Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/371/341/
Timestamp: 2019-04-25 16:07:07+00:00

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In a jury trial in a Federal District Court, petitioners were convicted in 1953 of willfully attempting to evade federal corporate income taxes. They claim that their privilege against self-incrimination was violated by the admission of evidence obtained as a result of voluntary disclosures made by them in good faith in reliance upon the Treasury's then "voluntary disclosure policy," i.e., that delinquent taxpayers could escape possible criminal prosecution by disclosing their derelictions to the tax authorities before any investigation of them had commenced. After remand by this Court, 255 U. S. 233, the District Court held an additional full evidentiary hearing and again denied suppression of such evidence, finding that "no honest bona fide voluntary disclosure" had ever been made and that fraud had "permeated" petitioners' disclosure showing at both suppression hearings and at the trial. The District Court also denied motions for a new trial and overruled challenges, made for the first time in 1957, to the original grand jury and petit jury arrays. The Court of Appeals sustained these findings and rulings, overruled other challenges to the remand and original trial proceedings, and affirmed the convictions.
Held: the judgment is affirmed. Pp. 371 U. S. 343-367.
1. In view of the facts that no bona fide honest disclosure ever had been made in reliance on the "voluntary disclosure policy," and that the purported disclosure was a further effort to perpetrate a fraud on the Government, admission of the evidence so obtained did not violate petitioners' privilege against self-incrimination. Pp. 371 U. S. 346-352.
(a) Rejected as specious is petitioners' suggestion that the District Court's finding of fraud is infirm because the falsity of Shotwell's black market payments, on which that finding principally rested, was an immaterial consideration in view of the Commissioner's then ruling that black market payments were not includible in the cost of goods sold. Pp. 371 U. S. 346-347.
(b) The Treasury's "voluntary disclosure" policy, addressed to the public generally and not to particular individuals, was not an invitation aimed at extracting confessions of guilt from particular known or suspected delinquent taxpayers, and the privilege against self-incrimination does not apply to disclosures made in reliance on that policy. Pp. 371 U. S. 347-349.
(c) Even if petitioners had been initially justified in relying on the Treasury's general offer of immunity, they were no longer entitled to rely upon it when they decided to make a fraudulent disclosure. Pp. 371 U. S. 349-350.
(d) What is involved here is not a case of incriminatory evidence having been induced by the Government, but one in which petitioners attempted to hoodwink the Government into what would have been a flagrant misapplication of its voluntary disclosure policy. P. 371 U. S. 352.
2. The record does not support petitioners' contention that the District Court should have ordered a new trial because it appeared at the second suppression hearing that an important Government witness had testified falsely at the trial respecting the amount of his black market payments to the corporate petitioner. Pp. 371 U. S. 352-357.
3. There is no truth in petitioners' charges that the remand proceedings were the product of fraud and other gross improprieties on the part of the Government, and that they should, therefore, be held for naught. Pp. 371 U. S. 357-361.
4. The two lower courts correctly held that petitioners' motions attacking the grand and petit jury arrays, filed more than four years after the trial, were untimely under Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 12 (b)(2), and their further finding that petitioners were not prejudiced in any way by the alleged illegalities in the selection of the juries supports the conclusion that a sufficient showing had not been made to warrant relief from the effect of that Rule. Pp. 371 U. S. 361-364.
5. The record does not sustain the contention of petitioner Sullivan that he was denied a fair trial because (1) the only specific evidence against him was an alleged admission which a government witness testified Sullivan had made to him, and the government witness had later recanted that testimony; and (2) the trial judge's instructions allowed the jury to consider evidence that had not been admitted against him. Pp. 371 U. S. 364-367.
(a) There was ample evidence in the record to carry the case against Sullivan to the jury and to support its verdict of guilt. Pp. 371 U. S. 364-365.
(b) There was no error in the trial judge's instructions to the jury that certain evidence was not being admitted against Sullivan, and should not be considered against him, and it must be presumed that the jury conscientiously observed such instructions. Pp. 371 U. S. 365-367.
This case is here for the second time in consequence of the remand that was ordered at the 1957 Term. United States v. Shotwell Mfg. Co., 355 U. S. 233.
In 1953, petitioners were convicted after a jury trial in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois of willful attempted evasion of federal income taxes of the Shotwell Manufacturing Company for the years 1945 and 1946. Int.Rev.Code of 1939, § 145(b), 53 Stat. 63. The individual petitioners, Cain and Sullivan, were officers of Shotwell, a candy manufacturer. The charge was that the company's tax returns for these years had not reported substantial income, received from one Lubben, on sales of candy above OPA (Office of Price Administration) ceiling prices -- so-called "black market" sales.
"voluntary disclosure policy." 225 F.2d 394. In substance, that policy amounted to a representation by the Treasury that delinquent taxpayers could escape possible criminal prosecution by disclosing their derelictions to the taxing authorities before any investigation of them had commenced. See 355 U.S. at 355 U. S. 235, note 2; pp. 371 U. S. 348-352, infra.
The evidence held subject to suppression consisted of tabulations purporting to show the amount of unreported black market income received by Shotwell from Lubben during the two tax years in question, and offsetting black market payments by Shotwell for the purchase of raw materials which almost matched the black market receipts. Concluding that petitioners' disclosure had been a genuine one (contrary to the District Court's finding), and that it had been made before any investigation of Shotwell's tax returns had started, and was thus timely (a question not reached by the District Court, 355 U.S. at 366 U. S. 236), the Court of Appeals held that the disclosure was valid, and that the Government could not, consistently with the Fifth Amendment, use the disclosed material at petitioners' trial.
U.S. at 355 U. S. 241. Without reaching any of the questions decided by the Court of Appeals, we vacated the judgment of that court and remanded the case to the District Court with instructions to reexamine the disclosure episode in light of the parties' additional evidence and that already in the record, to decide anew the suppression issue, and, depending upon its decision, to enter a new judgment of conviction or an order for a new trial, as the case might be. 355 U.S. at 355 U. S. 245-246.
The District Court, after a full evidentiary hearing, again denied suppression, finding that "no honest, bona fide voluntary disclosure" had ever been made, and that fraud had "permeated" the petitioners' disclosure showing at both suppression hearings and at the trial. [Footnote 1] These ultimate findings rested primarily on subsidiary findings that, although Shotwell's black market receipts had not, in themselves, been misrepresented, the claim that they had been almost entirely offset by payments for the purported purchase of black market supplies was false -- the truth being (contrary to what petitioners Cain and Sullivan had testified in the earlier proceedings) that most of Shotwell's black market receipts, "totaling between three and four hundred thousand dollars," had found their way into the pockets of Cain, Sullivan and Huebner, all Shotwell officers. The District Court also denied motions for a new trial, and overruled challenges, made for the first time in July, 1957, to the original grand and petit jury arrays.
and original trial proceedings, has now affirmed these convictions, 287 F.2d 667. The case is again before us on certiorari. 368 U.S. 946. We affirm the judgment below.
