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the Moon's surface , Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample , Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag He then folded the bag and collected , he removed the TV camera , he removed the TV camera from he removed the TV camera from the MESA photography was accomplished with a Hasselblad camera was that with accomplished a Hasselblad camera that with accomplished a Hasselblad camera could Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface He described the view with the simple phrase Armstrong said moving in the lunar gravity It 's absolutely no trouble to walk Aldrin joined him on the surface The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip Loping became the preferred method of movement moving that remarked from sunlight The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform The astronauts planted the Lunar Flag Assembly containing a flag But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and But he gave " a crisp West Point salute he gave " a crisp West Point salute " with President Richard Nixon , spoke the flag President Richard Nixon , spoke the flag to , President Richard Nixon spoke to them President Richard Nixon spoke to them through They which deployed , the EASEP which deployed , the EASEP included Then Armstrong walked from the LM Armstrong walked from the LM to He used the geologist's hammer to pound The astronauts then collected rock samples using Aldrin shoveled of soil into Two types of found were rocks Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples by in discovered collected the rock samples Armalcolite was named after Armstrong Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn throughout Mission Control , granted the walk the walk , Mission Control granted the astronauts , Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension Aldrin entered "Eagle " first With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes This proved to be an inefficient tool Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag

Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung to the explorers , lightened LM life support LM life support , the explorers lightened the ascent stage , the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return The remarks were in a memo from Aldrin , damaged accidentally the cabin , Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker Aldrin accidentally that damaged the circuit breaker accidentally that damaged the circuit breaker would that damaged the circuit breaker would arm There this was a concern would this was a concern would prevent two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov the crew , awakened was rest the crew was by awakened Houston was by awakened Houston to by awakened Houston to prepare 17:54:00 they , lifted UTC they , lifted UTC off they lifted off in "Eagle" ascent stage Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon " The ascent stage of separated the LM The ascent stage of separated the LM   I was concentrating on the computers Collins , felt never the Moon Collins " , felt any human known such solitude Collins felt very much a part In he wrote his autobiography : he wrote his autobiography : " One of was Collins' first tasks to over he , tried the suspected lunar landing site he , tried the suspected lunar landing site in , he tried in vain he tried in vain to on Mission Control , informed the third orbit the third orbit , Mission Control informed Collins , Mission Control there informed Collins Mission Control there informed Collins was there Collins informed was a problem Mission Control advised him to assume Instead , Collins flicked the switch , Collins flicked the switch on Collins flicked the switch on the system he again , was the Moon of he , described orbits orbits , he described his time , he described his time on he described his time on the back side completed Collins , slept their EVA Collins , slept their EVA so Eagle"s ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit it , noted was the Apollo 12 flight

" Hornet " embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters Hornet " embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters of "Hornet , departed " the launch pad , "Hornet " departed Pearl Harbor "Hornet " departed Pearl Harbor for they , fly would board they would fly to "Hornet Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr. , the commander A different sequence of used was computer programs one was used , computer programs P64 was by followed P67 P65 led directly to P67 "Hornet , launched " July 24 , "Hornet " launched four Sea King helicopters "Hornet " launched four Sea King helicopters and Two of designated were the E-1s Two of the Sea Kings carried divers This was by observed the helicopters " Columbia " struck the water Columbia " struck the water forcefully The divers then passed biological isolation garments ( NASA considered , but remote they until worn reached isolation facilities the helicopter , lowered was 17:53 UTC the helicopter was by lowered the elevator was by lowered the elevator into by lowered the elevator into the hangar bay This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to He told them : " Hornet " returned to Pearl Harbor The astronauts arrived at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at codify the astronauts , continued its quarantine protocol the astronauts , continued its quarantine protocol in , the astronauts continued in quarantine , the astronauts were given a clean bill the astronauts were given a clean bill of On the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination , met August 10, 1969 the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination , met August 10, 1969 in , the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and On the three astronauts , rode August 13 the three astronauts , rode August 13 in , the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in the same evening in there was Los Angeles in Los Angeles there was an official state dinner Los Angeles there was an official state dinner to

there was an official state dinner to celebrate The three astronauts spoke before a joint session of They presented two US flags , one This celebration that began a 38-day world tour brought that a 38-day world tour began brought the astronauts during Kennedy's speech , flashed the Apollo 11 landing Kennedy's speech , flashed the Apollo 11 landing on , Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen , Twenty percent of humans watched the world's population of humans watched the world's population walk humans watched the world's population walk on humans watched walk on the Moon the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest One possible explanation was the shift in complexity during the Gallup Poll did indicate the late 1960s the Gallup Poll did indicate the late 1960s that a majority that indicate of Americans 59 percent of favored polled those This was also a time when inflation also was when a time What saved was the space program that saved it was that the space program it was that the space program was it that was was one , officials from said the Soviet Union officials from landing said the Soviet Union from the Soviet Union landing said humans the Soviet Union landing said humans on landing said humans on the Moon At the Soviet Union attempting was the time the Soviet Union attempting was the time to publicly there denied was a race there denied was a race to Mstislav Keldysh said in July 1969 , It was revealed in 1989 the Soviets in revealed that 1989 The public's reaction in was the Soviet Union mixed The Soviet government limited the release of information The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs The command module "Columbia " went on a tour it , transferred was 1971 it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution This included Space Center Houston from October 14, 2017 Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time For Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits displayed were 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits displayed were 40 years in Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum's "Apollo

A special display of unveiled was Armstrong's suit The descent stage of remains " the LM "Eagle the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO ) imaged the various Apollo landing sites specialists financed by located Amazon founder Jeff Bezos financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines from that the F-1 engines from located the S-IC stage They were found on the Atlantic seabed His team brought parts of two In a conservator , discovered July 2013 July 2013 , a conservator discovered a serial number , a conservator discovered a serial number under a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility For there , is safekeeping there , is safekeeping also , there is also a smaller collection there is also a smaller collection stored Most of stored are the rocks In Nixon , asked November 1969 November 1969 , Nixon asked NASA , Nixon asked NASA to Nixon asked NASA to make Each display included Moon dust from Apollo The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust in his widow , contacted 2012 2012 , his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum , his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum to his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum to inform The bag which contained , various items which contained , various items should On Life.com , released July 15, 2009 July 15, 2009 , Life.com released a photo gallery , Life.com released a photo gallery of Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos From NASA , streamed July 16 to 24, 2009 July 16 to 24, 2009 , NASA streamed the original mission audio , NASA streamed the original mission audio on NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website It is in the process of , an act of awarded Congress an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts On Congressman Bill Posey , introduced June 10, 2015

June 10, 2015 , Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution , Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. 2726 The Smithsonian Institute's National Air and Space Museum and NASA sponsored the "Apollo 50 Festival a projection of displayed was the tall Saturn V rocket The program also included a 17-minute show that The projection was by joined a wide recreation was by joined a wide recreation of by joined a wide recreation of the Kennedy Space Center countdown clock Apollo 8 launched on December 21, 1968 the mission profile , changed was early 1969 the mission profile was changed in August 1968 Apollo 8 took 68 hours ( The crew orbited the Moon ten times At the broadcast , was the time the time , the broadcast was the most watched TV program , the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever Apollo8's successful mission Apollo11 paved for the way Apollo11 paved for the way to The Apollo8 astronauts returned to Earth on the United States was engaged in the Cold War On the Soviet Union , launched October 4, 1957 October 4, 1957 , the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite This unexpected success stoked fears and imaginations over it , challenged intercontinental distances intercontinental distances , it challenged American claims , it challenged American claims of it challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority The Soviet Union which had , heavier-lifting carrier rockets which had , heavier-lifting carrier rockets meant advisors , he chose such a project , he chose such a project : he chose such a project : to An early and crucial decision was the adoption of lunar orbit rendezvous The Apollo spacecraft therefore had three primary components : Collins was by replaced Jim Lovell was by replaced Jim Lovell in by replaced Jim Lovell in July 1968 This crew was unique among pre-Space Shuttle era missions This would also be the first case Aldrin , moved was the prime crew

Aldrin was moved to CMP Armstrong would later command Apollo11 Gemini , each mission had a prime , each mission had a prime and each mission had a prime and a backup crew a third crew of added was astronauts The support crew maintained the flight plan , checklists The support crew developed procedures in the simulators The mission control teams rotated in three shifts , The triangular shape of refers the insignia to a red figure8 shows looping around the Earth the bottom of the names are the8 of the names are the8 of the8 the names are of the three astronauts The crew wanted to name their spacecraft On NASA , adopted September 20, 1967 September 20, 1967 , NASA adopted a seven-step plan , NASA adopted a seven-step plan for NASA adopted a seven-step plan for Apollo missions Apollo4 and Apollo6 were "A" missions Apollo5 was a "B" mission , a test Further missions depended on the readiness of there as early as decided that May 1967 Apollo8 was planned as the "D" mission Production of fell the LM behind Following meant would have the original seven-step plan NASA allow to test lunar landing procedures On Low , discussed August 9, 1968 August 9, 1968 , Low discussed the idea , Low discussed the idea with Low discussed the idea with Gilruth They then flew to the Marshall Space Flight Center Almost every senior manager at agreed NASA with The only person who needed was some convincing who needed James E. Webb was some convincing needed James E. Webb was some convincing , James E. Webb was some convincing , the NASA administrator of Webb , authorized his agency his agency , Webb authorized the mission Slayton 8 , asked Apollo 8 , Slayton asked McDivitt , Slayton asked McDivitt if Slayton he asked if McDivitt he asked if McDivitt still ; his crew had spent a great deal his crew had spent a great deal of This swap also meant a swap of he had carried was a tenth used by designated was Apollo8 by Apollo8 was designated AS-503

it , thought was December 20, 1967 Apollo6 had suffered several major problems during Teams from went the MSFC to primary concern which was , the pogo oscillation which was , the pogo oscillation would MSFC the engines concluded that researchers the engines concluded that researchers vibrated Of the failure was equal importance of equal importance the failure was of three engines the failure was of three engines during engine , failed three a result engine three failed within one second Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 IC was equipped with shock-absorbing devices The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top Testing continued all through December orbit Apollo8's profile , had more than one celestial body more than one celestial body , Apollo8's profile had two different sets , Apollo8's profile had two different sets of Apollo8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal circular Earth parking orbit Apollo8 was launched into an initial orbit The standard lunar orbit for planned was Apollo missions Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a perilune The S-IC first stage landed in the Atlantic Ocean at both the crew and Houston flight controllers spent the next 2hours Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty You are Go for TLI The S-IVB engine ignited on time and After the S-IVB had placed the mission the S-IVB had placed the mission on The crew then rotated the spacecraft to from this — marked it it — this marked the first time — this humans marked the first time this humans marked the first time had humans marked the first time had viewed Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft after Mission Control , sent launch launch , Mission Control sent a command , Mission Control sent a command to Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass passing that predicted through the belts record each crew member , wore the actual radiation dosages the actual radiation dosages , each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter

, each crew member that wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter each crew member that wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter transmitted that a Personal Radiation Dosimeter wore transmitted data Lovell's main job as was Command Module Pilot as performed it , was all the actual navigation calculations it , was all the actual navigation calculations necessary by navigated Lovell star sightings using into the crew , was the mission the mission , the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes , the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan The crew placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control get the spacecraft , swept a perfect roll the spacecraft , swept a perfect roll out , the spacecraft swept out a cone the spacecraft swept out a cone as it out swept as a cone The first mid-course correction came eleven hours into the flight NASA , decided had launch Borman started the first sleep shift but found Testing on shown had the ground the service propulsion system had shown that the ground This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters starting Borman , obtained his sleep shift his sleep shift , Borman obtained permission , Borman obtained permission from Borman obtained permission from ground control of this ; left diarrhea diarrhea ; this left the spacecraft ; this left the spacecraft full this left the spacecraft full of The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment using there ( were an unoccupied second-floor control room an unoccupied second-floor control room ( there were two identical control rooms ( there were two identical control rooms in there were two identical control rooms in Houston The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight During NASA , scheduled this time this time , NASA scheduled a television broadcast , NASA scheduled a television broadcast at NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours The Apollo8 crew that used a camera broadcast that used a camera broadcast in During the crew , gave this first broadcast

this first broadcast , the crew gave a tour , the crew gave a tour of the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft the Earth image , saturated became proper filters the Earth image became by saturated any bright source all the crew , show could the end the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts Lovell went to sleep 32-and-a-half hours Anders also went to sleep Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at , the crew rigged up filters the crew rigged up filters meant maneuver the crew , was the entire spacecraft the crew , was the entire spacecraft able describing what , was the Earth what , was the Earth visible , the crew of became Apollo8 the crew of Apollo8 became the first humans , Apollo8 was from the Moon Apollo8 was from the Moon and This historic moment was of little interest to It was in retrograde ( from the crew , burned the Moon the Moon , the crew burned the RCS , the crew burned the RCS for the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds into the crew , began the flight the crew , began the flight to the crew , told was a "no go" decision the crew was told at 68 hours they at told that 68 hours before the crew , began LOI-1 LOI-1 , the crew began one last check , the crew began one last check of the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems they , got finally that time , they finally got their first glimpses they finally got their first glimpses of The SPS was ignited at 69 hours The crew described the burn as being they could have struck the Moon On Mission Control , continued Earth Mission Control , continued Earth to Lovell continued to describe the terrain they to describe continued the terrain One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours with Borman , kept Earth Borman , kept Earth asking of the crew , set the Moon

the crew , set the Moon up , the crew set up equipment the crew set up equipment to Anders they the craters described that they the craters described that were Throughout the crew , continued the next two orbits the crew , continued the next two orbits to the crew continued to check the spacecraft During Borman , read the third pass the third pass , Borman read a small prayer , Borman read a small prayer for Borman read a small prayer for his church across the crew , witnessed the front the front , the crew witnessed an "Earthrise , the crew witnessed an "Earthrise " the crew witnessed an "Earthrise " in NASA's Lunar Orbiter 1 had taken the first picture of about Earthrise , is the Earth Earthrise , is the Earth not Anders continued to take photographs in Borman , was the cramped and noisy spacecraft Borman , was the cramped and noisy spacecraft able He ordered Anders and Lovell Anders finally agreed under the condition Borman under agreed that the condition there that remembered was a second television broadcast for the astronauts , began the ninth time the ninth time , the astronauts began the second television transmission Borman introduced the crew , followed by introduced , followed the crew Borman described it as being the crew that said had a message Each man on board read a section Borman finished the broadcast by wishing The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight with the crew , had the previous burn the crew , had the previous burn to the crew had to perform the maneuver The burn occurred exactly on time Later , Lovell used some otherwise idle time , Lovell used some otherwise idle time to Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do changed they , realized the module's attitude they , realized the module's attitude that It took Lovell ten minutes to The cruise back to was Earth the crew mostly was for a time On the crew , made Christmas afternoon Christmas afternoon , the crew made their fifth television broadcast

time , they gave a tour , they gave a tour of they gave a tour of the spacecraft Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles There were also small presents to into the sixth and final TV transmission , showed the mission the mission , the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images , the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the Earth After the crew , prepared two uneventful days the crew , prepared two uneventful days for , the crew prepared for reentry The computer would control the reentry , all the crew control , and the reentry Separation from the service module prepared the command module of the crew , saw the atmosphere the Moon , the crew saw the atmosphere the Moon saw rising above the Earth's horizon hit the crew , noticed the thin outer atmosphere the crew , noticed the thin outer atmosphere that of Apollo8 , rose the spacecraft Apollo8 , rose the spacecraft briefly Apollo8 rose briefly like a skipping stone the drogue parachute deployed , stabilizing the spacecraft hit the parachutes , dragged the water the water , the parachutes dragged it , the parachutes dragged it over the parachutes dragged it over and by Borman , was a swell Borman , was a swell sick the command module , righted was splashdown the command module was righted into a normal apex-up The first frogman from arrived aircraft carrier 43 minutes Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968 Spring , "Time" magazine chose the crew , "Time" magazine chose the crew of "Time" magazine chose the crew of Apollo8 They had been the first people ever They had survived a mission that had even the crew a mission survived that even the crew a mission survived that themselves the flight the crew was that the "Earthrise" picture the crew was that the "Earthrise" picture took This humans was that the first time humans was that the first time had

