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Treaty of Huế (1884) - WikiVisually
The Treaty of Huế or Protectorate Treaty was concluded on 6 June 1884 between France and Annam (Vietnam). It restated the main tenets of the punitive Harmand Treaty of 25 August 1883, but softened some of the harsher provisions of this treaty. The treaty, which formed the basis for the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, and for French colonial rule in Vietnam during the next seven decades, was negotiated by Jules Patenôtre, France's minister to China, and is often known as the Patenôtre Treaty. The treaty was signed on the Vietnamese side by Phạm Thận Duật and Tôn Thất Phan, representatives of the emperor Tự Đức’s court. It is known in Vietnamese as Hòa ước Giáp Thân 1884, or Hòa ước Patenotre.
2 Text of the treaty (original French)
3 Text of the treaty (English translation)
On 6 June 1884, three weeks after the conclusion of the Tientsin Accord with China, which implicitly renounced China's historic suzerainty over Vietnam, the French concluded a treaty with Vietnam which provided for a French protectorate over both Annam and Tonkin. The treaty was negotiated for France by Jules Patenôtre, the new French minister to China.[1]
The new treaty replaced the notoriously vague 'Philastre treaty' of 15 March 1874 (the Treaty of Saigon), which had given France limited commercial privileges in Tonkin. It restated, though in milder language, many of the provisions included in the punitive Harmand Treaty of August 1883, which had never been ratified by the French parliament. It entrenched the French protectorate over both Annam and Tonkin and allowed the French to station residents in most Vietnamese towns. It also granted certain trade privileges to France.
Indo-China - Reception of Mr. Arthur Tricou, Minister Plenipotentiary of France, by the new emperor of Annam.[2]
Revision of the Harmand treaty had been foreshadowed in January 1884, when the French diplomat Arthur Tricou visited Huế to obtain its ratification from the Vietnamese government. Tricou hinted that some of the more objectionable clauses of the Harmand treaty might be revised if the Vietnamese demonstrated their sincerity, and on 1 January 1884 the Vietnamese government declared its full and complete adhesion to the Harmand treaty. Significantly, it also said that it 'trusted in the goodwill of the French Republic that some of its provisions would be softened at a later date' (s'en remettant au bon vouloir de la République quant aux adoucissements qui pourraient y être ultérieurement apportés).[3]
One of the most problematic aspects of the Harmand Treaty, in the eyes of the Quai d'Orsay, was that it had imposed territorial concessions on Vietnam, annexing four provinces to Cochinchina and Tonkin. These provisions reflected Harmand's personal view that France should be aiming at the outright conquest of Vietnam. This was not the view of the French foreign ministry, which believed that it would be safer and more convenient for France to govern Vietnam indirectly, by means of a protectorate. Accordingly, by virtue of Articles 3 and 16, the French now restored to Vietnamese internal jurisdiction the provinces of Nghệ An, Thanh Hóa, Hà Tĩnh and Bình Thuận, which the Harmand treaty had transferred to French control a year earlier.[4]
In order to conceal the fact that China was in practice renouncing its suzerainty over Vietnam, Article IV of the Tientsin Accord bound France to abstain from using any language demeaning to the dignity of the Celestial Empire in its new treaty with Vietnam. Article I of the 1883 Harmand Treaty had contained the offensive phrase 'including China' (y compris la Chine) in the statement that France would henceforth control Vietnam's relations with other countries. Patenôtre removed this phrase, and Article I of the Patenôtre Treaty consequently makes no reference to China.[5]
Although the French were careful to save Chinese face in the text of their treaties with China and Vietnam, the signature of the Patenôtre treaty was accompanied by an important symbolic gesture. The seal presented by the emperor of China several decades earlier to the Vietnamese king Gia Long was melted down in the presence of the French and Vietnamese plenipotentiaries. The seal, a silver plaque with gold plating, four and a half inches square and weighing thirteen pounds, bore the carving of a sitting camel. This renunciation by the Vietnamese of their long-standing ties to China was given wide publicity by the French. In French eyes, it made the point that France had effectively replaced China as the arbiter of Vietnamese affairs.[6]
Text of the treaty (original French)[edit]
The original French text of the treaty, in nineteen articles, is given below.[7]
Art 1. L’Annam reconnaît et accepte le Protectorat de la France. La France représentera Annam dans toutes ses relations extérieures. Les Annamites à l'étranger seront placés sous la protection de la France.
Art. 2. Une force militaire française occupera Thuan-An d'une façon permanente. Tous les forts et ouvrages militaires de la rivière de Hué seront rasés.
Art. 3. Les fonctionnaires annamites, depuis la frontière de la Cochinchine jusqu’à la frontière de la province de Ninh-Binh, continueront à administrer les provinces comprises dans ces limites, sauf en ce qui concerne les douanes, les travaux publics et, en général, les services qui exigent une direction unique ou l'emploi d'ingénieurs ou d'agents européens.
