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Se infra Part I; U.S. CONST. amend. XIV, § 1.
the exercise of State powers to an extent not justified by the Constitution").
produced 2,321 cases decided since January 1, 1990: "minimum contacts" /p "jurisdiction"
7 See infra Part III (A).
' See infra Part III (B).
cause tortious injury in the state, and this is one of its flaws.
. review denied. The long-arm tort provision of the Uniform Act was the statutory text in issue in World-Wide Volkswagen Corp."' 2 This reduction of the "stream of commerce " 13 to a pathetic dribble has split the federal circuits. 107 (1987) (stating that informal survey of one cycle store in Solano County. 115 S.C. Id.. Indeed.E. Va. Barone v. 414 S.S. . Woodson. cert. where user's injury and death occurred and where suit was filed.C. denied. Ct. "derives substantial revenue from goods used or consumed or services rendered. 297-98 (1980) (dictum) (stating that "the forum State does not exceed its powers under the Due Process Clause if it asserts personal jurisdiction over a corporation that delivers its products into the steam of commerce with the expectation that they will be purchased by consumers in the forum State"). Ct. Hill v.2d 658 (Ga. even a statute thus limited in scope might not pass constitutional muster. The Supreme Court of Oklahoma had found the statute's requirements 1 480 U. Rich Bros. 1991).E. 411 S. Hozelock. 967 F. But see infra note 15 for an Eight Circuit case rejecting the "plurality" opinion. See Showa Denko K. App. e. 359 (1994). Showa Denko K. however. v. Ct. 1993) (noting that Fifth Circuit will continue to follow pre-Asahi cases absent rejection by Supreme Court majority). 102.. found Asahi's trademark on 21 of 97 valve stems). but also that Asahi perform some "act purposefully directed toward the forum [s]tate.). 16 444 U. Woodson. Interstate Display Fireworks Co. Boit v. 614 (8th Cir. 1992) (citing cases from Eigth and Eleventh Circuits and holding that mere awareness that product may end up in forum state does not establish personal jurisdiction).2d 752 (N. 2338 (1993). A number of state courts have also rejected Justice O'Connor's view. Inc.2d 640 (N.g. denied (Ga.. See Ham v. Powell and ScaliaJJ. Gar-Tec Prod.7 (1980). v.). Superior Court.E. at 112 (O'Connor. 6 but the statute's modest scope did not prevent the Supreme Court from holding its application unconstitutional.2d 609 (W. 414 S. cert. 290 n.J. Ct. 425 S.S. denied. 113 S.E.1995] JurisdictionalLalyrinth that state eschews bringing the defendant to account unless one of the additional statutory requirements is met. J. 113 S.. cert.) (regarding Justice O'Connor's opinion as minority view).). cert. in this state" describes the Japanese component part maker in Asahi Metal Industry v. Ltd.. 286. 286. 683 (1st Cir.S. denied. 5 tive..3d 413 (5th Cir. SeeWorld-Wide Volkswagen Corp. 4 F. 78 (1992). v. some following it as a "plurality" 4 some rejecting it as undesirable and not authoritaopinion. joined by Rehnquist C.1 This. 444 U. 25 F.2d 671. 1992). What could be more reasonable? Nevertheless. Pangle. App..3d 610.. " See. Cox v. was not enough for four members of the Court who would require that Asahi not only be able to foresee that its product would be sold in California in large numbers. 1992). La Cienga Music Co. Ct.
" The shorter. while providing fairness to the defendant and reducing litigation of jurisdictional issues.University of California. 22 See infra Part III. " Id. at 299. 24 See infra Part III(B). 733 (1878) (stating that valid personal judgment could be rendered against nonresident by state court only if defendant is "brought within its jurisdiction by service of process within the State. . v. 2 See infta Part II. Part III maps two paths for reducing the volume of litigation of the threshold issue of personal jurisdiction. or his voluntary appearance"). at 298.S." The more conservative route suggests doctrinal changes to accommodate forum and plaintiff interests."19 The purpose of this Article is to map a path out of the personal jurisdictional labyrinth that the Supreme Court has constructed. Part I sketches the major doctrinal developments that added layer upon layer of complexity to personal jurisdiction jurisprudence. but more hazardous. . because "financial benefits accruing to the defendant from a collateral relation to the forum [s]tate will not support jurisdiction if they do not stem from a constitutionally cognizable contact with that [s]tate. 310 (1945). 714. given the automobile's retail value.S. way obliterates state lines and focuses directly on fairness to the defendant. 4 I. 20 See infra Part I. Neff. 95 U. 28:531 met on the ground that it was reasonable to infer.' Fumbling attempts to justify jurisdiction by fictions of Id. at 290. Id.'0 Part II then discusses some frequently litigated fact patterns to illustrate the current chaos resulting from the Court's efforts.326 U.17 The majority in Volkswagen labeled this inference "less than compelling" 8 and in any event insufficient. Washington' combined both boldness and caution in providing a substitute for a theory of personal jurisdiction that depended on physical power over the defendant. 26 See Pennoyer v. CONSTRUCTING THE LABYRINTH International Shoe Co.2 ' Finally.Davis [Vol. that the New York dealer and Northeast distributor derive substantial income from automobiles that are used in Oklahoma. See infra Part 1II(A).
° McGee v. Denckla. exceptions might exist. 220 (1957). 32 Id. at 223. however.S.355 U. at 316. the Court said "so far as those obligations arise out of or are connected with the activities within the state. . a procedure which requires the corporation to respond to a suit brought to enforce them can.'" 2" The Court shied away. ."' Thus. Instead. in most instances.5 the tide began to ebb. permitted a California court to exercise jurisdiction over a Texas insurer in a suit on the only policy that the defendant had ever issued or solicited in California. The Court noted a development it has since frequently overlooked improvements in transportation and communication that "have made it much less burdensome for a party sued to defend himself in a [s]tate where he engages in economic activity. International Life Insurance. in Hanson v. hardly be said to be undue.S. Further.S. from stating that forum contacts were sufficient for jurisdiction whenever the cause of action arose out of those contacts. at 316-18 (rejecting presence and consent tests for jurisdiction over corporations).357 U. 3."' the high-water mark of personal jurisdiction. Jurisdiction could not be based on the "unilateral activity" of the plaintiff but must result from "some act by which the defendant purposefully avails 2 See International Shoe. The Court held that Florida did not have jurisdiction over a Delaware trustee who had received and acted on instructions mailed from Florida by the settlor of the trust and who had remitted trust income to the settlor in Florida. Id. Id. 235 (1958). 30 Id. 326 U. at 319 (emphasis added). jurisdiction over the shoe company to recover delinquent contributions to the state's unemployment compensation fund was justified not only by the fact that defendant's obligations "arose out of" the company's forum contacts.""2 Only a year later.19951 JurisdictionalLabyrinth "presence" or "consent" were repudiated 27 and replaced by a new approach based on the requirement that the defendant "have certain minimum contacts with [the forum] such that the maintenance of the suit does not offend 'traditional notions of fair play and substantial justice. at 320. but also by the "systematic and continuous" nature of those contacts.
