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classroom alongside their peers who do not have disabilities.
barriers of inadequate training and cost must first be overcome before more widespread use can become a reality.
Presidential Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology,1 the U.S.
functioning students. Fewer individuals recognize the great number of benefits that computer-based technologies may afford children with disabilities.
disabilities to learn more effectively in regular classroom settings.
Most are in elementary or middle school.
problems that are primarily academic, emotional, social, or behavioral.
60. has placed more and more students with disabilities in regular classrooms. Washington. Federal law mandates that all children with disabilities are to be provided with special education services. Part B.018 children ages 6–17 served under IDEA. requiring teachers to find ways to make the education of these students as appropriate as possible.org .104 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 Figure 1 Percentage of Students by Disability (Ages 6 to 17) Other* 8% Hearing or visual impairments 2% Mental retardation 10% Specific learning disabilities 51% Speech or language impairments 21% Emotional disorders 8% * Other includes: Other health impairments — 3. a physical education setting. traumatic brain injury — 0. To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities: Twenty-first annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1999). April 10. (For more on this subject. This approach. The figure includes a total of 5. demands have increased for serving all students with special needs in the regular classroom. Department of Education. see the spring 1996 issue of The Future of Children. Department of Education. no matter how severe the disability. called full inclusion. or another institution.10 In recent years. multiple disabilities — 1.119. including any needed modifications to the place of instruction––be it the classroom. Students who qualify for special education services are entitled to a specially designed individual educational program at no cost to the parent.82. 2000.11 Teachers have found that technological innovations can help level the playing field for special needs students and enable these students to succeed in the regular classroom. a hospital.futureofchildren. and developmental delay — 0.12 Technology for students with special needs is http://www. the child’s home. autism — 0. Tables AA3 and AA4. during the 1997–98 school year.) Federal laws also specify that students with special needs are to receive their education in what is called the least restrictive environment (LRE).23.9 This program must meet the unique needs of the child. Source: Data summarized from the U. special education certifications entitle students to receive all related services (such as occupational therapy and physical therapy) required to meet the individual learning needs of the youngster. In addition.21. orthopedic impairments — 1.04. on a continuum with regular education classes on one end and residential institutions on the other (see Figure 2).S.S.77. DC: U.
The following sections describe how various applications of computer technology can help meet the individual needs of students with disabilihttp://www. or customized. and their numbers are rising each year. including those with disabilities who are able to get along with or without medical or counseling-supportive therapy Level II Regular class attendance plus supplementary instructional services Level III Level IV Part-time special class Move this way way only as far as necessary Full-time special class Level V Special stations Level VI Homebound Level VII Instruction in hospital or domiciled setting Return this way as rapidly as possible Noneducational services (medical and welfare care and supervision) Inpatient programs (assignment of children to facilities governed by health or welfare agencies) Source: Adapted from Deno. piece of equipment. E. whether acquired commercially off the shelf. or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. maintain. modified. defined by federal law as “any item. Technologies for Students with Mild Learning and Behavioral Disorders Students with learning disabilities and emotional problems account for nearly 60% of all children receiving special services in schools today.”13 This broad definition encompasses a wide variety of both high-end and low-end technologies that have proven to be useful for improving educational options for students with disabilities. Exceptional Children (1970) 37:229–37.4 These students often have persistent problems learning and behaving appro- 105 . Special education as developmental capital. that is used to increase. or product system.Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs Figure 2 Continuum of Least Restrictive Environments Outpatient programs (assignment of pupils governed by the school system) Level I Children in regular classes.futureofchildren.org ties and enable them to function effectively in the school setting.
Such students are likely to be given a broad label indicating only that their academic and social progress is unsatisfactory because of a disability. see the articles by Becker and by Roschelle and colleagues in this journal issue. simulations.17 A teacher’s ultimate goal is to help students develop skills and knowledge that can be used in real-world settings. These benefits are significant for the many students with mild learning disorders related to deficits in http://www. Word Processing Software The attributes of word processing that lead to its effectiveness as a learning tool for children with special needs are generally the same attributes that make it effective for children in general. problems that may become apparent only after teachers work with the students for weeks or months. producing clean and readable text. when integrated into classroom instruction. appear to have significant benefits for students with mild disabilities: word processing and word prediction software. communication technologies. and feeling a sense of authorship are frequently mentioned as attributes of word processors that lead to improved writing. and multimedia presentation tools––can provide students with opportunities to use their skills to engage in projects that address real-world problems.futureofchildren. For example.106 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 PHOTO OMITTED priately in school. Technology has proven to be an effective method of giving such students opportunities to engage in basic drill and practice. In addition. exploratory. Researchers have found that students are more willing to edit their work and to make necessary corrections on a word processor than on handwritten drafts. the ease of revising text.16 The research examining the potential benefits of computer-based instruction is grounded in basic learning theory and is the same for all students. CD-ROM reference materials.14 and their problems often persist despite a teacher’s efforts to meet their students’ needs within the regular program. and the use of hypertext and multimedia projects. Many computer-based applications––such as the Internet. communication and networking technologies. This research indicates that use of technology can enhance a student’s acquisition of skills and content knowledge when the computer is used to deliver well-designed and well-managed instruction.org .19 enabling them to spend more time on the content of their written products.18 (For further discussion of these types of applications.) The following sections examine several types of computer activities that. including both those with and without mild disabilities. the word processor frees students from the more tedious duties related to the editing process. or communication activities that are matched to their individual needs and abilities. even though many of these students find it difficult to keep up with their nondisabled peers15 and their teachers often find it difficult to spend significant amounts of time providing them with individual attention. Most children with mild learning disabilities spend at least some portion of the school day in the regular classroom.
