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Alone in the common-law ocean of these United States, Louisiana is an island of civil law. Louisiana's civil law is embodied in the Louisiana Civil Code, much of the text of which was derived from the Code of Napoleon of 1804.' American common-law lawyers often encounter Louisiana's civilian terms and concepts when dealing with lawsuits or transactions in Louisiana. No doubt they (and even Louisiana lawyers) are sometimes confused. How many common-law lawyers know of naked owners, usufructs, virile portions, vulgar substitutions, synallagmatic contracts, mystic testaments, antichresis, whimsical conditions, or lesion beyond moiety? Even many Louisiana-trained attorneys are unfamiliar with terms such as amicable compounder, jactitation, mutuum, and commodatum. Thus, a dictionary of these and other civil-law terms might come in handy to some practitioners. In the main table below, various Louisiana civilian concepts are defined and correlated with common-law concepts where possible. The civilian terms defined in the table generally have some counterpart in common-law terminology, are interesting or unique Louisiana civilian concepts, are different uses of words than in the common law, or are simply used more often in Louisiana than in her sister states. Some of the Louisiana expressions discussed herein are used commonly in states other than Louisiana. Similarly, common-law terminology is used increasingly in Louisiana as a result of the influence of Louisiana's forty-nine sister states, where civilian terminology should properly be used instead. For example, the common-law term stare decisis is often used erroneously in Louisiana instead of jurisprudenceconstante; the civilian concept "immovable property" has been used in Texas statutes. 2 Therefore, many of the civil-law and common-law concepts discussed herein are sometimes used in a state with the other legal system.
Terms printed in SMALL CAPS are discussed in separate entries in the table. A cross-referenced term such as PROCEDURE-POSSESSORY ACTION refers to the concept "possessory action," which is discussed under the entry "Procedure." Terms defined are arranged alphabetically. In case of phrases, the first letter only of the phrase is capitalized. Where several related concepts are discussed together, they are placed alphabetically in the main table according to the spelling of the first term mentioned, and cross-references elsewhere in the table refer the reader to the appropriate location. For example, the table entry "Collateral relations, Propinquity of consanguinity" discusses both these concepts and is alphabetically sorted under the first term. The separate table entry "Propinquity of consanguinity" refers the reader back to the "Collateral relations" entry. However, related terms discussed under one entry are not discussed in alphabetical order; such related terms are listed in an order following that found in the relevant code article(s) or in an order more convenient to discussing the terms in turn. Common-law terms are printed in bold print in the main table. A second table is provided that lists significant common-law terms mentioned in the first table and contains a correlation to the appropriate entry in the main table.
A writing executed before a notary public or other authorized officer, in the presence of two witnesses, and signed by each party, by each witness, and by the notary public, all in the presence of each other."
A bateau is a small, flat-bottomed boat, typically made of aluminum and often used on bodies of water in Louisiana for purposes such as hunting.' A pirogue is similar to a canoe, used-and often raced-on swamps, rivers and bayous."
Definition A collateral mortgage note is a note secured by a mortgage, itself called a collateral mortgage, where the note is pledged to secure a principal obligation. The principal obligation secured by the pledged collateral mortgage note is often evidenced by a note, called the hand note. The collateral mortgage note, the collateral mortgage, and any written pledge agreement are called the collateral mortgage package. See PARAPH; CONVENTIONAL OBLIGATION-PRINCIPAL CONTRACT.
A commodatum, also called a loan for use, is an agreement by which a person delivers a thing to another, to use the thing and then to return it after he is done using it. A mutuum, or loan for consumption, is an agreement by which one person delivers to another a certain quantity of things that are consumed by their use, under the obligation by the borrower to return to the other as much of the same kind and quality. 20 See CONSUMABLES, NONCONSUMABLES.
Common THINGS, similar to communia or commons, such as air and the high seas, may not be owned by anyone. Public things, similar to public domain, public lands, or common property, such as running waters and the seashore, are owned by the state in its capacity as a public person. Private things, a residuary category, are owned by individuals, other private persons, and by the state or its political subdivisions in their capacity as private persons, and are similar to private property."
A PREDIAL SERVITUDE is extinguished by confusion when the dominant and the servient estates are acquired in their entirety by the same person. Similar to merger of title. When the qualities of obligee and obligor are united in the same person, the obligation is extinguished by confusion. Similar to merger of rights or extinguishment."
action. 45 Not to be confused with PEREMPTION.
Equivalent to torts. Damages ex delicto, or delictual damages, are those damages arising from delicts. 6 See ABUSE OF RIGHTS.
Act by which a debtor gives a THING to the creditor, who is willing to receive it, in payment of a sum which is due. Similar to accord and satisfaction.
A hypothecary action is instituted to enforce a mortgage, sometimes called a contract of hypotheca (or hypothec), even if the property has been sold by the mortgagor to a third party.5" See PACr DE NON ALIENANDO.
Immovables are similar to realty or real property, and movables are similar to personalty or personal property.59 Also called immovable and movable property. See COMPONENT PARTS; DEIMMOBILIZATION.
See SOLIDARY LIABILITY-LIABILITY IN SOLIDO.
