Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/325/761/
Timestamp: 2019-04-26 06:06:39+00:00

Document:
A Commerce Clause analysis is based on balancing the nature and extent of the burden on interstate commerce created by the state law against the benefits and objectives of the law.
Arizona imposed a monetary penalty on railroad companies that operated trains within the state of more than 14 passenger cars or 70 freight cars. It sought to recover these penalties from Southern Pacific Co., but the trial court made detailed factual findings that led it to conclude that Southern Pacific was not liable because the law violated the Commerce Clause. The Arizona Supreme Court reversed on the grounds that the law was reasonably related to the health and safety of the state's citizens and that the state had properly based it on its police power. It held that this foundation insulated it from challenges under the Commerce Clause, even though it had an adverse effect on interstate commerce.
The states cannot substantially impede interstate commerce or undermine national uniformity in areas that require it, even in exercising their authority over local matters. Most major U.S. railroad companies operate trains of lengths longer than those permitted by this law. As a result, national uniformity for the regulations in this area is virtually essential for the interstate railway system to operate properly. The law has an impact on railroad operations that extends well beyond the state because it requires companies to break up and reassemble longer trains.
Safety does not provide a reasonable basis for this law because increasing the number of trains increases rather than decreases the number of accidents. The law was meant to reduce slack action accidents, which are more common among longer trains. The trial court noted, though, that these accidents are no less common in Arizona than in neighboring Nevada, where there is no such regulation. Any slight effect in improving railroad safety thus cannot outweigh the significant federal interest in protecting the flow of interstate commerce from interference by states.
If the private actor can demonstrate effects outside the state by a state economic regulation, the state must show that the regulation has more benefits than it has burdens. This shifting of the burden of proof can be a crucial factor in Dormant Commerce Clause cases.
1. State power to regulate the length of railroad trains is not curtailed or superseded by § 1 of the Interstate Commerce Act (paragraphs 117) of itself, and in the absence of administrative implementation by the Interstate Commerce Commission; nor by provisions of the Safety Appliance Act for brakes on trains; nor by the provision of § 25 of Part I of the Interstate Commerce Act permitting the Commission to order the installation of train stop and control devices. Pp. 325 U. S. 765-766.
conflicts with the Act of Congress or plainly and palpably infringes its policy. P. 325 U. S. 766.
2. The Arizona Train Limit Law (Arizona Code Ann., 1939, § 69-119), making it unlawful to operate within the State a passenger train of more than fourteen cars or a freight train of more than seventy cars, held, as applied to interstate trains, invalid as contravening the commerce clause of the Federal Constitution. Pp. 325 U. S. 763, 325 U. S. 781.
3. The commerce clause, even without the aid of Congressional legislation, protects against state legislation which is inimical to the national commerce, and in such cases, where Congress has not acted, this Court, and not the state legislature, is the final arbiter of the competing demands of state and national interests. P. 325 U. S. 769.
4. Although this Court, upon review of a decision of a state court, may determine for itself the facts upon which an asserted federal right depends, the crucial findings of the state court here are not challenged in material particulars, are supported by evidence, and supply an adequate basis for decision of the constitutional issue presented. P. 325 U. S. 771.
5. The state regulation here involved, admittedly obstructive to interstate train operation, and having a seriously adverse effect on transportation efficiency and economy, passes beyond what is plainly essential for safety, since it does not appear that it will lessen, rather than increase, the danger of accident. Examination of all relevant factors makes it plain that the state interest here asserted is outweighed by the interest of the nation in an adequate, economical and efficient railway transportation service. P. 325 U. S. 781.
6. The relative weights of the state and national interests involved are not such as to make inapplicable the rule, generally observed, that the free flow of interstate commerce and its freedom from local restraints in matters requiring uniformity of regulation are interests safeguarded by the commerce clause from state interference. Pp. 325 U. S. 770, 325 U. S. 781.
7. The "full train crew" cases and South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., 303 U. S. 177, distinguished. P. 325 U. S. 782.
