Muslims made up 3.2% of Many of these are immigrants others are , but immigrants Alberta is also home to Alberta's economy was one of the In Alberta's per capita GDP , exceeded 2013 2013 , Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that , Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States , the deviation from was the national average the deviation from was the national average the , the median annual family income after was taxes the median annual family income after was taxes $ In Alberta , had 2014 2014 , Alberta had the second-largest economy , Alberta had the second-largest economy in Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres , the population of was the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million It is also one of A 2003 study by the corridor found TD Bank Financial Group by the corridor found TD Bank Financial Group to the corridor found TD Bank Financial Group to be the corridor found to be the only Canadian urban centre In Merchandise exports , totalled 2014 2014 , Merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 billion Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion forest products exports totalled while $5.4 billion exports totalled while $5.4 billion were Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion , and In Alberta's 2014 GDP , amassed total total , Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion

, Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy The province has over three million head of cattle Nearly one half of produced is all Canadian beef Alberta is one of the top producers in other grains ; are spring wheat production other grains ; are spring wheat production also Much of dryland is the farming Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada Forestry plays a vital role in Alberta's economy Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil Alberta is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas and vinyl manufacturers that produce products vinyl manufacturers that produce products are that produce products are shipped The Athabasca oil sands surrounding estimated have Fort McMurray surrounding unconventional oil reserves have estimated Fort McMurray unconventional oil reserves have estimated Fort McMurray approximately Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non The oil price increases since made have 2003 since it have made 2003 it have made 2003 profitable rising costs and stabilizing threatened oil prices several high-tech industries , found have the provincial government , several high-tech industries have found their birth several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta has been a tourist destination from the Rocky Mountains are by visited about three million people are by visited about three million people per by visited about three million people per year There are also natural attractions like Alberta's Rockies include well-known tourist destinations Banff National Park and The two mountain parks are by connected the scenic Icefields Parkway Banff is located west of Five of located are Canada's fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede , a celebration About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's K-Days ( formerly Klondike Days that draws is each year more than 650,000 visitors also a rich mining history had being one a rich mining history had being one of The Government of organized is Alberta of Elizabeth II , is Canada Canada , Elizabeth II is the head , Elizabeth II is the head of

Elizabeth II is the head of state Her duties in carried are Alberta by are carried out Alberta are by out carried Lieutenant Governor Salma Lakhani The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads and lieutenant governor whose actions are figureheads lieutenant governor whose actions are figureheads are whose actions are figureheads are highly The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name The government is by headed the premier The premier is normally a member of The City of Edmonton is the seat Alberta , had has the 1960s , Alberta has had three main political parties Alberta has had three main political parties , For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta They lost the 2015 election to the NDP The province is divided into 10 types This organization it policed until the province it policed until the province was It the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police at was that time the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police at was that time resumed In Alberta , formed 2006 2006 , Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams , Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams (ALERT Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams (ALERT ) Military bases in Alberta include Canadian Forces Base Air force units stationed at have CFB Cold Lake CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division , government revenue in came that year government revenue in came that year mainly In Alberta , received 2014 2014 , Alberta received $6.1 billion , Alberta received $6.1 billion in Alberta received $6.1 billion in bitumen royalties oil in it was 2015 in it was 2015 down it was 2015 down to it was down to $1.4 billion In Alberta , received 2016 Alberta , received 2016 " , Alberta received " about $837 million Alberta received " about $837 million in Alberta is the only province in Canada Alberta's personal income tax system maintained a progressive character by continuing Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments and school jurisdictions who have their own governments school jurisdictions who have their own governments usually

who have their own governments usually work that pay earn about $25,000 to $75,000 those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more of Alberta , is income tax income tax , Alberta is the "best province , Alberta is the "best province " Alberta is the "best province " for In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes Albertan municipalities raise a significant portion of their income The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland Summer brings many festivals to the province The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features The Banff Centre hosts a range of festivals These cultural events in Alberta highlight the province's cultural diversity Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies of the major cities who have several performing theatre companies the major cities who have several performing theatre companies entertain who have several performing theatre companies entertain in Ricardo Miranda and Tourism announced Culture and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Residence The award which with comes $60,000 funding which with comes $60,000 funding includes On Lauren Crazybull , named January 31, 2019 January 31, 2019 , Lauren Crazybull named Alberta's 1st Artist , Lauren Crazybull named Alberta's 1st Artist in Lauren Crazybull named Alberta's 1st Artist in Residence There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Catholic electorate one have , and a Catholic electorate For the provincial government funded has many years many years the provincial government has funded the greater part the provincial government has funded the greater part of , the government of eliminated the province the government of the province eliminated this right the money , collected is the mill rate the money is by collected the local municipal authority is by collected the local municipal authority and by collected the local municipal authority and remitted

In Mount Royal University , became early September 2009 early September 2009 , Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university , Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university , Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university , and There that are 15 colleges receive that 15 colleges are receive direct public funding There are also many private post-secondary institutions , Students may also receive government loans There was some controversy in 2005 Alberta provides a publicly funded, fully integrated health system , through The Alberta government provides health services for all its residents Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year by are delivered operationally Alberta are by operationally delivered Alberta Health Services AHS is the province's single health authority , established Calgary's airport is a hub for WestJet Airlines , and Lethbridge have substantial public transit systems Calgary and Edmonton operate light rail transit (LRT) systems There are more than of The vast majority of owned is this trackage of by is owned this trackage this trackage is by owned the Canadian Pacific Railway is by owned the Canadian Pacific Railway and by owned the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway companies Additional railfreight service in provided is the province in by is provided the province the province is by provided two shortline railways is by provided two shortline railways : by provided two shortline railways : the Battle River Railway Alberta has over of highways The main north–south corridor which is , Highway 2 which is , Highway 2 begins of the highway , continues Edmonton the highway , continues Edmonton to , the highway continues to Athabasca the highway continues to Athabasca , 2 is by supplemented two more highways is that by supplemented two more highways that by supplemented two more highways run One of is the most scenic drives along which along is , the Icefields Parkway Another major corridor through central Alberta is Highway is it called as Deerfoot Trail it called as Deerfoot Trail passes By actinopterygians , dominate species count species count , actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates

, actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates , actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates , and they dominate , and the vertebrates They are ubiquitous throughout freshwater Extant species can range in size The main features of shown are a typical ray-finned fish Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales In the sexes , are nearly all ray-finned fish the sexes , are nearly all ray-finned fish separate Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage In most cases this involves protogyny most cases this involves protogyny , this involves protogyny , fish Most families use external rather than of no care ; is the 422 teleost families no care ; is the 422 teleost families likely ; no care is likely the ancestral condition of male care ; is living teleost species male care ; is living teleost species far There are a few examples of fish The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite , producing Actinopterygii is divided into the classes The latter comprises the subclasses Chondrostei latter comprises the subclasses Chondrostei and Cenozoic diversified in particular the teleosts The cladogram below shows the main clades of The latter include mostly terrestrial species but latter include mostly terrestrial species but also Tetrapods evolved from a group of The earliest known fossil actinopterygian is " Andreolepis hedei " The listing below is a summary of Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics " for ) , Einstein published four groundbreaking papers These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect the laws that thought of classical mechanics to he ; published gravitational fields gravitational fields ; he published a paper ; he published a paper on he published a paper on general relativity In he , applied 1917 1917 , he applied the general theory , he applied the general theory of he applied the general theory of relativity of he , worked his career he , worked his career on , he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors to he , opposed quantum mechanics quantum mechanics , he opposed what , he it opposed what

he it opposed what evolved it opposed what evolved into he attempted to devise a unified field theory Einstein was born in the German Empire at he , enrolled the age of 17 he , enrolled the age of 17 in , he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at In he , acquired 1901 1901 , he acquired Swiss citizenship , he acquired Swiss citizenship , he acquired Swiss citizenship , which he Swiss citizenship , acquired which he , awarded was 1905 , he was awarded a PhD he was by awarded a PhD was by a PhD awarded the University of Zurich In Einstein , moved 1914 Einstein , moved 1914 to , Einstein moved to Berlin Einstein moved to Berlin in visiting Adolf Hitler , came the United States Adolf Hitler , came the United States to , Adolf Hitler came to power Adolf Hitler came to power in of he ; settled the newly elected Nazi government he ; settled the newly elected Nazi government in ; he settled in the United States he settled in the United States and the eve of he , endorsed World War II World War II , he endorsed a letter , he endorsed a letter to he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt Albert Einstein was born in Ulm His parents were Hermann Einstein , a salesman Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich In Hermann and Jakob's company , lost 1894 1894 , Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid , Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory of the Einstein family , moved business the Einstein family , moved business to , the Einstein family moved to Italy the Einstein family moved to Italy , the spirit that wrote of learning At he , traveled the end of December 1894 he , traveled the end of December 1894 to , he traveled to Italy

he traveled to Italy to Einstein excelled at math and The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof He thereupon devoted himself to Soon the flight of was his mathematical genius so I was so high his mathematical genius Einstein was introduced to Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason Kant his tutor became , his favorite philosopher his tutor became , his favorite philosopher stating at Einstein , took the age of 16 the age of 16 , Einstein took the entrance examinations , Einstein took the entrance examinations for Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school He failed to reach the required standard of he , attended the polytechnic school the polytechnic school , he attended the Argovian cantonal school , he attended the Argovian cantonal school ("gymnasium he attended the Argovian cantonal school ("gymnasium " of he , fell Professor Jost Winteler he , fell Professor Jost Winteler in , he fell in love he fell in love with Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son with Einstein , renounced his father's approval his father's approval , Einstein renounced his citizenship , Einstein renounced his citizenship in Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom In September 1896 he passed the Swiss "Matura September 1896 he passed the Swiss "Matura " he passed the Swiss "Matura " with At he , enrolled 17 he , enrolled 17 in , he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at She was the only woman among the six students Over Einstein's and Marić's friendship , developed the next few years Einstein's and Marić's friendship , developed the next few years into , Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance , Einstein wrote in his letters to In Einstein , passed 1900 1900 , Einstein passed the exams , Einstein passed the exams in Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics Marić returned to Switzerland without The couple moved to Berlin in

in Einstein , wrote 2015 Einstein , wrote 2015 to , Einstein wrote to his early love Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler He wrote in 1910 , Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919 They emigrated to the United States in In Einstein , fell 1923 Einstein , fell 1923 in , Einstein fell in love Einstein fell in love with in Einstein , described 2006 2006 , Einstein described about six women , Einstein described about six women , Einstein described about six women , including Einstein Elsa , was his second wife Einstein was briefly in a relationship Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at in Einstein , spent 1900 1900 , Einstein spent almost two frustrating years , Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901 Einstein evaluated patent applications for a variety met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902 they were by joined Mileva were who by joined Mileva who by joined Mileva attentively On Einstein , completed 30 April 1905 30 April 1905 , Einstein completed his dissertation , Einstein completed his dissertation , Einstein completed his dissertation , " he , recognized was 1908 he was recognized as a leading scientist at Alfred Kleiner , recommended the University of Zurich the University of Zurich , Alfred Kleiner recommended him , Alfred Kleiner recommended him to Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University In he , returned July 1912 he , returned July 1912 to , he returned to his alma mater he returned to his alma mater in until he , was 1914 1914 , he was a professor , he was a professor of he was a professor of theoretical physics " The New York Times " reported confirmation The New York Times " reported confirmation of Einstein , enticed was the spring of 1913 On he , became 3 July 1913

3 July 1913 , he became a member , he became a member of he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him Membership in the academy included paid salary by was also influenced Berlin was also by influenced the prospect also by influenced the prospect of by influenced the prospect of living Einstein assumed his position with the academy the plan for aborted was Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics The institute was established on 1 October 1917 In Einstein , used 1911 1911 , Einstein used his 1907 Equivalence principle , Einstein used his 1907 Equivalence principle to Einstein used his 1907 Equivalence principle to calculate In Einstein , improved 1913 Einstein , improved 1913 upon , Einstein improved upon those calculations Einstein improved upon those calculations by Einstein had successfully completed his general theory deflection prediction was by confirmed Sir Arthur Eddington was by confirmed Sir Arthur Eddington during by confirmed Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse Those observations were published in the international media In he , became 1920 1920 , he became a Foreign Member , he became a Foreign Member of he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences he , awarded was 1922 , he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics " Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in Einstein visited New York City for the first time He also published an essay , " What strikes is a visitor What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to In his travels , took 1922 1922 , his travels took him , his travels took him to his travels took him to Asia After he , met his first public lecture his first public lecture , he met the emperor , he met the emperor and he met the emperor and empress to he , described his sons his sons , he described his impression

, he described his impression of he described his impression of the Japanese to he , was the Far East he , was the Far East unable On he , visited his return voyage his return voyage , he visited Palestine , he visited Palestine for he visited Palestine for 12 days the building , stormed was one reception the building was by stormed people was who by stormed people who by stormed people wanted From Einstein , was 1922 to 1932 1922 to 1932 , Einstein was a member , Einstein was a member of Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations Secretary-General Eric Drummond , persuaded was the Swiss delegate Secretary-General Eric Drummond was by persuaded Catholic activists was Oskar Halecki by persuaded Catholic activists Oskar Halecki by persuaded Catholic activists and April 1925 , Einstein visited South America , Einstein visited South America , Einstein visited South America , where he visited , where South America Einstein's visit was by initiated Jorge Duclout was by initiated Jorge Duclout ( by initiated Jorge Duclout ( 1856–1927 In Einstein , visited December 1930 December 1930 , Einstein visited America , Einstein visited America for Einstein visited America for the second time After he , received the national attention he , received the national attention during , he received during his first trip he received during his first trip to Einstein , taken was New York City Einstein was taken to various places , he was given the keys he was given the keys to Einstein next traveled to California His friendship with was Millikan " This aversion to led also war They had an instant rapport , with Chaplin had , with an instant rapport Chaplin visited Einstein at his home in he , undertook early 1933 early 1933 , he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship , he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology , the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in