Preliminarily we reject as specious petitioners' suggestion that the District Court's finding of fraud is infirm because the falsity of Shotwell's black market payments, on which that finding principally rested, was an immaterial consideration in view of the Commissioner's then ruling that black market payments were not includible in the cost of goods sold -- in other words, that Shotwell's tax liability would have remained the same whether or not such expenditures were truthfully represented. [Footnote 4] The fact is that, at the time the disclosure was made, the Commissioner's ruling was even then in litigation, and, some six months thereafter, was rejected by the Tax Court, Sullenger v. Commissioner, 11 T.C. 1076, as it also was later by several of the Courts of Appeals. See Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. Weisman, 197 F.2d 221 (C.A.1st Cir.); Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. Guminski, 198 F.2d 265 (C.A.5th Cir.); Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. Gentry, 198 F.2d 267 (C.A.5th Cir.); Jones v. Herber, 198 F.2d 544 (C.A.10th Cir.).
and that, in making their disclosure, they reserved the right to contest the ruling by way of a suit for refund, in whole or in part, of the additional taxes to be assessed in respect of the unreported black market income. Beyond this, had petitioners been able to convince the Treasury that Shotwell's failure to report the black market receipts had been due to an honest, though mistaken, belief that such income could be offset by black market expenditures, it might well have borne importantly on their liability for civil fraud penalties. Int.Rev.Code, 1939, § 293(b). [Footnote 5] In short, in making their suppression contention, petitioners cannot escape the consequences of the finding that their disclosure was fraudulent.
"must establish guilt by evidence independently and freely secured, and may not, by coercion, prove its charge against an accused out of his own mouth."
"a confession, in order to be admissible, must be free and voluntary: that is, . . . not . . . obtained by any direct or implied promises, however slight. . . ."
as the product of a free act of the accused than that obtained by official physical or psychological coercion. But, in this instance, we find nothing in the circumstances under which the challenged evidence was procured that would run afoul of these jealously guarded constitutional principles.
A coerced confession claim, whether founded on a promise of immunity or otherwise, always involves this question: did the governmental conduct complained of "bring about" a confession "not freely self-determined"? Rogers v. Richmond, supra, at 365 U. S. 544. Under any tenable view of the present situation, we think it clearly did not.
free to disclose or not, as they pleased. In choosing to act as they did, petitioners, far from being the victims of that policy, were volunteers for its benefits.
Finally, relevant cases in the lower federal courts confirm the view that must be reached on principle. In the comparable situation of a disclosure by a taxpayer made only after he knew an investigation of his tax returns had commenced, such courts have consistently, and correctly, we think, refused to suppress the Government's use of disclosed evidence on the ground that the disclosure could not have been induced by the offer of immunity where the offer had lapsed. United States v. Lustig, 163 F.2d 85, 88-89 (C.A.2d Cir.), cert. denied, 332 U.S. 775; White v. United States, 194 F.2d 215, 217 (C.A.5th Cir.), cert. denied, 343 U.S. 930; Bateman v. United States, 212 F.2d 61, 65-66 (C.A.9th Cir.) (suppression also denied because disclosure not "full and complete"); United States v. Weisman, 78 F.Supp. 979 (D.C.Mass.). Similarly a dishonest disclosure cannot be deemed to have been so induced.
Petitioners rely on Rex v. Barker,  2 K.B. 381, 3 All Eng. 33 (more fully reported there), a decision of the King's Bench Division holding inadmissible in a criminal trial documents, in part fraudulent, which the defendant had produced under a similar British disclosure policy. But that case does not support their position. For, though the defendant there had first made only a partial and misleading disclosure, he had then followed it up with a full and honest one, after further discussions with the Inland Revenue and in reliance on its disclosure policy. In the case before us, no full and honest disclosure was ever made.
Since no element of coercion or inducement, in any true sense of those terms, attended petitioners' disclosure, no inroad whatever upon constitutional rights is wrought by our rejection of this suppression claim. On the contrary, to sustain the claim would amount to turning an important constitutional principle upside down. For what we have here is not a case of incriminatory evidence having been induced by the Government, but one in which petitioners attempted to hoodwink the Government into what would have been a flagrant misapplication of its voluntary disclosure policy.
Claiming that it appeared at the second suppression hearing that Lubben, whose transactions with Shotwell formed the basis of the charges in the indictment, had testified falsely at the trial respecting the amount of his black market payments, petitioners contend that the District Court should have ordered a new trial of the entire case. The Court of Appeals made short shrift of this contention (287 F.2d at 675), and we too find no substance in it.
". . . that Lubben may have exaggerated the amounts of the payments that he and his confederates made to Shotwell is entirely probable."
This statement is sought to be portrayed as a euphemism for a finding that Lubben's trial testimony was perjurious. Were that so, a new trial might well be in order, as the Government acknowledges, for Lubben was undoubtedly a crucial government witness. But the record both demonstrates the hollowness of that contention and affords no other basis for disturbing the conclusions of the two lower courts that these petitioners are not entitled to a new trial.
Far from constituting a finding of perjury, the District Court's remark respecting Lubben's trial testimony was nothing more than part of a general observation that the passage of time and the absence of any contemporary records of the Shotwell-Lubben transactions made difficult the pinpointing of the exact amount of Shotwell's unreported black market income and the amount thereof that was personally kept by one or another of the Shotwell officers. The suppression record makes clear that the District Court did not initially address itself to the question whether Lubben's trial testimony was perjurious, and that it was not asked to do so until after its opinion denying suppression had come down.
"that the amount that Lubben said he paid may have been exaggerated," and that he would grant a new trial if he thought there "was a miscarriage of justice," but that he did "not so find." A careful study of the record satisfies us that the District Court did not abuse its discretion in thus ruling.
"at the supplemental hearing is reasonably consistent and compatible with the testimony given by the government witnesses at the trial regarding these [black market] payments,"
circumstances." United States v. Johnson, 327 U. S. 106, 327 U. S. 111. We find none here. This is not a case, as were Mesarosh v. United States, 352 U. S. 1, and Communist Party v. Subversive Activities Control Board, 351 U. S. 115, where a conviction may be regarded or is conceded to have rested on perjured testimony. [Footnote 17] To overturn the denial of a new trial in this case by the two lower courts would be tantamount to saying that any subsequently discovered inaccuracy in the testimony of an important trial witness, which might have affected his credibility in the eyes of the jury, would entitle a convicted defendant to a new trial. We cannot so hold.
the Government's view of things. [Footnote 18] We find no truth in any of these serious charges.
