Source: https://www.juridicainternational.eu/index.php?id=14844
Timestamp: 2019-04-19 12:55:32+00:00

Document:
The opportunities offered by and the limitations of direct democracy became important in constitutional law in the past decade in connection with the enlargement of the European Union and especially in the context of reforms in which different referendums have played a significant role. *1 This has also resulted in the bulking up of literature dealing with the problems of direct democracy. *2 The application of direct democracy is directly associated with the principle of subsidiarity. The principle of people’s sovereignty mainly puts emphasis on the people as the bearer and source of the power of state and their role: the rights of organising political power and determining its structure are vested in the people while such rights must be linked with the legitimacy and will emanating from the people. It means, in particular, that the constitutional power (pouvoir constituant) is vested in the people. *3 This is to be understood to be imperative—state power may proceed solely from the people. Pursuant to §56 of the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia *4 (hereinafter referred to as the Constitution), the supreme power of state is exercised by the people through citizens with the right to vote by electing the Riigikogu and through a referendum. At that, pursuant to §162 of the Constitution, the provisions dealing with the fundamental principles and the procedure of their amendment (Chapters I and XV) may be amended only by a referendum.
This article explores the position of referendum provisions in the Constitution and also, more broadly, the subject of direct democracy in the context of Estonian constitutional law and in international comparison.
3) consultative referendum—also called the plebiscide or ad hoc referendum. A referendum may address any issues and is initiated either by the government or parliament. The outcome is non-binding. Such a regulation may be incorporated in the constitution (e.g., in France), be provided for by a special act (e.g., in Canada) or in the decision on the initiation of a referendum itself (e.g., in Great Britain).
As a rule, a referendum is general and direct; it may be held over a certain issue, including a draft act. A referendum should be distinguished from a public poll and a citizen initiated referendum. *6 With the latter, a draft act is initiated by the people and requires collection of a certain amount of signatures from the citizens. The number of signatures required to initiate a referendum varies and is prescribed either in the constitution or in a special act. The outcome of a referendum is usually binding, although its legitimacy may sometimes be assessed by a court or the parliament (e.g., in Switzerland, New-Zealand and some states of the US).
Jurisprudent Markku Suksi believes that the provisions containing direct democracy in some form are present in 85 constitutions of the world. *7 The table on the application of direct democracy (see Table 1) shows that direct democracy is more existent in European countries. In Europe, Switzerland has the greatest tradition of applying direct democracy—between 1945 and 2006 it held 396 direct democratic referendums. *8 In other European countries, direct democracy was widely applied in the enlargement process of the European Union.
To sum up, alongside representative democracy direct democracy in its various forms is being applied worldwide, including in Europe as an active mechanism of democracy.
Next let us have a look at the position of referendum clauses in Estonian legal order.
Such forms of direct democracy as referendum and citizen initiated referendum were also present in the constitutions of the Republic of Estonia before 1940. Section 29 of the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly in 1920 gave extensive powers to the people—besides elections of the Riigikogu and the form of a referendum, it also provided for the institute of a citizen initiated referendum. The people, i.e., the active citizenship, even had the right to step up as a legislator under the referendum regime—they could issue, amend or repeal acts (§31).
What was significant was that the active citizenship had exclusive rights to amend the constitution, whether by a citizen initiated referendum *11 or by the Riigikogu (§88). *12 Section 29 of the 1933 constitution provided that the people exercise the power of state by a referendum, citizen initiated referendum, election of the Riigikogu and election of the Riigivanem (president).
The 1938 constitution relinquished, inter alia, the referendum and kept only the institute of citizen initiated referendum (§35 4)).