Jactitation is a false claim repeated to the prejudice of another's right, similar to slander of title. The jactitatory action, now included with the POSSESSORY ACTION, is an action to remedy this defamation or disturbance of title. 62 See PROCEDURE-POSSESSORY ACTION.
Children are either legitimate or illegitimate. Illegitimate children are those who are conceived and born out of marriage, who are not later legitimated." Illegitimate children are legitimated, or made legitimate in certain cases, for example, by the subsequent marriage of their father and mother, whenever the parents have formally or informally acknowledged them as their children, either before or after the marriage."
Forced heirs are descendants of the deceased who are so-called because, under the regime of forced heirship, they are entitled to a certain portion of their parents' estate, called the legal portion, forced portion, legitime, or legitimate portion. The disposable portion is the portion of an estate that a testator may freely dispose of, as it is not subject to the legitime. The falcidian portion is one-fourth of the testator's estate that, under Roman law, had to be reserved to the INSTITUTED HEIR. The purpose of the falcidian portion, which was abolished in Louisiana, was to protect the institutions of the family and its gods, rather than to benefit the testator's heirs directly, as in the regime of forced heirship. 67 See DISINHERISON; MARITAL PORTION.
A mandate or procuration is an act by which one person gives power to another, known as the mandatary or agent, to transact for him and73 in his name. Synonymous with agenCy.
A portion of a deceased spouse's succession to which the surviving spouse is entitled.74 See LEGITImE.
Moral damages are damages for nonpecuniary a breached contract in loss recoverable under 77 certain situations.
Negotiorum gestio is a type of spontaneous agency or interference by a person, called a negotiorum gestor, in the affairs of another, in his absence, from benevolence or friendship, and without authority.79 See MANDATARY.
Definition A conditional obligation is one dependent on an uncertain event. See RESOLUTORY AND SUSPENSIVE CONDITIONS.
When there are multiple obligees and/or obligors, the obligation may be several, joint, or solidary. When each of different obligors owes a separate performance to one obligee, the obligation is several. When different obligors owe together just one performance to one obligee, but neither is bound for the whole, the obligation is joint for the obligors. An obligation is solidary for each of the obligees when it gives each obligee the right to demand the whole performance from the common obligor; similarly, an obligation may also be solidary for each of the the obligors.8 3 See SOLIDARY LIABILITY; VIRILE SHARE OR PORTION.
The collateral mortgage will typically recite that the collateral mortgage note "has been paraphed 'Ne Varietur' for identification with this act .
the end of the collateral mortgage note, can read as follows: "Ne Varietur"
A partnership in commendam is an equivalent 93 to a limited partnership.
A period of time fixed by law for the existence of a right. Unlike LIBERATIVE PRESCRIPTION, which merely prevents the enforcement of a right by an action, peremption destroys the right itself. Also, unlike prescription, peremption may not be renounced, interrupted, or suspended.9 See LIBERATIVE PRESCRIPTION.
A right, which the nature of a debt gives to a creditor, and which entitles him to be preferred before other creditors, even those who have mortgages.9"
Definition The possessory action is one brought by the possessor of immovable property or of a real right therein to be maintained in his possession of the property or enjoyment of the right when he has been disturbed, or to be restored to the possession or enjoyment thereof when he has been evicted."° See JACTITATORY ACTION.
COMMON, PUBLIC, AND PRIVATE THINGS.
Real rights, as opposed to personal or obligatory rights, confer direct and immediate authority over a THING, whether MOVABLE or IMMOVABLE PROPERTY. "Real right" is sometimes erroneously associated solely with a right in immovable property. Examples include ownership, and personal and predial SERVITUDES.' °8 See OBLIGATION-REAL OBLIGATION.
A condition is suspensive if the CONDITIONAL OBLIGATION may not be enforced until the uncertain event occurs and is similar in some ways to a condition precedent. See CONVENTIONAL OBLIGATION-ALEATORY CONTRACT.
sums that he owes them." 6 See TRANSACTION.
The revocatory action is the right of an obligee to annul an act of the obligor that causes or increases the obligor's insolvency. If an obligor causes or increases his insolvency by failing to exercise a right, the obligee may by the oblique action exercise the right himself, unless the right is STRICTLY PERSONAL to the obligor." 7 See OBLIGATIONS-STRICTLY PERSONAL OBLIGATION.
A predial servitude is either apparent or nonapparent. Apparent servitudes are those that are perceivable by exterior signs, works, or constructions, such as a roadway or a window in a common wall. A nonapparent servitude has noexterior sign of its existence, such as the prohibition of building on an estate or of building above a particular height.'32 A predial servitude may also be acquired by destination. Destination of the owner is a relationship established between two estates owned by the same owner that would be a predial servitude if the estates belonged to different owners. When the two estates cease to belong to the same owner, unless there is express provision to the contrary, an apparent servitude comes into existence of right and a nonapparent servitude comes into existence if the owner has previously filed for registry a formal declaration establishing the destination.
See OBLIGATIONS-SEVERAL, JOINT, AND SOLIDARY OBLIGATIONS.
Solidary liability or liability in solido is similar to the common-law's joint and several liability." 3 See OBLIGATIONS-SEVERAL, JOINT, AND SOLIDARY OBLIGATIONS.