The most that could possibly be claimed respecting the absence of any reference in the remand papers to prior inconsistent statements by the proffered witnesses [Footnote 19] is that it was a mistake of judgment on the part of the Government not to include such a reference. But, without minimizing the unqualified duty of scrupulous candor that rests upon government counsel in all dealings with this Court, to characterize this episode as amounting to a fraud upon the Court is, to say the least, utterly extravagant.
The issue tendered by the motion to remand was, of course, not whether the Government's new evidence was true or false, but whether it warranted a reexamination of the suppression issue by the District Court. The evaluation of this evidence, including the credibility of the three witnesses in question, was, as this Court recognized (355 U.S. at 355 U. S. 241, 355 U. S. 244-245), a matter for the District Court.
In these circumstances, it is understandable that the Government might have considered that, if a remand were ordered, the District Court was the appropriate forum in which to make available any impeaching material in its possession. Cf., e.g., Jencks v. United States, 353 U. S. 657; United States v. Zborowski, 271 F.2d 661. In any event, the Government having fully disclosed all such material in the trial court, and that court having taken it into account in making its findings, infra, p. 371 U. S. 360, it would be captious to hold that the failure to advert to it in this Court now vitiates the remand.
We now leave the remand proceedings and turn to the only two challenges pressed here with respect to the main case itself.
Clerk of the District Court failed to employ a selection method designed to secure a cross-section of the population.
"Defenses and objections based on defects in the institution of the prosecution or in the indictment or information other than that it fails to show jurisdiction in the court or to charge an offense may be raised only by motion before trial. . . . Failure to present any such defense or objection as herein provided constitutes a waiver thereof, but the court, for cause shown, may grant relief from the waiver."
Petitioners concede, as they must, that this Rule applies to their objection to the grand jury array, [Footnote 24] but deny that it applies to their objection to the petit jury array. On the latter point, we do not agree. In Frazier v. United States, 335 U. S. 497, 335 U. S. 503, this Court stated that a challenge to the method of selecting the petit jury panel comes too late when not made before trial. And the lower federal courts have uniformly held that an objection to the petit jury array is not timely if it is first raised after verdict. See, e.g., Hanratty v. United States, 218 F.2d 358, 359, cert. denied, 349 U.S. 928; United States v. Klock, 210 F.2d 217, 220; Higgins v. United States, 81 U.S.App.D.C. 371, 160 F.2d 222, 223, cert. denied, 331 U.S. 822; United States v. Peterson, 24 F.Supp. 470.
by the litigants or their counsel, sufficient cause has been shown to warrant relief from application of the Rule. Ballard v. United States, 329 U. S. 187, is said to stand for the broad proposition that technical rules of procedure do not prevent this Court from considering the merits of a basic challenge to the method of jury selection.
In the circumstances of this case, petitioners' contentions are without foundation. In denying the motions, the District Court found that the facts concerning the selection of the grand and petit juries were notorious and available to petitioners in the exercise of due diligence before the trial. The same method of selecting jurors in the district had been followed by the clerk and the jury commissioner for years. Inquiry as to the system employed could have been made at any time. Indeed, the acceptance of volunteers for the juries had received publicity in the newspapers, and their presence on the petit jury could have been ascertained at the time it was constituted. And Ballard lends no support to petitioners' position, for, in that case, the challenge to the jury panel had been timely made and preserved. See 329 U.S. at 329 U. S. 190.
Finally, both courts below have found that petitioners were not prejudiced in any way by the alleged illegalities in the selection of the juries. Nor do petitioners point to any resulting prejudice. [Footnote 25] In Ballard, it was said (at p. 329 U. S. 195) that "reversible error does not depend on a showing of prejudice in an individual case." However, where, as here, objection to the jury selection has not been timely raised under Rule 12(b)(2), it is entirely proper to take absence of prejudice into account in determining whether a sufficient showing has been made to warrant relief from the effect of that Rule.
We need express no opinion on the propriety of the practices attacked. It is enough to say that we find no error in the two lower courts' holding that the objection has been lost.
Petitioner Sullivan contends that he was denied a fair trial in two respects: (1) the only specific evidence against him was an alleged admission which Lubben testified Sullivan made to him -- testimony which Lubben, it is asserted, later recanted; and (2) the trial judge's instructions allowed the jury to consider evidence that had not been admitted against him.
"Well, Dave, you know how it is. You have a place in New Jersey, a farm in New Jersey. This money I have been using in my farm. . . . I am getting a new driveway . . . put in. . . . That is the only way I can do it today, with the tax situations the way they are."
When the trial resumed the following day, Lubben volunteered a correction of his previous testimony, stating that the conversation had taken place as described, but not on February 14, 1946; it had occurred, he thought, "some time around September or October of 1946." It is apparent, therefore, that the substance of the testimony was not recanted.
The foregoing evidence, coupled with Sullivan's status as executive vice-president of Shotwell and his general prominence at the policy level of the company's affairs, was amply sufficient to carry the case as to him to the jury and to support its verdict of guilt.
"You have heard the testimony regarding Cain's alleged admission as to the falsity or incompleteness of these tax returns, and his explanation as to why, in his opinion at the time he assumed they were false and inaccurate."
"There has also been received in evidence worksheets and data compiled by Mr. Busby, and certain data compiled by Mr. Cain with respect to an alleged tentative compilation of the overages, and the disposition of such receipts by Shotwell, for raw materials, and the nature and character of the disposition, which was allegedly made."
"All of the testimony should be considered by you, that is, all that testimony should be considered by you in view of the circumstances, and understanding of the parties in so far as it may bear upon any intent of the parties to wilfully violate the income tax laws or their good faith, or lack of good faith in the matter."
limited, you will observe, certain evidence during the trial, from time to time, as being competent only as to certain defendant or defendants, that is, by way of example, what Mr. Huebner, or Mr. Cain may have said or done in the absence of Mr. Sullivan, would not be binding or competent as to Mr. Sullivan."
This limiting instruction is clear. It must be presumed that the jury conscientiously observed it. United States v. Harris, 211 F.2d 656, 659, cert. denied, 348 U.S. 822. Surely it would have been impracticable for the trial judge, as he discussed the evidence in his final instructions, to have reminded the jury with respect to each of the many items of proof mentioned that it had been admitted only against certain named defendants and should not be considered against the others. We find no error in the charge.