it is a milder . 444 U. Inc. Heitner. but also to serve considerations of federalism. at 78. at 610. 102. 770.s' An important impediment to jurisdictional reform was Justice White's emphasis on the states' "status as coequal sovereigns in a federal system" 9 as a reason for requiring "'minimum contacts' between the defendant and the forum State."' According to Justice White. jurisdictional doctrine had to be constructed not only to assure fairness to defendants." Thus. Superior Ct. at 115.University of California. 215-16 (1977). 31Id at 292. World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. 4 See Borchers.S. On the plus side. 84.that a contact with a state sufficient to make it reasonable for that state to apply its law to the defendant was not necessarily sufficient to permit exercise of personal jurisdiction over the defendant. 286. v.S. The United States Supreme Court has alternately embraced and rejected this notion that states' rights play a significant role in interstate jurisdiction to adjudicate. Hustler Magazine. 465 U. 444 U. 4' I& at 293.S. supra note 2. 294 (1980). 480 U. 186.Davis [Vol. 433 U.8 (1980). Savchuk. The cited passage in Asahi extols the virtues of systemic efficiency and the desirability of avoiding offense to foreign countries by the exercise of jurisdiction over their citizens that would be condemned as exorbitant. Co. 286 (1980). 98 (1978). Id ' See Shaffer v. v. supra note 6. Asah. Superior Court. 325 n. " Id at 297-98. 28:531 itself of the privilege of conducting activities within the forum [s]tate. thus invoking the benefits and protections of its law. state lines were invisible but formidable barriers to basic change.. 7 444 U. 5 10 Id at 291.S. v. 778 (1984). but Professor Richman omits this from his list. 436 U. The Court further states that "the interests of the 'several States'" as well as of foreign countries "are affected by the assertion of jurisdiction by" a state court.S. 5 In future decisions.S. " ' Hanson also proclaimed a proposition that defied common sense . Whichever view is taken of this passage.S. Rush v. the opinion approved of a "stream of commerce" basis for jurisdiction over those in the chain of product distribution if they could expect that chain to stretch to the forum. 480 U. Keeton v. Woodson.4 2 Ironically. 113-15 (1987) as a final acceptance of sovereignty concerns. Richman. repetition of this concept invariably signaled the least cogent passage in the opinion. 320. Woodson 7 contained elements that both aided and impeded the reasonable exercise of jurisdiction over nonresidents. Professor Borchers lists Asahi Metal Indus.' World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. two and a 31 Id at 253. Kulko v.S.
49 expression of federalism concerns than the explicit passage in Vo&is-wagen.A. Justice White moderated his own statement concerning federalism. as amicus curiae.9. S.S. v. 694 (1982). v. Id. Curtis Brown Co.8. Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinee. S." Id.S. v. Following the lead of an amicus brief submitted by the Solicitor General. it would not be possible to waive the personal jurisdiction requirement"45 as the defendant had waived its right to have plaintiff bear the burden of proof on jurisdiction.S. The brief also argued that exercising general jurisdiction over foreign companies based on their purchase of equipment and training in the use of the equipment would discourage trade with United States sellers. 516 (1923).10. 4 Id. but then stated that any restrictions on judicial jurisdiction "must be seen as ultimately a function of the individual liberty interest [because] if the federalism concept operated as an independent restriction on the sovereign power of the court."3 which held it proper to shift the burden of proof on jurisdiction to the defendant as a sanction for refusal to obey discovery orders related to that issue." Id. . over a period of eight years. had purchased eighty percent of its helicopter fleet in Texas and had conducted other commercial transactions in Texas. Hall. I at 6. He wrote for the Court in Insurance Corp. Helicopteros Nacionales de Colombia. these transactions did not "constitute the kind of continuous and systematic general business contacts"' necessary for exercise of jurisdiction in a suit for wrongful death caused by a crash in Peru. 7 The majority held that although the defendant.A. Justice Blackmun resurrected and found controlling Rosenberg Bros.S. of Ireland v." Justice White quoted from Volkswagen his own paean to federalism. 17 "General jurisdiction" refers to jurisdiction "over a defendant in a suit not arising out of or related to the defendant's contacts with the forum. 466 U. Mdl at 702 n.260 U. Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae at 5-6. Hall' imposes substantial limitations on the exercise of general jurisdiction. . 466 U. 408 (1984) (No. 82-1127). Helicopteros Nacionales de Colombia. 408 (1984). at 414 n. 456 U. at 708. at 414 n. The United States. & Co. urged the court to follow /osenberg Bros.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 537 half years after Volkswagen. at 416. "Specific jurisdiction" refers to "jurisdiction over a defendant in a suit arising out of or related to the defendant's contacts with the forum.
516 (1923). at 517. 466 U."5" Justice Blackmun states that InternationalShoe acknowledged and did not repudiate the hold3 On the ing in Rosenberg. . 55 471 U. They "sometimes serve to establish the reasonableness of jurisdiction upon a lesser showing of minimum contacts than o Brief for Plaintiff in Error at 2-3.5 As a further indication of how useless Rosenberg Bros. a procedure which requires the corporation to respond to a suit brought to enforce them can. v. 260 U. v. International Shoe cites Rosenberg as an example of the confusion resulting from the "presence" and "consent" fictions.57 He indicates that these factors may push the constitutional determination of jurisdiction either way in close cases. 310.Davis [Vol. Justice Brennan recites the five factors' that provide the basis for the holding in Asahi Metal Industry v. and then makes the following statement directly contradicting the concluding sentence in Rosenberg.S. " ' Burger King Corp. V. 462 (1985). 5 See infra note 63 and accompanying text (setting forth five Asahi factors). Superior Court. in most instances. that opinion concludes: "as [defendant] was not found there. Helicopteros.S. the fact that the alleged cause of action arose in New York is immaterial. ." contrary. & Co. 260 U. 326 U. Quoting from Justice White's opinion in Volkswagen.obligations arise out of or are connected with the activities within the state. Justice Brennan inserts a fateful dictum. 5' International Shoe Co.. at 418. 52 a at 518.5' was not "present" in the forum. hardly be said to be undue. .S.S. Washington. Curtis Brown Co. twenty-two years before InternationalShoe and denied jurisdiction because the defendant.S. il at 477. 319 (1945).. 28:531 The Court decided Rosenberg Bros. Rudzewicz55 upheld specific jurisdiction at the principal place of business of the franchiser in a suit seeking injunctive and monetary relief against a terminated Michigan franchisee. 5' Rosenberg Bms. who was being sued to recover the price of goods ordered in person from the seller in the forum.University of California. In the course of his opinion for the Court. forges a new paradigm for determining jurisdiction. is as a modem precedent. "so far as . Rosenberg Bros.
Justice Brennan agreed that this was "one of those rare cases"' in which the five factors trumped minimum contacts. 480 U. forum that is available. 480 U. (3) the plaintiffs interest in obtaining relief. and (5) the shared interest of the several states in furthering fundamental substantive social policies.S. (2) the interests of the forum state.S. will be best served by remitting the plaintiff to another. more convenient. at 113. the Court held a Japanese component part maker immune from jurisdiction in California where a defect in the part had put blood upon the ground and where the manufacturer of the finished product had settled the resulting claims for injury and death and was seeking indemnity and contribution. at 116. 330 U. Id at 478. ' Asahi. or both. 454 U. 471 U. See supra notes 12-15 and accompanying text (discussing Asahi's impact on stream-of-commerce basis).S. Gulf Oil Corp. Superior Court. Eight Justices joined in that part of Justice O'Connor's opinion holding that even if Asahi's ability to foresee that its defective part might reach and cause injury in California established Asahi's "minimum contacts"6" there. " " Justice Brennan's prophecy was fulfilled in Asahi Metal Industry v. (4) the interstate judicial system's interest in obtaining the most efficient resolution of controversies. a court may decline to exercise its jurisdiction if the court finds that it is a seriously inconvenient forum and that the interests of the parties. concepts usually associated with the discretionary doctrine of forum non conveniens were elevated to constitutional status. or of the public. 501 (1947). Id at 116.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 539 would otherwise be required. 102 (1987). however. v. In his concurrence. v. Gilbert.S.S. the Asahi list will come to be examined in stupefying detail in almost all future lower court cases determining 6i 62 Burger King.63 Thus. . the five factors that Justice Brennan had quoted made the exercise of jurisdiction over Asahi "unreasonable and unfair. The case also produced four votes to restrict the stream-of-commerce basis for establishing minimum contacts so that even the injured California users could not have gotten jurisdiction over Asahi. at 477. 235 (1981). Reyno. Id. " ' but they also "may defeat the reasonableness of jurisdiction even if the defendant has purposefully engaged in forum activities.' In Asahi."62 The now famous Asahi factors are: (1) the burden on the defendant. at 114. SId. Far from rare. " Under the doctrine of forum non conveniens. See Piper Aircraft Co.