The ability to collaborate on meaningful projects is especially beneficial for students with learning disabilities because they often have both academic and social needs to be addressed. This software. As additional letters are added to the sequence. students with mild learning disabilities are better able to compete academically in regular classroom settings. such as generating new ideas and building on the thoughts of others as a topic is analyzed. who often need to spend a significant amount of time rewriting a passage to communicate an idea clearly. reduces the number of keystrokes that are required to type words and provides assistance with spelling for students of various ability levels.23 Research has shown that students of all ability levels learn more when they are involved in such knowledge construction activities. Students with mild learning disabilities benefit from the support that word prediction software offers as they attempt to produce written documents. Word Prediction Software Word prediction software is another example of a computer-based technology that can help students communicate with written language more easily. But word prediction software allows students with mild learning disabilities. When the desired word appears on the computer screen. In addition.24 Research also has demonstrated that different types of discourse have been associated with different levels of thinking processes. word processing software can have significant benefits for students with mild learning disabilities by allowing them to participate in the writing process with greater ease. Still other applications limit the words provided to those that the student most often uses. questions that require students to simply restate or paraphrase information impose less complex cognitive demands than questions whose answers result in explanations.Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs written language skills. some word prediction programs provide words solely on the basis of the sequence of letters entered.org vocabulary that is easiest to spell. in one application. a list of words appears that begins with the letter a student presses on the computer keyboard. to access and send information literally around the world. to express their words and ideas in the vocabulary that more closely reflects their thinking. Yet improved access and delivery systems do not necessarily bring improved instruction. Some applications require that students be able to select the desired words from a list displayed on the computer screen. Collaborative efforts can foster academic learning among these students by providing more “knowledge construction” activities. just like other students. the list is updated to limit the words to the sequence that has been entered. the student simply selects the word to insert it into the written text. while teachers still must provide instruction in writing to make a difference. Many times. other applications enable the computer to read the words aloud. students with mild learning disabilities are better able to compete academically in regular classroom settings. rather than in the http://www. For example.20 Word processing is also especially helpful for those students who struggle with delays in fine motor skills that impair their ability to write legibly. others give consideration to the grammatical aspect of the words already present in the sentence. as well as those with mild communication and motor impairments. when used in conjunction with traditional word processing programs. it is delivered.21 Thus. and by actively engaging them in the learning process. students with communication deficits will avoid the use of longer words and complex thoughts to avoid frustration with the act of writing.22 Communication technologies become a powerful tool for learning only if they offer students opportunities to gather a wide variety of resources and information and then to exchange their thoughts and ideas with others in collaborative learning environments. 107 . Communication Technologies Use of computers for communication and networking activities via the Internet can expand the learning environment beyond the walls of the classroom and allow students with disabilities. To the contrary. networked through the Internet.futureofchildren. Thus.25 For example. improved learning is dependent upon the quality of instruction and not on the medium through which With the help of word prediction software. with the help of word prediction software.
