Source: http://translatorsnotes.blogspot.com/
Timestamp: 2018-10-17 19:04:30+00:00

Document:
Thoughts and musings by multilingual translator Élise Hendrick, specialising in IP and other legal translations between Japanese and German, and most major European languages...
Schuldrecht §§ 241-242 BGB in japanischer Übersetzung (Textgegenüberstellung)
民法　第241条　債権から生じる義務
①債権者は、債権に基づき、債務者に履行を求める権利を有する。 債権履行は、不作為をその目的とすることもできる。
②債権は、諸当事者に相手方の権利・法益及び利益を配慮する義務を負わせることができる。
第241条の二　注文なしに提供された給付　*)
①事業者は消費者の注文しなかった商品その他の給付を提供することによっては、当該消費者に対する請求権が生じない。
②当該給付は、受領者のためのものでない場合、又は注文の存在を誤認して提供され、受領者が誤認を知り、もしくは相当の注意を怠らなければ知ることができた場合には、法律上の請求権は排除されない。
③消費者には、注文した給付ではなく、品質，価格上同等な給付が提供されて、受領義務がないこと及び返送費を負担しないことを説明すれば、当該給付は注文されなかった商品その他の給付に当たらない。
当局の補足説明：
本条の規定は、欧州議会及び委員会の1997年5月20日付の遠隔販売契約の締結における消費者保護に関する指令97/7/EC号（EC官報L144号19頁）を施行するものである。
第242条　債務履行における信義則
債務者は、債務を、一般慣習に基づいて、信義に従い誠実にこれを履行しなければならない。
unter 5:28 PM 0 Kommentare
Labels: BGB, Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, Deutsch, Japanisch, Übersetzung, 翻訳、ドイツ語、日本語、民法、債権
OGH Japan: Im Einspruchsverfahren geltend gemachte einschränkende Änderungen des Anspruchsumfangs sind einzeln zu überprüfen
Entscheidung im Volltext (Japanisch)
平成19(行ヒ)318
Fazit: Grundsätzlich gilt im japanischen Patentrecht „eine Erfindung, eine Anmeldung“. Die in der Anmeldung geltend gemachten einzelnen Ansprüche sind daher generell als untrennbares Ganzes zu betrachten. Im Einspruchsverfahren beantragte einschränkende Änderungen des Anspruchsumfangs stellen zugleich ein wichtiges Verteidigungsmittel dar. Zur Wahrung der Waffengleichheit der Parteien sind einschränkende Änderungen daher einzeln zu überprüfen.
Eine Volltext-Übersetzung dieser Entscheidung (ins Deutsche, Spanische oder Englische) kann binnen 72 Stunden zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Zur Anforderung dieser Übersetzung sowie für Anfragen über die Übersetzung anderer Dokumente bin ich unter elise.hendrick[at]gmail.com zu erreichen. Standardtarif: EUR 0,24/jap. Schriftzeichen (EUR 1397,76)
unter 5:13 PM 0 Kommentare
Japanisches Schuldrecht: 3. Buch 1. Kap 1. Abschnitt (§§ 399 - 411) japanisches Zivilgesetzbuch
Hinweis: Die nachfolgende Übersetzung der §§ 399-411 des japanischen Zivilgesetzbuches (ZGB) ist von mir erstellt worden und ist nicht amtlich.
Erster Abschnitt Gegenstand der Schuldverhältnisse
(Gegenstand der Schuldverhältnisse)
Gegenstand eines Schuldverhältnisses kann auch eine Leistung sein, deren Geldwert nicht feststellbar ist.
債権の目的が特定物の引渡しであるときは、債務者は、その引渡しをするまで、善良な管理者の注意をもって、その物を保存しなければならない
(Sorgfaltspflicht im Falle der Übergabe einer bestimmten Sache)
Ist der Gegenstand eines Schuldverhältnisses die Übergabe einer bestimmten Sache, so hat der Schuldner die Sache bis zur Übergabe unter Ausübung der im Verkehr erforderlichen Sorgfalt zu lagern.
(種類債権）
1 債権の目的物を種類のみで指定した場合において、法律行為の性質又は当事者の意思によってその品質を定めることができないときは、債務者は、中等の品質を有する物を給付しなければならない。
(Gattungsschuld)
1. Wird die geschuldete Sache nur der Gattung nach bestimmt, hat der Schuldner eine Sache von mittlerer Güte zu leisten, soweit die Güte nicht durch die Art des Rechtsgeschäfts oder den Willen der Parteien bestimmt werden kann.
