Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/366/617/
Timestamp: 2019-04-24 11:55:55+00:00

Document:
Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Massachusetts, Inc.
Appellees are members of the Orthodox Jewish Faith, whose religion forbids them to shop on their Sabbath (from sundown on Friday until sundown on Saturday) and requires them to eat kosher food; a group of orthodox rabbis and a corporation selling kosher food mainly to such customers. They sued in a Federal District Court to enjoin as unconstitutional enforcement of certain sections of the Massachusetts Sunday Closing Laws which had been construed as forbidding the corporation to keep its store open on Sundays (except for the sale of kosher meat until 10 a.m.), though it had formerly been open for business all day on Sundays and had done about a third of its weekly business then. It had been closed from sundown on Fridays until sundown on Saturdays, and it claimed that it was economically impractical for it to keep open on Saturday nights and until 10 a. m. on Sundays. The laws in question generally forbid the keeping open of shops and the doing of any labor, business or work on Sundays; but they are subject to a great many detailed exceptions of many different kinds, which are summarized in the opinion.
Held: the statutes here involved do not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and they are not laws respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, within the meaning of the First Amendment, made applicable to the States by the Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 366 U. S. 618-631.
176 F. Supp. 466, reversed.
MR. CHIEF JUSTICE WARREN announced the judgment of the Court and an opinion in which MR. JUSTICE BLACK, MR. JUSTICE CLARK, and MR. JUSTICE WHITTAKER concur.
The principal issues presented in this case are whether the Massachusetts Sunday Closing Laws [Footnote 1] violate equal protection, are statutes respecting the establishment of religion, or prohibit the free exercise thereof.
of patrons; and the chief orthodox rabbi of Springfield, as representative of a class of orthodox rabbis whose duties include the inspecting of kosher food markets to insure compliance with Orthodox Jewish dietary laws.
Crown had previously been open for business on Sunday, on which day it had conducted about one-third of its weekly business. No other supermarket in the Springfield area had kept open on Sunday. Since the Orthodox Jewish religion requires its members to refrain from any commercial activity on the Sabbath -- from sundown on Friday until sundown on Saturday -- Crown was not open during those hours. Although there is a statutory provision which permits Sabbatarians to keep their shops open until 10 a.m. on Sunday for the sale of kosher meat, Crown did not do so because it was economically impractical; for the same reason, Crown did not open after sundown on Saturday.
printing, sale and delivery of newspapers; the operation of bootblacks before 11 a.m., unless locally prohibited; the wholesale and retail sale of milk, ice and fuel; the wholesale handling and delivery of fish and perishable foodstuffs; the sale at wholesale of dressed poultry; the making of butter and cheese; general interstate truck transportation before 8 a.m. and after 8 p.m. and at all times in cases of emergency; intrastate truck transportation of petroleum products before 6 a.m. and after 10 p.m.; the transportation of livestock and farm items for participation in fairs and sporting events; the sale of fruits and vegetables on the grower's premises; the keeping open of public bathhouses; the digging of claims; the icing and dressing of fish; the sale of works of art at exhibitions; the conducting of private trade expositions between 1 p.m. and 10 p.m.
These statutes do not prohibit Sunday business and labor by Sabbatarian observers so long as it disturbs no other person. However, this has been construed to forbid the keeping open of shops for the sale of merchandise. Commonwealth v. Has, 122 Mass. 40. Permission is granted by local option for the Sunday operation after 1 p.m. of amusement parks and beach resorts, including participation in bowling and games of amusement for which prizes are awarded. Special licenses for emergency Sunday work may be obtained from local officials.
Other provisions of the Massachusetts Sunday legislation make generally unlawful Sunday attendance or participation in any public entertainments except for those which are duly licensed locally, conducted after 1 p.m., and are in keeping with the character of the day observance.
any time after 1:30 p.m.; amateur sports may be played between 2 p.m. and 6 p.m.; this is all subject to local option, and no game may be conducted within one thousand feet of any regular place of worship except in a public playground or park. There are specific bans on auto racing, horse racing, boxing, and hunting with firearms. And there are a number of additional exemptions from the general proscription. Golf, tennis, dancing at weddings, concerts of sacred music, and the celebration of religious customs or rituals are all allowed on Sunday, as are the operation of miniature golf courses and golf driving ranges after 1 p.m. Motion pictures may be exhibited after this hour if a local license is obtained. Parades with music for certain commemorative purposes may be held on Sunday by veterans', civic, fraternal, policemen's, and firemen's organizations providing that they are suspended while passing within two hundred feet of public worship services.