Returning to current law, besides the Constitution the issues related to referendum are regulated also by a specific act. Clause 104 5) of the Constitution provides that the Referendum Act belongs to the constitutional laws, i.e., it may be passed and amended only by a majority of the membership of the Riigikogu. The Referendum Act *13 (hereinafter referred to as the RA) was adopted by the Riigikogu on 13 March 2002 and entered into force on 6 April 2002. Section 1 of the act provides for the issues already addressed in the Constitution (repeats the provisions of §§105 and 106 of the Constitution). A referendum is free, general, uniform and direct. Voting is secret, each voter has one vote. An Estonian citizen who has attained eighteen years of age by the date of a referendum may participate in the referendum. A person cannot participate in the voting if he or she has been divested of his or her active legal capacity by a court judgment or has been convicted by a court and is serving a sentence in a custodial institution (RA §2). Section 3 of the RA provides for the time of referendum so that a referendum is held not earlier than three months after the passage of a resolution to this effect by the Riigikogu (subsection 1) whilst a referendum is not held at a time when less than ninety days remain until elections to the Riigikogu. A referendum on a draft act to amend the Constitution or on another national issue may be scheduled for a time after the next elections to the Riigikogu; a referendum on another draft Act must not be scheduled for a time after the next elections to the Riigikogu; a referendum may be scheduled for the same day as Riigikogu elections or local government council elections (subsection 3). What is also important is the principle that referendums are not held on the same day on issues which are mutually exclusive or for the passage of acts which are in conflict with each other (subsection 4). Subsection 30 (1) of the RA provides that if a draft act is submitted to a referendum, the title of the draft act or, pursuant to a resolution of the Riigikogu, the text of the draft act, the question “Kas Teie olete seaduseelnõu seadusena vastuvõtmise poolt?” [Are you in favour of passage of the draft Act?] and spaces marked with the possible answers “jah” [yes] and “ei” [no] are entered on the ballot paper. If another national issue is submitted to a referendum, the wording of the issue and spaces marked with the possible answers “jah” [yes] and “ei” [no] are entered on the ballot paper.
3) the time of the referendum is not in accordance with §3 (3) of the RA due to extraordinary Riigikogu elections being called.
Just one referendum has been held under the current Constitution: On 14 September 2003, the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia Amendment Act *23 was adopted by a referendum. It was not possible to ratify the Treaty on accession to the European Union by a referendum as §106 of the Constitution prohibits to submit the issues related to the ratification and denunciation of international treaties to a referendum and there was no desire to amend §106 of the Constitution. It was important to amend the Constitution and hold a referendum as accession to the European Union was a matter of principle in terms of the nationhood and future of Estonia. A referendum was needed to amend the Constitution as the nature of such sections was altered whose amendment is possible only by a referendum; the decision of the Riigikogu on holding a referendum *24 was based on §§105, 162, 163, 164 and 167 of the Constitution and §30 (1) of the RA. The ballot paper presented the following question: “Kas Teie olete Euroopa Liiduga ühinemise ja Eesti Vabariigi põhiseaduse täiendamise seaduse vastuvõtmise poolt?” [Are you in favour of accession to the European Union and the passage of the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia Amendment Act?]. *25 However, a member of the Riigikogu Igor Gräzin noted that the legally correct question would have been “Kas olete nõus loobuma Eesti praegusest iseseisvusest Eesti astumise korral Euroopa Liitu?” [Are you in favour of relinquishing the current independence of Estonia upon Estonia’s accession to the European Union?] “as the State of Estonia ceases to exist in the form we know albeit the sovereignty of the nation (the right to an armed resurrection, national self-determination, etc. is inalienable”. *26 Jurisprudent Lauri Mälksoo finds that irrespective of the form and title of the amendment, in essence the Constitution was changed. Adoption of the Constitution Amendment Act enabled the Riigikogu to ratify the already signed treaty on Estonia’s accession to the European Union. *27 Section 1 of the adopted act provided that Estonia may belong to the European Union in accordance with the fundamental principles of the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia and §2 provided that as of Estonia’s accession to the European Union, the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia applies taking account of the rights and obligations arising from the Accession Treaty. The Constitution Amendment Act can be amended only by a referendum, meaning that should the legal nature of the European Union change drastically in the future and become unacceptable to Estonia and contrary to the provisions of the Constitution Amendment Act, the latter can be amended. The Riigikogu has the exclusive powers to organise a referendum, i.e., the Riigikogu must decide whether, for example, an issue concerning the future structure of the European Union is so fundamental that in order to form a stance a referendum is required to be held in Estonia.
Referendums promote democracy as the people are directly involved in decision making.
Professional politicians have decision-making know-how, entitling everyone to decide reduces the quality of decisions.
Referendums allow addressing issues in the clearest and most direct way.
Participants in a referendum base their decision on external circumstances, thus election behaviour and the final outcome are not indicative of the correct/actual interests.
A decision made by the people has greater legitimacy; this is especially important in issues of great relevance for the society.
A referendum facilitates the minority to be suppressed by the inconsiderate or prejudiced majority.
A referendum as a process raises the awareness of those participating in it as things are thoroughly discussed.
Those who participate in a referendum are predominantly those who have a (very) clear opinion/stance in the matter; as such referendums work against those who are moderate and less interested.
A reasonably implemented referendum enhances representative democracy.
The implementation of a referendum trivialises the decision process, i.e., referendum topics become mundane, participants are less motivated to understand things or search for information.