Art. 4. Dans les limites ci-dessus indiquées, le Gouvernement annamite déclarera ouverts au commerce de toutes les nations, outre le port de Qui-Nhon, ceux de Tourane et de Xuan-Day. D’autres ports pourront être ultérieurement ouverts après une entente préalable. Le Gouvernement français y entretiendra des agents placés sous les ordres de son Résident à Hué.
Art. 5. Un Résident général, représentant du Gouvernement français, présidera aux relations extérieures de l'Annam et assurera l'exercice régulier du protectorat, sans s’immiscer dans l'administration locale des provinces comprises dans les limites fixées par l'article 3. Il résidera dans la citadelle de Hué avec une escorte militaire. Le Résident général aura droit d'audience privée et personnele auprès de Sa Majesté le Roi d'Annam.
Art. 6. Au Tonkin des Résidents ou Résidents-adjoints seront placés par le Gouvernement de la République dans les chefs-lieux où leur présence sera jugée utile. Ils seront sous les ordres du Résident général. Ils habiteront dans la citadelle, et, en tout cas, dans l'enceinte même réservée au mandarin; il leur sera donné, s’il y a lieu, une escorte française ou indigène.
Art. 7. Les Résidents éviteront de s’occuper des détails de l'administration des provinces. Les fonctionnaires indigènes de tout ordre continueront à gouverner et à administrer sous leur contrôle; mais ils devront être révoqués sur la demande des autorités françaises.
Art. 8. Les fonctionnaires et employés français de toute catégorie ne communiqueront avec les autorités annamites que par l'intermédiaire des Résidents.
Art. 9. Une ligne télégraphique sera établie de Saigon à Hanoi et exploitée par des employés français. Une partie des taxes sera attribuée au Gouvernement annamite qui concédera, en retour, le terrain nécessaire aux stations.
Art. 10. En Annam et au Tonkin, les étrangers de toute nationalité seront placés sous la juridiction française. L’autorité française statuera sur les contestations de quelque nature qu’elles soient qui s’élèveront entre Annamites et étrangers, de même qu’entre étrangers.
Art. 11. Dans l'Annam proprement dit, les Quan-Bo percevront l'impôt ancien sans le contrôle des fonctionnaires français et pour compte de la Cour de Hué. Au Tonkin, les Résidents centraliseront avec le concours des Quan-Bo le service du même impôt, dont ils surveilleront la perception et l'emploi. Une commission composée de commissaires français et annamites déterminera les sommes qui devront être affectées aux diverses branches de l'administration et aux services publics. Le reliquat sera versé dans les caisses de la Cour de Hué.
Art. 12. Dans tout le royaume, les douanes réorganisées seront entièrement confiées à des administrateurs français. Il n’y aura que des douanes maritimes et de frontières placées partout où le besoin se fera sentir. Aucune réclamation ne sera admise en matières de douanes, au sujet dés mesures prises jusqu’à ce jour par les autorités militaires. Les lois et les règlements concernant les contributions indirectes, le régime et le tarif des douanes, et le régime sanitaire de la Cochinchine seront applicables aux territoires de l'Annam et du Tonkin.
Art. 13. Les citoyens ou protégés français pourront, dans toute l'étendue du Tonkin et dans les ports ouverts de l'Annam, circuler librement, faire le commerce, acquérir des biens meubles et immeubles et en disposer. S. M. le Roi d'Annam confirme expressément les garanties stipulées par le traité du 15 mars 1874 en faveur des missionnaires et des chrétiens.
Art. 14. Les personnes qui voudront voyager dans l'intérieur de l'Annam ne pourront en obtenir l'autorisation que par l'intermédiaire du Résident général à Hué ou du Gouverneur de la Cochinchine. Ces autorités leur délivreront des passeports qui seront présentés au visa du Gouvernement annamite.
Art. 15. La France s’engage à garantir désormais l'intégrité des États de S. M. le Roi d'Annam, à défendre ce Souverain contre les agressions du dehors, et contre les rébellions du dedans. A cet effet, l'autorité française pourra faire occuper militairement sur le territoire de l'Annam et du Tonkin les points qu’elle jugera nécessaires pour assurer l'exercice du protectorat.
Art. 16. S. M. le Roi d'Annam continuera, comme par le passé, à diriger l'administration intérieure de ses États, sauf les restrictions qui résultent de la présente convention.
Art. 17. Les dettes actuelles de l'Annam vis-à-vis de la France seront acquittées au moyen de paiements dont le mode sera ultérieurement déterminé. S. M. le Roi d'Annam s’interdit de contracter aucun emprunt à l'étranger sans l'autorisation du Gouvernement français.