Inc. 28:531 jurisdiction to adjudicate.. educational institutions. Suits Between Merchant Buyers and Merchant Sellers In Lakeside Bridge & Steel Co. 1994). Alioto. but the task is even more formidable because courts cannot agree on which facts matter. 208 (1st Cir. at 46-47 (Supp. minor changes in circumstances can change the result. money.g. v.University of California. 17 . 1993) (setting forth three-part test for personal jurisdiction in absence of continuous contact between defendant and forum).3d 201. 1986). See.. II. WEINTRAUB. 26 F.' Thus the scene is set for examining what these decisions have wrought. 445 U. A court surveying decisions on a specific recurring jurisdictional issue is likely to find "the case law in a muddle. A.67 It is a commonplace that the results of this analysis are fact driven. 907 (1980). 4 F. Ticketmaster-New York. Co. 7' the Seventh Circuit held that the fabricator of steel strucSee infra part II. and trees. suits by injured vacationers against hotels and resorts. 1979). 1991) (suits against doctors. cert. 455 (6th Cir. hospitals. Hall. 916 F. 10 See. The cost in time. (2) the cause of action must arise out of these activities.2d 1510. has been enormous. Motorists' Mut.. Mountain State Construction Co. 173-74 n. e."a That alone would make prediction in a particular case difficult.S.3d 452. Many other recurring patterns could have been cho70 sen."' The following section will illustrate this. denied. and defamation by telephone. RUSSELLJ. id. and (3) the exercise of jurisdiction must also be reasonable under the Asahi factors. A typical distillation of their effect produces a tri-partite test for specific jurisdiction: (1) the defendant must purposefully avail itself of the privilege of conducting activities in the forum. v. 1990) (stating that satisfaction of a long-arm statute's requirements will not necessarily satisfy due process "because each case will depend upon the facts").. 61 (3d ed. Ins.Davis [Vol. GROPING IN THE LABYRINTH This Part focuses on three common fact patterns to illustrate the chaotic state of adjudicating personal jurisdiction: suits between merchant buyers and merchant sellers. 1515 (11th Cir. and lawyers). COMMENTARY ON THE CONFLICT OF LAWS. e. 71 597 F.g.2d 596 (7th Cir. 6' See Madara v. Payne v.
This disarray also strongly suggests that prior decisions of this Court offer no clear guidance on the question.W. a lawyer who is familiar with the cases in the area will.' Amen. Garden St. Inc. 994 (1982) (upholding jurisdiction over buyer who (Tenn.w. " See Mississippi Interstate Express v. Inc. 76 Cf Premier Corp. The disarray among federal and state courts noted above may well have a disruptive effect on commercial relations in which certainty of result is a prime objective. v.2d 219 (10th Cir. Justice White. "Were the goods a catalogue item or custom made?""5 "Did a representative of the buyer come here to negotiate the contract or supervise manufacture?"7 4 "Did you solicit the sale or did the buyer contact you first?"75 "Did the contract require manufacture in this state"?76 "Has the buyer purchased from you before?"" Then. if representing a seller. But see Dent-Air. Chelsea House Publishers...2d 904 (Minn. Alaska Mechanical.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth tural assemblies could not obtain jurisdiction in its home state to sue the buyer for the unpaid purchase price. 700 F. Inc. When the United States Supreme Court denied certiorari. and the situation has not gotten any better. 962 (1984) (denying jurisdiction over buyer of custom-made product).). 1982) (upholding jurisdiction when there has been sustained relationship between parties).. Inc. Iron & Metal. The question at issue is one of considerable importance to contractual dealings between purchasers and sellers located in different [s]tates. cert. ask his client a series of questions. 621 S. 301 N. ordered customized printing and binding). cert. cert. Beech Mountain Air Serv.S. Transpo. v. Inc.S. 466 U. 366 U. 332 N.2d 381 (Minn. Western Hearing Aid Ctr. Inc. Inc. 961 (1961) (asserting jurisdiction over buyer who came to forum to negotiate and sign sales contract). in the light of the conflicting treatment " 445 U. But see Hydrokinetics. 1981).2d 560 denied. 620 F.. 1983) (denying jurisdiction in suit by lessor for breach of plane rental agreements although three leases .W. 681 F. 1980) (holding no jurisdiction in suit for payment for tax-shelter services performed in forum when contract did not require performance there). 1983).2d 1003 (5th Cir.W. joined by Justice Powell.S. v.2d 709 (Iowa 1981) (holding no jurisdiction over buyer solicited by seller). 107 N. 455 U. v. denied. For example. took the unusual step of publishing a dissent from the denial: IT]he question of personal jurisdiction over a nonresident corporate defendant based on contractual dealings with a resident plaintiff has deeply divided the federal and state courts.S. Cases arguably in conflict with the decision below include [full-page string citation omitted]. at 909-11. deniea. v. r See Nicholstone Book Bindery. Newsom. I See Dahlberg Co..2d 1026 (5th Cir. I See Al-Jon. v.
S. This was one of the issues in Carnival Cruise Lines. Shute' that the Court did not reach when it held that the tort suit in the were executed between parties and although choice-of-law clause in leases chose forum law). .Davis [Vol. attracted by local advertisements for a distant vacation paradise. 1985). The vacation cases illustrate as well as any other group the uncertainty and confusion that are the legacy of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction decisions. experienced lawyers could simply and with conviction unanimously answer [the merchant buyer's question whether it can get jurisdiction over its merchant seller]. The reservations are either made directly by Vacationer or by Vacationer's travel agent. v.. But alas we know. 758 F. that the only honest answer the lawyer can probably give is "Gee. A major issue on which the cases differ is whether the negligent injury at the distant vacation spot "arises out of" the local promotional activities that induced the victim's visit. to our embarrassment. Inc. a resident of F. resort. Schupbach. Injuries at Hotels and Resorts Vacationer. 216 (7th Cir. Vacationer's thoughts turn to compensation. or cruise line? This issue is repeatedly litigated in our courts. 585 (1991). 28:531 these elements have received in the cases. ' Five years after certiorari was denied to its decision in Lakeside Bridgr. One would expect that a study of cases from different states narrowly focused on the same issue and fact pattern would yield sure guides to predicting the outcome of a jurisdictional challenge. v. Inc. Do the courts in Vacationer's home state have jurisdiction over the hotel. see supra notes 71-72 and accompanying text. one would think that in a rational system.. the best the lawyer can do will be to give his client a rough estimate of the probability of success in obtaining jurisdiction. makes reservations for accommodations. Home and mending." B. the Seventh Circuit expressed its own frustration with the issue: Now. 499 U. I can't say for sure." Hall's Specialties.University of California.2d 214. The holiday turns into a nightmare when Vacationer is injured because of the negligence of the company providing the accommodations. Instead the cases reveal conflicting results and analyses.