The principle of people’s sovereignty mainly places emphasis on the people as the bearer of the power of state and its role as a source of legitimacy. The people express their will through elections and various forms of direct democracy; direct democracy is being increasingly applied throughout the world—the most recent instances are related to the reform process of the European Union. The provisions of direct democracy are present in the constitutions of many countries. Referendums are addressed in §§105 and 106 of the current Constitution of the Republic of Estonia, and also in the Referendum Act. A referendum, as set out in the Constitution, covers both the referendums to amend the Constitution, referendums on other draft acts and referendums on other national issues. An act adopted by referendum normally has the same legal power as any act adopted by the parliament. Just one referendum has been held in Estonia under the current Constitution, although draft acts have on several occasions been tabled in the Riigikogu seeking to broaden the forms of direct democracy (local referendum, citizen initiated referendum). There have also been developments in European Union legislation (legitimisation of a pan-European citizens’ initiative). Such a development dynamic justifies the need to analyse the justifiability of the application of direct democracy in Estonian legal regime.
*1 For example, the referendums on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe in France and Holland in 2005; the referendums held in 2008 and 2009 in Ireland on the ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon. There were 24 referendums on the European Union treaties and accession to the EU between 1998 and 2008.
*2 Here the following sources can be cited: S. Binzer Hobold. Europe in Question: Referendums on European Integration. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2009; M. Setälä, T. Schiller. Referendums and Representative Democracy: Responsiveness, Accountability and Deliberation. Routledge/ECPR Studies in European Political Science 2009; Z. T. Pallinger, B. Kaufmann, W. Marxer, T. Schiller. Direct Democracy in Europe. Developments and Prospects. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften/GWV Fachverlage GmbH 2007; M. Qvortrup. A Comparative Study of Referendums: Government by the People. Manchester University Press 2005; T. Schiller. Direkte Demokratie. Forschung und Perspektiven. Westdeutscher Verlag 2003. There is also an abundance of other articles. As regards Estonia, there is a significant monograph by Vallo Olle. Kohaliku omavalitsuse teostamine vahetu demokraatia vormis: kohalik rahvaalgatus ja rahvahääletus (Exercising Local Government in the Form of Direct Democracy: Local Citizens’ Initiatives and Referendums). Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus 2002 (in Estonian).
*3 M. Suksi. Bringing in the People. A Comparison of Constitutional Forms and Practices of the Referendum. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Kluwer Academic Publishers 1993, pp. 16–28.
*4 Eesti Vabariigi põhiseadus. – RT 1992, 26, 349; RT I 2007, 33, 210 (in Estonian).
*5 L. LeDuc. The Politics of Direct Democracy: referendums in global perspective. Broadview Press 2003, p. 39.
*6 Committee for Expert Analysis of the Constitution, final report. Kommentaarid põhiseaduse 3. peatükile „Rahvas“ (Comments on Chapter 3 ‘People’ of the Constitution). Available at http://www.just.ee/10726 (19.3.2011) (in Estonian).
*7 M. Suksi (Note 3), p. 137.
*8 M. Gallagher. Elections and Referendums. – D. Caramani (ed.). Comparative Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2008, p. 257.
*9 The IRI Guidebook to Direct Democracy in Switzerland and beyond 2010. Köniz: Initiative & Referendum Institute Europe, Ast & Jakob, Vetsch AG, 2010, p. 208.
*11 In comparison, it should be pointed out that currently, under §161, the right to initiate amendment of the Constitution rests with not less than one-fifth of the membership of the Riigikogu and with the President of the Republic (subsection 1).
*12 H. Schneider. Riigiteoreetilisi probleeme: miks nad on tekkinud ja kuidas neid lahendada? (Theoretical Constitutional Problems: Why Have They Emerged and How to Solve Them?) – Juridica 1998/7, p. 355 (in Estonian).
*13 Rahvahääletuse seadus. – RT I 2002, 30, 176; 2009, 29, 175 (in Estonian). The act repealed the Referendum Act which had been in force since 19 June 1994 (RT I 1994, 41, 659; 2000, 95, 610).
*14 Riigikogu kodu- ja töökorra seadus. – RT I 2003, 24, 148; 2010, 28, 144 (in Estonian).