The court also held that a "dishonest and false disclosure cannot be held to be a timely voluntary disclosure."
In its earlier decision the Court of Appeals rejected petitioners' plea in bar grounded on a claim of immunity. 225 F.2d at 397. That claim has not been renewed in their present petition for certiorari, and, in any event, would not be availing in light of the findings below.
The Fourth Amendment is also relied on, but that Amendment is manifestly inapposite. See Centracchio v. Garrity, 198 F.2d 382, 387, cert. denied, 344 U.S. 866.
The sufficiency of the finding as to the falsity of the expenditures is not attacked.
At the trial of this criminal case, the District Court charged the jury that it should acquit if it believed that Shotwell's black market receipts had been used for the purchase of black market supplies. See 287 F.2d at 671, note 7.
Address by J. P. Wenchel, Chief Counsel of the Bureau of Internal Revenue, to the Tax Executives Institute, May 14, 1947.
"This (the disclosure policy) presumes, of course, that the repentant taxpayer cooperates with agents of the Bureau in determining the true tax liability."
"it would seem that the taxpayer would have to satisfy the court that he made a voluntary, good faith disclosure of all data necessary to a correct computation of his income tax deficiencies. . . ."
Busby, Shotwell's auditor, testified at the trial that he was "acquainted with the published statements of the Treasury" concerning the voluntary disclosure policy, and that, in particular, he had brought to petitioners' attention the address by the Chief Counsel of the Internal Revenue Bureau quoted above in part. Cain also testified that Busby had explained the Treasury's policy to him and Sullivan. More particularly, Sauber, the Bureau's representative, testified that, at the initial disclosure discussion, he told Busby that Shotwell had to reconstruct the figures relating to the black market receipts and expenditures in order to be able to file an accurate amended tax return, and that Cain had represented that "no one in Shotwell Manufacturing Company profited by these transactions."
The same considerations deprive of even colorable significance the suggestion that Sauber's "assurances" to petitioners, on the occasion of their preliminary inquiry respecting the availability of the Treasury's disclosure policy to an unknown taxpayer in Shotwell's circumstances, should be deemed sufficient to bring their Fifth Amendment claim within the Bram test. For, apart from the fact that such assurances were no more than an affirmation of the terms of the published disclosure policy of which petitioners were then already well aware, it is clear that what Sauber said was expressly conditioned not merely on a disclosure's being "timely," but also on the premise that "the facts . . . [then hypothetically] related to him were correct." As already shown, the falsity of Shotwell's offsetting black market disbursements was never revealed.
A quite different case would be presented if an offer of immunity had been specifically directed to petitioners in the context of an investigation, accusation, or prosecution. A disclosure made in such circumstances would not have fallen under the voluntary disclosure policy, which, by definition, was applicable only to disclosures made before any investigation had commenced, and would have been inadmissible in evidence under the Bram test. Under the rule of Rogers v. Richmond, supra, the truth or falsity of such a disclosure would then be irrelevant to the question of its admissibility. We agree that the rule of that case, involving a state trial, is equally applicable in a federal prosecution.
The case would also be different had the petitioners, acting under the voluntary disclosure policy, made an honest disclosure. Whether or not different constitutional principles or other considerations would then prevent the Government from reneging on its promise by using such material as evidence in a criminal trial need not now be decided. Cf. Smith v. United States, 348 U. S. 147.
"Some fourteen years have elapsed since the black market operations of Shotwell took place. No record was kept by Shotwell or any of its officials as to the premium moneys paid by Lubben and his companies during the years in question. It is conceded that thousands of dollars were paid to Shotwell by Lubben and his representatives as black market payments on candy sold to Lubben and his companies during 1945 and 1946, without any attempt on the part of Shotwell to make any written record thereof. Consequently, it is perfectly understandable that, when a witness like Huebner attempts to recount the some sixteen instances when he received substantial sums of money on behalf of Shotwell as over-ceiling payments on candy sold by that company, the amounts and circumstances as to the disposition of the money may not be too clear in his memory. However, the testimony he has given at the supplemental hearing is reasonably consistent and compatible with the testimony given by the government witnesses at the trial regarding these payments. Huebner did not take the stand at the first supplemental hearing, nor during the trial; hence, his testimony as to the amounts of money received and the siphoning of these payments to various officials of the company in many instances discloses for the first time which individuals were the recipients of Lubben's payments. However, Huebner may be mistaken as to the exact amounts of money received and when the payments were made. Moreover, that Lubben may have exaggerated the amounts of the payments that he and his confederates made to Shotwell is entirely probable. But the evidence is overwhelmingly clear that not only were substantial sums of black market money paid to Shotwell as premium payments by Lubben during 1944, 1945 and 1946, totaling between three and four hundred thousand dollars, but also that the greater part of this so-called back-market money was appropriated by Cain, Huebner, and Sullivan for their own personal use. The question of good faith does not turn on the exact amount of Lubben money Huebner, Sullivan, or Cain may have received for their own personal use. That Cain personally received substantial amounts of the Lubben black market payments, and that Sullivan knew of these payments and received a certain share for his personal use, but in a lesser amount than Cain and Huebner, is fully established by the record."
In addition, petitioners' "Supplement To Motion For New Trial" alleged nine further grounds for a new trial, only one of which (the overruling of their challenge to the indicting grand jury array) is pressed here. Infra, pp. 371 U. S. 361-364.
Other more particular charges against the integrity of Lubben's trial testimony are also made: (1) that Huebner had contradicted Lubben with respect to a payment of $40,000 over-ceiling prices on certain chocolate-covered nuts (but the Huebner testimony to which petitioners refer is cloudy on this score); (2) that Huebner had testified that Lubben had "lied" with respect to a $49,000 payment to Graflund (but the record shows only that Huebner stated that he "thought it was a mistake on Lubben's part"); (3) that Huebner had testified on cross-examination that he "thought [Lubben] lied on the stand here" (but the record does not show in what respects Huebner thought this was so); and (4) that one Tobias, not called by either side at the suppression hearing, had altered Lubben's books, used in evidence at the trial (but the only basis for this assertion is Huebner's hearsay testimony that he had been present at the meeting where Tobias had so stated to Cain and Sullivan; moreover, this matter had already been testified to by Cain and Sullivan at the trial).
The record shows that the "corn box" records had been destroyed on Cain's instructions.
Substantiation of the charges in the indictment did not, of course, depend on the precise amounts of Shotwell's black market receipts, and the jury made no specific finding on that score, returning a general verdict.
