Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/423/96/
Timestamp: 2019-04-24 00:49:40+00:00

Document:
Respondent, who had been arrested in connection with certain robberies and advised by a detective in accordance with Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U. S. 436, that he was not obliged to answer any questions and that he could remain silent if he wished, and having made oral and written acknowledgment of the Miranda warnings, declined to discuss the robberies, whereupon the detective ceased the interrogation. More than two hours later, after giving Miranda warnings, another detective questioned respondent solely about an unrelated murder. Respondent made an inculpatory statement, which was later used in his trial for murder, which resulted in his conviction. The appellate court reversed on the ground that Miranda mandated a cessation of all interrogation after respondent had declined to answer the first detective's questions.
Held: The admission in evidence of respondent's incriminating statement did not violate Miranda principles. Respondent's right to cut off questioning was scrupulously honored, the police having immediately ceased the robbery interrogation after respondent's refusal to answer and having commenced questioning about the murder only after a significant time lapse and after a fresh set of warnings had been given respondent. Westover v. United States, 384 U. S. 436, distinguished. Pp. 423 U. S. 99-107.
51 Mich.App. 105, 214 N.W.2d 564, vacated and remanded.
STEWART, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which BURGER, C.J., and BLACKMUN, POWELL, and REHNQUIST, JJ., joined. WHITE, J., filed an opinion concurring in the result, post, p. 423 U. S. 107. BRENNAN, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in which MARSHALL, J., joined, post, p. 423 U. S. 111.
The respondent, Richard Bert Mosley, was arrested in Detroit, Mich., in the early afternoon of April 8, 1971, in connection with robberies that had recently occurred at the Blue Goose Bar and the White Tower Restaurant on that city's lower east side. The arresting officer, Detective James Cowie of the Armed Robbery Section of the Detroit Police Department, was acting on a tip implicating Mosley and three other men in the robberies. [Footnote 1] After effecting the arrest, Detective Cowie brought Mosley to the Robbery, Breaking and Entering Bureau of the Police Department, located on the fourth floor of the departmental headquarters building. The officer advised Mosley of his rights under this Court's decision in Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U. S. 436, and had him read and sign the department's constitutional rights notification certificate. After filling out the necessary arrest papers, Cowie began questioning Mosley about the robbery of the White Tower Restaurant. When Mosley said he did not want to answer any questions about the robberies, Cowie promptly ceased the interrogation. The completion of the arrest papers and the questioning of Mosley together took approximately 20 minutes. At no time during the questioning did Mosley indicate a desire to consult with a lawyer, and there is no claim that the procedures followed to this point did not fully comply with the strictures of the Miranda opinion. Mosley was then taken to a ninth-floor cell block.
impermissible for Detective Hill to question him about the Williams murder after he had told Detective Cowie that he did not want to answer any questions about the robberies. [Footnote 5] The trial court denied the motion to suppress after an evidentiary hearing, and the incriminating statement was subsequently introduced in evidence against Mosley at his trial. The jury convicted Mosley of first-degree murder, and the court imposed a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment.
On appeal to the Michigan Court of Appeals, Mosley renewed his previous objections to the use of his incriminating statement in evidence. The appellate court reversed the judgment of conviction, holding that Detective Hill's interrogation of Mosley had been a per se violation of the Miranda doctrine. Accordingly, without reaching Mosley's other contentions, the Court remanded the case for a new trial with instructions that Mosley's statement be suppressed as evidence. 51 Mich.App. 105, 214 N.W.2d 564. After further appeal was denied by the Michigan Supreme Court, 392 Mich. 764, the State filed a petition for certiorari here. We granted the writ because of the important constitutional question presented. 419 U.S. 1119.
questioning a person in custody, [Footnote 6] and follow certain specified procedures during the course of any subsequent interrogation, any statement made by the person in custody cannot over his objection be admitted in evidence against him as a defendant at trial, even though the statement may, in fact, be wholly voluntary. See Michigan v. Tucker, 417 U. S. 433, 417 U. S. 443.
interrogation operates on the individual to overcome free choice in producing a statement after the privilege has been once invoked."
a person who has invoked his "right to silence" can never again be subjected to custodial interrogation by any police officer at any time or place on any subject. Another possible construction of the passage would characterize "any statement taken after the person invokes his privilege" as "the product of compulsion," and would therefore mandate its exclusion from evidence, even if it were volunteered by the person in custody without any further interrogation whatever. Or the passage could be interpreted to require only the immediate cessation of questioning, and to permit a resumption of interrogation after a momentary respite.