There were 1,200 journalists covering the mission The Soviet newspaper "Pravda " featured a quote from a quarter that estimated of the people the courts wanted to ban American astronauts in it , caused outer space NASA , it caused outer space In the United States Post Office Department , issued 1969 1969 , the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp , the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp ( the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp ( Scott catalogue The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph the spacecraft , delivered was January 1970 the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka Jim Lovell's Apollo8 space suit is on public display in by and released compiled NASA In Spacecraft Films , released addition Spacecraft Films , released addition , Spacecraft Films released , in 2003 Other documentaries include " Race to the Moon " Parts of dramatized are the mission The choral music piece "Earthrise " by commemorates Luke Byrne made by led have China by led have China to 600 astronauts , flown have 1961 600 astronauts have flown in space astronauts , sponsored were 2002 for astronautics that recognizes only flights astronautics that recognizes only flights exceed that only flights recognizes exceed the Kármán line 24 people , traveled have these 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit under 558 people , qualify the U.S. definition 558 people , qualify the U.S. definition as Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days ( Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut " , which preferred " , "astronaut A professional space traveler is called an "astronaut " "astronaut " referred to a spacecraft have been by inspired "aeronaut been by inspired "aeronaut " by inspired "aeronaut " , NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member NASA also uses the term as The word is an Anglicization of "kosmonavt The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin , also the first person He was part of the first six Russians Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman

" is by used some English-language news media organizations is by used some English-language news media organizations for by used some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries This by is used the term by the term used is Xinhua News Agency several other nations , sent have a crewed spacecraft , several other nations have sent people several other nations have sent people into other synonyms for entered have astronaut On the FAA , issued July 20, 2021 July 20, 2021 , the FAA issued an order , the FAA issued an order redefining the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin space who was , Soviet Yuri Gagarin who was , Soviet Yuri Gagarin was Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space The first American to orbit was the Earth The first American woman in space was Sally Ride Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct through people , allowed its Intercosmos program people , allowed its Intercosmos program from , people allowed from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact people allowed from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and An example is Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek , the first cosmonaut Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel 23 July 1980 , Pham Tuan of became Vietnam , Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in in Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez , became 1980 1980 , Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person , Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent In Taylor Wang , became April 1985 April 1985 , Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person , Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space In Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud , became 1985 1985 , Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut

, Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space on the U.S. , began the Space Shuttle the U.S. , began the Space Shuttle taking , the U.S. began taking international astronauts , Ulf Merbold of became West Germany Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen In Rodolfo Neri Vela , became 1985 1985 , Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person , Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space In Mark Shuttleworth , became 2002 2002 , Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen , Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country The youngest person to reach is space space who is , Oliver Daemen who is , Oliver Daemen was reach he ; rounded orbit orbit ; he rounded the planet ; he rounded the planet 17 he rounded the planet 17 times Daemen On as the same flight was She is the first of The oldest person to reach is orbit , the most spaceflights by is an individual astronaut the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven which into inducted , the USSR's Air Force A month later , Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian , Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg , a researcher In Toyohiro Akiyama , became December 1990 December 1990 , Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler , Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in military jet test , piloting the space program military jet test , piloting the space program and , NASA astronauts go through twenty months NASA astronauts go through twenty months of

Astronauts are susceptible to a variety bacteria , found were 2017 On scientists , reported 2 November 2017 scientists , reported 2 November 2017 that significant changes that reported in the position It can affect the otolith organs and In NASA-funded researchers , found October 2018 NASA-funded researchers , found October 2018 that lengthy journeys that found into outer space in astronauts stated that April 2019 astronauts stated that April 2019 facing astronauts that stated facing space radiation it , hinders temporarily their intellectual capabilities , it temporarily hinders formation it temporarily hinders formation of aboard long-duration spaceflight showed that the International Space Station long-duration spaceflight showed that the International Space Station causes long-duration spaceflight that showed causes many physiological adaptions on this study , showed brain structure this study , showed brain structure that Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to menus , selected were flight Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula On the average American , uses Earth the average American , uses Earth about the average American uses about of water cosmonauts , awarded are Russia , cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of those who complete receive astronaut candidate training who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin in they , receive space space , they receive a gold pin who also have receive active-duty military status by , is maintained the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex , is by maintained the Astronauts Memorial Foundation is by maintained the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and by maintained the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates Swift goes to great lengths to He uses methods of argument Swift's main target that argued in "A Modest Proposal Swift was especially attacking projects was especially that attacking projects especially that attacking projects tried that attacking projects tried to "A Modest Proposal " also targets the calculating way " also people targets the calculating way also people targets the calculating way perceived people targets the calculating way perceived the The pamphlet who targets reformers " who targets reformers " regard Critics differ about Swift's intentions in

statistically "the logic that argues of the 'Modest proposal Swift's rhetorical style that argues persuades the reader and his narrator's cool approach towards create them his narrator's cool approach towards create them " Swift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight making the speaker , uses his argument his argument , the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order , the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of argument Swift that believes saw major similarities Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian In Johnson , points structure Johnson , points structure out , Johnson points out the same central theme Johnson points out the same central theme , Swift and Tertullian share the same command with Donald C. Baker , points Johnson Donald C. Baker , points Johnson out , Donald C. Baker points out the similarity Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between I have suppose , which I suppose , have the Principle Aggravation The Reader in focuses " A Modest Proposal a reader that stresses of the pamphlet it , believed was the 18th century " in no child was the mercantilist view in no child was the mercantilist view too no child was the mercantilist view too young Louis A. Landa he composed when a conducive analysis he composed when a conducive analysis noted Landa presents Swift's "A Modest Proposal " as Swift presents the dire state of Ireland the wealth of based is a country 12 February 1729–30:"I did immediately propose it she , begin does nine he , dispose might another woman I ; for happened children I happened to peep the other day For I , had my own part I , had my own part not , I had not the least inclination I had not the least inclination to It also serves as an introduction , the evangelical author Francis Schaeffer emulated Swift's work the evangelical author Francis Schaeffer emulated Swift's work in " A Modest Video Game Proposal " is the title A Modest Video Game Proposal " is the title of Hunter S. Thompson's ' includes a letter in

he a letter in includes which Thompson writes a letter to a local Aspen newspaper Henkel imagined the descendants of folks who the descendants of imagined folks On a satirist , spoke 3 October 2019 a satirist , spoke 3 October 2019 up a satirist spoke up at an event The individual also wore a T-shirt saying Together with they constitute hydrogen with hydrogen they constitute group hydrogen they constitute group 1 they constitute group 1 , which constitute 1 , group their in results having very similar characteristic properties Indeed , the alkali metals provide the best example , the alkali metals provide the best example of the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at to francium ; occurs its extremely high radioactivity francium ; occurs its extremely high radioactivity only francium occurs only in minute traces of none ; was the group none ; was the group successful sodium which is , the sodium-vapour lamp which is , the sodium-vapour lamp emits Lithium finds use as a psychiatric medication most for understood of its history Georg Ernst Stahl which obtained experimental evidence led which experimental evidence obtained led him Potassium that was the first metal was that was the first metal was isolated was by in discovered 1800 by in 1800 discovered the Brazilian chemist it was not until 1817 that not until was 1817 This new element was by noted him was by noted him to by noted him to form Berzelius gave the unknown material the name " He named the metal inside the material "lithium Rubidium and caesium were the first elements The next year , they discovered caesium , they discovered caesium in they discovered caesium in the mineral water Their discovery of rubidium came the following year of he ; likened eight eight ; he likened such periodicity ; he likened such periodicity to he likened such periodicity to the octaves His version put all the alkali metals then known After Dmitri Mendeleev , proposed 1869 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table

, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing lithium Two years later , Mendeleev revised his table , Mendeleev revised his table , Mendeleev revised his table , placing the group IB elements , moved were the 18-column table the group IB elements were moved to their current position the group's name was changed to "group in France , discovered Paris Paris , France discovered francium , France discovered francium in France discovered francium in 1939 However , Perey noticed decay particles , Perey noticed decay particles with Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal first by in attempted 1985 by in attempted 1985 bombarding 8 elements discovered has been the period elements that holds with even atomic numbers elements that argues with odd atomic numbers protons , paired are even atomic numbers All the alkali metals they have and odd atomic numbers they have and odd atomic numbers are The Earth formed from the same cloud of , the natural history of caused the Earth the natural history of parts caused the Earth of parts caused the Earth of the Earth parts caused of this planet parts caused of this planet to The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 kg They are lithophiles and therefore in sodium ; makes Earth's crust sodium ; makes Earth's crust up ; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of Sodium is found in many different minerals Other solid deposits include halite , amphibole Many of occur these solid deposits as it ; estimated is large amounts seawater that estimated is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts Its diagonal relationship with allows often magnesium with it often allows magnesium it often allows magnesium to it allows to replace magnesium It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite there , estimated is uranium their by explained having an ns1 valence electron configuration They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure

The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals Their chemistry is by dominated the loss is by dominated the loss of by dominated the loss of their lone valence electron the presentation of is here its properties is known about shows francium known about shows francium that about it shows that francium it shows that francium is a very smooth trend lithium's value is : their reduction potentials lithium's value is : their reduction potentials is has it : is a pale golden tint a pale golden tint : it is one : it is one of it is one of only three metals that one of is only three metals Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure They react aggressively with the halogens The alkali metals also react with water into caesium , produces water water , caesium produces a larger explosion , caesium produces a larger explosion than caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium The alkali metals have the lowest first ionisation energies in their respective periods they almost always lose a single electron The alkalide anions have filled s-subshells , have which filled , s-subshells which filled , s-subshells gives All the stable alkali metals except known are lithium In the alkali metal ions , form aqueous solution aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions form aqua ions , the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the formula the oxygen atom is , with a dative covalent bond may be by attached hydrogen bonds be by attached hydrogen bonds to by attached hydrogen bonds to other water molecules for the second coordination sphere , is the alkali metal cations the second coordination sphere , is the alkali metal cations not solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of There are also probably six water molecules The chemistry of lithium shows several differences Lithium and magnesium have a diagonal relationship Lithium fluoride that is the only alkali metal halide is

that is the only alkali metal halide is poorly to caesium , is expectation expectation , caesium is the most reactive , caesium is the most reactive of caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals All known physical properties of deviate also francium The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs+Fr− Odd–odd nuclei whereas odd–even nuclei have , even mass numbers whereas odd–even nuclei have , even mass numbers have there , be can a given odd mass number , there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide , there be , since only a single beta-stable nuclide of odd-numbered elements is that nucleons odd-numbered elements is that nucleons , , all but have one all but one have an odd atomic number one all have and an odd atomic number all have and an odd atomic number but caesium sodium-22 have : at least one naturally occurring radioisotope sodium-22 have : at least one naturally occurring radioisotope and This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim It constitutes most of the radioactivity It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture of caesium-137 , is 2005 2005 , caesium-137 is the principal source , caesium-137 is the principal source of caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation The atomic radii of going the alkali metals increase down has each electron , feels more than one electron shell more than one electron shell , each electron feels electric repulsion , each electron feels electric repulsion from each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons The ionic radii of are the alkali metals much the outermost electron because is of the alkali metals The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the nuclear charge The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most the only factor which affects is the first ionisation energy which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance down the outermost electron , feels the group the group , the outermost electron feels less attraction , the outermost electron feels less attraction from

the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus This trend is broken in francium The reactivities of going the alkali metals increase down This is the result of a combination down it , is the group it , is the group easier Adding gives and first ionisation energies the atomisation Electronegativity that is a chemical property describes that a chemical property is describes the tendency the effective nuclear charge to attracted because the chlorine , some of have its compounds some of its compounds have a more covalent character The melting point of a substance is the point a substance it is where the point it is where the point changes the atoms weaken so that place , the falling melting and boiling points of indicate the alkali metals the falling melting and boiling points of indicate the alkali metals that of the strength indicate that the alkali metals the strength indicate that the alkali metals of the strength that indicate of the metallic bonds , the nuclei of move the ions the nuclei of move the ions further The alkali metals all have the same crystal structure ( The first factor depends on the volume of The mass of increases also an alkali metal atom in the alkali metals , are their periods their periods , the alkali metals are the least dense metals , the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table into it , produces water water , it produces an explosion , it produces an explosion , it produces an explosion , of producing this ; takes hydrogen gas hydrogen gas ; this takes place ; this takes place faster this takes place faster for it ignites , causing the hydrogen gas This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl the explosive behavior that suggested of alkali metals Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known They easily react with carbon dioxide They react with amphoteric oxides :

The alkali metals form many intermetallic compounds with each Some of these have ionic characteristics NaK is an alloy of sodium form group 13 elements , tend discrete anionic clusters group 13 elements , tend discrete anionic clusters to group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions For NaTl , consists example NaTl , consists example of , NaTl consists of a polymeric anion NaTl consists of a polymeric anion ( Boron is a special case , being , reactivity with decreases boron reactivity with decreases boron down their atoms ; intercalated are graphite their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers KC8 is a very strong reducing agent and is the smaller ones , form initially MC8 , the smaller ones initially form MC6 the smaller ones initially form MC6 , ionic substances with formed are cage-like structures the alkali metals , which is the only alkali metal , which is the only alkali metal reacts which is the only alkali metal reacts with Nitrogen breaking is because an unreactive gas breaking an unreactive gas because is the strong triple bond the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium All the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus This is due to the greater size for potassium , has example example , potassium has nine different known phosphides , potassium has nine different known phosphides , potassium has nine different known phosphides , with arsenides , only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides The structure of is Na3As complex Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula not M3As to conforming the formula M3As to conforming the formula are Indeed , they have some metallic properties , they have some metallic properties , they have some metallic properties , and the alkali metal antimonides have , and some metallic properties All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen They form various types of oxides Lithium burns in air to Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions

This causes lithium to form the more complex anions for formed where the larger alkali metals , the small size of contributes the Li+ and O2− ions the small size of contributes the Li+ and O2− ions to of their contributes to the Li+ and O2− ions their contributes to the Li+ and O2− ions forming their to contributes forming a stable ionic lattice structure The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents in the removal , makes breath the removal , makes breath of , the removal makes of carbon dioxide the removal makes of carbon dioxide by They slowly decompose at standard conditions Rubidium can form Rb6O and sodium , react can example sodium can react with sulfur The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on known of the is twenty All of the formula MX have the stable alkali metal halides of the formula MX have the stable alkali metal halides where M have the formula MX where the stable alkali metal halides They that all are white ionic crystalline solids that all are white ionic crystalline solids have All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water These are isostructural to the respective halides Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry it a very rich coordination chemistry in has which In the alkali metal ions , exist aqueous solution the alkali metal ions , exist aqueous solution as , the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ( was first by noted Humphry Davy first by noted Humphry Davy in by noted Humphry Davy in 1809 be by up speeded a catalyst Similar solutions are by formed the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium are by formed the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium , by formed the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium , strontium The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of In Charles Krause , identified 1907 1907 , Charles Krause identified the colour , Charles Krause identified the colour as Charles Krause identified the colour as being

the solution ) , is 3 M , such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation ( creating organolithium compounds , are a carbanion a carbanion , organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases , organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium lithium hydride : another route is the reaction : another route is the reaction of another route is the reaction of ethers In aryllithiums , react non-polar solvents aryllithiums , react non-polar solvents as , aryllithiums react as the carbanions aryllithiums they as react the carbanions they as react the carbanions effectively , the organometallic compounds of are the heavier alkali metals the organometallic compounds of are the heavier alkali metals predominantly The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide Organometallic compounds of are the higher alkali metals even A notable reagent is Schlosser's base , a mixture it is slow with the heavier alkali metals most important of is these compounds important of these compounds is sodium cyclopentadienide The table below shows the types of The alkali metal peroxides that are ionic compounds are that are ionic compounds are unstable Lithium that is the only metal reacts that is the only metal reacts directly with they , generate water water , they generate hydroxide ions , they generate hydroxide ions and they generate hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas They can that reduce metal cations can that reduce metal cations are that reduce metal cations are less Alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia or , there has been some theoretical work there has been some theoretical work predicting , ignoring predict would relativistic effects ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in thus the contraction of its atomic radius cause the 8s orbital of its atomic radius cause the 8s orbital to its atomic radius cause the 8s orbital to be the ionic radius of predicted is the Uue+ ion Ununennium may also show the +3 oxidation state

