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Justia › US Law › US Case Law › US Supreme Court › Volume 450 › Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp.
State safety regulations cannot hinder interstate commerce more substantially than they promote their own goals.
A state law in Iowa provided that vehicles longer than 55 feet could not travel on its highways, unless they were trucks pulling two trailers, in which case a 60-foot limit was imposed. No other state in the western or midwestern regions of the country prohibited the use of 65-foot vehicles that were trucks pulling two trailers. Consolidated Freightways Corp. argued that this law thus created an undue burden on interstate commerce, and the lower courts agreed.
A strong presumption of validity attaches to state safety regulations that are made in good faith, but the presumption can be overcome. The state failed to show why 65-foot double trailers posed greater dangers than the 55-foot single trailers that the regulation permitted. On the other hand, the law creates a substantial burden on interstate commerce because it requires common carriers to use smaller trucks for routes going through the state or to route all of their larger trucks outside the state.
More weight should have been given to the presumption of validity for a state safety regulation. It may be struck down as unconstitutional only if its stated purpose is a pretext for discrimination against interstate commerce. The evidence does not show that this law is a pretext, so it should be upheld as constitutional.
This application of the dormant Commerce Clause balanced the benefits that the law gained for the state against the burdens that it placed on interstate commerce by impeding the operations of trucking companies.
Held: The judgment is affirmed. Pp. 450 U. S. 669-679; 450 U. S. 679-687.
JUSTICE POWELL, joined by JUSTICE WHITE, JUSTICE BLACKMUN, and JUSTICE STEVENS, concluded that the Iowa truck length limitations unconstitutionally burden interstate commerce. See Raymond Motor Transportation, Inc. v. Rice, 434 U. S. 429. Pp. 450 U. S. 669-679.
Raymond, supra at 434 U. S. 443, 441. Pp. 450 U. S. 669-671.
safe interstate transportation, the Iowa law cannot be harmonized with the Commerce Clause. The record, including statistical studies, supports the District Court's finding that 65-foot doubles are as safe as 55-foot singles. And appellee demonstrated that Iowa's law substantially burdens interstate commerce. In addition to the increased costs of trucking companies in routing 65-foot doubles around Iowa or using smaller truck units through the State, Iowa's law may aggravate, rather than ameliorate, the problem of highway accidents. Iowa's restriction -- resulting in either more smaller trucks being driven through Iowa or the same number of larger trucks being driven longer distances to bypass Iowa -- requires more highway miles to be driven to transport the same quantity of goods. Other things being equal, accidents are proportional to distance traveled. Thus, if 65-foot doubles are as safe as 55-foot singles, Iowa's law tends to increase the number of accidents, and to shift their incidence from Iowa to other States. Pp. 450 U. S. 671-675.
(c) While the Court normally accords "special deference" to a state legislature's judgment in enacting highway regulations, Raymond, supra, at 434 U. S. 444, n. 18, less deference is due where, as here, the local regulation bears disproportionately on out-of-state residents and businesses. Exemptions in Iowa's statutory scheme -- particularly those permitting single-trailer trucks hauling livestock or farm vehicles to be as long as 60 feet, and permitting cities abutting other States to enact local ordinances to adopt the larger length limitation of the neighboring State, and thus allow otherwise oversized trucks within the city limits and in nearby commercial zones -- secure to Iowans many of the benefits of large trucks while shunting to neighboring States many of the costs associated with their use. Moreover, the history of the "border cities exemption" suggests that Iowa's statute may not have been designed to ban dangerous trucks, but rather to discourage interstate truck traffic. A State cannot constitutionally promote its own parochial interests by requiring safe vehicles to detour around it. Pp. 450 U. S. 675-678.
sought to discourage interstate truck traffic on its highways. This purpose, being protectionist in nature, is impermissible under the Commerce Clause. Iowa may not shunt off its fair share of the burden of maintaining interstate truck routes, nor may it create increased hazards on the highways of neighboring States in order to decrease the hazards on Iowa highways. Pp. 450 U. S. 679-687.