Art. 18. Des conférences régleront les limites des ports ouverts et des concessions françaises dans chacun de ces ports, l'établissement des phares sur les côtes de l'Annam et du Tonkin, le régime et l'exploitation des mines, le régime monétaire, la quotité à attribuer au Gouvernement annamite sur les produits des douanes, des régles, des taxes télégraphiques et autres revenus non visés dans l'article 11 du présent traité. La présente convention sera soumise à l'approbation du Gouvernement de la République française et de S. M. le Roi d'Annam, et les ratifications en seront échangées aussitôt que possible.
Art. 19. Le présent traité remplacera les conventions des 15 mars, 31 août et 23 novembre 1874.
En cas de contestation le texte français fera seul foi.
Text of the treaty (English translation)[edit]
Article 1. Annam recognises and accepts the protectorate of France. France will represent Annam in all her external relations. Annamese abroad will be placed under the protection of France.
Article 2. A French military force will occupy Thuận An on a permanent basis. All the forts and military installations along the Huế River will be razed.
Article 3. Annamese officials will continue to administer the provinces lying between the frontier of Cochinchina and the frontier of the province of Ninh Bình, except for the customs and public works and, in general, any services that require the sole direction or the employment of European engineers or agents.
Article 4. Within the limits indicated above, the Annamese government will declare the ports of Tourane and Xuan Day open to trade with all nations, as well as that of Qui Nhơn. Other ports may also be opened at a later date by mutual agreement. The French government will maintain in these ports agents placed under the orders of its Resident at Huế.
Article 5. A Resident General, representing the French Government, will oversee the external relations of Annam and ensure the smooth functioning of the protectorate, while not interfering in the local administration of the provinces comprised within the limits set by Article 3. He will reside in the citadel of Huế with a military escort. The Resident General will be entitled to a right of private and personal audience with His Majesty the King of Annam.
Article 6. Residents or Deputy Residents will be placed by the Government of the Republic in the chief towns of Tonkin, where their presence is felt to be useful. They will be under the orders of the Resident General. They will live in the citadel and, where such is the case, in the enclosure reserved for the mandarin. If necessary, they will be provided with a French or native escort.
Article 7. The Residents shall refrain from interfering in the details of the administration of the provinces. Native officials at all levels will continue to govern and administer them, subject to their control, but will be recalled if so required by the French authorities.
Article 8. French officials and employees of all kinds shall only communicate with the Annamese authorities via the Residents.
Article 9. A telegraph line shall be laid from Saigon to Hanoi and operated by French employees. Part of the taxes shall be remitted to the Annamese government, which will in return surrender the land necessary for the telegraph stations.
Article 10. Both in Annam and in Tonkin, foreigners of all nationalities shall be placed under French jurisdiction. The French authorities shall determine disputes of any kind that may arise between Annamese and foreigners or solely among foreigners.
Article 11. Within Annam strictly defined, the quan bo will collect the traditional taxes without the oversight of French officials and for the account of the Court of Huế. In Tonkin, the Residents will oversee the collection of this tax. They will assisted by the quan bo, and will supervise their employment and collection methods. A commission composed of French and Annamese commissioners will determine the amount of money to be assigned to the various government departments and for public services. The remainder will be deposited in the coffers of the Court of Huế.
Article 12. The customs regime will be reorganised throughout the realm and entrusted entirely to French administrators. Customs posts shall only be established along the coast and on the frontiers, and shall be located wherever they are needed. No complaints against rulings previously made by the military authorities on customs matters shall be entertained. The laws and regulations of Cochinchina covering indirect contributions, the customs regime, the scale of tariffs and sanitary precautions shall also be applied throughout the territories of Annam and Tonkin.
Article 13. French citizens and persons under French protection may travel freely, engage in commerce, and acquire and dispose of moveable and immoveable property anywhere within the borders of Tonkin and in the open ports of Annam. His Majesty the King of Annam expressly confirms the guarantees stipulated by the treaty of 15 March 1874 in respect of missionaries and Christians.
Article 14. Persons who wish to travel in the interior of Annam must obtain authorisation for their journey either through the Resident General at Huế or from the governor of Cochinchina. These authorities shall supply them with passports, which must be presented for a visa from the Annamese government.
Article 15. France undertakes to guarantee henceforth the integrity of the realms of His Majesty the King of Annam, and to defend this Sovereign against all external aggression and internal rebellion. To this effect, the French authorities may station troops at whatever points in the territory of Annam and Tonkin they judge necessary for the effective functioning of the protectorate.
Article 16. As in the past, His Majesty the King of Annam will continue to direct the internal administration of his realms, except where restricted by the provisions of this present convention.
Article 17. Annam's outstanding debts to France shall be paid off in a manner subsequently to be determined. His Majesty the King of Annam shall refrain from contracting any foreign loan except with the approval of the French government.