Suppletive law is general background law that fills in gaps where, for example, a contract does not provide for a certain situation.
Testaments or wills in Louisiana may be nuncupative or open, mystic or sealed, or olographic.' 38 Nuncupative testaments are oral wills declared or dictated by the testator in his last sickness. 39 The mystic (often called Isecret, closed, or sealed) testament is one which is put into a sealed envelope. 4° An I olographic testament, similar to the common law's holographic will, is one in the testator's 141 handwriting.
Equivalent to settlement of a lawsuit, a transaction or compromise is an agreement between persons who, for preventing or putting an end to a lawsuit, adjust their differences by mutual consent.' 43 See RESPITE.
A tutor is a person similar to a guardian of a child. A female tutor is sometimes called a tutrix.' 44 A dative tutorship is one appointed by a judge. 4 An undertutor is also appoint46 ed in every tutorship.
Heirs are called unworthy who, by the failure in some duty towards a person, have not deserved to inherit from him and are therefore deprived of his succession. -See DISINHERISON.
Definition Usufruct is a REAL RIGHT of limited duration on the property of another. It is similar to the common law's life estate, although the usufruct need not last for life. 148 Usufruct is one of the three sorts of PERSONAL SERVITUDES. 149 The owner of the usufruct, or usufructuary, is similar to a life tenant. 5° A legal usufruct is one established by law in favor of a surviving spouse over the deceased spouse's share of the COMMUNITY PROPERTY that may be inherited by their descendants.' The ownership of a THING burdened with a usufruct is the naked ownership, which is owned by the naked owner. Naked ownership is similar to a reversion or estate52 in reversion, the residue of a life estate.
A virile portion is the portion of an obligation 53 for which each solidary obligor is liable. As another example, a partner is bound only for his virile share-i.e., his partnership share-of the debts of the partnership (unlike other states, where each partner is liable for the whole debt of the partnership).'5 See OBLIGATIONS-SOLIDARY OBLIGATIONS.
1. See Code Napoleon (N. Stephan Kinsella ed., Claitor's Publishing Division 1994) (1827). For an excellent discussion of the Civil Code and its history in Louisiana, see Shael Herman, The Louisiana Civil Code: A European Legacy for the United States (1993), published by the Louisiana Bar Foundation (available for free upon request by calling (504) 561-1046). For a critical review of this book, see Professor Robert A. Pascal's book review, 54 La. L. Rev. 827 (1994). For a useful summary of the history of the legal systems of both Louisiana and Texas (as a representative common-law state), see Patrick H. Martin and J. Lanier Yeates, Louisianaand Texas Oil & Gas Law: An Overview of the Differences, 52 La. L. Rev. 769, 769-82 (1992). See also A.N. Yiannopoulos, The Civil Codes of Louisiana, Louisiana Civil Code xxv (A.N. Yiannopoulos ed., 1993). For a useful comparison of civil and common law, see W. H. Buckland, Roman Law and Common Law (F. H. Lawson 2d ed. 1952). Another useful source is found in John H. Crabb, Glossary of the French Civil Code, in The French Civil Code (as amended to July 1, 1976) (John H. Crabb trans., 1977). Louisiana's codal articles are sometimes reproduced verbatim in this Dictionary. As mentioned in the text, the Code Napoleon was a source of the text of Louisiana's Civil Code. There has been considerable debate, however, concerning whether the substantive "source" of the Louisiana Digest of 1808, and thereafter the Civil Code, was French law or Spanish Law. See Rodolfo Batiza, The Louisiana Civil Code of 1808: Its Actual Sources and Present Relevance, 45 Tul. L. Rev. 4 (1971); Joseph M. Sweeney, Tournament of Scholars Over the Sources of the Civil Code of 1808,46 Tul. L. Rev. 585 (1972); Robert A. Pascal, Sources of the Digest of 1808: A Reply to Professor Batiza, 46 Tul. L. Rev. 603 (1972); and Rodolfo Batiza, Sources of the Civil Code of 1808, Facts and Speculation: A Rejoinder,46 Tul. L. Rev. 628 (1971). See also Herman, supra and Pascal, Book Review, supra. In this debate, Professor Pascal convincingly argues that "the Digest of 1808, though written largely in words copied from, adapted from, or suggested by French language texts, was intended to, and does for the most part, reflect the substance of the Spanish law in force in Louisiana in 1808." Pascal, Sources of the Digest of 1808, supra, at 604. 2. Tex. Ins. Code Ann. art. 21.49, § 3(f) (Vernon Supp. 1994) provides: "'Insurable property' means immovable property at fixed locations in a catastrophe area or corporeal movable property located therein .... " See also Tex. R. Civ. P. Ann. r. 695 (West 1994), entitled "No Receiver of Immovable Property Appointed Without Notice." 3. George M. Armstrong, Jr.'& John C. LaMaster, Retaliatory Eviction as Abuse of Rights: A Civilian Approach to Landlord-Tenant Disputes, 47 La. L. Rev. 1, 15 (1986) (emphasis added). See also Julio Cueto-Rua, Abuse of Rights, 35 La. L. Rev. 965 (1975). 4. J.D. Morgan, Recent Developments-MassachrsettsMutual Life Insurance Co. v. Nails: The Louisiana Abuse of Rights Doctrine, 64 Tul. L. Rev. 1295, 1297 (1990). 