POWELL, J., announced the judgment of the Court and delivered an opinion, in which WHITE, BLACKMUN, and STEVENS, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, J., filed an opinion concurring in the judgment, in which MARSHALL, J., joined, post, p. 450 U. S. 679. REHNQUIST, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in which BURGER, C.J., and STEWART J., joined, post, p. 450 U. S. 687.
Consolidated mainly uses two kinds of trucks. One consists of a three-axle tractor pulling a 40-foot two-axle trailer. This unit, commonly called a single, or "semi," is 55 feet in length overall. Such trucks have long been used on the Nation's highways. Consolidated also uses a two-axle tractor pulling a single-axle trailer which, in turn, pulls a single-axle dolly and a second single-axle trailer. This combination, known as a double, or twin, is 65 feet long overall. [Footnote 1] Many trucking companies, including Consolidated, increasingly prefer to use doubles to ship certain kinds of commodities. Doubles have larger capacities, and the trailers can be detached and routed separately if necessary. Consolidated would like to use 65-foot doubles on many of its trips through Iowa.
It is unnecessary to review in detail the evolution of the principles of Commerce Clause adjudication. The Clause is both a "prolific ' of national power and an equally prolific source of conflict with legislation of the state[s]." H. P. Hood & Sons, Inc. v. Du Mond, 336 U. S. 525, 336 U. S. 534 (1949). The Clause permits Congress to legislate when it perceives that the national welfare is not furthered by the independent actions of the States. It is now well established, also, that the Clause itself is "a limitation upon state power even without congressional implementation." Hunt v. Washington Apple Advertising Comm'n, 432 U. S. 333, 432 U. S. 350 (1977). The Clause requires that some aspects of trade generally must remain free from interference by the States. When a State ventures excessively into the regulation of these aspects of commerce, it "trespasses upon national interests," Great A&P Tea Co. v. Cottrell, 424 U. S. 366, 424 U. S. 373 (1976), and the courts will hold the state regulation invalid under the Clause alone.
Raymond, supra at 434 U. S. 449 (BLACKMUN, J., concurring). Those who would challenge such bona fide safety regulations must overcome a "strong presumption of validity." Bibb v. Navajo Freight Lines, Inc., 359 U. S. 520, 359 U. S. 524 (1959).
Id. at 434 U. S. 441; accord, Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U. S. 137, 397 U. S. 142 (1970); Bibb, supra, at 359 U. S. 525-530; Southern Pacific, supra, at 325 U. S. 770.
The trial focused on a comparison of the performance of the two kinds of trucks in various safety categories. The evidence showed, and the District Court found, that the 65-foot double was at least the equal of the 55-foot single in the ability to brake, turn, and maneuver. The double, because of its axle placement, produces less splash and spray in wet weather. [Footnote 13] And, because of its articulation in the middle, the double is less susceptible to dangerous "off-tracking," [Footnote 14] and to wind.
on an interstate. [Footnote 15] In any event, no evidence suggested any difference in backing capability between the 60-foot doubles that Iowa permits and the 65-foot doubles that it bans. Similarly, although doubles tend to jackknife somewhat more than singles, 65-foot doubles actually are less likely to jackknife than 60-foot doubles.
App. 626. [Footnote 23] After the veto, the "border cities exemption" was immediately enacted and signed by the Governor.
In sum, the statutory exemptions, their history, and the arguments Iowa has advanced in support of its law in this litigation all suggest that the deference traditionally accorded a State's safety judgment is not warranted. See Raymond, supra at 434 U. S. 444, and n. 18, 434 U. S. 446-447. [Footnote 25] The controlling factors thus are the findings of the District Court, accepted by the Court of Appeals, with respect to the relative safety of the types of trucks at issue, and the substantiality of the burden on interstate commerce.
The dissenting opinion also suggests that its conclusions are bolstered by the fact that the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) recommends that States limit truck lengths. Post at 450 U. S. 693, 450 U. S. 699. The dissent fails to point out, however, that AASHTO specifically recommends that States permit 65-foot doubles. App. 602-603.