Article 18. Talks will be held to determine the limits of the open ports and of the French concessions in each of these ports, locations for the construction of lighthouses on the coasts of Annam and Tonkin, arrangements for the exploitation of the mines, the monetary system, and the portion of the profits accruing from the customs, the regulations, taxes on telegraphic cables and other revenues not specified in Article 11 of this treaty. This convention shall be submitted for the approval of the Government of the French Republic and His Majesty the King of Annam, and ratifications shall be exchanged as soon as possible.
Article 19. The present treaty will replace the conventions of 15 March, 31 August and 23 November 1874.
In the event of a dispute, the French text shall prevail.
^ Billot, 171–84
^ "No 1504 - 27e année". L'Univers illustré. 19 January 1884.
^ Huard, 246
^ Billot, 178–80
^ Billot, 177
^ Billot, 173–5; McAleavy, 239–40; Thomazi, Conquête, 192–3
^ Billot, 418–21; Devillers, 482–4
Billot, Albert, L’affaire du Tonkin : histoire diplomatique de l'établissement de notre protectorat sur l'Annam et de notre conflit avec la Chine, 1882–1885, par un diplomate, J. Hetzel et Cie, éditeurs, Paris, 1886, vi+ 430 pp.
Devillers, Philippe, Français et annamites . Partenaires ou ennemis ? 1856–1902, Denoël, Coll. Destins croisés, L’aventure coloniale de la France, Paris, 1998, 517 pp.
Eastman, Lloyd E., Throne and Mandarins: China's Search for a Policy during the Sino-French Controversy, 1880–1885 Harvard University Press, Harvard, 1967; 1974; Stanford, 1984, 267 pp.
McAleavy, Henry, Black Flags in Vietnam: The Story of a Chinese Intervention George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., London, New York, 1968, 296 pp.
Thomazi, Auguste, La conquête de l'Indochine Payot, Paris, 1934, 291 pp.
Milestones 1800s
Vietnam – Chronology of Important Events
Capture of Nam Định (1883)
Battle of Gia Cuc
Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge)
Battle of Phủ Hoài
Battle of Thuận An
Battle of Palan
Sơn Tây Campaign
Bắc Ninh Campaign
Capture of Hưng Hóa
Bắc Lệ ambush
Oscar de Négrier
François-Jules Harmand
Alexandre-Eugène Bouët
Paul Gustave Herbinger
Charles-Théodore Millot
Alphonse Dugenne
Vietnamese personalities
Kep Campaign
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Treaty_of_Huế_(1884)&oldid=860833929"
1884 in France
1884 in Vietnam
Treaties concluded in 1884
Treaties of the Nguyen dynasty
June 1884 events
1. French Indochina – French Indochina, officially known as the Indochinese Union after 1887 and the Indochinese Federation after 1947, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia. A grouping of the three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin, Annam, and Cochinchina with Cambodia was formed in 1887, Laos was added in 1893 and the leased Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan in 1898. The capital was moved from Saigon to Hanoi in 1902 and again to Da Lat in 1939, in 1945 it was moved back to Hanoi. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, beginning in May 1941, the Viet Minh, a communist army led by Hồ Chí Minh, began a revolt against the Japanese. In August 1945 they declared Vietnamese independence and extended the war, known as the First Indochina War, in Saigon, the anti-Communist State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was granted independence in 1949. On 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and the Kingdom of Cambodia became independent, following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French evacuated Vietnam and French Indochina came to an end. France–Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes, at this time, Vietnam was only just beginning to occupy the Mekong Delta, former territory of the Indianised kingdom of Champa which they had defeated in 1471. European involvement in Vietnam was confined to trade during the 18th century, pigneau died in Vietnam but his troops fought on until 1802 in the French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh. France was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century, protecting the work of the Paris Foreign Missions Society in the country was presented as a justification. In 1858, the period of unification under the Nguyễn dynasty ended with a successful attack on Da Nang by French Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly under the orders of Napoleon III. Diplomat Charles de Montignys mission having failed, Genouillys mission was to stop attempts to expel Catholic missionaries and his orders were to stop the persecution of missionaries and assure the unimpeded propagation of the faith. In September 1858, fourteen French gunships,3,000 men and 300 Filipino troops provided by the Spanish attacked the port of Tourane, causing significant damage, after a few months, Rigault had to leave the city due to supply issues and illnesses. Sailing south, de Genouilly then captured the poorly defended city of Saigon on 18 February 1859, on 13 April 1862, the Vietnamese government was forced to cede the three provinces of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường to France. French policy four years saw a reversal, with the French continuing to accumulate territory. In 1862, France obtained concessions from Emperor Tự Đức, ceding three treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin, and all of Cochinchina, the latter being formally declared a French territory in 1864. In 1867 the provinces of Châu Đốc, Hà Tiên and Vĩnh Long were added to French-controlled territory, in 1863, the Cambodian king Norodom had requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country. France obtained control over northern Vietnam following its victory over China in the Sino-French War, French Indochina was formed on 17 October 1887 from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina and the Kingdom of Cambodia, Laos was added after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893. The federation lasted until 21 July 1954, French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had established a firm grip over the northern region
