Source: https://es.scribd.com/document/78098375/James-McClenon-What-is-to-be-Done-Evaluating-the-Ritual-Healing-Theory
Timestamp: 2019-04-25 08:54:19+00:00

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The field of parapsychology has been criticized for not providing sufficiently replicable experiments. Researchers have found that their claims of achieving replicable experiments have not had the impact on mainstream science that might be expected. Content analysis of introductory psychology textbooks indicates that text authors tend to emphasize failure to replicate while ignoring evidence supporting parapsychological claims. The field of parapsychology demonstrates structural characteristics suggesting that it will not gain full legitimacy should it continue to follow present strategies. The Ritual Healing Theory offers a means to bypass this problem. It is derived from research in the social psychology of anomalous experience, human genetics, and evolutionary psychology. It hypothesizes that dissociative abilities and the capacity for anomalous perceptions have physiological basis. It argues that early hominids developed dissociative capacities for coping with trauma. Later hominids devised therapeutic rituals that provided greater benefits to those with dissociative ability. Shamans conducted rituals that allowed those with dissociative abilities survival advantages and these individuals passed on dissociation genotypes more frequently. These processes caused the frequency of genes related to dissociation to increase. Experiences linked to dissociation (apparitions, waking and sleeping ESP, out-of-body experiences, and psychokinesis) were shaped and became more prevalent. These experiences generated beliefs in spirits, souls, life after death, and magical abilities, providing the foundation for shamanism, humankinds first religion. Shamanic healing practices, occurring over the last 30,000 years, continued selecting for dissociative and hypnotic genotypes, further shaping the physiological foundations for anomalous experience, religion, and ritual healing. Ritual healing theory hypotheses are testable within the domains of psychical research, anthropology, archaeology, social psychology of religion, folklore, history, physiology, and medicine. Hypotheses include: (1) The extent of childhood trauma should be positively correlated with dissociative capacities. (2) Dissociative capacities should be positively correlated with propensity for anomalous experience. (3) Certain types of anomalous experience (apparitions, paranormal dreams, waking extrasensory perceptions, psychokinesis, and outof-body experience) have biological basis and occur in all societies. (4) Certain types of experience, such as waking extrasensory perception and paranormal dreams have structural features associated with state of consciousness; waking extrasensory perceptions more often pertain to present events, lead to conviction, and provide less information than paranormal dreams which more often pertain to future events, fail to generate conviction, and provide greater information. These features are seemingly universal, implying physiological basis. (5) Propensity for anomalous experience is correlated with belief in spirits, souls, life after death, and magical abilities and certain experiences induce belief. (6) Researchers should find significant correlations between frequency of anomalous experience, temporal lobe signs, transliminality, and cognitive openness, traits hypothesized to be part of the shamanic complex. (7) Capacity for ritual healing should be positively correlated with dissociative/hypnotic ability. (8) Anthropologists can observe ritual healing processes through field studies. They can detect patterns indicating a shamanic complex. (9) Historians of medicine can document that all ancient medical practices contain rituals based on placebo and hypnotic processes.
This paper is a revision of a forthcoming chapter The Ritual Healing Theory: Hypotheses for Psychical Research, In M. A. Thalbourne and L. Storm (Eds.). Parapsychology in the 21st Century: The Future of Psychical Research, Jefferson, NC: McFarland. It is submitted with the permission of the editors and future publisher.
