Source: http://www.wluml.org/node/504
Timestamp: 2019-04-26 11:47:21+00:00

Document:
Issues of personal status are of crucial importance for Muslim women because they often remain the last bastion of male dominance.2 As a result of considerable immigration from Muslim countries and subsequent family reunifications, legal terms and concepts rooted in the Shari’a (Muslim law)3 have been ‘transplanted’4 into Western states through one of two routes. First, through international private law rules which often directly incorporate foreign (Islamic) norms or second, through secular domestic laws. In this paper, I analyze the extent to which French and German courts and public policies have recognized (or rejected) Muslim Family Law (MFL) in matters of personal status. Although the French and German states follow assimilationist and anti-diversity policy models, at the legal and judicial level courts have demonstrated a degree of responsiveness to accommodate some aspects of Muslim religious traditions while rejecting institutions deemed contrary to the French or German ‘public order’. In addition, this paper will analyze the official demand for state recognition of MFL that was put before the British government and ultimately rejected in the name of gender equality. The paper will also provide conclusions regarding the impact of these so-called transplanted Islamic legal rules on Muslim women, in particular in relation to their equality rights as residents and citizens of Western states.
The most important feature of current French politics is its neo republican discourse on French identity,5 in which membership in the national community involves an absolute commitment to the Republic and to its core values of égalité (equality) and laïcité (the separation of state and religion). This republican model was forged in the context of the 1789 French Revolution, as a direct reaction to the historical French struggle against its own monarchy, ruling aristocracy and religious establishment.
II. Mosques: mayors are invited to seek solutions comparable, for example, with those used for the Chantiers du Cardinal association, or to make municipal premises available to Muslim associations as they do to political parties, trade unions and other associations.
V. Private Muslim educational establishments are subject to the same rules as other private educational establishments.
VI. As regards dress codes, the text states that, “signs of membership of a religion shall not be displayed, under the circumstances stated in EC case law.” As regards dietary rules, the authorities may offer special meals (the text only refers to a possibility; the courts may be required to rule in future on whether this is optional or compulsory). Ritual slaughter must comply with, “the conditions imposed by legislation and by animal protection, public health and environmental protection regulations.” Here again, the text implies the desire to respect Muslims’ dietary rules.
VII. In the case of places of burial, the text states that Muslim plots “have been allowed”, which suggests that their legality may be disputable. In the event of doubt as to whether the deceased was a “Muslim”, it is up to the religious authority, not the mayor, to give a ruling.
Practically, this reservation means that France has no commitment to foster special cultural rights.
On the other hand, and as a result of stipulations of international private law19 and bilateral agreements,20 France must apply the laws of the foreigner’s country of citizenship in matters of family law, more specifically in relation to disputes over, “the status and capacity of persons.”21 This is true in so far as doing so does not contravene French public order22 or violate an international convention to which France is a party.23 These rules of international private law that incorporate MFL at the domestic level to non-French citizens living within France are of crucial importance, as only one out of four million Muslims living in France have obtained French citizenship.24 Hence, faced with matters of private law involving Muslims who are living in France under the citizenship of a Muslim state, French judges have had to decide upon the legality of institutions such as Islamic marriages and polygamy, the dowry (mahr), and the talaq divorce. I will address these in order.
At present, no Islamic religious community has the legal status of a corporation under public law, unlike Christian churches and the Jewish community; Islamic organizations are rather considered private associations without legal standing.
The task of German courts in such cases is to clarify the limits of ‘German public order’, a notion which may prevent the application of foreign rules but only if this application would lead to a result which is obviously incompatible with the main principles of German law including constitutional civil rights.72 Hence, judges in Germany have had to decide upon the legality of institutions such as Islamic marriages and polygamy, the dowry (mahr), and the talaq divorce.73 I will address these in order.
Britain has long been a country of ‘migration’, in which many different groups of people have settled. Estimated to be around two million,97 Muslims have come to form the largest minority faith community. While some degree of pluralism has been institutionalized to ensure the preservation of cultural identity, the trend in Britain has been to adopt a secular and universal system of family law.
