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Abstract: The essay deals with the emergence of the concept of biodiversity and with the rise of conservation biology as a subdiscipline of biology. It shows the relationship between conservation biology and the activism that develops with the objective of promoting biodiversity conservation. It refers to how, over time, in the field of concerns about the protection of natural heritage, there has been a shift from the notion of preservation of wilderness to the conservation of biodiversity. Keywords: biodiversity; conservation biology; conservation of biodiversity. Resumo: Trata do surgimento do conceito de biodiversidade e do processo de emergência da biologia da conservação como uma subdisciplina da biologia. Mostra as relações entre a biologia da conservação e o ativismo que se desenvolve com o objetivo de promover a conservação da biodiversidade. Discute como, ao longo do tempo, no campo das preocupações com a proteção do patrimônio natural, houve um deslocamento da noção de preservação da wilderness para a de conservação da biodiversidade. Palavras-chave: biodiversidade; biologia da conservação; conservação da biodiversidade.
preservation of species, ecosystems, and gene pools. Scientists, scientific articles, books, and events important for the foundation and construction of conservation biology are presented throughout the text. The need for this field of biology to equate the demands of the “real world” (urgency to address the most immediate issues of activists, politicians, administrators, and technicians involved with the conservation of nature) and the theoretical and methodological requirements of the creation process of scientific knowledge are other points raised.
brought the results from the National Forum on BioDiversity. The collection, with the title of Biodiversity,1 is comprised by 60 articles written by leading international authorities on the subject, who were present at the forum, among which were Wilson himself, Paul R. Ehrlich, Norman Myers, David Ehrenfeld, Robert E. Jenkins, Thomas E. Lovejoy, Lester R. Brown, Michael Soulé, and James Lovelock. Apart from the initial chapter, written by Wilson, on the status of biological diversity, the remaining ones are divided into 12 topics related to the issue of biodiversity: Challenges to the Preservation of Biodiversity; Human Dependence on Biological Diversity; Diversity at Risk: Tropical Forests; Diversity at Risk: The Global Perspective; The Value of Biodiversity; How is Biodiversity Monitored and Protected?; Science and Technology: How Can They Help?; Restoration Ecology: Can We Recover Lost Ground?; Alternatives to Destruction; Policies to Protect Diversity; Present Problems and Future Prospects; and Ways of Seeing the Biosphere. There is also an Epilogue by David Challinor, Assistant Secretary for Research at the Smithsonian Institute, on the National Forum on BioDiversity and on how the book derives from the panels presented in it (WILSON, 1997; SARKAR, 2002). In the preface of the book, Wilson alerted to the fact that: The diversity of life forms, in such large numbers that we have yet to identify most of them, is the greatest wonder of this planet. The biosphere is an intricate tapestry of life forms that are intertwined. [...] This book provides an overview of this biological diversity and brings an urgent warning that we are altering and destroying the environment that created the diversity of life forms for over a billion years (WILSON, 1997, freely translated by the author).
With the growing concern for the conservation of biodiversity, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB) was launched by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). A very broad and functional definition of biological diversity or biodiversity was reached at it, covering three levels: diversity of species, genetic diversity, and diversity of ecosystems. The convergence between the use of the concept of biodiversity and the statement of conservation biology as a new discipline led to a new configuration of studies related to interaction, adaptation, emergence and disappearance of species of organisms. It also approached the scientific speculations and scientists themselves from everyday concerns of managers of protected areas and nature conservation activists. Daniel H. Janzen (1986), in the article The Future of Tropical Ecology, urged ecologists to undertake the necessary political activism for conservation. He expressed a mindset already widespread among ecologists, conservation biologists, taxonomists, botanists, and zoologists. Conservation biology has become the main arena for reflection and theoretical debate on issues related to conservation, and biodiversity its main focus (GROOM, MEFFE & CARROLL, 2006; LEWIS, 2007; QUAMMEN, 2004).
