Source: http://www.asmscience.org/content/book/10.1128/9781555817572.chap24
Timestamp: 2019-04-24 06:19:08+00:00

Document:
Helicobacter and Campylobacter are related organisms that colonize and cause disease in the gastrointestinal tract. The genus Campylobacter was proposed in 1963 to differentiate Vibrio fetus from other less related Vibrio species. Campylobacter jejuni is a leading cause of bacterial gastroenteritis, a disease characterized by diarrhea, abdominal pain and fever. Treatment with erythromycin is effective early in the course of infection, and is currently considered the drug of choice for treating culture-confirmed cases. Metronidazole (Mtz) is a pro-drug and must be reduced in the stomach to a hydroxylamine derivative which damages DNA and appears to cause cell death by nicking DNA. Resistance to the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin (Cip) was acquired very rapidly by Helicobacter pylori isolates in a clinical trial in which ciprofloxacin was used to eradicate the microorganism. The associations of Cip resistance (Cipr) Campylobacter in humans to selection in the poultry production environment prompted the Food and Drug Administration to propose withdrawing approval of the new animal drug applications for use of the fluoroquinolones in poultry. Multidrug efflux pumps are also operative in Campylobacter and contribute to fluoroquinolone susceptibility. Remarkably, the two plasmids were 94.3% identical at DNA sequence level and are widespread in plasmid-containing, tetracycline resistance (Tcr) Campylobacter isolates. Campylobacter are generally resistant to trimethoprim and sulfonamides, through mechanisms common to other bacteria. While Campylobacter and Helicobacter have been recognized as human pathogens for over 100 years, only recent microbiological advances have made detailed study of these fastidious pathogens possible.
1. Aarestrup, F. M.,, and J. Engberg. 2001. Antimicrobial resistance of thermophilic Campylobacter. Vet. Res. 32: 311– 321.
2. Aarestrup, F. M.,, E. M. Nielsen,, M. Madsen,, and J. Engberg. 1997. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. from humans, pigs, cattle, and broilers in Denmark. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 2244– 2250.
3. Alm, R. A.,, L. S. Ling,, D. T. Moir,, B. L. King,, E. D. Brown,, P. C. Doig,, D. R. Smith,, B. Noonan,, B. C. Guild,, B. L. deJonge,, G. Carmel,, P. J. Tummino,, A. Caruso,, M. Uria-Nickelsen,, D. M. Mills,, C. Ives,, R. Gibson,, D. Merberg,, S. D. Mills,, Q. Jiang,, D. E. Taylor,, G. F. Vovis,, and T. J. Trust. 1999. Genomicsequence comparison of two unrelated isolates of the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Nature 397: 176– 180.
4. Alonso, R.,, E. Mateo,, C. Girbau,, E. Churruca,, I. Martinez,, and A. Fernandez-Astorga. 2004. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism assay for detection of gyrA mutations associated with fluoroquinolone resistance in Campylobacter coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 4886– 4888.
5.Anonymous. 2003. The Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy. Antimicrobial Therapy, Inc., Hyde Park, Vt.
6. Asai, T.,, C. Condon,, J. Voulgaris,, D. Zaporojets,, B. Shen,, M. Al Omar,, C. Squires,, and C. L. Squires. 1999. Construction and initial characterization of Escherichia coli strains with few or no intact chromosomal rRNA operons. J. Bacteriol. 181: 3803– 3809.
7. Batchelor, R. A.,, B. M. Pearson,, L. M. Friis,, P. Guerry,, and J. M. Wells. 2004. Nucleotide sequences and comparison of two large conjugative plasmids from different Campylobacter species. Microbiology 150: 3507– 3517.
8. Beckmann, L.,, M. Muller,, P. Luber,, C. Schrader,, E. Bartelt,, and G. Klein. 2004. Analysis of gyrA mutations in quinoloneresistant and -susceptible Campylobacter jejuni isolates from retail poultry and human clinical isolates by non-radioactive single- strand conformation polymorphism analysis and DNA sequencing. J. Appl. Microbiol. 96: 1040– 1047.
