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Main A Color Guide to the Petrography of Carbonate Rocks: Grains, Textures, Porosity, Diagenesis (AAPG Memoir)..
This volume expands and improves the AAPG 1978 classic, A Color Illustrated Guide to Carbonate Rock Constituents, Textures, Cements, and Porosities (AAPG Memoir 27). Carbonate petrography can be quite complicated. Changing assemblages of organisms through time, coupled with the randomness of thin-section cuts through complex shell forms, add to the difficulty of identifying skeletal grains. Furthermore, because many primary carbonate grains are composed of unstable minerals (especially aragonite and high-Mg calcite), diagenetic alteration commonly is quite extensive in carbonate rocks. The variability of inorganic and biogenic carbonate mineralogy through time, however, complicates prediction of patterns of diagenetic alteration.This book is designed to help deal with such challenges. It includes a wide variety of examples of commonly encountered skeletal and nonskeletal grains, cements, fabrics, and porosity types. It includes extensive new tables of age distributions, mineralogy, morphologic characteristics, environmental implications and keys to grain identification. It also encompasses a number of noncarbonate grains, that occur as accessory minerals in carbonate rocks or that may provide important biostratigraphic or paleoenvironmental information in carbonate strata. With this guide, students and other workers with little formal petrographic training should be able to examine thin sections or acetate peels under the microscope and interpret the main rock constituents and their depositional and diagenetic history.
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OR RECOMMEND ANY PRODUCTS AND SERVICES THAT MAY BE CITED, USED, OR DISCUSSED IN AAPG PUBLICATIONS OR IN PRESENTATIONS AT EVENTS ASSOCIATED WITH AAPG.
in 1970. His dissertation work, on deep-water carbonate turbidites in the Italian Apennines, was supervised by Al Fischer.
Reston (VA) and Denver (CO), including three years as chief of the Oil and Gas Branch.
Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (the state geological survey).
Distinguished Lecturer (1975-76) and received the AAPG President’s award twice, the Sproule Memorial Award, and the AAPG Certificate of Merit. He served as president and special publications editor of SEPM and is now an honorary member of that society.
growing up on the classic Upper Ordovician outcrops around Cincinnati, Ohio. She received a B.S. degree in 1981 from the University of Cincinnati (under the tutelage of Drs.
Paleozoic carbonate rocks from New Mexico, Wyoming and Greenland.
involved in environmental investigations that include heavy-metals bioremediation.
geochemical and sedimentologic studies in energy- and mineralresource exploration applications as well as in academic research.
to hundreds of meters) to the site of their ultimate deposition.
the age of the deposit.
complicates prediction of patterns of diagenetic alteration.
chapter to facilitate accurate estimation of abundances of grains.
provided in the Techniques chapter.
than spectacular, but unusual, examples of grains and fabrics.
are in the United States of America unless otherwise noted.
1000 micrometers in a millimeter.
(brachiopods), G. Lynn Brewster-Wingard (mollusks), Bruce R.
for P. A. S. and P. E. Potter, R. B. Koepnick, and D. E. Eby for D. S.
of petrographers as effectively as we were helped.
unwanted blemishes (air bubbles or scratches, for example).
None of the relevant structures, however, were altered.
[Developments in Sedimentology 12]: New York, Elsevier, 658 p.
Invertebrates: Palo Alto, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 713 p.
Brasier, M. D., 1980, Microfossils: Boston, George Allen & Unwin, 193 p.
Approach: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 604 p.
Carbonatées (calcaires et dolomies): Paris, Masson, 436 p.
Darien, CT, Hafner Publishing Company, 394 p.
Edition]: Oxford, Blackwell Science, 452 p.
New York, Elsevier, p. 51-86.
Blackwell Scientific Publications, p. 108-173.
Fossils: New York, Springer-Verlag, 302 p.
Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, v. 46 (2), p. 1-185.
building organisms: Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, v. 47, 1-94 p.
E. J. Brill, 101 p.
Carbonates: New York, Springer-Verlag, 375 p.
in Sedimentology, 46]: New York, Elsevier, 338 p.
New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 766 p.