Persons who keep places of public entertainment or refreshment lose their licenses if they entertain, on Sunday, people other than travelers, strangers or lodgers. With limited exceptions, discharging firearms for sport except on one's own land, fishing for commercial purposes, and fishing with nets or spears are prohibited on Sunday. The use of gaming devices is not allowed. Outdoor exercise without the element of contest is generally permitted, as is the taking of mammals by means of traps. Heavier penalties are imposed for the willful cutting and destruction of timber, shrubs, fruits or vegetables on Sunday than on other days of the week.
licensees is permitted on Sunday after 1 p.m. by local option. However, patrons consuming the beverages on the premises must be seated at tables.
Appellees sought permanently to enjoin the enforcement of the statute against them, alleging that appellant, Springfield's chief of police, had previously arrested and prosecuted Crown's manager for keeping open on Sunday; that, unless restrained, appellant would continue to enforce the statute against Crown; that the statute was unconstitutional for the reasons stated above. The three-judge Federal District Court, one judge dissenting, agreed with appellees, 176 F.Supp. 466. On appeal brought under 28 U.S.C. § 1253, we noted probable jurisdiction, 362 U.S. 960.
The equal protection arguments advanced by appellees are much the same as those made by appellants in McGowan v. Maryland, p. 366 U. S. 420. They contend that the exceptions to the statute are so numerous and arbitrary as to be found to have no rational basis; [Footnote 2] that the law permits the sale of certain food items sold by Crown, but limits this permission to selected types of stores; that the employees in the exempted activities are just as much in need of a day of rest as are Crown's employees. The three-judge District Court described the present statutory system as an "unbelievable hodgepodge," and sustained appellees' allegations.
might well be believed to impose near insuperable enforcement problems.
The fact is that the irrationality of these and the many other apparently reasonable distinctions has not been shown. The presumption of validity upon which the other classifications stand has not been dispelled.
"A classification having some reasonable basis does not offend against [the equal protection] clause merely because it is not made with mathematical nicety, or because, in practice, it results in some inequality."
Lindsley v. Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 U. S. 61, 220 U. S. 78. Thus, we hold that the Massachusetts Sunday Laws do not violate equal protection of the laws.
Appellees make several contentions that the statutes violate the constitutional guarantees of religious freedom. First, they allege that the statutes are laws respecting an establishment of religion in that both their original and current purposes are to enforce the observance of Sunday as the Sabbath.
"Whereas complaint is made of great abuses in sundry places of this Government of prophaning the Lords day by travelers both horse and foot by bearing of burdens carrying of packes &c. upon the Lords day to the great offence of the Godly welafected among us."
"9. This Court taking notice of great abuse, and many misdemeanours, committed by divers persons in these many wayes, Profaneing the Sabbath or Lord's-day, to the great dishonour of God, Reproach of Religion, and Grief of the Spirits of God's People"
"Do therefore Order, That whosoever shall Prophane the Lord's-day, by doing unnecessary servile Work, by unnecessary travailing, or by sports and recreations, he or they that so transgress, shall forfeit for every such default forty shillings, or be publickly whipt: But if it clearly appear that the sin was proudly, Presumptuously, and with a high hand committed, against the known Command and Authority of the blessed God, such a person therein Despising and Reproaching the Lord shall be put to death or grievously punished at the Judgment of the Court."
"10. And whosoever shall frequently neglect the public Worship of God on the Lords day, that is approved by this Government, shall forfeit for every such default convicted of, ten shillings, especially where it appears to arise from negligence, Idleness or Prophaness of Spirit."
Sunday sports. Charter of the Province of the Massachusetts Bay in New England 13-14. The preamble to the new statute in 1761 retained the Religion and Piety language and added that Profanation of the Lord's Day is highly offensive to Almighty God. This statute retained and strengthened the former prohibitions. Id. at 392-394.