"fully effective means . . . to notify the person of his right of silence and to assure that the exercise of the right will be scrupulously honored. . . ."
wear down his resistance and make him change his mind. In contrast to such practices, the police here immediately ceased the interrogation, resumed questioning only after the passage of a significant period of time and the provision of a fresh set of warnings, and restricted the second interrogation to a crime that had not been a subject of the earlier interrogation.
The Michigan Court of Appeals viewed this case as factually similar to Westover v. United States, 384 U. S. 436, a companion case to Miranda. But the controlling facts of the two cases are strikingly different.
In Westover, the petitioner was arrested by the Kansas City police at 9:45 p.m. and taken to the police station. Without giving any advisory warnings of any kind to Westover, the police questioned him that night and throughout the next morning about various local robberies. At noon, three FBI agents took over, gave advisory warnings to Westover, and proceeded to question him about two California bank robberies. After two hours of questioning, the petitioner confessed to the California crimes. The Court held that the confession obtained by the FBI was inadmissible because the interrogation leading to the petitioner's statement followed on the heels of prolonged questioning that was commenced and continued by the Kansas City police without preliminary warnings to Westover of any kind. The Court found that "the federal authorities were the beneficiaries of the pressure applied by the local in-custody interrogation," and that the belated warnings given by the federal officers were "not sufficient to protect" Westover, because, from his point of view, "the warnings came at the end of the interrogation process." Id. at 384 U. S. 497, 384 U. S. 496.
and suspended questioning entirely for a significant period before beginning the interrogation that led to his incriminating statement. The cardinal fact of Westover -- the failure of the police officers to give any warnings whatever to the person in their custody before embarking on an intense and prolonged interrogation of him -- was simply not present in this case. The Michigan Court of Appeals was mistaken, therefore, in believing that Detective Hill's questioning of Mosley was "not permitted" by the Westover decision. 51 Mich.App. at 108, 214 N.W.2d at 566.
For these reasons, we conclude that the admission in evidence of Mosley's incriminating statement did not violate the principles of Miranda v. Arizona. Accordingly, the judgment of the Michigan Court of Appeals is vacated, and the case is remanded to that court for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
The officer testified that information supplied by an anonymous caller was the sole basis for his arrest of Mosley.
The original tip to Detective Cowie had, however, implicated Mosley in the Williams murder.
During cross-examination by Mosley's counsel at the evidentiary hearing, Detective Hill conceded that Smith, in fact, had not confessed, but had "denied a physical participation in the robbery."
But see n 5, infra.
In addition to the claim that Detective Hill's questioning violated Miranda, Mosley contended that the statement was the product of an illegal arrest, that the statement was inadmissible because he had not been taken before a judicial officer without unnecessary delay, and that it had been obtained through trickery and promises of leniency. He argued that these circumstances, either independently or in combination, required the suppression of his incriminating statement.
"that he has a right to remain silent, that any statement he does make may be used as evidence against him, and that he has a right to the presence of an attorney, either retained or appointed."
384 U.S. at 384 U. S. 444.
"This does not mean, as some have suggested, that each police station must have a 'station house lawyer' present at all times to advise prisoners. It does mean, however, that, if police propose to interrogate a person, they must make known to him that he is entitled to a lawyer and that, if he cannot afford one, a lawyer will be provided for him prior to any interrogation. If authorities conclude that they will not provide counsel during a reasonable period of time in which investigation in the field is carried out, they may refrain from doing so without violating the person's Fifth Amendment privilege so long as they do not question him during that time."
Id. at 384 U. S. 474.
"If an individual indicates his desire to remain silent, but has an attorney present, there may be some circumstances in which further questioning would be permissible. In the absence of evidence of overbearing, statements then made in the presence of counsel might be free of the compelling influence of the interrogation process and might fairly be construed as a waiver of the privilege for purposes of these statements."
Id. at 384 U. S. 474 n. 44. This footnote in the Miranda opinion is not relevant to the present case, since Mosley did not have an attorney present at the time he declined to answer Detective Cowie's questions, and the officer did not continue to question Mosley, but instead ceased the interrogation in compliance with Miranda's dictates.