Huebner's testimony, given some 14 years after the events had occurred, and without the use of any records, was quite general in regard to the amounts of the payments made by Lubben; the figures were always stated in round numbers, usually preceded by a qualifying adjective. For example, he testified that "sometime in January, 1945" he received "between ten and eleven thousand dollars" from Lubben, and that, in the "first part of May of 1945," he received "approximately $30,000." In contrast, Lubben's trial testimony was precise as to the amounts paid, and was supported by various documentary evidence -- invoices, vouchers, book entries, recapitulation sheets, cash authorization sheets, and checks to cash. For example, Lubben testified that, on May 3, 1945, he paid $22,124.13 to Huebner at the Sherman Hotel in Chicago; this testimony was supported by an expense voucher and a check to cash in that amount, both of which were put in evidence.
In stating this, we have not been unmindful of the fact that subsequent litigation has shown Lubben's character not to be a savory one. See Giglio v. United States, 355 U. S. 339; In re Carlsen, 17 N.J. 338, 111 A.2d 393; State v. Weleck, 34 N.J.Super. 267, 112 A.2d 23. Yet, so far as this trial is concerned, a vigorous cross-examination of him, to the tune of some 300 pages of the printed record, evidently failed to shake his credibility in the estimation of the jury.
At the oral argument, petitioners' counsel, of course, disclaimed any intention of implicating the then Solicitor General, and we presume the members of his staff, in these accusations of wrongdoing.
The witnesses were Graflund, Shotwell's comptroller, Huebner, and Lima, a former revenue agent. Specifically, the Government is accused of concealing the following contradictions: (1) Graflund had told government investigators and the 1956 grand jury (infra, pp. 371 U. S. 459-460) that (as he had testified at the trial) he had first disclosed the black market transactions to Busby, Shotwell's auditor, in January, 1948, although his remand affidavit stated that this conversation had taken place in June, 1948; (2) Huebner, prior to executing his affidavit, had not recalled having attended a meeting with Sullivan and one Urban at the Chicago Athletic Club for the purpose of discussing a purchase of Lubben's business so as to enable petitioners to get their hands on Lubben's books and records; (3) the Government's motion indicated that Lima would testify on remand that he had prepared a report showing a Shotwell deficiency of $20,000 and then destroyed it at his supervisor's direction, but it was not revealed that, in his previous testimony at the trial, Lima had not mentioned the preparation of such a report.
In essence, the defense position at the first suppression hearing had been (1) that a general disclosure had first been made to Sauber, the Bureau's representative, by Busby and Cain in late January, 1948, some six months before the Bureau's Agent Krane had commenced an investigation of the Lubben-Shotwell transactions on June 21, 1948; (2) that, pursuant to the January discussion with Sauber, the disclosure figures had then been prepared over a period of several months and furnished to the Bureau in August, 1948; and (3) that none of the Shotwell black market receipts had been pocketed by any of the individual petitioners.
At the second suppression hearing, the District Court found (1) that the Busby and Cain general disclosure had not been made in January, 1948, but "much later" than March 15, 1948, the date testified to by Sauber in the earlier proceedings, although it was before the opening of Krane's investigation on June 21, 1948; (2) that, while efforts were made between January and August, 1948, to get from Lubben the amounts of Shotwell's black market receipts, the offsetting black market supply payments were not made up until a day in July, 1948, and were then "concocted out of thin air,'" as had been represented in the Government's motion to remand; and (3) that petitioners' denials of having personally pocketed any of the black market receipts were false.
The District Court found it "very probable" that Graflund had first talked with Busby about Shotwell's black market receipts in January, 1948, contrary to his remand affidavit ( note 19 supra) and testimony at the second suppression hearing where he fixed the date as late June, 1948. The court, however, found that Graflund had given the latter date "in good faith," and that his error was attributable to "lapse of time" and the probability that there had been such conversations in both January and June, Graflund having been led to discard the January date because of the "apparent falsity of Busby's statement that he first spoke to Sauber in January , 1948." The court further observed: "I believe Graflund is attempting now to tell the truth as he remembers the events after the lapse of these many years."
The court also believed Lima's testimony as described in the Government's motion to remand ( note 19 supra), although it doubted whether the destroyed report was intended to represent the final disposition of the Shotwell affair. And, as to Huebner, see pp. 371 U. S. 355-356, supra.
Both Huebner and Graflund testified under cross-examination by petitioners' counsel that they had not been subjected to pressure of any kind.
"Defendants urge that Huebner and Graflund, concerned with possible future criminal prosecution against them by the Government, and Lima, worried about his job, have wittingly or unwittingly followed the suggestions and pattern of events which zealous government officials may have attempted to inculcate. I have endeavored to make reasonable allowances for the lapse of the years which dim memories, and to give due consideration to the claim of the defendants as to the interest of the revenue officers, and perhaps others, to encourage these witnesses to follow a chronology of events and circumstances which may support the Government's contentions as to what occurred during the years in question. However, I do not believe that any government official has attempted to have any witness herein testify falsely."
"The forthright attitude of government counsel to submit all prior statements and Grand Jury testimony of Huebner and Graflund to defendants' counsel indicates a commendable frankness in affording the Court all of the background which may bear upon their veracity."
See Scales v. United States, 367 U. S. 203, 367 U. S. 259; United States v. Clancy, 276 F.2d 617, 631, rev'd on other grounds, 365 U. S. 365 U.S. 312; Miranda v. United States, 255 F.2d 9, 16.
It is not suggested that the contentions made here go to the individual qualifications of any seated grand or petit juror.
When shipping candy to Lubben, the name "ABC Company" was entered on the bills of lading as the shipper, instead of Shotwell.
"Q. Didn't you know it [Lubben payments] would have to be kept off the books, or the OPA investigators would locate it?"
"A. That was true after -- that wasn't true after June of 1945, when the OPA went off, or am I right -- 1946, June 30th."
"Q. How about the period prior to that?"
"A. Certainly it had to be kept off the books, or you would be subject to perhaps additional trouble. I know that now. I didn't know it then, I don't believe."
"Q. Well, are you sure?"
"A. Am I sure about what?"
"Q. You said you don't believe you knew it then. Are you sure you didn't know it then?"
"A. I don't ever remember discussing it. I am not positive."
"Q. Of course, you knew that if it was off the books for OPA purposes, it was also off the books for Internal Revenue purposes, didn't you?"
"A. Not necessarily. Not necessarily."
MR. JUSTICE BLACK, with whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE and MR. JUSTICE DOUGLAS concur, dissenting.
I think these criminal convictions should be reversed and a new trial granted because of serious errors denying the defendants the protection of two constitutional guarantees for a fair trial.