Einstein , went immediately 28 March Einstein immediately went to the German consulate In Einstein , discovered April 1933 Einstein , discovered April 1933 that , Einstein's works were among those Einstein's works were among those targeted by among were targeted those One German magazine included him in a list to Einstein , wrote England Einstein , wrote England , Einstein was now without a permanent home He rented a house in De Haan In he , went late July 1933 he , went late July 1933 to , he went to England he went to England for Locker-Lampson invited him to stay Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Einstein asked them to help Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to one of he denounced his speeches of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews In his speech he described Einstein his speech he described Einstein as he described Einstein as a "citizen In Einstein , returned October 1933 Einstein , returned October 1933 to , Einstein returned to the US Einstein returned to the US and Einstein's affiliation with last would the Institute for Advanced Study He was one of the The two would take long walks two would take long walks together Hungarian scientists that included attempted émigré physicist Leó Szilárd that included attempted émigré physicist Leó Szilárd to Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to Einstein , used the letter the letter , Einstein used his connections , Einstein used his connections with Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family war , " was Einstein , " war was a disease " war was a disease   ] he called for resistance he called for resistance to to some , argue Roosevelt he , some argue Roosevelt he argue went against his pacifist principles before Einstein , said his death Einstein , said his death to , Einstein said to his old friend Einstein said to his old friend , Einstein became an American citizen in 1940 New Jersey , he expressed his appreciation , he expressed his appreciation of

he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP He considered racism America's "worst disease " , of he , corresponded his involvement he , corresponded his involvement with , he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and In Einstein , visited 1946 1946 , Einstein visited Lincoln University , Einstein visited Lincoln University in Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania to alumni ; include African Americans African Americans ; alumni include Langston Hughes ; alumni include Langston Hughes and alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall Einstein gave a speech about racism A resident of recalls Princeton that of Einstein recalls that Princeton Einstein recalls that Princeton had Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping he , asked was 1921 he was by asked the biochemist was by asked the biochemist and by asked the biochemist and president Among he , advised those he , advised those first he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture a he ; was nationalist he ; was nationalist against ; he was against the creation he was against the creation of of Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion , offered Ezriel Carlebach Ezriel Carlebach , Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein , Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of The offer was by presented Israel's ambassador was by presented Israel's ambassador in by presented Israel's ambassador in Washington Einstein developed an appreciation for music In he wrote his late journals : he wrote his late journals : " I often think in music I live my daydreams in music I see my life in terms I get most joy in life His mother played the piano reasonably well to Einstein , began conductor Leon Botstein Einstein , began conductor Leon Botstein playing turned he , discovered 13 13 , he discovered the violin sonatas , he discovered the violin sonatas of he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart Einstein taught himself to play

he , heard was age 17 he was by heard a school examiner was by heard a school examiner in by heard a school examiner in Aarau Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in of becoming himself was a professional musician becoming himself was a professional musician not himself was a professional musician not on himself was not on his mind Chamber music had also become a regular part at he , visited the California Institute of Technology the California Institute of Technology , he visited the Zoellner family conservatory , he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles In Einstein , was 1918 1918 , Einstein was one , Einstein was one of Einstein was one of the founding members in Einstein's political view , was his life Einstein's political view , was his life in , Einstein's political view was in favor Einstein's political view was in favor of His opinions on changed also the Bolsheviks In he , criticized 1925 1925 , he criticized them , he criticized them for he criticized them for not " In I honor Lenin In Lenin I honor a man Lenin I honor a man , I who honor , a man who honor , a man in : men like are him men like him are the guardians He strongly advocated the idea of that the idea of advocated a democratic global government I " wrote advocate world government was deeply by impressed Mahatma Gandhi deeply by impressed Mahatma Gandhi , by impressed Mahatma Gandhi , with He described Gandhi as " The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931 Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy During Einstein , wrote the visit the visit , Einstein wrote a short letter , Einstein wrote a short letter to Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that a short letter to wrote Gandhi Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in He he said had sympathy he said had sympathy for not who in believe a personal god

who in believe a personal god concerns in Einstein , replied an afterlife Einstein , replied an afterlife , one life is enough for me He served on the advisory board of of he , stated the New York Society for Ethical Culture he , stated the New York Society for Ethical Culture that the idea that stated of Ethical Culture , Einstein wrote : The word Einstein God : wrote The word God : wrote The word is me the Jewish religion like is all other religions the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation I to And the Jewish people whom gladly On Einstein , experienced 17 April 1955 17 April 1955 , Einstein experienced internal bleeding , Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused Einstein by experienced caused internal bleeding by internal bleeding caused experienced the rupture Einstein refused surgery , saying done it ; is my share my share ; it is time ; it is time to it is time to go I will do it elegantly the pathologist , Harvey removed Einstein's Thomas Stoltz autopsy , the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for at nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer , summarized UNESCO headquarters UNESCO headquarters , nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression , nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein There was always with him Throughout Einstein , published his life his life , Einstein published hundreds , Einstein published hundreds of Einstein published hundreds of books He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones universities and archives announced the release It was published in 1901 These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper Einstein returned to the problem of the density fluctuations are by controlled the second derivative are by controlled the second derivative of by controlled the second derivative of the free energy At this derivative , is the critical point the critical point , this derivative is zero , this derivative is zero ,

this derivative is zero , leading The effect of is density fluctuations that of light is that density fluctuations light is that density fluctuations of light that is of all wavelengths Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations , the effects of are these changes the effects of are these changes most The theory developed in this paper later There is evidence from Einstein's writings on Einstein , produced mass–energy equivalence mass–energy equivalence , Einstein produced "E , Einstein produced "E " Einstein produced "E "   Einstein originally framed special relativity in In Hermann Minkowski , reinterpreted 1908 1908 , Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity , Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms that a theory of is gravitation General relativity has developed into an essential tool of the preference was that general relativity the preference was that general relativity of the preference that was of inertial motions , in he published 1907 in 1907 he published an article 1907 he published an article on he published an article on acceleration he " , argued It In Einstein , published 1911 1911 , Einstein published another article , Einstein published another article " Einstein published another article " On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light In Einstein , predicted 1916 1916 , Einstein predicted gravitational waves , Einstein predicted gravitational waves , Einstein predicted gravitational waves , ripples The existence of is gravitational waves possible The first, indirect, detection of came gravitational waves in in they was that their orbital period they was that their orbital period were developing Einstein , became general relativity Einstein , became general relativity confused Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance He that formulated an argument led that an argument formulated led him ' ) theory was the result ) theory was the result of theory was the result of these investigations suggests , it was a sketch , it was a sketch of it was a sketch of a theory In Einstein , applied 1917 1917 , Einstein applied the general theory

, Einstein applied the general theory of Einstein applied the general theory of relativity the general field equations that discovered predicted a universe at Einstein , introduced the time the time , Einstein introduced a new term , Einstein introduced a new term , Einstein introduced a new term , the cosmological constant The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature in Einstein , abandoned 1929 1929 , Einstein abandoned his static model , Einstein abandoned his static model of Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe it , claimed is many Einstein biographies led by Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered the Irish physicist by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that , in Einstein , explored early 1931 early 1931 , Einstein explored a model , Einstein explored a model of Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe Einstein that appears considered a steady-state model it , so is a dynamical spacetime In Einstein , collaborated 1935 Einstein , collaborated 1935 with , Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to His motivation was to model elementary particles into the affine connection , needed general relativity the affine connection , needed general relativity to The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations general relativity which has , a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations which has , a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations describe would which on move a trajectory which on move a trajectory is In Einstein , postulated a 1905 paper that light , Einstein postulated a 1905 paper nearly universally by rejected all physicists universally by rejected all physicists , by rejected all physicists , including each wave that concluded of frequency In Einstein , proposed 1907 1907 , Einstein proposed a model , Einstein proposed a model of Einstein proposed a model of matter getting aware that was the frequency Throughout quantum mechanics , expanded the 1910s quantum mechanics , expanded the 1910s in , quantum mechanics expanded in scope quantum mechanics expanded in scope to

Einstein contributed to these developments by the hypothesis that shown of adiabatic invariance Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle in noted that 1911 In Einstein , received 1924 1924 , Einstein received a description , Einstein received a description of Einstein received a description of a statistical model Einstein also published his own articles describing It was not until 1995 In he , became 1908 1908 , he became a "Privatdozent , he became a "Privatdozent " he became a "Privatdozent " at in Einstein , showed an earlier 1909 paper Einstein , showed an earlier 1909 paper that This paper introduced the "photon" concept ( although the name "photon introduced ( although the "photon" concept from Planck , reformulated 1911 to 1913 1911 to 1913 , Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory , Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced Soon , this idea attracted the attention , this idea attracted the attention of this idea attracted the attention of Einstein they , compared then zero-point energy , they then compared the theoretical specific heat they then compared the theoretical specific heat of the statistics that showed of absorption Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported from Einstein , gave this era this era , Einstein gave a wave equation , Einstein gave a wave equation for Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves Einstein played a major role in developing he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes In Einstein , returned 1935 Einstein , returned 1935 to , Einstein returned to quantum mechanics Einstein returned to quantum mechanics , In he , considered a thought experiment a thought experiment , he considered two particles , he considered two particles , he which considered , two particles which considered , two particles had of there , were local realism local realism , there were two possibilities , there were two possibilities : there were two possibilities : ( it , be must question local realism , shown was a physical principle

The results of demonstrate these and subsequent experiments that of quantum physics demonstrate that these and subsequent experiments quantum physics demonstrate that these and subsequent experiments can on Einstein , attempted general relativity Einstein , attempted general relativity to Einstein attempted to generalize his theory In he , described 1950 1950 , he described his "unified field theory , he described his "unified field theory " he described his "unified field theory " in Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces not neither accommodate , the strong and weak nuclear forces neither accommodate , the strong and weak nuclear forces of Einstein that conducted other investigations were that conducted other investigations were unsuccessful show they , reversed this this , they reversed the magnetization , they reversed the magnetization in they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar this that confirmed leads the bar Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he to suggested that Erwin Schrödinger This formulation is a form of second quantization Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive Einstein wrote daily to his wife The letters were included in the papers Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be Einstein's right of litigated was publicity Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities " The New Yorker " published a vignette The New Yorker " published a vignette in He finally figured out a way He told his inquirers " Pardon I am mistaken for Professor Einstein Einstein has been the subject of Einstein received numerous awards and honors It is by bordered Pakistan is by bordered Pakistan to by bordered Pakistan to the east of the country , is land the country , is land predominately Human habitation in dates Afghanistan back Afghanistan also served as the source The modern state of began Afghanistan with it , divided was Timur Shah it was divided into the smaller independent kingdoms in it established successfully the second war the second war it successfully established a British protected state it successfully established a British protected state over in the country , became 1919 the country , became 1919 free

the country became free of foreign dominance by has been dominated the late 1970s has been by dominated prolonged warfare been by dominated prolonged warfare , by dominated prolonged warfare , starting The country has high levels of terrorism Excavations of suggest prehistoric sites that of humans suggest that prehistoric sites humans suggest that prehistoric sites were Archaeological exploration done in suggests the 20th century in the geographical area suggests that the 20th century the geographical area suggests that the 20th century of the geographical area that suggests of Afghanistan In it , extended more detail it , extended more detail from , it extended from what it today from extended what today from extended what is There are several smaller IVC colonies to be the middle of the 6th century the Achaemenids , overthrew BCE BCE , the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes , the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and incorporated Darius I of mentions Persia I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley , the successor state of controlled the Seleucid Empire the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region The Mauryans controlled the area south of Much of broke soon it The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE , the first century the Parthian Empire , subjugated BCE BCE , the Parthian Empire subjugated the region , the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but lost The Kushans were by overthrown the Sassanids were by overthrown the Sassanids in by overthrown the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE They were by followed the Kidarites were who by followed the Kidarites who by followed the Kidarites , They were by replaced the Turk Shahi were by replaced the Turk Shahi in by replaced the Turk Shahi in the 7th century this Hindu dynasty , called was 870 , this Hindu dynasty was called Hindu Shahi of they accepted encountered the native inhabitants the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it they encountered accepted it while encountered others accepted while it others accepted while it revolted of the region , used Islam

the region , used Islam to people would be that the region people that be were patrons first by in conquered 870 CE by in 870 CE conquered the Saffarid Muslims Later , the Samanids extended their Islamic influence , the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south of By Mahmud of Ghazni , defeated the 11th century the 11th century , Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers , Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city The Ghaznavid dynasty was by overthrown the Ghurids was by overthrown the Ghurids , whose architectural achievements by overthrown , the Ghurids The destruction caused by forced the Mongols caused by the Mongols forced many locals by the Mongols forced many locals to Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in In Babur , arrived the early 16th century Babur , arrived the early 16th century from , Babur arrived from Ferghana Babur arrived from Ferghana and , and Indian Mughals ruled parts and Indian Mughals ruled parts of Indian Mughals ruled parts of the territory the northwestern area of referred was Afghanistan by was referred to Afghanistan was by to referred the regional name by to referred the regional name Khorasan He defeated Gurgin Khan and established Mirwais died of natural causes in Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar Nader Shah , plundered had India , Nader Shah had plundered Delhi Nader Shah had plundered Delhi , Ahmad Shah Durrani , returned had 1747 Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to Kandahar Ahmad Shah , led had 1747 , Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against Ahmad Shah had captured Kabul and Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into he , however was siege Nishapur in he , captured 1754 1754 , he captured Tun , he captured Tun , he captured Tun , and Shah rokh was reappointed in 1755

Ahmad Shah invaded India 8 times during during he , sought his Invasions of India his Invasions of India , he sought the reasons , he sought the reasons needed he sought the reasons needed to Ahmad Shah had launched his first invasion in Ahmad Shah had met Mughal armies at Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating also the capital saw of the Durrani Empire the capital saw of the Durrani Empire being This reform saw Kabul as the modern capital Timur Shah would also lead campaigns Timur Shah would be where this campaign Timur Shah where be led his forces The Sikhs would lose over 30,000 by Timur Shah , was Timur Shah Timur Shah , was Timur Shah able would be by succeeded his son be by succeeded his son , by succeeded his son , Zaman Shah Durrani Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation Zaman Shah Durrani would succeed to the Durrani Throne This instigated civil war with his brothers With Humayun centered in Kandahar Humayun centered in Kandahar , Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and Zaman Shah , led had the throne , Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns into Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for would be by deposed his brother be by deposed his brother , by deposed his brother , Shah Shuja Durrani By the Afghan empire , was the early 19th century the Afghan empire , was the early 19th century under , the Afghan empire was under threat the Afghan empire was under threat from would be by sentenced Mahmud Shah Durrani be by sentenced Mahmud Shah Durrani , by sentenced Mahmud Shah Durrani , having During Afghanistan , had this turbulent period this turbulent period , Afghanistan had many temporary rulers , Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Afghanistan Dost Mohammad Khan had until many temporary rulers Dost Mohammad Khan had until many temporary rulers declared who to lost , Ranjit Singh In a British expeditionary force , marched 1838 a British expeditionary force , marched 1838 into

, a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan and to the British , gave its recapture the British , gave its recapture up the British gave up on their attempts Dost Mohammad Khan would spend most of Dost Mohammad Khan would launch numerous campaigns , Dost Mohammad died on 9 June 1863 , Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne in Abdur Rahman Khan , replaced the region the region , Abdur Rahman Khan replaced Ayub Khan , Abdur Rahman Khan who replaced Ayub Khan Abdur Rahman Khan who replaced Ayub Khan had who replaced Ayub Khan had succeeded Britain would gain control of In Amir Abdur Rahman , signed 1893 1893 , Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement , Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun an agreement in signed which He was known as the "Iron Amir The "Iron Amir " viewed railway and Habibullah Khan was by met officials was by met officials of by met officials of the Central Powers it failed , but the Central Powers Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip on Emir Amanullah Khan , declared 19 August 1919 the Emirate of Afghanistan , Emir Amanullah Khan declared 19 August 1919 He moved to end his country's traditional isolation He proclaimed himself King of Turkey , he introduced several reforms , he introduced several reforms intended he introduced several reforms intended to A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi He fought for Article 68 of The institution of abolished was slavery this alienated , and many tribal and religious leaders with King Amanullah , abdicated the overwhelming armed opposition King Amanullah , abdicated the overwhelming armed opposition in , King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929 King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929 , The tribal revolts of 1944–1947 saw King Zahir's reign 1944–1947 by saw challenged King Zahir's reign by King Zahir's reign challenged saw Zadran The 1930s saw the development of roads Road links in the north played a large part Until King Zahir , ruled 1946

King Zahir , ruled 1946 with , King Zahir ruled with the assistance King Zahir ruled with the assistance of He was replaced in 1953 was by in replaced 1953 by in 1953 replaced Mohammed Daoud Khan until Daoud Khan , pressed 1963 Daoud Khan , pressed 1963 for , Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and However , it was a beneficiary , it was a beneficiary of it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry On Afghanistan , received a per capita basis a per capita basis , Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid , Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than any other country Afghanistan had , therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies the communist People's Democratic Party of seized (PDPA ) Afghanistan The PDPA declared the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan This would trigger a series of that a series of trigger events The PDPA that initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms provoked that various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms initiated provoked strong opposition This caused unrest and quickly with the United States , supported covert training centers covert training centers , the United States supported them , the United States supported them through the United States supported them through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence PDPA General Secretary Taraki , assassinated was September 1979 PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup by in assassinated orchestrated an internal coup The situation in deteriorated the country under with the Soviet Army , invaded Amin's government Amin's government , the Soviet Army invaded the country , the Soviet Army invaded the country in the Soviet Army invaded the country in December 1979 Soviet troops in deployed were more substantial numbers Lasting the war , caused nine years nine years , the war caused the deaths , the war caused the deaths of the war caused the deaths of between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans Heavy air bombardment millions destroyed , many countryside villages millions destroyed , many countryside villages of

Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province functioned as an organisational and networking base for The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan The militarization of led society to Another civil war broke out after the creation factional infighting , various "mujahideen" factions committed widespread rape , various "mujahideen" factions committed widespread rape , various "mujahideen" factions committed widespread rape , murder The Taliban emerged in September 1994 as they that year , conquered Kandahar city that year , they conquered more territories , they conquered more territories until they conquered more territories until finally Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum formed the Northern Alliance The Islamic Emirate of restored was swiftly Afghanistan is apparently by led supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada apparently by led supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and by led supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and acting Prime Minister Hasan Akhund his appointment ; seen was their previous Emirate his appointment was seen as a compromise A new, all-male cabinet was formed including Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai On United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres , received 20 September 2021 20 September 2021 , United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter , United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from acting minister Western nations have suspended most humanitarian aid to , more than half of faced Afghanistan's 39 million people more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage over , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country , slightly There is no coastline , as Afghanistan is , as no coastline to India ; recognizes the north-east the north-east ; India recognizes a border ; India recognizes a border with India recognizes a border with Afghanistan The geography in is Afghanistan varied It is by dominated the Hindu Kush range is by dominated the Hindu Kush range , by dominated the Hindu Kush range , the western extension Most of are the highest points in ; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands

these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and Forests exist in the corridor between The country's highest point is Noshaq , at , large parts of are the country large parts of are the country dry The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions The Amu Darya rises at the north of that a number of flow streams One exception which is the Kabul River flows which is the Kabul River flows in Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter , two-thirds of flows the country's water two-thirds of flows the country's water into earthquakes in is where a geologically active area The last strong earthquakes were in 1998 , which in were , 1998 This was by followed the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes was by followed the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in by followed the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which Afghanistan has a continental climate with harsh winters The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest Several types of exist mammals throughout The Marco Polo sheep exclusively live in the Wakhan Corridor region wild pigs and jackals populate the steppe plains Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel Endemic flora include " Iris afghanica " The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses designated there ; are protected areas protected areas ; there are three national parks ; there are three national parks : there are three national parks : Band-e Amir The population of estimated was Afghanistan In the total population reported was 1979 the total population reported was 1979 to An estimated 99.7% of is the Afghan population Muslim most is Muslim and the Afghan population to as much as 90% , are Pew Research Center as much as 90% , are Pew Research Center of , as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination , The CIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan this small community , forced was the years

the entire community , emigrated had the end of the twentieth century the entire community had emigrated to Israel He remained for years , , 26% of was the population 26% of was the population urbanized ; in it is Asia in it is Asia only it is Asia only higher The only city with over a million residents is its capital during the Taliban , declared the 2021 Taliban offensive the 2021 Taliban offensive , the Taliban declared the country , the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September , the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period with The Kabul meetings on government formation are men-only meetings Many figures within agree generally the Taliban continuation generally agree that the Taliban continuation that agree of the Constitution of Afghanistan a Taliban official , said interviewed 30 August Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head to the new government , is CNN the new government , is CNN likely by sources , said CNN-News18 the new government , sources said CNN-News18 The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body , later interviews disclosed to News18 later interviews disclosed to News18 that negotiations to disclosed that News18 This which in culminated a skirmish which in culminated a skirmish led the Taliban , planning were early September , the Taliban were planning the Cabinet the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to Each province has a governor and a capital each into divided , nearly 400 provincial districts are now by appointed the Prime Minister now by appointed the Prime Minister of by appointed the Prime Minister of Afghanistan The provincial governors are representatives of the central government There that also are provincial councils that also are provincial councils are Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations Historically , Afghanistan had strong relations , Afghanistan had strong relations with Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany The present Islamic Emirate of is Afghanistan currently of it , enjoyed Afghanistan Afghanistan , it enjoyed cordial relations

, it enjoyed cordial relations with it enjoyed cordial relations with a number The Islamic Emirate Army captured a large amount of weapons Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $21.7 billion in 2018 Its GDP per is capita $ in it , remains mineral deposits mineral deposits , it remains one , it remains one of it remains one of the world's least developed countries the country as cited why reasons The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods It has $2.8 billion in external debt only a small portion , provided is donor money the central bank as serves of the nation which in involved , construction Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City Improvements to resulted have the business environment Afghanistan is a member of WTO It holds an observer status in SCO Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy there , been has recent years , there has been an uptick there has been an uptick in The country's natural resources include : coal , Michael E. O'Hanlon of estimated the Brookings Institution that Afghanistan estimated that if the Brookings Institution northern Afghanistan in estimated that 2006 The country has significant amounts of lithium The Khanashin carbonatite in contains Helmand Province of a 30-year lease , granted was 2007 , a 30-year lease was granted for a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop 30% that estimate of the country's untapped mineral deposits The lithium reserves of amount could 21 Mio. tons Other larger deposits are the ones of Bauxit the "CSM , reported " a 2011 news story In Afghanistan , had 2016 2016 , Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares , Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity This they means use just under double as much biocapacity they means use just under double as much biocapacity as , 98% of have the rural population

98% of the rural population have access Overall the figure stands at 98.7% of Afghanistan , produces 2016 2016 , Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts , Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts of Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts of power The majority of is electricity production via under development which are the CASA-1000 project development which are the CASA-1000 project will which are the CASA-1000 project will transmit Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan Nevertheless , some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country , some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as particular an important region for is domestic and international tourism an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley domestic and international tourism which is , the picturesque Bamyan Valley which is , the picturesque Bamyan Valley includes Afghanistan onwards , was the late 1960s onwards , Afghanistan was a popular stop , Afghanistan was a popular stop on Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail from the trail , traveled Iran the trail , traveled Iran through , the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and The city of Ghazni has significant history by Muhammad kept is Islam's prophet Muhammad kept is Islam's prophet inside Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine by is , believed the Shrine of Ali Telecommunication services in provided are Afghanistan in by are provided Afghanistan Afghanistan are by provided Afghan Telecom are by provided Afghan Telecom , by provided Afghan Telecom , Afghan Wireless The country uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1 of telecommunications , was civil war telecommunications , was civil war virtually , telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector , A key portion of the Ring Road is the Salang Tunnel It that is the only land route connects that the only land route is connects Central Asia Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads Air transport in provided is Afghanistan in by is provided Afghanistan

Afghanistan is by provided the national carrier is by provided the national carrier , by provided the national carrier , Ariana Afghan Airlines These include Air India , Emirates The country has four international airports : Hamid Karzai International Airport Including there , are domestic airports domestic airports , there are 43 The country has three rail links : one These lines are used for freight About of lie will the line Taxis are yellow in color villagers , use often rural Afghanistan , villagers often use donkeys villagers often use donkeys , are primarily by used the Kochi nomads Education in Afghanistan includes K–12 There are over 16,000 schools in the country Of about 60% , are this this , about 60% are males , about 60% are males and about 60% are males and 40% females Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities About 21% of these are females The top universities in Afghanistan are the American University of Afghanistan The Afghan Defense University was constructed near Qargha Major universities outside of include Kabul The United States is building six faculties of to Afghanistan , is the Human Development Index the Human Development Index , Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country , Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world The country's maternal mortality rate its infant mortality rate is and 396 deaths/100,000 live births its infant mortality rate is and 396 deaths/100,000 live births is The Ministry of Public Health plans to cut the infant mortality rate There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan It was reported in 2006 nearly 60% in reported that 2006 Afghans have both common cultural features and those that have and those both common cultural features Family is the mainstay of Afghan society In the people , live the southern and eastern region the people , live the southern and eastern region according the people live according to the Pashtun culture Key tenets of Pashtunwali include hospitality been further by influenced the cultures further by influenced the cultures of by influenced the cultures of those neighboring nations

the tribal system considers to be the best way There are various Afghan tribes , and One example is " bacha bazi " ; the legal age for is marriage the legal age for marriage is 16 families , occupy typically the villages , families typically occupy mudbrick houses families typically occupy mudbrick houses , Villages typically have a headman ( These were by worn some women were by worn some women of by worn some women of the Pashtun community Another popular dress which is " the "chapan which is " the "chapan acts The "karakul " is a hat made It was by favored former kings was by favored former kings of by favored former kings of Afghanistan was popularly by worn the guerrilla leader Ahmad Shah Massoud The nation that has a complex history has that has a complex history has survived Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages most well the Great Mosque of Herat are known well the Great Mosque of Herat are known , the Great Mosque of Herat are known , the Blue Mosque The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were by destroyed the Taliban were by destroyed the Taliban , who by destroyed , the Taliban archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan Every province has its own specific characteristics in making The lands of Afghanistan have a long history by is , produced Gandhara Art Later eras saw increased use of the Persian miniature style Since the nation , began the 1900s the nation , began the 1900s to the nation began to use Western techniques Afghanistan has around 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations Television programs began airing in the 1970s The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873 Radio Kabul , broadcasting was the 1920s , Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services been by in represented some Bollywood films by in some Bollywood films represented actors Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan Afghan classical music has close historical links with Indian classical music The rubab is the country's national instrument and precurses

Pop music developed in the 1950s through During female artists started also this time female artists started also this time appearing Perhaps the most famous artist of was this genre the most famous artist of this genre was Ahmad Zahir this genre who was , Ahmad Zahir who was , Ahmad Zahir synthesized Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan Accompanying these staples are native fruits and Kabuli palaw is the national dish of Afghanistan Afghanistan is known for its high quality pomegranates Classic Persian and Pashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture Poetry has always been one One of called is the poetic styles The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and Khushal Khan Khattak of considered is the 17th century Afghanistan's official New Year starts with Nowruz , It occurs every year at the vernal equinox National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August Sport in managed is Afghanistan in by is managed Afghanistan Afghanistan is by managed the Afghan Sports Federation Cricket and Association football are the two most popular sports in the country Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles basketball team won the first team sports title at the 2010 South Asian Games Later that year , the country's cricket team followed it , the country's cricket team followed it with the country's cricket team followed it with the winning In the country's 3x3 basketball team , won 2012 2012 , the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal , the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2012 Asian Beach Games It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007 The team eventually made it and There are several other stadiums throughout the country The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium It is similar to polo It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions , defined has been by inhabited different civilisations been by inhabited different civilisations over by inhabited different civilisations over time The Albanians established the autonomous Principality of Arbër in the 12th century

Europe led by won Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them acclaim Albania remained under Ottoman rule for , the modern nation state of declared Albania the modern nation state of Albania declared independence the Kingdom of Albania , invaded was the 20th century the Kingdom of Albania was by invaded Italy was which by invaded Italy which by invaded Italy formed Enver Hoxha formed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania after World War II Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic and a developing country It went through a process of Albania provides universal health care and free primary and secondary education Albania is a member of the United Nations It is an official candidate for membership The term Albania is the medieval Latin name term Albania is the medieval Latin name of Albania is the medieval Latin name of the country The term may have a continuation in the Byzantine historian , was Michael Attaliates the 10th century the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first Nowadays , Albanians call their country , Albanians call their country ' which in unearthed , central and southern Albania Archaeologists have come to the conclusion these regions to come that the conclusion by was historically inhabited Albania was historically by inhabited Indo-European peoples historically by inhabited Indo-European peoples , by inhabited Indo-European peoples , among of there , is the Illyrian tribes the Illyrian tribes , there is no evidence , there is no evidence that there these tribes is that no evidence these tribes is that no evidence used The first account of comes the Illyrian groups from The west was by inhabited the Thracian tribe was by inhabited the Thracian tribe of by inhabited the Thracian tribe of the Bryges Their Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under King Agron Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes Teuta's forces extended their operations further southwards In Rome , declared 229 BC 229 BC , Rome declared war , Rome declared war on Rome declared war on the kingdom The war ended in Illyrian defeat in

eventually by succeeded   Gentius by succeeded   Gentius   Gentius clashed with the Romans in The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of The Roman Empire was split in 395 In the Great Schism , formalised the 11th century the 11th century , the Great Schism formalised the break , the Great Schism formalised the break of the Great Schism formalised the break of communion The Albanian people inhabited the west of Lake Ochrida of the territory , came Dhimiter the territory , came Dhimiter under , the territory came under the rule the territory came under the rule of the principality , dissolved was the 13th century however the first undisputed mention of dates Albanians the first undisputed mention of dates Albanians back In he , established 1272 1272 , he established the Kingdom of Albania , he established the Kingdom of Albania and he established the Kingdom of Albania and conquered The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans This plan found also the support of Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in In various Albanian rulers , established 1367 1367 , various Albanian rulers established the Despotate of Arta several Albanian principalities , created were that time of the Ottoman Empire , continued Constantinople Constantinople , the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period , the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest They reached the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans Albanian towns , organised were the region Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks The government fostered trade by settling The city of saw Vlorë passing Islam offered them equal opportunities and , motives for were conversion motives for were conversion , , they made up a significant proportion they made up a significant proportion of A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions of Muslim Albanians who attained important political and military positions

Muslim Albanians who attained important political and military positions culturally who attained important political and military positions culturally contributed Enjoying they , held this privileged position this privileged position , they held various high administrative positions , they held various high administrative positions with they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers Others included members of the prominent Köprülü family The Albanian Renaissance was a period with its roots of Albania , was nationalism Albania , was nationalism under , Albania was under the rule Albania was under the rule of which the execution of resulted the Treaty of San Stefano The league had initially the assistance of Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by in participated composed the assembly Ottomans authorities the league cancelled when their assistance the league cancelled when their assistance , The league used military force to prevent the league , forced was Novšiće Albania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire Its sovereignty was by recognised the Conference of London the International Commission of Control , established was Vlorë the International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 The International Gendarmerie was established as the first law enforcement agency In the first gendarmerie members , arrived November the first gendarmerie members , arrived November in , the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces , offered had November 1913 , the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus , proclaimed was February 1914 the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastër was by in proclaimed Gjirokastër by in Gjirokastër proclaimed the local Greek population of Prince Wied , appointed Albania Albania , Prince Wied appointed their leader , Prince Wied appointed their leader , Prince Wied appointed their leader , Prênk Bibë Doda the International Gendarmerie , joined was May and June 1914 the International Gendarmerie was by joined Isa Boletini was by joined Isa Boletini and by joined Isa Boletini and his men of the parliament , adopted Fan Noli

Fan Noli , the parliament adopted a new constitution , the parliament adopted a new constitution and the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed The politics of was Zogu authoritarian Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official was eventually by replaced another monarchy eventually by replaced another monarchy with by replaced another monarchy with a strong support He also made donations of until the Kingdom of Albania , was 1943 1943 , the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate , the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and a dependency In Albania , served October 1940 Albania , served October 1940 as , Albania served as a staging ground Albania served as a staging ground for A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of Germans started to occupy the country of the country , fell the war the country , fell the war into , the country fell into a civil war-like state the country fell into a civil war-like state between The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south the main German troops , withdrawn had the end of November the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana The partisans entirely liberated the country from of the Communist party , sent the nation the nation , the Communist party sent forces , the Communist party sent forces to the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mërtur On a clash , took 15 January 1945 15 January 1945 , a clash took place , a clash took place between a clash took place between partisans This event was the starting point of many other issues which the starting point of was many other issues , the institution of brought agricultural cooperatives the institution of brought agricultural cooperatives about of the country , became the Axis Powers the country , became the Axis Powers initially , the country became initially a satellite state the country became initially a satellite state of During the country , experienced this period this period , the country experienced an increasing industrialisation

, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership illiteracy , eliminated was education illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population The average annual increase in was the country's national income 29% and 56% The nation incurred large debts initially with In the Agrarian Reform Law , meant 1945 the Agrarian Reform Law , meant 1945 that large swaths that meant of property destroyed , Hoxha proclaimed Albania , Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state in A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda many Albanians continued to practise their beliefs that to pyramid devoted schemes The protests turned violent in February 1997 were promptly by emptied militias promptly by emptied militias and by emptied militias and criminal gangs The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha led by entered , Italy by Italy , entered the country of Albania , focused the communist system Albania , focused the communist system on , Albania focused on an active process Albania focused on an active process of , Edi Rama of won the Socialist Party Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections As he , implemented Prime Minister Prime Minister , he implemented numerous reforms , he implemented numerous reforms focused he implemented numerous reforms focused on On a 6.4 magnitude earthquake , ravaged 26 November 2019 26 November 2019 , a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania , a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania with a 6.4 magnitude earthquake the epicentre ravaged with Albania the epicentre ravaged with Albania positioned The tremor was felt in Tirana From the government , declared March to June 2020 March to June 2020 , the government declared a state , the government declared a state of the government declared a state of emergency Albania has an area of and Its shoreline faces the Adriatic Sea to the northwest at the westernmost point ; is 39° 40' 0" northern latitude

39° 40' 0" northern latitude ; the westernmost point is Sazan ; the westernmost point is Sazan at the westernmost point is Sazan at 19 above the lowest point ; is the Adriatic the Adriatic ; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea ; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at , much of rises Albania much of rises Albania into Perhaps the most remarkable feature of is the country the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence The Lake of Shkodër is the largest lake In the southeast that rises the Lake of Ohrid the southeast that rises the Lake of Ohrid is that the Lake of Ohrid rises is one Farther south extends the Large south extends the Large and Rivers rise mostly in the east its source , that is the Drin , that is the Drin starts that is the Drin starts at The climate in is the country extremely Albania experiences predominantly a mediterranean and the coldest areas , positioned are the contrary The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter Rainfall naturally varies from season The country receives most of the precipitation An expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four glaciers Snowfall occurs frequently in winter hotspot , Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity , Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on account of Albania , is phytogeography phytogeography , Albania is part , Albania is part of Albania is part of the Boreal Kingdom be which in found Albania which in found Albania refers The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices The protected areas of Albania are areas There are 15 national parks , 4 ramsar sites Valbonë Valley National Park and Theth National Park cover a combined territory Divjakë-Karavasta National Park extends along the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and that the Butrint National Park on Further south sprawls a peninsula Environmental issues in Albania include air and water pollution, climate change Albania is a parliamentary constitutional republic and sovereign The government is based on the separation

The judicial power is vested in the supreme court Law enforcement in is the country primarily The executive power is by exercised the president is by exercised the president and by exercised the president and prime minister The president is the commander - in The tenure of depends the president on by authorised , is the parliament , Albania has extended its responsibilities Albania has extended its responsibilities and ) was by considered Albanian politicians was by considered Albanian politicians to by considered Albanian politicians to be Albania maintains strong ties with the United States , both countries have signed a number both countries have signed a number of Albania has been an active member of They country took on membership It served as vice president of it , joined also 2014 , it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council from The Albanian Armed Forces consist of Land, Air and Naval Forces and the country , participated has communism the country has participated in six international missions Albania , participated has February 2008 Albania reduced the number of active troops In the country , scrapped the 1990s the 1990s , the country scrapped enormous amounts , the country scrapped enormous amounts of the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware Increasing the military budget was one of Albania is defined within a territorial area The country is divided into three regions The highest level of administrative divisions are the twelve constituent counties The counties were created on 31 July 2000 The government introduced the new administrative divisions to be The defunct municipalities are known as neighbourhoods There are overall 2980 villages or communities The country by has classified a developing mixed economy by a developing mixed economy classified has the World Bank In it , had 2016 2016 , it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate , it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate in it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans Its largest trading partners are Italy , Greece The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both

, Albania's GDP per stood capita Albania's GDP per stood capita at Albania was one of three countries The International Monetary Fund predicted 2.6% growth for Albania The country had a trade balance of −9.7% Agriculture in based is the country It remains a significant sector of the economy It employs 41% of the population Albania produces significant amounts of fruits Further , the country is a worldwide significant producer , the country is a worldwide significant producer of the country is a worldwide significant producer of salvia, rosemary and yellow gentian Albania has one of Europe's longest histories The today's region was one of the few places The oldest found seeds in are the region 4,000 In the nation , produced 2009 2009 , the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes , the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine The secondary sector of undergone have Albania The Antea Cement plant in considered is Fushë-Krujë Albanian oil and gas is represents Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula The Albpetrol company is by owned the Albanian state is by owned the Albanian state and by owned the Albanian state and monitors The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by Albania is a significant minerals producer and is The nation is also a notable producer of The tertiary sector represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy in telecommunication industry , represents the world the world , telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor , telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor to telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor to the sector It developed largely through privatisation Tourism is recognised as an industry It directly accounted for 8.4% The increase of been has foreign visitors Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005 , tourism in increased summer tourism in increased summer by The bulk of concentrated is the tourist industry , the Albanian Riviera in has the southwest the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches The coast it has because a particular character

it has because a particular character is Some parts of are this seaside very The international airport of Tirana is the premier air gateway The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 It will prospectively link Durrës The Autostrada 2 (A2 ) is part , it is as one it is as one of The rail network is by administered the national railway company is by administered the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare which by administered Hekurudha Shqiptare the national railway company There has been a considerable increase in In education , is the country education , is the country secular The academic year is apportioned into two semesters Albanian serves as the primary language of The study of is a first foreign language mandatory The languages taught in are schools Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels There is a significant number of private and public institutions The constitution of Albania guarantees equal, free and universal health care The average healthy life expectancy is at 68.8 years and The country's infant mortality rate is estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births Cardiovascular disease remain the principal cause of death In the country , had 2009 2009 , the country had a fruit and vegetable supply , the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams to Albania , has other developed and developing countries other developed and developing countries , Albania has a relatively low rate , Albania has a relatively low rate of Albania has a relatively low rate of obesity natural resources , Albania has a wide variety , Albania has a wide variety of Albania has a wide variety of energy resources , the electricity generation sector of is Albania the electricity generation sector of is Albania dependent Albania has considerably large deposits of oil It has the 10th largest oil reserves in Europe The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast that to connected , the planned Southern Gas Corridor the TAP runs for across Albania's territory

The water resources of are Albania particularly The country's available average quantity of estimated is fresh water In the government , approved 2009 2009 , the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation , the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in the country , had 2018 2018 , the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users , the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers the population of estimated was Albania Its population density stands at 259 inhabitants per The overall life expectancy at birth is 78.5 years The country is the 8th most populous country in the Balkans The country's population rose steadily from 2.5 million The explanation for the recent population decrease is the fall That period was by marked economic mass emigration was by marked economic mass emigration from by marked economic mass emigration from Albania At least 900,000 people left Albania during this period About 53.4% of lives the country's population in Almost 30% of found is the total population by in found followed Tirana County Over 1 million people are concentrated in Tirana Tirana is one of largest cities Issues of ethnicity are a delicate topic ) , no declared ethnicity , no declared ethnicity 390,938 no declared ethnicity 390,938 ( the results stated that " National Minorities Albania recognises nine national or cultural minorities : Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples Other Albanian minorities are the Gorani people and Jews it , " is the Greeks The estimates vary between 60,000 and 300,000 ethnic Greeks in , most of put Western sources most of Western sources put the number The 300,000 mark is by supported Greek government is by supported Greek government as by supported Greek government as well The official language of is the country Albanian of which is Albanian the country

which is Albanian the country is The Shkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects by in spoken inhabited areas by ethnic minorities in include Albania Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality The Greek language is by spoken an important percentage is by spoken an important percentage in by spoken an important percentage in the southern part Among 25 or aged young people less 25 or aged young people less , Greek had , while a stable interest Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country the teaching of banned was Greek Young people have shown a growing interest in Some of go them to Albania and Germany have agreements of there , were the 2011 census the 2011 census , there were 1,587,608 , there were 1,587,608 ( there were 1,587,608 ( 56.7% Religion constitute an important role in the lives themselves considered non - religious 80% believed in God and 40% in believed and God The preliminary results of seemed the 2011 census to Some Muslim Community officials expressed unhappiness with the data The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference also cast doubts on The Muslim Albanians are spread throughout the country there , thought are classical times by was purportedly founded Durrës was purportedly by founded Paul the Apostle purportedly by founded Paul the Apostle , by founded Paul the Apostle , while the Albanian people , appeared first medieval times the Albanian people first appeared within historical records At they , were this point they , were this point mostly Islam arrived for the first time in The country has never had an official religion the clergy of weakened was all faiths The communist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include Evangelicals The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani Albania who was , Said Toptani who was , Said Toptani travelled he , arrested was that by and imprisoned arrested the Ottoman authorities The first evangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance in appeared and the 19th century

Nowadays , it has 160 member congregations , it has 160 member congregations from it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations Albania shares many symbols associated with The flag of Albania is a red flag The red colour used in symbolises the flag has been by used Albanians been by used Albanians since by used Albanians since the Middle Ages been particularly by influenced a multitude particularly by influenced a multitude of by influenced a multitude of ancient and medieval people in by was accompanied the Middle Ages the Middle Ages was by accompanied a corresponding growth was by accompanied a corresponding growth in by accompanied a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art Centuries later , the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial , the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation The architecture of Albania reflects the legacy Major cities in evolved have Albania the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum Ancient architecture is found throughout Albania of they , introduced the Byzantine Empire the Byzantine Empire , they introduced castles , they introduced castles , they introduced castles , citadels The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as Socialist classicism arrived during the communist era in Three Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list These include the ancient remains of Butrint been widely by influenced Albanian culture widely by influenced Albanian culture , by influenced Albanian culture , geography Albanians produce and use many varieties Fërgesë is another national dish , made Flia consists of multiple crêpe-like layers brushed Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle The country has more coffee houses per capita It is cultivated across Southern Albania Albania has a long and ancient history of wine production the right to free expression is guaranteed in the constitution Albania was ranked 84th on Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century During Albanian cinema , developed the Peoples Republic of Albania Albanian cinema , developed the Peoples Republic of Albania rapidly Albanian cinema developed rapidly with the inauguration the Tirana International Film Festival , established was 2003

Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity The first compilation of made was Albanian folk music of by was made Albanian folk music Albanian folk music was by made two Himariot musicians was by made two Himariot musicians , by made two Himariot musicians , Neço Muka Festivali i Këngës is a traditional Albanian song contest organised Këngës by is organised a traditional Albanian song contest by a traditional Albanian song contest organised is the national broadcaster Every cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety that its own specific variety of has costume Some elderly people continue to wear traditional clothing The Albanian language comprises an independent branch and is The cultural renaissance was first of all The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development written by published was Gjon Buzuku by published was Gjon Buzuku in The earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with Other significant examples include : a baptism formula ( They are by mentioned the humanist Marin Barleti are by mentioned the humanist Marin Barleti , by mentioned the humanist Marin Barleti , who The most famous Albanian writer in is the 20th and 21st century probably Albania participated at the Olympic Games in The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006 Albania missed the next four games , two Albania have participated in all games Albania normally competes in events normally that in competes events that in competes events include have been by represented the National Olympic Committee of Albania been by represented the National Olympic Committee of Albania since by represented the National Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972 The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games Popular sports in Football include Albania in Football include Albania , Football include Albania , weightlifting Football is by far the most popular sport It is by governed the Football Association of Albania is by governed the Football Association of Albania ( by governed the Football Association of Albania ( , Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport

Albanian weightlifters have won a total of , the Albanian people have established several communities the Albanian people have established several communities in large numbers of migrated have Albanians Albanian minorities are present in the neighbouring territories In Albanians , make Kosovo Albanians , make Kosovo up , Albanians make up the largest ethnic group Albanians make up the largest ethnic group in the word , refers generally the English language the word generally refers to God has been by used Arabic people been by used Arabic people of by used Arabic people of different religions The pre-Islamic Arabs they a supreme deity worshipped whom they a supreme deity worshipped whom called Muhammad used the word " Allah been by extensively discussed classical Arab philologists Grammarians of the Basra school regarded it of "Allāh exist " the name "Allāh exist " the name in "Allāh " exist in other Semitic languages The corresponding Aramaic form is "Elah " ( Allah " occur " the word Allah " occur in both pagan Arab pagans Ibn Kathir , considered the Islamic scholar Ibn Kathir , Arab pagans considered Allah , Arab pagans considered Allah as Arab pagans considered Allah as an unseen God who Allah as considered an unseen God Pagans worship believed of humans worship believed of humans or Pre-Islamic Meccans worshiped Allah alongside a host Islam forbade worship of anyone polytheistic Arabs that suggested used the name Quraysh ) that was a designation ) that was a designation consecrated that a designation was consecrated the superiority , there is also evidence there is also evidence that Allah also is that evidence to the Kaaba , was that hypothesis the Kaaba , was that hypothesis first Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use There is disagreement on whether Allah is on whether disagreement No iconic representation of known is Allah Allah is the only god in Mecca that the only god in is Mecca The Christian Arabs of today have no other word Arab Christians have used two forms of that two forms of used invocations They adopted the Muslim ' ,

The Syriac, Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words the name used for was God Irfan Shahîd quoting notes Kitab al-Aghani the 10th-century encyclopedic collection pre-Islamic Arab Christians Kitab al-Aghani notes that the 10th-century encyclopedic collection " Allah " is the unique, omnipotent and only deity Allah " is the unique, omnipotent and only deity and divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot " He is the only God , He is the only God , creator No human eyes can see Allah till The Qur'an declares " the reality of God is not a part of In there , are Islamic tradition Islamic tradition , there are 99 Names , there are 99 Names of there are 99 Names of God All these names refer to Allah , Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase " Insha'Allah Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over which man in believed over a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate The Qur’ān , " insists Francis Edward Peters The Qur’an's Allah who is the same Creator God covenanted who is the same Creator God covenanted with the initial , elided is no hamza may still which contain popular expressions still which contain popular expressions use which popular expressions contain use the word Some Muslims leave the name "Allāh " This goes back to early translation work but the Malayan High Court in revoked 2009 the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law the contemporary controversy , triggered was more than four centuries the contemporary controversy was by triggered usage was by triggered usage of by triggered usage of "Allah The government appealed the court ruling , and the High Court appealed , and the court ruling In the court ruled October 2013 in October 2013 the court ruled in favor the court ruled in favor of In early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using

in usage is that these two states usage is that these two states has the Malaysian government , introduced has some media criticism , the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution " God , referred is the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription is by to referred the term by to referred the term , this is discouraged for new text " Algorithms " is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal Algorithms " is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal of The journal is by published MDPI is by published MDPI and by published MDPI and was It is a part of the South Caucasus region The modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence , the ethnic Armenian majority of formed the Nagorno-Karabakh region the ethnic Armenian majority of the Nagorno-Karabakh region formed self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh It is one of six independent Turkic states Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 182 countries It is one of the founding members Azerbaijan is a developing country and ranks It has a high rate of economic development the term "Azerbaijan , derives " a modern etymology the term "Azerbaijan " derives from that The original etymology of thought is this name ) , there is a mention , there is a mention of there is a mention of "âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide The Greek name was by mentioned Diodorus Siculus was by mentioned Diodorus Siculus and by mentioned Diodorus Siculus and Strabo Early settlements included the Scythians during the 9th century Following Iranian Medes , came the Scythians Iranian Medes , came the Scythians to Iranian Medes came to dominate the area The Medes forged a vast empire between 900 and 700 BC The Sasanian Empire turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state Despite Albania , remained Sassanid rule Sassanid rule , Albania remained an entity , Albania remained an entity in Albania remained an entity in the region The Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sasanians and Byzantines of by was filled the Abbasid Caliphate the Abbasid Caliphate was by filled numerous local dynasties was by filled numerous local dynasties such

by filled numerous local dynasties such as was gradually by seized the waves gradually by seized the waves of by seized the waves of Oghuz Turks the possessions of ruled were the subsequent Seljuk Empire of by were ruled the subsequent Seljuk Empire the subsequent Seljuk Empire were by ruled Eldiguzids were by ruled Eldiguzids , by ruled Eldiguzids , technically vassals The local dynasty of the Shirvanshahs became a vassal state Following two independent and rival states , emerged Timur's death two independent and rival states , emerged Timur's death : , the Safavid dynasty of subdued Iran the Safavid dynasty of Iran subdued the Shirvanshahs of the Safavids , converted the next century the next century , the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population , the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population to the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population to Shia Islam they , ousted were the early 17th century were briefly by occupied the Russians briefly by occupied the Russians as by occupied the Russians as a consequence the area , ruled was the Safavids the area was by ruled the Iranian Afsharid dynasty , the area was under the successive rule the area was under the successive rule of From Imperial Russia , switched the late 18th century Imperial Russia , switched the late 18th century to , Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards In the Russians , invaded 1804 the Russians , invaded 1804 and the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town territory lies was , the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan , Russia was until Iranian territory Russia was until Iranian territory occupied of the Russians , invaded the Gulistan treaty the Gulistan treaty , the Russians invaded Iran's Erivan Khanate This sparked the final bout of hostilities The resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay , forced Qajar Iran to It was by followed the March Days massacres was that by followed the March Days massacres that by followed the March Days massacres took in the leading Musavat party , declared May 1918