The dissenting opinion insists that we defer to Iowa's truck length limitations because they represent the collective judgment of the Iowa Legislature. See post at 450 U. S. 691-692, 450 U. S. 696-697, 450 U. S. 699, 450 U. S. 700. This position is curious, because, as noted above, the Iowa Legislature approved a bill legalizing 65-foot doubles. The bill was vetoed by the Governor, primarily for parochial, rather than legitimate safety, reasons. The dissenting opinion is at a loss to explain the Governor's interest in deflecting interstate truck traffic around Iowa.
Locomotive Firemen v. Chicago, R.I. & P. R. Co., 393 U. S. 129 (1968), in its result, although perhaps not in all of its language, is consistent with the conclusion we reach today. There, the Arkansas "full-crew" laws were upheld against constitutional challenge because the Court easily perceived that they made nonillusory contributions to safety. See id. at 393 U. S. 136-138. Here, as in Raymond, there was no such evidence. This case and Raymond recognize, as the Court did in Locomotive Firemen, that States constitutionally may enact laws that demonstrably promote safety, even when those laws also burden the flow of commerce.
As noted above, the District Court and the Court of Appeals held that the Iowa statutory scheme unconstitutionally burdened interstate commerce. The District Court, however, found that the statute did not discriminate against such commerce. 475 F.Supp. at 553. Because the record fully supports the decision below with respect to the burden on interstate commerce, we need not consider whether the statute also operated to discriminate against that commerce. See Raymond, 434 U.S. at 434 U. S. 446-447, n. 24. The latter theory was neither briefed nor argued in this Court.
JUSTICE REHNQUIST, in dissent, states that, as he reads the various opinions in this case, "only four Justices invalidate Iowa's law on the basis of the analysis in Raymond." Post at 450 U. S. 700, n. 10. It should be emphasized that Raymond, the analysis of which was derived from the Court's opinion in Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U. S. 137 (1970), was joined by each of the eight Justices who participated. Today, JUSTICE BRENNAN finds it unnecessary to reach the Raymond analysis because he finds the Iowa statute to be flawed for a threshold reason.
In 1974, the Iowa Legislature again voted to increase the permissible length of trucks to conform to uniform standards then in effect in most other States. This legislation, House Bill 671, would have increased the maximum length of twin trailer trucks operable in Iowa from 60 to 65 feet. But Governor Ray broke from prior state policy, and vetoed the legislation. The legislature did not override the veto, and the present regulation was thus maintained. In his veto, [Footnote 2/4] Governor Ray did not rest his decision on the conclusion that 55-foot singles and 60-foot doubles are any safer than 65-foot doubles, or on any other safety consideration inherent in the type or size of the trucks. Rather, his principal concern was that to allow 65-foot doubles would "basically ope[n] our state to literally thousands and thousands more trucks per year." App. 628. This increase in interstate truck traffic would, in the Governor's estimation, greatly increase highway maintenance costs, which are borne by the citizens of the State, id. at 628-629, and increase the number of accidents and fatalities within the State. Id. at 628. The legislative response was not to override the veto, but to accede to the Governor's action, and in accord with his basic premise, to enact a "border cities exemption." This permitted cities within border areas to allow 65-foot doubles while otherwise maintaining the 60-foot limit throughout the State to discourage interstate truck traffic.
Although the Court has stated that "[i]n no field has . . . deference to state regulation been greater than that of highway safety," Raymond Motor Transportation, Inc. v. Rice, 434 U.S. at 434 U. S. 443, it has declined to go so far as to presume that size restrictions are inherently tied to public safety. Id. at 434 U. S. 444, n.19. The Court has emphasized that the "strong presumption of validity" of size restrictions "cannot justify a court in closing its eyes to uncontroverted evidence of record," ibid. -- here the obvious fact that the safety characteristics of 65-foot doubles did not provide the motivation for either legislators or Governor in maintaining the regulation.