30 Hyperlinks enable students to jump to electronic units of information with the speed and freedom of human thought. by providing more opportunities to communicate in different ways. Hypertext is a web conceptually ––somewhat like a dictionary or an encyclopedia––with complex interdependencies among units of information that users can jump between in ways that are similar to the way the human mind thinks. sound. For example.futureofchildren. graphics. and speculations. and computing (commonly referred to as “hypermedia” or “multimedia”). one teacher consultant found that hospitalized students with emotional disabilities valued opportunities to interact with other students via e-mail because their disability “disappeared” in these communication environments. the students shared descriptions of themselves and of their feelings. the technology facilitated the students’ ability to make personal connections with others and provided opportunities to focus on writing skills within a context that they valued. however. hypotheses. without fear of being stigmatized. Over the Internet. when they were given the opportunity to Technology facilitates the students’ ability to make personal connections with others and provides opportunities to focus on writing skills within a context that they value.108 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 inferences.27 The hospitalized students became more willing to create written text. or click on a word they don’t understand to jump to a computer-based thesaurus and browse related words. such as text. Recently.31 In addition. educators have begun to examine the possibilities these technologies offer for students with mild learning disabilities. If a student is reading a book and encounters a reference to another work that would enhance understanding of the content. other technologies help students make flexible connections between different text-based documents (“hypertext”) and between different types of media. Communication technologies can also foster social learning by connecting students one to one. http://www. speculation about such devices dates back more than 50 years.26 In addition. students could simply use a mouse or other pointing device to click on the reference and instantaneously view the referenced article. for example.29 Text with hyperlinks. This process is cumbersome for all students. photographs.” enables users to access electronically linked resources with the click of a mouse. creating meaningful learning experiences through quick and easy links between new and previously learned information. communicate online with other disabled students who were enrolled in special education classes across the country. Thus. video. Hyperlinks The concept of hyperlinks is not new––in fact. while many students with mild learning disabilities relate a long history of failure and frustration with traditional print-based documents. and were able to learn about others. leaping through vast amounts of textual information in a nonsequential manner. Hyperlinks are helpful for all students. but they can be especially helpful for students with mild learning disabilities. justifications. If a hypertext version of the book were available on a computer. televi- sion. communication technologies can help meet the social needs of students with mild learning disabilities. Consequently. few have experienced failure with these hyperlink technologies. Several studies have shown that students prefer to access reference material electronically rather than by using text-based resources.org . normally it would be necessary to turn to the bibliography to get the complete reference and then visit the library to track it down.28 Hyperlinks and Multimedia Environments In addition to communication technologies that provide students with new ways to access information worldwide. but students with learning disabilities who lack reading skills are especially likely to abandon the search in frustration. and their grammatical skills improved. communication technologies can help students with mild learning disabilities engage in more complex cognitive tasks and can result in powerful instruction for these students. Communications between even two individuals can enable students with learning disabilities to gain information or to practice communication skills in a realworld environment without fear of being stigmatized because of their disability. or “hypertext.
which can then Students with mild learning disabilities often demonstrate higher-level performance and attention to detail working on multimedia projects than they normally exhibit. teachers still must spend time teaching them how to locate and organize specific information from data sources. Such sharing of products has been shown to have significant benefits for students with mild learning disabilities because it offers them the opportunity to be the author of a “real” product. Research demonstrates that learning environments that incorporate dynamic images and sound are especially helpful for students who have limited background knowledge in a subject. and community members. and to be seen––and to see themselves––as capable learners in school environments. which is common among students with communication disorders.36 And computer technology not only facilitates the creation of multimedia products.Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs At the same time. For example. The educational use of multimedia environments is best described as an electronic means of linking various media in new and different ways in activities that can facilitate fundamental learning and thinking.org their knowledge to others. multimedia can help deepen students’ conceptual understandings by linking visual imagery and sound effects to information that is difficult to understand when presented in text alone. They said they preferred the multimedia projects because the format allowed them to express themselves in ways that linear text did not. the same as would be required when using more traditional reference sources. in a study in which students with mild learning disabilities were given a choice of formats for demonstrating http://www. 109 . is a vital part of the learning process. But communication requires at least two individuals––one to send information and the other to receive it––and problems arise when a break occurs on either end of this chain. many students with mild learning disabilities are reluctant writers. The technology provides a tool for students with disabilities to express themselves. students can transfer the products to videotapes or CD formats. some researchers caution that hyperlink technologies have the potential to overwhelm those students whose problems cause them difficulty in organizing information.33 Multimedia applications also provide students with ways to express their knowledge other than in writing.35 In addition. parents. it can also facilitate the sharing of such projects. effective communication is important in classrooms. By providing these students with alternative ways to demonstrate what they have learned. For example. studies have demonstrated that many students with disabilities have significant difficulties retrieving requested information from both traditional and electronic versions of encyclopedias. Multimedia Environments Multimedia environments are a relatively new extension of the hypertext concept. after they complete their work. which is often the case for students with learning disabilities. Certainly. researchers report that the motivation of at-risk students and students with mild disabilities improves markedly when they work on projects that will be displayed in forums that include nondisabled students. all chose to create multimedia-based projects. multimedia applications can be very motivating. and an opportunity for them to showcase unique abilities and talents that generally are not revealed in traditional school assignments.futureofchildren.34 Classroom teachers have also noted that students with mild learning disabilities often demonstrate higher-level performance and attention to detail working on multimedia projects than they normally exhibit. For example. As discussed above. Multimedia projects can be especially important for students with disabilities who seldom have the opportunity to demonstrate their strengths in school. Technologies for Students with Speech and Language Disorders Communication with other individuals is one of the most important aspects of life. where exchanges between teachers and students. be placed on a class Web page or in the school library as reference material. or among peers.32 This research suggests that to ensure that students with disabilities have a positive experience using hyperlinks to conduct research electronically.24 For example.