also which show , the +3 oxidation state which show , the +3 oxidation state is under Dirac-Fock calculations , predict ununennium Dirac-Fock calculations , predict ununennium that the next element that predict after ununennium of relativistic and shell-structure effects , become the periodic table relativistic and shell-structure effects , become the periodic table so which ( effects stabilise the s-orbitals Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals Its placement above is lithium primarily hydrogen , behaves often the hydrogen atom hydrogen often behaves like a halogen The alkali metals can also form negative ions An argument against is this placement that against formation is that this placement formation is that this placement of formation that is of hydride it , known is this phase it is known as metallic hydrogen Group 14 is also a good fit Thus none of are the three placements none of are the three placements entirely small size , the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm , the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to hydrogen's ability is to form hydrogen bonds The ammonium ion ( ) has very similar properties For most alkali metal salts , are example most alkali metal salts , are example soluble most alkali metal salts are soluble in water the transition that estimated from a mixture Other "pseudo-alkali metals " include the alkylammonium cations , alkali metal hydroxides , that are very strong bases , that are very strong bases react that are very strong bases react with Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons , one This additional electron that occupies an orbital is that occupies an orbital is antibonding many chemical reactions of characterized are Co(C5H5)2 of by are characterized Co(C5H5)2 Co(C5H5)2 are by characterized its tendency are by characterized its tendency to by characterized its tendency to lose Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts , Like cobaltocene , is the alkali metals the alkali metals , cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent , cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent ,

cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent , and decamethylcobaltocene is , and a strong reducing agent may be by substituted its heavier congener rhodium be by substituted its heavier congener rhodium to by substituted its heavier congener rhodium to give Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group of the inert pair effect , is the periodic table the inert pair effect , is the periodic table quite It all the known alkali metals display displays that the +1 oxidation state all the known alkali metals display displays that the +1 oxidation state , It was sometimes considered an alkali metal Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium , thallium also displays the oxidation state +3 thallium also displays the oxidation state +3 , , this inert pair of is 6s electrons this inert pair of is 6s electrons still they as categorised given transition metals Physically , they have the relatively low melting points , they have the relatively low melting points and they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values to this : is the alkali metals the alkali metals : this is one reason : this is one reason for this their is for one reason their is for one reason previously Their spectra are analogous to those Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state , eliminating make would group IB eliminating group IB would make group group IB would I make group would I group make the only main group I group make the only main group ( This stems from the filled d subshell providing Furthermore , they have higher melting points , they have higher melting points , they have higher melting points , hardnesses , the alkali metals are at the top the alkali metals are at the top of The production of is pure alkali metals somewhat Sodium occurs mostly in seawater Potassium occurs in many minerals , Metals like obtained are sodium like by are obtained sodium sodium are by obtained electrolysis are by obtained electrolysis of by obtained electrolysis of molten salts

it , however is the earth's crust lepidolite that all are minerals that all are minerals contain Alkarb the rest contained while 21% rubidium the rest contained while 21% rubidium was rich in the production limit rubidium in the production limit rubidium of rubidium the production limit of rubidium the production limit of rubidium compounds , the mining of is pollucite ore the mining of pollucite ore is the main method most francium , synthesised is nature most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction ever assembled to is date assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms date which is , about 300,000 neutral atoms which is , about 300,000 neutral atoms were it ; produced is lubricating greases it is produced from lithium Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy Sodium compounds have many applications , the most well-known being sodium chloride Sodium salts of used are fatty acids Pure sodium metal also has many applications , potassium as used as fertilisers Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base , hydroxide is a very strong base , and Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks it , be would the dinosaurs caesium atoms , used are that reason caesium atoms are used as the definition Francium has no commercial applications , but They also react with carbon dioxide be by of disposed reaction by of disposed reaction with The inert atmosphere used may be argon Lithium carbonate is used as a mood Excessive ingestion of slurred , lithium causes drowsiness ; the minimum physiological requirement for is sodium the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams ; most of comes it most of comes it from Potassium is the major cation ( positive ion The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference sodium is by maintained ion transporter proteins is by maintained ion transporter proteins in by maintained ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane The cell membrane potential created by allows potassium and sodium ions created by the cell allows potassium and sodium ions by the cell allows potassium and sodium ions to the cell allows potassium and sodium ions to generate

the cell allows to generate an action potential Rubidium has no known biological role , but a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of in caesium , is some systems caesium , is some systems never are rarely by encountered most people rarely by encountered most people , by encountered most people , but Like caesium , tends rubidium caesium , tends rubidium to caesium tends to substitute potassium Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia , caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant the improper handling of lead can caesium-137 gamma ray sources Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987 This led to four deaths and , caesium-137 was among the isotopes caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by among was distributed the isotopes An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written symbols It was by created Semitic-speaking workers was by created Semitic-speaking workers and by created Semitic-speaking workers and slaves However , Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida , Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida , Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida , or the most popular is the Latin alphabet most popular is the Latin alphabet , popular which is , the Latin alphabet which is , the Latin alphabet was , there are also exceptions there are also exceptions such them makes useful for purposes The Greek word was made from the first two letters The history of started the alphabet in Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that a set of had some 24 hieroglyphs John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version This script had no characters representing vowels The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet which into developed , the Phoenician alphabet The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription This script is the parent script of all western alphabets two other forms can be distinguished , namely Canaanite The Aramaic gave rise to the Hebrew script the Ge'ez alphabet the script from is which Vowelless alphabets are called abjads ,

The omission of was vowels not a satisfactory solution was not always vowels it probably was and the first phonemic script The script was by spread the Phoenicians was by spread the Phoenicians across by spread the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean the script , modified was Greece It was the first alphabet in which vowels the first alphabet in was which The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that letters representing chose sounds Vowels are significant in the Greek language was by over carried Greek colonists by over carried Greek colonists to One of these became the Latin alphabet these which became , the Latin alphabet which became , the Latin alphabet was of the alphabet , survived the Roman state the alphabet , survived the Roman state in , the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works Some adaptations of augmented are the Latin alphabet Another notable script which is , Elder Futhark which is , Elder Futhark is Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages The Old Hungarian script is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians It was in use during The Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts Cyrillic alphabets include the Serbian , Macedonian Beyond many phonetic scripts , are the logographic Chinese writing many phonetic scripts , are the logographic Chinese writing in , many phonetic scripts are in existence many phonetic scripts are in existence in the Hangul alphabet , created was Korea the Hangul alphabet was by created Sejong was by created Sejong the Great syllabary a semi is - Zhuyin developed out of a form the phonemes of represented are syllable initials of by are represented syllable initials syllable initials are by represented individual symbols are by represented individual symbols , by represented individual symbols , but " is by used linguists is by used linguists and by used linguists and paleographers In an alphabet , is the wider sense the wider sense , an alphabet is a script

, an alphabet that is a script an alphabet that is a script is that is a script is " In some scholars , distinguish the narrower sense the narrower sense , some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets , some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types abugidas unexpressed ; are most vowels are true alphabets ; include the Arabic and Hebrew scripts the Arabic and Hebrew scripts ; true alphabets include Latin ; true alphabets include Latin , true alphabets include Latin , Cyrillic The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather ( These vowels are the only time These vowels are the only time are vowels are the only time are indicated ) ; Coptic has a letter ; Coptic has a letter for Sorani Kurdish , written is example Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script which in written , the Arabic script Kurdish , writing is the vowels , writing is the vowels mandatory writing is the vowels mandatory , Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with the Phagspa script of based was the Mongol Empire one , argue could the Indic abugidas the modifications into assimilated that their consonants Thus the primary classification of reflects alphabets the primary classification of reflects alphabets how of they reflects how alphabets they reflects how alphabets treat they how reflects treat vowels Such scripts are to tone what abjads to tone are what tones are indicated with diacritics This is the case for Vietnamese tone , determined is Thai is by primarily determined the choice by primarily determined the choice of vowels are by indicated diacritics are by indicated diacritics , by indicated diacritics , but , a script may have separate letters a script may have separate letters for However , Hawaiian Braille has only 13 letters , Hawaiian Braille has only 13 letters . Book Pahlavi ) , was eleven For a comma-shaped letter , represented example a comma-shaped letter , represented example " , a comma-shaped letter represented " g a comma-shaped letter represented " g " in Vedic Sanskrit , has Devanagari

Devanagari , Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet , Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and The largest known abjad is Sindhi , with The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz With it , is 33 letters 33 letters , it is the largest true alphabet , it is the largest true alphabet where it each letter is where the largest true alphabet each letter is where the largest true alphabet is The original Georgian alphabet 5 letters had but 38 letters 5 letters had but 38 letters were The letter order parallels the Greek , with The origins of are the alphabet still Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs , the glyphs contain , and 50 to 400 glyphs ' ) that is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system ) that is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system has that is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system has been It was created in year was 405 A.D. in created year 405 A.D. in created year originally It also uses bicameral script like are distinct letters considered representing different vowel distinct letters considered representing different vowel sounds ñ " is considered a separate letter accented vowels considered , but a separate letter German words with collated are an umlaut a dozen Ugaritic tablets from BC preserve the fourteenth century from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences Runic which used , an unrelated Futhark sequence which used , an unrelated Futhark sequence was The letters : arranged are phonology after the two exceptions ; were the consonant the consonant ; the two exceptions were Y ; the two exceptions were Y and the two exceptions were Y and Z an orthography , comes generally a given language an orthography generally comes into being these rules will generally map letters In there be would a perfectly phonemic orthography a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence

there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between speaking , these national languages lack a word , these national languages lack a word corresponding these national languages lack a word corresponding to one , tell can standard Spanish , one can tell the pronunciation one can tell the pronunciation of At languages are the other extreme such languages are the other extreme such as languages are such as English For this , is English this , is English partly countries the written language have undergo a spelling reform the written language have undergo a spelling reform to These can range from simple spelling changes It is identical to the charge number he that claimed arranged his first periodic tables of he , changed the elements' observed chemical properties the elements' observed chemical properties , he changed the order , he changed the order slightly he changed the order slightly and A simple numbering based on was periodic table position In Ernest Rutherford , gave 1911 1911 , Ernest Rutherford gave a model , Ernest Rutherford gave a model of Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight it be ( though approximately half the atomic weight The experimental position improved dramatically after research This led to the conclusion ( ) were by examined his method There were seven elements ( with seven of discovered were these missing elements An old idea called postulated had Prout's hypothesis the elements had postulated that Prout's hypothesis In Rutherford , succeeded 1917 Rutherford , succeeded 1917 in , Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 All consideration of ended nuclear electrons with Each element has a specific set of chemical properties The configuration of follows these electrons from Synthesis of accomplished is new elements of by is accomplished new elements by is accomplished new elements bombarding is by accomplished bombarding target atoms by accomplished bombarding target atoms of Anatomy is a branch of natural science which a branch of is natural science

It is an old science , having The discipline of divided is anatomy Gross anatomy also includes the branch of The history of characterized is anatomy of by is characterized anatomy anatomy is by characterized a progressive understanding is by characterized a progressive understanding of by characterized a progressive understanding of the functions ) , anatomy is the scientific study , anatomy is the scientific study of anatomy is the scientific study of the structure It includes the appearance and position Gross anatomy is the study of structures Methods used include dissection , The kingdom Animalia that contains multicellular organisms Animalia that contains multicellular organisms are that contains multicellular organisms are heterotrophic Most animals have bodies differentiated into the gametes ; produced are one or two openings the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs Unlike animal cells , have plant cells plant cells , animal cells have neither a cell wall , animal cells have neither a cell wall nor animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts The body tissues are composed of numerous types Each typically has a cell membrane formed are the more developed animals called and diploblastic whose structures called and the more developed animals diploblastic Connective tissue gives shape to organs The main types are loose connective tissue , adipose tissue Collagen plays a major part in organizing An exoskeleton which is a thickened, rigid cuticle is which is a thickened, rigid cuticle is stiffened Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells of the lower layer , is the basement membrane the basement membrane , the lower layer is the reticular lamina , the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next There are many different types of epithelium ; in there are the small intestine in the small intestine there are microvilli the small intestine there are microvilli on there are microvilli on the epithelial lining Skin consists of an outer layer of Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells this be may just simple animals this may just be a coat Muscle is formed of contractile filaments

Smooth muscle has no striations when examined It is found in such organs Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range It is found in the movement this and staggered is the type In striated muscles occur higher animals in higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles striated muscles occur in bundles attached Smooth muscle is found in the walls Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells ) , the nerves form a nerve net , the nerves form a nerve net , the nerves form a nerve net , but , receptor neurons in cause the body wall receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction In specialized receptors , are higher animals higher animals , specialized receptors are the basis , specialized receptors are the basis of specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs The latter consists of sensory nerves latter that of consists sensory nerves that of consists sensory nerves transmit All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at The spinal cord is by protected the vertebral column is by protected the vertebral column and by protected the vertebral column and is connective tissues , derived are the ectoderm connective tissues are derived from mesoderm At the posterior end which is a tail the posterior end which is a tail continues which a tail is continues the spinal cord The mouth is found at the anterior end The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs Jawed vertebrates are by typified paired appendages are by typified paired appendages , by typified paired appendages , fins The limbs of considered are vertebrates The body of divided is a fish The main skeletal element is the vertebral column , composed The ribs attach to the spine and there to attach and the spine They are by supported the muscles are which by supported the muscles which by supported the muscles compose The heart has two chambers and pumps

There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear Sharks and rays are basal fish , they usually have five pairs they usually have five pairs of The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages a cloaca into have which Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits , often They have a bony skeleton , are The dermis is covered with overlapping scales Bony fish which have a swim bladder helps them have which helps a swim bladder Amphibians are a class of animals They are tetrapods , but the caecilians are , but tetrapods Their skin contains little keratin and lacks The hearts of amphibians have three chambers They nitrogenous waste products have and a urinary bladder nitrogenous waste products have and a urinary bladder are Amphibians breathe by means of In the pelvic girdle is frogs robust the pelvic girdle is frogs robust and The feet the toes have and four or five digits the toes have and four or five digits are Frogs have large eyes and no tail Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and Reptiles are a class of animals They are tetrapods , but the snakes are , but tetrapods The surface cells of modified are the epidermis are which into modified horny scales which into modified horny scales create The heart resembles that of the The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization The eggs are by surrounded amniotic membranes are which by surrounded amniotic membranes which by surrounded amniotic membranes prevents Turtles are notable for their protective shells They have an inflexible trunk encased in These are formed from bony plates Turtles the typical reptile teeth are and vegetarians the typical reptile teeth are and vegetarians have Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but There is one living species , " The skull has two openings ( fenestrae There is one row of teeth The teeth are merely projections of Lizards are mostly quadrupeds , The skeleton consists of a skull ,

the jaws and lost have extreme flexibility Snakes the eyes lack , moveable eyelids the eyes lack , moveable eyelids being They do not have eardrums Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts It undulates from side to The tough keratinized scales some provide and body armour some provide and body armour are Valves seal the nostrils and ears Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are but though tetrapods Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre There the narrow jaws are and no teeth the narrow jaws are and no teeth are The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base This that produces an oily secretion waterproofs that an oily secretion produces waterproofs the feathers Mammals are a diverse class of animals They mostly have four limbs but mostly some aquatic mammals have but four limbs some aquatic mammals have but four limbs have The legs of situated are most mammals which below situated , the trunk The bones of are mammals well Mammals have three bones in the middle ear They are clothed in hair their skin in clothed and hair Some of specialized are these glands Mammals breathe with lungs and The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated Mammals are amniotes , and most are , and amniotes The exception to this are the egg-laying monotremes Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal biochemistry which are , complementary basic medical sciences which are , complementary basic medical sciences are are usually by employed universities usually by employed universities , by employed universities , medical schools Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms They constitute about 95% of the animal species , none of has these creatures none of these creatures has a backbone The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure is often by provided cilia often by provided cilia or by provided cilia or flagella Metazoans are a multicellular organism , with The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue metazoan tissues both are , epithelium and connective tissue

both are , epithelium and connective tissue of An endoskeleton derived from is the mesoderm Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but may the epidermis have but no rigid structures the epidermis have but no rigid structures may The outer epithelial layer may include cells of plants , discovered that microscopical anatomy plants that discovered had tubules Insects by possess supported segmented bodies by segmented bodies supported possess a hard-jointed outer covering The segments of organized are the body The head typically bears a pair of The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs The abdomen is composed of eleven segments some of composed , eleven segments Spiders a class of have arachnids Spiders have no wings and no antennae They have mouthparts called chelicerae which mouthparts called have chelicerae They have a second pair of appendages These have similar segmentation to the legs Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes medical by expanded practice a continually developing understanding by expanded practice a continually developing understanding of The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone Alexandria not only housed the biggest library in physiology and took early anatomy early anatomy and physiology took place and physiology took place in physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for They also conducted vivisections on Herophilus became known for his anatomical works Some of included the works classifying Herophilus's knowledge of provided has the human body Erasistratus accurately described the structure of During Greek physicians , were the third century Greek physicians , were the third century able It who was Herophilus made who Herophilus was made the point Great feats were made during the third century the uterus that showed is a hollow organ Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries He compiled existing knowledge and studied He was one of the first experimental physiologists Anatomy developed little from classical times Mondino's "Anatomy " of was 1316 It describes the body in the order was by in trained anatomy