2. Sino-French War – The Sino-French War, also known as the Tonkin War and Tonquin War, was a limited conflict fought from August 1884 through April 1885, to decide whether France would supplant Chinas control of Tonkin. Although the Chinese armies performed better than in other nineteenth-century wars and the war ended with French defeat on land, France began its colonial campaign in 1858, annexing several southern provinces in 1862 to form the colony of Cochinchina. In 1873, a small French force commanded by Lieutenant de Vaisseau Francis Garnier, exceeding his instructions, following a series of French victories against the Vietnamese, the Vietnamese government called on Liu Yongfus Black Flags, who defeated Garniers force beneath the walls of Hanoi. Garnier was killed in battle, and the French government later disavowed his expedition. In 1881, French Commandant Henri Rivière was sent with a military force to Hanoi to investigate Vietnamese complaints about the activities of French merchants. In defiance of the instructions of his superiors, Rivière stormed the citadel of Hanoi on 25 April 1882, although Rivière subsequently returned the citadel to Vietnamese control, his recourse to force provoked alarm both in Vietnam and in China. The Vietnamese also bid for Chinese support, Vietnam had long been a vassal state of China, and China agreed to arm and support the Black Flags, and to covertly oppose French operations in Tonkin. The Qing court also sent a signal to the French that China would not allow Tonkin to fall under French control. In the summer of 1882, troops of the Chinese Yunnan and Guangxi armies crossed the border into Tonkin, occupying Lạng Sơn, Bắc Ninh, Hung Hoa, neither of the parties to these negotiations consulted the Vietnamese. Rivière, disgusted at the cut by Bourée, decided early in 1883 to force the issue. He had recently sent a battalion of marine infantry from France. On 27 March 1883, to secure his line of communications from Hanoi to the coast, Rivière captured the citadel of Nam Định with a force of 520 French soldiers under his personal command. During his absence at Nam Định, the Black Flags and Vietnamese made an attack on Hanoi, Rivière jubilantly reacted, This will force them to take forward their Tonkin Question. He had expected to be cashiered for his Capture of Nam Định, there had recently been a change of government in France, and the new administration of Jules Ferry strongly favoured colonial expansion. It therefore decided to back Rivière, Ferry and Foreign Minister Paul-Armand Challemel-Lacour denounced Bourées agreement with Li Hongzhang and recalled the hapless French minister. They also made it clear to the Chinese that they were determined to place Tonkin under French protection and this resulted in a year of Liu Yongfus forces fighting an unconventional war. On 10 May 1883 Liu Yongfu challenged the French to battle in a taunting message widely placarded on the walls of Hanoi, on 19 May Rivière confronted the Black Flags in the Battle of Paper Bridge, and the French suffered a disastrous defeat. Rivières small force attacked a strong Black Flag defensive position near the village of Cầu Giấy, after initial successes the French were eventually enveloped on both wings, only with difficulty could they regroup and fall back to Hanoi
3. Western imperialism in Asia – Western imperialism in Asia as presented in this article pertains to Western European entry into what was first called the East Indies. By the early 16th century the Age of Sail greatly expanded Western European influence, the empires introduced Western concepts of nation and the multinational state. This article attempts to outline the consequent development of the Western concept of the nation state, the thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to growing trade in commodities—a key development in the rise of todays modern world free market economy. In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the monopoly of the Arabs, with the ensuing rise of the rival Dutch East India Company, Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed. Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East and then between 1640 and 1660 wrestled Malacca, Ceylon, some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative Japan trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in India and established a trade with China, none of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both world wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. European exploration of Asia started in ancient Roman times, knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian Red Sea ports was significant in the first centuries of the Common Era, in the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian missionaries, had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these travelers was Marco Polo, the Yuan dynasty in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new Ming rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism. Meanwhile, the Turks consolidated control over the eastern Mediterranean, closing off key overland trade routes, thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders. Western European rulers determined to find new routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and this chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugals John II, from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast. While Dias crew forced him to back, by 1497. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of the Crown of Castile, in 1509, the Portuguese under Francisco de Almeida won the decisive battle of Diu against a joint Mamluk and Arab fleet sent to expel the Portuguese of the Arabian Sea. The victory enabled Portugal to implement its strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean, early in the 16th century Afonso de Albuquerque emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroy most instrumental in consolidating Portugals holdings in Africa and in Asia. Lured by the potential of high profits from another expedition, the Portuguese established a permanent base in Cochin, in 1510, the Portuguese, led by Afonso de Albuquerque, seized Goa on the coast of India, which Portugal held until 1961, along with Diu and Daman. The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean, Portuguese viceroy Albuquerque resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the East Indies and China