Iowa may not shunt off its fair share of the burden of maintaining interstate truck routes, nor may it create increased hazards on the highways of neighboring States in order to decrease the hazards on Iowa highways. Such an attempt has all the hallmarks of the "simple . . . protectionism" this Court has condemned in the economic area. Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U. S. 617, 437 U. S. 624 (1978). Just as a State's attempt to avoid interstate competition in economic goods may damage the prosperity of the Nation as a whole, so Iowa's attempt to deflect interstate truck traffic has been found to make the Nation's highways as a whole more hazardous. That attempt should therefore be subject to "a virtually per se rule of invalidity." Ibid.
legislative judgment about their importance in comparison with related burdens on interstate commerce."
(Citing cases.) And in Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Muria, 427 U. S. 307, 427 U. S. 314 (1976), we stated that a classification challenged as being discriminatory will be upheld only if it "rationally furthers the purpose identified by the State." See also Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co., 449 U. S. 456, 449 U. S. 463, n. 7 (1981); Califano v. Goldfarb, 430 U. S. 199, 430 U. S. 212-213 (1977) (plurality opinion); Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp., 426 U. S. 794, 426 U. S. 813, n. 23 (1976); Johnson v. Robison, 415 U. S. 361, 416 U. S. 381-382 (1974).
The extent to which we may rely upon post hoc justifications of counsel depends on the circumstances surrounding passage of the legislation. Where there is no evidence bearing on the actual purpose for a legislative classification, our analysis necessarily focuses on the suggestions of counsel, see Allied Stores of Ohio, Inc. v. Bowers, supra at 358 U. S. 528-529 (relied upon by the dissent, post at 450 U. S. 703-704, n. 13). Even then, "marginally more demanding scrutiny" is appropriate to "test the plausibility of the tendered purpose." Schweiker v. Wilson, ante at 450 U. S. 245 (POWELL, J., dissenting). But where the lawmakers' purposes in enacting a statute are explicitly set forth, e.g., Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co., supra at 449 U. S. 458-459; Johnson v. Robison, supra at 416 U. S. 376, or are clearly discernible from the legislative history, e.g., Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp., supra at 426 U. S. 813, n. 23; McGinnis v. Royster, 410 U. S. 263, 410 U. S. 274-277 (1973), this Court should not take -- and, with the possible exception of United States Railroad Retirement Board v. Fritz, 449 U. S. 166 (1980), see id. at 187-193 (BRENNAN, J., dissenting), has not taken -- the extraordinary step of disregarding the actual purpose in favor of some "imaginary basis or purpose." McGinnis v. Royster, supra at 410 U. S. 277. The principle of separation of powers requires, after all, that we defer to the elected lawmakers' judgment as to the appropriate means to accomplish an end, not that we defer to the arguments of lawyers.
If, as here, the only purpose ever articulated by the State's lawmakers for maintaining a regulation is illegitimate, I consider it contrary to precedent, as well as to sound principles of constitutional adjudication, for the courts to base their analysis on purposes never conceived by the lawmakers. This is especially true where, as the dissent's strained analysis of the relative safety of 65-foot doubles to shorter trucks amply demonstrates, see post at 450 U. S. 694-696, the post hoc justifications are implausible, as well as imaginary. I would emphasize that, although my Brother POWELL's plurality opinion does not give as much weight to the illegitimacy of Iowa's actual purpose as I do, see 450 U. S. infra, both that opinion and this concurrence have found the actual motivation of the Iowa lawmakers in maintaining the truck length regulation highly relevant to, if not dispositive of, the case. See ante at 450 U. S. 677-678.
It is not enough to conclude, as my Brother POWELL does, that "the deference traditionally accorded a State's safety judgment is not warranted." Ante at 450 U. S. 678.
The result in this case suggests, to paraphrase Justice Jackson, that the only state truck length limit "that is valid is one which this Court has not been able to get its hands on." Jungersen v. Ostby & Barton Co., 335 U. S. 560, 335 U. S. 572 (1949) (dissenting opinion). Although the plurality opinion and the opinion concurring in the judgment strike down Iowa's law by different routes, I believe the analysis in both opinions oversteps our "limited authority to review state legislation under the commerce clause," Locomotive Firemen v. Chicago, R.I. & P. R. Co., 393 U. S. 129, 393 U. S. 136 (1968), and seriously intrudes upon the fundamental right of the States to pass laws to secure the safety of their citizens. Accordingly, I dissent.