5. La. Civ. Code arts. 1022-1031; Black's Law Dictionary 20 (6th ed. 1990) (defining "accretion") [hereinafter "Black's"]. 6. La. Civ. Code art. 229; Black's, supra note 5, at 73 (defining "alimenta" as "In the civil law, aliments; things necessary to sustain life; means of support, including food ... clothing.., and habitation ... "). 7. La. Civ. Code art. 3110; Black's, supra note 5, at 82 (defining "amicable compounder"); Darden v. Cox, 240 La. 310, 123 So. 2d 68, 70 (1960); Hotard v. City of New Orleans, 213 La. 843, 35 So. 2d 752, 757 (1948); Jung v. Gwin, 176 La. 962, 147 So. 47, 49 (1933). 8. Black's, supra note 5, at 109 (defining "arpen," "arpent," "arpennus"). 9. La. Civ. Code art. 1833; Black's, supra note 5, at 132 (defining "authentic act"). 10. Pronounced BAT-toe. Rushing v. State, 381 So. 2d 1250, 1250 (La. App. 1st Cir. 1980) (frog hunting on a lake from an aluminum bateau). My wife, Cindy DeLaney-Kinsella, used to live near Bayou Manchac in Ascension PARISH. She tells me that one time, during a flood, she had to take a bateau to get from her front door to the road in front of her house, in order to make it to a friend's wedding.
11. Pronounced PEE-roe. See also Plescia v. Dunham, 319 So. 2d 812, 813 (La. App. 1st Cir. 1975) (pirogue races on Bayou Liberty in St. Tammany PARISH). The impact of pirogues on Louisiana law should not be doubted; in Johnson v. State Farm Fire and Casualty Company, 303 So. 2d 779, 785 (La. App. 3d Cir. 1974), the court stated that the "mere fact that the water was deep enough to float a pirogue or a flat-bottomed fishing boat does not prove navigability." 12. La. Civ. Code arts. 880 cmt. b ("The heirs succeed even when there is a valid testament to any portion of the property not disposed of by the testament, due to caducity of a legacy or simple omission, for example."), 1705; Bryan A. Garner, A Dictionary of Modem Legal Usage (1987) (defining "caducity"). See also Talley v. Stuckey, 614 So. 2d 55 (1993), eliminating the word "legitime" from Louisiana Civil Code article 1705 on constitutional grounds. 13. La. Civ. Code arts. 1966-1967. 14. La. Civ. Code arts. 1967 cmt. c, 1970 cmt. c. For a discussion of the differences between cause and consideration, see Christian Larroumet, Detrimental Reliance and Promissory Estoppel as the Cause of Contracts in Louisiana and Comparative Law, 60 Tul. L. Rev. 1209 (1986). 15. Black's, supra note 5, at 246 (defining "civil law"). 16. La. Civ. Code art. 3431; Ellis v. Prevost, 19 La. 251 (1841); Black's, supra note 5, at 314 (defining "constructive possession"). 17. La. Civ. Code art. 901. 18. La. Civ. Code art. 900; Black's, supra note 5, at 261 (defining "collateral," "collateral consanguinity"), 262 (defining "collateral heir," "collateral kinsmen"), 303 (defining "consanguinity"), 1218 (defining "propinquity," "propinqui et consaguinei"). 19. La. Civ. Code arts. 1227, 1229; Black's, supra note 5, at 52 (defining "advancement"). 262 (defining "collation"), 263 (defining "collect"). 20. La. Civ. Code arts. 2891, 2893, 2910; Black's, supra note 5, at 937-38 (defining "loan for consumption," "loan for use"). 21. La. Civ. Code arts. 449-453; Black's, supra note 5, at 278 (defining "commons"), 279 (defining "communia"), 1216-17 (defining "property--classification--common property," "private property," "public property"), 1229 (defining "public domain," "public lands"). 22. La. Civ. Code art. 936; Garner, supra note 12, at 128 (defining "commorientes"); Max Nathan, Jr., Common Disasters and Common Sense in Louisiana, 41 Tul. L. Rev. 33, 40 n.19 (1966); Blanchard v. Tinsman, 445 So. 2d 149 (La. App. 3d Cir. 1984). 23. La. Civ. Code arts. 2327, 2338-2340; see generally La. Civ. Code arts. 2334-2359.1 (Book III, Title VI, Chapter 2, "The Legal Regime of Community of Acquets and Gains"); Black's, supra note 5, at 280 (defining "community property"). 24. La. Civ. Code art. 1893; Black's, supra note 5, at 283 (defining "compensatio'), 1372 (defining "set-off"). 25. La. Civ. Code arts. 462, 463, 493.1. 26. La. R.S. 10:9-313 (1993 and Supp. 1994); Black's, supra note 5, at 638 (defining "fixture"). 27. La. Civ. Code art. 468; A.N. Yiannopoulos, Property § 125, in 2 Louisiana Civil Law Treatise (3d ed. 1991). 28. La. Civ. Code arts. 765, 1903; Black's, supra note 5, at 300 (defining "confusio," "confusion"), 989 (defining "merger-property interests," and "rights"). 29. La. Civ. Code arts. 536, 537. 30. La. Civ. Code arts. 1756-1757, 1906; Black's. supra note 5, at 331 (defining "convention"). 31. La. Civ. Code arts. 1906-2291 (Book III, Title IV, "Conventional Obligations or Contracts"). 32. La. Civ. Code art. 1908; Black's, supra note 5, at 322-25 (defining "contract-unilateral" and "bilateral"). 33. La. Civ. Code art. 1909 cmt. c; Black's, supra note 5, at 322-23 (defining "contract-gratuitous and onerous"), 1088 (defining "onerous"). 34. La. Civ. Code art. 1911 cmt. b; Black's, supra note 5, at 281 (defining "commutative contract"), 322 (defining "contract-commutative and independent"). 35. La. Civ. Code arts. 1912, 2982-2984; Black's, supra note 5, at 70 (defining "aleatory contract," "aleatory promise").