585 (1991). 415 (Nev. rev'd. The court rejected opinions from the First.. A Texas federal district court held that a suit against a New Mexico ski resort for a fall on hotel stairs did not arise out of the defendant's Texas activities. defendant was originally incorporated in Texas before dissolving and reincorporating in New Mexico." Decisions in state courts have reflected this split in the federal circuits concerning the "but for. 499 U. SI Shute v. and.8 7 A Seventh Circuit court upheld jurisdic'o See i& at 595. 1990). having its brochures printed in Texas. Recasting World-Wide Volkswagen As a Source of LongerJurisdictional Reach. v. which included solicitation of business.2d at 384. The other Texas contacts were that four of defendant's five shareholders resided in Texas. and Mrs. Supp.2d 377. Ct. 1989).E. Id See id at 383 (rejecting "stringent standard of causation").1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth vacationers' forum was barred by a forum selection clause. 466 (Or. 87 Id at 1392.S. See Tatro v. Munley v. 625 N. Seidelson. Tex.. 711 F. Inc. State ex reLCircus Circus Reno. 1994) (accepting "but for" test in suit against hotel). 1389-90 (E. 389 (9th Cir. Shute would not have slipped on a deck mat "but for" the defendant's solicitations of business from Washington residents. 8 Below. Manor Care. Red River Ski Area. employing a Texas accountant. 897 F. " 897 F.' Some of the resort cases have based their jurisdictional findings on other issues. drawing approximately 47% of its ." but then pushed the general jurisdiction envelope and found that the solicitations plus other contacts with Texas were sufficiently "continuous and systematic" to exercise jurisdiction. 854 P. The circuit court held that the Washington couple could obtain jurisdiction over the cruise line at home because "a tort can arise from prior business solicitation in the forum state"" and approved of decisions that "apply a 'but for' test of causality in this type of situation. Carnival Cruise Lines. 554 (Mass.2d 461.D. Second Judicial Dist. For an argument that a "but for" test would have provided specific jurisdiction in Helicpteros. arising out of" argument. Second. 761 P. recruiting ski instructors from Texas. 1988) (holding no jurisdiction over ski resort because injury there did not "arise out of" forum solicitations).2d 414.2d 549."8" In other words. 19 TuLSA L. Inc.. Inc. the plaintiffs would not have gone on the cruise. 86 Kervin v. see David E.105 (1983). 27 n. Pope. 1. the Ninth Circuit found the forum selection clause "unenforceable""' and thus the jurisdictional issue was dispositive. 1993) (rejecting Ninth Circuit's "but for" test and finding no jurisdiction over resort). and Eighth Circuits that had held that negligent injuries elsewhere did not "arise out of" solicitation of forum vacationers.J. 1383.
544 University of California. the court found the results conflicting. some treating the fact that. jurisdiction may not be asserted. but also breach of express and implied warranties. however." Witbeck v. who lives in another state. an F resident."' The cases seemed to be reasonably consistent in holding that when "the source of an allegedly defamatory remark did not initiate the pivotal contact. In similar cases.2d 1239. ' 26 F. perhaps assisted by the fact that the complaint pleaded not only negligence. 916 F. Bigrnouth makes statements that defame Victim and appear in Reporter's article published in the newspaper in F. 1244 (7th Cir. 947 (1991). some courts taking jurisdiction. some not even discussing this element. 9' Id. Alioto' 9 recently surveyed the case law and predictably found it "in a muddle. 1241. Victim sues Bigmouth in F for defamation and Bigmouth contests jurisdiction.. constitute 'purposeful availment' of the forum state. Humphreys (Cayman) Ltd.S. Bill Cody's Ranch Inn. Wilson v. 499 U. and breach of contract.Davis [Vol. 1990). to solicit information about Victim.2d 439. Inc. 94 Id 93 . 92 Id. the defendant did not initiate the contact as dispositive.W. Id. when the defendant initiated the contact with the reporter and caused foreseeable injury in the forum.3d 201 (lst Cir. 1994). Id. fell "between the stools""3 . v. 28:531 tion over a Cayman Island hotel without reaching the "arising out of' issue." 1 Jurisdiction usually was available in the converse situation.the reporter made the call and the defendant's response caused foreseeable injury in the forum.s C.' The case before the court. significantly. Defamation Over the Telephone Reporter from a newspaper in F telephones Bigmouth. What result? Ticketmaster-New York. at 1388. cem denied. some not. At the opposite extreme. the Michigan Supreme Court has held that an advertisement in an American Automobile Association guidebook "does not by itself. found the Asahi clientele from Texas. 0 Id. and the in-forum injury is not reasonably foreseeable. 445 (Mich." Ticketmaster held that jurisdiction could not be asserted and. 1987) (concluding that ruling otherwise would subject every advertiser to jurisdiction in each state where advertisement appeared). at 208. 411 N.
. Fairness Without Contacts In suits by United States plaintiffs against United States defendants.. the result will remain unpredictable. or both. stating that these factors should be used not rarely. the court was influenced by its suspicion that suit was brought in Massachusetts to harass Alioto." Such a holding guarantees that in these telephone-defamation cases in which the defendant does not initiate the contact.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 545 reasonableness factors9 5 controlling. 26 F.98 See supra note 63 and accompanying text (setting forth five Asahi factors). but frequently. to establish a system of cross-vesting of jurisdiction that .3d at 209-10. State and Territory courts. I& at 211 (noting that reporter and newspaper were not sued and Massachusetts forum does not permit recovery of punitive damages). A MAP OUT OF THE LABYRINTH As illustrated in Part II. In Ticketmaster. This has been the system in another federal nation. 24): WHEREAS inconvenience and expense have occasionally been caused to litigants by jurisdictional limitations in federal.. a California lawyer who was bringing a class action there against a company affiliated with the plaintiff. the best way to stem the flood of litigation over personal jurisdiction is to regard due process as requiring only that the forum have some rational basis for wishing to decide the case either because the plaintiff resides in the forum state or because the defendant acted or caused consequences there. Courts cannot agree on how specific facts should influence the result. Jurisdiction of Courts (Cross-Vesting) Act 1987 (No. See AUSTL ACS P.97 III. since 1987. A. This Part suggests two methods for reducing the volume of jurisdictional decisions and for increasing predictability. turning on the circumstances of each case. and whereas it is desirable. but also repeated litigation of the same fact pattern does not increase predictability. Provision also should be made for easy transfer to a more appropriate forum if the defendant makes a cogent showing of unfairness in plaintiffs chosen forum. to defeat jurisdiction. the issue of the due process limits of state-court jurisdiction not only is one of the most frequently litigated issues on the civil side of the docket. Ticketmaster. Australia.