Every State in the Union regulates the length of vehicles permitted to use the public roads. Nor is Iowa a renegade in having length limits which operate to exclude the 65-foot doubles favored by Consolidated. These trucks are prohibited in other areas of the country as well, some 17 States and the District of Columbia, including all of New England and most of the Southeast. [Footnote 3/1] While pointing out that Consolidated carries commodities through Iowa on Interstate 80, "the principal east-west route linking New York, Chicago, and the west coast," ante at 450 U. S. 665, the plurality neglects to note that both Pennsylvania and New Jersey, through which Interstate 80 runs before reaching New York, also ban 65-foot doubles. In short, the persistent effort in the plurality opinion to paint Iowa as an oddity standing alone to block commerce carried in 65-foot doubles is simply not supported by the facts.
other facilities, or less if closer facilities were available. 475 F.Supp. 544, 553-554 (SD Iowa 1979). To the extent the plurality relies on characteristics of the Interstate Highways in rejecting Iowa's asserted safety justifications, see ante at 450 U. S. 672-673, it fails to recognize the scope of the District Court order it upholds.
Casual readers of this Court's Commerce Clause decisions may be surprised, upon turning to the Constitution itself, to discover that the Clause in question simply provides that "The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce . . . among the several States." Art. I, § 8, cl. 3. Although it is phrased in terms of an affirmative grant of power to the National Legislature, we have read the Commerce Clause as imposing some limitations on the States as well, even in the absence of any action by Congress. See Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U. S. 617, 437 U. S. 623 (1978). The Court has hastened to emphasize, however, that the negative implication it has discerned in the Commerce Clause does not invalidate state legislation simply because the legislation burdens interstate commerce.
Huron Portland Cement Co. v. Detroit, 362 U. S. 440, 362 U. S. 443-444 (1960) (quoting Sherlock v. Alling, 93 U. S. 99, 93 U. S. 103 (1876)). See Raymond Motor Transportation, Inc. v. Rice, 434 U.S.
429, 434 U. S. 440 (1978); Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona, 325 U. S. 761, 325 U. S. 767 (1945). The Commerce Clause is, after all, a grant of authority to Congress, not to the courts. Although the Court, when it interprets the "dormant" aspect of the Commerce Clause, will invalidate unwarranted state intrusion, such action is a far cry from simply undertaking to regulate when Congress has not because we believe such regulation would facilitate interstate commerce. Cf. Northwest Airlines, Inc. v. Minnesota, 322 U. S. 292, 322 U. S. 302 (1944) (Black, J., concurring) ("The Constitution gives [Congress] the power to regulate commerce among the states, and, until it acts, I think we should enter the field with extreme caution").
A determination that a state law is a rational safety measure does not end the Commerce Clause inquiry. A "sensitive consideration" of the safety purpose in relation to the burden on commerce is required. Raymond, supra, at 434 U. S. 441. When engaging in such a consideration, the Court does not directly compare safety benefits to commerce costs and strike down the legislation if the latter can be said in some vague sense to "outweigh" the former. Such an approach would make an empty gesture of the strong presumption of validity accorded state safety measures, particularly those governing highways. It would also arrogate to this Court functions of forming public policy, functions which, in the absence of congressional action, were left by the Framers of the Constitution to state legislatures.
by Illinois, alone among the States, had no safety advantages over conventional mudguards and, as in Southern Pacific, actually increased hazards. 359 U.S. at 359 U. S. 525; id. at 359 U. S. 530 (Harlan, J., concurring). In Great A&P Tea Co. v. Cottrell, 424 U. S. 366, 424 U. S. 375-376 (1976), the Court struck down a Mississippi "reciprocity clause" concerning milk inspection because it "disserve[d], rather than promote[d], any higher Mississippi milk quality standards." The cases thus demonstrate that the safety benefits of a state law must be slight indeed before it will be struck down under the dormant Commerce Clause.