Congress, in enacting legislation within its constitutional authority over interstate commerce, will not be deemed to have intended to strike down a state statute designed to protect the health and safety of the public unless its purpose to do so is clearly manifested, Reid v. Colorado, 187 U. S. 137, 187 U. S. 148; Missouri Pacific R. Co. v. Larabee Mills, 211 U. S. 61, 211 U. S. 621, et seq.; Missouri, K. & T. R. Co. v. Harris, 234 U. S. 412, 234 U. S. 418-419; Welch Co. v. New Hampshire, 306 U. S. 79, 306 U. S. 85; Allen-Bradley Local v. Board, 315 U. S. 740, 315 U. S. 749, or unless the state law, in terms or in its practical administration, conflicts with the Act of Congress or plainly and palpably infringes its policy. Sinnot v. Davenport, 22 How. 227, 63 U. S. 243; Missouri, K. & T. R. Co. v. Haber, 169 U. S. 613, 169 U. S. 623; Savage v. Jones, 225 U. S. 501, 225 U. S. 533; Carey v. South Dakota, 250 U. S. 118, 250 U. S. 122; Atchison, T. & S.F. R. Co. v. Railroad Comm'n, 283 U. S. 380, 283 U. S. 391; Townsend v. Yeomans, 301 U. S. 441, 301 U. S. 454.
The contention, faintly urged, that the provisions of the Safety Appliance Act, 45 U.S.C. § § 1 and 9, providing for brakes on trains, and of § 25 of Part I of the Interstate Commerce Act, 49 U.S.C. § 26(b), permitting the Commission to order the installation of train stop and control devices, operate of their own force to exclude state regulation of train lengths, has even less support. Congress, although asked to do so, [Footnote 1] has declined to pass legislation specifically limiting trains to seventy cars. We are therefore brought to appellant's principal contention, that the state statute contravenes the commerce clause of the Federal Constitution.
Co., 2 Pet. 245, and Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 299, it has been recognized that, in the absence of conflicting legislation by Congress, there is a residuum of power in the state to make laws governing matters of local concern which nevertheless in some measure affect interstate commerce or even, to some extent, regulate it. Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U. S. 352, 230 U. S. 399-400; South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., 303 U. S. 177, 303 U. S. 187, et seq.; California v. Thompson, 313 U. S. 109, 313 U. S. 113-114, and cases cited; Parker v. Brown, 317 U. S. 341, 317 U. S. 359-360. Thus, the states may regulate matters which, because of their number and diversity, may never be adequately dealt with by Congress. Cooley v. Board of Wardens, supra, 53 U. S. 319; South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., supra, 303 U. S. 185; California v. Thompson, supra, 313 U. S. 113; Duckworth v. Arkansas, 314 U. S. 390, 314 U. S. 394; Parker v. Brown, supra, 317 U. S. 362, 317 U. S. 363. When the regulation of matters of local concern is local in character and effect, and its impact on the national commerce does not seriously interfere with its operation, and the consequent incentive to deal with them nationally is slight, such regulation has been generally held to be within state authority. South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., supra, 303 U. S. 188 and cases cited; Lone Star Gas Co. v. Texas, 304 U. S. 224, 304 U. S. 238; Milk Board v. Eisenberg Co., 306 U. S. 346, 306 U. S. 351; Maurer v. Hamilton, 309 U. S. 598, 309 U. S. 603; California v. Thompson, supra, 313 U. S. 113-114, and cases cited.
v. Hardin, 135 U. S. 100, 135 U. S. 108, 135 U. S. 109; Minnesota Rate Cases, supra, 230 U. S. 399-400; Edwards v. California, 314 U. S. 160, 314 U. S. 176. Whether or not this long-recognized distribution of power between the national and the state governments is predicated upon the implications of the commerce clause itself, Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 419, 25 U. S. 447; Minnesota Rate Cases, supra, 230 U. S. 399, 230 U. S. 400; Pennsylvania v. West Virginia, 262 U. S. 553, 262 U. S. 596; Baldwin v. Seelig, 294 U. S. 511, 294 U. S. 522; South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., supra, 303 U. S. 185, or upon the presumed intention of Congress, where Congress has not spoken, Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 275, 91 U. S. 282; Hall v. DeCuir, 95 U. S. 485, 95 U. S. 490; Brown v. Houston, 114 U. S. 622, 114 U. S. 631; Bowman v. Chicago & N.W. R. Co., 125 U. S. 465, 125 U. S. 481-2; Leisy v. Hardin, supra, 135 U. S. 109; In re Rahrer, 140 U. S. 545, 140 U. S. 559-560; Brennan v. Titusville, 153 U. S. 289, 153 U. S. 302; Covington & C. Bridge Co. v. Kentucky, 154 U. S. 204, 154 U. S. 212; Graves v. New York ex rel. O'Keefe, 306 U. S. 466, 306 U. S. 479, n., Dowling, Interstate Commerce and State Power, 27 Va.Law Rev. 1, the result is the same.