The History of Conservation Biology The major American textbook on conservation biology (GROOM, MEFFE & CARROLL, 2006) presents this field of knowledge as a response from the scientific community to the impacts of humans on biodiversity and to a rate of species extinction that is now 100 to 1000 times above what would be normal (in the evolutionary process, species arise and disappear over time), i.e., a global biodiversity crisis: [...] It is a relatively recent, synthetic field that applies the principles of ecology, biogeography, population genetics, economics, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and other theoretically based disciplines to the maintenance of biological diversity throughout the world. It is recent in that it is a product of the 1980s, although its roots go back centuries. It is synthetic in that it unites traditionally academic disciplines such as population biology and genetics with the applied traditions of wildlife, fishery, and land management and allied fields. It is most of all challenging and imperative, in that it is motivated by human-caused global changes that have resulted in the greatest episode of mass extinction since the loss of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago (GROOM, MEFFE & CARROLL, 2006, p. 6).
Whereas at the end of his book on habitat fragmentation, loss of biodiversity and conservation biology, David Quammen (2004) highlights the insight that Alfred Russel Wallace had in the distant Malay archipelago in the mid-nineteenth century, on the potential impacts of humans on the diversity of species that make up the natural world: It seems sad that on one hand such exquisite creatures should live out their lives and exhibit their charms only in these wild, inhospitable regions, doomed for ages yet to come to hopeless barbarism; while on the other hand, should civilized man ever reach these distant lands, and bring moral, intellectual, and physical light into the recesses of these virgin forests, we may be sure that he will so disturb the nicely-balanced relations of organic and inorganic nature as to cause the disappearance, and finally the extinction, of these very beings whose wonderful structure and beauty he alone is fitted to appreciate and enjoy: This consideration surely tells us that all living things were not made for man (WALLACE apud QUAMMEN, 2004, pg. 610-611).
José Luiz de Andrade Franco in lesser or greater degree to all natural habitats. Consider, for example, the insular nature of streams, caves, gallery forest, tide pools, taiga as it breaks up in tundra, and tundra as it breaks up in taiga. The same principles apply, and will apply to an accelerating extent in the future, to formerly continuous natural habitats now being broken up by the encroachment of civilization […] (MACARTHUR & WILSON, 2001, pg. 3-4).
controversy was, however, a seminal effect, as it stimulated the conducting of research and the formulating of concepts. Thomas Lovejoy, who followed the debate closely, proposed and conducted the largest research project aimed at understanding the effects of the dynamics of habitat fragmentation on the diversity of species: the BDFFP - Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project. Lovejoy began to reflect on the project in 1976; however, the need for planning, financing and negotiations delayed the start of activities. The project was located in the Brazilian Amazon, near the city of Manaus, where farmers driven by tax incentives were felling the forest to raise cattle. With the help of researcher Herbert Schubart, the National Institute of Amazonian Research - INPA, and Maria Tereza Jorge Pádua, director of the parks and reserves sector of the Brazilian Institute for Forestry Development - IBDF, Lovejoy convinced farmers to cut the forest down leaving fragments of different sizes and with different distances between them. Lovejoy initiated the BDFFP with the assistance of Richard O. Bierregaard Jr, a friend from Yale who, like him, was strongly influenced by George Evelyn Hutchinson (WILSON, 1999; BIERREGAARD et al, 2001; QUAMMEN, 2004). In the foreword of Lessons from Amazonia: The ecology and conservation of a fragmented forest, a collection of articles on BDFFP research results, Edward O. Wilson explains the project objectives: The Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project began in 1979 with a single, easily to understood focus. Its primary purpose was to access the effect of reduction in rainforest area on biological diversity, and particularly on the number of species of plants and animals in remnant patches. Working off the elementary theory of island biogeography, it asked: What is the rate of species extinction in the forest fragment as the size of fragment is varied? Would this local extinction rate slow and halt, so that the number of species equilibrates? And finally, what processes occur in the demography and interaction of species following a reduction in habitat area? (BIERREGARD et al, 2001).