36. La. Civ. Code art. 1913; Black's, supra note 5, at 322-24 (defining "contract-principal and accessory"). 37. La. Civ. Code art. 1914. 38. James Harvey Domengeaux, Comment, Native-Born Acadians and the Equality Ideal, 46 La. L. Rev. 1151 (1986), explains that "coonass" is derived from the French noun "conasse," which meant a stupid person or similar derogatory concepts. French soldiers referred to French-speaking American soldiers during World War II as "conasse." Non-French-speaking American soldiers "began to harass the Louisiana soldier by calling him 'coonass' as a takeoff of the word 'conasse' used by the French forces." After World War II, the term began to be used to refer to the Acadians in South Louisiana. Id. at 1168-69 (citation omitted). "Unfortunately, [Louisiana Governor] Edwin W. Edwards at one time proudly proclaimed that he was a 'coonass."' Id. at 1168 n.100. Domengeaux feels that This insulting word was never a proud or complimentary term affixed to the Acadian people.... Unfortunately, a small contingent of the Acadian population welcomed and promoted [the use of the term after World War 11]. This ignorant acceptance was done with the unfortunate belief by some that the term is "cute" or "humorous." Id. at 1168-69. Further, in 1981, the Louisiana legislature "condemned" (whatever that means) the use of the term "Coonass." Id. at 1169. As stated by Mike Myers (of Wayne's World fame) on a recent episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, "Uh, I think that goes in the 'Lighten Up' file." Domengeaux goes on to state that "a majority of the Acadian people despise the slur's use." Id. at 1169. However, he does not cite any evidence of this, and it conflicts with my own experience-most Cajuns I know like the term. My friend Jamie Malcombe, a native of Lafayette, the Cajun heartland, agrees with this. And in State v. Silguero, 608 So. 2d 627, 628 (La. 1992), there is a character mentioned, named "William 'Coonass' Hendricks," who must like being called "Coonass," although, admittedly, we have no evidence that he is a coonass. A typical usage of the term by a Cajun, to refer to himself, might be, "Ah don't know if Pierre's goin' to da crawfish ball [i.e., boil], but dis coonass gonna go." This example was kindly supplied to me by my friend Blaine Doucet, a lawyer from Lake Charles, Louisiana. 39. 1 note that Justice Sandra Day O'Connor attended a crawfish boil at the LSU Law Center a few years ago, as persuasive precedent for the proposition that crawfish boils exist. As for zydeco music, a good sampling can be found on the soundtrack to the film Passion Fish. 40. Lalonde v. Mabry, 489 So. 2d 1076, 1077 (La. App. 3d Cir. 1986) (fight started at a cockfight when one party thought he was being called a redneck); Ronald J. Rychlak, Civil Rights, ConfederateFlags,and PoliticalCorrectness: Free Speech and Race Relations on Campus, 66 Tul. L. Rev. 1411, 1418 (1992) (discussing the negative stereotypical image of Mississippi "rednecks"). 41. La. Civ. Code art. 461; Black's, supra note 5, at 241 (defining "chose in action"), 343 (defining "corporeal property"), 767 (defining "incorporeal property," "incorporeal rights," "incorporeal things"), 809 (defining "intangible property," "intangibles"), 1456 (defining "tangible", "tangible property"). 42. West v. West, 475 So. 2d 56, 59 (La. App. 2d Cir. 1985); Black's, supra note 5. at 412 (defining "de cujus"). 43. La. Code Civ. P. arts. 923, 925. 44. La. Code Civ. P. arts. 923, 926. 45. La. Code Civ. P. arts. 923, 927. 46. La. Civ. Code art. 2316; Black's, supra note 5, at 427 (defining "delict"). "According to Professor Ferdinand F. Stone, 'tort is a civil wrong for which reparation is sought, normally in the form of an award of money damages. The word comes from the French word tort or wrong, and from the Latin tortus, meaning conduct twisted from the norm. Formerly, the French used the term 'tort' but now they have discarded it in favor of the word d~lit, derived from the Latin term delictum." Herman, supra note 1, at 50 (paraphrasing Ferdinand Fairfax Stone, Tort Doctrine in Louisiana: The Materials for the Decision of a Case, 17 Tul. L. Rev. 159, 161 (1942). 47. La. Civ. Code art. 1617; Black's, supra note 5, at 468 (defining "disinherison," "disinheritance").