"Whereas the Observance of the Lord's Day is highly promotive of the Welfare of a Community, by affording necessary Seasons for Relaxation from Labor and the Cares of Business; for moral Reflections and Conversation on the Duties of Life, and the frequent Errors of human Conduct; . . ."
Acts and Laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts 63. Thus, the statute's announced purpose was no longer solely religious. But this statute proscribed the Sunday attendance at any Concert of Music and Dancing in addition to the previously mentioned activities. Ibid. This law was reenacted in 1792. 2 Laws of Massachusetts 536 et seq.
However, when we examine the statutes now before the Court, we find that, for the most part, they have been divorced from the religious orientation of their predecessors. The preambles' statements, in certain terms, of religious purpose exist no longer. Sports of almost all kinds are now generally allowed on Sunday. The absolute prohibition against alcoholic beverages has disappeared. Concerts and dancing are permitted. Church attendance is no longer required.
permits free open air concerts. It would seem that the objectionable language is merely a relic. The fact that certain Sunday activities are permitted only if they are "in keeping with the character of the day and not inconsistent with its due observance" does not necessarily mean that the day is intended to be religious; the "character" of the day would appear more likely to be intended to be one of repose and recreation. We are told that those provisions forbidding certain activities to be conducted within a set distance from a place of public worship are especially devoted to maintaining Sunday as the Sabbath. But because the State wishes to protect those who do worship on Sunday does not mean that the State means to impose religious worship on all. See Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U. S. 1, 330 U. S. 16. Although many of the more recently allowed Sunday activities may not commence prior to 1 p.m., others may be undertaken at any time during the day. And the contention that evening church services are being protected cannot be maintained, since most of those activities that begin after 1 p.m. may continue throughout the day.
Furthermore, the long list of exemptions that have been recently granted evidences that the present scheme is one to provide an atmosphere of recreation, rather than religion. The court below pointed out that, since 1858, the statutes have been amended more than seventy times. It would not seem that the Sunday sales of tobacco, soda water, fruit, et cetera, are in aid of religion. It would seem that the operation of amusement parks and beach resorts is in aid of recreation.
rest and quiet. Health, peace, and good order of society are thereby promoted. Such provision is essentially civil in character, and the statutes are not regarded as religious ordinances."
"ensuring reverence and respect for one day of the week, in order that religious exercises should be performed without interruption from common and secular employments."
In Bennett v. Brooks, 9 Allen 118, 119, 91 Mass. 118, 119 (1864), the day was characterized as one "set apart for religious services and observances."
of peculiar sanctity, the legislative authority to provide for its observance is derived from its general authority to regulate the business of the community and to provide for its moral and physical welfare. The act imposes upon no one any religious ceremony or attendance upon any form of worship, and anyone who deems another day more suitable for rest or worship may devote that day to the religious observance which he deems appropriate. That one who conscientiously observes the seventh day of the week may also be compelled to abstain from business of the kind expressly forbidden on the first day is not occasioned by any subordination of his religion, but because, as a member of the community, he must submit to the rules which are made by lawful authority to regulate and govern the business of that community."
Commonwealth v. Has, 122 Mass. 40, 42 (1877).
The court below characterized this decision as an ad hoc improvisation by the Massachusetts court. Of course, the court below was correct in deciding that it was not bound by the Massachusetts characterization of the statutes. See Society for Savings v. Bowers, 349 U. S. 143, 349 U. S. 151. But ten years later, in Commonwealth v. Starr, 144 Mass. 359, 361, 11 N.E. 533, 534 (1887), another religious charge against the statute was made; it was rejected on the authority of Has.
none of the cases stated the statute's purpose to be exclusively religious. [Footnote 6] Finally, in the only recent case passing on the Massachusetts Sunday Closing Laws, Commonwealth v. Chernock, 336 Mass. 384, 145 N.E.2d 920 (1957), the court summarily dismissed the complainant's religious contention, relying on Has.
The relevant factors having been most carefully considered, we do not find that the present statutes' purpose or effect is religious. Although the three-judge court found that Massachusetts had no legitimate secular interest in maintaining Sunday closing, we have held differently in McGowan v. Maryland, supra. And, for the reasons stated in that case, we reject appellees' request to hold these statutes invalid on the ground that the State may accomplish its secular purpose by alternative means that would not even remotely or incidentally aid religion.
statutes' effect greatly complicates their task of supervising the condition of kosher meat because the meat delivered on Friday would have to be kept until Monday. Furthermore, appellees contend that, because of all this, the statutes discriminate against their religion.