Because the UK legal system has viewed and treated MFL as suspect, thereby refusing to give it the state’s official stamp of approval, the Muslim community has developed a strategy whereby methods of Muslim dispute resolution would operate unofficially. In fact, the Islamic Shari’a Council (UK) (ISC) provides, since 1982, professional conciliation services to couples on various aspects of Muslim law and has established for this purpose standard procedures, forms and certificates. This ‘unofficial law’ method is quite prevalent, as a survey conducted in 1989 showed that in case of conflict between Muslim law and English law, 66% of Muslims would follow the former.108 One of the objectives of the ISC is to establish, “a bench to operate as court of Islamic Shari’a and to make decisions on matters of Muslim family law referred to it.”109 The ISC (UK) applies Islamic rules to deal with, “the problems facing Muslim families as a result of obtaining judgements in their favour from non-Islamic courts in the country, but not having the sanction of the Islamic Shari’a.”110 It deals with more than 50 cases a year; by the mid 1990s the Council had dealt with some 1500 cases brought to it, mostly in matters of divorce whereby the wife had obtained a civil divorce but the husband refused to pronounce a talaq.111 What the Council attempts to do in such cases is to grant a faskh divorce to the wife in the form of a divorce certificate issued to the wife, but only in so far as the wife is willing to return the mahr.
Out of 308 cases examined, this research study identified 28 forced marriages.
Rules of international private law in both France and Germany may allow a ‘direct’ application of MFL for non-citizen Muslims. The raison d’être behind the existence of such rules is the respect for legal ‘difference’ when people with a ‘cross-border identity’ are involved. Such application can potentially lead to a discriminatory result for Muslim women: inheritance laws favouring males, financial support for wives limited to four months time, division of property against the woman’s interest and child custody given to fathers depending on the age of the child. The only way for courts to protect the equality rights of Muslim women in cases where the application of MFL would be discriminatory is to use the principle of ‘public order’ to prevent such application.
French and German courts seem to have reached similar conclusions when clarifying the limits of French or German ‘public order’: religious Islamic marriages have no enforceable legal effect if the wedding took place on French or German soil; the unilateral repudiation of a Muslim wife by her husband by the talaq is not recognized as a legitimate form of divorce; polygamous marriages are legally valid only if concluded in a country that permits polygamy; and the Islamic institution of mahr is enforceable through French or German courts.
The trend in Britain has been to adopt a secular and universal system of family law. Hence, the proposal to establish a separate system of MFL was rejected by the government in an attempt to uphold universally accepted human rights values, especially gender equality. Although various Shari’a councils play a leading role in resolving family law disputes, a broad consultation of different Muslim groups, especially Muslim women groups, has concluded that formal recognition of the Shari’a system of laws in Britain would be problematic.
The Canadian Council of Muslim Women retain the copyright of this paper which was originally written for them. It is reprinted here with their kind permission and that of the author.
1	Boulton Fellow, Faculty of Law, McGill University. LL.B. (Laval University), LLM (University of Toronto), SJD Candidate (Harvard Law School). Several friends and colleagues contributed thoughtful comments. I would like to thank all the women of the CCMW’s and NAWL’s working group for many helpful conversations during the development of this paper. Special thanks to Andrée Côté, Anne Saris, Robert A. Crouch, Marilou McPhedran, Natasha Bakht, and Janet Halley for criticisms and suggestions. Warmest thanks to Xavier Milton for endless words of encouragement. This paper is dedicated to Alia Hogben, whose activist and provocative ‘intervention’ in Islamic theory, practice and knowledge has opened up possibilities for Canadian Muslim women to uncover the ways in which the so-called ‘impossible’, ‘unrealizable’, and ‘illegitimate’ paths of social change are constructed and reproduced.
2	See N. Hijab, ‘Islam, Social Change, and the Reality of Arab Women’s Lives’ in Y. Y. Haddad and J. L. Esposito (eds), Islam, Gender and Social Change, (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); A. Y. Al-Hibri, ‘Marriage Laws in Muslim Countries: A Comparative Study of Certain Egyptian, Syrian, Moroccan, and Tunisian Marriage Laws’, International Review Comparative Public Policy, Vol 4, 1992, p. 227.
3	By Shari’a (Muslim law), I mean Islamic rules considered by Muslims as based upon Islamic divine revelation. In this paper, I have focused more specifically on the recognition of Islamic marriages and polygamy, the mahr (dowry) and the talaq divorce. I have excluded from the scope of this paper child custody and inheritance issues.