First. The jury verdicts rest in part on confessions obtained from the defendants by governmental promises of immunity from criminal prosecution, in violation of the Fifth Amendment.
Second. If the Government's chief witness on the remand hearing gave truthful testimony, the jury's conviction of the defendants rests in substantial part on false testimony of the Government's chief trial witness.
"if the disclosure [was] timely and the facts . . . related to him were correct, he saw no reason why the immunity policy of the Bureau should not be applied in this particular matter."
because they denied their guilt, the trial judge found with the Government. It is of great importance, however, that the chief government witness on remand (Huebner) testified that the chief government witness at the trial before the jury (Lubben) had lied to the jury in giving evidence which the record shows was crucial to the jury's finding of guilt. Although the district judge was compelled to find from the record that it was "entirely probable" that this government witness Lubben had "exaggerated" in giving testimony before the jury, he nevertheless reaffirmed his refusal to suppress the incriminating evidence, and also denied a motion for a new trial because he thought the defendants were guilty anyway, and there would therefore be no "miscarriage of justice" in denying them a new trial before a new jury to hear the new evidence. This time, the Court of Appeals affirmed. [Footnote 2/4] It is out of this situation that the two issues arise, the rights protected by the Fifth Amendment, and the right to a fair trial before a jury.
"was a violation of each defendant's privilege against being compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, as guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment to the constitution of the United States. [Footnote 2/5]"
"The constitutional test for admission of an accused's confession in federal courts for a long time has been whether it was made 'freely, voluntarily and without compulsion or inducement of any sort.' [Footnote 2/6]"
"the issue is controlled by that portion of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States commanding that no person 'shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself.'"
"'But a confession, in order to be admissible, must be free and voluntary; that is, must not be extracted by any sort of threats or violence, nor obtained by any direct or implied promises, however slight. . . . A confession can never be received in evidence where the prisoner has been influenced by any threat or promise, for the law cannot measure the force of the influence used, or decide upon its effect upon the mind of the prisoner, and therefore excludes the declaration if any degree of influence has been exerted.'"
168 U.S. at 168 U. S. 542-543. See, to the same effect, Wilson v. United States, 162 U. S. 613, 162 U. S. 622 (1896).
that no fraudulent inducement had been offered petitioner or his accountant."
Although the Court purports to accept the Bram holding that the Fifth Amendment of itself forbids the use of a defendant's confession "obtained by any direct or implied promises, however slight," its opinion most decidedly rejects this interpretation of the Amendment. The rejection lies mainly in the Court's attempt to prove what I deem to be the unprovable, namely, that although these confessions "might not been made in the absence of the Treasury's offer" of immunity, they nevertheless were not induced or influenced by that offer. In order to reach its astonishing conclusion, the Court uses various alternative formulas, each of which, in turn, lops off a significant part of the protections the Fifth Amendment has always been thought to afford.
Fifth Amendment leaves the Government wholly free to use all confessions induced by this general device. Certainly this excuse for denying the protection of the Fifth Amendment cannot be inferred either from the language of the Amendment or from anything said in the Bram case. It is impossible for me to understand why a confession obtained by promises addressed to the public generally is any more "voluntary" than one obtained by promises addressed to identified taxpayers known or suspected to be delinquent. Indeed, a general promise of immunity announced by a member of the President's Cabinet is likely to be far more authoritative and compelling than is an isolated promise by a subordinate official. Surely the Government cannot escape the command of the Fifth Amendment not to use government-induced confessions simply by multiplying the number of people who are promised immunity. Moreover, even if specific statements to individuals are required, the confessions in this case would still be barred by the Fifth Amendment. This is because, as has been pointed out, a Chief Deputy Collector for the Government assured the defendants' accountant that he saw no reason why their disclosures should not entitle them to immunity under the general policy.
that a taxpayer, uneasy about possible criminal prosecution and worried about its destructive effect on his family, reputation, and business, would be susceptible to an official promise of immunity just as any other person fearful of prosecution for some other offense. [Footnote 2/17] And if independent coercive circumstances -- like the presence of policeman, with or without club -- are necessary to bar the use of a confession, as the Court indicates, then the Court is denying that a promise, by itself, no matter how authoritative, can ever result in a compelled confession prohibited by the Fifth Amendment.
"the voluntary disclosure policy left [petitioners] wholly free to disclose or not as they pleased. In choosing to act as they did, petitioners, far from being the victims of that policy, were volunteers for its benefits."
Labeling petitioners as "volunteers" proves nothing. Of course they were "volunteers." It was to get "volunteers" that the Government established the policy. Petitioners learned that their Government had promised immunity for disclosures, and they volunteered to make them because of that promise. But petitioners' confessions are no more "voluntary" -- in the sense of not being induced by a promise -- than those of suspects who choose to accept the benefits of a policeman's promise of immunity rather than to run the risk of being convicted on independently secured evidence. The Court's interpretation of the Fifth Amendment as permitting the use of confessions obtained by promises because those who relied on the promises were "volunteers" effectively scuttles the protection of that Amendment.
"man who makes a disclosure before an investigation is under way protects himself and his family from the stigma of a felony conviction. And there is nothing complicated about going to a collector or other revenue officer and simply saying, 'There is something wrong with my return, and I want to straighten it out.' [Footnote 2/20]"
This simple description of all the taxpayer had to do save himself and his family from the stigma of a prosecution is no longer recognizable in the ex post facto quagmire of complicated restrictions and conditions created by the Court today.
Court's findings that the defendants failed to comply with the promise's condition of complete truthfulness. With this legal fiction as a premise, the Court moves inexorably to the conclusion that the confessions were not induced by any promise to the defendants. Nothing that I can find in the record after a careful reading furnishes a basis for the most attenuated inference that these defendants would have come forward and disclosed any tax derelictions had the Government not announced its voluntary disclosure policy and made it clear that these particular defendants could expect its benefits. The Court is here departing from the proper test as laid down in Bram for determining whether a disclosure is induced by a governmental promise. It was there said that a person is "involuntarily impelled to make a statement when, but for the improper influences, he would have remained silent." 168 U.S. at 168 U. S. 549. But for the immunity promised to the defendants in this case, it is inconceivable that they would have volunteered evidence upon which they could be tried and perhaps convicted of tax evasion. Moreover, every promise held out by the Government is intended to be conditioned on full and truthful disclosure. The majority's rule would require that any confession obtained by a governmental promise be admitted if it contains something less than the whole truth.
belief that the defendants are guilty is a high price to pay for a conviction and a new, dangerous inroad on the protections of that Amendment. But if this is to be the standard, then I can see no escape from the conclusion that the admissibility of the confessions should ultimately be determined by a jury -- not by the judges of this or any other court. [Footnote 2/26] Moreover, if it be assumed that the Court is correct in concluding that these defendants have been guilty of fraud or perjury in their confessions, then, under normal ideas of due process, the proper procedure would be to indict them on these charges and let them be tried. But this Court should not use its judgment of the defendants' guilt of any crimes as an excuse for depriving them of the constitutional guarantees of the Bill of Rights.
practices get their first footing in that way, namely, by silent approaches and slight deviations from legal modes of procedure. This can only be obviated by adhering to the rule that constitutional provisions for the security of person and property should be liberally construed. A close and literal construction deprives them of half their efficacy, and leads to gradual depreciation of the right, as if it consisted more in sound than in substance. It is the duty of courts to be watchful for the constitutional rights of the citizen, and against any stealthy encroachments thereon."
but only by the constitutionally ordained amending process, so that the people of this Nation can determine for themselves whether they wish to abandon this part of their heritage of freedom.