Scientific Publ. Co., 696 p.
John Wiley & Sons, 241 p.
Mineralogy, Vol. 11, 394 p.
Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 27, 241 p.
New York, Chapman & Hall, 274 p.
Blackwell Scientific Publications, 482 p.
Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 272 p.
effectively show assemblages of organisms through time.
Leiden, E. J. Brill, p. 27.
Leiden, E. J. Brill, 41 p.
Southern Alps (Northern Italy) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 8]: Leiden, E.
Aquitaine [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 2]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 34 p.
Wende Trias/Jura in den Bayerisch-Tiroler Kalkalpen [Int. Sed. Petrog.
Ser., v. 9]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 143 p.
Leiden, E. J. Brill, 45 p.
Jungmesozoischer, Radiolarit-Führender Sedimentserien der ZentralAlpen [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 4]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 179 p.
Alpen [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 1]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 27 p.
[Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 5]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 117 p.
Indonesian Petroleum Association, 123 p.
Spain [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 10]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 63 p.
Leiden, E. J. Brill, 44 p.
Southwestern Iran (from Pre-Permian to Miocene) [Int. Sed. Petrog.
Ser., v. 12]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 102 p.
organisms likely to be encountered in rocks of any particular age.
digital images. Adapted from Baccelle and Bosellini (1965).
(1981). All citations given at the end of Chapter 30 - Techniques.
microbial stromatolites from Carbla Point, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Stromatolite heads are 30-60 cm in diameter.
blue-green algae are now generally termed cyanobacteria.
in cryptic settings. Recognition of photosynthetic forms is especially critical in paleoenvironmental studies.
Marine stromatolites range from subtidal to intertidal settings — intertidal forms predominate today.
microbial carbonate deposits are predominantly peritidal.
mineralogy; lacustrine forms are mostly calcitic.
for, or beneficial to, the organism’s survival.
environmental conditions (water depth, current strength, and others).
1. Size: Stromatolites are cm to meters in height; laminae are mm- to cm-sized.
2. A general absence of well-defined skeletal features other than possible carbonate-encased filaments or tubules.
grainy or micritic layers; others have vaguely clotted (thrombolitic) structure.
5. Stromatolites commonly have fenestral fabrics (elongate pores paralleling lamination).
6. Planar stromatolites are associated (in Phanerozoic arid settings) with early diagenetic evaporites.
7. Many microbes can form branching growths of micritic peloids or micritic tubules.
8. Some form finely laminated micritic or phosphatic encrustations with digitate structure.
10. Calcimicrobes also can form lumpy, micritic, localized encrustations of other organisms.
modern stromatolites. The oversized purplestained cells are nitrogen-fixing heterocysts.
structures. Photograph courtesy of Henry S.
Chafetz (from Chafetz and Folk, 1984).
examples) and coccoid cells (white arrow).
courtesy of Brian R. Pratt.
are found in a wide variety of growth forms.
this classification by Logan et al. (1964).
A well developed ancient example of a laminated and contorted stromatolite (loferite).
this deposit (as in most such stromatolites).
of such intertidal stromatolite deposits.
content of such mat deposits.
and entrapment of transported sediment. Sample from Robert Laury.
A stromatolitic crust atop a marine hardground.
cyanobacterial) origin of such grains.
structures and demonstrate a probable microbial origin for particular pisoids.
and extended into open inter-pillow cavities.
volumes of small micritic peloids.
framework organisms. Sample from Noel P.
described from rocks as young as Devonian.
Sample from Noel P. James.
helped to bind other framework organisms.
some workers and as green algal by others.
preserved in shallow-marine areas with exceptionally high rates of marine cementation.
Many structures formed by microbial organisms have problematic phyletic assignments.
by some workers, and as a red alga by others.
Photograph courtesy of Sal J. Mazzullo.
part of the reef to near-backreef framework.
of this age although they can be found essentially throughout the Phanerozoic rock record.
depths greater than 100 m.
areas and can even form biohermal thickets or mounds.
Important contributors to sand- and mud-sized fractions of modern and ancient carbonate deposits of warmwater regions.