Maurer v. Hamilton, 309 U. S. 598, 309 U. S. 609 (1940). There can also be no question that the particular limit chosen by Iowa -- 60 feet -- is rationally related to Iowa's safety objective. Most truck limits are between 55 and 65 feet, see App. 645, and Iowa's choice is thus well within the widely accepted range.
In rebuttal of Consolidated's evidence on the relative safety of 65-foot doubles to trucks permitted on Iowa's highways, Iowa introduced evidence that doubles are more likely than singles to jackknife or upset, id. at 507. The District Court concluded that this was so, and that singles are more stable than doubles. 475 F.Supp. at 549. [Footnote 3/7] Iowa also introduced evidence from Consolidated's own records showing that Consolidated's overall accident rate for doubles exceeded that of semis for three of the last four years, App. 668-675, and that some of Consolidated's own drivers expressed a preference for the handling characteristics of singles over doubles. 475 F.Supp. at 549.
Clark v. Paul Gray, Inc., 306 U. S. 583, 306 U. S. 594 (1939).
Louisville Gas & Electric Co. v. Coleman, 277 U. S. 32, 277 U. S. 41 (1938) (dissenting opinion). The question is rather whether it can be said that the benefits flowing to Iowa from a rational truck length limitation are "slight or problematical." See Bibb, 359 U.S. at 359 U. S. 524. The particular line chosen by Iowa -- 60 feet -- is relevant only to the question whether the limit is a rational one. Once a court determines that it is, it considers the overall safety benefits from the regulation against burdens on interstate commerce, and not any marginal benefits from the scheme the State established, as opposed to that the plaintiffs desire. See Southern Pacific, 325 U.S. at 325 U. S. 779 (train length law struck down because it "affords, at most, slight and dubious advantage, if any, over unregulated train lengths") (emphasis supplied); Barnwell Brothers, supra at 303 U. S. 190-192.
434 U.S. at 434 U. S. 447. [Footnote 3/11] The Raymond Court repeatedly stressed that the State "made no effort to contradict . . . evidence of comparative safety with evidence of its own," id. at 434 U. S. 437, that the trucking companies' evidence was "uncontroverted," id. at 434 U. S. 445, n.19, and that the State "virtually defaulted in its defense of the regulations as a safety measure," id. at 434 U. S. 444. By contrast, both the District Court and the Court of Appeals recognized that Iowa "made an all-out effort" and "zealously presented arguments" on its safety case. 475 F.Supp. at 548; 612 F.2d at 1067-1068. As noted, Iowa has adduced evidence sufficient to support its safety claim, and has rebutted much of the evidence submitted by Consolidated.
The other States with truck length limits that exclude Consolidated's 65-foot doubles would not at all be paranoid in assuming that they might be next on Consolidated's "hit list." [Footnote 3/14] The true problem with today's decision is that it gives no guidance whatsoever to these States as to whether their laws are valid or how to defend them. For that matter, the decision gives no guidance to Consolidated or other trucking firms either. Perhaps, after all is said and done, the Court today neither says nor does very much at all. We know only that Iowa's law is invalid, and that the jurisprudence of the "negative side" of the Commerce Clause remains hopelessly confused.
It should not escape notice that a majority of the Court goes on record today as agreeing that courts in Commerce Clause cases do not sit to weigh safety benefits against burdens on commerce when the safety benefits are not illusory. See opinion concurring in judgment, ante at 450 U. S. 681, n. 1. Even the plurality gives lipservice to this principle, ante at 450 U. S. 670. I do not agree with my Brother BRENNAN, however, that only those safety benefits somehow articulated by the legislature as the motivation for the challenged statute can be considered in supporting the state law. See infra at 450 U. S. 702-703.
The plurality points out that "AASHTO specifically recommends that States permit 65-foot doubles," ante at 450 U. S. 674, n. 16. But in the absence of its adoption by the Iowa legislative process, an AASHTO recommendation as to a particular length limit remains exactly that: a recommendation which no State is bound to follow.