Since the record now contains new testimony offered by the Government on remand which thoroughly discredits the Government's main trial witness, upon whose testimony the jury's verdict of guilty in large part rested, the defendants are being denied their constitutional right to a fair jury trial by the failure to grant them a new trial before a new jury which can hear this new evidence in determining their guilt or innocence.
for the jury to determine, therefore, were how much money was paid by Lubben for candy and how much was paid by Shotwell for corn. The Government relied chiefly on the testimony and records of Lubben himself to show how much he had paid Shotwell. Thus, Lubben's truthfulness was a vital issue for the jury to consider. The prosecutor, in addressing the jury, vouched for the reliability of Lubben as an "honest, honorable American citizen," [Footnote 2/28] the trial judge in passing sentence stated that he believed Lubben was telling the truth and that the 12 jurors had believed Lubben, and, most importantly, it is clear that Lubben's testimony before the jury was significant and weighty evidence tending to peg the overpayments to Shotwell at a high level -- well above the amount defendants claimed they received -- and thus buttress a jury finding that more over-ceiling money was paid in for candy than went out for corn.
When this case was brought here the first time by the Government to secure reversal of the Court of Appeals holding that the Fifth Amendment rights of the defendants had been violated, the case was remanded because the Government presented "new evidence" in the form of affidavits which tended to show that the individual defendants had given perjurious testimony at the suppression hearing. [Footnote 2/29] The District Court was instructed to hold new hearings and to make new findings of fact on the timeliness of the defendants' disclosure of unreported income and on the "good faith" of the defendants in so disclosing.
Although the judge made this finding, as the record compelled him to find, he nevertheless refused to grant the defendants a new trial before a new jury, because he believed the other evidence proved the defendants guilty, and that there had therefore been no "miscarriage of justice."
like the verdict in Mesarosh v. United States, 352 U. S. 1 (1956). While that case was pending here on certiorari, the Government called our attention to the fact that one of the seven witnesses who had testified against the defendants had lied in other proceedings subsequent to the defendants' convictions. The Government insisted, however, that the witness' testimony had been truthful in its case, and, on that basis, objected to the granting of a new trial, but recommended a remand to the trial judge to determine whether the witness had in fact been truthful. We rejected that recommendation and held that the new evidence, which undermined the credibility of the witness and which was produced by the Government itself, required a new trial because the defendants' trial had become fatally tainted by these new disclosures. In the present case, after the defendants had been convicted, the Government came forward with evidence tending to show not merely that one among many witnesses, but that its major witness, had lied, not in other proceedings, but on the central and determinative issue in this very case. Moreover, unlike Mesarosh, we have here an acknowledgment by the district judge that the testimony Lubben gave to the jury was probably exaggerated. In another case involving a charge by the defendants that it had discovered that the Government's witnesses were completely untrustworthy and should be accorded no credence, this Court remanded on these mere allegations in order to assure "findings upon untainted evidence," and said.
of justice requires the Court to make certain that the doing of justice be made so manifest that only irrational or perverse claims of its disregard can be asserted."
Communist Party of United States v. Subversive Activities Control Board, 351 U. S. 115, 351 U. S. 124 (1956). Compare Mooney v. Holohan, 294 U. S. 103 (1935). I fear that the Court does not manifest that same "fastidious regard for the honor of the administration of justice" when it holds today that the defendants are not entitled to a new trial even though there are strong, compelling reasons to believe that the jury in this case did not base its guilty "findings upon untainted evidence."
set the convictions aside so that the defendants could get a new trial. [Footnote 2/32] The Court here is therefore wrong in stating that the Mesarosh "conviction may be regarded or is conceded to have rested on perjured testimony." The Court, as I see it, is simply refusing to follow Mesarosh without saying why.
"The district judge is not the proper agency to determine that there was sufficient evidence at the trial, other than that given by Mazzei, to sustain a conviction of any of the petitioners. Only the jury can determine what it would do on a different body of evidence, and the jury can no longer act in this case. [Footnote 2/35]"
not properly weigh credibility at the time of the trial because these damaging sworn accusations against Lubben did not exist at that time.
Proper respect for the fairness and integrity of our judicial system demands that these defendants not be allowed to stand convicted upon a record containing evidence, the truthfulness of which has now been so thoroughly discredited. Neither the District Court, the Court of Appeals, nor this Court should usurp the constitutional function of the jury to determine the guilt or innocence of these defendants on untainted evidence. There is only one way the defendants can be given the constitutional rights that have been denied them in this case, and that is to reverse the case and remand for a new jury trial.
Moreover, by granting a new trial, the Court would not only assure defendants the fair trial to which they are entitled, but would also make it unnecessary for the Court to reach the important, grave, and difficult Fifth Amendment questions [Footnote 2/36] discussed in 371 U. S. The general rule of this Court is to avoid reaching such constitutional issues when a case can be fairly disposed of on alternative grounds. [Footnote 2/37] Although I have sometimes thought the rule has been carried to "a wholly unjustifiable extreme," [Footnote 2/38] this case, it seems to me, offers to the strong adherents of that rule an ideal occasion for its application in the interests of justice, which would require that a new trial be granted.
Hearings on Proposals for Strengthening Tax Administration before a Subcommittee of the House Committee on Ways and Means, 82d Cong., 2d Sess. 143-144 (1952) (statement of Secretary Vinson, reprinted from Washington Post, Aug. 21, 1945). Some form of voluntary disclosure policy had existed since 1919. In 1945, however, the policy took the form of a clear and direct invitation to taxpayers to come forward and disclose their tax derelictions in reliance on the Government's unequivocal promise of immunity. Hearings, supra, at 78-79 (Press Release of Treasury Department, Dec. 11, 1951). Secretary Vinson's statement "crystallized" the earlier practice into "definite policy," according to Turner L. Smith, Chief of Criminal Tax Section, Dept. of Justice, in an address reprinted in Section of Taxation, ABA, Symposium on Procedure in Tax Fraud Cases 29, 38-39 (1951).