2. Wenn der Schuldner im Falle des Abs. 1 alles zur Leistung der Sache Erforderliche getan, oder mit der Zustimmung des Gläubigers die Sache bestimmt hat, gilt diese Sache als Gegenstand des Schuldverhältnisses.
(Geldschuld)
1. Wird Geld geschuldet, kann der Schuldner in der Münzsorte seiner Wahl zahlen, wenn die Schuld nicht in einer bestimmten Münzsorte zu zahlen ist.
2. Ist die bestimmte Geldsorte zur Leistungszeit kein gesetzliches Zahlungsmittel mehr, so hat der Schuldner in einer anderen Geldsorte zu zahlen.
3. Auf Fremdwährungsschulden ist die Bestimmung des Abs. 2 entsprechend anzuwenden.
Ist der geschuldete Betrag in einer fremden Währung ausgedrückt, so kann auch nach dem am Erfüllungsort geltenden Wechselkurs in japanischer Währung gezahlt werden.
利息を生ずべき債権について別段の意思表示がないときは、その利率は、年５分とする。
(Gesetzlicher Zinssatz)
Ist eine Schuld zu verzinsen, so sind fünf vom Hundert für das Jahr zu entrichten, sofern von den Parteien nichts anderes bestimmt worden ist.
利息の支払が１年分以上延滞した場合において、債権者が催告をしても、債務者がその利息を支払わないときは、債権者は、これを元本に組み入れることができる。
(Hinzurechnung der Zinsen zur Hauptsumme)
Ist der Schuldner mit der Zahlung mindestens eines Jahreszinses in Verzug und werden die fälligen Zinsen auch nach Mahnung durch den Gläubiger nicht entrichtet, so kann der Gläubiger diese der Hauptsumme hinzurechnen.
(Wahlrecht bei Wahlschulden)
Besteht die Schuld in der Wahl einer von mehreren Leistungen, so steht das Wahlrecht dem Schuldner zu.
１前条の選択権は、相手方に対する意思表示によって行使する。
(Ausübung des Wahlrechts)
1. Das Wahlrecht des § 406 wird durch Willenserklärung gegenüber der anderen Partei ausgeübt.
2. Die Willenserklärung des Abs. 1 darf ohne die Zustimmung der anderen Partei nicht zurückgenommen werden.
(Übergang des Wahlrechts)
Trifft der Wahlberechtigte nach Fälligkeit der Wahlschuld trotz Mahnung und Fristsetzung durch die andere Partei keine Wahl, so geht das Wahlrecht auf die andere Partei über.
(Wahlrecht Dritter)
1. Hat ein Dritter die Wahl zu treffen, so wird die Wahl durch Willenserklärung gegenüber dem Gläubiger oder dem Schuldner getroffen.
2. Kann oder will im Falle des Abs. 1 der Dritte keine Wahl treffen, so geht das Wahlrecht auf den Schuldner über.
１　債権の目的である給付の中に、初めから不能であるもの又は後に至って不能となったものがあるときは、債権は、その残存するものについて存在する。
(Bestimmung von Wahlschulden bei Unmöglichkeit)
1. Ist oder wird eine der wahlweise geschuldeten Leistungen unmöglich, so beschränkt sich die Schuld auf die übrigen Leistungen.
2. Hat die nicht wahlberechtigte Partei die Unmöglichkeit der Leistung zu vertreten, so findet die Bestimmung des Abs. 1 keine Anwendung.
選択は、債権の発生の時にさかのぼってその効力を生ずる。ただし、第三者の権利を害することはできない。
(Wirkung der Wahl)
Die Wahl wirkt auf die Zeit der Entstehung der Schuld zurück, soweit dies die Rechte Dritter nicht beeinträchtigt.
unter 7:18 PM 0 Kommentare
Labels: Japanisch, Schuldrecht, Schuldverhältnisse, Textgegenüberstellung, Übersetzung, Zivilgesetzbuch, Zivilrecht, 対訳, 民法、債権、ドイツ語、日本民法
In Memoriam: Jasmin Carow
Heute habe ich die traurige Nachricht erhalten, daß eine geschätzte Kollegin, Jasmin Carow, vor einem Jahr am 8. May 2006 gestorben ist. Selber kannte ich sie nur flüchtig - wir hatten einmal an einem Auftrag zusammengearbeitet - aber von ihren Freunden und Kollegen weiß ich, daß sie von vielen geliebt und geschätzt wurde. Im Rahmen unserer leider nur sehr kurzen Zusammenarbeit lernte ich sie als nette, korrekte, hilfsbereite Kollegin kennen.