McClenon apparitions, waking and sleeping extrasensory perceptions (ESP), psychokinesis (PK), sleep paralysis, out-ofbody experiences (OBE), and near-death experiences (NDE), generated beliefs in spirits, souls, life after death, and magical abilities. These beliefs provided the foundation for shamanism. Shamanism was humankinds first religion, practiced by all hunter-gatherer societies (Winkelman, 1992, 2000). As a result, folk religious traditions regarding spirits, souls, life after death, and magical abilities exist in all large societies (McClenon, 1997a, 2002a). Shamanism is defined as a religious system in which practitioners go into trance to contact spirits thought to affect living people. Shamanism can be operationally defined as including specific characteristics identified in the anthropological literature (Winklemans (1992: 48). Paleolithic rock and cave art, indicating use of altered states of consciousness, suggests that shamanism has been practiced for over 30,000 years (Lewis-Williams & Dowson, 1988). The existence of ritual and hypnotic processes in animals implies that hominids gained an increasing capacity to use altered states of consciousness in ritual during human evolution (Hoskovec & Svorad, 1969; McClenon, 2002). Evolutionists note that physiological change can occur within relatively brief time spans. Lumsden and Wilson (1983: 152) argue that the coupling of genes and culture drove human evolution in a rapid manner. They argue that significant genetic changes have occurred within a mere 50 generations, or approximately 1,000 years. Human teeth and bone structure changed with advances in Paleolithic technology, illustrating the effect of culture on human evolution. Increasing lactose tolerance, associated with human domestication of cattle, occurred within the past 10,000 years. The ritual healing theory does not argue that humankind gained direct benefits from psi. It does not pass judgement on the authenticity of psi or other exceptional claims. It argues that certain anomalous experiences have universal features reflecting their physiological bases and that belief in ideologies associated with these experiences facilitate therapeutic rituals. These rituals provide greater benefits to those with dissocative/hypnotic capacities. Dawkins (1999) explains the evolutionary orientation by noting that genes are like oarsmen in a racing boat. After a number of races, the winning oarsmen (genes) are randomly assigned to new boats (bodies) and the races continue. All boats contain incompetent oarsmen but there is a tendency for skillful teams to win. Genotypes, groups of genes with a specific purpose, are like oarsmen teams fulfilling complex functions. Such teams are often effective only in certain environments. The ritual healing theory argues that oarsmen allowing dissociation and hypnosis proved valuable during humankinds era of evolutionary adaptation. These winning dissociation/hypnosis teams contained members facilitating trance, apparitions, ESP, PK, OBE, NDE, and other anomalous perceptions sustaining shamanism. Ultimately, oarsmen teams were shaped to allow the modern propensity for religion. Irwin (1992, 1993) provides a model hypothesizing relationships between psychological variables and cultural factors of particular interest to parapsychologists. His model can be modified to coincide with the evolutionary paradigm and to portray the ritual healing theory (see Figure 1). Within this model, "encouragement of childhood fantasy" and "childhood trauma" affect "dissociative ability." Paleolithic people (particularly children) with dissociative ability had greater survival advantages when exposed to trauma than those lacking this ability. Over time, genotypes associated with dissociation increased. These genotypes are linked to various anomalous experiences that generate beliefs providing the ideological foundation for shamanism (McClenon, 1997a, 2002a). Because shamanism involved therapeutic rituals that provided greater benefits to those with dissociative capacities, the frequency of dissociative genotypes continued to increase and be shaped by ritual process. Using Dawkins (1999) metaphor, dissociation genotypes contain oarsmen allowing anomalous experiences. Over time, the compositions of these teams were shaped by evolutionary selection, governed by ritual suggestion. Genotypes (oarsmen teams within each boat) related to dissociation/hypnotizability increased because they contributed to survival (the boats victory). Because oarsmen on these teams facilitated trance and other anomalous experiences, shamanism developed in all hunter-gatherer societies.
Dissociative/hypnotic capacities could not increase infinitely because these traits had negative consequences. Highly dissociative people are fantasy prone and tend to suffer from psychosomatic and dissociative identity disorders. Not all such people recover when treated by shamanic ritual. The ritual healing theory portrays a process where those with moderate levels of dissociative/hypnotic capacity have optimal survival advantage. The ritual healing theory can be evaluated within the context of four broad hypotheses: (1) The trauma/dissociation hypothesis specifies a positive correlation between childhood trauma and dissociative/hypnotic capacities (2) The dissociation/anomalous experience hypothesis specifies positive correlations between dissociative/hypnotic processes and incidence of anomalous experiences. (3) The experiential source hypothesis specifies that certain anomalous experiences instill belief in spirits, souls, life after death, and magical abilities. (4) The shamanic effectiveness hypothesis argues that ritual healing can be effective due to hypnotic and placebo effects.