AAC systems have been developed to allow communication through word selection devices or even devices using pictures and graphics.org . input method. to overcome their communication problems.38 Consequently.110 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 PHOTO OMITTED Two general types of communication disorders qualify a student for special education services: speech disorders and language disorders. The U. while digital speech is an actual recording of human speech stored in the memory of the device. and ranging in price from a few hundred dollars to several thousand dollars. selection switches.futureofchildren. or fluency patterns impair the listener’s ability to understand the intent of the speaker. see page 117. complexity. vocabulary representation format. many communication devices have incorporated either synthetic or digital speech output. (For a more detailed description of these devices. on the other hand. such as touch-sensitive pads. or individuals with poor speech.S. To assist students with disabilities in delivering a message. ranging from very low tech to very high tech. In addition. Alternative devices. Department of Education data indicate that more than 20% of all students with disabilities have speech or language disorders. or rules of the communication language. and means of output delivery. Fortunately. For example. replace speech as a means of communication. There are a variety of electronic AAC devices on the market. students with physical or mental disabilities who cannot use a standard keyboard can use alternative input devices. A speech disorder occurs when the speaker’s articulation. These modifications are often less expensive and more flexible than many custom-built AAC devices. their only purpose is to provide a means of communication. or optical pointing devices. signs. Augmentative devices are designed to support or enhance the speaking capability of a person. various speech and print output devices have been developed. voice quality. advances in computer technology have led to the creation of specialized devices—called augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices—that help make it possible for individuals with no speech.) For students who have difficulty with vocabulary.40 AAC systems vary in terms of their portability. Selecting an appropriate system must be tied to the needs and capabilities of the student. technology addressing the needs of students with communication disorders could assist a significant proportion of students with disabilities to interact more normally within the classroom. (For a more detailed description of screen readers.37 A language disorder occurs when either the sender or the receiver of the message is unable to use the sounds. existing computers can now be modified for use as an AAC device through the addition of special communication software and hardware. Today. Other devices have been designed to work in conjunction with a computer that plays multiple roles (such as word processing or calculations).” that is. Synthetic speech is artificially generated by the computer.39 Some devices are “dedicated. see http://www.
” TDDs allow users to use a keyboard to type and receive messages over the phone lines. about 66. and that a small fraction (0.) Written output can be provided by printers that are built into the communication device or attached externally. AAC systems can be extremely powerful tools for individuals with speech and language disorders. he talked about how technology had changed his life: “Until now. some displaying multiple lines of text. Two telecommunication devices that assist students with severe hearing impairments and that have become commonplace in American society are the Telecommunication Device for the Deaf (TDD) and “captioning. some devices use liquid crystal displays (LCDs) to show students’ messages––some displaying a single line of text at a time. who had a hearing disability. At a banquet for software publishers in 1998. In his letter.S. and some using both the LCD and speech output together. enabling them to participate more effectively in the classroom (see Box 1). Department of Education indicate that 1% to 2% of students ages 6 to 17 enrolled in special education programs in the United States have hearing impairments. In all. At that time.” While an AAC device can enable some students with severe communication disorders to participate in instructional activities alongside their nondisabled peers.02%) of these are both deaf and blind. the rate of message transmission is still quite slow compared with normal speech. captioning refers to the addition of text to a visual display. One of the first high-tech devices designed for persons with hearing impairments is something we take for AAC systems can be extremely powerful tools enabling some students with severe communication disorders to participate in instructional activities alongside their nondisabled peers. advances in computer technology and medicine have led to the development of a wide range of hightech ALDs and telecommunication devices that assist students with severe hearing impairments. captioning has been found to be especially helpful in promoting the inclusion of students with hearing loss in the regular classroom environment. Beyond ALDs. such as sight and touch. I have never had a voice or a way to communicate. where the words that are spoken are seen as text. They can listen like everyone else. and less expensive. ALDs have been used since the 1800s. Now I am in the regular school in eighth grade.41 The most recent data available from the U. granted—the telephone. video captioning and captioned educational programs have proven to be very helpful in motivating students with hearing disabilities to learn to read. and no external power supply was used.org Any device that is used to enhance a person’s residual hearing is referred to as an assistive listening device (ALD).Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs page 115. Technologies for Students with Hearing Impairments Students with hearing impairments are those who have a hearing loss that interferes with their ability to process linguistic information through auditory channels with or without amplification. Alexander Graham Bell originally invented the telephone for the purpose of helping his sister. horns were held to the ear to collect and focus sound waves. telecommunications devices have been created to assist students with severe hearing impairments by making use of other abilities. but this option is cumbersome because of the large amount of paper required. Although TDDs are devices that primarily enhance the lives of students with hearing impairments outside of school.38 http://www. a letter was read from a young man whose computer had been outfitted with a device converting text to speech output.futureofchildren. For example. Today. more flexible. depending on the dimensions of the horn. Because the nature of a hearing loss tends to cause language and 111 . Now people do not have to read my words. My computer has been the best thing that has ever happened to me in my life. Clearly.000 students have been diagnosed with some type of hearing impairment that interferes with their ability to function without some type of assistive device. As a result. Certain pitch ranges were amplified. Until this year I was in a special education classroom. they will likely help even more students with communication disorders in the future. As computer-based technologies advance and AAC devices become smaller.