9. Brodersen, D. E.,, W. M. Clemons, Jr.,, A. P. Carter,, R. J. Morgan-Warren,, B. T. Wimberly,, and V. Ramakrishnan. 2000. The structural basis for the action of the antibiotics tetracycline, pactamycin, and hygromycin B on the 30S ribosomal subunit. Cell 103: 1143– 1154.
10. Burch, K. L.,, K. Saeed,, A. D. Sails,, and P. A. Wright. 1999. Successful treatment by meropenem of Campylobacter jejuni meningitis in a chronic alcoholic following neurosurgery. J. Infect. 39: 241– 243.
11. CDC. 2002 National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) For Enteric Bacteria. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/narms/. NARMS.2005.
12. Chang, K. C.,, S. W. Ho,, J. C. Yang,, and J. T. Wang. 1997. Isolation of a genetic locus associated with metronidazole resistance in Helicobacter pylori. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 236: 785– 788.
13. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute/NCCLS. 2005. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing; Fifteenth Informational Supplement. CLSI/NCCLS document M100-S15. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, Pa.
14. Dailidiene, D.,, M. T. Bertoli,, J. Miciuleviciene,, A. K. Mukhopadhyay,, G. Dailide,, M. A. Pascasio,, L. Kupcinskas,, and D. E. Berg. 2002. Emergence of tetracycline resistance in Helicobacter pylori: multiple mutational changes in 16S ribosomal DNA and other genetic loci. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 3940– 3946.
15. DANMAP. DANMAP 2001— Consumption of antimicrobial agents and occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria from food animals, foods, and humans in Denmark. Available at: http://www.dfvf.dk/.
16. Debets-Ossenkopp, Y. J.,, A. B. Brinkman,, E. J. Kuipers,, C. M. Vandenbroucke-Grauls,, and J. G. Kusters. 1998. Explaining the bias in the 23S rRNA gene mutations associated with clarithromycin resistance in clinical isolates of Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42: 2749– 2751.
17. DeLoney, C. R.,, and N. L. Schiller. 2000. Characterization of an in vitro-selected amoxicillin-resistant strain of Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44: 3368– 3373.
18. Endtz, H. P.,, G. J. Ruijs,, B. van Klingeren,, W. H. Jansen,, T. van der Reyden,, and R. P. Mouton. 1991. Quinolone resistance in Campylobacter isolated from man and poultry following the introduction of fluoroquinolones in veterinary medicine. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 27: 199– 208.
19. Engberg, J.,, F. M. Aarestrup,, D. E. Taylor,, P. Gerner-Smidt,, and I. Nachamkin. 2001. Quinolone and macrolide resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli: resistance mechanisms and trends in human isolates. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7: 24– 34.
20. FDA. 2004. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System for Enteric Bacteria (NARMS): NARMS Retail Meat Annual Report, 2002. Rockville, Md.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, FDA.
21. Federal Register. 2000. 65 Fed. Reg. 64954 ( Oct 31, 2000).
22. Friedman, C. R.,, J. Neimann,, H. C. Wegener,, and R. V. Tauxe,. 2000. Epidemiology of Campylobacter jejuni infections in the United States and other industrialized nations, p. 130. In I. Nachamkin, and M. J. Blaser (ed.), Campylobacter. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
23. Gaudreau, C.,, and H. Gilbert. 1998. Antimicrobial resistance of clinical strains of Campylobacter jejuni subsp. jejuni isolated from 1985 to 1997 in Quebec, Canada. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42: 2106– 2108.
24. Gaudreau, C.,, and H. Gilbert. 2003. Antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter jejuni subsp. jejuni strains isolated from humans in 1998 to 2001 in Montreal, Canada. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 2027– 2029.
25. Ge, B.,, D. G. White,, P. F. McDermott,, W. Girard,, S. Zhao,, S. Hubert,, and J. Meng. 2003. Antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter species from retail raw meats. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 3005– 3007.
26. Gerrits, M. M.,, M. Berning,, A. H. van Vliet,, E. J. Kuipers,, and J. G. Kusters. 2003. Effects of 16S rRNA gene mutations on tetracycline resistance in Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 2984– 2986.