4	The metaphor of ‘legal transplant’ has been used by Alan Watson when analyzing the importation of foreign legal practices in comparative law. See A. Watson, Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law (2nd ed.) (Athens, GA : University of Georgia Press, 1993), p. 21 ; A. Watson, ‘Legal Transplants and Law Reform’, Law Quarterly Review, Vol. 79, 1976, p. 92. For an opposite view on the uses and misuses of ‘legal transplants’, see P. Legrand, ‘The Impossibility of Legal Transplants’, Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law, Vol 4, No 2, 1997, p. 111.
5	M. F. Leruth, ‘The Neorepublican Discourse on French National Identity’, French Politics and Society, Vol 16, No 4, 1998, p. 49-60.
6	Pierre-André Taguieff, ‘L’Identité Nationale: Un Débat Français’, Regards Sur l’Actualité, Vol 209-210, 1995, p. 13-28.
10	W. Safran, ‘State, Nation, National Identity, and Citizenship: France as a Test Case’, International Political Science Review, Vol 12, No 2, 1991, p. 219-38.
11	Estimates from 2004 show over 5 million Muslims in France, which is about 8% of the French population. That is the highest percentage of Muslims in a Western European country. See B. Basdevant-Gaudemet, op. cit. (9), p. 62.
12	D. Hervieu-Léger, ‘The Past in the Present: Redefining Laicite in Multicultural France ’ in P. Berger (ed), The Limits of Social Cohesion (London: Westview Press,1998) p. 39.
16	See B. Basdevant-Gaudemet, op. cit. (9), p. 66.
17	Its structures are composed of a General Assembly, a Board of Directors and a Bureau.
18	International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, Mar. 23, 1976.
19	Code Civil, Art.3, al. 3 (inséré par Loi du 5 mars 1803 promulguée le 15 mars 1803) : Les lois concernant l’état et la capacité des personnes régissent les Français, même résidant en pays étranger.
21	For a comparative analysis, see S. A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh and A. Bonomi (eds), Le Droit musulman de la famille et des successions à l’épreuve des ordres juridiques occidentaux (Zürich : Schulthess, 1999).
22	See E. Rude-Antoine (ed), L’Immigration Face Aux Lois de la République. (Paris: Editions Karthala, 1992); J. Deprez, ‘Droit international privé et conflit de civilisations. Aspects méthodologiques (Les relations entre systèmes d’Europe occidentale et systèmes islamiques en matière de statut personnel),’ Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, t. 211 (1988. IV), p. 1. For a general study of the exception of ‘public order’ in international private law, see R. Libchaber, ‘L’exception d’ordre public en droit international privé’ in B. Beignier et al. (eds), L’Ordre public à la fin du XXe siècle. Recueil, thèmes et commentaires (Paris : Dalloz, 1996), p.65.
23	In matters of family law, France has ratified the Convention of 24 October 1956 on the law applicable to maintenance obligations towards children (Hague Conference on Private International Law), the Convention of 2 October 1973 on the Law Applicable to Maintenance Obligations (Hague Conference on Private International Law), as well as the Convention of 14 March 1978 on the Law Applicable to Matrimonial Property Regimes (Hague Conference on Private International Law).
24	B. Basdevant-Gaudemet, ‘Le statut juridique de l’Islam en France,’ Revue du Droit Public (RDP), No 2, 1996, p. 355.
25	C.E. 11 March 1988, Min. Aff. Soc. Et de l’emploi c Diagne, R. Tables; C.E. 28 July 1989, Keita; C.E. 15 January 1990, Cissoko.
27	Paris Court of Appeal, 8 December 1992, Dalloz, 1994, J. 272 and Cour de Cassation, 1ère Chambre Civile. Date decided: 15 March 1988, Gazette du Palais, 1989-1-374.
28	See TGI de la Seine, 21 June 1967, in Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, 1968, p. 294 note Battifol, H.; Cour d’appel de Reims, 19 January 1976, in JDI 1976, p. 916 note Fadlallah, I.; Cour d’appel de Dijon, 1ere ch., 23 May 1995, in JCP 1996, IV, 176.
29	Cour d’appel de Versailles, 2eme ch., 18 June 1992, inédit, in Juris-Data, # 044362.
30	Cour d’appel d’Aix-en-Provence, 6eme ch., 19 May 1988, inédit, in Juris-Data, # 045979.
31	F. Monéger, ‘La polygamie en question’, JCP 1990, I, 3460.
32	Cass. Civ. 1ere ch., 19 February 1963, in Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, 1963, p. 559 et Cass. Civ. 3 January 1980, in Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, 1980, p. 331.