For disapproval of adding choice of law to the jurisdictional calculus.. such as the now abrogated Mississippi rule that regarded its tort statute of limitations.. . 249. the. 8 (1993). If the forum's sole nexus is the plaintiffs residence. Acr § 103. it would be unfair to the defendant to allow suit there if this would result in choosing law less favorable to the defendant than would be chosen in all states that have contacts with both the parties and the transaction. apart from this section. 1994) (providing for transfer from state court that lacks personal jurisdiction to court of another state that has jurisdiction). 28:531 The two factors most likely to make suit in an interested forum unfair to the defendant are the forum's choice-of-law rule and serious inconvenience to the defendant. 115 (Supp.. UNIF.. even though the injury occurred in a state with a shorter period that had run before suit in Mississippi.. 28 VAL.. if a proceeding is instituted in a court that is not the appropriate court.. § 15-1-49 (Supp. see Linda Silberman.. 494 U. "® Mississippi was a target forum because it had a six-year tort limitations period and regarded limitations as procedural.. J.. TRANSFER OF LrmG. see Stanley E.' The defendant should be protected against lunatic choice-of-law rules.. court shall transfer the.. 1994). so that the Mississippi period applied to any suit brought in Mississippi... See Ferens v. and has passed a "borrowing" statute that applies the shorter statute of limitations of the place where the cause of action "accrued" if the plaintiff is not a Mississippi resident... 39 Am."" ° It might be thought preferable to attack fairness in choice of law directly by constitutional rules adbetween those courts. longest in the nation. is pending in the Supreme Court of a State or Territory. 589 (1991) (stating that "the complexity of comparing the relative choice-of-law analyses of the competing courts undermines the very reason for a nationwide rule in the first place").. proceeding be determined by the Supreme Court of another State or Territory. § 4(2): Where (a) the Supreme Court of a Territory has jurisdiction with respect to a civil matter. Maier & Thomas R. Cf.. 516 (1990).. and (b) .. CODE ANN. as "procedural. Cox. 569. L. 1. to provide a system under which the proceeding will be transferred to the appropriate court... BE IT THEREFORE ENACTED. U. Superior Court: Toward Presumptive Rules ofJurisdictioun and Implicationsfor Choice of Law. 22 RUTGERS LJ.L... MIss. that.A. COM'. MiSS. Davis [Vol. (iii) it is otherwise in the interests ofjustice that the . Rflections on Burnham v. John Deere Co. CODE ANN. § 5(2): Where (a) a proceeding . 14 U..University of California. proceeding to that other Supreme Court.. Mississippi has shortened its tort limitations to three years. and (b) it appears. REV. § 15-1-65 (Supp. L. A Unifing Theory forJudicialJurisdictionand Choice of Law.S. McCoy. 11 For the view that jurisdiction should depend upon the propriety of the forum's applying its own law. the Supreme Court of a State or of another Territory would not. jurisdiction is conferred on the court . 1994). and. Harold G. have jurisdiction with respect to that matter.. 256 (1991).. Razing Conflicts Facades to Build BetterJurisdiction Theory: The Foundation-There is No Law But Forum Law.
875.'0 ' If only the Court would take the same view of jurisdiction. CIrV. The idea of focusing on nationwide contacts has received limited and halting recognition in Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 4(k)(2). Inconvenience to a defendant might consist of distance that she must travel. or factors. Hague. choice of law. FED R. 449 U. The CourtDoesn't Know Its Asahi fr-om Its Wortman: A ritical the Constitutional Constraints on Jurisdictionand Choice of Law. it should be made clear that. this attack on jurisdiction would be reserved primarily for individuals or mom and pop operations that do not customarily engage in interstate transactions and who are the real parties in interest. serving a summons or filing a waiver of service is also effective. View of See Bruce Posnak. with the exception of individuals and small enterprises. 302 (1981). to try their hand at choice of law. Co. difficulties of proof that will not be encountered in another available forum. jurisdiction exists in an interested forum. a decent respect for friendly foreign countries requires that the defendant have some contact with the United States.S. We must avoid a "mini-trial" on the 02 jurisdictional issue." For defendants residing or headquartered abroad. not with any individual state. 101 See Allstate Ins. P.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 547 dressed to that issue. v. 4(k)(2) provides: '" If the exercise of jurisdiction is consistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States. which is easy. that makes it reasonable under the circumstances to order the foreigner to appear and defend here. the burden on the defendant will be heavy. not nominal parties defended and indemnified by an interstate insurer. 41 SYRACUSE L. and convenience to the defendant "would often consume more time and resources than the trial on the merits"). . which is hard? It is probably just as well that the Supreme Court allows states to do pretty much what they will with choice of law. so long as they do not do it in the street and scare the horses. 896 (1990) (stating that considering such matters as the forum's interest. As for inconvenience to the defendant. Unless a compelling showing is made. such as physical handicap or employment. that make especially onerous the additional time and travel necessary to litigate at a distance from the defendant's home. REv. But do we really want the folks who have made such a mess of jurisdiction. With regard to all aspects of the fairness attack on jurisdiction.
104 1& 05 484 U. °6 Venue there is based on the residence of only one of the more than 2. 1995 WL 64106 (Tex. 28:531 which took effect on December 1. " See Polaris Inv. For federal law claims.2d at 488. but does it in a bizarre manner. authorizing service on an alien in a federal-question case when the alien is not amenable to service under the applicable state long-arm statute . 1993. Searching for a South Texas victim will become de rigueur. Davis [Vol."). 7 As one of the judges on the San Antonio Court of Appeals wrote while helplessly concurring in the denial of the defendants' petition for mandamus: "Allowing these cases to proceed will make foreign litigation a growth industry in South Texas." This role reversal apparently results from following Justice Blackmun's drafting advice in Omni Capital Internationalv. v.. see also Polaris Inv.W. that rule permits accumulating national contacts. Abascal. v."' Thus the plaintiff is in the position of contending that it could not get jurisdiction over the defendant in a state court. we will have to reject once and for all the with respect to claims arising under federal law. 1995) (denying writ of mandamus). 101 Polaris. Management Corp. Management Corp. CL App.. 111 (1987) (suggesting "[a] narrowly tailored service of process provision. SId. 105 The suggestion that plaintiffs be given greatly expanded rights to sue in their home forums is intended for simple one-on-one suits. 1994). but with little connection to our region.890 S. J. 97.2d 486 (Tex. As a condition precedent.S. Rudolf Wolff & Co. Mass litigation raises different problems.. Even with current limits on jurisdiction to adjudicate there is plenty of evidence of skillful plaintiffs' attorneys compelling defendants to litigate against hordes of nonresident plaintiffs in distant and hostile forums. and the defendant is in the posture of saying "yes you could.University of California.). the defendant must "not [be] subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of general jurisdiction of any state. We will preside over a prime forum of choice for major litigation with national impact.at 489 (Rickhoff."'0 8 In order to accomplish such a thoroughgoing change in jurisdictional doctrine. .W. Abascal. A classic example is the securities fraud case now pending in one of the least populated Texas counties. 890 S.000 plaintiffs from all over the country. to establish personal jurisdiction over the person of any defendant who is not subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of general jurisdiction of any state.