and they are still one of the most commonly used auditory enhancement devices in schools because of their versatility and portability for use in or out of the school building. While hearing aids and other assistive devices are designed to amplify sound. clear sound invisibly to hearing impaired listeners. behind-theear. and to provide maximum mobility within a classroom. In this system. to deal more effectively with background noise. Cochlear Implants: A cochlear implant is a relatively new device designed to provide sound information for people with profound hearing impairments. including “nerve loss. as costs come down. Almost all people with hearing loss. eyeglass. An adaptation of the FM device described above.org . who wears a microphone. The implant. and in-the-ear. who wears a hearing aid. which is surgically placed beneath the skin. the audio loop directs sound from its source directly to the listener’s ear through a specially equipped hearing aid. Sound may be transmitted through a wire connection or by using radio waves. Hearing aids are generally available in four styles: body-worn. FM systems have been used by teachers and students in the classroom. structured settings. and the student. to maintain consistency in auditory cues between home and school. Audio Loops: The audio loop is another type of amplification system. It was introduced in an attempt to meet the need to control the sound level of the teacher’s voice.” can benefit to some extent from hearing aids. It works best in quiet. Frequency-Modulated (FM) Amplification Systems: Also known as an auditory trainer. School-age children most often use postauricular hearing aids. but special circuitry in the speech processor reduces unwanted background noise. where the speaker is no more than a few feet away and extraneous noise is minimized. an implant can actually enable the wearer to hear sounds that were previously indistinguishable. the FM transmission device creates a direct link between the teacher. They provide better hearing in public places without the hassle of wires and cords. bypasses the damaged parts of the inner ear and stimulates nerves that have not been stimulated before. the popularity of infrared systems is increasing. Signals are sent continuously when sound is present in the environment. Infrared Systems: Infrared systems transmit clean. Nevertheless.112 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 Box 1 Devices to Assist Students with Hearing Impairments Hearing Aids: The hearing aid is a miniature public address system worn by the user (listener).futureofchildren. http://www. which are designed to fit unobtrusively behind the ear. For more than 40 years. but they may have limited accessibility because of issues related to line-of-site or distance between the emitter and the transceiver. background noise is reduced and the teacher and students are free to move around the room. Audio loops can be built into the walls of a room or created to surround only a certain section of seats in a room. and they suffer less from interference emanating from pagers and other outside radio signals.
When captioning is used in educational settings. Given that consumers purchase more than 20 million televisions each year. To use a TDD. Conversely. and promote deeper levels of understanding of what is taught in the classroom. conversations. The early form of captioning was seen primarily as subtitles for translating foreign films. they enable students with disabilities to interact with each other outside of the school environment for both academic and social reasons. all television manufacturers have been required to place built-in decoders in their products to provide individuals with hearing impairments with access to closed captioned television programs and videos for educational and recreational purposes. where the words that are spoken are seen as text. In this system. studies indicate that the average reading levels of students who are deaf are considerably lower than the levels of their hearing peers of similar intellectual ability. providing individuals with hearing impairments equal access to public information and entertainment. The TDD is attached to a telephone and resembles a small keyboard with a screen to display the incoming or outgoing messages. Captioned Television: Captioning refers to the addition of text to a visual display. open and closed. and written materials. however. There are two kinds of captions.org Today. the majority of classrooms and private homes in this country have access to this technology. just as their nondisabled peers do. communication problems.Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs Box 1 (continued) Devices to Assist Students with Hearing Impairments Telecommunication Devices for the Deaf (TDDs): The TDD. which converts the message back into text form.42 Research has demonstrated. a stenographer typically enters information as the teacher talks and the text is displayed on a computer monitor. Some TDDs have a paper printout to record a permanent copy of the conversation. Open captioning is seldom used. the user types a message on the keyboard that is automatically converted into tones and transmitted over the phone line to another TDD. Since 1993.43 http://www.futureofchildren. that captioned video and television programs can help deaf students improve their vocabulary and reading comprehension.44 Increased captioning could expand classroom opportunities and enhance reading instruction for students with hearing loss.45 113 . which enables a person with no hearing to make or receive telephone calls. But while most programs on national networks and cable television channels––as well as thousands of movies and documentaries––are captioned. fewer than 10% of educational videos were captioned as of 1998. because it cannot be turned off and is consequently unpopular with the general public. is the most widely known telecommunication device used today. This technology has proven to be very helpful for students with hearing disabilities who are enrolled in college courses or who attend public lectures. both the sender and the receiver of the message must have access to the technology. particularly in understanding situations. Live Speech Captioning: Live speech captioning is another variation of this technology that allows individuals with hearing impairments to access words as they are being spoken. closed captioning is very common and it can be turned on or off by the user on all modern televisions. Although these technologies are not typically used in the classroom environment. This technology works much like steno keyboards that are used to record judicial proceedings. a large percentage of broadcast television is captioned.