33	The expression ‘ordre public à effet atténué’ has been used by the courts. E. Rude-Antoine, ‘Des Vies et des Familles. Les Immigrés, la Loi et la Coutume’ (Paris: Odile Jacob 1997), p. 211; E. Rude-Antoine, Le Mariage Maghrébin en France (Paris: Karthala, 1990), p. 138-9.
34	E. Rude-Antoine, op. cit. (22), p. 120.
35	C. Cass. Ch. Soc. 1 March 1973, Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, 1975, p. 54.
36	C. Cass. Ch. Soc. 8 March 1990, Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, 1991, p. 694.
37	See Benali c. Makhlouf, Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, 87, p. 652. Cour de Cassation, 1ère Chambre Civile. Date decided: 3 June 1998 and Consorts Abdallah C. M. Y. -- Abdallah et autres, Revue Critique de Droit International Privé 87, p. 602, Cour de Cassation, 1ère Chambre Civile. Date decided: 25 February 1997.
38	C.E., 11 July 1980 : AJDA 1980, 523, OBS. Mm. Feller et Pinault; Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, 1981, p. 658, note J.M. Bischoff.
40	F.K. 2000. ‘Les Familles Polygames en France Mises au Pied du Mur Eclairage’, SDA-Service de Base Français, 12 January; D. Turpin, ‘La réforme de la condition des étrangers par les lois des 24 août et 30 décembre 1993, et par la loi du 25 novembre 1993,’ Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, Jan-Mar 1994, p. 1-61; See I. Gillette-Frénoy, La Polygamie en France et le Rôle des Femmes (Paris: G.A.M.S., 1993) p. 36; I. Gillette-Frénoy, ‘La Polygamie en France Pratiquée par les Immigrants d’Afrique Subsaharienne, et le Rôle des Femmes’, L’Ethnographie, Vol 89, No 2, 1993, p. 131-69.
41	J. L. Esposito and N. J. DeLong-Bas, Women in Muslim family law (2nd ed, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2001) p. 23.
42	C. E. Bosworth (ed), The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol 6 (New edition, Brill Academic Publishers, 1991).
43	‘Origin and Development of Islamic Law’ in M. Khadduri and H. J. Liebesny (eds), Law in the Middle East, Vol 1 (Washington D.C: The Middle East Institute, 1955), p. 142.
45	Cassation Chambre 01, 4 April 1978, 1978-000137 and Cassation Chambre 01, 2 December 1997, 004835. See also E. Rude-Antoine, op. cit. (32), p. 140; E. Rude-Antoine, op. cit. (21), p. 124.
49	Cass. 1ère civ., 17 February 2005, judgments nrs. 01-11.549; 02-11.618; 02-15.766; 02-17.479 and 02-10.755, Dalloz, 2004, p. 824 (concl. F. Cavarroz) and p. 815 (note P. Courbe); Rev. crit. D.I.P., 2004, p. 423 (note P. Hammje); RTD civ., 2004, p. 367 (note J.-P. Marguenaud); JCP éd. G., 2004, nr. 10128 (note H. Fulchiron), JDI (Clunet), 2004, p. 1200 (note L. Ganagé).
50	J. Déprez, op. cit. (46) p. 57-81.
51	The highest court in France also condemned repudiation on the grounds that it contravenes Art.5 of the Seventh Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).
52	J. Déprez, op. cit. (46), p. 85; R. El-Husseini, ‘Le Droit International Privé Français et la Répudiation Islamique’, Revue Critique de Droit International Privé, Vol 88, No 3, 1999, p. 427-68.
53	R. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, Cambridge, (MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1992) p. 82.
54	German nationhood is rooted in the concept of the Volksgeist (spirit of the people), i.e. the people as an organic cultural and racial entity marked by a common language. See F. C. von Savigny, Of the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence, (New York: Arno Press 1975). Savigny’s theory of law was directed in part against ideas that had come to prevail in France after the French Revolution and that had spread throughout Europe: that legislation is the primary source of law, and that the legislator’s primary task is to protect the ‘rights of man’. In opposing these views, Savigny considered law to be an integral part of the common consciousness of the nation, organically connected with the mind and the spirit of the people.
55	See G. Yurdakul, ‘State, Political Parties and Immigrant Elites: Turkish Immigrant Associations in Berlin’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, (forthcoming in 2006).