national power is to be attained only by some appraisal and accommodation of the competing demands of the state and national interests involved. Parker v. Brown, supra, 317 U. S. 362; Terminal Railroad Assn. v. Brotherhood, 318 U. S. 1, 318 U. S. 8; see DiSanto v. Pennsylvania, 273 U. S. 34, 273 U. S. 44 (and compare California v. Thompson, supra); Illinois Gas Co. v. Public Service Co., 314 U. S. 498, 314 U. S. 504-505.
For a hundred years, it has been accepted constitutional doctrine that the commerce clause, without the aid of Congressional legislation, thus affords some protection from state legislation inimical to the national commerce, and that, in such cases, where Congress has not acted, this Court, and not the state legislature, is, under the commerce clause, the final arbiter of the competing demands of state and national interests. Cooley v. Board of Wardens, supra; Kansas City Southern R. Co. v. Kaw Valley District, 233 U. S. 75, 233 U. S. 79; South Covington R. Co. v. Covington, 235 U. S. 537, 235 U. S. 546; Missouri, K. & T. R. Co. v. Texas, 245 U. S. 484, 245 U. S. 488; St. Louis & S. F. R. Co. v. Public Service Comm'n, 254 U. S. 535, 254 U. S. 537; Foster-Fountain Packing Co. v. Haydel, 278 U. S. 1, 278 U. S. 10; Gwin, White & Prince v. Henneford, 305 U. S. 434, 305 U. S. 441; McCarroll v. Dixie Lines, 309 U. S. 176.
Congress has undoubted power to redefine the distribution of power over interstate commerce. It may either permit the states to regulate the commerce in a manner which would otherwise not be permissible, In re Rahrer, supra, 140 U. S. 561-562; Adams Express Co. v. Kentucky, 238 U. S. 190, 238 U. S. 198; Rosenberger v. Pacific Express Co., 241 U. S. 48, 241 U. S. 50, 241 U. S. 51; Clark Distilling Co. v. Western Maryland R. Co., 242 U. S. 311, 242 U. S. 325-326; Whitfield v. Ohio, 297 U. S. 431, 297 U. S. 438-440; Kentucky Whip & Collar Co. v. Illinois Central R. Co., 299 U. S. 334, 299 U. S. 350-51; Hooven & Allison Co. v. Evatt, 324 U. S. 652, 324 U. S. 679, or exclude state regulation even of matters of peculiarly local concern which nevertheless affect interstate commerce. Addyston Pipe & Steel Co. v.
United States, 175 U. S. 211, 175 U. S. 230; Louisville & Nashville R. Co. v. Mottley, 219 U. S. 467; Houston, E. & W.T. R. Co. v. United States, 234 U. S. 342; American Express Co. v. Caldwell, 244 U. S. 617, 244 U. S. 626; Illinois Central R. Co. v. Public Utilities Comm'n, 245 U. S. 493, 245 U. S. 506; New York v. United States, 257 U. S. 591, 257 U. S. 601; Louisiana Public Service Comm'n v. Texas & N.O. R. Co., 284 U. S. 125, 284 U. S. 130; Pennsylvania R. Co. v. Illinois Brick Co., 297 U. S. 447, 297 U. S. 459.