5. Tonkin Campaign – The campaign officially ended in April 1886, when the expeditionary corps was reduced in size to a division of occupation, but Tonkin was not effectively pacified until 1896. After a lull of several months, the arrival of reinforcements from France in February 1883 allowed Rivière to mount a campaign to capture the citadel of Nam Định, the Capture of Nam Định was strategically necessary for the French, to secure their communications with the sea. The French position in Tonkin on Bouëts arrival in early June 1883 was extremely precarious, Bouëts first step was to withdraw the isolated French garrisons of Qui Nhơn and Hon Gai. He had also been authorised to abandon Nam Định at need, during June, the French dug in behind their defences and beat off half-hearted Vietnamese demonstrations against Hanoi and Nam Định. The early arrival of reinforcements from France and New Caledonia and the recruitment of Cochinchinese and Tonkinese auxiliary formations allowed Bouët to hit back at his tormentors, the arrival of Admiral Amédée Courbet in Along Bay in July 1883 with substantial naval reinforcements further strengthened the French position in Tonkin. On 30 July 1883 Admiral Courbet, General Bouët and François-Jules Harmand, the three men agreed that Bouët should launch an offensive against the Black Flag Army in its positions around Phu Hoai on the Day River as soon as possible. They also noted that the Court of Huế was covertly aiding and abetting Liu Yongfus Black Flag Army, and that Prince Hoàng was still in arms against the French at Nam Định. The proposal was approved by the ministry on 11 August. On 20 August, in the Battle of Thuận An, two companies of French marine infantry and the companies of three French warships went ashore and stormed the forts under heavy fire. During the afternoon the gunboats Lynx and Vipère forced a barrage at the entrance to the River of Perfumes, the Vietnamese asked for an armistice, and on 25 August Harmand dictated the Treaty of Huế to the cowed Vietnamese court. The Vietnamese recognised the legitimacy of the French occupation of Cochinchina, vietnam, its royal house and its court survived, but under French direction. France was granted the privilege of stationing a resident-general at Huế, to ensure there were no second thoughts, a permanent French garrison would occupy the Thuận An forts. Large swathes of territory were transferred from Annam to Tonkin. The French cancelled the countrys debts, but required in return the cession of the province of Bình Thuận. At the same time the provinces of Nghệ An, Thanh Hóa and Hà Tĩnh were transferred to Tonkin. In return the French undertook to drive out the Black Flags from Tonkin, meanwhile, as agreed at the Haiphong conference, General Bouët duly took the offensive against Liu Yongfus Black Flag Army. Bouët twice attacked the Black Flags in their defences along the Day River, in the Battle of Phủ Hoài and these offensives met with only limited success, and in the eyes of the world were tantamount to French defeats. More encouragingly for the French, a column of marine infantry, the capture of Haiduong was notable for atrocities committed by both the French and the Vietnamese
6. Qing dynasty – It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
7. French colonial empire – The French colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. The second empire came to an end after the loss of bitter wars in Vietnam and Algeria, competing with Spain, Portugal, the United Provinces, and later Britain, France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean, and India in the 17th century. A series of wars with Great Britain and other European major powers during the 18th century, France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly in Africa, as well as Indochina and the South Pacific. Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire and it also provided manpower in the World Wars. It became a mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity. In 1884 the leading proponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry declared, The higher races have a right over the lower races, full citizenship rights – assimilation – were offered, although in reality assimilation was always receding the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens. At its apex, it was one of the largest empires in history, including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 11,500,000 km2 in 1920, with a population of 110 million people in 1939. In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French used the colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France. However, after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority, the French constitution of October 27,1946, established the French Union which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the empire were integrated into France as overseas departments. These now total altogether 119,394 km², which amounts to only 1% of the pre-1939 French