individuals, every individual who possesses under the protection of the laws any particular property is tacitly subjected to the obligation of yielding it to the community, wherever it becomes necessary for the general use. Article 2627 further provides: If the owner of a thing necessary for the general use, refuses to yield it, or demands an exorbitant price, he may be divested of the property by the authority of law. Furthermore, it cannot truly be said that one "owns" property which is subject to divestment if annual "rents" (i.e., property taxes) must be paid to the sovereign for the privilege of retaining possession of one's property. Tenure then exists, after all, in all fifty states, and the theoretical difference pointed to above is not really a difference at all. 60. La. Civ. Code art. 480; Black's, supra note 5, at 335 (defining "co-owner"), 1465-66 (defining "tenancy-tenancy in common," "joint tenancy"). 61. La. Civ. Code arts. 389-426; Black's, supra note 5, at 273 (defining "commitment"), 381 (defining "curator"), 811 (defining "interdict," "interdiction"). 62. La. Code Civ. P. art. 3659; Black's, supra note 5, at 834 (defining "jactitation"); General Am. Oil Co. v. Meche, 442 So. 2d 496, 497 (La. App. 3d Cir. 1983); Brown v. Wood, 451 So. 2d 569, 577 (La. App. 2d Cir. 1984). 63. Johnson v. St. Paul Mercury Ins. Co., 236 So. 2d 216, 218 (La. 1970). 64. Shael Herman, Llewellyn the Civilian: Speculations on the Contribution of Continental Experience to the Uniform Commercial Code, 56 Tul. L. Rev. 1125, 1134 n.34 (quoting A.L. Goodhart, Precedent in English and Continental Law, 50 L.Q. Rev. 40, 42 (Jan. 1934)). 65. La. Civ. Code arts. 178-180; Black's, supra note 5, at 901 (defining "legitimacy," "legitimate," "legitimation"). 66. La. Civ. Code arts. 181, 198-201. 67. La. Civ. Code arts. 1234, 1494, 1495; Black's, supra note 5, at 600 (defining "falcidian portion"), 900 (defining "legitime"); Succession of Lauga, 624 So. 2d 1156 (La. 1993) (holding unconstitutional a recent legislative attempt to limit forced heirship); Joseph Dainow, The Early Sources of Forced Heirship; Its History in Texas and Louisiana, 3 La. L. Rev. 42 (1941). 68. La. Civ. Code arts. 1965, 2589, 2664; Black's, supra note 5, at 902 (defining "lesion"); Clark v. Davis, 386 So. 2d 1001, 1006 (La. App. 3d Cir. 1980). 69. La. Civ. Code arts. 3445-3448; Black's, supra note 5, at 926-27 (defining "limitation-statute of limitations"), 1183 (defining "prescription"); Garner, supra note 12, at 431 (defining "prescribe"). 70. La. Civ. Code arts. 3469, 3472; Black's, supra note 5, at 927 (defining "limitation-statute of limitations"), 1183 (defining "prescription"), 1488 (defining "toll"). 71. La. Civ. Code arts. 3462, 3465, 3466; Black's, supra note 5, at 927 (defining "limitation-statute of limitations"), 1183 (defining "prescription"). 72. La. Civ. Code arts. 2652, 2653, 3506(18); Black's, supra note 5, at 934 (defining "litigious right"). Preventing the sale of litigious rights diminishes the value of having a litigious right, since a secondary discount market, which might otherwise aid in the efficient enforcement of rights, is legislated out of existence. This, of course, makes rights themselves worth less to their holders, since a less-enforceable and less-tradeable right is not as valuable as a more enforceable and fungible one. Article 2652 is thus a good example of legislation intended to benefit certain individuals, but which instead impoverishes all rights-holders. 73. La. Civ. Code art. 2985; Black's, supra note 5, at 62-63 (defining "agency"), 63-64 (defining "agent"), 962 (defining "mandatary," "mandate"). 74. La. Civ. Code art. 2432; Black's, supra note 5, at 968 (defining "marital portion"). 75. La. R.S. 31:6 (1989 and Supp. 1993); Martin & Yeates, supra note 1, at 802, 803. 76. La. R.S. 31:15, 31:16, 31:21, 31:27 (1989 and Supp. 1993); Martin & Yeates, supra note 1, at 803-05. 77. La. Civ. Code art. 1998, 1998 cmt. b; Sall Litvinoff, Moral Damages, 38 La. L. Rev. 1 (1977); Young v. Ford Motor Co., Inc., 595 So. 2d 1123, 1124-25 (La. 1992). 78. La. Civ. Code arts. 24, 2801.