McClenon intrinsically pathological but is related to fantasy and imaginative ability (Putnam, 1991). The dissociation benefit argument, used within the ritual healing theory, is based on two assumptions: (1) Dissociation can protect against negative effects of stress. (2) Humans used this mechanism for sufficient time that related genes become more widespread. Terms within the above hypotheses have been defined and operationalized. Dissociation is defined as experiences and behaviors that exist apart from, or have been disconnected from, the mainstream of one's conscious awareness, behavioral repertoire, and/or self-concept" (Krippner, 1994: 357). Hypnosis is a psychophysiological condition in which attention is so focused that there occurs a relative reduction of both peripheral awareness and critical analytic mentation, leading to distortions in perception, mood, and memory which in turn produce significant behavioral and biological changes (Wickramasekera, 1987: 12). Standardized scales allow evaluation of childhood trauma (Kent & Waller, 1998; Sanders & Becker-Lausen, 1995), capacity for dissociation (Lynn and Rhue, 1994) and hypnotic suggestibility (Fromm and Nash, 1992). The ritual healing model recognizes that dissociative/hypnotic genotypes have been shaped by both natural and cultural factors (such as encouragement of childhood fantasy) and that, as a result, nature and nurture cannot be completely differentiated. Modern evolutionary psychologists recognize that ecology and culture are linked since both elements shaped evolutionary selection. Frequency of anomalous experience should be positively correlated with childhood trauma and neglect -with dissociative capacity as a mediating variable. The ritual healing theory does not specify a causal linkage. Dissociation does not necessarily cause anomalous experience and the reason for the hypothesized correlation is not specified. Dissociative genotypes may include genes facilitating anomalous experience and similar cognitive processes may generate dissociative and anomalous perceptions. The term anomalous experience refers to specific forms of perception, having similar identifying features in all societies. Anomalous experiences include apparitions, waking and sleeping ESP, PK, OBE, NDE, and sleep paralysis. Scales measuring the incidence of these perceptions are described in peer- reviewed journal articles (McClenon, 1994, 2002; Kumar and Pekala, 2001). Psychical researchers can evaluate hypotheses specific to their areas of expertise: (1) Groups claiming higher levels of anomalous experience should report higher rates of childhood trauma and neglect. (2) Samples of psychic practitioners and spiritual healers, who tend to use trance and dissociative techniques, should report higher levels of childhood trauma and neglect than general populations. Ethologists (observers of animal behavior) might investigate additional hypotheses. The ritual healing theory predicts that dissociative and hypnotic capacities exist in alternate forms in various animals. Dissociative capacities aid these animals when confronted with certain stressful stimuli. For example, some animals react to threats using the Totstell reflect, often called animal hypnosis since it is parallel to human hypnosis (Hoskovec & Svorad, 1969). These animals play dead, adapting unusual forms of consciousness in order to avoid predators attacks. Such startle responses include rapid changes in consciousness, paralysis, and the sleepy appearance associated with human hypnosis. Ethologists note that repetitive, non-verbal rituals function as hypnotic inductions for some animals. Vlgyesi (1966) induced trance in primates using non-verbal, repetitive techniques suitable for humans.
Evaluating the Ritual Healing Theory supports the argument that a shamanic complex governs the nature and incidence of shamanism.
Various researchers have found positive significant correlations between dissociative capacity and frequency of paranormal and anomalous experience (Pekala et al., 1995; Ross & Joshi, 1992; Ross et al. 1991; Richards, 1991). Richards (1991) findings are typical. He concluded that the dissociation was most correlated with waking clairvoyance, precognition, apparitions, psychokinesis, and volitional telepathy. He argues that out-of-body experiences, trance channeling, and contact with spirit guides imply dissociative processes (as indicated by high significant correlations).
Kumar and Pekala (2001: 275-276) summarize findings regarding hypnotizability and paranormal experience: A total of 23 correlations were reported in 11 different studies.... three were reported as nonsignificant (-.20, p> .05; .13, p>.001; [and one did not report an r value but reported that it was nonsignificant]; the rest varied between .17 and .55 (all at least p<.05). The median correlation (excluding the negative value) was .31. Studies.... examining group differences in experiences also support a relationship [except for one study] in the sense that participants with high hypnotizability tend to report a greater number of experiences than those with low hypnotizability.
McClenon pathologies (often attributed to spiritual forces). Such people may be healed by spiritual practitioners and, as part of this process, become spiritual practitioners themselves (Lewis, 1971). Shamanic healing rituals include elements involving hypnotic induction, suggestion, and changes in self-concept that seem designed to benefit those scoring high on shamanic complex variables.