colonial empires area, by the 1970s, says Robert Aldrich, the last vestiges of empire held little interest for the French. He argues, Except for the decolonization of Algeria, however. During the 16th century, the French colonization of the Americas began, the story of Frances colonial empire truly began on 27 July 1605, with the foundation of Port Royal in the colony of Acadia in North America, in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. A few years later, in 1608, Samuel De Champlain founded Quebec, which was to become the capital of the enormous, New France had a rather small population, which resulted from more emphasis being placed on the fur trade rather than agricultural settlements. Due to this emphasis, the French relied heavily on creating friendly contacts with the local First Nations community and these became the most enduring alliances between the French and the First Nation community. The French were, however, under pressure from religious orders to them to Catholicism. Through alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were able to exert a loose control over much of the North American continent, areas of French settlement were generally limited to the St. Lawrence River Valley. Prior to the establishment of the 1663 Sovereign Council, the territories of New France were developed as mercantile colonies
8. Pacification of Tonkin – Following their colonisation of Cochinchina in the 1860s, the French attempted to extend their influence into Tonkin. A first, abortive attempt to intervene in Tonkin was made by Francis Garnier in 1873, nine years later, in April 1882, Henri Rivière seized the citadel of Hanoi, inaugurating the second French intervention. Although it would take years before Tonkin was truly pacified. In August 1883, in the wake of Admiral Amédée Courbets victory at the Battle of Thuan An, when the Sino-French War ended in April 1885, there were 35,000 French troops in Tonkin, but the area of French control was restricted to the Red River Delta. The Can Vuong insurgency against the French launched in Annam in July 1885 after Hàm Nghis flight from Huế was portrayed by the insurgents as a patriotic, anti-French, the insurgency in Tonkin was rather more complex. Many of the insurgents fought for patriotic motives, but others wanted to exploit the anarchy that prevailed in much of Tonkin at the end of the Sino-French War. They kept their weapons and supported themselves by brigandage, in many cases sheltering behind the rhetoric of the Can Vuong insurgency. The reign of the mandarins was now ended, but force would be needed to deal with the pirates, Liu Yongfus Black Flag forces continued to harass and fight the French in Tonkin after the end of the Sino-French War. With support from China, Vietnamese and Chinese freebooters fought against the French in Lang Son in the 1890s and they were labelled pirates by the French. The Black Flags and Liu Yongfu in China received requests for assistance from Vietnamese anti-French forces, pirate Vietnamese and Chinese were supported by China against the French in Tonkin. Women from Tonkin were sold by pirates, dealers of opium and pirates of Vietnamese and Chinese origin in Tonkin fought against the French Foreign Legion. The bandits and pirates included Nung among their ranks, by adopting their clothing and hairstyle, it was possible to change identity to Nung for pirate and exile Chinese men. Pirate Chinese and Nung fought against the Meo, the flag pirates who fought the French were located among the Tay. In 1891 Goldthwaites Geographical Magazine, Volumes 1-2 said FOUR months ago and they beheaded the French resident, ransacked and burned the town, and killed many of the people. In 1906 the Decennial Reports on the Trade, Navigation, Industries, Etc. of the Ports Open to Foreign Commerce in China and Corea, volume 2 said Piracy on the Tonkin border was very prevalent in the early years of the decade. These posts were handed over to the military authorities. Defective as they may be, these roads must, it seems to me, be of service to cultivation and trade, the wounds were all light, scarcely more than scratches, and no evil effect was feared at the time. After a few days, however, in spite of every care, the captain grew weaker, and it became apparent that he was suffering from the effects of arrow poison
Tonkin (French protectorate) [videos]
Tonkin, or Bac Kỳ, was a French protectorate encompassing the northern region of Vietnam. — Establishment — After …
Image: Campagne du Tonkin Le commandant Riviere entre dans Nam Dinh
Image: Viet Nam Tonkin Hanoi Election d´un Chef de Rue
Image: Viet Nam Tonkin Hanoi Palais du Gouverneur Façade sur le jardin
Image: Tonkin woman
Tự Đức [videos]
Tự Đức (22 September 1829 – 17 July 1883) (full name: Nguyễn Phúc Hồng Nhậm , also Nguyễn Phúc Thì) was the fourth …
Emperor Tự Đức (1829–1883)
Tomb of Emperor Tự Đức
Gold lạng (Tael) of Tự Đức
Image: Tu Duc Tombeau 06
Sino-French War [videos]
The Sino-French War (traditional Chinese: 中法戰爭; simplified Chinese: 中法戰争; pinyin: Zhōngfǎ Zhànzhēng, French: Guerre …
Operations of the Sino-French war (1884–85)
Commandant Henri Rivière (1827–83)
Rivière attempts to rescue a bogged French cannon during the Battle of Paper Bridge. (19 May 1883)
Admiral Anatole-Amédée-Prosper Courbet (1827–85)
Tonkin Campaign [videos]
The Tonkin Campaign was an armed conflict fought between June 1883 and April 1886 by the French against, variously, the …
Image: Prise de Bac Ninh
Map of Tonkin
Combat of Nam Định, 19 July 1883.
Courbet and Harmand at Huế, August 1883
France–Vietnam relations [videos]
French–Vietnamese relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit father Alexandre de …
Frigate Thétis, 1813 model. Musée National de la Marine (Rochefort).
The first attack by France against Vietnam occurred under the command of Jean-Baptiste Cécille in 1847.