by in anatomy trained Andrea del Verrocchio from Vesalius , published Brabant Brabant , Vesalius published the influential book , Vesalius published the influential book " Vesalius published the influential book " De humani corporis fabrica In medical schools , began the United States medical schools , began the United States to Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream A similar problem existed in Britain where demand in existed where Britain Some graveyards were in consequence protected in by was transformed Britain Britain was by transformed Sir John Struthers was by transformed Sir John Struthers , by transformed Sir John Struthers , Regius Professor This system lasted until the reform of as he , collected teaching teaching , he collected many vertebrate skeletons , he collected many vertebrate skeletons for he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy Ignaz Semmelweis he investigated and puerperal fever he investigated and puerperal fever discovered The students went from the dissecting room to It was the advent of microscopy that the advent of was microscopy Study of involved small structures passing The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance The room ( " is its converse Affirming the consequent is the action of Affirming result can also the consequent the statements " It is August 13 " It is August 13 , It is August 13 , so it is , so August 13 one can affirm with certainty " then it has four legs then it has four legs " it has four legs " ) "P " in is this case in The chaplain is ' this case this case The chaplain ' is signs The chaplain ' is signs his own name Tarkovsky studied film at Moscow's VGIK with Tarkovsky , left state film authorities state film authorities , Tarkovsky left the country , Tarkovsky left the country in Tarkovsky left the country in 1979

he , published also 1986 , he also published a book he also published a book about Tarkovsky was the recipient of several awards he was posthumously awarded the Soviet Union's prestigious Lenin Prize in ) who was a Polish nobleman ) who was a Polish nobleman worked who was a Polish nobleman worked as His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya who was a Romanian teacher Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya who was a Romanian teacher arrived who was a Romanian teacher arrived from ; among Admiral Fyodor Dubasov was her relatives among Admiral Fyodor Dubasov was her relatives , Admiral Fyodor Dubasov was her relatives , a fact Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets He was by described childhood friends was by described childhood friends as by described childhood friends as active His father left the family in 1937 He returned home in 1943 In Tarkovsky , enrolled 1939 Tarkovsky , enrolled 1939 at , Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No . In the family , returned 1943 the family , returned 1943 to , the family returned to Moscow Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school He studied piano at a music school The family lived on Shchipok Street in From he was November 1947 to spring 1948 in November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital he was in the hospital with In Tarkovsky , was his school years his school years , Tarkovsky was a troublemaker , Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student he did not finish his studies He participated in a year-long research expedition to in Tarkovsky , applied 1954 Tarkovsky , applied 1954 at , Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography ( The early Khrushchev era offered good opportunities for young film directors Before annual film production , was 1953 annual film production , was 1953 low more films , produced were 1953 Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm mentor who was , Mikhail Romm who was , Mikhail Romm taught

In Tarkovsky , directed 1956 1956 , Tarkovsky directed his first student short film , Tarkovsky directed his first student short film , Tarkovsky directed his first student short film , " Both films were a collaboration between the VGIK students An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigory Chukhray Tarkovsky who was , the film director Grigory Chukhray who was , the film director Grigory Chukhray was of Chukhray , offered his student his student , Chukhray offered Tarkovsky , Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position as at Tarkovsky , met the VGIK the VGIK , Tarkovsky met Andrei Konchalovsky They found much in common In they , wrote 1959 1959 , they wrote the script , they wrote the script " they wrote the script " Antarctica – Distant Country Tarkovsky submitted the script to Lenfilm Tarkovsky's first feature film was " Ivan's Childhood " He had inherited the film from The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won In he , directed 1965 1965 , he directed the film , he directed the film " he directed the film " Andrei Rublev Tarkovsky had to cut the film Nevertheless , the film had a budget , the film had a budget of the film had a budget of more than 1 million rubles He divorced his wife , Irina In he , married the same year the same year , he married Larisa Kizilova , he married Larisa Kizilova ( he married Larisa Kizilova ( née Egorkina In he , completed 1972 he , completed 1972 " , he completed " Solaris he completed " Solaris " He had worked on this From 1973 to 1974 , he shot the film "Mirror , he shot the film "Mirror " he shot the film "Mirror " , In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay not well by received Soviet authorities well by received Soviet authorities due by received Soviet authorities due to Soviet authorities placed the film in the "third category

the film-makers and made received no returns Third category films also placed the film-makers in Tarkovsky , worked also 1975 Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay In he , directed December 1976 he , directed December 1976 " , he directed " Hamlet he directed " Hamlet " The main role was by played Anatoly Solonitsyn was by played Anatoly Solonitsyn , who by played , Anatoly Solonitsyn Tarkovsky completed in was the Soviet Union Tarkovsky had met the brothers first he wanted to shoot a film a discussion with he changed Arkady Strugatsky with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and he changed his plan and began Work on began this film in improper development of ruined had the negatives Tarkovsky's relationship with deteriorated cinematographer Georgy Rerberg to he to deteriorated where the point Furthermore , Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack , Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978 The film was completed in 1979 In Tarkovsky , began 1979 1979 , Tarkovsky began production , Tarkovsky began production of Tarkovsky began production of the film The film was set in 18th-century Russia by Tarkovsky , submitted Goskino Goskino , Tarkovsky submitted a script , Tarkovsky that submitted a script Tarkovsky that submitted a script was that submitted a script was different During Tarkovsky , traveled the summer of 1979 Tarkovsky , traveled the summer of 1979 to , Tarkovsky traveled to Italy Tarkovsky traveled to Italy , Tarkovsky returned to Italy in Tarkovsky returned to Italy in Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983 Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called Soviet authorities lobbied to prevent the film on he , announced 10 July 1984 he , announced 10 July 1984 that his son , was Andriosha that time Tarkovsky spent most of 1984 on he — claims death himself — he claims death Ironically , Tarkovsky at the end of the year , Tarkovsky at the end of the year was Tarkovsky at the end of the year was diagnosed In he , began January 1986

January 1986 , he began treatment , he began treatment in he began treatment in Paris Tarkovsky died in Paris on His funeral ceremony was held at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral He was buried on 3 January 1987 by , was conceived 1994 , was by conceived Tarkovsky's wife was by conceived Tarkovsky's wife , by conceived Tarkovsky's wife , Larisa A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies who testimonies by includes former KGB agents Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s Tarkovsky allowed to see films the art that perceived of cinema In Tarkovsky , told 1972 1972 , Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov , Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov his ten favorite films The list includes : " Diary of a Country Priest the list does not contain any films Tarkovsky that is saw film The list has also no films or He said of Dovzhenko's "Earth " had they , conveyed such tact such tact , they conveyed a feeling , they conveyed a feeling of they conveyed a feeling of dignity the sense wherein understood of life Andrei Tarkovsky was not a fan of , in Tarkovsky praised a famous exception in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film " Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film " The Terminator In Tarkovsky , argued a 1962 interview Tarkovsky , argued a 1962 interview : His films are by characterized metaphysical themes are by characterized metaphysical themes , by characterized metaphysical themes , extremely long takes Recurring motifs are dreams , memory Juxtaposing : " said a person Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several To him these scenes possess great power him these scenes possess great power and these scenes possess great power and are reflections were by used him were by used him for by used him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema By he meant this that the unique characteristic he meant that this the unique characteristic that meant of cinema

Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time " , Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works , Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black-and-white sequences This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome "Andrei Rublev All of contain afterwards his films Tarkovsky " , dismissed Andrei Rublev " , Tarkovsky dismissed color film , Tarkovsky dismissed color film as Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick He claimed that in everyday life one that in claimed everyday life nearly always Buñuel made films always Buñuel made films . Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with , Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist , who with worked , cinematographer Sven Nykvist his work that argue portrays female sexuality Film teacher David Pratt criticized the evidence given for Dina Iordanova likewise found the claim on Furthermore , he directed the play "Hamlet , he directed the play "Hamlet " he directed the play "Hamlet " for Tarkovsky's first feature film was " Ivan's Childhood " He then directed " Andrei Rublev The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year It 's about the leader of Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination He earned the highest possible grade , " The screenplay is based on the life , an acquaintance from approached Tallinnfilm an acquaintance from Tallinnfilm approached Tarkovsky Tarkovsky considered Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script He planned to write the script Writing was not without difficulty at it , was Tallinnfilm Tallinnfilm , it was the consensus , it was the consensus that it no one was that the consensus no one was that the consensus but The script was sent to Goskino in Tarkovsky , revisited the West the West , Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay , Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made , he was awarded the Lenin Prize he was awarded the Lenin Prize in

In the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum , opened 1996 the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum , opened 1996 in , the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets , Tarkovsky has been the subject of been heavily by influenced Tarkovsky The film consists mostly of narration Directed by is " Andrei Tarkovsky by Andrei Tarkovsky " is a 1988 documentary film The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films as I love his personality and all his works Every cut from his films is a marvelous image But the finished image is nothing more the finished image is nothing more than Mexican filmmaker Alejandro González Iñarritu is a huge fan of Tarkovsky He once said in an interview I did not know what I was by shocked it Danish film director Lars von Trier is a fervent admirer of Tarkovsky He dedicated his film Antichrist to I ’ve seen it 20 Ambiguity is a type of meaning A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty It is thus an attribute of Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity The former represents a choice between former represents a choice between a finite number none of have may which the word "bank , has " instance , the word "bank " has several distinct lexical definitions the word "bank " has several distinct lexical definitions , I " say bought herbs not someone think used a shovel someone think used a shovel to The use of multi-defined words requires the author The goal of is clear concise communication that of the receiver(s is that clear concise communication the receiver(s is that clear concise communication ) An exception to include could this this could whose "weasel words include a politician could whose "weasel words include a politician " whose "weasel words include a politician " and whose senses words are express closely related concepts I have is " a good daughter he that mean ate those cookies , you will need an entrance fee you will need an entrance fee of you that mean need EITHER ten dollars

you that mean need your license semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand in hand We saw is " her duck Spoken language can contain many more types of which many more types of contain ambiguities Metonymy involves referring to one entity of metonymy , encompasses critical semiotics critical semiotics , metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution , metonymy that encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution metonymy that encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution is that encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution is based a politician , say might example will they think oppose taxes they think oppose taxes in may they think oppose only those taxes that they oppose think only those taxes — an opponent can turn a positive statement an opponent can turn a positive statement into ) , there is much greater tolerance , there is much greater tolerance of there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity the relation that argued between the subject In Dasein , is Heidegger's phenomenology Dasein , is Heidegger's phenomenology always Dasein is always in a meaningful world certain , they have little , they have little to they have little to do in Jean-Paul Sartre " follows phenomenological ontology phenomenological ontology " Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger " Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in defining Simone de Beauvoir tries to base an ethics It has been a matter of by on based given the authoritative certainty It is in the knowledge of Following he , argues Ernest Becker he , argues Ernest Becker that On he , argues this basis he , argues this basis that , ambiguity can be a useful tool Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for It is common practice to omit sees there , is formula 2 formula 2 , there is no way , there is no way to there is no way to distinguish Creators of try algorithmic languages to The order of depend may operations the insertion of required is parentheses The expression formula 23 means formula 24 in formula 23 means formula 24 in several texts

general , formula 30 means formula 31 the state " : is an "unwritten rule Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions Expression formula 40 may mean a state with by should be preceded an ambiguous term should be by preceded the definition be by preceded the definition , by preceded the definition , suitable The Berry paradox arises as a result of Terms of this kind give rise Lojban and Loglan are two related languages and Loglan which are two related languages Loglan which are two related languages have which are two related languages have been Languages composed from contain many diverse sources The analysis of consists a protein three-dimensional structure in Christianity and Judaism employ the concept Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to The music of is Africa often In certain images , are visual art certain images , are visual art visually In ambiguity , is social psychology social psychology , ambiguity is a factor , ambiguity is a factor used ambiguity is a factor used in on witnesses ) make a park bench witnesses ) make a park bench less to this — led the new standard this — led the new standard to — this led to a "new" ambiguity this led to a "new" ambiguity in Abel is a Biblical figure in the Book of Genesis He was the younger brother of Cain He who was a shepherd offered who a shepherd was offered his firstborn flock God accepted his offering but not his brother His name in composed is Hebrew In Jesus speaks of Abel Jesus speaks of Abel as [ speaks ] better things than Abel is invoked in the litany the soul of described is Abel summons the King of Light , Hibil whom the King of Light , Hibil whom proceeds Hibil is dispatched to the World of Darkness He descends to the world of Shdum directs Hibil further down Hibil ascends , sealing the abodes to Hibil , assumes the Right Ginza the Right Ginza , Hibil assumes the appearance

, Hibil assumes the appearance of Hibil assumes the appearance of Anathan Hibil they Qin asks what they Qin asks what are Qin had also revealed the mysteries Hibil disguises himself as Gaf He leads her out of Hibil offers prayers to the King of Light Shi'a are frequent visitors of this mosque Orycteropus afer ) is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native It is the only living species of the order Unlike it , has most other insectivores most other insectivores , it has a long pig-like snout , it has a long pig-like snout , it which has , a long pig-like snout which has , a long pig-like snout is It roams over most of , it subsists on ants it subsists on ants and The animal is listed as "least concern Aardvarks are afrotheres , a clade which are , a clade afrotheres The name "aardvark " is Afrikaans The name "Orycteropus " means burrowing foot , the name means , and burrowing foot rather , it is the sole extant representative , it is the sole extant representative of it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order The similarities are based on convergent evolution The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews their extinct relatives , these animals form the superorder Afrotheria Bryan Patterson , concluded has fossils early relatives that concluded of the aardvark The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably "Myorycteropus africanus " The earliest example from was " the genus "Orycteropus that to be thought a tubulidentate The limbs are of moderate length , The front feet have lost the pollex ( Each toe which bears a large, robust nail is which bears a large, robust nail is somewhat considered it , appears digitigrade it , appears digitigrade at , it appears at times it appears at times to It is tall at the shoulder It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia its legs tend to have longer hair The hair surrounding is its nostrils dense The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck

The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features having each tooth , has a pulp cavity a pulp cavity , each tooth has a cluster , each tooth has a cluster of each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes The number of is columns dependent The teeth have no enamel coating and are The aardvark is born with conventional incisors These remaining teeth of : are a dental formula The sides of are the nostrils thick The tip of is the snout highly The fleshy dividing tissue between has probably its nostrils it has , but sensory functions of the aardvark , has turbinate bones turbinate bones , the aardvark has more space , the aardvark has more space for the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs , more Its keen sense of is smell not The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue ( as The aardvark's stomach that has a muscular pyloric area acts that has a muscular pyloric area acts as Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland ring their output ; is the neck what ; their output is the neck Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows the high water table precludes is , as swamp forest They also avoid terrain rocky They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in Its keen hearing warns it of predators Some humans also hunt aardvarks for the only fruit eaten by is aardvarks eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship the aardvark they have as a symbiotic relationship they have as a symbiotic relationship eat to they , require their stringent diet requirements their stringent diet requirements , they require a large range , they require a large range to they require a large range to survive An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the aardvark , keep will food , the aardvark will keep its nose

the aardvark will keep its nose to they , stop will a foraging period It avoids inhaling the dust by ) tongue licks up the insects tongue licks up the insects ; other animals , visit will a termite mound they , so look the aardvark so they look for termites they that for look termites that for look termites are , they can form columns they can form columns long these form long and columns It makes a bleating sound if frightened close it will dig a new one it will dig a new one rapidly at they , pause night they , pause night at , they pause at the entrance they pause at the entrance for it , bound will watchfulness , the aardvark also excavates burrows the aardvark also excavates burrows in Temporary sites are scattered around the home range The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene they are by inhabited smaller animals are by inhabited smaller animals like by inhabited smaller animals like the African wild dog Other animals that use are them that use them are hares Without many animals die would these refuges many animals die would these refuges during many animals would die during wildfire season it , escape will the tunnel born , the young has flaccid ears , the young has flaccid ears and the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles it will nurse off each teat , the folds of disappear skin the folds of disappear skin and After body hair , starts 5–6 weeks body hair , starts 5–6 weeks growing They are not considered common There may be a slight decrease in It receives an official designation from the IUCN In the aardvark , is African folklore the aardvark , is African folklore much Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart the charm , said is the chest The supersonic fighter-bomber FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because It also had similarities with the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks Its name means " earth-wolf "