*15 Pursuant to §40 (1) of the RRPIRA a faction may be formed by and must comprise not less than five members of the Riigikogu who are elected from a list of candidates of the same political party. Pursuant to §17 of the RRPIRA the Riigikogu has standing committees, select committees, committees of investigation and study committees. Pursuant to §18 (2) of the RRPIRA committees prepare draft legislation for deliberation by the plenary assembly of the Riigikogu, exercise supervision over the exercise of executive power within their particular field and perform other functions assigned to the committees by law or by a resolution of the Riigikogu. Standing committees are formed under law; select committees are formed by a resolution of the Riigikogu which sets out the composition, including an alternate member to substitute for each committee member, functions and procedure for reporting on the activities of the committee (RRPIRA §19 (2)); committees of investigation and study are formed by a resolution of the Riigikogu which sets out the composition, including an alternate member to substitute for each committee member, functions and term of authority of the committee (RRPIRA §20 (2) and §21 (2)).
*16 Põhiseaduse rakendamise seadus. – RT I 1992, 26, 350 (in Estonian).
*17 Pursuant to §79 of the Constitution, the President of the Republic is elected by the Riigikogu or an electoral body. The electoral body is comprised of members of the Riigikogu and representatives of the local government councils. Each local government council elects at least one representative to the electoral body, who must be an Estonian citizen. The specific procedure for the election of the President of the Republic is provided by the President of the Republic Election Act (Vabariigi Presidendi valimise seadus. – RT I 1996, 30, 595; RT I, 16.11.2010, 9 (in Estonian)).
*18 A. Leps. Eesti põhiseaduse muutmisest (On the Amendment of the Estonian Constitution). – Akadeemia 1999/3, p. 461 (in Estonian).
*19 CRCSCd, No. III-4/1-2/93, 11.8.1993. – RT I 1993, 59, 841 (in Estonian).
*20 T. Annus. Riigiõigus (Constitutional Law). AS Juura 2006, p. 56 (in Estonian).
*21 The following sources were used in the table: Eesti Entsüklopeedia (Encyclopaedia of Estonia). Vol. 7. Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus 1994, article “Rahvahääletus” (Public Poll), p. 674; T. Raitviir. Eesti üleminekuperioodi valimiste (1989–1993) võrdlev uurimine (Elections in Estonia during the Transition Period: A Comparative Study (1989–1993). Institute of International and Social Studies. Tallinn: Teaduste Akadeemia Kirjastus 1996, pp. 165–181; informative Web site of the Electoral Committee of the Republic, available at http://www.vvk.ee (25.3.2011).
*22 T. Raitviir (Note 21); J. Ruus. Estonia. – Direct Democracy: The Eastern and Central European Experience. A. Auer, M. Butzer (ed.). Ashgate 2001, pp. 51–55.
*23 Eesti Vabariigi põhiseaduse täiendamise seadus. – RT I 2003, 64, 429 (in Estonian).
*24 Decision of the Riigikogu “Rahvahääletuse korraldamine Euroopa Liiduga ühinemise ja Eesti Vabariigi Põhiseaduse täiendamise küsimuses“ (Holding a Referendum on Accession to the European Union and Amendment of the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia). Adopted and entered into force 18.12.2002. – RT I 2003, 60 (in Estonian).
*25 J. Laffranque. Euroopa Liidu õigussüsteem ja Eesti õiguse koht selles (European Union Legal System and Estonia’s Place in It). AS Juura 2006, pp. 69–71 (in Estonian); A. Albi. EU Enlargement and the Constitutions of Central and Eastern Europe. Cambridge 2005, pp. 138–162.
*26 I. Gräzin. Eesti põhiseadus ja Euroopa Liidu referendum (Estonian Constitution and European Union referendum). – Riigikogu Toimetised 2002 (5). Available at http://www.riigikogu.ee/rito/index.php?id=11891&highlight=Gräzin&op=archive2 (25.3.2011) (in Estonian).
*27 L. Mälksoo. Eesti suveräänsus 1988–2008. Iganenud või igavene? – Tekste kaasaegsest suveräänsusest (Estonia’s Sovereignty 1998−2008. Obsolete or Infinite?—Texts on Modern Sovereignty). H. Kalmo, M. Luts-Sootak (ed.). Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus 2010, p. 141 (in Estonian).
*28 CRCSCr, 12.9.2003, 3-4-1-10-03; CRCSCr, 24.9.2003, 3-4-1-11-03; CRCSCd, 29.9.2001, 3-4-1-12-03; CRCSCr, 30.9.2003, 3-4-1-15-03; CRCSCd, 2.10.2003, 3-4-1-13-03; CRCSCd, 2.10.2003, 3-4-1-16-03; CRCSCd, 3.10.2003, 3-4-1-17-03; CRCSCr, 10.10.2003, 3-4-1-20-03; CRCSCd, 14.10.2003, 3-4-1-19-03; CRCSCr, 17.10.2003, 3-4-1-21-03; CRCSCr, 26.2.2004, 3-4-1-6-04.