79. La. Civ. Code art. 2295; Black's, supra note 5, at 1036 (defining "negotiorum gestior," "negotiorum gestor"). 80. La. Civ. Code arts. 1760-1762; Black's, supra note 5, at 306 (defining "consideration-equitable or moral considerations"), 1074 (defining "obligation-natural or civil obligation"). 81. La. Civ. Code arts. 476, 476 cmt. a, 1763; Black's, supra note 5, at 1263 (defining "real"). 82. La. Civ. Code arts. 1765-1766; Black's, supra note 5, at 1074-75 (defining "obligation-personal or heritable obligation"). 83. La. Civ. Code arts. 1786-1790, 2324; Black's, supra note 5, at 837 (defining "joint and several contracts," "joint and several liability"), 1074-75 (defining "obligation-joint or several obligation," "solidary obligation"), 1393 (defining "solidarity," "solidary"). 84. La. Civ. Code arts. 1807, 1808; Black's, supra note 5, at 1074 (defining "obligation-conjunctive or alternative obligation"). 85. La. Code Civ. P. art. 2701; Black's, supra note 5, at 1109 (defining "pactum de non alienando"). 86. Harrelson v. Hogan, 451 So. 2d 592, 595 (La. App. 2d Cir. 1984). 87. Garner, supra note 12, at 428 (defining "preempt," "perempt," "preemption," "peremption"); Keene v. Williams, 423 So. 2d 1065, 1069 (La. 1982). 88. La. Civ. Code art. 3325; La. R.S. 9:5180-9:5180.4 (Supp. 1994); Black's, supra note 5, at 1112 (defining "paraph"); Pioneer Enters., Inc. v. Goodnight, 561 So. 2d 824, 829 (La. App. 2d Cir. 1990). 89. James D. Johnson, Jr., A Basic Louisiana Notarial Guide Part I1 § 27.9.2, at 88 (1986) (citing Max Nathan, Jr. and H. Gayle Marshall, The Collateral Mortgage, 33 La. L. Rev. 497, 500 (1973)). 90. La. Code Civ. P. art. 2636(1); La. R.S. 9:5555(A) (Supp. 1994); 14 La. Civ. Code, Book III, Title XXII, "Exposd des Motifs", at 5, 7, 12 (Supp. 1993). 91. Black's, supra note 5, at 350 (defining "county"), 1115 (defining "parish"). 92. La. Civ. Code arts. 807, 810, 811; Black's, supra note 5, at 922 (defining "licitation"), 1119-20 (defining "partition"). 93. La. Civ. Code art. 2837. 94. La. Civ. Code art. 3458: Black's, supra note 5, at 1136 (defining "peremptorius"); Garner, supra note 12, at 428 (defining "preempt," "perempt," "preemption," "peremption"). 95. La. Civ. Code arts. 3133-3135; Black's, supra note 5, at 92 (defining "antichresis"). 96. Thomas A. Harrell, A Guide to the Provisions of ChapterNine of Louisiana's Commercial Code, 50 La. L. Rev. 711, 723 n.14 (1990) (emphasis added). 97. La. Civ. Code art. 3437. 98. La. Civ. Code art. 3186; Black's, supra note 5, at 1197 (defining "Privilege-Civil law"). 99. La. Code Civ. P. art. 4651; Black's, supra note 5, at 292 (defining "conclirsus"), 817 (defining "interpleader"). 100. La. Code Civ. P. art. 1031. 101. La. Code Civ. P. art. 1061; Black's, supra note 5, at 349 (defining "counterclaim"). 102. La. Code Civ. P. art. 2123. 103. La. Code Civ. P. art. 2087. 104. La. Code Civ. P. art. 3337; Black's, supra note 5, at 735 (defining "homologaci6n," "homologate"), 736 (defining "homologation"); MHC Properties, Inc. v. L.A.W. Three, Inc., 624 So. 2d 977, 978 (La. App. 3d Cir. 1993). 105. La. Code Civ. P. art. 3651; Black's, supra note 5, at 1146 (defining "petitory action"), 1165 (defining "possessory action"). 106. La. Code Civ. P. art. 3655; Black's, supra note 5. at 1146 (defining "petitory action"), 1165 (defining "possessory action"). 107. La. Code Civ. P. art. 2890; Black's, supra note 5, at 1206 (defining "procs-verbal"). 108. La. Civ. Code art. 476 & cmt. a; Black's, supra note 5, at 1263 (defining "real"). 109. La. Civ. Code art. 2688; Black's, supra note 5, at 1272 (defining "reconduction"). 110. See, e.g., Genaro R. Carri6, Judge Made Law Under a Civil Code, 41 La. L. Rev. 993, 993 (1981).