It is also called "maanhaar-jackal the aardwolf does not hunt large animals one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250,000 termites The aardwolf lives in the shrublands of The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the subfamily Protelinae The generic name "proteles " comes from two words The aardwolf resembles a very thin striped hyena , but It also has one or two diagonal stripes down The mane is raised during confrontations It is missing the throat spot that is others the throat spot missing that others the throat spot missing that in This makes the aardwolf , the smallest extant member The front feet have five toes each , It does still have canines Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and termites in found where regions Termites of depend this family on There are two distinct populations : one In they , live fact they , live fact as , they live as monogamous pairs they live as monogamous pairs with , they will chase the intruder they will chase the intruder up The majority of occur incursions during The territory is by marked both sexes is by marked both sexes , by marked both sexes , as Aardwolves also have scent glands on They often mark near termite mounds An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens , numerous feces have , and up to 10 dens at they , dig their middens their middens , they dig a small hole , they dig a small hole and they dig a small hole and cover They will also dig their own dens Aardwolves are not fast runners nor , it may raise its mane it may raise its mane in The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites This genus of termites has different species in they , eat central Africa they , eat central Africa " they eat " Trinervitermes rhodesiensis Their technique consists of licking them They locate their food by sound They do not destroy the termite mound They often memorize the location of of the primary termites , become midwinter the primary termites , become midwinter scarce

the southern aardwolf , seek will these times the southern aardwolf will seek out "Hodotermes mossambicus aardwolves do not eat carrion they do not like meat it like , unless meat The breeding season varies depending on location In breeding , occurs South Africa breeding , occurs South Africa in , breeding occurs in early July During unpaired male aardwolves , search the breeding season the breeding season , unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory , unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory , unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory , as into they , add oestrus oestrus , they add pasting , they add pasting to they add pasting to their tricks which with mate , the dominant male Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days , producing They are born with their eyes The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den The male may spend up to six hours a After they , begin three months three months , they begin supervised foraging , they begin supervised foraging , they begin supervised foraging , and the IUCN , rated has these factors , the IUCN has rated the aardwolf the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern the farmers , recognized have other areas , the farmers have recognized this the farmers have recognized this , they recognized , but this Aardwolves are rare sights at zoos Adobe ( ;) is a building material the term , used is the Southwestern United States Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough There is no standard size , with In adobe structures , are dry climates adobe structures , are dry climates extremely Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to Buildings made of are sun-dried earth Adobe had been in use Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful Adobe bricks were used in Spain Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian , This was adopted into Arabic This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language An adobe brick is a composite material made of The soil composition typically contains sand ,

Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays , hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength In most building codes , call the United States most building codes , call the United States for , most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on adobe , serve can a small resource cost adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature the standard consideration that suggest of conductivity There is an effective R-value for a north is by made placing soft adobe by made placing soft adobe in " Puddle " is a general term Puddle " is a general term for In the brick , is North America the brick , is North America typically The mixture is molded into the frame which into molded , the frame the bricks , turned are a few hours the bricks are turned on edge Reinforcement can include manure , A test is done on the soil content a sample of mixed is the soil significant and foundation settling is cause may adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of Modern construction codes call for the use of Adobe bricks are by laid course they above rise as two stories a lintel , placed is window and door openings a lintel is placed on top These protect the adobe wall from water damage be that with finished other nontraditional plasters that with finished other nontraditional plasters provide Across smaller members lie the vigas called the vigas smaller members lie called latillas smaller members lie called latillas and the ends of attached were which Roof design evolved around 1850 in

then 18 inches of applied dry adobe dirt 18 inches of applied dry adobe dirt to The dirt was contoured into a low slope moisture was applied to the roof was the clay particles to applied the roof the clay particles to applied the roof expanded adobe roofs , be can the materials , adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof Local ordinances , referencing the UBC added requirements These included : restriction of adobe by is built the Arg-é Bam by the Arg-é Bam built is the Achaemenid Empire An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking that is or undertaking an exciting experience Adventures may be activities with Adventurous experiences which create , psychological arousal which create , psychological arousal can For adventure , becomes some people some people , adventure becomes a major pursuit , adventure becomes a major pursuit in adventure becomes a major pursuit in and excitement : examples are adventure racing : examples are adventure racing and examples are adventure racing and adventure tourism Adventure books may have the theme of Examples include books such as of the hero : goes a quest the hero : goes a quest off the hero goes off in pursuit In an adventure game , is video-game culture video-game culture , an adventure game is a video game , an adventure game is a video game in an adventure game is a video game in which the player a video game in is which The genre's focus on it allows story on it allows story to it allows story to draw Others were personal journals , only There are also books written by also are written books There are many sports classified as Some of these include mountain climbing India offers immense opportunity for adventure lovers ANGLING & FISHING are two remarkable adventure activities among the many others that two remarkable adventure activities among are the many others The Indian Himalaya are an ultimate destination for adventure lovers mountain ranges of offer India ranges of India offer breathtaking, highly challenging trekking routes Mountaineering in introduced was India in by was introduced India

India was by introduced the Europeans was by introduced the Europeans in by introduced the Europeans in the 18th century India offers an exciting mountaineering experience to an adventure sport lover that a number of offers high rise peaks Asia ( ) is a landmass It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia Asia covers an area of , Asia , bounded is general terms Asia is bounded on the east is by on bounded the east by on the east bounded the Pacific Ocean there is , as a historical and cultural construct China was a major economic power and attracted The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands Asia has exhibited economic dynamism ( Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia this convention , revised was the Hellenistic period was historically by defined European academics The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans , in Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published 1730 in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains The latter had suggested the Emba River as Over various proposals made were the next century various proposals made were the next century until The border had been moved perforce Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions a minority of rejected have geographers Geographically , Asia is the major eastern constituent , Asia is the major eastern constituent of Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent The English word comes from Latin literature , Before the Aegean Sea area , was Greek poetry the Aegean Sea area , was Greek poetry in , the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age , The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by The burning of the clay tablets caused the palaces of the clay tablets caused the palaces holding the palaces the clay tablets caused holding the Mycenaean administrative records the clay tablets caused holding the Mycenaean administrative records to

Some of are these of They were used in trades they were captured in Asia the names that suggests record the locations The name is also in the singular Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia The Romans named a province Asia , located There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major is it , is Greek it , is Greek likely The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians The first continental use of attributed is Asia He defines it carefully , that mentions ( the tribe two Phrygians The coastal periphery was home to some long been by inhabited horse-mounted nomads been who by inhabited horse-mounted nomads who by inhabited horse-mounted nomads could The earliest postulated expansion out of is the steppe were mostly by kept separated mostly by separated kept mountains by separated kept mountains and The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers the Karakum and Gobi deserts the steppe horsemen barriers formed that the steppe horsemen barriers formed that could in they do could many cases many cases they could do little they could do little in The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of led the Byzantine and Persian empires to The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia , most In the Manchu , conquered the 17th century the 17th century , the Manchu conquered China , the Manchu conquered China and the Manchu conquered China and established The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much Asia is the largest continent on Earth It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area It is located to the east It is bounded on the east is by on bounded the east by on the east bounded the Pacific Ocean Asia is subdivided into 49 countries The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and The Yangtze River in China is the longest river There are various approaches to the regional division The following subdivision into used is regions It is moist across southeast sections the largest daily temperature ranges on occur Earth ranges on occur Earth in

The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , Southwestern sections of are the continent hot Siberia is one of the coldest places in global risk analysis farm Maplecroft by identified 2010 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft that identified 16 countries global risk analysis farm Maplecroft that identified 16 countries are that identified 16 countries are extremely Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio , the largest economies in are Asia the largest economies in China are Asia in China are Asia , China are Asia , Japan on Asia , dominated Global Office Locations 2011 Global Office Locations 2011 , Asia dominated the office locations , Asia dominated the office locations with Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being " , India had the world's largest economy , India had the world's largest economy during India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE Historically , India was the largest economy , India was the largest economy in India was the largest economy in the world China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth several decades in Japan was the late twentieth century in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Japan was the largest economy in Asia : A number of are supernational economies A number of are supernational economies larger early 1990s , Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method , Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method ) Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method ) as that was ) as almost as large (current exchange rate method China , have will Goldman Sachs , China will have the largest economy China will have the largest economy in Asia is the largest continent in the world to Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by from came driven Asia They are Bangladesh , China

Asia has three main financial centers : Hong Kong The increased use of assisted has outsourcing that out on carried the sea routes Individual main routes have emerged from this The main route leads from the Chinese coast south A particularly significant part of carried is the Asian goods traffic In Asia , had 2010 3.3 million millionaires , Asia had 2010 Citigroup in stated 2012 The Wealth Report Asian centa-millionaire 2012 stated that The Wealth Report Asian centa-millionaire that stated overtook North America's wealth 1970 , is the only country on Its per income increased capita per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries Asia is home to several language families Most Asian countries that have more than one language is that have more than one language is natively Many of the world's major religions have their origins Hindu mythology similarly tells about an avatar Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel Outside of there are Israel of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey In there , are total total , there are 14.4–17.5 million , there are 14.4–17.5 million ( there are 14.4–17.5 million ( 2016, est Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia it ; introduced was the predominant religion it was by introduced the Spaniards was by introduced the Spaniards and by introduced the Spaniards and the Portuguese Georgia , Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion Oriental Orthodoxy which are , prevalent minority denominations which are , prevalent minority denominations are the largest Muslim population in Indonesia is the world in Indonesia is the world , Indonesia is the world , followed The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers The Baháʼí Faith originated in Asia , Almost all Asian religions Asian philosophical traditions have and philosophical character Asian philosophical traditions have and philosophical character cover Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits

The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia Buddhism is the religion of the majority Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore Sikhism is found in Northern India He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works his Nobel Prize in Literature for won notable impact Ebadi is the first Iranian Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader She is a Buddhist and was Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for He is the first Chinese citizen to be Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar , Abdus Salam Dr. Muhammad Yunus of awarded was Bangladesh Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over On he , became 22 June 2006 22 June 2006 , he became one , he became one of he became one of only four people On he , received 28 May 2005 28 May 2005 , he received the Christmas Humphreys Award , he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society Curaçao , Aruba forms a group , Aruba forms a group referred Aruba forms a group referred to ; the citizens of are these countries the citizens of are these countries all Aruba has no administrative subdivisions , but of Aruba , has the Caribbean region the Caribbean region , Aruba has a dry climate , Aruba has a dry climate and Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape The climate has helped tourism , visitors helped , because tourism There has been a human presence on The first identifiable group who are the Arawak Caquetío Amerindians migrated who are the Arawak Caquetío Amerindians migrated from The first Europeans to visit were Aruba Both men described Aruba as an "island Vespucci returned to Spain with Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba Alonso de Ojeda was appointed the island's first governor in

From the Spanish began 1513 enslaving 1513 the Spanish began enslaving the Caquetíos the Spanish began enslaving the Caquetíos , The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain of its use ; increased colonial administration its use ; increased colonial administration in ; its use increased in the late 19th its use increased in the late 19th and During the British Empire , took the Napoleonic Wars the Napoleonic Wars , the British Empire took control , the British Empire took control of the British Empire took control of the island Aruba subsequently became part of The first oil refinery in built was Aruba was by in built 1928 by in 1928 built Royal Dutch Shell another refinery , built was that another refinery was by built Lago Oil and Transport Company was by built Lago Oil and Transport Company , by built Lago Oil and Transport Company , in The refineries processed crude oil from the vast Venezuelan oil fields the Netherlands , occupied was World War II the Netherlands was by occupied Nazi Germany In Aruba , formulated August 1947 August 1947 , Aruba formulated its first "Staatsreglement , Aruba formulated its first "Staatsreglement " Aruba formulated its first "Staatsreglement " ( That which created , the Netherlands Antilles which created , the Netherlands Antilles united Pueblo , Croes sought greater autonomy , Croes sought greater autonomy for Croes sought greater autonomy for Aruba a referendum , held was March 1977 a referendum was held with the support 82% of voted the participants for In Aruba , reached March 1983 March 1983 , Aruba reached an official agreement , Aruba reached an official agreement within Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom In Aruba , drafted August 1985 August 1985 , Aruba drafted a constitution , Aruba that drafted a constitution Aruba that drafted a constitution was that drafted a constitution was unanimously for Aruba , seceded its first parliament Aruba , seceded its first parliament from , Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles , Croes , proclaimed was his death , Croes was proclaimed "Libertador di Aruba

Croes was proclaimed "Libertador di Aruba " Aruba's oil refinery , closed had 1985 It had provided Aruba with The significant blow to led the economy to Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the Leeward Antilles island arc It lies west of Curaçao Aruba has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts the bulk where is of the population The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills The Natural Bridge was a large, naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore The flora of differs Aruba from By Aruba , has the Köppen climate classification the Köppen climate classification , Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate , Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSh Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSh " , the landscape of is Aruba the landscape of is Aruba arid monthly temperature Mean in Oranjestad varies the population , estimated is ethnic composition the features of indicate clearly the islanders , there has been substantial immigration there has been substantial immigration to new immigration laws , introduced were 2007 legal matters , Papiamento is the predominant language , Papiamento is the predominant language used Papiamento is the predominant language used on Papiamento is a Portuguese- and Spanish-based creole language , spoken the government of shown has Aruba among there , is the several Papiamento-speaking islands the several Papiamento-speaking islands , there is a big difference , there is a big difference in there is a big difference in written Papiamento The orthography differs per island , the natives through states that eyewitness account Spanish became an important language in the 18th century Venezuelan TV networks are received on the island Around 13% of speaks today the population Aruba has newspapers published in Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion , practiced by is , practiced the dominant religion Sint Maarten , Aruba is a constituent country , Aruba is a constituent country of Aruba is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands defense are by handled the Netherlands the Staten's 21 members are by elected direct, popular vote

are by elected direct, popular vote to by elected direct, popular vote to serve The Aruban legal system is based on the Dutch model In legal jurisdiction , lies Aruba legal jurisdiction , lies Aruba with , legal jurisdiction lies with the "Gerecht legal jurisdiction lies with the "Gerecht in Deficit spending has been a staple in the government's debt , grown had 2006 the government's debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins In the Aruban government , changed 2006 2006 , the Aruban government changed several tax laws , the Aruban government changed several tax laws to the Aruban government changed several tax laws to reduce Aruba is one of the overseas countries Defence on Aruba is the responsibility All forces are stationed at Marines base Aruba's educational system is patterned after the Dutch system The island's economy is by dominated four main industries is by dominated four main industries : by dominated four main industries : tourism Aruba has one of the highest standards Gold mining was important in the 19th century Aloe was introduced to Aruba Cornelius Eman founded Aruba Aloe Balm , and two-thirds of covered was the island In Aruba , had 2016 2016 , Aruba had 0.57 global hectares , Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of biocapacity In Aruba , used 2016 2016 , Aruba used 6.5 global hectares , Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity This they means use almost 12 times the biocapacity they means use almost 12 times the biocapacity that The official exchange rate of pegged is the Aruban florin Until Aruba's main industry , was the mid-1980s the mid-1980s , Aruba's main industry was oil refining , Aruba receives about 1,235,673 (2007) guests Aruba receives about 1,235,673 (2007) guests per Until the Netherlands , granted 2009 2009 , the Netherlands granted development aid , the Netherlands granted development aid to the Netherlands granted development aid to Aruba This aid was mainly for law enforcement This aid was discontinued at Aruba's request Aruba has a large and well-developed tourism industry , receiving