*29 J. Laffranque (Note 26), pp. 72–73.
*30 E. Liivik. Legitimacy through Direct Democracy in the EU Member State: Direct Democratic Initiatives in the Estonian Parliament. The Proceedings of the Institute for European Studies. – Journal of Tallinn University of Technology 2010/8, pp. 91–93.
*31 Opinion of the Republic of the Government on draft act 210SE, 4.2008, No. 10.2-3/3174. Available at http://www.riigikogu.ee/index.php?page=en_vaade&op=ems&eid=254354 (25.3.2011) (in Estonian); draft act No. 210 SE II, initiated 28.2.2008. Available at http://www.riigikogu.ee/index.php?page=en_vaade&op=ems&eid=254354 (25.3.2011) (in Estonian).
*32 Opinion of the Government of the Republic on draft act No. 477SE, 4.6.2009, No. 10.2-3/5487. Available at http://www.riigikogu.ee/?page=en_vaade&op=ems&eid=611481 (25.3.2011) (in Estonian); draft act No. 477 SE II-1. Available at http://www.riigikogu.ee/?page=en_vaade&op=ems&eid=611481 (25.3.2011) (in Estonian).
*33 The League of Veterans (in Estonian vabadussõjalased or vapsid)—in actuality the League of Veterans of the Estonian War of Independence was founded in 1929. It was headed by General Andres Larka (1879–1943) and lawyer Artur Sirk (1900–1937). The veterans sought, among other things, to introduce the institute of a president in the constitution. In 1934, the leaders of the veterans were imprisoned upon the initiative of the then Prime Minister Konstantin Päts. See A. Kasekamp. Vaps. – World Fascism. A Historical Encyclopedia. C. P. Blamires, P. Jackson (eds.). ABC-CLIO, Inc California 2006, Vol. 2: L-Z, p. 696.
*34 A. Jõks. Rahvahääletust ei ole vaja karta (No Need to Fear the Referendum). – Postimees, 28.4.2005. Available at http://www.postimees.ee/280405/esileht/arvamus/164191_1.php (25.3.2011) (in Estonian).
*35 Lissaboni lepingu, millega muudetakse Euroopa Liidu lepingut ja Euroopa Ühenduse asutamise lepingut, ratifitseerimise seadus (Act Ratifying the Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community). – RT II 2008, 14, 36 (in Estonian). Information about the proceeding of the draft act available at http://www.riigikogu.ee/?page=en_vaade&op=ems&eid=240477&u=20110408144446 (29.3.2011) (in Estonian).
*36 D. Butler, A. Ranney. Referendums Around the World: The Growing Use of Direct Democracy. AEI Press 1994, pp. 14–15.
*37 M. Gallagher (Note 8), p. 256.
*38 Committee for Expert Analysis of the Constitution (Note 6).
*39 Põhiseadus ja põhiseaduse assamblee. Koguteos (Constitution and the Constitutional Assembly. The Complete Work). Eesti Vabariigi Justiitsministeerium; Juura, Õigusteabe AS 1997, p. 1290 (in Estonian).
*40 H. Schneider (Note 12).
*41 T. Annus (Note 20), pp. 54–55.
*42 K. Merusk, R. Narits. Eesti konstitutsiooniõigusest (On Estonian Constitutional Law). AS Juura 1998, pp. 39–40 (in Estonian).
*43 M. Suksi (Note 3), p. 121.
*44 R. Maruste. Miks põhiseadus vajab korrastamist (Why Constitution Needs Structuring). – Riigikogu Toimetised 2010 (22), p. 33 (in Estonian).
*45 Committee for Expert Analysis of the Constitution (Note 6).
*46 European citizens’ initiative. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/secretariat_general/citizens_initiative/index_-et.htm (25.3.2011).
*47 OJ L 65, 11.3.2011, p. 1. Available at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:065:0001:0022:ET:PDF (4.7.2011).
*48 R. Rose. The case for pan-European referendums. Europe’s World, Spring 2011. Available at http://www.europesworld.org/NewEnglish/Home_old/Article/tabid/191-/ArticleType/articleview/ArticleID/21795/language/en-US/Default.aspx (25.6.2011).

References: §56
 §162
 §2
 §3
 §106
 §106
 §30
 §2
 §161
 §40
 §17
 §18
 §19
 §20
 §21
 §79