allowing individuals with visual impairments greater access to all types of print materials and enabling them to “read” the materials independently. and home environments (see Box 3).46 most students with visual impairments find that they need some type of device to help them to be effective learners in school settings.000. which provide narrative verbal descriptions of visual elements. The data indicate that approximately 63.000 students with orthopedic impairments were served in the public school system during the 1997–98 school year. to communicating with their nondisabled peers in the classroom. Finally. such as Braille notetakers––small. or electronic enlargement for the assistance they need. accessing a modem. costing as much as $10. Still others face overwhelming obstacles in communication. specialized magnification lenses. Such devices range in price from about $1. mobility is the greatest barrier they face. descriptive video services (DVS). to controlling a computer or other high-tech or AAC device. A number of software applications have been developed that combine Braille with computer technology. work. have proven useful in helping students who are blind or have low vision to use educational programs in regular classrooms. can scan and read text aloud. slightly more than 1% of all students with disabilities who are currently receiving special education services.” students who are visually impaired can have any text found on the computer screen read aloud. Text-to-speech technologies also facilitate the rereading and editing of previously written text. For example.49 OCR software is now available for most computers and scanners.000 to $6. about 24. which is often the greatest barrier to computer use http://www. now have access to many other devices that can help them become independent learners (see Box 2).38 Fortunately. however.47 Synthetic and digital speech synthesizers.000.org .51 Today. sometimes referred to as “screen readers. Even those with no useful vision. Although current OCR technology cannot read handwritten materials accu- rately. this barrier will likely fall by the wayside in the very near future. portable devices that can store Braille characters and read text aloud––to assist students with visual impairments in the classroom.38 Although it is difficult to classify or label the varying degrees of visual acuity succinctly. For example. mentioned earlier as output devices to assist students with communication disorders. and using a keyboard. caring for their personal needs is a tremendous challenge. A number of alternative input devices can be connected to a standard computer to assist or replace the use of a traditional keyboard. thus providing opportunities for students with visual impairments to participate in such tasks alongside their nondisabled peers. a variety of new technologies have been developed to help individuals with physical disabilities overcome their challenges and function well in school. optical character recognition (OCR) technology. Higher-end devices using refreshable displays are considerably more expensive. For others. and several dedicated portable devices have also been developed. copying files. are also helpful to those with visual impairments. Students who are visually impaired but have at least some useful vision are often able to rely on largeprint materials. For some. These applications range in price from about $700 to $2. inserting and removing a disk or CD from a drive.000 school-age children have visual disabilities that make them eligible for special education services. With these text-to-speech applications. who traditionally have had to rely on tape recordings or translations into Braille.48 Another computer-based application. switches can be used with a number of adaptive devices that enable students with severe physical disabilities to successfully operate a computer independently.futureofchildren.50 Technologies for Students with Severe Physical Disabilities Students with severe physical disabilities are a heterogeneous group. switches can be activated by almost any part of the body. advances in computer technology have made even the use of Braille more useful. including turning the power on and off.THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 114 Technologies for Students with Visual Impairments According to the most recent data available. making them more userfriendly. allowing students with physical disabilities to control many aspects of their environment independently––from using a toy or radio for their own entertainment.000.