About of earned is the Aruban gross national product Most tourists are from North America , U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP ) has a full pre-clearance facility There are many luxury and lesser luxury hotels This area is also called "Highrise-area Oranjestad is the port for the many cruise ships that the port for is the many cruise ships The cruise industry is a very important pillar of tourism With Aruba , received 334 cruise calls 334 cruise calls , Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists , Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists in Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists in 2018 The 2017/2018 cruise season brought $102.8 million to Aruba's economy , in there were 2005 in 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living there were ninety-two different nationalities living on On Aruba , celebrates 18 March 18 March , Aruba celebrates its National Day Betico Croes' birthday , celebrated is 25 January Dia di San Juan is celebrated on 24 June The festival of is Carnaval also Its celebration in started Aruba in of by was influenced Aruba Aruba was by influenced the Dutch colonial style was by influenced the Dutch colonial style and also some Spanish elements by influenced and the Dutch colonial style the 20th century the architectural style of incorporated the island the architectural style of the island incorporated a more American and international influence Aruba has three ports : Barcadera Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year " Arubus " is a government-owned bus company Its buses operate from 3:30 a.m. until power ; its eponymous plant was one ; its eponymous plant was one of its eponymous plant was one of the world's largest desalination plants Average daily consumption in is Aruba about N.V. Elmar is the sole distributor of electricity There are two telecommunications providers : government-based Setar The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was an agreement among the 13 original states It was approved after much debate The Articles of Confederation came into force on A guiding principle of was the Articles to During the Congress , looked the ratification process

the Congress , looked the ratification process to , the Congress looked to the Articles the Congress looked to the Articles for govern delegates , discovered the continually growing American states delegates , discovered the continually growing American states that , some prominent political thinkers in began the fledgling union some prominent political thinkers in began the fledgling union asking Their hope was to create a stronger government a meeting , set was the Articles a meeting was set in Philadelphia the government under replaced was the Articles Civil disobedience resulted in coercive and quelling measures , These actions eroded the number of Crown Loyalists of most states — were constitution writing most states — were constitution writing busy most states were busy at the task During Congress , exercised the war the war , Congress exercised an unprecedented level , Congress exercised an unprecedented level of Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority into the colonists , needed a legitimate nation a legitimate nation , the colonists needed international recognition , the colonists needed international recognition for the colonists needed international recognition for their cause In Thomas Paine , argued early 1776 Thomas Paine , argued early 1776 in , Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of they to aid expected those Foreign courts needed to have American grievances Without Paine , concluded such a declaration Paine , concluded such a declaration , , the records of show the Second Continental Congress the records of show the Second Continental Congress that of the need show that the Second Continental Congress the need show that the Second Continental Congress for the need that show for a declaration he , urged also the same time , he also urged Congress he also urged Congress to Congress then created three overlapping committees to Afterward , there were long debates , there were long debates on there were long debates on such issues Congress , forced was the constitution The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states 12 states ; ratified had December 16, 1777

; 12 states had ratified the Articles 12 states had ratified the Articles by During Congress , observed this time this time , Congress observed the Articles , Congress observed the Articles as Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame Maryland finally ratified the Articles on The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles , a conclusion The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations Under the states , retained the Articles the Articles , the states retained sovereignty , the states retained sovereignty over the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions However Congress had no power to Congress had no power to compel No progress was made in Congress on Knox , wrote the petitions Knox , wrote the petitions to , Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris , , each of had the states each of the states had an army state politicians that claimed understood their duty which of The 1783 Treaty , Paris The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists There never will be money the 1786 Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with showed also Spain it could not compel the British army the central government's power , kept was Confederation the central government's power was kept quite limited The Confederation Congress could make decisions but it could only request money by the continental dollars , depreciated Congress In George Washington , wrote 1779 George Washington , wrote 1779 to , George Washington wrote to John Jay George Washington wrote to John Jay , who to wrote , John Jay Some States paid off their war debts and , the Confederation Congress did take two actions the Confederation Congress did take two actions with The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares The Northwest Ordinance of the agreement noted 1787 of the agreement noted 1787 of 1787 the agreement noted of the original states the agreement noted of the original states to The Northwest Ordinance of made also 1787 No new states were admitted to the Union

The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the presiding officer of referred — Congress There were 10 presidents of Congress The peace treaty left the United States independent and The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted There was no president , no executive agencies The absence of meant a tax base that of there meant that a tax base there meant that a tax base was there that meant was no way the new nation , regaining was the British blockade , the new nation was regaining its prosperity trade opportunities were by restricted the mercantilism were by restricted the mercantilism of by restricted the mercantilism of the British and French empires The ports of were the British West Indies closed which closed to were all staple products France and Spain established similar policies Simultaneously , new manufacturers faced sharp competition , new manufacturers faced sharp competition from new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which sharp competition from faced British products which the anxiety of increased the political and economic elites The Continental Congress which printed paper money was which printed paper money was so Congress could not levy taxes of he , found the United States it , he found the United States Demands were made for favors there for made and favors each State acted individually against Great Britain By Congress was 1787 unable Congress was 1787 unable to The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution A copy was made for each state one for made and each state Congress began the signing process by examining On the prepared copy , was July 9, 1778 the prepared copy , was July 9, 1778 ready They dated it and began They also requested each of they signed at delegates the next meeting , John Wentworth of added New Hampshire John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name Georgia signed on July 24 , Maryland refused to ratify the Articles the Articles , felt that the United States the much-awaited decision , taken was February 2, 1781 the much-awaited decision was by taken the Maryland General Assembly

was by taken the Maryland General Assembly in by taken the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis by and sealed signed Governor Thomas Sim Lee Congress had debated the Articles for Many participants in were the original debates no , Charles Pinckney of proposed South Carolina Charles Pinckney of proposed South Carolina that of Congress proposed that South Carolina Congress proposed that South Carolina revise Congress that proposed revise the Articles of Confederation Recommended changes included granting Congress power Historians have given many reasons for Rakove that identifies several factors explain that several factors identifies explain the collapse The lack of was compulsory direct taxation power objectionable It could not collect customs Rakove of The second group factors identified , holders of wanted war scrip and land speculators holders of a central government wanted war scrip and land speculators of a central government wanted war scrip and land speculators to a central government wanted war scrip and land speculators to pay the authority believed that " North Carolina The apparent tension between addressed was these two provisions In James Madison , remarked 1788 James Madison , remarked 1788 ( Nevertheless , it is a historical and legal question , it is a historical and legal question whether it opponents is whether a historical and legal question opponents is whether a historical and legal question of At there , were the time the time , there were state legislators , there who were state legislators there who were state legislators argued who were state legislators argued that Modern scholars such as agree Francisco Forrest Martin as the Articles of Confederation agree that Francisco Forrest Martin the Articles of Confederation agree that Francisco Forrest Martin had On the Congress , received July 3, 1788 July 3, 1788 , the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification , the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution following day delegates considered a bill day delegates considered a bill to delegates considered a bill to admit 11 of ratified had the 13 states Saturday, September 13, 1788 , the Confederation Congress voted the resolve

, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally the other definitions ( describe south south ( other definitions describe the Atlantic ( other definitions describe the Atlantic as other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending The oldest known mentions of come an "Atlantic" sea from In the name , refers these uses the name , refers these uses to , the name refers to Atlas the name refers to Atlas , The pond is a term often used by is often used a term The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west It connects to the Arctic Ocean through The Atlantic by has indented irregular coasts by irregular coasts indented has numerous bays These include the Baltic Sea , Black Sea Including the Atlantic , covers its marginal seas its marginal seas , the Atlantic covers an area , the Atlantic covers an area of the Atlantic covers an area of or Excluding the Atlantic , covers its marginal seas the Atlantic , covers its marginal seas and the Atlantic covers and has a volume The bathymetry of dominated is the Atlantic of by is dominated the Atlantic the Atlantic is by dominated a submarine mountain range is by dominated a submarine mountain range called by dominated a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into The MAR rises above the surrounding ocean floor and The MAR produces basaltic volcanoes in Eyjafjallajökull The remainder of discovered was the ridge was by in discovered the 1920s by in the 1920s discovered the German "Meteor" expedition Most of runs the MAR under The Atlantic is by surrounded passive margins is by surrounded passive margins except by surrounded passive margins except at There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America The USS "Stewart " used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to This the idea involved because little guesswork the idea involved because little guesswork of Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator

The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction ; surface water salinity in ranges the open ocean surface water salinity in ranges the open ocean from , the lowest values are in the high latitudes the lowest values are in the high latitudes and The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source the western part into divided since the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water The eastern water is saltier because of There four low-salinity waters are : five intermediate waters four low-salinity waters are : five intermediate waters formed Arctic Intermediate Water , flows from north These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins The NADW is by fed a flow is by fed a flow of by fed a flow of warm shallow water surface circulation , dominated is the North Atlantic surface circulation is by dominated three inter-connected currents is by dominated three inter-connected currents : by dominated three inter-connected currents : the Gulf Stream of the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre , plays the North Atlantic Gyre the North Atlantic Gyre , the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role , the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in climate variability The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of this water is cooled during winter A third of this water becomes part The South Atlantic is by dominated the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean is partly by masked a wind-induced Ekman layer The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years Other species endemic to include the Sargasso Sea In it discovered was the early 19th century it discovered was the early 19th century that the southern Sargasso Sea that discovered is the spawning ground Climate is by influenced the temperatures is by influenced the temperatures of

by influenced the temperatures of the surface waters release maritime climates , are heat maritime climates , are heat more The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that the major source of are the atmospheric moisture with the warmest zones ; stretch latitude the warmest zones ; stretch latitude across ; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of The coldest zones are in high latitudes , Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting the North Atlantic Drift , thought is Europe For the Gulf Stream , helps example example , the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures , the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off winter , the Icelandic Low produces frequent storms Icebergs are common from early February Hurricanes are a hazard in the western parts The break-up of began Pangaea in This period also saw the first stages of The formation of the Central American Isthmus closed the Central American Seaway The formation of resulted the isthmus in Geologically , the Northern Atlantic is the area , the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to The opening of followed closely the Northern Atlantic Seafloor spreading led to the extension Spreading began opening the Labrador Sea around erupted at found are this time period The opening of the North Atlantic caused significant uplift The North Atlantic Ocean most contains , about 810 seamounts most contains , about 810 seamounts of was that on noted the first maps that on noted the first maps included problematic and later reconstructions proven have introduced various deformation zones Etendeka Large Igneous Province produced by resulted the Tristan hotspot produced by resulted the Tristan hotspot in by the Tristan hotspot resulted in an estimated volume It covered an area of in the LIP suggest originally covered a much larger area In rifting began the Falkland segment with

the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements rifting began with dextral movements between In rifting started the central segment to rifting started the central segment to break rifting started to break Africa The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up Various estimates date the propagation of sea About 50 Ma the opening of resulted the Drake Passage The Gibraltar Arc in migrating is the western Mediterranean the now-submerged plains of exposed were the Agulhas Bank The GCFR is delimited to the north is by to delimited the north by to the north delimited the Cape Fold Belt Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa humans ) 20,000 years ago had the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM humans had to abandon their initial settlements of this region repopulated was the LGM by this region was repopulated the LGM this region was by repopulated Magdalenian culture Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by in followed interrupted waves This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts , only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya , and Brazil generated thousands of tons and Brazil generated thousands of tons of Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris The Ertebølle middens in Denmark , by as accompanied described new technologies During the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of northern North America In late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin , proposed 1973 1973 , late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization , late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over and atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg " most likely that deliver future hypotheses likely that deliver future hypotheses will that deliver future hypotheses will , A settlement on established was Greenland Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of

Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492 Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under Vasco da Gama reached India under the Portuguese flag following Pedro Alvares Cabral , reached Vasco da Gama Vasco da Gama , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , taken by reached , taken Brazil Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade A peace treaty mediated by divided the Pope mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories by the Pope divided the conquered territories into and slavery quickly reduced the indigenous population slavery quickly reduced the indigenous population of an estimated ten million Africans , exported were the slave trade an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves most as exported , slaves Spain ) 1500–1800 was a period ) 1500–1800 was a period of 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth Colonialism evolved as part of facing urbanization , grew the Atlantic urbanization , grew the Atlantic from , urbanization grew from 8% urbanization grew from 8% in , GDP doubled in Atlantic countries GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but also that in encased rock that in encased rock must Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s Sand eel ; overfished is fished which as was overfished capelin Limited data the state makes of redfishes the state makes of redfishes and During some species shown have the 21st century the 21st century some species have shown weak signs some species have shown weak signs of In John Cabot , became 1497 1497 , John Cabot became the first Western European , John Cabot became the first Western European since John Cabot the Vikings became since the first Western European the Vikings became since the first Western European to as this discovery " yielded "Newfoundland Currency "Newfoundland Currency " this discovery yielded some 200 million tons " this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of fish In new fisheries started the late 19th and early 20th centuries to

new fisheries started the late 19th and early 20th centuries to exploit new fisheries started to exploit haddock It also expanded the exploited areas from Overfishing in recognised was the area this , resulted finally the early 1990s this finally resulted in the collapse In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of landings Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished Almost half of fished are the stocks Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species a peak , reached was the South-West Atlantic a peak was reached in the mid-1980s catches in reached and the mid-1980s it considered is now 2013 it is now considered overfished Endangered marine species include the manatee , seals Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry The biggest culprits are rivers and with Delaware , carrying was Dover Air Force Base , Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs over which in increased , strength it is clear from statistical analyses The ocean mixed layer plays an important role in heat storage This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change , Schopenhauer that developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system Schopenhauer that developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system rejected that an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system developed rejected the contemporaneous ideas He was among the first thinkers in during Schopenhauer , had his lifetime his lifetime , Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact , Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across various disciplines Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22, 1788 religious ; both supported the French Revolution ; both supported the French Revolution , both supported the French Revolution , and in Heinrich , moved 1793 Heinrich , moved 1793 to , Heinrich moved to Hamburg Heinrich moved to Hamburg — His firm continued trading in Danzig Arthur , sent was 1797 Arthur was sent to Le Havre He seemed to enjoy his two year , Arthur started playing the flute

In he , accompanied 1803 1803 , he accompanied his parents , he accompanied his parents on he accompanied his parents on a European tour he : stay could a choice he could stay at home He deeply regretted his choice later the merchant training regretted later because his choice He spent twelve weeks of the tour In Heinrich , drowned 1805 Heinrich , drowned 1805 in , Heinrich drowned in a canal Heinrich drowned in a canal near it that believed was suicide He was prone to anxiety even his wife started to doubt his mental health There was , in the father's life Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth There were other instances of serious mental health history Despite Schopenhauer , liked his hardship his hardship , Schopenhauer liked his father , Schopenhauer liked his father and Schopenhauer liked his father and later Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that the family with left a significant inheritance Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control He invested it conservatively in from he , dedicated his mother his mother , he dedicated himself , he dedicated himself to he dedicated himself to studies , he also enjoyed social life he also enjoyed social life among He left the Gymnasium after writing Arthur spent two years as a merchant During he , had this time this time , he had doubts , he had doubts about he had doubts about being In she , wrote one letter she , wrote one letter : He moved to Weimar but He accused his mother of being Arthur concentrated on his studies , which on concentrated , his studies most celebrated of being them celebrated of them being Goethe Arthur attended her parties , usually was also by captivated the beautiful Karoline Jagemann also by captivated the beautiful Karoline Jagemann , by captivated the beautiful Karoline Jagemann , mistress Schopenhauer , had occasionally sexuality to he Anthime claims his friend he Anthime claims his friend that He left Weimar to become There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer are about why no written reasons

income ; he chose medicine ; he chose medicine due he chose medicine due to Among Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut were his notable professors , Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut were his notable professors , Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren He studied metaphysics , psychology regret he ; claimed his medicinal and scientific studies he ; claimed his medicinal and scientific studies that at he , spent Göttingen he , spent Göttingen considerable he spent considerable time studying He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for begun she ; published her literary career her literary career ; she published her first book ; she published her first book in she published her first book in 1810 he ; found also his He later mentioned Fichte only He also attended the lectures of on Schopenhauer show that Schleiermacher's lectures Schopenhauer show that Schleiermacher's lectures was Fichte he also read the works he also read the works of Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush than he ; considered her her ; he considered the relationship ; he considered the relationship an act he considered the relationship an act of He settled for a while in He spent his time in solitude He completed his dissertation at about the same time He became irritated by the arrival She tried to convince him His mother had just published her second book temper Arthur people told that her people told that her would of the Brockhaus publishing firm , held dubious quality dubious quality , the Brockhaus publishing firm held her , the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem to Schopenhauer's dissertation , made his mother's prediction his mother's prediction , Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression , Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe he , impressed was Schopenhauer's philosophical positions he was by impressed his intellect was by impressed his intellect and by impressed his intellect and extensive scientific education Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were a great honor Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise their growing theoretical disagreementsand , made especially Schopenhauer's extreme self-confidence and tactless criticismssoon other

was immediately by impressed the "Upanishads immediately by impressed the "Upanishads " by impressed the "Upanishads " ( He continued his studies by reading loved he , was Hindu texts he , was Hindu texts more His studies on constrained were Hindu and Buddhist texts on by were constrained Hindu and Buddhist texts Hindu and Buddhist texts were by constrained the lack were by constrained the lack of by constrained the lack of adequate literature Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised , in he left May 1814 in May 1814 he left Weimar May 1814 he left Weimar and he left Weimar and moved He continued his philosophical studies , enjoyed His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt His criticisms of caused occasionally local artists occasionally he caused when public quarrels he caused when public quarrels ran He was recommended to the publisher caused Schopenhauer , left an unwanted pregnancy an unwanted pregnancy , Schopenhauer left Dresden , Schopenhauer left Dresden for Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation He visited Venice , Bologna He spent the winter months in Rome He enjoyed art , architecture One of became supposedly his affairs He corresponded regularly with his sister She informed him about their financial troubles Arthur offered to share his assets The women managed to receive only thirty percent He shortened his stay in Italy responses to he decided his book to he decided his book to he decided his book to take he decided to take an academic position He contacted his friends at universities He scheduled his lectures to coincide was especially by appalled Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge especially by appalled Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of by appalled Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences Hegel was also facing political suspicions Hegel , voted still own Only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures in he , continued academia he , continued academia to for Schopenhauer , had his three-year travel his three-year travel , Schopenhauer had an incident , Schopenhauer had an incident with Schopenhauer had an incident with his Berlin neighbor The details of are the August 1821 incident unknown

Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy , where he enjoyed , where Italy It was his last visit to the country the treatment his doctor used suggests syphilis his doctor used suggests syphilis ) He contacted publishers , offering to he , began Berlin he , began Berlin to he began to study Spanish He liked Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Lope de Vega He also made failed attempts to Schopenhauer , mentioned occasionally his Berlin years , Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to he courting was unsuccessfully a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss unsuccessfully who courting , 17-year-old Flora Weiss who courting , 17-year-old Flora Weiss was His unpublished writings from show that time that from he show that that time he show that that time was He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer she ( had soon an unnamed foreign diplomat ( she soon had another pregnancy she soon had another pregnancy but soon the child had but another pregnancy the child had but another pregnancy was to he , offered a cholera epidemic he , offered a cholera epidemic to he offered to take her he , had supposedly Frankfurt , he supposedly had another supernatural experience he supposedly had another supernatural experience , This experience led him to spend in he , experienced Frankfurt Frankfurt , he experienced a period , he experienced a period of he experienced a period of depression He renewed his correspondence with his mother Johanna's writing did not bring her much income her popularity bring , and her much income In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim In he , published 1836 he , published 1836 " he published " On the Will In he , sent 1836 1836 , he sent his essay , he sent his essay " he sent his essay " On He sent another essay , " , was by enraged this rejection He published both essays as " he was still pouring insults after he , managed some negotiations

he , managed some negotiations to he managed to convince his publisher Schopenhauer began to attract some followers He jokingly referred to them One of the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt the most active early followers who was , Julius Frauenstädt who was , Julius Frauenstädt wrote to Frauenstädt , continued his ideas Frauenstädt , continued his ideas to Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work They renewed their communication in 1859 In Schopenhauer , witnessed 1848 1848 , Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval , Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Frankfurt He became worried for his own safety in he had had life life he had had such worries he had had such worries and He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who a friendly welcome to gave Austrian soldiers The rebellion passed without any loss to He even modified his will , In Schopenhauer , published 1851 Schopenhauer , published 1851 " , Schopenhauer published " Parerga Schopenhauer published " Parerga and It was his first successful, widely read book , partly that proved most were popular most popular that were the ones popular that were the ones actually that were the ones actually did In the University of Leipzig , sponsored 1856 1856 , the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest , the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy Schopenhauer's friend Jules Lunteschütz made the first Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by seemed and amused flattered People visited Frankfurt's "Englischer Hof " to Admirers gave him gifts and He remained healthy in his own old age He had a great appetite and could ; in he suffered September in September he suffered inflammation September he suffered inflammation of he suffered inflammation of the lungs to Schopenhauer , was him Schopenhauer , was him concerned He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure on Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as an extension The world : " is his main work : " The world is my representation " The world is my representation (

The world is my representation ( " that belongs to is the world In November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer to Goethe invited Schopenhauer to help matter , he accepted the invitation , he accepted the invitation out he accepted the invitation out of it that admitted was Hume's skeptical assault Kant : declared simply this the empirical content that declared of perception having the external world , arises an external cause the cause With , finding vision of the senses ; furnish perception perception ; the senses furnish the raw material ; the senses furnish the raw material by the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect the raw material by furnish which beyond the world , considered representation the world , considered representation " that The empirical world appears to us , each element of has this multiplicity each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence Human rationality that merely is a secondary phenomenon that merely is a secondary phenomenon does Schopenhauer argues , serve the ends of a person's actions : are sufficient reason sufficient reason : a person's actions are a necessary consequence : a person's actions are a necessary consequence of a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives Necessity extends to the actions of Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that " a man quoted that " the Schopenhauerian idea salvation from come can our miserable existence the world from stems that the insight A temporary way to escape is this pain one moves away from ordinary cognizance From one , is this aesthetic immersion one , is this aesthetic immersion no one is no longer an individual who no longer is an individual Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation Schopenhauer , " thought Daniel Albright music that thought was the only art Schopenhauer's realist views on are mathematics evident the task that asserts of ethics Reality in is itself free is relevant for are ethics for ethics who are individuals ethics who are individuals can who are individuals can act to the egoist , asserts us

us , the egoist asserts a gap , the egoist asserts a gap between the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals What motivates the altruist is compassion The suffering of is others for Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity the principle through calls which we behold we see nature behold we see nature that it we see that nature it that see is a cruel battle that has exists , the only thing that exists , has no other option There are no delays or reprieves punishment is tied to the offence Tormenter and tormented are one Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment he abhor itself since life exhibit affirm , but life They welcome poverty and neither Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction of a claim , met evolution a claim , met evolution with , a claim met with satisfaction a claim met with satisfaction by " , Schopenhauer described himself , Schopenhauer described himself as Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes Schopenhauer did not give much thought and he , maintained a few continent-shaking wars a few continent-shaking wars , he maintained his position , he maintained his position of he maintained his position of " He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany Schopenhauer claimed , punishes criminals It places " beside every possible motive the criminal code is as complete a register All this is due to the fact of he , condemned the United States he , condemned the United States " , he condemned " those devils he condemned " those devils in Blondes prefer dark persons , or of they , are the pole they , are the pole indigenous I may here express my opinion made to he is them to he is them furious he is them furious and it ; for is Europe ; for it is a religion for it is a religion without it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency " , Schopenhauer expressed opposition , Schopenhauer expressed opposition to Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what

he opposition to expressed what Schopenhauer's writings influenced many , from in he , was 1859 he , was 1859 much by much impressed was the young woman's wit with he , told Ney Ney , he told Richard Wagner's friend , he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug : ) , Schopenhauer added an appendix , Schopenhauer added an appendix to Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter pederasty that wrote has the benefit Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect we , led are mental faculties we are led to the view a real and thorough improvement to led that the view Plato had something of the kind In Schopenhauer , reiterated another context another context , Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis , Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis : Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis : " This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic of Schopenhauer , was his monistic philosophy Schopenhauer , was his monistic philosophy very desire ; it is the closest word ; it we is the closest word it we is the closest word have that is we have the closest word In he , praised 1841 1841 , he praised the establishment , he praised the establishment in he praised the establishment in London Schopenhauer considered India as " It has been the solace of They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Majer was a follower of Herder Schopenhauer did not begin serious study This was through his neighbor of Krause who then was a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who then was a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher attempted Krause had also mastered Sanskrit He called the opening up of Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines suffering is by caused desire is by caused desire ( by caused desire ( taṇhā over desire ; is the intellect desire ; is the intellect prior desire is prior to thought I , have should truth it , be must any case , it must be a pleasure it must be a pleasure to

any other Dharmic faith more than loses Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses credence than any other Dharmic faith loses credence since any other Dharmic faith he loses since credence he loses since credence did They are included in a recent case study are that in included a recent case study that in included a recent case study traces Schopenhauer grounded magic in claimed and the Will This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley's system of to this , amounts Schopenhauer's overarching system this , amounts Schopenhauer's overarching system to Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment In Schopenhauer , went his student years Schopenhauer , went his student years more ; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of As he , knew a polyglot a polyglot , he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek , he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek , he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek , and Schopenhauer saw Bruno and Spinoza Consequently , there is no place , there is no place for there is no place for God Schopenhauer Spinoza expressed that regret Spinoza expressed that regret stuck it could be considered complete Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer causality , find can Kant , causality can find application causality can find application on by was also acknowledged this reasoning was also by acknowledged Schopenhauer Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel ) , Hegel was a "commonplace, inane , Hegel was a "commonplace, inane , Hegel was a "commonplace, inane , loathsome , Schopenhauer wrote in the preface Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation His legacy shaped the intellectual debate , and was well by read physicists well by read physicists , by read physicists , most notably Einstein Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation In three figures hung his Berlin study on his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall

he " ) considered the West ) he considered switching his study he considered switching his study of He maintained the idealistic views during the rest But most of is all Schopenhauer most of is all Schopenhauer famous Richard Wagner became one of the earliest and most famous adherents he has been nicknamed "the artist's philosopher read Tolstoy , exclaimed Schopenhauer's philosophy Tolstoy , exclaimed Schopenhauer's philosophy " It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection strongly influenced by were Schopenhauer influenced by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann , he " , read Billy Budd " , he read Schopenhauer's essays , he read Schopenhauer's essays and he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked " With Schopenhauer gave his truths With his truths Schopenhauer gave me his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and in Ludwig Wittgenstein , adopted his career his career , Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , and some traits adopted , and Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism on , Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism , Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism In Wittgenstein , became later years Wittgenstein , became later years highly the Dutch mathematician , incorporated L. E. J. Brouwer mathematics , the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in It is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in It is by bordered Namibia is by bordered Namibia to by bordered Namibia to the south Angola has an exclave province , the province European settlers , began gradually the 19th century After Angola , achieved a protracted anti-colonial struggle a protracted anti-colonial struggle , Angola achieved independence , Angola achieved independence in Angola achieved independence in 1975 The country descended into a devastating civil war the same year has been by governed MPLA been by governed MPLA ever by governed MPLA ever since

Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves , and its economy has , and vast mineral and petroleum reserves the government of made has João Lourenço Angola is a member of the United Nations the Angolan population , estimated is 2021 the Angolan population is estimated at 32.87 million The name "Angola " comes from the Portuguese colonial name The toponym was by derived the Portuguese was by derived the Portuguese from by derived the Portuguese from the title was by predominantly populated nomadic Khoi by predominantly populated nomadic Khoi and The Khoi and San peoples were neither pastoralists They were by displaced Bantu peoples were by displaced Bantu peoples arriving by displaced Bantu peoples arriving from - known of was these known of these was the Kingdom of the It established trade routes with other city-states Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the area in 1484 , the Portuguese had established relations the Portuguese had established relations with The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo Paulo Dias de Novais founded São Paulo de Loanda ( Luanda The Portuguese established several other settlements , forts and trading posts In the 16th century Portugal gained control the 16th century Portugal gained control of Portugal gained control of the coast Life for was European colonists difficult progress was difficult and European colonists During the Dutch West India Company , occupied the Portuguese Restoration War the Portuguese Restoration War , the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement , the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda of by was completed the territory the territory was by completed 1650 The slave trade was abolished in Angola a more progressive administration appointed by abolished Portugal appointed by Portugal abolished slavery by Portugal abolished slavery altogether By Portugal established had the mid-nineteenth century the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion Portugal had established its dominion as Until Portugal , entertained the late 1880s the late 1880s , Portugal entertained proposals , Portugal entertained proposals to Portugal entertained proposals to link

The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders black Angolans , forbidden were colonial law The first nationalist movements did not take root During they joined were the early 1960s by they were joined the early 1960s they were by joined other associations were by joined other associations stemming by joined other associations stemming from self-determination which provoked , an armed conflict which provoked , an armed conflict erupted with Angolan political exiles , were Zaire Angolan political exiles , were Zaire able of some , found Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme , some found work , some found work as some found work as middlemen from by was spearheaded 1966 1966 was by spearheaded Jonas Savimbi was by spearheaded Jonas Savimbi and by spearheaded Jonas Savimbi and the "National Union for the Total Independence of Angola hills north of came Luanda by the organisation's leadership , remained the Angolan Communist Party the organisation's leadership , remained the Angolan Communist Party predominantly , the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters were severely by hampered political and military factionalism severely by hampered political and military factionalism , by hampered political and military factionalism , as and the FNLA competed for influence the FNLA competed for influence in This was by ratified the Alvor Agreement was by ratified the Alvor Agreement later that month by ratified the Alvor Agreement later that month , With the FNLA began tacit American and Zairean support massing tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers the FNLA began massing large numbers of , the MPLA began securing control the MPLA began securing control of Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda The fighting intensified with street clashes in In the MPLA , requested August 1975 August 1975 , the MPLA requested direct assistance , the MPLA requested direct assistance from the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union By there , were independence independence , there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers

, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country They were by kept supplied were by supplied kept a massive airbridge by supplied kept a massive airbridge carried The persistent buildup of the MPLA allowed Cuban and Soviet military aid of the MPLA allowed Cuban and Soviet military aid to the MPLA allowed Cuban and Soviet military aid to drive the MPLA allowed to drive its opponents Between 1975 and 1991 , the MPLA implemented an economic and political system , the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on It embarked on an ambitious programme of Under Angola , experienced the MPLA the MPLA , Angola experienced a significant degree , Angola experienced a significant degree of Angola experienced a significant degree of modern industrialisation The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with it reached a peace agreement with UNITA secured UNITA , objected a major electoral victory UNITA , objected a major electoral victory to , UNITA objected to the results UNITA objected to the results of Jonas Savimbi , killed was 22 March 2002 Jonas Savimbi was killed in action UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire UNITA gave up its armed wing and Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis ; the result A drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis , the Northern Angolan province of is Cabinda the Northern Angolan province of is Cabinda unusual Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north to Cabinda , had a 1995 census a 1995 census , Cabinda had an estimated population , Cabinda had an estimated population of Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000 , which is , its oil which is , its oil has Cabinda's petroleum production from accounts now its considerable offshore reserves the territory of been has Cabinda The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC ) announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda

The Angolan government is composed of three branches The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat unicameral legislature , the National Assembly of Angola Santos President dos stepped 2017 Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership Lourenço , sacked subsequently the Dos Santos family , Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of Both are considered allies of The Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines The legal system is based on Portuguese law a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers Governors of appointed are the 18 provinces of by are appointed the 18 provinces the 18 provinces are by appointed the president of the regime , came the civil war the regime , came the civil war under , the regime came under pressure the regime came under pressure from indirectly , the president controls all other organs , the president controls all other organs of the president controls all other organs of the state in this government , falls constitutional law this government , falls constitutional law under , this government falls under the category this government falls under the category of ) are by headed a Chief are by headed a Chief of by headed a Chief of Staff There are three divisions — the Army Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters , bombers There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucanos for The National Police departments are Public Order , Criminal Investigation The National Police are in the process of The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to A Supreme Court serves as a court of The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction The legal system is based on Portuguese There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties Its first task was the validation of the candidacies the Constitutional Court , institutionalized was 25 June 2008 its Judicial Counselors and institutionalized assumed the position In a new penal code , took 2014 2014 , a new penal code took effect , a new penal code took effect in a new penal code took effect in Angola