"" 5 Ah. 39 S. the measure of the legitimacy of a state's assertion of authority over an individual should reflect this territoriality"). Kogan. James Weinstein. can they be ignored in others?" 6 '0 See supra notes 42-45 and accompanying text (discussing role of states' rights in jurisdictional calculus). its "recognition is mandated by history and can be refused only if the concept of a nation of states is abrogated by constitutional amendment"). 5. CAL.63 S. LOUIS U. Stewart."' "[s]tates place fewer burdens upon absent class plaintiffs than they do upon absent defendants in nonclass suits. 60 U. [and therefore] the Due Process Clause need not and does not afford the former as much protection from state-court jurisdiction as it does the latter. 269 (1990) (stating that the key to state court jurisdiction to adjudicate is "the meaning of interstate federalism"). 11 See Terry S.'" or "sit back and allow the litigation to run its course. 114 Id. A New Litany of Personal Jurisdiction. 60 (1992) (stating that "since states are territorially defined. Shutts"' held that nonresident class members. and reasonable people differ as to whether it is desirable or feasible. REV. Margaret G. See Mark C. 1Id. .S. L.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 549 notion that state sovereignty and state lines are important constants in the due process calculus."' Phillips Petroleum Co. " Id. v. at 809. in the light of the protection of nonresident plaintiffs' interest by the forum court and by the named plaintiffs. 1. 37 ST. 472 U. 16 at 811. 257. 815. The Court concluded that. REv."' and in consideration of the ability to opt out. L REv. 797 (1985). 18-19 (1989) (stating that whether or not it is wise to permit concepts of state sovereignty to control jurisdictional doctrine. The Early American Origins of Tertoriality in Judicial Jurisdiction. 11 Id. at 810. L. may be bound if they receive mailed notice of the action and do not elect to opt out. Weber. COLO. CAL."° This will be a wrench. LJ. Puposeful Availment. but what about those state lines? If they can be ignored in one context in which there is a cogent argument that there is no unfairness to the affected party. A Neo-Federalist Tale of PersonalJurisdiction. although without forum contacts. 864 (1988) (stating that "the Shutts opinion does not seem to have had much impact" on other contexts of territorial jurisdiction).
40 AM. If the Convention had been in place here. Borchers. 189. COMP. "' See Handelskwekerij G. 1990. "o Convention. L. ComparingPersonalJurisdiction in the United States and the European Community: Lesons for American Reform.S. Asahi" 9 is probably the most notable example. Superior Court.M. 1735 (holding that Netherlands horticultural company could bring suit in Netherlands for damages to its seedbeds there caused by defendant's alleged .L. L.550 University of California.  E. v. After appraising the European Union Convention on Jurisdiction and Enforcement of Judgments" 7 (Brussels Convention) as a possible model for reform.J Bier v. . reprinted in 29 I. " "° "Where the harmful event occurred" has been construed by the Court of Justice of the European Communities as referring to either "the place where the damages occurred or . Juenger. COLO. the discussion below makes recommendations on the major issues that have to be confronted in any attempt at reform.R. The Brussels Convention Leading United States scholars have examined the Brussels Convention as a possible model for reform of United States jurisdictional doctrine. E. J. 17-18 (1993). 1-34. Modest Proposals If we are not able to adopt a system of nationwide jurisdiction for interstate cases. art 5(3). I" See PatrickJ. 1.C. supra note 117. Mines de Potasse d' Alsace. July 28. The Brussels Convention permits jurisdiction "in matters relating to tort. 6066 and accompanying text (discussing Asahi). Rep."' Certainly it would be foolhardy not to profit from the counsel of our European friends. "' Asahi Metal Indus.. 1. Comm.L." 2' Article 6(2) permits impleading "a "7 Convention on Jurisdiction and Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters. 33 Official J. 28:531 B. in the courts for the place where the harmful event occurred. . REv. American Jurisdiction:A Stoy of Comparative Neglect 65 U. the place of the event which gives rise to and is at the origin of that damage. 102 (1987).M.Davis [Vol. [19771 1 C. CL J. the second-best method of stemming the flood of litigation over jurisdiction is to modify existing doctrine sufficiently to eliminate major points of contention while preserving fairness to defendants. see supra notes 11-15. 480 U.. 1413 [hereafter Convention]. some of the most adversely criticized jurisdictional decisions of the United States Supreme Court would have come out differently. Friedrich K. 121 (1992). 284.
Inc."" Thus there would be no doubt that Asahi could have been sued in California for injury and death caused by its product and that Cheng Shin could implead it there for contribution and indemnity. The Brussels Convention provides wide scope for the parties to an agreement to select an exclusive forum for litigation of disputes that may arise between them. but of entertainment. 124 See Convention. 6(2). 12 Carnival Cruise Lines. para. 12 Convention. "2 Id art. Justice Scalia announced the judgment of a unanimous court. art."' " On the other hand. Section 4 of that same Convention protects the consumer of goods or services from bargaining away her right to sue at home'25 when "in the State of the consumer's domicile the conclusion of the contract was preceded by a specific invitation addressed to [her] or by advertis"' ing. 604 (1990). in the court seised of the original proceedings. 27 Id art. 13-15." 4 Our brethren abroad have more sense.19951 JurisdictionalLabyrinth third party in an action on a warranty or guarantee or in any other third party proceedings. 585 (1991)." 26 It might be argued that the result in Carnival Cruise Lines would survive the Convention because the Convention's consumer provisions do "not apply to contracts of transport.S. supra note 117. Superior Court 28 held that service on a defendant transiently present in the forum is constitutionally sufficient to confer personal jurisdiction. v. although only Chief Justice discharge of pollutants into Rhine River in France). 499 U. see supra notes 79-85 and accompanying text (discussing CarnivalCruise Lines). art. however. than to extend this freedom to consumer contracts. 1. Shute. unless these were instituted solely with the object of removing [the third-party defendant] from the jurisdiction of the court which would be competent in [the third-party defendant's] case. 13(3)(a). "2 See id arts. No one would choose a cruise ship if their major purpose was transportation to a particular Mexican port.495 U. 13. Burnham v. Carnival Cruise Lines"12 enforced a forum selection clause inserted as the eighth of twenty-five "terms and conditions" on a ticket. 3. supra note 117. . 17.S. it could be contended that the contract in Carnival Cruise Lines was not one of transport.
552 University of Califomia. because. S7242 (bill introduced and referred to Committee on Finance). l Justice Scalia said that presence as a basis for jurisdiction did not violate due process. who had moved from New York to California to live with their mother. the only substitute would be "each Justice's subjective assessment of what is fair and just.S. CONG. (b) (expedited appeal of constitutional challenge). Davis [Vol. however. " 436 U. SId.""3 ' When Ireland and the United Kingdom signed on. 2d Sess. art. (5)(2). 1. 3. 140 CONG. The bill also provided for a direct appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States from any ruling by a United States district court upon the constitutionality of the provision. 84 (1978). they had to promise to stop using tag jurisdiction against European Union defendants. REc. at 607. 2244. 628. 28:531 Rehnquist and Justice Kennedy concurred in his reasoning. 2. S7269." Kulko v. 8. 140. Article 5(2) of the Brussels Convention permits suit "in matters relating to maintenance. at 623. if long and continued use was not a sufficient basis for determining what was constitutional. S7298 (S.." " The best feature of the Brussels Convention is that it is not written on constitutional tablets and can be amended as experience with its provisions indicates the need."s The Convention. is not perfect"s and its jurisdictional sections should not be slavishly copied. in the courts for the place where the maintenance creditor is domiciled or habitually resident. ' See id . " See Borchers. REC. This Article lists the exorbitant bases for jurisdiction that exist in the various European Union countries and declares these bases unavailable in suits against "[p]ersons domiciled in a Contracting State. paras. See S. art."" Article 3 of the Brussels Convention might have provided an objective indication that tag jurisdiction over transiently present defendants was beyond the pale of civilized conduct. " Convention. supra note 118. supra note 117. 112 Convention. 2224 § 635(a) (14) (C) (long-arm jurisdiction based on the residence of the child). Superior Court' held that California courts did not have jurisdiction over a New York father to increase the child support payments for his daughters. at 157 (stating that the ability to amend the Convention is one of its desirable aspects). paras. Long-arm jurisdiction in suits based on 29 Id. Id. supra note 117. On June 21. 1994. 103d Cong. (1994). Senator Moynihan introduced a bill that provided long-ann jurisdiction in child support cases based on the residence of the child. 13(a).