It is instructive to note that the vast majority of federal and state courts presented with the issue have concluded that the Miranda opinion does not create a per se proscription of any further interrogation once the person being questioned has indicated a desire to remain silent. See Hill v. Whealon, 490 F.2d 629, 630, 635 (CA6 1974); United States v. Collins, 462 F.2d 792, 802 (CA2 1972) (en banc); Jennings v. United States, 391 F.2d 512, 515-516 (CA5 1968); United States v. Choice, 392 F.Supp. 460, 466-467 (ED Pa.1975); McIntyre v. New York, 329 F.Supp. 9, 13-14 (EDNY 1971); People v. Naranjo, 181 Colo. 273, 277-278, 509 P.2d 1235, 1237 (1973); People v. Pittman, 55 Ill.2d 39, 54-56, 302 N.E.2d 7, 16-17 (1973); State v. McClelland, 164 N.W.2d 189, 192-196 (Iowa 1969); State v. Law, 214 Kan. 643, 647-649, 522 P.2d 320, 324-325 (1974); Conway v. State, 7 Md.App. 400, 405-411, 256 A.2d 178, 181-184 (1969); State v. O'Neill, 299 Minn. 60, 70-71, 216 N.W.2d 822, 829 (1974); State v. Godfrey, 182 Neb. 451, 454-457, 155 N.W.2d 438, 440-442 (1968); People v. Gar, 31 N.Y.2d 68, 69-70, 286 N.E.2d 263, 264 (197.2); State v. Bishop, 272 N.C. 283, 296-297, 158 S.E.2d 511, 520 (1968); Commonwealth v. Grandison, 449 Pa. 231, 233-234, 296 A.2d 730, 731 (1972); State v. Robinson, 87 S.D. 375, 378, 209 N.W.2d 374, 375-377 (1973); Hill v. State, 429 S.W.2d 481, 486-487 (Tex.Crim.App. 1968); State v. Estrada, 63 Wis.2d 476, 486-488, 217 N.W.2d 359, 365-366 (1974). See also People v. Fioritto, 68 Cal.2d 714, 717-720, 441 P.2d 625, 626-628 (1968) (permitting the suspect but not the police to initiate further questioning).
Citation of the above cases does not imply a view of the merits of any particular decision.
The dissenting opinion asserts that Miranda established a requirement that, once a person has indicated a desire to remain silent, questioning may be resumed only when counsel is present. Post at 423 U. S. 116-117. But clearly the Court in Miranda imposed no such requirement, for it distinguished between the procedural safeguards triggered by a request to remain silent and a request for an attorney and directed that "the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present" only "[i]f the individual states that he wants an attorney." 384 U.S. at 384 U. S. 474.
"A. I think at that time he declined to answer whether he had been involved."
"Q. He declined to answer?"
"A. Yes. Anything about the robberies."
At the suppression hearing, Mosley did not in any way dispute Cowie's testimony. Not until trial, after the judge had denied the motion to suppress the incriminating statement, did Mosley offer a somewhat different version of his earlier refusal to answer Detective Cowie's questions. The briefs submitted by Mosley's counsel to the Michigan Court of Appeals and to this Court accepted Detective Cowie's account of the interrogation as correct, and the Michigan Court of Appeals decided the case on that factual premise. At oral argument before this Court, both counsel discussed the case solely in terms of Cowie's description of the events.
as "absurd" any contrary rule. I disagree. I do not think the majority's conclusion is compelled by Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U. S. 436 (1966), and I suspect that, in the final analysis, the majority will adopt voluntariness as the standard by which to judge the waiver of the right to silence by a properly informed defendant. I think the Court should say so now.
incompetent, we have in the past rejected any paternalistic rule protecting a defendant from his intelligent and voluntary decisions about his own criminal case; Faretta v. California, 422 U. S. 806 (1975). To do so would be to "imprison a man in his privileges," [Footnote 2/1] Adams v. United States ex rel. McCann, 317 U. S. 269, 317 U. S. 280 (1942), and to disregard "that respect for the individual which is the lifeblood of the law,'" Faretta v. California, supra at 422 U. S. 834. I am very reluctant to conclude that Miranda stands for such a proposition.
"If the interrogation continues without the presence of an attorney and a statement is taken, a heavy burden rests on the government to demonstrate that the defendant knowingly and intelligently waived his privilege against self-incrimination and his right to retained or appointed counsel."