threatened species and ecosystems. The book is a landmark, considered by many as the foundation of the discipline of conservation biology. For the first time, a group of scientists who had consolidated their academic career under the influence of the theory of island biogeography and population biology were gathered in a publication that had the explicit aim of discussing the “decay of biological diversity” and “the rampant pace of habitat destruction”: In the lifetime of many who read this book, the relentless harrying of habitats, particularly in the tropics, will reduce rain forests, reefs and savannas to vulnerable and senescent vestiges of their former grandeur and subtlety. But loss of habitat and loss of species is not the whole disaster. Perhaps even more shocking than the unprecedented wave of extinctions is the cessation of significant evolution of new species of large plants and animals. Death is one thing - an end to birth is something else, and nature reserves are too small [...] to gestate new species of vertebrates [...]. There is no escaping the conclusion that in our lifetime, this planet will see a suspension, if not an end, to many ecological and evolutionary processes which have been uninterrupted since the beginnings of paleontological time. We hope it is only a suspension - that the horrible onslaught can be stopped before the regenerative powers of ecosystems are also killed. [...] This is the challenge of the millennium. For centuries to come, our descendants will damn us or eulogize us, depending on our integrity and the integrity of the green mantle they inherit (SOULÉ & WILCOX, p. 8).
management of endangered species, extinction, fires, habitat fragmentation and invasive species (SOULÉ; KOHN, 1989; SOULÉ; ORIANS, 2001; SODHI; EHRLICH, 2010). Conservation biology has become the major forum for discussion of issues related to habitat destruction and species extinction. Just as the practitioners of the discipline, besides producing knowledge, intend to operate in the “real world”, conservation biology ends up embroiled in ethics, philosophy, economics and social sciences. It expands the scope of the concerns with conservation, attributing “citizenship” to species and ecosystems that are not so charismatic. It shows itself to be sensitive to cultural differences and to the needs of various social groups. But, above all, it is part of a tradition of appreciation of the transcendent character of natural heritage, i.e., it shares the perception that nature has an intrinsic value (GROOM, MEFFE & CARROLL, 2006; MEINE, SOULÉ & NOSS, 2006; QUAMMEN, 2004).
Over the years I have evolved from biologist to conservation biologist: research enhances my role as an ecological missionary. The goal is to balance knowledge and action. Conservation problems are social and economic, not scientific, yet biologists have traditionally been expected to solve them. Research is easy; conservation most decidedly is not. [...] Seldom clear-cut, environmental issues often involve moral ambiguity. Instead of being just a biologist, something for which I was trained, I must also be an educator, diplomat, fundraiser, politician, anthropologist... (SCHALLER, 2007, p. 24).
The way to address the issue of nature conservation changed. From the preservation of wilderness, with its sublime landscapes and charismatic flora and fauna, there was a shift towards the conservation of biodiversity. The urgency to prevent the destruction of biodiversity caused many biologists to become conservation biologists. The increasingly scientific focus, the need to deal with the issues of the “real world”, especially those involving human interests, and the importance of managing, what in principle is untamed, the wilderness, has made biodiversity conservation one complex task. The transformations are accumulated and overlapped, but a thin line of continuity persists: the assigning of an intrinsic value for biodiversity, based more on an aesthetic sensitivity and on a sense of empathy for the diversity of life than in an unquestioned scientific knowledge.
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The book Biodiversity, organized by Edward O. Wilson, was published in 1988 by the National Academy Press, Washington. In this text, I use the translation from the Nova Fronteira publisher, 1997. 2 The manual by Richard B. Primack has editions adapted to many countries, including Brazil, where the book was published with the title Biologia da Conservação, and Primack had Ephraim Rodrigues as coauthor. PRIMACK, Richard; RODRIGUES, Efraim. Biologia da Conservação. Londrina: E. Rodrigues, 2001. The Meffe and Carrol manual gained a revised and updated edition, in 2006, and a co-author, Martha J. Groom. Groom, Martha J.; MEFFE, Gary K.; CARROLL, C. Ronald (Eds.). Principles of Conservation Biology. 3. ed. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 2006.
José Luiz de Andrade Franco holds a Ph.D. in History from the University of Brasilia (UNB). Associate Professor in the Department of History, the Post-Graduate Program in History and the Post-Graduate Program in Sustainable Development at UNB. Scholarship for Scientific Productivity from CNPq (National Research Council) - Level 2.
Received in September/2013. Approved in November/2013.

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