DVS technologies help students by providing them with access to information. http://www. and focus. and thus much easier for students to use. Today. The text or graphic material is placed under the camera lens on a sliding reading stand and the image is projected on the attached video monitor. the user can select a portion of the screen and then enlarge that section up to 16 times the original size. Computer Screen Magnification: Most computers sold today allow for the magnification of the screen through the use of special software. digital speech is composed of actual recordings of human speech. In some instances. and to change the background display to either black or white. and facial expressions—into pauses in a program’s dialogue. it requires a large amount of storage because each word that the computer may encounter must be prerecorded. DVS is available for both standard VHS and DVS formatted videotapes. its use is often not feasible for classroom instruction. by providing them with opportunities for increased socialization and knowledge building. and speed of reading. pitch. and even choose between a male or a female voice. characters’ physical descriptions. In contrast. this technology makes it possible for students with visual impairments to use computers in ways similar to their nondisabled peers. or in some cases. smaller versions of this technology are portable. As more low-cost options for storing electronic information become available. But the newer. are expensive and cumbersome to move. The majority of television sets and VCRs manufactured in the past six years have been designed with a “second audio program” (or SAP) switch that can be turned on so that the user can automatically hear descriptive video. CCTVs allow the user to adjust the magnification. and through the increased opportunities to discuss programs and movies that are part of the popular culture. Although the user is somewhat inconvenienced by having to view a smaller portion of the original screen as the magnification increases. however. brightness.Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs Box 2 Devices to Assist Students with Visual Impairments Closed-Circuit Television Magnification (CCTV): CCTV is designed to enlarge any type of text or graphic material by using a small vertically mounted video camera with a zoom lens directly connected to a monitor for displaying the image. reading. the student can adjust the volume. while still useful for many classroom applications. Descriptive Video Services (DVS): DVS technology inserts a narrative verbal description of visual elements—such as sets and costumes. when the words are not phonetically predictble. color. analyzes the phonetic structure of words. With synthetic speech. contrast. the computer reads text passages. While digital speech is much easier to understand. text-to-speech software is common in many software packages. including many word processing and educational software programs in math. this technology will likely be used more extensively to assist students who have communication disorders or visual impairments.org 115 . Screen Readers: Screen reader software represents what is known as a text-tospeech application. words. and spelling. the results can be difficult to understand. and attempts to reconstruct the words by putting together a string of synthetic phonemes that are then “spoken” by the computer. However. Older CCTVs. Typically. Consequently. which analyzes letters. and sentences and converts them into synthetic or digital speech.futureofchildren.
some robotic devices are already in use.THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 116 Box 2 (continued) Devices to Assist Students with Visual Impairments Optical Character Recognition (OCR): OCR technology enables blind students to place books or other print materials on a scanner and have the text interpreted and read using synthetic or digital speech. Devices such as the Braille notetaker that combine Braille with computer technology have made Braille much more useful than it was in the past. The stored files can then be used with a standard word processor or a screen reader. The notetakers use the same six keys found on a traditional Braille writer used for making a paper copy of Braille. Adaptive keyboards. they too may be commonplace. and voice recognition systems.futureofchildren. In time. several barriers inhibit more widespread use of these applications and devices. However. Braille Notetakers: Braille notetakers are small. The early Kurzweil Reader was about the size of a small photocopy machine and was considered to be a truly remarkable advance for students with visual disabilities. a paperless Braille display can be attached to a computer or a personal notetaker that can display up to 80 characters simultaneously. most notetakers allow users to review what they have written by listening to the text-tospeech function of the device.52 The previously mentioned technologies have grown increasingly sophisticated and are becoming more familiar in classroom settings. While the device was often found in libraries.org . a number of research labs are examining the use of devices such as robotic arms. it was too bulky and expensive to be available to students in the classroom. Today. software translators allow the Braille to be converted into text. for students with physical disabilities. For example. especially inadequate teacher training and cost. there are portable stand-alone OCR devices and devices that can attach to other computers and scanners. These devices range in price from less than $100 for some switches to as much as $9. To get a hard copy of the information that was entered. http://www. and technologies that have yet to be envisioned for use by students with severe physical disabilities will be moving into the limelight. portable devices that enable students to enter and store Braille characters in the form of words and sentences. the user can connect the notetaker directly to a standard printer for text output or a Braille printer for Braille output. described in Box 3. Similarly. Barriers to Effective Use of Technology for Students with Disabilities Many technologies described in this article are readily available for use by individuals with different types of disabilities and are already providing many students with special needs an opportunity to be educated alongside their nondisabled peers. infrared sensors. and still other technologies are being developed for use in the near future. retrieving objects. all have proven to be highly effective in helping students with severe physical disabilities use computers to participate in many educational activities that would not be available to them through other means. and even playing cards. and more sophisticated devices are continually under development. However. In addition. when Ray Kurzweil invented the Kurzweil Reader.000 for higher-end. voice-activated systems. turning pages in books and magazines. which can help individuals who are physically disabled accomplish such daily activities as eating. The first OCR system for individuals with visual impairments was introduced in 1976. Although it may be years before these technologies become commonplace.