But, in general, Congress has left it to the courts to formulate the rules thus interpreting the commerce clause in its application, doubtless because it has appreciated the destructive consequences to the commerce of the nation if their protection were withdrawn, Gwin, White & Prince v. Henneford, supra, 305 U. S. 441, and has been aware that, in their application, state laws will not be invalidated without the support of relevant factual material which will "afford a sure basis" for an informed judgment. Terminal Railroad Assn. v. Brotherhood, supra, 318 U. S. 8; Southern R. Co. v. King, 217 U. S. 524. Meanwhile, Congress has accommodated its legislation, as have the states, to these rules as an established feature of our constitutional system. There has thus been left to the states wide scope for the regulation of matters of local state concern, even though it in some measure affects the commerce, provided it does not materially restrict the free flow of commerce across state lines, or interfere with it in matters with respect to which uniformity of regulation is of predominant national concern.
While this Court is not bound by the findings of the state court, and may determine for itself the facts of a case upon which an asserted federal right depends, Hooven & Allison Co. v. Evatt, supra, p. 324 U. S. 659, and cases cited, the facts found by the state trial court showing the nature of the interstate commerce involved, and the effect upon it of the train limit law, are not seriously questioned. Its findings with respect to the need for and effect of the statute as a safety measure, although challenged in some particulars which we do not regard as material to our decision, are likewise supported by evidence. Taken together, the findings supply an adequate basis for decision of the constitutional issue.
We think, as the trial court found, that the Arizona Train Limit Law, viewed as a safety measure, affords, at most, slight and dubious advantage, if any, over unregulated train lengths, because it results in an increase in the number of trains and train operations and the consequent increase in train accidents of a character generally more severe than those due to slack action. Its undoubted effect on the commerce is the regulation, without securing uniformity, of the length of trains operated in interstate commerce, which lack is itself a primary cause of preventing the free flow of commerce by delaying it and by substantially increasing its cost and impairing its efficiency. In these respects, the case differs from those where a state, by regulatory measures affecting the commerce, has removed or reduced safety hazards without substantial interference with the interstate movement of trains. Such are measures abolishing the car stove, New York, N.H. & H. R. Co. v. New York, 165 U. S. 628; requiring locomotives to be supplied with electric headlights, Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. v. Georgia, 234 U. S. 280; providing for full train crews, Chicago, R.I. & P. R. Co. v. Arkansas, 219 U. S. 453; St. Louis & I.M. R. Co. v. Arkansas, 240 U. S. 518; Missouri Pacific R. Co. v. Norwood, 283 U. S. 249, and for the equipment of freight trains with cabooses, Terminal Railroad Assn. v. Brotherhood, supra.
And in Seaboard Air Line R. Co. v. Blackwell, 244 U. S. 310, it was held that the interference with interstate rail transportation resulting from a state statute requiring, as a safety measure, that trains come almost to a stop at grade crossings outweighed the local interest in safety when it appeared that compliance increased the scheduled running time more than six hours in a distance of one hundred and twenty-three miles. Cf. Southern R. Co. v. King, supra, where the crossings were less numerous and the burden to interstate commerce was not shown to be heavy, and see Erb v. Morasch, 177 U. S. 584.
218 U. S. 135; St. Louis-S.F. R. Co. v. Public Service Comm'n, 261 U. S. 369; requiring an interstate railroad to detour its through passenger trains for the benefit of a small city, St. Louis & S.F. R. Co. v. Public Service Comm'n, supra; interfering with interstate commerce by requiring interstate trains to leave on time, Missouri, K. & T. R. Co. v. Texas, 245 U. S. 484; regulating car distribution to interstate shippers, St. Louis S.W. R. Co. v. Arkansas, 217 U. S. 136; or establishing venue provisions requiring railroads to defend accident suits at points distant from the place of injury and the residence and activities of the parties, Davis v. Farmers Co-operative Co., 262 U. S. 312; Michigan Central R. Co. v. Mix, 278 U. S. 492; cf. Denver & R.G.W. R. Co. v. Terte, 284 U. S. 284; see also Buck v. Kuykendall, supra; Foster-Fountain Packing Co. v. Haydel, supra; Baldwin v. Seelig, supra, 294 U. S. 524; South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., supra, 303 U. S. 185 n., and cases cited.