Evaluating the Ritual Healing Theory pertain to present events. (4) Waking ESP tends to generate greater conviction, indicated by the respondent taking action, than do paranormal dreams. (5) Paranormal dreams tend to provide more information than do waking ESP episodes. (6) There is a tendency for quality of information to be negatively correlated with severity of event within paranormal dreams. Paranormal dreams often fail to reveal the identity of a person who died, while providing more complete information for events not associated with death. (7) Apparitions contain similar abnormal features of perception in all societies. These features include disappearance of image, insubstantial image, glowing image, white or black clothes, sickly or deformed image, partial body, abnormal walking or floating, and abnormal sound (Emmons, 1982; McClenon, 1994). Correlational studies verify links between anomalous experience and belief (Pekala, Kumar, and Cummings, 1992; Targ, Schlitz, and Irwin, 2000) and qualitative studies indicate that many people report that anomalous experiences create specific beliefs (McClenon, 1994). Although a dominant paradigm within religious studies portrays anomalous experiences as products of belief, tests of this argument consistently demonstrate it to be false (Hufford, 1982; McClenon, 1994). For example, historical analysis of Icelandic mediumship revealed that psychic experiences and performances transformed Icelandic religious traditions in an innovative direction (Swatos and Gissurarson, 1997). Social-psychological research indicates that attitudes formed by direct experience are stronger than those gained through other means, and that experience-based attitudes are better predictors of later behavior than attitudes gained through other means (Millar and Millar, 1996). People reporting frequent anomalous experiences reveal particularly robust belief-systems that we would expect to affect their behavior. Researchers have found that anomalous experiences are not distributed normally that the majority of experiences are reported by a small segment of any population. Such people tend to hold powerful convictions regarding spirits, souls, life after death, and magical abilities (Greeley, 1995, 1987; McClenon, 1994; Palmer, 1979). Psychical researchers can engage in participant observation, designed to monitor creation of belief through experience. Some methods allow semi-controlled conditions. Sitter groups investigate PK through table tipping experiments (Batcheldor, 1966, 1979, 1984; Owen & Sparrow, 1976). These groups sit regularly, often once a week, for an hour or more, with their hands on a table, seeking to generate psychokinetic effects. Groups often report anomalous table movements and unexplained auditory rapping thought to be generated by spirits. Although observational results have bearing on parapsychological theories, it is often impossible to verify psi within these settings. Whether authentic or not, people report that sitter group psi affects their beliefs. The processes by which sitter groups generate belief through experience are similar to processes observed by anthropologists within shamanic groups. Shamanic, spiritualist, and sitter groups seem to experience similar forms of psychic phenomena even though cultures vary (McClenon, in press). Participants report seeing spirit lights, perceiving objects moving magically, hearing unexplained sounds and voices, and even feeling the whole room shake as during an earthquake. Psychical researchers could contribute to the anthropological literature regarding shamanism, anomalous experience, and belief (Young and Goulet, 1994). Such evidence refutes cultural source hypotheses and supports experiential source hypotheses. Ethnographers can conduct haunting and poltergeist investigations within this paradigm. They should find that haunting and poltergeist experiences occur more often among those reporting previous anomalous experiences, that haunting accounts contain culturally universal features, and that resulting stories contribute to recurring features with folk religious traditions (McClenon, 2001).
Evaluating the Ritual Healing Theory through mechanisms involving hypnotic control of blood flow (Chapman, Goodell, and Wolff, 1959; Ullman, 1947, Moore and Kaplan, 1983: Barber, 1984). This process may explain some of the extremely anomalous healing stories found in all societies (McClenon, 2002a). For example, patients may cut off blood flow to cancerous tumors as a result of hypnotic suggestion, causing cancerous growths to wither away. The argument that spiritual healing generates hypnotic and placebo effects does not preclude the possibility that unexplained processes may also occur. The ritual healing theory takes no position regarding the existence of magical or psi effects. Psychic researchers have investigated various unusual phenomena associated with shamanism and spiritual healing. Such phenomena include alleged extrasensory perception, psychokinesis, and firewalking. The ritual healing theory argues that such perceptions contribute to hypnotic and placebo healing since they inspire belief. Psychical researchers can document the effects of these performances on peoples belief. People witnessing and accepting psychic performances are predicted to benefit more from associated therapeutic suggestions than those not exposed or believing. Healed people should reveal more dissociativity, hypnotizability, frequency of anomalous experience, temporal lobe lability, and thinner cognitive boundaries than those not healed.
The ritual healing theory provides a variety of hypothesis that psychical researchers can test. These hypotheses pertain to spontaneous anomalous experience, spiritual healing, and anomalous performance. The ritual healing theory allows researchers to transcend conflicts between skeptics and believers regarding the authenticity of psi, and facilitates the investigation of anomalous claims within mainstream scientific paradigms. This orientation can contribute to the scientific study of religion and lead to more effective treatments of psychologically influenced disorders.
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Stephen E. Braude- Survival or Super-psi?

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