Ante at 450 U. S. 681. I assume nothing of the sort. As noted in the immediately preceding paragraph, the point of this dissent is that the District Court and the Court of Appeals erred when they undertook to determine if the prohibited trucks were as safe as the permitted ones on the basis of evidence presented at trial. As I read this Court's opinions, the State must simply prove, aided by a "strong presumption of validity," that the safety benefits of its law are not illusory. I review the evidence presented at trial simply to demonstrate that Iowa made such a showing in this case not because the validity of Iowa's law depends on its proving by a preponderance of the evidence that the excluded trucks are unsafe. As I thought was made clear, it is my view that Iowa must simply show a relation between vehicle length limits and safety, and that the benefits from its length limit are not illusory. Iowa's arguments on passing time, intersection obstruction, and problems at the scene of accidents have validity beyond a comparison of the 65- and 60-foot trucks. In sum, I fully agree with JUSTICE BRENNAN that the validity of Iowa's length limit does not turn on whether 65-foot trucks are less safe than 60-foot trucks.
The opinion concurring in the judgment begins by stating that the regulation involved here is "nearly identical" to the one struck down in Raymond, ante, at 450 U. S. 679, but then approaches the case in a completely different manner than the Court in Raymond. My Brother BRENNAN votes to strike down Iowa's law not because the safety benefits of Iowa's law are illusory -- indeed, he specifically declines to consider the safety benefits -- but because he views it a protectionist in nature. As I read the various opinions in this case, therefore, only four Justices invalidate Iowa's law on the basis of the analysis in Raymond.
JUSTICE BLACKMUN filed a concurring opinion, joined by three other, "to emphasize the narrow scope of [the] decision." 434 U.S. at 434 U. S. 448.
"What were the special reasons, motives or policies of the Ohio Legislature for adopting the questioned proviso we do not know with certainty, nor is it important that we should, Southwestern Oil Co. v. Texas, 217 U. S. 114, 217 U. S. 126, for a state legislature need not explicitly declare its purpose. But it is obvious that it may reasonably have been the purpose and policy of the State Legislature, in adopting the proviso, to encourage the construction or leasing and operation of warehouses in Ohio by nonresidents, with the attendant benefits to the State's economy, or to stimulate the market for merchandise and agricultural products produced in Ohio by enabling nonresidents to purchase and hold them in the state for storage only, free from taxes, in anticipation of future needs. Other similar purposes reasonably may be conceived."
358 U.S. at 358 U. S. 528-529. The statute involved in Bowers was upheld on the basis of the various purposes which "reasonably may be conceived," without any effort to determine what the "actual" purpose was or any requirement that the purposes being considered somehow have been articulated by the lawmakers. Wheeling Steel Corp. v. Glander, 337 U. S. 562 (1949), simply did not consider the present question, since the State in Glander did not proffer any possible purposes beyond the one stated by the legislature in the statute.
Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld, 420 U. S. 636, 420 U. S. 648, n. 16 (1975) (emphasis supplied), hardly supports the proposition that we cannot consider assertions of legislative purpose which could have been a goal of the legislation, even though such purposes may not have been identified as goals by the legislature. To take another example, the upholding of the law in Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Muria, 427 U. S. 307, 427 U. S. 314 (1976), because it "rationally furthers the purpose identified by the State," certainly does not suggest that, by "State," this Court meant only "legislature," and not the State's attorneys, or that only those purposes identified by the State could be considered in reviewing legislation.
Although JUSTICE BRENNAN "would emphasize" the significance the plurality opinion attaches to the Governor's articulation of what is viewed as an impermissible purpose, this hardly supports the proposition that permissible purposes cannot be considered by a court unless they were somehow identified by the legislature as goals of the statute. The plurality opinion, in fact, examines the asserted safety purpose of the Iowa statute at some length. Indeed, JUSTICE BRENNAN criticizes the plurality for examining the safety purpose and "disregarding the intention of Iowa's lawmakers," ante at 450 U. S. 681.

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