27. Gerrits, M. M.,, D. Schuijffel,, A. A. van Zwet,, E. J. Kuipers,, C. M. Vandenbroucke-Grauls,, and J. G. Kusters. 2002. Alterations in penicillin-binding protein 1A confer resistance to betalactam antibiotics in Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 2229– 2233.
28. Gibreel, A.,, and O. Skold. 1999. Sulfonamide resistance in clinical isolates of Campylobacter jejuni: mutational changes in the chromosomal dihydropteroate synthase. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43: 2156– 2160.
29. Gibreel, A.,, and O. Skold. 2000. An integron cassette carrying dfr1 with 90-bp repeat sequences located on the chromosome of trimethoprim-resistant isolates of Campylobacter jejuni. Microb. Drug Resist. 6: 91– 98.
30. Gibreel, A.,, O. Skold,, and D. E. Taylor. 2004. Characterization of plasmid-mediated aphA-3 kanamycin resistance in Campylobacter jejuni. Microb. Drug Resist. 10: 98– 105.
31. Gibreel, A.,, D. M. Tracz,, L. Nonaka,, T. M. Ngo,, S. R. Connell,, and D. E. Taylor. 2004. Incidence of antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter jejuni isolated in Alberta, Canada, from 1999 to 2002, with special reference to tet( O)-mediated tetracycline resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 3442– 3450.
32. Goodwin, A.,, D. Kersulyte,, G. Sisson,, S. J. Veldhuyzen van Zanten,, D. E. Berg,, and P. S. Hoffman. 1998. Metronidazole resistance in Helicobacter pylori is due to null mutations in a gene ( rdxA) that encodes an oxygen-insensitive NADPH nitroreductase. Mol. Microbiol. 28: 383– 393.
33. Guerrant, R. L.,, T. Van Gilder,, T. S. Steiner,, N. M. Thielman,, L. Slutsker,, R. V. Tauxe,, T. Hennessy,, P. M. Griffin,, H. DuPont,, R. B. Sack,, P. Tarr,, M. Neill,, I. Nachamkin,, L. B. Reller,, M. T. Osterholm,, M. L. Bennish,, and L. K. Pickering. 2001. Practice guidelines for the management of infectious diarrhea. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32: 331– 351.
34. Gupta, A.,, J. M. Nelson,, T. J. Barrett,, R. V. Tauxe,, S. P. Rossiter,, C. R. Friedman,, K. W. Joyce,, K. E. Smith,, T. F. Jones,, M. A. Hawkins,, B. Shiferaw,, J. L. Beebe,, D. J. Vugia,, T. Rabatsky-Ehr,, J. A. Benson,, T. P. Root,, and F. J. Angulo. 2004. Antimicrobial resistance among Campylobacter strains, United States, 1997- 2001. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10: 1102– 1109.
35. Hakanen, A.,, P. Huovinen,, P. Kotilainen,, A. Siitonen,, and H. Jousimies-Somer. 2002. Quality control strains used in susceptibility testing of Campylobacter spp. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40: 2705– 2706.
36. Hakanen, A. J.,, M. Lehtopolku,, A. Siitonen,, P. Huovinen,, and P. Kotilainen. 2003. Multidrug resistance in Campylobacter jejuni strains collected from Finnish patients during 1995-2000. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 52: 1035– 1039.
37. Harris, N. V.,, N. S. Weiss,, and C. M. Nolan. 1986. The role of poultry and meats in the etiology of Campylobacter jejuni/coli enteritis. Am. J. Public Health 76: 407– 11.
38. Heep, M.,, D. Beck,, E. Bayerdorffer,, and N. Lehn. 1999. Rifampin and rifabutin resistance mechanism in Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43: 1497– 1499.
39. Heep, M.,, U. Rieger,, D. Beck,, and N. Lehn. 2000. Mutations in the beginning of the rpoB gene can induce resistance to rifamycins in both Helicobacter pylori and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44: 1075– 1077.
40. Hunt, R. H.,, C. A. Fallone,, and A. B. Thomson. 1999. Canadian Helicobacter pylori Consensus Conference update: infections in adults. Canadian Helicobacter Study Group. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 13: 213– 217.