Virtually all aragonite, but some calcitic forms may have existed in the past.
codiaceans also included nodular or crustose forms.
hollow grains with radially-oriented tubules or wall perforations (utricles).
1. Aragonitic mineralogy generally results in poor preservation in ancient limestones.
micritic sediment infiltrated the plates and was lithified prior to dissolution of aragonite from the plates.
carbonate material and former plates leached to produce voids or secondarily-filled former voids.
3. Generally found as small (mm-sized), disarticulated segments rather than complete plants.
4. Well-defined tubular and/or filamentous structures, where preserved.
5. Different structures occur in the cortex and medulla regions of many codiacean green algae.
6. Radial symmetry in dasycladaceans; outwardly-oriented utricles in some codiaceans.
mud may be of green algal origin.
This diagrammatic view of Halimeda sp.
and have complexly intertwined filaments.
Adapted from Wray (1977) and other sources.
is apparent from the photograph below.
largely perpendicular to the grain margins).
found in many species of green algae including Penicillus, Udotea, Halimeda and others.
likely that Halimeda plates will be substantially altered during diagenesis.
original tubules (utricles) with blocky meteoric calcite but retention of dark, organic-rich inclusions in areas of neomorphosed aragonite.
Halimeda plates fell to the sea floor.
A probable dasycladacean green algal grain.
Note the infilling of original pores and outlining of the grain with micritic sediment or precipitates that allows recognition of the grain.
grain would probably not be discernable.
symmetry of elements about the central cavity.
a central cavity, coupled with poor preservation of wall structure.
of mineralized parts of the original organism.
sparry calcite-filled, central cavity of this alga.
DNA evidence indicates that charophytes are the closest non-plant relative of land plants.
Photosynthetic and thus require light for growth.
calcified reproductive parts (oogonia) can be readily transported into marine waters by rivers and streams.
cement around plant stems in lacustrine settings.
whorls of short branches and attached oogonia.
gyrogonites) are the only parts that are substantially calcified by the organism themselves.
1. Calcified oogonia are generally the only clearly identifiable charophyte forms.
tubules that form external ridges.
spiral arrangement help to distinguish charophyte remains from those of dasycladacean green algae.
4. When found, they commonly occur in large numbers.
as casts. Scale of plant is illustrated in photograph below.
around charophyte stems. Photographs courtesy of Walter E. Dean.
appearance. Photograph courtesy of Walter E.
Dean (taken by Richard M. Forester).
in reference list at end of this book’s Introduction).
1993; reference given in the Introduction section of the book).
parts of two charophytes again showing variations in views of the central cavity and surrounding cortical tubes.
contributes carbonate to lacustrine sediments.
courtesy of Walter E. Dean.
waters. Thus, some may be found to depths of 125 m or more.
Dominantly marine (about 2% live in fresh water); most live in waters with salinities ranging from 33-42 ppt.
carbonates and therefore makes them difficult to use as paleoclimate indicators.
in most Cenozoic to modern reefs.
Red algal grains typically are cm-sized although crustose forms can reach decimeter size.
as coatings on other grains (forming rhodoids or rhodoliths).
preservation of both internal structures and external outlines.
magnification and/or ultra-thin sections may be needed for recognition of this structure.
and are contributed to the sediment.
feature for recognition of red algae.
distinct, lighter-colored rows of small, sporebearing reproductive bodies (sporangia).
sediment is a silty, detrital limestone.
back-reef, or shelfal settings. Sample from E.
sand-sized fraction of carbonate sediments.
red alga in near-reef sediment. Note the pronounced growth banding and fine-scale cellular structure.
and the upper left and right corners of the image).
red or a green alga.
A view of a branching (ramifying) microproblematic organism, Mazloviporidium sp. (syn.
probably formed upright, branching thickets.
Late Paleozoic, poorly preserved, platy, calcareous algal remains that cannot be identified to generic level.
of similar shape, however, are found in abundance in water depths greater than 50 m.
All are marine, generally in normal salinity environments.