57	Joppke, C. and Morawska, E, ‘Integrating Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States: Policies and Practices’ in C. Joppke and E. Morawska (eds) Toward Assimilation and Citizenship: Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, 1-36.
58	M. Rohe, ‘The Legal Treatment of Muslims in Germany’ in R. Aluffi and G. Zincone (eds), op. cit. (9) p. 83.
59	This status provides far-reaching rights, such as the right to levy taxes from members of the community and to organize a parish, the right to employ people under a belief-oriented labour-law, the right to nominate members to broadcast-councils, tax reductions for property placed under public property law, etc. M. Rohe, op. cit. (58) p. 87.
61	See Vocking, ‘Organisations as attempts at integration of Muslims in Germany’ in Speelman et al. (eds), Muslims and Christians in Europe, Essays in Honour of Jan Slomp, (Kampen, NL: Kok, 1993).
62	G. Jonker, ‘What is Other about Other Religions? The Islamic Communities in Berlin between Integration and Segregation’ in Cultural Dynamics Vol. 12, No 3, 2000, p. 313.
63	Art.4 (Freedom of faith, conscience, and creed) reads: Freedom of faith and conscience, and freedom to profess a religious or philosophical creed, shall be inviolable. The undisturbed practice of religion shall be guaranteed.
64	M. Rohe, op. cit. (58), p. 87.
65	G. Jonker, op. cit. (62), p. 314.
66	G. Jonker, op. cit. (62), p. 312.
67	Second Chapter on International Private Law in the Einfuehrungsgesetz zum Buergerlichen Gesetzbuche (Art.3, EGBGB) (Prologue, the Civil Code).
68	For instance, Iran and German have ratified a treaty that assures the application of Iranian personal status law for Iranian citizens in Germany and vice versa for German citizens residing in Iran. See Niederlassungsabkommen zwischen dem Deutschen Reich und dem Kaiserreich Persien of 17 December 1929, Reichsgesetzblatt Jg. 1930, Teil II, p. 1002, at p. 1006. Confirmed by the Federal Republic of Germany on 15 August 1955, BGBl. Teil II, No 19, 25 August 1955, p. 829.
70	In matters of family law, Germany has also ratified the Convention of 24 October 1956 on the law applicable to maintenance obligations towards children (Hague Conference on Private International Law), the Convention of 2 October 1973 on the Law Applicable to Maintenance Obligations (Hague Conference on Private International Law) as well as the Convention of 14 March 1978 on the Law Applicable to Matrimonial Property Regimes (Hague Conference on Private International Law).
71	C. Jones-Pauly, ‘Marriage Contracts of Muslims in the Diaspora: Problems in the Recognition of Mahr Contracts in German law’, forthcoming in Frank Vogel (ed), Marriage Contracts in Islamic Law (London and Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
72	For instance, constitutional (and human) rights formulated in Art.3 GG (equality of the sexes and of religious beliefs), 4 (freedom of religion including the right not to believe) and 6 (special protection concerning marriage and the family).
73	See generally O. Elwan, ‘Le droit interreligieux égyptien auprès des tribunaux allemands’ in C. von Bar (ed), Islamic Law and its Reception by the Courts in the West (1999), 53, 62ss.
74	Art.13 s. EGBGB: prerequisites for and legal consequences of contracting a marriage; Art.17 EGBGB: prerequisites for and legal consequences of a divorce, legal relations between the spouses, children and other members of the family including maintenance claims among divorced persons, guardianship and custody for minors, adoption, guardianship and welfare, and hereditary relations.
77	Art.14 EGBGB. In such cases, parties will be allowed to choose which law of citizenship should apply.
78	See also Cf. OLG Hamburg StAZ 1988, 132f; AG Paderborn StAZ 1986, 45 (both to former rules identical to the present ones); MuenchKomm/Coester 3. edn. 1998 Art.13 EGBGB.
79	See M. Rohe, ‘Islamic Law in German Courts’, Hawwa-Journal of Women of the Middle East and the Islamic World, Vol. 1, 2003, p. 46-59.
80	See LG München, 235 Js 54017/95, 26 April 1996; LG Frankfurt A.m., fAMrz 1976, P. 217; LG Osnabrueck, NJW-RR, 1998, p. 582; AG Bremen, StAZ 1991, p. 232, 233; VGH Kassel, NVwZ-RR, 1999, p. 274-275.