Id. at 384 U. S. 475. Apparently, although placing a heavy burden on the government, Miranda intended waiver of the "right to silence" to be tested by the normal standards. In any event, insofar as the Miranda decision might be read to require interrogation to cease for some magical and unspecified period of time following an assertion of the "right to silence," and to reject voluntariness as the standard by which to judge informed waivers of that right, it should be disapproved as inconsistent with otherwise uniformly applied legal principles.
says only that such a requirement would be necessary to avoid "undermining" "the will of the person being questioned." Yet surely a waiver of the "right to silence" obtained by "undermining the will" of the person being questioned would be considered an involuntary waiver. Thus, in order to achieve the majority's only stated purpose, it is sufficient to exclude all confessions which are the result of involuntary waivers. To exclude any others is to deprive the factfinding process of highly probative information for no reason at all. The "repeated rounds" of questioning following an assertion of the privilege, which the majority is worried about, would, of course, count heavily against the State in any determination of voluntariness -- particularly if no reason (such as new facts communicated to the accused or a new incident being inquired about) appeared for repeated questioning. There is no reason, however, to rob the accused of the choice to answer questions voluntarily for some unspecified period of time following his own previous contrary decision. The Court should now so state.
The majority's rule may cause an accused injury. Although a recently arrested individual may have indicated an initial desire not to answer questions, he would nonetheless want to know immediately -- if it were true -- that his ability to explain a particular incriminating fact or to supply an alibi for a particular time period would result in his immediate release. Similarly, he might wish to know -- if it were true -- that (1) the case against him was unusually strong and that (2) his immediate cooperation with the authorities in the apprehension and conviction of others or in the recovery of property would redound to his benefit in the form of a reduced charge. Certainly the individual's lawyer, if he had one, would be interested in such information, even if communication of such information followed closely on an assertion of the "right to silence." Where the individual has not requested counsel and has chosen instead to make his own decisions regarding his conversations with the authorities, he should not be deprived even temporarily of any information relevant to the decision.
The question of the proper procedure following expression by an individual of his desire to consult counsel is not presented in this case. It is sufficient to note that the reasons to keep the lines of communication between the authorities and the accused open when the accused has chosen to make his own decisions are not present when he indicates instead that he wishes legal advice with respect thereto. The authorities may then communicate with him through an attorney. More to the point, the accused having expressed his own view that he is not competent to deal with the authorities without legal advice, a later decision at the authorities' insistence to make a statement without counsel's presence may properly be viewed with skepticism.
cut off questioning, the setting of in-custody interrogation operates on the individual to overcome free choice in producing a statement after the privilege has been once invoked."
But the process of eroding Miranda rights, begun with Harris v. New York, 401 U. S. 222 (1971), continues with today's holding that police may renew the questioning of a suspect who has once exercised his right to remain silent, provided the suspect's right to cut off questioning has been "scrupulously honored." Today's distortion of Miranda's constitutional principles can be viewed only as yet another step in the erosion, and, I suppose, ultimate overruling, of Miranda's enforcement of the privilege against self-incrimination.
"concluded that, without proper safeguards, the process of in-custody interrogation of persons suspected or accused of crime contains inherently compelling pressures which work to undermine the individual's will to resist and to compel him to speak where he would not otherwise do so freely."
or an adequate substitute safeguard was per se inadmissible in evidence. Id. at 384 U. S. 468-469, 384 U. S. 479. Satisfaction of this prophylactic rule, therefore, was necessary, though not sufficient, for the admission of a confession. Certiorari was expressly granted in Miranda "to give concrete constitutional guidelines for law enforcement agencies and courts to follow," id. at 384 U. S. 441-442, that is, clear, objective standards that might be applied to avoid the vagaries of the traditional voluntariness test.
The task that confronts the Court in this case is to satisfy the Miranda approach by establishing "concrete constitutional guidelines" governing the resumption of questioning a suspect who, while in custody, has once clearly and unequivocally "indicate[d] . . . that he wishes to remain silent. . . ." As the Court today continues to recognize, under Miranda, the cost of assuring voluntariness by procedural tests, independent of any actual inquiry into voluntariness, is that some voluntary statements will be excluded. Ante at 423 U. S. 99-100. Thus, the consideration in the task confronting the Court is not whether voluntary statements will be excluded, but whether the procedures approved will be sufficient to assure with reasonable certainty that a confession is not obtained under the influence of the compulsion inherent in interrogation and detention. The procedures approved by the Court today fail to provide that assurance.
of a voluntary relinquishment of the privilege."
"the setting of in-custody interrogation operates on the individual to overcome free choice in producing a statement after the privilege has been once invoked."