switches are available that can be activated by the use of an arm. users can position the cursor anywhere on the screen by moving their head left. foot. In most cases. While the movement does not have to be big. or down. reducing the number of keys on the keyboard. and providing keys that are brightly colored and easy to read. or chin. it must be controllable and reliable. up. Switches can be activated by almost any part of the body a person is able to voluntarily and reliably control—for example. Voice Recognition: Using voice recognition software. hand. head.Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs Box 3 Alternative Input Devices for Students with Physical Disabilities Switches: Switches control the flow of electrical power to a device that the user wants to turn on or off. As the user looks at the computer screen. Infrared Sensors with Pneumatic Switches: Use of an infrared sensor worn on the head. Similarly. which is activated by inhaling or exhaling through a plastic tube. These keyboards are excellent for individuals with a limited range of motion or for individuals who have a difficult time applying pressure to keys. This technology allows the user to simply touch the computer screen to perform a function. placing letter keys in alphabetical order. the user can move a cursor and click on items displayed on the computer screen. the cursor follows the user’s head movement. They also may be controlled by less obvious movements of the eyebrow. enables the user to use the mouse. Basic Adaptive Keyboards: Basic keyboard adaptations that assist physically disabled students to use computers include replacing standard keys with larger keys that are easier to see and touch. right. Thus. can enable physically disabled students to interact with the computer. the computer responds as if the mouse button had been clicked. Voice recognition systems allow students to operate a variety of application programs. and often considerable training is required before the use of the switch is reliable. leg. finger. The pneumatic switch. the reliability of the system can be enhanced by having the user “train” the computer to recognize his or her speech patterns. many companies provide additional software that enables the users to create their own overlays. In this manner. along with use of a pneumatic switch. to dictate to a word processor.org 117 . and to enter data into spreadsheets. Moving the head to the left moves the cursor in the same direction on the screen.futureofchildren. or the rib cage with access through controlled breathing. Special software is used in conjunction with these movements to allow the user to type out information on a facsimile of a keyboard that is displayed on the computer monitor. Other keyboards are much smaller than their traditional counterparts and have keyboard surfaces that are much more sensitive to touch. Touch-Sensitive Screens: Touch-sensitive screens are very popular with young computer users and with individuals who have severe developmental or physical disabilities. Many touch-sensitive screens come complete with multiple screen overlays that can be used to perform a variety of tasks. By programming the computer with a set of predefined instructions. http://www. the user can bypass the keyboard and just speak to the computer. When the user sips or puffs on the switch. the user can control the computer by verbally issuing commands into a microphone.
and the technical skills to carry out a plan of action. those attempting to assist students with disabilities must seek out alternative funding sources. costing tens of thou- sands of dollars. both those in regular education and those in special education programs. especially for those students who have more severe disabilities and require more complex technical systems to help them communicate or interact with others.org . but these sources are not always adequate. is also a serious consideration for all schools. and provide assistive technologies as needed for individuals to function in their homes. an educational program for these students. For example. In addition.61 In addition. all teachers. because of limited funding. form of instructional technology that could be used more in instructional settings for all students. even if it is identified as potentially beneficial. especially the computer systems needed for students with more severe disabilities.1 and even as of 1999 it was reported that only 20% of the teachers in this nation’s schools feel “very well-prepared” to use technology in their teaching. for example. communication technologies such as e-mail and the Internet represent a relatively inexpensive. requirements attached to some funding sources can restrict the use of technology.59 However.53 For example. parents. In addition. “limited-use policies” prohibit the use of districtfunded technology outside the classroom. teachers. Such systems often must be tailor-made for each student and can be quite expensive.57 The cost of the technology needed to help students with disabilities participate in regular classroom settings. For example. yet very powerful. in school. need training in how technology can be used. Funding for technology can be obtained from a variety of sources. can be very motivating for students with disabilities. identify appropriate technologies. all teachers.55 Lack of adequate teacher training has an especially strong impact on students with disabilities because technology is often a critical component in planning and implementing To meet the needs of students with disabilities within regular classrooms. but their goals exceed their funding levels.futureofchildren. Such policies make it impossible for technology-dependent students with disabilities to participate in educational or social activities during after-school hours unless the equipment is purchased with nonschool funds. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. use of technology for multimedia projects. in some school districts. mandates that each state must provide a free and appropriate education for all students regardless of their ability level. the TechnologyRelated Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act enables states to conduct needs assessments.60 Consequently. Individual schools are often hesitant to provide the necessary technology because they must fund these purchases themselves rather than rely on the school district’s resources.54 But a 1997 report from the President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology found that few teachers feel they have the skills to integrate use of the Internet effectively into the curricula. school districts are not obligated to purchase a specific computer technology. to meet the needs of students with disabilities within regular classrooms. There is no doubt that technology has the potential to act as an equalizer by freeing many students from their disability in a way that allows http://www. need training in how technology can be used. for example. two federal acts attempt to address the needs of students with disabilities. both those in regular education and those in special education programs.62 Conclusion The barriers of inadequate teacher training and high cost are problematic––significantly inhibiting the use of technology in classroom settings––but are not insurmountable. school administrators.118 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN – FALL/WINTER 2000 Lack of appropriate technology training in preservice and in-service teacher education programs is the most commonly cited barrier to use of technology in the classroom. But classroom teachers must have a deep understanding of what they are trying to accomplish and how technology can help them achieve their goals.56 Thus. with and without learning disabilities.58 Thus. and at work. and others involved in planning the student’s individualized educational program must consider technologies that would be necessary to meet the student’s educational needs.
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