41. Jacob, J.,, S. Evers,, K. Bischoff,, C. Carlier,, and P. Courvalin. 1994. Characterization of the sat4 gene encoding a streptothricin acetyltransferase in Campylobacter coli BE/G4. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 120: 13– 17.
42. Jenks, P. J.,, R. L. Ferrero,, and A. Labigne. 1999. The role of the rdxA gene in the evolution of metronidazole resistance in Helicobacter pylori. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43: 753– 758.
43. Jeong, J. Y.,, A. K. Mukhopadhyay,, D. Dailidiene,, Y. Wang,, B. Velapatino,, R. H. Gilman,, A. J. Parkinson,, G. B. Nair,, B. C. Wong,, S. K. Lam,, R. Mistry,, I. Segal,, Y. Yuan,, H. Gao,, T. Alarcon,, M. L. Brea,, Y. Ito,, D. Kersulyte,, H. K. Lee,, Y. Gong,, A. Goodwin,, P. S. Hoffman,, and D. E. Berg. 2000. Sequential inactivation of rdxA (HP0954) and frxA (HP0642) nitroreductase genes causes moderate and high-level metronidazole resistance in Helicobacter pylori. J. Bacteriol. 182: 5082– 5090.
44. Karmali, M. A.,, A. E. Simor,, M. Roscoe,, P. C. Fleming,, S. S. Smith,, and J. Lane. 1986. Evaluation of a blood-free, charcoal- based, selective medium for the isolation of Campylobacter organisms from feces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 23: 456– 459.
45. Kwon, D. H.,, M. P. Dore,, J. J. Kim,, M. Kato,, M. Lee,, J. Y. Wu,, and D. Y. Graham. 2003. High-level beta-lactam resistance associated with acquired multidrug resistance in Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 2169– 2178.
46. Kwon, D. H.,, F. A. El Zaatari,, M. Kato,, M. S. Osato,, R. Reddy,, Y. Yamaoka,, and D. Y. Graham. 2000. Analysis of rdxA and involvement of additional genes encoding NAD(P)H flavin oxidoreductase (FrxA) and ferredoxin-like protein (FdxB) in metronidazole resistance of Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44: 2133– 2142.
47. Kwon, S. Y.,, D. H. Cho,, S. Y. Lee,, K. Lee,, and Y. Chong. 1994. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus isolated from blood and synovial fluid. Yonsei Med. J. 35: 314– 319.
48. Lachance, N.,, C. Gaudreau,, F. Lamothe,, and L. A. Lariviere. 1991. Role of the beta-lactamase of Campylobacter jejuni in resistance to beta-lactam agents. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35: 813– 818.
49. Lambert, T.,, G. Gerbaud,, P. Trieu-Cuot,, and P. Courvalin. 1985>. Structural relationship between the genes encoding 3'- aminoglycoside phosphotransferases in Campylobacter and in gram-positive cocci. Ann. Inst. Pasteur Microbiol. 136B: 135– 150.
50. Lee, M. D.,, S. Sanchez,, M. Zimmer,, U. Idris,, M. E. Berrang,, and P. F. McDermott. 2002. Class 1 integron-associated tobramycingentamicin resistance in Campylobacter jejuni isolated from the broiler chicken house environment. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 3660– 3664.
51. Li, C. C.,, C. H. Chiu,, J. L. Wu,, Y. C. Huang,, and T. Y. Lin. 1998. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of Campylobacter jejuni and coli by using E-test in Taiwan. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30: 39– 42.
52. Lin, J.,, L. O. Michel,, and Q. Zhang. 2002. CmeABC functions as a multidrug efflux system in Campylobacter jejuni. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 2124– 2131.
53. Lin, J.,, O. Sahin,, L. O. Michel,, and Q. Zhang. 2003. Critical role of multidrug efflux pump CmeABC in bile resistance and in vivo colonization of Campylobacter jejuni. Infect. Immun. 71: 4250– 4259.
54. Lucey, B.,, D. Crowley,, P. Moloney,, B. Cryan,, M. Daly,, F. O’Halloran,, E. J. Threlfall,, and S. Fanning. 2000. Integronlike structures in Campylobacter spp. of human and animal origin. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 6: 50– 55.