MR. JUSTICE FRANKFURTER and MR. JUSTICE HARLAN concur in a separate opinion.
The statutory sections immediately before the Court are Mass.Gen.Laws Ann. c. 136, §§ 5 and 6. The Massachusetts Sunday Closing Laws in their entirety may be found in Mass.Gen.Laws Ann. c. 136; c. 131, § 58; c. 138, §§ 12 and 33; c. 149, §§ 47 and 48; c. 266, §§ 113 and 117. Those sections considered particularly relevant are set forth in an Appendix to this opinion.
A similar argument made is that the exemptions from the statutes' proscription "eat up the rule," bear no rational relationship to the alleged interest of the State, and therefore violate due process.
It may be noted that, contrary to the interpretation of the court below, since there is no restriction on the sale of milk, Crown may vend it at any time on Sunday.
"The wave of materialism which is sweeping the country makes it most important that one day be set aside for worship, rest, and to give all persons an opportunity to strengthen the bulwark of our American civilization-the home."
Report of the Unpaid Special Commission to Investigate and Study the Provisions of the Laws Relating to the Observance of the Lord's Day, Mass.Leg.Docs., H.Doc. No. 2413 (1954) 9.
Davis v. City of Somerville, 128 Mass. 594 (1880); Commonwealth v. Dextra, 143 Mass. 28, 8 N.E. 756 (1886); Commonwealth v. White, 190 Mass. 578, 77 N.E. 636 (1906); Commonwealth v. McCarthy, 244 Mass. 484, 138 N.E. 835 (1923).
"The Legislature intended by this statute to keep the ordinary places of traffic, business, and work closed on this day, so that those persons who desired to relax from labor and business, and attend to private and public worship might not be disturbed by persons pursuing their worldly business and avocations in open shop."
Commonwealth v. Dextra, 143 Mass. at 31, 8 N.E. at 759.
Appellants have advanced several procedural arguments. Since these were briefed only as ancillary issues and were not orally argued, and since their determination is not necessary to the disposition of the major questions presented, we deem it inappropriate to pass upon them now.
MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL LAWS ANNOTATED, c. 136.
§ 1. Lord's day, definition. The Lord's day shall include the time from midnight to midnight.
Lord's day is present at a game, sport, play or public diversion, except a concert of sacred music, a public entertainment duly licensed as provided in section four or a free open air concert given by a town, or by license of the mayor or the selectmen, upon a common or public park, street or square, or except a game of golf conducted on an open air golf course, or except a game of tennis or dancing at a wedding or celebration of a religious custom or ritual if no charge is made for being present or for dancing, or except after one o'clock post-meridian a game of outdoor lawn bowling or the playing of golf or driving on an outdoor golf driving range or playing on a miniature golf course, so called, shall be punished by a fine of not more than five dollars. Whoever on the Lord's day takes part in any game, sport, play or public diversion, except as aforesaid, shall be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars. This and the following section shall not apply to amusement enterprises lawfully conducted under section four A or four B or to sports or games conducted in accordance with sections twenty-one to twenty-five, inclusive, in any city or town which accepts said sections or in accordance with sections twenty-six to thirty-two, inclusive, in any city or town in which said sections twenty-six to thirty-two are then in force.
diversion, except a public entertainment licensed under section four and except as provided in section two, shall be punished by a fine of not more than five hundred dollars.
the hearing. The foregoing provisions, insofar as they authorize any person to refuse to grant, or to suspend, revoke or annul a license upon the ground that the proposed entertainment is not in keeping with the character of the Lord's day or not consistent with its due observance, and insofar as they require written approval of the proposed entertainment by said commissioner, shall not apply to any person making an application for a license to exhibit motion pictures or for the use of radio or television on said day, nor to any license issued upon such application.
with any game or device lawfully maintained and operated by him under authority hereof. Any such license may, after notice and a hearing given by the mayor or selectmen issuing the same, or by said commissioner, be suspended, revoked or annulled by the officer or board giving the hearing. So much of this section as relates to the maintenance and operation of bowling alleys shall not apply in any city or town which shall have accepted the provisions of section four B.