Mainly aragonite, but a few forms are inferred to have been high-Mg calcite.
sp., illustrated on p. 13), typically a 2 to 10 cm in length and only about 0.5 to 1 mm in thickness.
marine cementation. More typically they are found as fallen and/or as reworked and fragmented plates.
much simpler leaf-like or bladed forms.
1. Thin, platy grains typically a few cm long and a mm or less in thickness.
have the hinge structures seen in bivalves.
the exterior portions of the grains.
likely had simpler, platy or leaf-like morphologies. Courtesy of Robert B. Halley.
micritic infilling of primary tubules.
calcified grain margin a characteristic scalloped appearance.
and now make outstanding hydrocarbon reservoirs. Sample from Robert Laury.
grains allow their differentiation from otherwise similar-looking, neomorphosed (originally aragonitic) bivalve shells.
morphology typical of phylloid algae.
section depicted in the previous photograph.
genus Peyssonnelia) from 5-m water depth.
of Noel P. James (James et al., 1988).
layer are tubular rhizoids. Photograph courtesy of Noel P. James (James et al., 1988).
Bulletin, v. 84, p. 883-904.
Awramik, S. M., 1984, Ancient stromatolites and microbial mats, in Y.
Stromatolites: New York, Alan R. Liss Inc., p. 1-22.
of Eocene squamariacian and coralline rhodoliths: Eua, Tonga, in D.
Research and Applications: New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 248-256.
of microbial mats: Palaios, v. 7, p. 277-293.
Petrology, v. 54, p. 289-316.
from an active travertine system: Sedimentology, v. 38, p. 107-126.
ed., Phanerozoic Stromatolites: New York, Springer-Verlag, p. 45-59.
Flajs, G., 1977, Die Ultrastrukturen des Kalkalgenskelettes: Palaeontographica, Abteilung B (Paläophytologie), v. 160 (4-6), p. 69-128.
University of Miami, 62 p.
Petrology, v. 58, p. 291-303.
Golden, CO, Colorado School of Mines, 297 p.
of Mines Quarterly, v. 58 (3), p. 1-211.
Quarterly, v. 59 (2), p. 1-129.
New Mexico: Palaios, v. 8, p. 111-120.
Petrology and Processes, v. A65, p. 143-153.
Symposium: Chicago, IL, IIT Research Institute, p. 273-280.
Charophyta: Journal of Paleontology, v. 8, p. 83-119.
Survey Professional Paper 294-A, 44 p.
Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen, v.
bacterial-algal mats and biofilms: Sedimentology, v. 47, p. 179-214.
School of Mines Professional Contributions, v. 11, 345 p.
Research and Applications: New York, Springer-Verlag, 376 p.
20]: New York, Elsevier, 790 p.
Stratigraphy 4]: New York, Elsevier Publ. Co., 185 p.
µm in diameter. Photograph courtesy of David A. Caron.
needed to identify the most important groups.
Most foraminifers are benthic organisms (of the roughly 4,000 modern species, only about 40 are planktic).
photic zone; the vast majority, however, are not light dependent.
although after death, their tests fall to the underlying, deeper seafloor.
Foraminifers can be major rock forming elements in open- or restricted-shelf as well as deeper marine deposits.
In some cases, foraminiferal abundances reach tens of thousands of individuals per m3 of sediment.
grains, sponge spicules, mica flakes or other specific constituents for their tests.
multilocular; the rarer species that construct single chambered tests are termed unilocular.
also found. Some species switch from one growth form to another during life.
multichambered forms and may be interlaminated in complex consortia with algae and other organisms.
1. Most tests are multichambered, with chambers arranged in a variety of distinctive patterns described above.
hyaline walls (orbitoids, discocyclinids, lepidocyclinids, nummulitids, globigerinids, and others).
walls (all features designed to minimize settling rates). Some keeled and thicker-walled forms also exist.
arrangement patterns in foraminiferal tests.
chambering or from evolute to involute coiling. Adapted from Moore et al. (1952), Loeblich and Tappan (1964), and Culver (1987).
some of the remarkable variation of test morphologies in this group.
E and F are Miocene uniserial forms; the others are modern examples. Photograph courtesy of Brian Darnton (http://www.microscopyuk.org.uk).
held together with an organic cement.

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