55. Luo, N.,, S. Pereira,, O. Sahin,, J. Lin,, S. Huang,, L. Michel,, and Q. Zhang. 2005. Enhanced in vivo fitness of fluoroquinoloneresistant Campylobacter jejuni in the absence of antibiotic selection pressure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 541– 546.
56. Luo, N.,, O. Sahin,, J. Lin,, L. O. Michel,, and Q. Zhang. 2003. In vivo selection of Campylobacter isolates with high levels of fluoroquinolone resistance associated with gyrA mutations and the function of the CmeABC efflux pump. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 390– 394.
57. Mamelli, L.,, J. P. Amoros,, J. M. Pages,, and J. M. Bolla. 2003. A phenylalanine-arginine beta-naphthylamide sensitive multidrug efflux pump involved in intrinsic and acquired resistance of Campylobacter to macrolides. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 22: 237– 241.
58. Manavathu, E. K.,, K. Hiratsuka,, and D. E. Taylor. 1988. Nucleotide sequence analysis and expression of a tetracyclineresistance gene from Campylobacter jejuni. Gene 62: 17– 26.
59. McDermott, P. F.,, S. M. Bodeis,, F. M. Aarestrup,, S. Brown,, M. Traczewski,, P. Fedorka-Cray,, M. Wallace,, I. A. Critchley,, C. Thornsberry,, S. Graff,, R. Flamm,, J. Beyer,, D. Shortridge,, L. J. Piddock,, V. Ricci,, M. M. Johnson,, R. N. Jones,, B. Reller,, S. Mirrett,, J. Aldrobi,, R. Rennie,, C. Brosnikoff,, L. Turnbull,, G. Stein,, S. Schooley,, R. A. Hanson,, and R. D. Walker. 2004. Development of a standardized susceptibility test for Campylobacter with quality-control ranges for ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, erythromycin, gentamicin, and meropenem. Microb. Drug Resist. 10: 124– 131.
60. McDermott, P. F.,, S. M. Bodeis,, L. L. English,, D. G. White,, R. D. Walker,, S. Zhao,, S. Simjee,, and D. D. Wagner. 2002. Ciprofloxacin resistance in Campylobacter jejuni evolves rapidly in chickens treated with fluoroquinolones. J. Infect. Dis. 185: 837– 840.
61. Mendz, G. L.,, and F. Megraud. 2002. Is the molecular basis of metronidazole resistance in microaerophilic organisms understood? Trends Microbiol. 10: 370– 375.
62. Midolo, P. D.,, M. G. Korman,, J. D. Turnidge,, and J. R. Lambert. 1996. Helicobacter pylori resistance to tetracycline. Lancet 347: 1194– 1195.
63. Monselise, A.,, D. Blickstein,, I. Ostfeld,, R. Segal,, and M. Weinberger. 2004. A case of cellulitis complicating Campylobacter jejuni subspecies jejuni bacteremia and review of the literature. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 23: 718– 721.
64. Moore, R. A.,, B. Beckthold,, S. Wong,, A. Kureishi,, and L. E. Bryan. 1995. Nucleotide sequence of the gyrA gene and characterization of ciprofloxacin-resistant mutants of Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39: 107– 111.
65. Nonaka, L.,, S. R. Connell,, and D. E. Taylor. 2005. 16S rRNA mutations that confer tetracycline resistance in Helicobacter pylori decrease drug binding in Escherichia coli ribosomes. J. Bacteriol. 187: 3708– 3712.
66. O’Halloran, F.,, B. Lucey,, B. Cryan,, T. Buckley,, and S. Fanning. 2004. Molecular characterization of class 1 integrons from Irish thermophilic Campylobacter spp. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53: 952– 957.
67. Occhialini, A.,, M. Urdaci,, F. Doucet-Populaire,, C. M. Bebear,, H. Lamouliatte,, and F. Megraud. 1997. Macrolide resistance in Helicobacter pylori: rapid detection of point mutations and assays of macrolide binding to ribosomes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 2724– 2728.