Wie es dazu gekommen ist, weiß ich nicht. Eins läßt sich aber mit Sicherheit sagen, und das wissen auch alle KollegInnen, die diese Zeilen lesen: Das Leben der Freischaffenden ist keineswegs leicht. Viele von uns wissen, was es heißt, jahrelang keine Arbeit zu finden, mal ein ganzes Jahr gut zu verdienen und dann ein ganzes Jahr lang nicht einmal mit der Miete klarzukommen; auf dringend benötigte Honorare monatelang warten zu müssen, während unsere eigenen Gläubiger jeden Tag anrufen. Trotz seiner oft erheblichen Vorteile kann das Freischaffenden-Leben hart und einsam sein.
Außer uns wissen das nur die wenigsten.
Wenn es um konkrete Aufträge geht, stehen wir Freischaffende einander häufig als Konkurrenten gegenüber. Als Menschen, die zu den wenigen gehören, die die Härten dieses Lebens kennen, müssen wir jedoch auch zusammenhalten. Das ist für mich die Kollegialität, und könnte vielleicht weitere Tragödien dieser Art verhindern.
Wir vermissen Dich, Jasmin.
Nachrufe für Jasmin
http://www.jasminmeer.com/seite/
http://privatepublic.twoday.net/topics/Das+Jasminmeer/
unter 12:13 AM 0 Kommentare
Machine Translation: A Cautionary Tale
Recently, whilst surfing the web, I ran across my hometown's official website, which boasts a redundantly-named "language translation" option for non-English-speaking visitors to the site. Having already spent so much money putting together a very nicely designed site, my city apparently decided that they could save a bit of money by foregoing the costs involved with hiring professional translators to translate their web content into German, Spanish, French, Japanese, Chinese (simplified), Korean, and Russian.
Thus, my fiscally conscious municipal government decided to make use of SYSTRAN's machine translation software. It couldn't be simpler - curious non-English-speaking visitors would just need to click on the flag representing their native language and they would be presented with a real-time translation of the page of their choice. Just in case this plan did not prove as simple in practice as it was in someone's PowerPoint presentation, someone in the City Solicitor's office drafted the following disclaimer:
The information on the City of Cincinnati's web site is originally published in English. Sections of the web site offer Systran machine translation software that allows for real-time translation of information into French, German, Spanish, Simplified Chinese, Korean, and Russian. Translations from English may not always be accurate or precise. The City of Cincinnati does not warrant such translations and disclaims any responsibility, including all alleged direct and consequential damages, for inaccurate translations. Readers relying on precise information should check the original English versions.
Thus, in the eyes of the City's web design staff, any problems that SYSTRAN's software had in helping the City "think globally and communicate locally" (as SYSTRAN's website claims) would be taken care of by a disclaimer that disclaimed all liability for mistranslations.
In English, anyway...
Machine Translation Meets Legalese
You see, the way the website is set up, users looking for a non-English version of the page click on a small flag icon on the home page. This will bring them to the disclaimer page. Having read the disclaimer and assumed the risks involved in the use of the SYSTRAN software by clicking on "Continue", the City expects to have immunised itself from any potential legal vulnerability. However, the City decided that not even the disclaimers were worth a few hundred dollars in translation fees.
Disclaimers are contractual language. When determining the meaning and effect of contractual language, courts generally look to the "plain meaning" of the language. Thus, let's have a look at the "plain meaning" of the disclaimers that German, French, Spanish, Russian, and Japanese speakers read:
FRENCH: Les traductions de l'anglais peuvent toujours ne pas être précises ou précises. La ville de Cincinnati ne justifie pas de telles traductions et ne dément aucune responsabilité, y compris des dommages directs et consécutifs tout allégués, des traductions imprécises.
Translations of English can always not be precise or precise. The City of Cicninnati does not justify translations like that, and does not deny any liability, including direct and consecutive damages, totally alleged, of imprecise translation.
GERMAN: Übersetzungen von Englisch können möglicherweise nicht genau oder exakt immer sein. Die Stadt von Cincinnati gewährleistet solche Übersetzungen und dementiert keine Verantwortlichkeit, einschließlich ganz angebliche direkte und Folgeschadenn [sic], für ungenaue Übersetzungen.
Possibly, translations from English can not always exactly or precisely be (how existential!). The City of Cincinnati guarantees such translations, and disclaims no liability, including totally alleged direct and consequential damages for imprecise translations.
SPANISH: Las traducciones del inglés pueden siempre no ser exactas o exactas. La ciudad de Cincinnati no autoriza tales traducciones y no niega ninguna responsabilidad, incluyendo daños directos y consecuentes todo alegados, de traducciones inexactas.
Translations of English may always not be exact or exact. The city of Cincinnati does not authorise translations like that, and denies no liability, including direct and consequential damage, all alleged, of inexact translations.