Id. at 384 U. S. 474. Thus, as to statements which are the product of renewed questioning, Miranda established a virtually irrebuttable presumption of compulsion, see id. at 384 U. S. 474 n. 44, and that presumption stands strongest where, as in this case, a suspect, having initially determined to remain silent, is subsequently brought to confess his crime. Only by adequate procedural safeguards could the presumption be rebutted.
In formulating its procedural safeguard, the Court skirts the problem of compulsion, and thereby fails to join issue with the dictates of Miranda. The language which the Court finds controlling in this case teaches that renewed questioning itself is part of the process which invariably operates to overcome the will of a suspect. That teaching is embodied in the form of a proscription on any further questioning once the suspect has exercised his right to remain silent. Today's decision uncritically abandons that teaching. The Court assumes, contrary to the controlling language, that "scrupulously honoring" an initial exercise of the right to remain silent preserves the efficaciousness of initial and future warnings despite the fact that the suspect has once been subjected to interrogation and then has been detained for a lengthy period of time.
"that the admissibility of statements obtained after the person in custody has decided to remain silent depends . . .
on whether his 'right to cut off questioning' was 'scrupulously honored.'"
Ante at 423 U. S. 103, 423 U. S. 104. But scrupulously honoring exercises of the right to cut off questioning is only meaningful insofar as the suspect's will to exercise that right remains wholly unfettered. The Court's formulation thus assumes the very matter at issue here: whether renewed questioning following a lengthy period of detention acts to overbear the suspect's will, irrespective of giving the Miranda warnings a second time (and scrupulously honoring them), thereby rendering inconsequential any failure to exercise the right to remain silent. For the Court, it is enough conclusorily to assert that "[t]he subsequent questioning did not undercut Mosley's previous decision not to answer Detective Cowie's inquiries." Ante at 423 U. S. 105. Under Miranda, however, Mosley's failure to exercise the right upon renewed questioning is presumptively the consequence of an overbearing in which detention and that subsequent questioning played central roles.
where there are often impartial observers to guard against intimidation or trickery."
384 U.S. at 384 U. S. 461 (footnote omitted).
"[t]he presence of counsel . . . would be the adequate protective device necessary to make the process of police interrogation conform to the dictates of the privilege [against self-incrimination]."
"If the individual indicates in any manner, at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease."
"If an individual indicates his desire to remain silent but has an attorney present, there may be some circumstances in which further questioning would be permissible. In the absence of evidence of overbearing, statements then made in the presence of counsel might be free of the compelling influence of the interrogation process and might fairly be construed as a waiver of the privilege for purposes of these statements."
"[i]n Miranda, the Court found that the techniques of police questioning and the nature of custodial surroundings produce an inherently coercive situation."
Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U. S. 218, 412 U. S. 247 (1973). I can only conclude that today's decision signals rejection of Miranda's basic premise.
declined to answer "[a]nything about the robberies,'" ante at 423 U. S. 105 n. 11. That can be read only against the background of the anonymous tip that implicated Mosley in the Williams incident. Read in that light, it may reasonably be inferred that Cowie understood "[a]nything" to include the Williams episode, since the anonymous tip embraced that episode. More than this, the Court's reading of Cowie's testimony is not even faithful to the standard it articulates here today. "Anything about the robberies" may more than reasonably be interpreted as comprehending the Williams murder, which occurred during a robbery. To interpret Mosley's alleged statement to the contrary, therefore, hardly honors "scrupulously" the suspect's rights.
1972, granted the Commonwealth's petition for certiorari to review that decision. 405 U.S. 987. A month later, however, the error of the grant having been made apparent, the Court vacated the order of March 20, "it appearing that the judgment below rests upon an adequate state ground." 406 U.S. 910. Understandably, state courts and legislatures are, as matters of state law, increasingly according protections once provided as federal rights but now increasingly depreciated by decisions of this Court. See, e.g., State v. Santiago, 53 Haw. 254, 492 P.2d 657 (1971) (rejecting Harris v. New York, 401 U. S. 222 (1971)); People v. Beavers, 393 Mich. 554, 227 N.W.2d 511 (1975), cert. denied, post, p. 878 (rejecting United States v. White, 401 U. S. 745 (1971)); State v. Johnson, 68 N.J. 349, 346 A.2d 66 (1975) (rejecting Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U. S. 218 (1973)); Commonwealth v. Campana, 455 Pa. 622, 314 A.2d 854, cert. denied, 417 U.S. 969 (1974) (adopting "same transaction or occurrence" view of Double Jeopardy Clause). I note that Michigan's Constitution has its own counterpart to the privilege against self-incrimination. Mich.Const., Art. 1, § 17; see State v. Johnson, supra.