68. Parkhill, J.,, B. W. Wren,, K. Mungall,, J. M. Ketley,, C. Churcher,, D. Basham,, T. Chillingworth,, R. M. Davies,, T. Feltwell,, S. Holroyd,, K. Jagels,, A. V. Karlyshev,, S. Moule,, M. J. Pallen,, C. W. Penn,, M. A. Quail,, M. A. Rajandream,, K. M. Rutherford,, A. H. van Vliet,, S. Whitehead,, and B. G. Barrell. 2000. The genome sequence of the food-borne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni reveals hypervariable sequences. Nature 403: 665– 668.
69. Payot, S.,, L. Avrain,, C. Magras,, K. Praud,, A. Cloeckaert,, and E. Chaslus-Dancla. 2004. Relative contribution of target gene mutation and efflux to fluoroquinolone and erythromycin resistance, in French poultry and pig isolates of Campylobacter coli. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 23: 468– 472.
70. Pinto-Alphandary, H.,, C. Mabilat,, and P. Courvalin. 1990. Emergence of aminoglycoside resistance genes aadA and aadE in the genus Campylobacter. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 34: 1294– 1296.
71. Pioletti, M.,, F. Schlunzen,, J. Harms,, R. Zarivach,, M. Gluhmann,, H. Avila,, A. Bashan,, H. Bartels,, T. Auerbach,, C. Jacobi,, T. Hartsch,, A. Yonath,, and F. Franceschi. 2001. Crystal structures of complexes of the small ribosomal subunit with tetracycline, edeine and IF3. EMBO J. 20: 1829– 1839.
72. Pratt, A.,, and V. Korolik. 2005. Tetracycline resistance of Australian Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55: 452– 460.
73. Pumbwe, L.,, and L. J. Piddock. 2002. Identification and molecular characterisation of CmeB, a Campylobacter jejuni multidrug efflux pump. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 206: 185– 189.
74. Pumbwe, L.,, L. P. Randall,, M. J. Woodward,, and L. J. Piddock. 2004. Expression of the efflux pump genes cmeB, cmeF and the porin gene porA in multiple-antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter jejuni. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 54: 341– 347.
75. Rao, D.,, J. R. Rao,, E. Crothers,, R. McMullan,, D. McDowell,, A. McMahon,, P. J. Rooney,, B. C. Millar,, and J. E. Moore. 2005. Increased erythromycin resistance in clinical Campylobacter in Northern Ireland—an update. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55: 395– 396.
76. Ribeiro, M. L.,, M. M. Gerrits,, Y. H. Benvengo,, M. Berning,, A. P. Godoy,, E. J. Kuipers,, S. Mendonca,, A. H. van Vliet,, J. Pedrazzoli, Jr.,, and J. G. Kusters. 2004. Detection of high-level tetracycline resistance in clinical isolates of Helicobacter pylori using PCR-RFLP. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 40: 57– 61.
77. Ross, J. I.,, E. A. Eady,, J. H. Cove,, and W. J. Cunliffe. 1998. 16S rRNA mutation associated with tetracycline resistance in a gram-positive bacterium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42: 1702– 1705.
78. Schwartz, D.,, H. Goossens,, J. Levy,, J. P. Butzler,, and J. Goldhar. 1993. Plasmid profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from Israeli children with diarrhea. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. 279: 368– 376.
79. Smith, K. E.,, J. M. Besser,, C. W. Hedberg,, F. T. Leano,, J. B. Bender,, J. H. Wicklund,, B. P. Johnson,, K. A. Moore,, and M. T. Osterholm. 1999. Quinolone-resistant Campylobacter jejuni infections in Minnesota, 1992-1998. Investigation Team. N. Engl. J. Med. 340: 1525– 32.
80. Stone, G. G.,, D. Shortridge,, R. K. Flamm,, J. Versalovic,, J. Beyer,, K. Idler,, L. Zulawinski,, and S. K. Tanaka. 1996. Identification of a 23S rRNA gene mutation in clarithromycinresistant Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 1: 227– 228.
81. Tajada, P.,, J. L. Gomez-Graces,, J. I. Alos,, D. Balas,, and R. Cogollos. 1996. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli to 12 beta-lactam agents and combinations with beta-lactamase inhibitors. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 1924– 1925.
82. Tankovic, J.,, D. Lamarque,, J. C. Delchier,, C. J. Soussy,, A. Labigne,, and P. J. Jenks. 2000. Frequent association between alteration of the rdxA gene and metronidazole resistance in French and North African isolates of Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44: 608– 613.