RUSSIAN: Переводы от английской языка не могут всегда быть точны или точны. Город cincinnati (!) не гарантирует такие переводы и disclaims (!!) никакая ответственность, включая совсем alleged (!!!) сразу и логически вытекающие повреждения, для неточных переводов.
Translations from the English language cannot always be exact or exact. The city of Cincinnati (not transliterated) does not guarantee such translations and does not disclaim (not even translated) any liability, including totally alleged (also not translated) immediately also logically consequent harm for inexact translations.
JAPANESE: 英語からの翻訳は常に正確または精密でないかもしれない。シンシナチ(sic)市はそのような翻訳を保証しないし、不正確な翻訳のための責任を、すべてに疑わしい直接及び間接損害を含んで、放棄しない。
Translations from English might not always be correct or accurate. The City of Cincinnatchy does not guarantee translations like that, and, for the benefit of inaccurate translations, it does not disclaim liability, including completely dubious direct or indirect damages.
Machine Translation - Taking Your Carefully Chosen Words Straight Through the Looking Glass
The "plain language" of all of these disclaimers - with the exception of the Russian version, in which the key words are left in English - consistently states that the City of Cincinnati does not disclaim any responsibility of any kind for any damage caused by inaccuracies in the machine translations. Non-English speaking users who elect to see the SYSTRAN "translation" of the site are agreeing, by clicking on CONTINUE, that the City of Cincinnati may be held responsible for all damages, including direct or consequential damages, arising out of mistranslations (or perhaps we should call them systranslations). And, since we are talking about translation software that somehow manages to take the words "disclaims any responsibility" and mangles them, consistently in several different languages, into "disclaims no responsibility", the decision to save on translations could have a serious downside. The terms of adhesion contracts - take-it-or-leave it standardised fine-print contracts like this one - must generally be construed against the interests of the person who drafted it, but this just makes it too easy.
Machine Translation - Bridging the Language Barrier, or Just Adding a Moat?
Cincinnati, like cities the world over, wants to make itself attractive to international tourism and business. To this end, it has created a very well-done website with plenty of information, in a very nice layout. How ironic that all of this effort should be counteracted by attempts to internationalise the website in a cut-rate manner! Certainly nothing says "we want to do business with you" like "we, a city of over 300,000, can't be bothered to spend a couple of thousand dollars to provide intelligible translations of our web content."
Cincinnati, this one's on me:
La version originale des informations sur le site web de la vile de Cincinnati était rédigée en anglais. Des parties du site sont fournies du logiciel de traduction automatique de Systran, qui permet la traduction en temps réel du contenu au français, allemand, l'espagnol, le chinois simplifié, le coréen, et le russe. Il peut y avoir des erreurs de traduction dans les traductions de l'anglais. La ville de Cincinnati ne fait aucune garantie quant aux traductions, et n'accepte aucune résponsabilité juridique - pour les dommages-interêts directs voire indirects - résultant des erreurs de traduction. Les lecteurs qui ont besoin des informations précises devraient lire les versions originales.
Die Informationen auf der Webseite der Stadt Cincinnati wurden ursprünglich in englischer Sprache verfaßt. Einige Teilbereiche der Seite sind mit der Übersetzungssoftware der Firma Systran ausgestattet, welche die Echtzeit-Übersetzung von Inhalten ins Französische, Deutsche, Spanische, Chinesische (VR China), Koreanische, und Russische ermöglicht. Es kann sich ergeben, daß die Übersetzungen aus dem Englischen Übersetzungsfehler enthalten. Die Nutzung der übersetzten Inhalte erfolgt ohne Gewähr seitens der Stadt Cincinnati; die Stadt Cincinnati übernimmt keinerlei Haftung für Übersetzungsfehler, insbesondere für daraus entstandene unmittelbare Schäden und Folgeschäden. Leser, die präziser Information bedürfen, sollten die englischen Originalfassungen verwenden.
Информации, находящиеся на сайте города Цинциннати, были первоначально опубликованы на английском языке. На несколько страниц этого сайта возможно использовать программ автоматического перевода фирмы Systran, который поставляет переводы на французский, немецкий, испанский, китайский (НР Китай), корейский, и русский языки. Переводы с английского языка могут и содержать ошибки. Город Цинциннати не берет на себя никакой юридической ответственности, в том числе и ответственности за возмещение прямых и непрямых ущерб из-за ощибок в переводе. Читатели, которым нужны точные информации, должны использовать английскую версию.