China–France relations [videos]
China–France relations, also known as Sino-French relations or Franco-Chinese relations, refers to the interstate …
Chinese embassy in Paris, France.
Nicolas Trigault (1577–1629) in Chinese costume, by Peter Paul Rubens.
European couple, Kangxi period.
Michel Sin visited France in 1684. "The Chinese Convert" by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1687.
Pacification of Tonkin [videos]
The Pacification of Tonkin (1886–96) was a slow and ultimately successful military and political campaign undertaken by …
General Edouard Ferdinand Jamont (1831–1918), the first commander of the Tonkin occupation division
French sailors arrest a suspected pirate chief in a Tonkinese village, 1886
Execution of a pirate chief in Hanoi, 1886. Pirates, when captured by the French, did not normally live long
French soldiers in Tonkin, c.1890
Bắc Lệ ambush [videos]
The Bac Le ambush (French: guet-apens de Bac-Lé, Vietnamese: trận Bắc Lệ or trận cầu Quan Âm) was a clash during the …
The Bac Le ambush, 23 June 1884
Lieutenant-Colonel Alphonse Dugenne (1841–87)
The route followed by Dugenne's column along the Mandarin Road from Phu Lang Thuong to Bac Le
Oscar de Négrier [videos]
François Oscar de Négrier (2 October 1839 – 22 August 1913) was one of the most charismatic French generals of the …
General François de Négrier
General Millot and his staff. De Négrier is sitting second to Millot's right.
De Négrier joins Dugenne's column on the Bac Le plateau, 27 June 1884
General Brière de l'Isle and his staff. De Négrier (with hand on chest) and Herbinger (clasping cane in both hands) are in the front row
Empress Dowager Cixi [videos]
Empress Dowager Cixi1 (Chinese: 慈禧太后; pinyin: Cíxǐ Tàihòu; Manchu: Tsysi taiheo; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), …
Image: The Ci Xi Imperial Dowager Empress (5)
An early portrait of the old Consort Dowager Kangci, foster mother of the Xianfeng Emperor. She hosted the selection of the Xianfeng Emperor's consorts in 1851, in which Cixi participated as a potential candidate.
The Pavilion of Beautiful Scenery, inside which Cixi gave birth to the Tongzhi Emperor
Portrait of Empress Dowager Ci'an (co-regent with Cixi), with whom Cixi staged the Xinyou Coup.
Black Flag Army [videos]
The Black Flag Army (Chinese: 黑旗軍; pinyin: Hēiqí Jūn; Vietnamese: Quân cờ đen) was a splinter remnant of a bandit group …
A Black Flag ambush, 1883
Black Flag soldiers, 1873
A soldier of the Black Flag Army, 1885
A Black Flag banner, captured by the French at Hoa Moc (2 March 1885) and now displayed in the Musée de l'Armée, Paris
Tonkin Flotilla [videos]
The Tonkin Flotilla (French: flottille de Tonkin), a force of despatch vessels and gunboats used for policing the …
Pluvier engages the Vietnamese defences at Nam Dinh with her masthead-mounted canon-revolver, 26 March 1883
Revolver runs the gauntlet of the Chinese defences at Yu Oc, October 1884
Prefect of Phu-doan, 1884
Image: Photograph of the French gunboat Éclair in Tonkin, 1884
Tonkin Expedition commemorative medal [videos]
The Tonkin Expedition commemorative medal (French: Médaille commémorative de l'expédition du Tonkin) was awarded to all …
Image: Medaille de Chine TONKIN 1883 85 AVERS
The Monnaie de Paris
Educating the young: a French school notebook explains the medal's significance
Admiral Henri Rieunier, a recipient if the Tonkin Expedition commemorative medal
Battle of Gia Cuc [videos]
The Battle of Gia Cuc, fought on 27 and 28 March 1883, was a battle in the Tonkin Campaign between the French and …
A French naval gun, deployed on a dyke, supports a marine infantry attack on the Vietnamese positions at Gia Cuc
Chef de bataillon Berthe de Villers (1844–83)
Image: Black Flag Army Flag
Battle of Thuận An [videos]
The Battle of Thuan An (20 August 1883) was a clash between the French and the Vietnamese during the period of early …
French warships off the Thuan An forts, 18 August 1883
French sailors and marine infantry go ashore at Thuan An, 20 August 1883
The attack on the Thuan An forts, 20 August 1883
Bắc Ninh Campaign [videos]
The Bắc Ninh Campaign (6–24 March 1884) was one of a series of clashes between French and Chinese forces in northern …
Chinese defences on the Mandarin Road to the southwest of Bắc Ninh. Millot bypassed the main Chinese positions and attacked Bắc Ninh from the southeast
Turcos and fusiliers-marins at Bắc Ninh, 12 March 1884
Chinese cannon captured at Bắc Ninh

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