81	See Syrian Paternity Case. VersR 1997, p. 863. OLG Saarbrücken - 5 U 800: p. 95-82. Date decided: 18 December 1996.
82	Jordanian Polygamy Case, 17 A 42/83, 7 March 1985.
83	See M. Rohe, op. cit. (58).
85	In AG Tuebingen StAZ 1999, 301, the marriage of a sixteen year old German of Moroccan origin in Morocco was accepted as valid.
86	See OLG Köln NJWE-FER 1997, p. 55.
87	BGH NJW 1999, 574; OLG Muenchen IPRspr. 1985 No 67; OLG Hamm FamRZ 1988, 516, 517; OLG Frankfurt a.M. FamRZ 1996, 1478, 1479; OLG Celle FamRZ 1998, 374, 375; OLG Köln IPRspr. 1982 No 43; OLG Duesseldorf FamRZ 1993, 187, 188.
88	See, M. Rohe, op. cit. (58), p. 51.
89	C. Jones-Pauly, op. cit. (71).
90	Turkish Dowry Case. FamRZ 1998: 623 OLG Düsseldorf. Date decided: 3 January 1997; Jordanian Dowry Case. FamRZ 1996: 1478. OLG Frankfurt/Main. Date decided: 29 February 1996; Turkish Dowry (Mehir) Case. FamRZ 1994: 899. OLG Köln–13 U 251/92. Date decided: 21 April 1993; Islamic Dowry Case. IPRax 8: 109. Bundesgerichtshof—IV b ZR 10/86. Date decided: 28 January 1987; Kenyan Dowry Case, FamRZ 1998: 1591. AG Würzburg. Date decided: 24 September 1997.
91	For a detailed analysis of the reception of mahr in German courts, see C. Jones-Pauly, op. cit. (71).
92	Art.6 EGBGB. See BayObLG - 3Z BR 66/93. Date decided: 13 January 1994; Appellate Decision. OLG Stuttgart - 1VA 5/86. Date decided: 11 April 1987; LJV Baden-Württemberg - 346E-325/85. Date decided: 23 May 1986.
94	AGFrankfurt/Main - 35 F 4153/87. Date decided: 9 August 1988.
95	17 VA 6/98, 3 December 1998.
96	1F 162/92, 19 March 1992.
97	H. Ansari, ‘The Legal Status of Muslims in the UK’ in R. Aluffi and G. Zincone (eds), op. cit. (9), p. 256.
98	See T. Modood, ‘Muslim Views on Religious Identity and Racial Equality’, New Community, Vol. 19, No 3, 1993, p. 513–519.
99	D. S. Pearl, ‘Islamic Family Law and Its Reception by the Courts in England’, Islamic Legal Studies Program, Harvard Law School, Occasional Publications No 1, May 2000, p. 4.
100 See D. Joly, Britannia’s Crescent: Making a Place for Muslims in British society (Aldershot: Avebury, 1995) p. 15.
101 S. M. Poulter, Ethnicity, Law and Human Rights: The English Experience (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) p. 202.
102 I. Yilmaz, Dynamic Legal Pluralism and the Reconstruction of Unofficial Muslim Laws in England, Turkey and Pakistan, (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1999) Chpt 6.
103 S. M. Poulter, ‘The Claim to a Separate Islamic System of Personal Law for British Muslims’ in C. Mallat and J. Connors (eds), Islamic Family Law (London, Dordrecht and Boston: Graham & Trotman, 1990) p. 147–166, p. 158.
104 S. M. Poulter, ‘Cultural Pluralism and its Limits: A Legal Perspective’, CRE Britain: A Plural Society. Report of a Seminar, London: Commission for Racial Equality, 1990, p. 3–28.
105 S. M. Poulter, op. cit. (101), p. 391.
106 H. Ansari, op. cit. (97), p. 266.
107 Judge D. Pearl, ‘Dispute Settlement Amongst the Muslim Community in the UK’, Recht van de Islam, Vol. 20, 2003, p. 8.
108 S. M. Poulter, op. cit. (101), p. 203.
109 The Islamic Shari’a Council: An Introduction (London: ISC, 1995) p. 3–4.
111 Judge D. Pearl, op. cit. (107), p. 6.
112 See L. Carroll, ‘Muslim women and Islamic divorce in England’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 17, No 1, 1997, p. 97-115.
113 See L. Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992).

References: V. 
 Art.3
 Art.5
	Art.4
 Art.3
	Art.13
 Art.17
	Art.14
 Art.13
	Art.6