"Unless adequate protective devices are employed to dispel the compulsion inherent in custodial surroundings, no statement obtained from the defendant can truly be the product of his free choice."
384 U.S. at 384 U. S. 458.
Mich.Comp.Laws §§ 764.13, 764.26 (1970); Mich.Stat.Ann. §§ 28.871(1), 28.885 (1972). Detective Cowie's testimony indicated that a judge was available across the street from the police station in which Mosley was held from 2:15 p.m. until 4 p.m. or 4:30 p.m. App. 13. The actual interrogation of Mosley, however, covered only 15 or 20 minutes of this time. Id. at 14. The failure to comply with a simple state law requirement in these circumstances is totally at odds with the holding that the police "scrupulously honored" Mosley's rights.
In addition, a break in custody for a substantial period of time would permit -- indeed it would require -- law enforcement officers to give Miranda warnings a second time.
I do not mean to imply that counsel may be forced on a suspect who does not request an attorney. I suggest only that either arraignment or counsel must be provided before resumption of questioning to eliminate the coercive atmosphere of in-custody interrogation. The Court itself apparently proscribes resuming questioning until counsel is present if an accused has exercised the right to have an attorney present at questioning. Ante at 423 U. S. 101 n. 7.
The Court asserts that this language is not relevant to the present case, for "Mosley did not have an attorney present at the time he declined to answer Detective Cowie's questions." Ante at 423 U. S. 102 n. 8. The language, however, does not compel a reading that it is applicable only if counsel is present when the suspect initially exercises his right to remain silent. Even if it did, this would only indicate that Miranda placed even stiffer limits on the circumstances when questioning may be resumed than I suggest here. Moreover, since the concern in Miranda was with assuring the absence of compulsion upon renewed questioning, it makes little difference whether counsel is initially present. Thus, even if the language does not specifically address the situation where counsel is not initially present, it certainly contemplates that situation.
The Court also asserts that Miranda "directed that the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present' only `[i]f the individual states that he wants an attorney.'" Ante at 423 U. S. 104 n. 10 (quoting 384 U.S. at 384 U. S. 474). This is patently inaccurate. The language from the quoted portion of Miranda actually reads: "If the individual states that he wants an attorney, the interrogation must cease until an attorney is present."
I do not suggest that the Court's opinion is to be read as permitting unreasonably lengthy detention without arraignment so long as any exercise of rights by a suspect is "scrupulously honored." The question of whether there is some constitutional limitation on the length of time police may detain a suspect without arraignment, cf. Gerstein v. Pugh, 420 U. S. 103 (1975); Mallory v. United States, 354 U. S. 449 (1957); McNabb v. United States, 318 U. S. 332 (1943), is an open one, and is not now before the Court.
"Although the two law enforcement authorities are legally distinct and the crimes for which they interrogated Westover were different, the impact on him was that of a continuous period of questioning. . . ."
"We do not suggest that law enforcement authorities are precluded from questioning any individual who has been held for a period of time by other authorities and interrogated by them without appropriate warnings. A different case would be presented if an accused were taken into custody by the second authority, removed both in time and place from his original surroundings, and then adequately advised of his rights and given an opportunity to exercise them. But here the FBI interrogation was conducted immediately following the state interrogation in the same police station -- in the same compelling surroundings. Thus, in obtaining a confession from Westover, the federal authorities were the beneficiaries of the pressure applied by the local in-custody interrogation. In these circumstances, the giving of warnings alone was not sufficient to protect the privilege."
Id. at 384 U. S. 496-497.
It is no answer to say that the questioning was resumed by a second police officer. Surely Santobello v. New York, 404 U. S. 257, 404 U. S. 262 (1971), requires that the case be decided as if it involved two interrogation sessions by a single law enforcement officer.
Although my Brother MARSHALL correctly argued in Hass, 420 U.S. at 420 U. S. 728 (dissenting), that we should have remanded for the state court to clarify whether it was relying on state or federal law, such a disposition is not required here. In Hass, the state court cited both federal and state authority; in this case, Mosley's counsel has conceded that the self-incrimination argument in the state court was based solely on the Fifth Amendment to the Federal Constitution. Tr. of Oral Arg. 44.

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