action," "redhibitory defect or vice"), 1566 (defining "vice") (italics omitted); Garner, supra note 12, at 467 (defining "redhibition"). 112. La. Civ. Code arts. 2301-2312; Black's, supra note 5. at 1299 (defining "repetition"). 113. Black's, supra note 5, at 1535-36 (defining "unjust enrichment doctrine"). 114. La. Civ. Code art. 1767; Black's, supra note 5, at 293 (defining "condition-civil law"). 115. La. Civ. Code art. 1770 & cmts. a-e; Black's, supra note 5, at 293-94 (defining "condition--civil law," "French law"). 116. La. Civ. Code art. 3084; Black's, supra note 5, at 1311 (defining "respite"). 117. La. Civ. Code arts. 2036, 2044. 118. Martin & Yeates, supra note 1, at 787-88 (emphasis added). See also La. Civ. Code art. 2439; Black's, supra note 1, at 333 (defining "conveyance"), 1337 (defining "sale"). 119. La. Civ. Code art. 2451. 120. La. Civ. Code art. 2450. 121. La. Civ. Code art. 2458. 122. La. Civ. Code art. 2459. 123. La. Code Civ. P. art. 2295. 124. La. Civ. Code art. 2495. 125. La. Civ. Code art. 533; Black's, supra note 5, at 1370 (defining "servitude"). 126. La. Civ. Code art. 534; Black's, supra note 5, at 1370 (defining "servitude"). 127. La. Civ. Code art. 630; Black's, supra note 5, at 711 (defining "habitation"). 128. La. Civ. Code art. 639 cmt. b; Black's, supra note 5, at 509-10 (defining "easement-easement in gross"), 1197 (defining "privilege"), 1211 (defining "profit-profit Aprendre"), 1326 (defining "right of way"); Cunningham etal., supra note 59, at 440. 129. La. Civ. Code art. 659-660. 130. La. Civ. Code art. 646; Black's, supra note 5, at 509 (defining "easement-appurtenant easement"), 1211 (defining "profit-profit A prendre"); Garner, supra note 12, at 426 (defining "pr(a)edial"); Cunningham et al., supra note 59, at 440. 131. La. Civ. Code arts. 697-774. 132. La. Civ. Code art. 707. 133. La. Civ. Code arts. 2025-2027; Black's, supra note 5, at 349 (defining "counter letter"), 1384 (defining "simulation"). 134. La. Civ. Code art. 2324; Black's, supra note 5, at 837 (defining "joint and several contracts," "joint and several liability"), 1393 (defining "solidarity," "solidary"); Garner, supra note 12, at 317 (defining "joint and several"). 135. La. Civ. Code art. 1978; Black's, supra note 5, at 1480 (defining "third party beneficiary"). 136. La. Civ. Code arts. 1881-1882; Black's, supra note 5, at 1064 (defining "novation"). 137. See La. Civ. Code art. 2602 (effective January 1, 1995) for an example of a reference to the suppletive law. 138. La. Civ. Code art. 1574; see also Garner, supra note 12, at 540 (defining "testament"). 139. La. Civ. Code arts. 1577-1583; Black's, supra note 5, at 1069 (defining "nuncupative will"). 140. La. Civ. Code arts. 1584-1587; Black's, supra note 5, at 1474 (defining "testament-mystic testament"). 141. La. Civ. Code arts. 1588-1589; Black's, supra note 5. at 732 (defining "holograph"), 1086 (defining "olograph"); Garner, supra note 12, at 269 (defining "holograph"). 142. La. Civ. Code art. 448; see also Martin & Yeates, supra note 1, at 782. 143. La. Civ. Code art. 3071; Black's. supra note 5, at 287 (defining "compromise and settlement"), 1372 (defining "settlement"). 144. La. Civ. Code arts. 246, 256; Black's, supra note 5, at 1518 (defining "tutor"). 145. La. Civ. Code art. 270; Black's, supra note 5, at 395-96 (defining "dative"). 146. La. Civ. Code art. 273; Black's, supra note 5, at 1527 (defining "under-tutor"). 147. La. Civ. Code arts. 964-966. 148. La. Civ. Code'art. 535; Black's, supra note 5, at 924 (defining "life estate," "life interest"), 1544 (defining "usufruct"), 1546 ("usus fructus").
149. La. Civ. Code art. 534; Black's, supra note 5, at 1370 (defining "servitude"). 150. Black's, supra note 5, at 924 (defining "life tenant"). 151. La. Civ. Code art. 890. 152. La. Civ. Code art. 478; Black's, supra note 5, at 1320 (defining "reversion or estate in reversion") (italics omitted). 153. La. Civ. Code art. 1804; Garner, supra note 12, at 568 (defining "virile"). 154. La. Civ. Code art. 2817.

References: art. 21
 § 3
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 art. 229
 art. 3110
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 art. 1833
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 art. 3431
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 art. 901
 art. 900
 art. 936
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 art. 1893
 art. 468
 § 125
 art. 1908
 art. 1909
 art. 1911
 art. 1913
 art. 1914
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 art. 461
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 art. 2316
 art. 1617
 art. 480
 art. 3659
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 art. 2985
 art. 2432
 art. 1998
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 art. 2295
 art. 2701
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 art. 3325
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 § 27
 art. 2636
 art. 2837
 art. 3458
 art. 3437
 art. 3186
 art. 4651
 art. 1031
 art. 1061
 art. 2123
 art. 2087
 art. 3337
 v. 
 art. 3651
 art. 3655
 art. 2890
 art. 476
 art. 2688
 art. 1767
 art. 1770
 art. 3084
 art. 2439
 art. 2451
 art. 2450
 art. 2458
 art. 2459
 art. 2295
 art. 2495
 art. 533
 art. 534
 art. 630
 art. 639
 art. 659
 art. 646
 art. 707
 art. 2324
 art. 1978
 art. 2602
 art. 1574
 art. 448
 art. 3071
 art. 270
 art. 273
 art. 534
 art. 890
 art. 478
 art. 1804
 art. 2817