13 The Convention was then amended to provide that disputes over leases of six months or less could be brought at the defendant's domicile if the landlord and tenant are natural persons domiciled in the same Contracting State.' In one case. see 8 IL. 4 Case 214/83. ' Id. a German citizen leased his holiday house in Italy to another German for three weeks. art. Clarke. 16. "place of performance" and "the obligation in question" has presented problems of interpretation that have had to be litigated. RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONFiCT OF LAWS § 55 cmL a (1969) (stating that "it is common practice for a court of one "s " state to order a defendant who is subject to its jurisdiction to give plaintiff a deed to land in another state"). could be brought in Germany. 16(1)(b). . Ireland. 5(1). For an English translation of the original Brussels Convention of September 27.R. the Court of Justice of the European Communities held that article 16(1) did not require suit at the situs of land for a declaration that the defendant holds the property in trust Convention. 1968. See Clarke v. (L 304) 77. " " Here the Europeans could have profited from our struggle to establish the sensible proposition that a court may exercise its in personam power over parties before it to affect their interests in realty situated elsewhere."' Each part of this phrase. and the United Kingdom. supra note 117. at 141. 186 (1900) (holding that courts of one state that had personal jurisdiction over all parties in interest did not have jurisdiction to construe will of deceased domiciliary disposing of land in another state).M. "' Convention. The Court of Justice of the European Communities ruled that article 16(1) was clear and that suit had to be brought in Italy. The court did hold that a portion of the claim. 1978 O. 229. at 128. "0 See Convention.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 553 contract is limited to "the courts of the place of performance of the obligation in question. supra note 118. art. The lessor then sued the lessee in Germany for breach of the lease and for a balance due.ss Article 16 of the Convention gives designated courts exclusive jurisdiction over some matters. Id. See Borchers. 9. . art. Oct. 99. 178 U. supra note 117. 1978.S. Rottwinkel.' Recently.C. as amended on the accession of Denmark. '" See Convention. for the landlord's loss of enjoyment of his vacation while occupying the property at the same time as the tenant. supra note 117.  1 E.19 Article 16(1) originally provided for exclusive jurisdiction of "proceedings which have as their object rights in ren in immovable property or tenancies of immovable property [in] the courts of the Contracting State in which the property is situated. for example. supra note 117.J. R6sler v.
the provision should have made it clear from the outset that it applied only to a court exercising its power over property. just as there are protections for consumer buyers of goods and services."' 2.  5 E. § 4. the Convention supports remarks concerning stream of commerce. See infra notes 158-67 and accompanying text (discussing general jurisdiction). Webb. ' See R0fber. That suggestion. '5 See infra notes 152-57 and accompanying text (proposing reform of stream of commerce rationale). '1 . 1717.R." but is inconsistent with the proposal for general jurisdiction.4 ' The Court held that the action was not "in rem.' Furthermore. 28:531 for the plaintiff and for an order directing the defendant to execute documents to vest legal ownership in the plaintiff. '4'See Convention. Concerning the recommendations for reform in the rest of this Part. Suits between lessor and lessee can be brought away from the situs only if the facts fit the amendment. 47 If the purpose of the provision concerning leases is to protect residential tenants who are likely to be in an inferior bargaining position.  1 E." this could have been accomplished by special provisions concerning consumer tenants. 1 See supra notes 11-15 and accompanying text (discussing Asahi and stream of commerce). not to a court with jurisdiction over the persons whose interests in the property it was affecting inter se. '17 See supranotes 142-143 and accompanying text (discussing facts of RWs/er case).554 University of California.C. Case C-294/92. " 1 This is fine (and the result most United States courts would reach today). supra note 117. Stream of Commerce The suggestion by four Justices in Asahi for drastic restriction of the stream-of-commerce basis for jurisdiction over distant manufacturers 2 should be discarded once and for all.Davis [Vol.R at 124. but it is not a model to be adopted without thoughtful analysis of its strengths and weaknesses. The Brussels Convention is a valuable comparative source that we would be foolish to ignore. and the citing with approval by Justice O'Connor of . but the separate provision concerning leases cannot be avoided in this manner. which was narrowly tailored to the facts of the Rosler case.C. Webb v. Id at 1740.
. 102. 530 N. 53. Fehr Bros. Woodson. asbestos cigarette filter). Kevin V. Superior Court: WorldwideJurisdiction after World-Wide Volkswagen ?. supra note 117. state sovereignty requires defendant's intentional affiliation with state before jurisdiction is exercised). Ernst Home Ctr... 439 U. 15 But see World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. Assurance Corp. art. 2. denied. 584 F. A defendant that releases a product for sale should be subject to jurisdiction in any state where the product causes harm if the product comes there either in the normal course of commercial distribution or is brought into that state by someone using the product as it is intended to be used... v. Hollingsworth & Vose. Stretching the Long-Ann in Asahi Metal Industry Co. ' See. to avoid being haled into court where a user is injured. 111-12 (1987) (citing Hutson v. "' See.S. supra note 110.K. 327.. Stewart.2d 1382 (Ill. e. in the case of a corporation. Employers Liab. Parry v. Kennedy. 480 U.3d 939 (4th Cir. 66. Morita Iron Works Co.2d 659 (Utah 1989). 343 (1986) (stating that foreign manufacturer should not be subject to jurisdiction in United States forum unless forum state could constitutionally require manufacturer to obtain license to do business in state). at 37-38 (stating that even in interstate suits. 779 P. need only Pilate-like wash its hands of a product by having independent distributors market it. 1988). 1994) (component part maker.g. gives the forum an interest in permitting a direct action against the manufacturer's liability insurer)." Otherwise we turn the clock back to the days before modern long-arm statutes when a manufacturer.g. Lesnick v.S. cert. 1992). Boit v. 444 U.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 555 a case in which layers of independent distributors shielded the foreign defendant from jurisdiction. 286 (1980) (holding no jurisdiction at crash site over automobile's seller or distributor).K. '5 Convention.K.E.S. 967 F. is its "seat.. Wiles v... 4 B. 35 F.).2d 833 (8th Cir. The United Kingdom has provided that a corporation has its seat in the U. s Id. 7 3.U. and has its registered office or other official address in the U. 5 have already produced a parade of horribles in which injured United States users have been unable to obtain jurisdiction over foreign"s and even United States'55 manufacturers. art. v. for purposes of the Convention if it was formed under the law of a part of the U. e."'59 When general jurisdiction "3 Aahi. Inc. Ltd. ' See Watson v. INT'L LJ.S.2d 671 (1st Cir.ss which. Gar-Tec Products. 72-73 (1954) (stating that the inability of an injured user to get jurisdiction over the manufacturer. General jurisdiction Is it desirable to retain a concept of general jurisdiction when the action does not arise out of and is not related to anything done or caused in the forum? The Brussels Convention limits general jurisdiction to a defendant's domicile. 348 U. or has its chief executive . 983 (1978)).