83. Taylor, D. E.,, Z. Ge,, D. Purych,, T. Lo,, and K. Hiratsuka. 1997. Cloning and sequence analysis of two copies of a 23S rRNA gene from Helicobacter pylori and association of clarithromycin resistance with 23S rRNA mutations. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 2621– 2628.
84. Taylor, D. E.,, Q. Jiang,, and R. N. Fedorak. 1998. Antibiotic susceptibilities of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated in the Province of Alberta. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 12: 295– 298.
85. Tenover, F. C.,, S. Williams,, K. P. Gordon,, C. Nolan,, and J. J. Plorde. 1985. Survey of plasmids and resistance factors in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 27: 37– 41.
86. Tomb, J. F.,, O. White,, A. R. Kerlavage,, R. A. Clayton,, G. G. Sutton,, R. D. Fleischmann,, K. A. Ketchum,, H. P. Klenk,, S. Gill,, B. A. Dougherty,, K. Nelson,, J. Quackenbush,, L. Zhou,, E. F. Kirkness,, S. Peterson,, B. Loftus,, D. Richardson,, R. Dodson,, H. G. Khalak,, A. Glodek,, K. McKenney,, L. M. Fitzegerald,, N. Lee,, M. D. Adams,, J. C. Venter, et al. 1997. The complete genome sequence of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Nature 388: 539– 547.
87. Trieber, C. A.,, N. Burkhardt,, K. H. Nierhaus,, and D. E. Taylor. 1998. Ribosomal protection from tetracycline mediated by Tet(O): Tet(O) interaction with ribosomes is GTP-dependent. Biol. Chem. 379: 847– 855.
88. Trieber, C. A.,, and D. E. Taylor. 2002. Mutations in the 16S rRNA genes of Helicobacter pylori mediate resistance to tetracycline. J. Bacteriol. 184: 2131– 2140.
89. van Boven, M.,, K. T. Veldman,, M. C. de Jong,, and D. J. Mevius. 2003. Rapid selection of quinolone resistance in Campylobacter jejuni but not in Escherichia coli in individually housed broilers. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 52: 719– 723.
90. Versalovic, J.,, D. Shortridge,, K. Kibler,, M. V. Griffy,, J. Beyer,, R. K. Flamm,, S. K. Tanaka,, D. Y. Graham,, and M. F. Go. 1996. Mutations in 23S rRNA are associated with clarithromycin resistance in Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40: 477– 480.
91. Wang, G.,, M. S. Rahman,, M. Z. Humayun,, and D. E. Taylor. 1999. Multiplex sequence analysis demonstrates the competitive growth advantage of the A-to-G mutants of clarithromycinresistant Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43: 683– 685.
92. Wang, G.,, and D. E. Taylor. 1998. Site-specific mutations in the 23S rRNA gene of Helicobacter pylori confer two types of resistance to macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B antibiotics. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42: 1952– 1958.
93. Wang, G.,, T. J. Wilson,, Q. Jiang,, and D. E. Taylor. 2001. Spontaneous mutations that confer antibiotic resistance in Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 727– 733.
94. Wang, Y.,, W. M. Huang,, and D. E. Taylor. 1993. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the Campylobacter jejuni gyrA gene and characterization of quinolone resistance mutations. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37: 457– 463.
95. Wang, Y.,, and D. E. Taylor. 1990. Chloramphenicol resistance in Campylobacter coli: nucleotide sequence, expression, and cloning vector construction. Gene 94: 23– 28.
96. Weisblum, B. 1995. Erythromycin resistance by ribosome modification. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39: 577– 585.
97. Williams, M. D.,, J. B. Schorling,, L. J. Barrett,, S. M. Dudley,, I. Orgel,, W. C. Koch,, D. S. Shields,, S. M. Thorson,, J. A. Lohr,, and R. L. Guerrant. 1989. Early treatment of Campylobacter jejuni enteritis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 33: 248– 250.
98. Yan, W.,, and D. E. Taylor. 1991. Characterization of erythromycin resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35: 1989– 1996.

References: V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V.