May 1918 , the leading Musavat party declared independence , the leading Musavat party declared independence as the leading Musavat party declared independence as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic The ADR was the first modern parliamentary republic in the Muslim world By it , was March 1920 it , was March 1920 obvious Independent Azerbaijan the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army lasted until only 23 months the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army lasted until only 23 months invaded Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence , and Georgia signed an agreement and Georgia signed an agreement with Georgia signed an agreement with Turkey The previously independent Republic of Aras would also become the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic During Azerbaijan , played World War II World War II , Azerbaijan played a crucial role , Azerbaijan played a crucial role in Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy Operation Edelweiss by out carried the German Wehrmacht by out carried the German Wehrmacht targeted A fifth of fought all Azerbaijanis in Some 250,000 people from killed were Azerbaijan More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named Heroes of in the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR , dropped 1990 1990 , the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words , the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words " the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words " Soviet Socialist on the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan , adopted 18 October 1991 18 October 1991 , the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration , the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence which a Declaration of adopted Independence The early years of overshadowed were independence of by were overshadowed independence independence were by overshadowed the First Nagorno-Karabakh war were by overshadowed the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with by overshadowed the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with the ethnic Armenian majority in Armenians , controlled 1994 Armenians , controlled 1994 up , Armenians controlled up to 14–16 percent Armenians controlled up to 14–16 percent of During many atrocities committed were the war

many atrocities committed were the war including many atrocities were committed including the massacres democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey , overthrown was 1993 democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was by overthrown a military insurrection was by overthrown a military insurrection led by by overthrown led a military insurrection another coup , attempted was 1995 another coup was attempted against Aliyev the country , tainted was the same time the country was by tainted rampant corruption was by tainted rampant corruption in by tainted rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy Aliyev , reelected was October 1998 Aliyev was reelected for a second term He was reelected to a third term In President Ilham Aliyev , secured April 2018 April 2018 , President Ilham Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term , President Ilham Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term in President Ilham Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term in the election that his fourth consecutive term in secured the election , new clashes in resumed the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict new clashes in resumed the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict along Azerbaijan is located in the South Caucasus region It lies between latitudes 38 The total length of is Azerbaijan's land borders , 1,007 kilometers , of is which Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan : the Caspian Sea There are also three mountain ranges , the Greater also are , three mountain ranges The highest peak of Azerbaijan is Mount Bazardüzü Only 24 of are the 8,350 rivers greater All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in , and the longest river is Kur and the longest river is Kur ( the longest river is Kur ( 1,515 km the Azerbaijani government , taken has 1991 , the Azerbaijani government has taken measures the Azerbaijani government has taken measures to National protection of accelerated the environment after the state budget after accelerated when 2001 Within protected areas , doubled four years protected areas , doubled four years and Azerbaijan is home to a wide variety The rest of consists Azerbaijan's terrain of by is influenced particularly Azerbaijan is by particularly influenced cold arctic air masses

by particularly influenced cold arctic air masses of Azerbaijan's diverse landscape air masses affects the ways enter air masses the ways affects enter the country The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences That leads to the formation of 9 out of are 11 existing climate zones they , formed were Azerbaijan they were formed over a long geological timeframe is particularly by evidenced remnants particularly by evidenced remnants of by evidenced remnants of ancient rivers of Azerbaijan , is water supply Azerbaijan , is water supply below , Azerbaijan is below the average Azerbaijan is below the average in All big water reservoirs are built on Kur The Kura and Aras are the major rivers " , which is a natural gas fire , which is a natural gas fire blazes which is a natural gas fire blazes continuously Flames jet out into the air There are 106 species of mammals The national animal of Azerbaijan is the Karabakh horse The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper Azerbaijan's flora consists of more than 4,500 species of in the flora , is Azerbaijan the flora , is Azerbaijan much Caucasus found can be whole The country lies within four ecoregions : The structural formation of completed was Azerbaijan's political system of by was completed Azerbaijan's political system Azerbaijan's political system was by completed the adoption was by completed the adoption of by completed the adoption of the new Constitution , the state symbols of are the Azerbaijan Republic the state symbols of the Azerbaijan Republic are the flag The Constitution of states Azerbaijan that of it states that Azerbaijan it states that Azerbaijan is it that states is a presidential republic The legislative power is by held the unicameral National Assembly is by held the unicameral National Assembly and by held the unicameral National Assembly and the Supreme National Assembly The Parliament of Azerbaijan , called Milli Majlis , The executive power is by held the President is by held the President , who by held , the President The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the prime minister

The president does not have the right the parliament , have must the presidential veto , the parliament must have a majority the parliament must have a majority of The judicial power is vested in the Constitutional Court The president nominates the judges in these courts the government by is headed the Executive Power by the Executive Power headed is President The President appoints the Cabinet of Ministers and other high-ranking officials The Local Executive Authority is merely a continuation of The Provision determines the legal status of local state administration In the President , approved June 2012 June 2012 , the President approved the new Regulation , the President approved the new Regulation , the President which approved , the new Regulation which approved , the new Regulation granted The other nominal tier of governance is municipalities Currently , there are 1,607 municipalities , there are 1,607 municipalities across there are 1,607 municipalities across the country The Law on Municipal Service regulates the activities of municipal employees The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president It was established on 10 April 1997 of it , remains democracy it , remains democracy classified by the European Parliament in described September 2015 , the President of signed Azerbaijan the President of Azerbaijan signed a decree This decree was welcomed as a positive step at a practice , termed home home , a practice termed Caviar diplomacy ESISC in asserted that report that ) , ESISC is a part , ESISC is a part of ESISC is a part of Baku's lobbying efforts The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations The most recent country to recognize was Azerbaijan Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries It holds observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership The term of began office on Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions Azerbaijan was one of the first countries The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts Azerbaijan is an active member of NATO's Partnership for Peace the US Congress On , 1 July 2021 advanced

The history of dates the modern Azerbaijan army back the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan , created were the Soviet Union of Azerbaijan , had 2021 2021 , Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel , Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in its armed forces There are also 17,000 paramilitary troops and The armed forces have three branches : the Land Forces Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub - the armed forces embrace several military sub - groups that several military sub - embrace groups These are the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Border Service Azerbaijan closely cooperates with NATO ) of 12 are which of 12 are which under which 12 are under the direct authority 12 are under the direct authority of Moreover , Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic , Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic ( Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic ( " in Azerbaijan , became 1991 1991 , Azerbaijan became a member , Azerbaijan became a member of Azerbaijan became a member of the International Monetary Fund The banking system of consists Azerbaijan of (now Central) Bank was created in 1992 The Central Bank serves as Azerbaijan's central bank , demand growth , the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached 16.6% chronically high inflation , brought was the early 2000s chronically high inflation was brought under control Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th Azerbaijan 2019 , improved World Bank's Doing Business report 2019 , Azerbaijan improved its position , Azerbaijan improved its position in Azerbaijan improved its position in the Ease There are many pipelines in Azerbaijan The region of accounts the Lesser Caucasus for a 30-year contract , signed was September 1994 a 30-year contract was signed between the State Oil Company Azerbaijan , considered is the Soviet exploitation , Azerbaijan is considered one Azerbaijan is considered one of In Azerbaijan , had 2016 2016 , Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares , Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity In 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of

Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of biocapacity This they means use more biocapacity they means use more biocapacity than Azerbaijan is one of the sponsors Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway line will connect the Caspian region with Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural land At the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares of there were 4,755,100 hectares of utilized agricultural area In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m3 Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows In it is some areas profitable it is some areas profitable to The Caspian fishing industry concentrates on the dwindling stocks of Tourism is an important part of the economy The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s It was not until the 2000s Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination The government of set has Azerbaijan It is a national strategy to make tourism is to make a national strategy Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in In the Azerbaijani government , established 2002 2002 , the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport , the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range In the country , became the same year the same year , the country became a member , the country became a member of the country became a member of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic The 2012 construction of meant was Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway In a new oil and gas boom , helped the 21st century a new oil and gas boom , helped the 21st century improve , a new oil and gas boom helped improve the situation a new oil and gas boom helped improve the situation in The government launched a campaign aimed at rapid growth ; forecast is 2007–2008 rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years Public payphones are available for local calls Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration , there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and

there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and 1,485,000 internet users The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency launched its first satellite AzerSat 1 into The satellite covers Europe and a significant part 50.1% of is the total population female The 2011 population growth-rate was 0.85% , compared A significant factor restricting population growth is a high level In Azerbaijan , has total total , Azerbaijan has 78 cities , Azerbaijan has 78 cities , Azerbaijan has 78 cities , 63 city districts The official language which is , Azerbaijani which is , Azerbaijani is Azerbaijani is by spoken approximately 92% is by spoken approximately 92% of by spoken approximately 92% of the population There are a dozen other minority languages spoken natively are all by spoken small minorities Some of are these language communities very Armenian was the majority language in Nagorno-Karabakh Around 97% of the population are Muslims Sunni ; the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest proportion ; the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest proportion of the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest proportion of Shia Muslims Other faiths are by practised the country's various ethnic groups of Azerbaijan , is its Constitution its Constitution , Azerbaijan is a secular state , Azerbaijan is a secular state and Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures In there , were 2003 2003 , there were 250 Roman Catholics Other Christian denominations as of include 2002 with Jewish organizations ; estimate a 2,000-year history Jewish organizations ; estimate a 2,000-year history that Azerbaijan also is home to A relatively high percentage of obtained have Azerbaijanis Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of to the education institutions , include elementary schools elementary schools , the education institutions include thousands , the education institutions include thousands of the education institutions include thousands of preschools of that ; 's many influences that ; 's many influences why The latter is derived from the traditional celebration The profile of consists Azerbaijan's population , Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the Chokha and Papakhi There are radio broadcasts in Russian, Georgian, Kurdish, Lezgian and Talysh languages In several newspapers published are Baku

several newspapers published are Baku in several newspapers are published in Russian Music of builds Azerbaijan on Azerbaijan that on builds folk traditions that on builds folk traditions reach For Azerbaijani music evolved has centuries Azerbaijani music evolved has centuries under Azerbaijani music has evolved under the badge Azerbaijani music has a branchy mode system , where chromatization has , where a branchy mode system Among national musical instruments there are 14 string instruments national musical instruments there are 14 string instruments , there are 14 string instruments , eight percussion instruments Mugham is usually a suite with performing the singers , have mugham the singers , have mugham to the singers have to transform their emotions UNESCO the Azerbaijani mugham proclaimed tradition a Masterpiece the Azerbaijani mugham proclaimed tradition a Masterpiece of Ashiq combines poetry , storytelling, dance, and vocal and instrumental music It is a mystic troubadour or traveling This tradition has its origin in the Shamanistic beliefs Azerbaijani pop and Azerbaijani folk music arose with the international popularity of Azerbaijan is an enthusiastic participant in the Eurovision Song Contest Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest The country's entry gained third place in 2009 Ell and Nikki won the first place There are dozens of Azerbaijani folk dances They are performed at formal celebrations the dancers at performed and formal celebrations The earliest known figure in Azerbaijani literature was Izzeddin Hasanoglu Azerbaijani literature who was , Izzeddin Hasanoglu who was , Izzeddin Hasanoglu composed Classical literature in formed was Azerbaijani the poets of Gazi Burhanaddin were this period of Gazi Burhanaddin were this period , Gazi Burhanaddin were this period , Haqiqi The end of the 14th century was also the period of Book of Dede Korkut " consists of two manuscripts It is a collection of 12 stories The 16th-century poet , Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals , Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals " Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals " in Fuzuli , destined was his predecessors His major works include " The Divan of Ghazals "