571 (1991) (stating that "[t]here is no reason why a state that is insufficiently connected to a case to apply its law should be allowed to apply its 'interpretation' of law").2d 876. Honda Motor Co. to adjust our views to international standards."6 On the other hand. 1987) (reversing . Tokyo Aircraft Instrument Co. " See Gonzalez v. there would be little need for general jurisdiction. travel and communications have become easy. 28:531 is utilized.University of California. though unable to travel to Bermuda).2d 769 (1st Cir. Wendy Collins Perdue. 162 See Miller v. the forum is unlikely to be able to apply its own law and this guarantees an excursion into the choice-of-law jungle.C. (TKK) of Japan. but who could not obtain general jurisdiction over Honda in Massachusetts. "6 See Maier & McCoy. Mich. at 256 (stating that forum that does not have sufficient contacts to apply its own law should not be able to exercise judicial jurisdiction).. the issue of general jurisdiction in such cases would become moot. 529. I would prefer exercising jurisdiction over such enterprises where they have continuous and systematic contacts and permitting them to object on the basis of demonstrated unfairness. 164 See supra part Il(A). 1985) (involving plaintiff who was made quadriplegic by a moped accident in Bermuda.Davis [Vol.A. Then only general jurisdiction over foreign companies would be in issue and it might be well. " See Roethlisberger v. REV. Naviera Neptuno A.. 32 B. May 8."6 If. The argument that the plaintiff should be guaranteed a forum somewhere would then ring hollow under modern long-arm theory. 888 (5th Cir. Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982 § 42(3). as is likely in office there. 1991) (declining to follow Bearry v. Beech Aircraft Corp. The case that might then tug at the heartstrings would be one in which the plaintiff is horrendously injured abroad'6 2 by a product manufactured by a company that has sufficient continuous and systematic contacts with plaintiff's home that jurisdiction might be obtained over the defendant there even after Helicopteros'63 If the suggestion concerning nationwide jurisdiction for interstate suits' were followed. 818 F. 779 F. PersonalJuisdiaionand the Beetle in the Box. in the interest of comity. especially for multinational enterprises. 1987)). L..2d 370 (5th Cir. which are inconsistent with an expansive view of general jurisdiction. 161 See suprapart III (B) (2) (suggesting expansion of stream of commerce basis for jurisdiction). See supra notes 158-160 and accompanying text (noting Convention approach to general jurisdiction). 1991 WL 347671 (W. particularly with regard to difficulties in obtaining evidence. 832 F. 160 If the suggestions concerning stream of commerce as a basis for jurisdiction"' were followed.D. supra note 99.
f (1969) (stating that a forum follows "its own local practices in determining whether the damages awarded by a jury are excessive").Y. BLUMBERG. 67 This aberration can be corrected by allowing the trial judge to be informed of typical recoveries in the foreign forum and giving her the power to order remittitur if the jury award is clearly excessive under foreign standards.N. declaration of Canadian Supreme Court that $100. in which the issue was vicarious liability for a subsidiary's conversion. 1985). 1985) (holding applicable. The Miller court refused to "pierce the corporate veil" to exercise general jurisdiction over Honda based on the continuous and systematic forum contacts of its United States wholly-owned subsidiary. v. as equivalent of statutory cap on recovery. RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONFLICT OF LAws § 171 cmt.. 779 F. 772-73 (1st Cir.E. Jurisdictionover a Corporation Based on the Contacts of a Related Corporation: Time for a Rule of Attribution. 917. Knudsen. 919 (1988) (stating that jurisdiction over an out-of-state corporation based on acts of an in-state corporation should not be determined by the more exacting standard for determining vicarious liability). 92 DICKL REv. My Bread Baking Co. 1968). foreign law were applied.2d 769. Inc. 4. Cumberland Farms.2d 748 (Mass. THE MULTINATIONAL CHALLENGE TO CORPORATION LAW 116-17 (1993) (stating that justification for treating multicorporate enterprise as single entity varies with issue).D. the defendant would also have to be protected against the choice-of-law doctrine that permits an American jury to assess damages under foreign heads of damages in an amount that far exceeds what would have been awarded in the foreign forum. Analysis in this area has been confused by ignoring the differences between holding a parent company liable for its subsidiary's torts and holding that the subsidiary's forum contacts can be ascribed to the parent for jurisdictional purposes when the parent is liable for its own conduct. Murray E."6 When the issue is vicarious liability for the torts of a subsidiary. " See Miller v. Quaker Oats Co. Piercing the Corporate Veil Discussion of what contacts with a forum are sufficient for specific or general jurisdiction should include a focus on when actions of one member of a corporate family can be ascribed to another. 67 See Cunningham v. but holding general level of Canadian recoveries not applicable to another element of damages). 66 (W. 107 F. . Id. PHILLIP I.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth such cases. The court quoted the applicable standard from a forum decision.. 233 N. Honda Motor Co.000 is the "upper limit" of recovery for one element of damages.D. a standard is appropriate that focuses on the amount of control the parent denial of forum non conveniens motion after trial and verdict because foreign defendant had shown prejudice resulting from "difficulties associated with obtaining foreign witnesses or their deposition testimony").R..
a creature with the body of a bull and a human head. . the parent itself would have to perform in the business that has given rise to the parent's liability.17 ' devouring not human sacrifices but thousands of pages of case reports. i70 See BLUMBERG. 1985). but would have the burden of demonstrating why suit there would be unfair to the defendant. 7 ° If the subsidiary's acts in the forum in the process of selling the parent's product are sufficiently continuous and systematic for general jurisdiction over the subsidiary. such contentions by United States defendants that are frequently engaged in interstate transactions should be summarily dis- '" See My Bread Baking Co. Minotaur 171 (15th ed. For specific jurisdiction.. see 8 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRrTANNICA. Not only is the determination fact driven. defendant's residence or principal place of business.Davis [Vol. we should attribute to the parent any act of the subsidiary that. v. In most cases. but we cannot agree on what facts are relevant. at 117 (stating that "the 'stream of commerce' doc- trine has. under a proper application of stream-of-commerce theory.2d 748.. it should be unnecessary to struggle with piercing the corporate veil. supra note 168. made the debate over enterprise and entity essentially irrelevant"). Worse.. the place of injury. 69 When the issue is jurisdiction. Cumberland Farms. Inc. A defendant without "minimum contacts" with that forum could then contest jurisdiction. they should also accord general jurisdiction over the parent. litigating the same situations over and over does not increase predictability. but for delegation to the subsidiary. M The myth is that Daedalus constructed a labyrinth on Crete in which the Minotaur. The preferable way is to permit suit to be brought against a United States defendant in any forum that. was imprisoned. 28:531 exercises over the subsidiary. I have suggested two paths out of the labyrinth in which we are trapped like the Minotaur. For a short account. 1968).E.has a reasonable interest in adjudicating the case: the plaintiff's residence. 752 (Mass. 233 N.558 University of California. CONCLUSION It is a disgrace that we have made what should be a matter of interstate venue a constitutional issue and then have micromanaged state-court jurisdiction to adjudicate so that this threshold issue is one of the most litigated.
that any defendant who deals with a product in the chain of distribution is subject to suit where the product causes injury if the product has reached that forum either in the usual course of commercial distribution or is brought there by someone using the product as it was intended to be used. We could greatly reduce litigation of the jurisdictional issue by making it clear that commercial buyers and sellers who deal with one another can bring suit in their home forums in disputes arising out of the sale. The windmills. Foreign defendants would not be subject to suit in the United States unless their cumulated national contacts made this reasonable. Well into the next century. show no sign of weakening. attorneys who are expert at operating under current doctrine can profitably fill their calendars by litigating the threshold issue of jurisdiction to adjudicate. And we wonder why folks tell such cruel lawyer jokes.1995] JurisdictionalLabyrinth 559 missed. The second path mapped herein proposes not-so-minor tinkering with the current system. . however. if not beyond.

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