§ 4B. Licenses for operation of bowling alleys on the Lord's day. In any city which accepts this section by vote of its city council and in any town which accepts this section by vote of its inhabitants, the city council, with the approval of the mayor, or the selectmen, as the case may be, may grant licenses for the operation of bowling alleys on the Lord's day between the hours of one and eleven post meridian; provided, that no such license may authorize the operation of bowling alleys on Easter, or on Christmas day if such day falls on the Lord's day. Every license granted hereunder shall specify the location of the place of business in which the license is to be exercised, and the license shall not be valid in any other place. Bowling alleys operated under such licenses shall be operated subject to such regulations and restrictions as shall be prescribed from time to time by the city council, with the approval of the mayor, or by the selectmen. Said regulations and restrictions shall be stated in the license. Said licensing authorities may at any time and without previous notice revoke licenses issued under this section if they have reason to believe that any provision of this section, or of any regulation or restriction prescribed thereunder, is being or will be violated.
or does any manner of labor, business or work, except works of necessity and charity, shall be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars.
§ 6. Limit of operation of section 5. The preceding section shall not prohibit the manufacture and distribution of steam, gas or electricity for illuminating purposes, heat or motive power; the distribution of water for fire or domestic purposes; the use of the telegraph or the telephone; the manufacture and distribution of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, acetylene and carbon dioxide; the retail sale of drugs and medicines, or articles ordered by the prescription of a physician, or mechanical appliances used by physicians or surgeons.
Nor shall it prohibit the retail sale of tobacco in any of its forms by licensed innholders, common victuallers, druggists and newsdealers whose stores are open for the sale of newspapers every day in the week; the retail sale of bread, before ten o'clock in the forenoon and between the hours of four o'clock and half past six o'clock in the afternoon by licensed innholders and by licensed common victuallers authorized to keep open their places of business on the Lord's day and by persons licensed under the following section to keep open their places of business as aforesaid; the retail sale of frozen desserts and/or frozen dessert mix, soda water and confectionery by licensed innholders and druggists, and by such licensed common victuallers as are not also licensed to sell alcoholic beverages, as defined in section one of chapter one hundred and thirty-eight, and who are authorized to keep open their places of business on the Lord's day; the sale of frozen desserts and/or frozen dessert mix, soda water, confectionery or fruit by persons licensed under the following section or the keeping open of their places of business for the sale thereof; the sale of live bait for use by fishermen for noncommercial purposes.
Nor shall it prohibit work lawfully done by persons working under permits granted under section nine; the sale by licensed innholders and common victuallers of meals such as are usually served by them, consisting in no part of alcoholic beverages, as so defined, which meals are cooked on the premises but are not to be consumed thereon; the operation of motor vehicles; the sale of gasoline and oil for use, and the retail sale of accessories for immediate necessary use, in connection with the operation of motor vehicles, motor boats and aircraft; the making of such emergency repairs on disabled motor vehicles as may be necessary to permit such vehicles to be towed or to proceed under their own power, and the towing of disabled motor vehicles; the letting of horses and carriages or of boats, motor vehicles or bicycles; the letting on trains of equipment or accessories for personal use in connection with outdoor recreation and sports activities; unpaid work on pleasure boats; the running of steam ferry boats on established routes; the running of street railway cars; the running of steamboat lines and railroad trains or of steamboats.
for participation in fairs, exhibitions and sporting events and veterinary purposes; the handling, transportation and delivery of fish and perishable foodstuffs at wholesale; the sale at wholesale of dressed poultry, and the transportation of such poultry so sold, on the Lord's day next preceding Thanksgiving day, and on the Lord's day next preceding Christmas day except when Christmas day occurs on Saturday, the Lord's day or Monday; the making of butter and cheese; the keeping open of public bathhouses; the making or selling by bakers or their employees, before ten o'clock in the forenoon and between the hours of four o'clock and half past six o'clock in the afternoon, of bread or other food usually dealt in by them; whenever Rosh Hashonah, or the Day of Atonement, begins on the Lord's day, the retail sale and delivery of fish, fruit and vegetables before twelve o'clock noon of that day; the selling or delivering of kosher meat by any person who, according to his religious belief, observes Saturday as the Lord's day by closing his place of business during the day until six o'clock in the afternoon, or the keeping open of his shop on the Lord's day for the sale of kosher meat between the hours of six o'clock and ten o'clock in the forenoon.
thereof; such unpaid work in or about private gardens or private grounds, adjacent to a dwelling house, as shall not cause unreasonable noise, having regard to the locality where such work is performed.