Azerbaijani literature , flourished further the same century Azerbaijani literature further flourished with the development Shah Ismail I wrote about 1400 verses in I wrote about 1400 verses in Azerbaijani were by up taken prominent poets by up taken prominent poets and , Azerbaijanis also celebrate the Epic of Koroglu Azerbaijanis also celebrate the Epic of Koroglu ( Modern Azerbaijani literature in based is Azerbaijan it , taught was the mid-19th century it was taught in the schools Azerbaijanis a major part have , a rich and distinctive culture a major part have , a rich and distinctive culture of This art form is by represented a wide range is by represented a wide range of by represented a wide range of handicrafts The Azerbaijani carpet is a traditional handmade textile of various sizes Azerbaijan has been since ancient times Scientific research of connected is the Azerbaijani carpet The traditional cuisine is famous for an abundance which in reflected , the national dishes Saffron-rice plov is the flagship food in Azerbaijan Azerbaijanis often use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass as often they use as traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass they use as traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass have Azerbaijani architecture typically combines elements of Azerbaijani architecture has heavy influences from Persian architecture Among Quadrangular Castle are other architectural treasures in other architectural treasures Quadrangular Castle are in Mardakan Quadrangular Castle are in Mardakan , little monumental architecture , created was the 19th and early 20th centuries The task for modern Azerbaijani architecture is diverse application They consist of some 1500 dislodged Azerbaijani art , gone has the centuries Azerbaijani art has gone through many stylistic changes is traditionally by characterized a warmth traditionally by characterized a warmth of by characterized a warmth of colour Azerbaijani painting enjoyed preeminence in Caucasus The film industry in dates Azerbaijan back In Azerbaijan , was fact Azerbaijan , was fact among , Azerbaijan was among the first countries Azerbaijan was among the first countries involved this bay town on producing was the Caspian like the oil industry , attracted today today , the oil industry attracted foreigners , the oil industry attracted foreigners eager

the oil industry attracted foreigners eager to the first Baku International Film Festival East-West , held was the Soviet Union the first Baku International Film Festival East-West was held in Baku There are three state-owned television channels : AzTV The Constitution of claims Azerbaijan to , the media environment in deteriorated Azerbaijan the media environment in deteriorated Azerbaijan rapidly " Racial discrimination contributes to the country’s lack Racial discrimination contributes to the country’s lack of three journalists , killed were the last few years Azerbaijan had the biggest number of journalists Amnesty's 2015/16 annual report on stated the country ' persecution stated ' ... the country At least 18 prisoners of remained conscience in Some of went this money to Football is the most popular sport in Azerbaijan The national football team of Azerbaijan demonstrates relatively low performance The most successful Azerbaijani football clubs are Neftchi Baku , Qarabağ In Neftchi Baku , became 2012 2012 , Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team , Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to advance In Qarabağ , became 2014 2014 , Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club , Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club advancing Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club advancing to of Qarabağ , became the UEFA Champions League the UEFA Champions League , Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club , Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club to Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club to reach Futsal is another popular sport in Azerbaijan The Azerbaijan national futsal team reached fourth place in the 2010 UEFA Futsal Championship Azerbaijan is one of the traditional powerhouses Backgammon also plays a major role in Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League is one of the strongest women Its women's national team came fourth at the 2005 European Championship Azerbaijan has a Formula One race-track , made Azerbaijan hosted several major sport competitions since the late 2000s Baku , selected was 8 December 2012 Amateur astronomy participants is where a hobby participants is where a hobby enjoy Amateur astronomers do not use the field Most amateurs are hobbyists , while

others are , while hobbyists Amateur astronomers typically view the sky at Some just look at the sky members as join of amateur astronomical societies Collectively , amateur astronomers observe a variety , amateur astronomers observe a variety of amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Sun Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths , An early pioneer of radio astronomy was Grote Reber who was , an amateur astronomer Grote Reber Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes , while others use , while home-made radio telescopes Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments Amateur astronomers also that use star charts also that use star charts , that use star charts , depending Observing logs typically record details typically which objects record about details which objects record about details were of many others , are a star chart many others , are a star chart so Star hopping is a method often used by is often used a method It involves the use of maps These apps make use of the inbuilt hardware Setting circles that are angular measurement scales can that are angular measurement scales can be , the telescope user can use the setting circle the telescope user can use the setting circle to A computerized setting circle is called a "digital setting circle " display they , are a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates they , are a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates not they are not simply a digital read-out the object is chosen from the electronic database which from chosen , the electronic database the two angular distance values until moved reach zero the object should be in the eyepiece Computerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession Traditional printed sources are by subtitled the "epoch" year are by subtitled the "epoch" year , which by subtitled , the "epoch" year the user , enters typically these computer-driven telescopes , the user typically enters the name the user typically enters the name of They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers

For GOTO telescopes , tend example GOTO telescopes , tend example to manufacturers allows to add equatorial tracking in CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy and is computer controlled telescope mounts CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy and is computer controlled telescope mounts now and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is now a viable means CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is now a viable means for anyone enables to control a telescope The observer can image through the telescope by transmitted is then the telescope Amateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including Scientific research is most often not the "main" goal Work of is scientific merit possible large numbers where applies of amateur astronomers Amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities amateur astronomers , measure can professional setups , amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted , amateur astronomers have played a major role amateur astronomers have played a major role in There are a large number of amateur astronomical societies Members range from active observers with Societies range widely in their goals Major national or international societies generally publish their own journal or , ) that is a modern Japanese martial art ) that is a modern Japanese martial art is that is a modern Japanese martial art is split was originally by developed Morihei Ueshiba originally by developed Morihei Ueshiba , by developed Morihei Ueshiba , as Ueshiba's goal was to create an art Its curriculum comprises various techniques , primarily throws Aikido derives mainly from the martial art Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido was by created ( 1883–1969 by created ( 1883–1969 ) Ueshiba Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu , is which The art of is the primary technical influence on with Ueshiba , incorporated empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques , Ueshiba incorporated training movements , Ueshiba incorporated training movements with Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons ; His official association with continued Daitō-ryū His official association with continued Daitō-ryū until At Ueshiba referred that time to that time Ueshiba referred to his martial art Ueshiba referred to his martial art as

in he , met 1919 he , met 1919 and This idea was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis , the connection with gave Deguchi the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry of he , was this exposure he , was this exposure able He was by followed Tadashi Abe was by followed Tadashi Abe in by followed Tadashi Abe in 1952 Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of Koichi Tohei was by sent Aikikai Hombu was by sent Aikikai Hombu to by sent Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii This trip was by followed several subsequent visits was by followed several subsequent visits and by followed several subsequent visits and is The United Kingdom followed in 1955 ; by Masamichi Noro , arrived Morihei Ueshiba Masamichi Noro , arrived Morihei Ueshiba in , Masamichi Noro arrived in France Masamichi Noro arrived in France in The largest aikido organization which is , the Aikikai Foundation which is , the Aikikai Foundation remains The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido by were , begun Yoseikan Aikido not they cause when any major upheavals they cause when any major upheavals were in two more major styles , emerged 1969 Significant controversy arose with the departure of Tohei left as a result of The disagreement was over the proper role of followers of split subsequently Saito The study of is an important component of Ueshiba's application of in took aikido This concept was known as Takemusu Aiki in there , are virtually all Japanese martial arts there , are virtually all Japanese martial arts both , there are both physical and mental aspects there are both physical and mental aspects of The physical training in is aikido diverse of beginners , learn throws beginners , learn throws how ; the techniques for consist defense the techniques for consist defense of pushing or extending are movements Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement Both are studying aikido principles of Good involves attention to the technique The following are a sample of following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws

Many of derive these techniques from styles ; the following are the terms ; the following are the terms used the following by are used the terms by the terms used are the Aikikai Foundation Aikido makes use of body movement a technique ; applied is their side a technique is applied with motion From there , are these few basic techniques there , are these few basic techniques numerous there are numerous of possible implementations For Gozo Shioda , described instance Gozo Shioda , described instance using Gozo Shioda described using in a brawl Weapons training in includes traditionally aikido Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques , where The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques One feature of training is aikido Freestyle practice with is called multiple attackers during it , is training training , it is the responsibility , it is the responsibility of it is the responsibility of to in the type showed that the martial arts the type showed that the martial arts of the type that showed of injuries Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish so a particular rank in is one organization a particular rank in is one organization not Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers Aikido styles vary in their intention as counteract some styles , allow this students , some styles allow this Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practicing There what is of no generally agreed definition what is of no generally agreed definition constitutes The three classical branches of painting are visual art "art , referred " the 17th century "art " referred to any skill the typical concept that feel of "artistic works which to related , the older Latin meaning English words derived from include this meaning Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions He speaks approvingly of this Socrates " , gives "Ion " , Socrates gives no hint , Socrates gives no hint of Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval the musical arts , Aristotle considered epic poetry , Aristotle considered epic poetry ,

Aristotle considered epic poetry , tragedy For music , imitates example music , imitates example with , music imitates with the media music imitates with the media of The forms also differ in their object , the forms differ in their manner the forms differ in their manner of which a collection of are disciplines Art that is something stimulates that something is stimulates an individual's thoughts people , consider will a common or practical way it may be considered commercial art the difference that argued between fine art , even fine art often has goals even fine art often has goals beyond by has been described art has been by described philosopher Richard Wollheim been by described philosopher Richard Wollheim as by described philosopher Richard Wollheim as " Art as mimesis has deep roots Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view R. G. Collingwood art advanced that the idealist view art advanced that the idealist view expresses influenced by interpreted have Martin Heidegger by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of that an institutional theory of offered art Larry Shiner has described fine art as A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks that bear and abrasion cut marks Many great traditions in art have a foundation more of survived have their art works more have survived and their art works more and survived of their influence Some also have provided the first records artists provided of how the first records of much art , focused the Western Middle Ages much art , focused the Western Middle Ages on , much art focused on the expression much art focused on the expression of , Islamic art's rejection of led iconography Islamic art's rejection of led iconography to east , religion dominated artistic styles , religion dominated artistic styles and religion dominated artistic styles and forms India and Tibet saw emphasis China saw the flourishing of many art forms Chinese styles vary greatly from era for Tang dynasty paintings , are example

Tang dynasty paintings , are example monochromatic Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties This led to Romantic rejections of The history of 20th-century art is a narrative Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence influenced by had ) Western Renaissance draftsmanship by Western Renaissance draftsmanship ) had an immense influence were by up taken Picasso by up taken Picasso and Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970 , Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth which as accepted , an unavoidable truth Works of are art not An example of this is the Silk Road Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences is , where the Silk Road Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples Art form " refers to the elements It by covers adopted the methods by the methods adopted covers the artist In general there are three schools general there are three schools of there are three schools of philosophy Extreme Formalism all aesthetic properties is that the view all aesthetic properties is that the view of Philosophers almost universally reject this view Unfortunately , there is little consensus , there is little consensus on there is little consensus on terminology Extreme Intentionalism that authorial intent holds plays a decisive role that authorial intent holds plays a decisive role in It the persons defines as the subject the persons defines as the subject or by the subject , is the title the title , the subject is Napoleon , the subject is Napoleon , the subject is Napoleon , and the content is , and Napoleon The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques in historical and material conditions predominate may other cases historical and material conditions predominate may other cases , Art can connote a sense of A common contemporary criticism of occurs some modern art along Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain , is " conceptual art Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain " is among the first examples Hirst came up with the conceptual design Art has had a great number of the purpose that imply of Art The non-motivated purposes of art are those

of art that are those art that are those are that are those are integral much of represented has the finest art , there have been many periods there have been many periods where have art been where many periods art been where many periods of Reproductive methods such as made moulds Another important innovation came in the 15th century in its collection is by distinguished an impressively wide historic span is by distinguished an impressively wide historic span , by distinguished an impressively wide historic span , from Its various areas of emphasis give it Italy the art tourism of became the Grand Tour the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry The Uffizi in opened Florence entirely Museums in tend the United States to by , was created example , was by created John Taylor Johnston was by created John Taylor Johnston , by created John Taylor Johnston , a railroad executive There have been attempts by that to create was art than the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys " said mere objects This time period saw the rise of such things Artists broadly identified under the heading Many of these performances create works of these performances that create works these performances that create works are that create works are only The marker of becomes status understanding Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that the destruction of is art Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images It has been a crucial factor in The iconographic content of cause could art of the artists' vision , became art art , the artists' vision became the usual determinant , the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content the appropriate balance shifted is have what After several important art theorists , emerged Greenberg several important art theorists , emerged Greenberg , Pop artists like became Andy Warhol both art that proposed is any activity There there is that evidence there is that evidence may In Larry Shiner , examines ' ' , Larry Shiner examines the construction

, Larry Shiner examines the construction of Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art , a significant shift to took general aesthetic theory a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place to general aesthetic theory which took place general aesthetic theory which took place attempted which took place attempted to This resulted in the rise of William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay later be by repudiated theorists be by repudiated theorists from by repudiated theorists from the reader-response school was himself by trained New Critics Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists " The task of is criticism The task of criticism is the reconstruction The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the artist , created Mark Tansey 1981 , the artist Mark Tansey created a work the artist Mark Tansey created a work of Influential theorists include Judith Butler , Luce Irigaray historical discourse was by explored Hayden White by had been stressed thought had been by stressed a very different form been by stressed a very different form of by stressed a very different form of philosophy He was challenged on the basis Classificatory disputes in included have the 20th century disagreement that argued about the definition to classificatory disputes , are Novitz Novitz , classificatory disputes are more often disputes , classificatory disputes are more often disputes about classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values they are not advancing a definition Arthur Danto , suggested , 1998 , Arthur Danto , suggested a thought experiment Arthur Danto , suggested a thought experiment showing of it ; is art art ; it is term ; it is term associated it is term associated with It is this use of the word Making judgments of requires value it " is whether "art an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit , art often depicts terrible images art often depicts terrible images made at the horrific imagery , demonstrates the same time the same time , the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability

, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition Countless schools have proposed their own ways to It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings , Artists express something so that their audience express so that something of that ; is the human condition that ; is the human condition , ; that is , what that it , is what it , is what is Internationally there are also extensive efforts there are also extensive efforts to This should also secure the economic basis “ Cultural goods are part of Cultural goods are part of the identity you , destroy also their culture , you also destroy their identity Agnostida is an order of arthropod which an order of is arthropod They are present in the Lower Cambrian fossil record The Agnostida are divided into two suborders As agnostids , are a group agnostids , are a group isopygous Agnostida within Trilobita remains the class within Trilobita remains the class uncertain Trilobita remains the class uncertain , The challenge to focused has the status the limbs of resemble closely agnostids the agnostids whether debated lived a pelagic their fossils , and found swimming and their fossils found in association their fossils found in association with Their wide geographic dispersion in is the fossil record uncharacteristic The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge The orientation of appears the thoracic appendages ill Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy it , called is a pregnancy , it is called an induced abortion it is called an induced abortion , done , abortion is one , abortion is one of abortion is one of the safest procedures Modern methods use medication or surgery The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and induced increase do not abortions Countries that permit have abortions that permit abortions have different limits In abortion , is some areas abortion , is some areas legal There is debate over the moral, ethical, and legal issues who oppose argue often abortion an embryo often argue that abortion

it often argue that abortion it that argue is part 1 to 2% of done are abortions Only 30% to 50% of progress conceptions past Between 15% and 30% of end known pregnancies in Other causes include vascular disease ( such Medical abortions by are induced those by those induced are abortifacient pharmaceuticals The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination Mifepristone –misoprostol combination regimens work faster –misoprostol combination regimens work faster and This regimen is effective in the second trimester medical abortion using considered is a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen Early medical abortion regimens using followed , mifepristone by , followed 24–48 hours later mifepristone , by 24–48 hours later followed buccal or vaginal misoprostol by 24–48 hours later followed buccal or vaginal misoprostol are A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review providing that concluded women providing that concluded women with permitting women to has self-administer abortion medication Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion cervical dilation in used when very early pregnancy D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for be by surgically performed hysterotomy by surgically performed hysterotomy or Hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of by induced first inducing labor This is sometimes called "induced miscarriage Only limited data are available comparing this method may be by complicated the occurrence be by complicated the occurrence of by complicated the occurrence of brief fetal survival In there , is Southeast Asia Southeast Asia , there is an ancient tradition , there is an ancient tradition of there is an ancient tradition of attempting Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse The health risks of depend abortion principally Legal abortions performed in are the developed world abortion , estimated was 2012 CDC estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality in estimated that 2019 to abortion , had 2009 2009 , abortion had a mortality rate , abortion had a mortality rate lower abortion had a mortality rate lower than There is little difference in terms

Vacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method Infections account for one-third of second-trimester abortion are similar to those to historian Linda Gordon , states the U.S. historian Linda Gordon , states the U.S. : Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions A report by concluded the American Psychological Association that by a woman's first abortion concluded that the American Psychological Association a woman's first abortion concluded that the American Psychological Association is A long term-study among found US women that among about 99% found that US women about 99% found that US women of about 99% that found of women Relief few women was with the primary emotion few women was with the primary emotion feeling Women seeking use may an abortion They may attempt self-induced abortion or Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury Estimates of vary deaths according , opponents of point abortion opponents of point abortion out Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates A 2011 study concluded that in the United States the incidence that estimated of unsafe abortion Forty percent of are the world's women able from unsafe abortions , result safe abortions unsafe abortions , result safe abortions in , unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and Secondary infertility caused by affects an unsafe abortion caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women The rate of increased has unsafe abortions , medical reporting of is abortion medical reporting of is abortion not The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per , the incidence of is abortion the incidence of is abortion similar restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases The rate of induced , legal employees of it ranged Guttmacher Institute of it ranged Guttmacher Institute from Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 it ranged from 7 per An American study in concluded 2002 that in about half concluded that 2002 about half concluded that 2002 of about half that concluded of women 26% that reported of reported legal induced abortions 91% of classified were these during this ; accounts 2000

this ; accounts 2000 for ; this accounts for <0.2% this accounts for <0.2% of , 89% of occurred terminations 89% of occurred terminations at 64% of were reported those why women have are abortions women have are abortions diverse Some of include may the reasons Some abortions are undergone as the result These might include the preference for the state's interest that ruled in the life the state can not favor the life physicians , be must privacy it , decided also Roe , it also decided Doe it also decided Doe v. All these factors may relate to health This he allows the room the attending physician he allows the room the attending physician needs Public opinion shifted in America following in she , traveled the United States she , traveled the United States to , she traveled to Sweden , an outbreak of left German measles an outbreak of German measles left 15,000 babies the American Medical Association , supported publicly 1967 , the American Medical Association publicly supported liberalization the American Medical Association publicly supported liberalization of may be by treated radical hysterectomy be by treated radical hysterectomy and by treated radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection Exposure to estimated is a single chemotherapy drug Exposures above 0.005–0.025 cause Gy Vaginal delivery may result in dissemination performing other scholars ; disagree abortions other scholars ; disagree abortions with ; other scholars disagree with this interpretation other scholars disagree with this interpretation , The physician Scribonius Largus wrote in 43 CE Scribonius Largus wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath in wrote that 43 CE he was belonged — which of the Catholic Church divided was its history the Catholic Church divided was its history on From excommunication , became 1750 1750 , excommunication became the punishment , excommunication became the punishment for excommunication became the punishment for abortions Islamic tradition has traditionally permitted abortion they advertised , and their services to abortion , was some sources abortion , was some sources more a law was passed permitting abortions Induced abortion has long been the source

Ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, religious and legal issues surrounding related are abortion In arguments , presented both public and private debate arguments , presented both public and private debate in , arguments presented in favor arguments presented in favor of are often by spearheaded groups often by spearheaded groups advocating by spearheaded groups advocating one a human fetus that argues is a human person Current laws pertaining to are abortion Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws These requirements usually depend on the age Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure a woman that require obtain the consent Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction medical authorities , recorded have Nicaragua , medical authorities have recorded rises medical authorities have recorded rises in may also that support clinics also that support clinics perform that clinics support perform abortions This is also a terminology in pregnant women , engage may heavy social stigma pregnant women may engage in medical tourism Women The organization on Waves has The NGO created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container in Dutch law , prevails the Netherlands Dutch law , prevails the Netherlands when parents allow to determine sex The development of led has this technology The preference for reported is male children the country despite occurs that the fact Many countries have taken legislative steps to Anti-abortion violence is by classified both governmental and scholarly sources is by classified both governmental and scholarly sources as by classified both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism have been by recorded providers been by recorded providers since by recorded providers since 1977 abortion into brought where some countries In Chris Danze , organized 2003 2003 , Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations , Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Texas The organizations released the personal information online , it caused may be sheep may be by caused stress be by caused stress or by caused stress or physical exertion may be by caused contagious disease

be by caused contagious disease , by caused contagious disease , such Viral infection can cause abortion in Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for be that in induced mares that in induced mares have Feticide can occur in horses The abstract also records all deeds , , searching through is abstracts searching through abstracts is a common way Fighting began on April 19, 1775 , The American Patriots were by supported France were by supported France and by supported France and Spain in the American colonies , were the 17th and 18th centuries the American colonies , were the 17th and 18th centuries largely in tensions , arose 1763 tensions , arose 1763 over , tensions arose over trade tensions arose over trade , on the First Continental Congress , drafted September 5, 1774 September 5, 1774 , the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition , the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition to the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition to the King achieve fighting , began a peaceful solution fighting , began a peaceful solution with , fighting began with the Battle of Lexington fighting began with the Battle of Lexington on both sides , viewed increasingly Parliament , both sides increasingly viewed conflict both sides increasingly viewed conflict as He captured New York City in November In Howe , succeeded summer 1777 Howe , succeeded summer 1777 in Howe succeeded in taking Philadelphia in France , provided 1763 1763 , France provided the Patriots , France provided the Patriots informal economic and military support France provided the Patriots informal economic and military support from After the two countries , signed Saratoga Saratoga , the two countries signed a commercial agreement , the two countries signed a commercial agreement and the two countries signed a commercial agreement and a Treaty of Alliance of Congress , joined independence independence , Congress joined France , Congress joined France in Congress joined France in their global war This undermined the 1778 "Southern Strategy " devised by undermined " devised the 1778 "Southern Strategy by Cornwallis besieged was September 1781 by Cornwallis was besieged September 1781

Cornwallis was by besieged a Franco-American force was by besieged a Franco-American force in by besieged a Franco-American force in Yorktown Cornwallis failed , surrendered the garrison , Cornwallis surrendered in October Cornwallis surrendered in October , to the Mississippi River ; became the Pacific the Pacific ; the Mississippi River became the dividing line ; the Mississippi River became the dividing line between the Mississippi River became the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions , by largely inhabited French or Spanish-speaking Catholics by largely inhabited French or Spanish-speaking Catholics , The Proclamation Line of sought 1763 to were largely by governed native-born property owners colonial militia , funded were London The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to stop to it , had 1763 1763 , it had a significant economic impact , it had a significant economic impact since it 85% had since a significant economic impact 85% had since a significant economic impact of These measures were by followed the Sugar Act and Stamp Act were by followed the Sugar Act and Stamp Act , which by followed , the Sugar Act and Stamp Act in a riot , started 1768 a riot , started 1768 in , a riot started in Boston a riot started in Boston when the authorities in started when Boston Tensions escalated further in March 1770 The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of Tensions escalated following the destruction of support Parliament , passed it it , Parliament passed the Tea Act , Parliament passed the Tea Act , Parliament passed the Tea Act , giving the Act , opposed was the Dutch the Act was by opposed those was who by opposed those who by opposed those managed In a group , called December 1773 December 1773 , a group called the Sons of Liberty , a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk the Sons of Liberty called as disguised Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts the elected lower houses in wrested gradually the colonial legislatures

, these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures , of twelve colonies , sent Georgia Georgia , twelve colonies sent representatives , twelve colonies sent representatives to twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress Many of feared the delegates that of an all-out boycott feared that the delegates an all-out boycott feared that the delegates would by insisted and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway James Duane Congress and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted James Duane future Loyalist Joseph Galloway Congress insisted recognize Parliament's right Congress insisted recognize Parliament's right to enforce this ; succeeded the boycott this ; succeeded the boycott in this succeeded in reducing British imports , on Parliament declared February 9 on Massachusetts Parliament declared February 9 Massachusetts Parliament declared February 9 to The increase in led tension to Congress led by drafted John Dickinson led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition , as he ; refused insincere he ; refused insincere to he refused to present the petition oppose it , disappointed his own government his own government , it disappointed those Americans , it who disappointed those Americans it who disappointed those Americans hoped he disappointed who hoped those Americans Parliament , rejected initially the Whigs , Parliament initially rejected the imposition Parliament initially rejected the imposition of the end of 1774 the collapse of meant British authority the collapse of both North meant British authority of both North meant British authority and both North meant British authority and George III awaited reinforcements ; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment ; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments Britain also signed a series of by it , allowed Gage the Patriots , it allowed Gage the Patriots allowed to take control draft Congress , appointed the Declaration of Independence the Declaration of Independence , Congress appointed the Committee of Five , Congress appointed the Committee of Five , Congress appointed the Committee of Five , consisting On Congress , voted July 2

Congress , voted July 2 for , Congress voted for independence Congress voted for independence and At the Revolution , ceased this point the Revolution , ceased this point to the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute Patriots generally supported independence from of Congress , realized the war Congress , realized the war defeating Britain defeating realized required foreign alliances From it , shared 1775 to 1776 1775 to 1776 , it shared information , it shared information and it shared information and built in there , were North America North America , there were two principal campaign theaters , there were two principal campaign theaters within there were two principal campaign theaters within the thirteen states The full-on military campaigning began in the states north at General Washington , observed Valley Forge British operations , General Washington observed Valley Forge He then closed off British initiatives in the British , initiated 1779 1779 , the British initiated a southern strategy , the British initiated a southern strategy to the British initiated a southern strategy to begin on Gage , planned intelligence Gage , planned intelligence to Gage planned to destroy stores The operation was to commence before Paul Revere , However, Patriot intelligence which had The first action of the war was a brief skirmish The next month 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe , On they , seized June 17 June 17 , they seized the Charlestown Peninsula , they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill the Continental Congress , assumed officially June 14, 1775 , the Continental Congress officially assumed command the Continental Congress officially assumed command of John Hancock , announced officially June 16 Washington had previously commanded Virginia militia regiments He proceeded to Boston to In Colonel Henry Knox , arrived early March 1776 Colonel Henry Knox , arrived early March 1776 with , Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery captured the cover of Washington placed darkness

of darkness Washington placed his artillery darkness Washington placed his artillery atop Washington placed his artillery atop Dorchester Heights he , so evacuated Bunker Hill , so he evacuated Boston in American privateers , began August 1775 American privateers , began August 1775 raiding , American privateers began raiding villages American privateers began raiding villages in John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy raided Canso British officials in began Quebec negotiating The second American expedition into defeated was the former French territory British pursuit was by blocked American ships was by blocked American ships on by blocked American ships on Lake Champlain The cumulative failures cost the Patriots support in local public opinion In Royal Governor Lord Dunmore , attempted Virginia Royal Governor Lord Dunmore , attempted Virginia to Royal Governor Lord Dunmore attempted to disarm the Assembly's militia He issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 Dunmore's troops were repulsed at the Battle of Great Bridge The Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia Negotiations failed in part because Randolph in failed because part The siege of began Savage's Old Fields on Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina Shortages in Patriot gunpowder led Congress On the Americans , landed March 3, 1776 the Americans , landed March 3, 1776 and The expedition they confiscated what supplies could they confiscated what supplies could and He sailed for New York in on Washington ; knew July 30 Washington ; knew July 30 that an attack that knew on the city Patriot Thomas Knowlton , given was August 12, 1776 , Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given orders Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given orders to which included became , Nathan Hale off he realized soon Long Island he realized soon Long Island that Washington split his army into positions at Howe , outflanked the Battle of Long Island the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked Washington , Howe outflanked Washington and Howe outflanked Washington and forced the night of General Henry Knox , bombarded August 28 August 28 , General Henry Knox bombarded the British against Washington , ordered overwhelming odds overwhelming odds , Washington ordered the assembly

, Washington ordered the assembly of Washington ordered the assembly of a war council General Howe officially met with a delegation On Howe , seized September 15 September 15 , Howe seized control , Howe seized control of Howe seized control of New York City On Howe failed October 18 to Howe failed October 18 to encircle Howe failed to encircle the Americans The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat The remaining American regiments on fell Long Island back General Sir Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army the reduced army : dwindled had the American cause the reduced army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men Public support reached a peak , and King George III reached , and a peak of his inexperienced staff , misread a stronger one a stronger one , his inexperienced staff misread the military situation , his inexperienced staff misread the military situation , his inexperienced staff misread the military situation , and American troops misread , and the military situation The successes led to predictions that the British to led that predictions to Washington , crossed safer Maryland safer Maryland , Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River , Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River about 30 miles Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River about 30 miles upriver His approach over frozen trails surprised Hessian Colonel Johann Rall The Continentals overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton The celebrated victory rescued the American army's flagging morale , gave Washington 2 , outmaneuvered January 2 , Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis , Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and defeated Washington entered winter quarters from January to May 1778 demonstrated regaining be would New England would which be , a prolonged affair which be , a prolonged affair led This involved isolating the north from In Howe , wrote December 1776 Howe , wrote December 1776 to , Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain , Burgoyne all supplied , several alternatives all supplied , several alternatives of The option selected required him to

two would meet at Albany Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777 retreated , his troops blocked roads , his troops blocked roads , his troops blocked roads , destroyed more than 700 British troops , captured were these more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington by Burgoyne , continued Gates Burgoyne , continued Gates onto , Burgoyne continued onto Albany Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather Morale among declined rapidly his troops on by was repulsed October 7 October 7 was by repulsed Gates was by repulsed Gates at by repulsed Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights securing Howe , made additional supplies additional supplies , Howe made another attempt , Howe made another attempt on Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia He now compounded failure to on Cornwallis , occupied September 20 September 20 , Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia , Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26 by the Patriots , erected sea sea , the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin , the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer This was by supported a small flotilla was by supported a small flotilla of by supported a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships a second attack failed ; captured Red Bank failed ; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin ; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16 foreign observers such as were Frederick the Great to he ; did the entire Continental Army the entire Continental Army ; he did this ; he did this by he did this by training Like French foreign minister Vergennes , considered his predecessors his predecessors , French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace , French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation * He initially avoided open conflict , favored Finance Minister Turgot , argued the American cause they , Finance Minister Turgot argued the American cause Many Americans opposed a French alliance , fearing

with Congress , had Britain Britain , Congress had three choices , Congress had three choices ; Congress had three choices ; making had Adams , was wide public support Adams , was wide public support among , Adams was among those Adams was among those reluctant Silas Deane was sent to Paris Talks progressed slowly until October 1777 France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce conflict over lead would these provisions Charles III of invited was Spain for the French , claimed example example , the French claimed exclusive control , the French claimed exclusive control of the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries the US would not sign another treaty in Silas Deane , promised Paris Paris , Silas Deane promised promotion , Silas Deane promised promotion and Silas Deane promised promotion and command proved one outstanding exception , was incompetent incompetent , one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier , one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier , one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade to they dominated still 1774 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade they still dominated the European carrying trade , Dutch merchants dominated , and the European carrying trade Britain when ended declared war for this ; prevented cost reasons cost reasons ; this prevented the institution ; this prevented the institution of this prevented the institution of an effective blockade He did not welcome war Britain could not find a powerful ally he , ordered was the war Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments , had the Continentals rallied , Charles Lee's broken regiments the Continentals rallied , Charles Lee's broken regiments repulsed , in they launched August in August they launched a combined attack August they launched a combined attack on they launched a combined attack on Newport by the French , withdrew a storm the French , withdrew a storm to In the Americans , captured July 1779 July 1779 , the Americans captured British positions , the Americans captured British positions at

the Americans captured British positions at Stony Point and Paulus Hook the winter of the Continental Army , suffered 1779–1780 1779–1780 , the Continental Army suffered greater hardships , the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat along by was halted the Cuyahoga River the Cuyahoga River was by halted adverse weather a second campaign , undertaken was the year Indian allies commanded by captured Colonel George Rogers Clark commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia on In the Virginians , counterattacked early 1779 the Virginians , counterattacked early 1779 in , the Virginians counterattacked in the siege the Virginians counterattacked in the siege of On British Colonel Henry Bird , invaded May 25, 1780 May 25, 1780 , British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky , British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as part Their Pensacola advance on overcome was New Orleans on by was overcome New Orleans New Orleans was by overcome Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive was by overcome Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on by overcome Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis were by on repulsed St. Louis by on St. Louis repulsed the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba It led to men of French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt " was by developed Lord Germain was by developed Lord Germain , by developed Lord Germain , based They it argued made no sense it argued made no sense to , duties on made tobacco duties on made tobacco the on South made the tobacco South made the tobacco far Germain accordingly ordered Augustine Prévost , He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100 In Prévost , launched June June , Prévost launched an abortive assault , Prévost launched an abortive assault on Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston , a joint French and American operation under failed Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln

a joint French and American operation under failed Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln to over 5,000 prisoners ; taken were the war the Continental Army and taken in the south over 120 ; killed were the Battle of Waxhaws despite the two men , left their success the two men , left their success barely the two men left barely on speaking terms The Southern strategy depended on local support , he ; defeated was the south he was defeated at the Battle of Camden north , Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia , Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson Ferguson , defeated was early October Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain a detachment ; sent was Cornwallis The Patriots now held the initiative in Greene led Cornwallis on a series at they , recaptured the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill , they recaptured Fort Watson , they recaptured Fort Watson and they recaptured Fort Watson and Fort Motte On Brigadier General Andrew Pickens , captured June 6 June 6 , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens leaving captured , Augusta leaving Augusta , captured the British would most do of the fighting most do of the fighting left their treaty , excluded specifically 1779 , their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in of the Americans , allowed Spanish Louisiana the Americans , allowed Spanish Louisiana to the Americans allowed to import supplies The trade was by organized Oliver Pollock was by organized Oliver Pollock , by organized Oliver Pollock , a successful merchant Despite Gálvez , initiated official neutrality official neutrality , Gálvez initiated offensive operations , Gálvez initiated offensive operations against Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts First , he cleared British garrisons , he cleared British garrisons in he cleared British garrisons in Baton Rouge in he ; failed New York City he ; failed New York City to he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy

Cornwallis , developed independently Charleston , Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for former ; the wanted their options former wanted to attack New York Washington eventually gave way and eventually Lafayette gave and way Lafayette gave and way took entered Cornwallis , complied Virginia Cornwallis , complied Virginia with , Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and to defend Admiral de Grasse allowed the French West Indies defend Admiral de Grasse allowed the French West Indies to Admiral de Grasse allowed the French West Indies to relocate This provided Lafayette naval support , while the failure provided , while Lafayette naval support from Cornwallis , made his subordinates his subordinates , Cornwallis made no attempt , Cornwallis made no attempt to Cornwallis made no attempt to engage , a British fleet under left Thomas Graves a British fleet under Thomas Graves left New York Graves , forced was losses these , finalized were negotiations Responsibility for defeat was the subject American forces , assigned were Yorktown British-American negotiations in led Paris to Loyalists with transported were their slaves Washington moved his army to New Windsor At Congress , decommissioned that time that time , Congress decommissioned the regiments , Congress decommissioned the regiments of Congress decommissioned the regiments of Washington's Continental Army win the Americans , needed their insurrection the Americans , needed their insurrection to restore the British , had the empire the British , had the empire to the British had to defeat the Continental Army Historian Terry M. Mays identifies three separate types of warfare The second was a civil war with all thirteen states The third element was a global war between France in France , provided 1778 1778 , France provided the Americans money , France provided the Americans money , France provided the Americans money , weapons to they dominated still 1774 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade they still dominated the European carrying trade , Dutch merchants dominated , and the European carrying trade Britain when ended declared war Congress the rebellion had if multiple advantages

the rebellion had if multiple advantages turned Their prosperous state populations depended on local production for They were spread across most Most farms were remote from the seaports Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia Together they took away French claims they took away French claims in In they , trained the American Revolution they , trained the American Revolution and they trained and provided Continental Line regiments also each colonial capital : had a major asset a major asset : each colonial capital had its own newspapers : each colonial capital had its own newspapers and each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers began , Congress lacked a professional army , Congress lacked a professional army or Congress lacked a professional army or navy Their units served for only a few weeks or for Congress , established this this , Congress established a regular force , Congress established a regular force known Congress established a regular force known as them allowed to overwhelm smaller British forces was largely by supplemented local state militias Initially , Washington employed the inexperienced officers , Washington employed the inexperienced officers and Washington employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops particular were by constrained the difficulty were by constrained the difficulty of by constrained the difficulty of transporting Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men the combined Franco-American army commanded , while more than 17,000 men At Patriot forces , consisted the beginning of 1776 Patriot forces , consisted the beginning of 1776 of , Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men , American officers , equaled never a whole , American officers never equaled their opponents American officers never equaled their opponents in Washington's army , transformed was 1778 Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force from it , proved Valley Forge Valley Forge , it proved its ability , it proved its ability to it proved its ability to match Washington informed Henry Laurens " that the possession informed " that Henry Laurens of there ; was war

there ; was war never Congress evolved in its committee oversight and Congress , created also its own internal procedures , Congress also created the post Congress also created the post of of Washington , began the war Washington , began the war outfitting , Washington began outfitting schooners Washington began outfitting schooners and of it , consisted the war it , consisted the war of , it consisted of a handful it consisted of a handful of John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero by capturing The last was by the frigate USS "Alliance last was by the frigate USS "Alliance " Congress primarily commissioned privateers to Overall , they included 1,700 ships , they that included 1,700 ships they that included 1,700 ships successfully that included 1,700 ships successfully captured of the Americans , had the war the war , the Americans had no major international allies , the Americans had no major international allies , the Americans had no major international allies , as most nation-states had , as no major international allies Over the Continental Army , acquitted time time , the Continental Army acquitted itself , the Continental Army acquitted itself well the Continental Army acquitted itself well in The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France Saratoga who convinced , France who convinced , France was The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance Britain on conditioned initiating a war On France , declared June 13, 1778 June 13, 1778 , France declared war , France declared war on France declared war on Great Britain Washington worked closely with the soldiers The British military had considerable experience of fighting they , in However previous conflicts to the colonies , were the conflict the conflict , the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities , the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities , the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities , with British power was reliant on the Royal Navy the British and limited manpower meant the colonies inevitable ; one British statesman described it ; one British statesman described it as

one British statesman described it as " of Ellis , suggests a miracle the odds , Ellis suggests a miracle the odds suggests always favored the Americans in there , were 1775 1775 , there were only 8,500 regular soldiers , there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population Jamaica ; generated alone the Caribbean ; Jamaica alone generated more revenue Jamaica alone generated more revenue than of there , were the war the war , there were four separate British commanders , there were four separate British commanders - there were four separate British commanders - in , many in blamed London many in London blamed the revolt British the showed overestimated the capabilities the Patriots allowed to take the initiative of Bunker Hill , seems reinforcements Bunker Hill , seems reinforcements to Many of attributed were his decisions of British policy , changed the Carlisle Commission British policy , changed the Carlisle Commission from British policy changed from treating the Patriots Howe , replaced was 1778 Howe was by replaced Sir Henry Clinton was by replaced Sir Henry Clinton , by replaced Sir Henry Clinton , appointed like Clinton handicapped was his predecessors by Clinton was handicapped his predecessors Clinton was by handicapped chronic supply issues Clinton's strategy , compromised was addition Clinton's strategy was by compromised conflict was by compromised conflict with by compromised conflict with political superiors during they , comprised the Seven Years' War the Seven Years' War , they comprised 10% , they comprised 10% of they comprised 10% of the British army it , decided was America There were several reasons for this over more than 40,000 Germans , fought the next decade more than 40,000 Germans , fought the next decade in , more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America , they " , included Hessians " , they included men , they included men from they included men from many other states Unlike their use led previous wars to previous wars their use led to intense political debate

their use led to intense political debate in the agreements , challenged were March 1776 the agreements were challenged in Parliament were by in challenged Parliament by in Parliament challenged Whigs The debates were covered in detail were by in covered detail by in detail covered American newspapers to it , made war hopes , it made war it hopes made of reconciliation hopes made of reconciliation seem Clinton suggested employing was Russians employing he was that Russians he was that Russians felt in Congress , approved August 1776 August 1776 , Congress approved the printing , Congress approved the printing of Congress approved the printing of "handbills The British launched a counter - campaign Desertion among occurred the Germans throughout British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British they , concentrated were the colonial population they were concentrated in distinct communities : any significant level of required organized Loyalist activity any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence the British had in was America by were constantly defeated the South were constantly by defeated neighboring Patriot militia their troops when suffered ransacked local homes neutral colonists in allied often the Carolinas brutal combat with allied whenever the Patriots in it : was the British Army the British Army : it was a mixed regiment : it was a mixed regiment of it was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons It was by commanded Banastre Tarleton was by commanded Banastre Tarleton and by commanded Banastre Tarleton and gained they ; accompanied often the Revolutionary War ; they often accompanied their husbands they often accompanied their husbands when throughout Martha Washington known was the war Martha Washington known was the war to Women often accompanied armies as often camp followers accompanied as armies camp followers accompanied as armies to Women also assumed military roles : Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army she has been called the "female Paul Revere A few others disguised themselves as men , the population of included the Thirteen Colonies the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves

Virginia , that issued a proclamation , that issued a proclamation promised that a proclamation issued promised freedom fill white Loyalist prejudice , meant a temporary manpower shortage recruits , white Loyalist prejudice meant a temporary manpower shortage The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by extended Clinton issued by Clinton extended the offer by Clinton extended the offer of It persuaded entire families to escape he , ensured also the Black Pioneers Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army Washington from barred until the Continental Army , only 140 of were its 225 soldiers only 140 of were its 225 soldiers black recruitment were black and its 225 soldiers , around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army and in Washington , insisted 1781 all escapees , Washington insisted 1781 ; some moved onto London some moved onto London , White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved blacks to Jamaica of by were affected the Mississippi River the Mississippi River were by affected the war were by affected the war , by affected the war , and A few tribes were friendly with the colonists , Cherokee allies of attacked Britain Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District Creek and Seminole allies of fought Britain against , a force of destroyed 800 Creeks a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into Many Native Americans were involved in the fight ; members of fought the Mohawks members of fought the Mohawks on their Indian allies , the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition , the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on a punitive expedition of Great Britain , ceded Paris Paris , Great Britain ceded control , Great Britain ceded control of Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands Saratoga in it made 1777 in it made 1777 clear the revolt made it clear 1777 British negotiators now proposed a second peace settlement to The terms presented by included the Carlisle Peace Commission presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission included acceptance

by the Carlisle Peace Commission included acceptance of Parliament would recognize Congress as in they , recommended November 1778 November 1778 , they recommended a change , they recommended a change in they recommended a change in policy North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting in by was carried America America was by carried 19 votes of he , made the Patriot cause the Patriot cause , he made a commitment , he made a commitment to he made a commitment to US independence to Congress , consolidated Prime Minister Prime Minister , Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls , Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe All were experienced in Congressional leadership The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin He had become a celebrity in Since he been had the 1760s the 1760s he had been an organizer he had been an organizer of John Adams of been had Massachusetts John Jay of been had New York Henry Laurens of secured had South Carolina He had been a successor to British strategy was to strengthen the US , divisions between allowed their opponents divisions between them allowed their opponents between them allowed their opponents to them allowed their opponents to negotiate excluding France ; proposed the Americans France ; proposed the Americans setting ; France proposed setting the western boundary France proposed setting the western boundary of the "conclusive" treaty ; signed was independence the "conclusive" treaty was signed on September 2, 1783 draft it , claimed the treaty it , claimed the treaty represented it claimed represented " one the final versions were exchanged in Paris Washington the Americans expressed that astonishment the Americans expressed that astonishment had The last uniformed British troops departed their last east coast port cities in Savannah On Washington , issued April 9, 1783 April 9, 1783 , Washington issued orders , Washington issued orders that Washington he issued that orders he issued that orders had with General Carleton , issued Washington Washington , General Carleton issued a similar order , General Carleton issued a similar order to

General Carleton issued a similar order to British troops the United States was ceded from its colonial Mother country It included millions of sparsely settled acres The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years Virginia's Kentucky County counted 150 men in 1775 Britain's extended post-war policy for continued the US to , in the British refused practice in the British refused practice to the British refused practice to abandon the British refused to abandon the forts Instead , they provisioned military allies , they provisioned military allies for they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids on the Anglo-American Jay Treaty continued until the United States the Anglo-American Jay Treaty continued until the United States went was most by threatened American independence most by threatened American independence , by threatened American independence , and , so Spanish policy developed a combination so Spanish policy developed a combination of Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to It imposed a high tariff on American goods Spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms diseases such as claimed smallpox a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America approximately 6,800 , killed were these approximately 6,800 were killed in battle The majority of died the latter while The French suffered 2,112 killed in A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths The American Revolution established the United States with its numerous civil liberties The United States has the world's oldest written constitution , and the constitutions has , and the world's oldest written constitution of it , did inequality inequality , it did little , it did little to it did little to change it failed to end slavery which to end failed slavery southern states on abolition made slave labor on abolition made slave labor too abolition made slave labor too great abolition made too great a challenge In Virginia , passed 1782 1782 , Virginia passed a law , Virginia passed a law permitting Virginia passed a law permitting manumission the number of increased greatly abolitionist movements

large historiography the Americans concerns the reasons historiography the Americans concerns the reasons revolted the Americans concerns the reasons revolted and adopted by stressed , the Americans by the Americans , stressed the constitutional rights Contemporaries credited the American Enlightenment with laying Founders referred to the liberalism in Historians since emphasized have the 1960s the Patriot constitutional argument have emphasized that the 1960s that nationalism , rooted was turn that nationalism was rooted in a Republican value system was that in rooted a Republican value system that in rooted a Republican value system demanded republicanism itself , was Britain itself , republicanism was a fringe view , republicanism was a fringe view since republicanism it was since a fringe view it was since a fringe view challenged was not by controlled an aristocracy not by controlled an aristocracy or by controlled an aristocracy or nobility The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context that The ideological approach centers on republicanism there dictated would be no royalty the U.S. Post Office , issued frequently 1849 , the U.S. Post Office frequently issued commemorative stamps the U.S. Post Office frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating to many primary sources , are this selection many primary sources , are this selection available many primary sources are available at the Princeton University Law School Avalon Project The International System of Units defines the ampere in terms The earlier CGS system had two different definitions of current Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes The ampere is named for French physicist The "international ampere " was an early realization of there that states is an attractive or repulsive force Algorithms are used as specifications ) , the instructions describe a computation , the instructions that describe a computation the instructions that describe a computation , that describe a computation , when The concept of existed has algorithm by , were used a division algorithm , were by used ancient Babylonian mathematicians were c. 2500 BC and Egyptian mathematicians by used ancient Babylonian mathematicians c. 2500 BC and Egyptian mathematicians by used ancient Babylonian mathematicians c. 1550

Greek mathematicians later used algorithms in Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was a mathematician , About 825 , al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise , al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise on al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system The manuscript starts with the phrase "Dixit Algorizmi Al-Khwarizmi was the most widely read mathematician in Europe formalizations were framed as attempts They : give can certain enumerably infinite sets They can give " explicit instructions 1987 an algorithm , is ] ] , an algorithm is a computational process , an algorithm is a computational process defined an algorithm by is defined a computational process by a computational process defined is a Turing machine" Turing machines can that define computational processes can that define computational processes do that define computational processes do not The informal definitions of require generally algorithms the algorithm generally require that algorithms Stored data are regarded as part , the order of is computation the order of is computation always This is the most common conception — one which is — one the most common conception this conception of the assignment operation is formalized algorithms of the assignment operation is formalized algorithms , which is the assignment operation , formalized algorithms It derives from the intuition of Natural language expressions of tend algorithms to that to express ways algorithms Algorithm design refers to a method or The design of algorithms is part For multiple algorithms exist may a given function , there may be a tradeoff there may be a tradeoff between Minsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's "abacus" model Besides Minsky's machine , includes HALT HALT , Minsky's machine includes three "assignment , Minsky's machine includes three "assignment " Minsky's machine includes three "assignment " ( Rarely must a programmer write "code must a programmer write "code " a programmer write "code " with for their exact specification ; is Turing-completeness their exact specification ; is Turing-completeness somewhat " : Knuth advises the reader : Knuth advises the reader that Knuth advises the reader that " the best way advises that " the reader