Angola , elected was 16 October 2014 Angola was elected for the second time the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region A 2012 report by said the U.S. Department of State , Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states It was ranked 39 out homosexual acts , decriminalized were 2019 homosexual acts were decriminalized in Angola Angola has diamonds , oil Angola's economy has in moved recent years China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011 The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005 to the economy , contracted the global recession the global recession , the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% , the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009 The security by about brought the 2002 peace settlement by about brought the 2002 peace settlement has Angola's financial system is by maintained the National Bank of Angola is by maintained the National Bank of Angola and by maintained the National Bank of Angola and managed in Angola , faces the oil sector the oil sector , Angola faces huge social and economic problems These are in part a result " Secondary beneficiaries " are the middle strata Secondary beneficiaries " that are the middle strata " that are the middle strata are that are the middle strata are about in 2008 by found the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística 2008 by found the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística that by found the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística that in roughly 58% that in found rural areas In social inequality is urban areas most social inequality is urban areas most evident Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure , Mortality rates for fell children from , Angola is now the third-largest financial market Angola is now the third-largest financial market in , the Capital Market in started Angola almost entirely by driven rising oil production entirely which by driven rising oil production which by driven rising oil production surpassed Control of consolidated is the oil industry oil production from increased has Angola

to 32 billion US dollars , disappeared a recent Human Rights Watch report 32 billion US dollars , disappeared a recent Human Rights Watch report from , 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in to the company , ends this market control the company , ends this market control up the company ends up determining the profit out it , invests quasi-fiscal activities quasi-fiscal activities , it invests public funds , it invests public funds , it invests public funds , and This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest In Angola , had 2016 2016 , Angola had 1.9 global hectares , Angola had 1.9 global hectares of Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity In Angola , used 2016 2016 , Angola used 1.01 global hectares , Angola used 1.01 global hectares of Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity This they means use about half as much biocapacity they means use about half as much biocapacity as Agriculture and forestry is an area The country now depends on expensive food imports Angola centers its port trade in five main ports In drivers established have many areas many areas drivers have established alternate tracks drivers have established alternate tracks to The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of the building of announced was an optic fiber underwater cable the First Angolan Forum of held was Telecommunications and Information Technology It was launched from the Baikonur space center The satellite was by built Russia's RSC Energia was by built Russia's RSC Energia , by built Russia's RSC Energia , a subsidiary The satellite payload was by supplied Airbus Defence & Space on RSC Energia , revealed 27 December RSC Energia , revealed 27 December that they that revealed lost communications contact the satellite eventually stopped sending data RSC Energia sending stopped and data The launch of aimed was AngoSat-1 the satellite , aimed was Telecommunications A replacement satellite named is AngoSat-2 in of Ango-Sat-2 , was February 2021 Ango-Sat-2 , was February 2021 about 60% Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants

It is composed of Ovimbundu (language Umbundu The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of Angola that estimated was host 11,400 of were those refugees originally in Angola , had 1975 1975 , Angola had a community , Angola had a community of Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese currently , there are about 200,000 , there are about 200,000 registered there are about 200,000 registered with The Chinese population stands at 258,920 , The languages in Angola are those by are originally spoken those The most widely spoken indigenous languages are Umbundu , Kimbundu Portuguese that mentions is the first language There are about 1,000 religious communities , mostly Christian the U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000 Muslims consist largely of migrants Many regions in this country have high incidence rates ) by are carried other diseases by other diseases carried are insects Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates ) was by created presidential decree was by created presidential decree , by created presidential decree , and The purpose of is this new centre to In Angola , launched 2014 2014 , Angola launched a national campaign , Angola launched a national campaign of Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the government , reports eight years the government , reports eight years that a percentage that reports of pupils In the gross primary enrollment rate , was 1999 1999 , the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent , the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in There continue to be significant disparities of ages 7 to 14 years attending were children children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school higher percentages that reported of boys The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 Some teachers may reportedly demand payment , the adult literacy rate in was 2011 the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4% this , increased had 2015

this had increased to 71.1% In the Angolan Ministry of Education , announced September 2014 September 2014 , the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment , the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros In the Angolan government , started 2010 the Angolan government , started 2010 building , the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network , Each site has a bibliographic archive , multimedia resources The plan envisages the establishment of one media library The project also includes the implementation of Portuguese heritage , become has this urban culture African roots are evident in music In Angola , resumed 2014 2014 , Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture , Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break Basketball is the second most popular sport in Angola Its national team has won the AfroBasket 11 times in it , is Africa Africa , it is a regular competitor , it is a regular competitor at it is a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games In Angola , hosted football football , Angola hosted the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , They were eliminated after one defeat Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship Ethnically , there are three main groups , there are three main groups , there each are , three main groups each are , three main groups speaking Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda until Angola , possesses 1975 1975 , Angola possesses a Portuguese population , Angola possesses a Portuguese population of Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000 white , 1 million Angolans are mixed race , 1 million Angolans are mixed race ( 1 million Angolans are mixed race ( black In white Angolans , made 1974 white Angolans , made 1974 up

, white Angolans made up a population white Angolans made up a population of The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder Estimates on given are the overall population many Chinese , settled have the 2000s the Chinese community that claim in Angola In over 25,000 Cuban soldiers , arrived 1974/75 over 25,000 Cuban soldiers , arrived 1974/75 in , over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to this was over , a massive development cooperation The largest religious denomination is Catholicism , to which is , to Catholicism Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms one out of were 221 people Registration of is vital events in The population is growing by 3.52% There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children The infant mortality rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births The risk of is contracting disease very Only 0.1% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries Portuguese is the official language of Angola ce="preserve">The Angolan government is composed of three branches , the politics of takes Angola the politics of Angola takes place Executive power is by exercised the government Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by from changed ruled a one-party Marxist-Leninist system The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections In President José Eduardo , dos the presidential elections Santos , President José Eduardo dos the presidential elections President José Eduardo Santos dos won the first round election Santos dos won the first round election with Santos continued to exercise his functions by the constitution of functioned 1992 The executive branch of composed was the government Governors of appointed were the 18 provinces of by were appointed the 18 provinces by were appointed the 18 provinces and The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure The legal system was based on Portuguese Courts operated in only 12 of The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for

The President is also provided a variety The general elections in rescheduled were 1997 The ruling party MPLA won 82% ( 191 seats judges of appointed are the Supreme Court of by are appointed the Supreme Court the Supreme Court are by appointed the president by remains heavily influenced Angola remains heavily by influenced the effects heavily by influenced the effects of by influenced the effects of four decades ended , government policy prioritized the repair , government policy prioritized the repair and government policy prioritized the repair and improvement During Angola's economy , was the first decade of the 21st century the first decade of the 21st century , Angola's economy was one , Angola's economy was one of Angola's economy was one of the Corruption is rife throughout the economy has been by dominated the production been by dominated the production of by dominated the production of raw materials across Luanda ; became the Atlantic the Atlantic ; Luanda became the greatest slaving port ; Luanda became the greatest slaving port in Luanda became the greatest slaving port in Africa in it , began 1858 it , began 1858 using , it began using concessional agreements it began using concessional agreements , In this policy , spawned Mozambique Mozambique , this policy spawned a number , this policy spawned a number of this policy spawned a number of companies in only Diamang , showed Angola Angola , only Diamang showed even moderate success At Portuguese , began the same time Portuguese , began the same time emigrating Portuguese began emigrating to Angola , and salt fish joined the principal exports and salt fish joined the principal exports , salt fish joined the principal exports , with small quantities joined , with the principal exports The principal imports were foodstuffs , cotton goods Legislation against implemented was foreign traders the Portuguese government , concerned was World War II It built no roads until the mid-1920s , only 35,000 Portuguese emigrants settled in Angola only 35,000 Portuguese emigrants settled in Angola , Portuguese settlers , found often the rural areas and the parallel requirements for led raw materials

the parallel requirements for raw materials led Portugal In Portugal , started the 1930s Portugal , started the 1930s to Portugal started to develop closer trade ties after the Portuguese government , began the war the Portuguese government , began the war to the Portuguese government began to reinvest some profits Portugal , dams built the 1950s Portuguese citizens , encouraged were addition Finally , the Portuguese initiated mining operations , the Portuguese initiated mining operations for the Portuguese initiated mining operations for iron ore The economy was in complete disarray in by had been abandoned which had been by abandoned their owners been by abandoned their owners ) Many of come had the white settlers , these settlers had appropriated Angolan lands these settlers had appropriated Angolan lands , , Angola's industries depended on trade Angola's industries depended on trade with Only the petroleum and diamond industries boasted a wider clientele for investment the Portuguese had not trained Angolans As the government , intervened a result the government , intervened a result , the government intervened , nationalizing most businesses It established state farms to continue United Nations Angola Verification Mission III and MONUA spent US$1.5 billion overseeing implementation In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders between 1986 and 1991 , UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds , UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds , UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds , primarily At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons in the economy , grew late 1998 the economy , grew late 1998 by , the economy grew by an estimated 4% the economy grew by an estimated 4% in An economic reform effort was launched in 1998 Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations In April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund (

Angola started an International Monetary Fund ( IMF) Staff-Monitored Program the IMF , but remains June 2001 the Government of succeeded has Angola The civil war internally displaced 3.8 million people , Angola produced over of diamonds In China's Eximbank , approved 2004 2004 , China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line , China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit The economy grew 18% in 2005 The construction industry is taking advantage of ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries on January 1, 2007 , output per is capita output per is capita among Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% almost entirely by driven rising oil production entirely which by driven rising oil production which by driven rising oil production surpassed Control of consolidated is the oil industry of Angola , was the colonial period the colonial period , Angola was a major African food exporter , Angola was a major African food exporter but Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports Expanding oil production is now almost half Diamonds provided much of the revenue The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017 Exports in reached 2004 US$ Nearly all of goes Angola's oil to In Angola , became the first quarter of 2008 the first quarter of 2008 , Angola became the main exporter , Angola became the main exporter of Angola became the main exporter of oil The rest of go its petroleum exports to U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola produces and exports more petroleum In January 2007 Angola became a member January 2007 Angola became a member of Angola became a member of OPEC Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula Chevron operates in Block Zero with Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States The U.S. imports 7% of its oil Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds Production rose by 30% in

The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from In the government , began 2003 2003 , the government began Operation Brilliant , the government began Operation Brilliant , the government began Operation Brilliant , an anti-smuggling investigation that began , an anti-smuggling investigation Operation Brilliant Marques called on foreign countries to In the Bureau of International Labor Affairs , issued December 2014 December 2014 , the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor , the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor Under Angola , began Portuguese rule Portuguese rule , Angola began mining iron , Angola began mining iron in Angola began mining iron in 1957 , 70% of went Portuguese Angola's iron exports 70% of went Portuguese Angola's iron exports to Reconstruction of began these three lines in they in began and 2005 International and domestic services are by maintained TAAG Angola Airlines are by maintained TAAG Angola Airlines , by maintained TAAG Angola Airlines , Aeroflot ) or FAA is the military or FAA is the military of FAA is the military of Angola The FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces total manpower Reported in 2013 was The FAA succeeded to the previous People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA , troops from were both armies troops from were both armies to The Angolan Armed Forces were created on 9 October 1991 The institutionalization of made was the FAA It is organized in six military regions by there , are the six military regions / infantry divisions the six military regions / infantry divisions , there are 25 motorized infantry brigades , there are 25 motorized infantry brigades , there are 25 motorized infantry brigades , one tank brigade The Army also includes an artillery regiment , It is organized in six aviation regiments total its equipment ; includes about 8,000 about 8,000 ; its equipment includes transport aircraft ; its equipment includes transport aircraft and

its equipment includes transport aircraft and six Russian-manufactured Sukhoi Su-27 fighter aircraft Marinha de Guerra de Angola " ) is the naval component It is organized in two naval zones It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School to the Angolan Navy shrunk has the present the Angolan Navy shrunk has the present from the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel the Angolan Navy , undergoing is Angola's 1 600 km long coastline , the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation but Portugal has been providing training However the navy acquired new boats from the navy acquired new boats from Spain In it reported was September 2014 it reported was September 2014 that The FAA include several types of special forces The Commandos and the Special forces are part The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group (GAE the FAA do not have a specialized paratrooper unit It had 600,000 members , having both armed and unarmed units had dispersed in villages It ; promotes also the military health system ; It also promotes post-graduate education It also promotes post-graduate education and Currently , the Main Military Hospital serves 39 special medical specialties The Supreme Military Court is the highest organ of the hierarchy of by are appointed the Supreme Military Court the Supreme Military Court are by appointed the President are by appointed the President of by appointed the President of the Republic The FAA maintains Portuguese-style military bands in all three branches on the National Air Force , created 15 August 1998 15 August 1998 , the National Air Force created a music band , the National Air Force created a music band within the National Air Force created a music band within an artistic brigade The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with During Angolan forces , conducted the next several years the next several years , Angolan forces conducted joint exercises , Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts

A small number of stationed are FAA personnel Angola , aligned was 1975 to 1989 Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc In it , established 1993 1993 , it established formal diplomatic relations , it established formal diplomatic relations with it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States It has entered the Southern African Development Community as Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola , it has extended those efforts it has extended those efforts to Angola , promoted has the same time , Angola has promoted the revival Angola has promoted the revival of he , killed was Robert E. Lee Johnston was the highest-ranking Confederate officer killed during Davis the loss believed of General Johnston the loss believed of General Johnston " Johnston was born in Washington His father was a native of Salisbury in he , lived Kentucky Kentucky , he lived much , he lived much of he lived much of his life Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy Johnston was assigned to posts In he , married 1829 1829 , he married Henrietta Preston , he married Henrietta Preston , he married Henrietta Preston , sister They had one son , William Preston Johnston from Johnston , resigned 1838 to 1840 Johnston , resigned 1838 to 1840 and In he , married 1843 1843 , he married Eliza Griffin , he married Eliza Griffin , he married Eliza Griffin , his late wife's first cousin The couple moved to Texas , Johnston named the property "China Grove " Here they raised Johnston's two children from they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage In Johnston , moved 1836 Johnston , moved 1836 to , Johnston moved to Texas He enlisted as a private in He was named Adjutant General as On he , fought February 5, 1837 he , fought February 5, 1837 in , he fought in a duel he fought in a duel with He provided for the defense of The enlistments of ran Johnston's volunteers out Johnston convinced a few volunteers to stay He remained on his plantation after

He served in that role for In 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel of in Johnston , took the Utah War the Utah War , Johnston took command , Johnston took command of Johnston took command of the U.S forces Johnston and in reached late June 1858 He received a brevet promotion to brigadier general Johnston was a proponent of slavery In he , owned 1846 1846 , he owned a family , he owned a family of he owned a family of four slaves from Johnston , refused the army payroll Johnston , refused the army payroll to In he , called 1856 1856 , he called abolitionism , he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolotrous, negro worshipping he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolotrous, negro worshipping " to Johnston , sold California California , Johnston sold one slave , Johnston sold one slave to Johnston sold one slave to his son Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the Civil War of Johnston , was the American Civil War the American Civil War , Johnston was the commander , Johnston was the commander of Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department he , opposed was the South he was opposed to secession But he resigned his commission soon he resigned his commission soon after he resigned soon after his commission It was by accepted the War Department was by accepted the War Department on by accepted the War Department on May 6, 1861 On he moved April 28 to April 28 he moved to Los Angeles he moved to Los Angeles , Johnston remained there until May , Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as He participated in their trek across in Confederate President Jefferson Davis , decided the Civil War Confederate President Jefferson Davis , decided the Civil War that before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of Polk and Pillow's action gave Union Brig Johnston , assigned was September 10, 1861

He became commander of the Confederacy's western armies had been by confirmed the Confederate Senate been by confirmed the Confederate Senate on by confirmed the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861 Johnston , headed immediately his appointment Johnston immediately headed for his new territory On Johnston , ordered September 13, 1861 September 13, 1861 , Johnston ordered Brig By Johnston , had September 18 September 18 , Johnston had Brig fewer than 40,000 men had spread throughout Kentucky Of 10,000 , were these 10,000 , were these in , 10,000 were in Missouri 10,000 were in Missouri under quickly he gain when many recruits he gain when many recruits first in they , gave the East the East , they gave Johnston , they gave Johnston small numbers they gave Johnston small numbers of Johnston maintained his defense by conducting he in Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman that Kentucky Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces , and was by for held the Confederacy by for the Confederacy held two unimpressive brigadier generals in Zollicoffer , moved Richmond Richmond , Zollicoffer moved his forces , Zollicoffer moved his forces to Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank against Crittenden , decided the Confederates Crittenden , decided the Confederates to Crittenden decided to attack one at Davis , sent the Mill Springs the Mill Springs , Davis sent Johnston , Davis sent Johnston a brigade Davis sent Johnston a brigade and He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard who him assigned , Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard The brigade was by led Brig He took command at Fort Donelson Historians the assignment believe of Beauregard the assignment believe of Beauregard to Tennessee initially had sent men Both forts were located in Tennessee Fort Henry on was the Tennessee River in Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts asserted Polk , had his authority Polk , had his authority to Johnston wanted Major Alexander P. Stewart to command join Johnston , ordered a partisan group a partisan group , Johnston ordered him , Johnston ordered him to Johnston ordered him to send