Appellees especially rely on the full train crew cases, Chicago, R.I. & P. R. Co. v. Arkansas, supra; St. Louis & I.M. R. Co. v. Arkansas, supra; Missouri Pacific R. Co. v. Norwood, supra, and also on South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., supra, as supporting the state's authority to regulate the length of interstate trains. While the full train crew laws undoubtedly placed an added financial burden on the railroads in order to serve a local interest, they did not obstruct interstate transportation or seriously impede it. They had no effects outside the state beyond those of picking up and setting down the extra employees at the state boundaries; they involved no wasted use of facilities or serious impairment of transportation efficiency, which are among the factors of controlling weight here. In sustaining those laws, the Court considered the restriction a minimal burden on the commerce comparable to the law requiring the licensing of engineers as a safeguard against those of reckless and intemperate habits, sustained in Smith v. Alabama, 124 U. S. 465, or those afflicted with color blindness, upheld in Nashville, C. & St.L. R. Co. v. Alabama, 128 U. S. 96, and other similar regulations. New York, N.H. & H. R. Co. v. New York, supra; Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. v. Georgia, supra; cf. County of Mobile v. Kimball, 102 U. S. 691.
South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros., supra, was concerned with the power of the state to regulate the weight and width of motor cars passing interstate over its highways, a legislative field over which the state has a far more extensive control than over interstate railroads. In that case, and in Maurer v. Hamilton, supra, we were at pains to point out that there are few subjects of state regulation affecting interstate commerce which are so peculiarly of local concern as is the use of the state's highways. Unlike the railroads, local highways are built, owned and maintained by the state or its municipal subdivisions. The state is responsible for their safe and economical administration. Regulations affecting the safety of their use must be applied alike to intrastate and interstate traffic. The fact that they affect alike shippers in interstate and intrastate commerce in great numbers, within as well as without the state, is a safeguard against regulatory abuses. Their regulation is akin to quarantine measures, game laws, and like local regulations of rivers, harbors, piers, and docks, with respect to which the state has exceptional scope for the exercise of its regulatory power, and which, Congress not acting, have been sustained even though they materially interfere with interstate commerce (303 U.S. at 303 U. S. 187-188, and cases cited).
In applying this rule, the Court has often recognized that, to the extent that the burden of state regulation falls on interests outside the state, it is unlikely to be alleviated by the operation of those political restraints normally exerted when interests within the state are affected. Cooley v. Board of Wardens, supra, 53 U. S. 315; Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 713, 70 U. S. 731; Escanaba Co. v. Chicago, 107 U. S. 678, 107 U. S. 683; Robbins v. Shelby County Taxing Dist., 120 U. S. 489, 120 U. S. 499; Lake Shore & M. S. R. Co. v. Ohio, 173 U. S. 285, 173 U. S. 294; South Carolina Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros. supra, 303 U. S. 185, n.; McGoldrick v. Berwind-White Co., 309 U. S. 33, 309 U. S. 46, n.; cf. 17 U. S. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 428; Pound v. Turck, 95 U. S. 459, 95 U. S. 464; Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 U. S. 196, 114 U. S. 205; Helvering v. Gerhardt, 304 U. S. 405, 304 U. S. 412.
This controversy between the railroads and their employees, which was nationwide, was carried to Congress. Extensive hearings took place. The employees' position was urged by members of the various Brotherhoods. The railroads' viewpoint was presented through representatives of their National Association. In 1937, the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee, after its own exhaustive hearings, unanimously recommended that trains be limited to 70 cars as a safety measure. [Footnote 2/2] The Committee, in its Report, reviewed the evidence and specifically referred to the large and increasing number of injuries and deaths suffered by railroad employees; it concluded that the admitted danger from slack movement was greatly intensified by the operation of long trains; that short trains reduce this danger; that the added cost of short trains to the railroad was no justification for jeopardizing the safety of railroad employees, and that the legislation would provide a greater degree of safety for persons and property, increase protection for railway employees and the public, and improve transportation services for shippers and consumers. The Senate passed the bill, [Footnote 2/3] but the House Committee failed to report it out.
element of danger which is itself subject to legislative regulation. For legislatures may, if necessary, require railroads to take appropriate steps to reduce the likelihood of injuries at grade crossings. Denver & R.G. R. Co. v. Denver, 250 U. S. 241. And the fact that grade crossing improvements may be expensive is no sufficient reason to say that an unconstitutional "burden" is put upon a railroad, even though it be an interstate road. Erie R. Co. v. Public Utility Commissioners, 254 U. S. 394, 254 U. S. 408-411.
Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. v. Georgia, 234 U. S. 280, 234 U. S. 91. Until today, the oft-repeated principles of that case have never been repudiated in whole or in part.
P. 234 U. S. 292.
Arizona Employers' Liability Cases, 250 U. S. 400, 250 U. S. 419.
the Court's action in requiring that money costs outweigh human values is sought to be buttressed by a reference to the express policy of Congress to promote an "economical national railroad system." I cannot believe that, if Congress had defined what it meant by "economical," it would have required money to be saved at the expense of the personal safety of railway employees. Its whole history for the past 25 years belies such an interpretation of its language. Judicial opinions, rather than legislative enactments, have tended to emphasize costs. See Tiller v. Atlantic Coast Line R. Co., supra, 318 U. S. 560. A different congressional attitude has been shown by the passage of numerous safety appliance provisions, a federal employees' compensation act, abolition of the judicially created doctrine of assumption of risk and contributory negligence, and various other types of legislation. Unfortunately, the record shows, as pointed out in the Tiller case, that the courts have, by narrow and restricted interpretation, too frequently reduced the full scope of protection which Congress intended to provide.
The use of the "super legislature" technique has been repeated to strike down other statutes. See e.g., Chicago, M. & St.P. R. Co. v. Wisconsin, 238 U. S. 491, 238 U. S. 499; Weaver v. Palmer Bros. Co., 270 U. S. 402, dissent at 270 U. S. 415. See also dissents in Schlesinger v. Wisconsin, 270 U. S. 230, 241, 270 U. S. 242; New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 285 U. S. 262, 285 U. S. 284-285. For a case in which this Court declined to review the "economics or the facts" behind a legislative enactment, see Central Lumber Co. v. South Dakota, 226 U. S. 157, 226 U. S. 161; cf. Standard Oil Co. v. Marysville, 279 U. S. 582, 279 U. S. 586. See also Powell v. Pennsylvania, 127 U. S. 678, 127 U. S. 686; dissenting opinion, Polk Co. v. Glover, 305 U. S. 5, 305 U. S. 10-19.
These figures appear to be considerably less than those later reported. See Tiller v. Atlantic Coast Line R. Co., 318 U. S. 54, 318 U. S. 59, note 4.
I have expressed my doubts whether the courts should intervene in situations like the present and strike down state legislation on the grounds that it burdens interstate commerce. McCarroll v. Dixie Greyhound Lines, 309 U. S. 176, 309 U. S. 183-189. My view has been that the courts should intervene only where the state legislation discriminated against interstate commerce or was out of harmony with laws which Congress had enacted. P. 308 U. S. 184. It seems to me particularly appropriate that that course be followed here. For Congress has given the Interstate Commerce Commission broad powers of regulation over interstate carriers. The Commission is the national agency which has been entrusted with the task of promoting a safe, adequate, efficient, and economical transportation service. It is the expert on this subject. It is in a position to police the field. And if its powers prove inadequate for the task, Congress, which has paramount authority in this field, can implement them.
train limit law infringes "the national interest in maintaining the free flow of commerce under the present emergency war conditions," I would accept its expert appraisal of the facts, assuming it had the authority to act. But that order is not before us. And the present case deals with a period of time which antedates the war emergency. Moreover, we are dealing here with state legislation in the field of safety where the propriety of local regulation has long been recognized. See Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. v. Georgia, 234 U. S. 280, 234 U. S. 291, and cases collected in California v. Thompson, 313 U. S. 109, 313 U. S. 113-114. Whether the question arises under the Commerce Clause or the Fourteenth Amendment, I think the legislation is entitled to a presumption of validity. If a State passed a law prohibiting the hauling of more than one freight car at a time, we would have a situation comparable in effect to a state law requiring all railroads within its borders to operate on narrow gauge tracks. The question is one of degree, and calls for a close appraisal of the facts. * I am not persuaded that the evidence adduced by the railroads overcomes the presumption of validity to which this train limit law is entitled. For the reasons stated by MR. JUSTICE BLACK, Arizona's train limit law should stand as an allowable regulation enacted to protect the lives and limbs of the men who operate the trains.

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