United States v. Shotwell Mfg. Co., 225 F.2d 394 (C.A.7th Cir. 1955).
355 U. S. 233 (1957).
287 F.2d 667 (C.A.7th Cir. 1961).
225 F.2d 394, 406 (C.A.7th Cir. 1955).
United States v. Carignan, 342 U. S. 36, 342 U. S. 41 (1951).
Wilson v. United States, 162 U. S. 613, 162 U. S. 622 (1896).
168 U.S. at 168 U. S. 548-549, 168 U. S. 550, 168 U. S. 558, 168 U. S. 562.
Id. at 168 U. S. 548.
Id. at 168 U. S. 554.
Id. at 168 U. S. 556.
"We find that, as to the Federal Government, the Fourth and Fifth Amendments and, as to the States, the freedom from unconscionable invasions of privacy and the freedom from convictions based upon coerced confessions do enjoy an 'intimate relation' in their perpetuation of 'principles of humanity and civil liberty [secured] . . . only after years of struggle.'"
See 28 L.Ed. 262, note. Cases collected, 20 Am.Jur., Evid., §§ 506, 511; 18 L.R.A.(N.S.) 820-824; 50 L.R.A.(N.S.) 1086-1087.
It is interesting to note that, in the proceedings on remand, government counsel, in calling the witness Huebner who testified as to matters that incriminated him, was eager to have Huebner state that no one connected with the Federal Government had threatened or coerced him or made him "any promises of reward or immunity."
Cf. Smith v. O'Grady, 312 U. S. 329 (1941).
According to the Chief Deputy Collector's testimony, one of the defendants in this case was particularly worried about the publicity that would attend a criminal case, because he had two boys in school. It was at this point that the Collector assured him that this was a civil case, and "he had nothing to worry about so far as publicity was concerned."
Cf. Reid v. Covert, 354 U. S. 1, 354 U. S. 41, 354 U. S. 44, 354 U. S. 65, 354 U. S. 77 (1957) (concurring opinions); Rochin v. California, 342 U. S. 165, 342 U. S. 169 (1952); Adamson v. California, 332 U. S. 46, 332 U. S. 59, 332 U. S. 67-68 (1947) (concurring opinion). But cf. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U. S. 643, 367 U. S. 661, 367 U. S. 666 (1961) (concurring opinion); Kinsella v. United States ex rel. Singleton, 361 U. S. 234, 361 U. S. 246-247 (1960).
Similarly, there can be no question of "balancing" Fifth Amendment rights against any kind of "competing interests." See Frantz, "The First Amendment in the Balance," 71 Yale L.J. 1424, 1436-1437 (1962).
Hearings, supra, note 1, at 144.
"it is inconceivable . . . that the rule barring the use of involuntary confessions should operate to exclude a declaration in which damaging admissions are inextricably intertwined with false self-serving exculpatory statements. . . ."
Brief for the United States, p. 42.
Rogers v. Richmond, 365 U. S. 534, 365 U. S. 543-545 (1961). See Blackburn v. Alabama, 361 U. S. 199, 361 U. S. 206 (1960); Spano v. New York, 360 U. S. 315, 360 U. S. 324 (1959); Payne v. Arkansas, 356 U. S. 560, 356 U. S. 567-568 (1958); cf. Lee v. Mississippi, 332 U. S. 742, 332 U. S. 745-746 (1948); Ashcraft v. Tennessee, 322 U. S. 143, 322 U. S. 152 n. 7 (1944); White v. Texas, 310 U. S. 530, 310 U. S. 531-532 (1940). While these cases were state cases decided under the Fourteenth Amendment, the Fifth Amendment's specific prohibition against the use of compelled testimony should certainly be no less comprehensive than the bar against a State's use of such testimony under the Fourteenth.
Compare Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U. S. 643, 367 U. S. 656 (1961) (search and seizure).
See, for example, the confession in Reck v. Pate, 367 U. S. 433, 367 U. S. 438 (1961).
See Ashcraft v. Tennessee, 322 U. S. 143, 322 U. S. 154 (1944).
See, e.g., Chambers v. Florida, 309 U. S. 227 (1940); Haley v. Ohio, 332 U. S. 596 (1948); Leyra v. Denno, 347 U. S. 556 (1954); Fikes v. Alabama, 352 U. S. 191 (1957); Spano v. New York, 360 U. S. 315 (1959); Blackburn v. Alabama, 361 U. S. 199 (1960); Gallegos v. Colorado, 370 U. S. 49 (1962).
I have previously expressed the view, to which I adhere, that the admissibility of all confessions should be a jury question. United States v. Shotwell Mfg. Co., 355 U. S. 233, 355 U. S. 246, 355 U. S. 248-250 (1957) (dissenting opinion).
See Hoffman v. United States, 341 U. S. 479, 341 U. S. 486 (1951); Gouled v. United States, 255 U. S. 298, 255 U. S. 303-304 (1921); Counselman v. Hitchcock, 142 U. S. 547, 142 U. S. 562 (1892).
"I will tell you who David Lubben is. He is an honest, honorable American citizen, who is down here doing his duty, just the way you people are doing your duty."
This is in marked contrast to a government prosecutor's argument to the jury in another case, where he said that Lubben was "a perjurer and a black marketeer, and practically anything else you want to talk about."
R. 2589, Giglio v. United States, 355 U. S. 339 (1958).
355 U. S. 355 U.S. 233 (1957).
287 F.2d 667, 675 (C.A.7th Cir. 1961).
352 U.S. at 352 U. S. 9-12.
Communist Party of the United States v. Subversive Activities Control Board, 351 U. S. 115, 351 U. S. 124 (1956).
352 U.S. at 352 U. S. 12.
See United States v. Shotwell Mfg. Co., 355 U. S. 233, 355 U. S. 246-247 (1957) (dissenting opinion).
E.g., 367 U. S. U.S.A. v. Catherwood, 367 U. S. 389, 367 U. S. 392-395 (1961); United States v. International Union United Automobile Workers, 352 U. S. 567, 352 U. S. 589-592 (1957). See also Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U. S. 643, 367 U. S. 672, 367 U. S. 675-677 (1961) (dissenting opinion).
Clay v. Sun Ins. Office Ltd., 363 U. S. 207, 363 U. S. 213 (1960) (dissenting opinion).

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