Nor shall it prohibit the sale of catalogues of pictures and other works of art in exhibitions held by societies organized for the purpose of promoting education in the fine arts or the exposure of photographic plates and films for pleasure, if the pictures to be made therefrom are not intended to be sold and are not sold.
Nor shall it prohibit the conduct of any enterprise lawfully conducted under section four A or section four B.
Nor shall it prohibit the necessary preparation for and the conducting of private industrial trade expositions which are not open to the general public; provided, that said expositions shall be kept open only between the hours of one and ten o'clock post meridian.
Nor shall it prohibit the sale of fruit and vegetables by the person who raised the same, or by his agent thereunto duly authorized, on premises owned or leased by him.
and/or frozen dessert mix, confectionery, soda water or fruit.
§ 9. Permit for performance of necessary work or labor on the Lord's day. The police commissioner of Boston, or any member of the police department having a rank not lower than that of captain and designated by said commissioner, or the chief of police or other officer in charge of the police department of any other city or of any town, or the chairman of the board of selectmen of any town, upon such terms and conditions as he deems reasonable, may issue a permit for the performance on the Lord's day of necessary work or labor which in his judgment could not be performed on any other day without serious suffering, loss, damage or public inconvenience. Such permit shall cover not more than one day and shall not be issued more than six days prior to the day for which it is issued.
§ 21. Athletic outdoor sports or games. In any city which accepts sections twenty-one to twenty-five, inclusive, by vote of its city council, or in any town which accepts said sections by vote of its inhabitants, it shall be lawful on the Lord's day to take part in or witness any athletic outdoor sport or game, as hereinafter provided, between the hours of one thirty and six thirty post meridian and, in the case of a baseball game commenced before the hour of six thirty post meridian, for such further time beyond said hour as may be necessary to complete said game; provided, that said game had been scheduled to commence at or before the hour of three post meridian, or is the second of two successive games to be played on the same day, the first of which had been scheduled to commence at or before the hour of two post meridian. In any such city or town it shall be lawful on the Lord's day to take part in or witness, as hereinafter provided, any indoor hockey or basketball game between the hours of one thirty post meridian and twelve midnight.
§ 22. Licensed playgrounds or parks for athletic outdoor sports or games. Such sports or games shall take place on such playgrounds, parks or other places as may be designated for that purpose in a license or permit issued by the city council, with the approval of the mayor, or by the selectmen; provided, that if, under any statute or ordinance, a public playground or park is placed under the exclusive charge and authority of any other officials, such officials shall, for that playground or park, be the licensing authority; and provided, that no sport or game shall be permitted in a place, other than a public playground or park, within one thousand feet of any regular place of worship.
§ 26. Athletic outdoor sports or games not involving pecuniary reward, remuneration or consideration. In any city or town wherein the corresponding provisions of this and the six following sections were in effect on the sixth day of December, nineteen hundred and twenty-eight, and which has not voted against said sections on resubmission as provided in section thirty-one, and has not accepted the provisions of sections twenty-one to twenty-five, inclusive, as provided in section twenty-one, it shall be lawful to take part in or witness any athletic outdoor sport or game, in which the contestants do not receive and have not been promised any pecuniary reward, remuneration or consideration whatsoever directly or indirectly in connection therewith, on the Lord's day between the hours of two and six in the afternoon as hereinafter provided.
the exclusive charge and authority of any other officials, such officials shall, for that playground or park, be the licensing authority; and provided, that no sport or game shall be permitted in a place, other than a public playground or park, within one thousand feet of any regular place of worship.
MR. JUSTICE BRENNAN and MR. JUSTICE STEWART dissent. They are of the opinion that the Massachusetts statute, as applied to the appellees in this case, prohibits the free exercise of religion. See their dissenting opinions in Braunfeld v. Brown, ante, pp. 366 U. S. 610, 366 U. S. 616.

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