Las informaciones contenidas en la web de la ciudad de Cincinnati fueron originalmente redactadas en inglés. Algunas partes del sitio están provistas del software de traducción automática de Systran, que permite la traducción en tiempo real del contenido al francés, alemán, español, chino (simplificado), coreano, y ruso. Las traducciones del inglés no son necesariamente correctas o exactas. La ciudad de Cincinnati no garantiza dichas traducciones, ni acepta ninguna responsabilidad jurídica por errores de traducción, incluyendo la responsabilidad por daños directos e indirectos. Los lectores que necesiten informaciones precisas deberán leer las versiones originales en inglés.
シンシンナティ市のウェブサイトの内容は英語で作成されました。SYSTRAN社の実時機 械翻訳ソフトでフランス語、ドイツ語、スペイン語、中国語（簡体字）、韓国語、ロシヤ語に翻訳できるページもあります。訳文の内容には誤訳もありえます。 シンシンナティ市は、当該翻訳に関しては、如何なる保証もうしませんし、誤訳から生じるあらゆる直接又は間接な損害に関しては何の法的責任も負わないもの としますので、ご了承ください。正確な情報が必要な方は、英語版をご利用ください。
unter 4:25 AM 3 Kommentare
Terminology Note: Culpa in Contrahendo (German)
Culpa in contrahendo ("c.i.c.") is a judicially crafted doctrine of the German law of obligations (Schuldrecht). Literally translated from the Latin, it means "culpable conduct during contract negotiations." The doctrine was developed by the courts to impose a mutual duty of care upon persons who were not yet in privity of contract.
This duty was derived from the "penumbras" of several sections of the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch ("BGB"), the German Civil Code, including §§ 122, 179, 307 (now § 311a II), 309 (now §§ 311 II & 280), 463 II (now § 437)*, and 663. The doctrine was considered necessary due to "inadequate provisions for negligent injury to property (no general liablity for negligent injury to property, and limited liability for employees, § 831)" Palandt, BGB, § 276 Rn 67
§ 122 gives a party who has relied on another's statement of intent (Willenserklärung) a claim to compensation in the case that the party that made the statement revokes it in three cases:
if the statement of intent is void because it was not expected to be taken seriously (§ 118);
if the person making the statement was mistaken as to the content of a statement of intent or did not intend to make the statement of intent (§ 119); or
if the statement of intent was incorrectly transmitted by a third party (§ 120).
§ 179 imposes liability upon anyone who knowingly concludes a contract as the unauthorised agent of a third party who does not consent to the conclusion of the contract, unless the party with whom the contract was concluded was aware that she was not dealing with an authorised agent.
§ 307 imposes liability on a person who concludes an impossible contract if that person knew, or should have known, that performance on the contract was impossible (in whole or in part) and the other party relied on the validity of the contract and was unaware that the contract was impossible to peform. § 309 extends the liability for impossible contracts to cover unlawful contracts.
§ 463 II imposes liability on someone who sells a defective product, and in bad faith fails to inform the buyer of the defect.
§ 663 requires anyone who is publicly licensed as an agent to obtain business for others - or who offers such services - to inform the principal in a timely manner of refusal to accept a particular job.
Each of these provisions creates mutual duties between parties who are in the process of negotiating a contract, but who have not yet concluded an agreement, similar to the common law implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing. The statutes upon which c.i.c. is based protect parties' reasonable expectations that statements of intent can be relied upon, and that contracts are negotiated in good faith with full disclosure. "The legal relationship that arises when contractual negotiations are initiated is characterised by a lack of inherent duties to perform certain acts; it merely includes duties of mutual respect, care, and loyalty." Palandt, BGB § 276 Rn 65, 59th ed. Liability arises regardless of whether an agreement is ultimately concluded. "What is required is conduct that is geared towards concluding an agreement or initiating business contacts. Thus, a claim to damages for c.i.c. will only arise if the plaintiff was present in the business of the defendant in the capacity of a prospective customer, and not merely a visitor." (see e.g. BGH 66,54, Palandt § 276 Rn 66). The Bundestag has codified this doctrine in the new § 311a II.
True to its roots as a stop-gap doctrine to make up for inadequacies in German tort law (Deliktsrecht), the classic example of the application of c.i.c. is a supermarket slip-and-fall case, known as the "Lettuce Case."
A family is walking through a supermarket, intending to buy food. While walking through the frozen foods section, their 4 year-old daughter slips and falls on a wet piece of lettuce that was negligently left their by the employees of the supermarket, and suffers various injuries.
The problem presented by this case is that there is no satisfactory way to sue the supermarket for negligence, and the responsible employee is likely judgment-proof (a/k/a "broke"). § 831 of the Civil Code makes employers liable for their employees only if the employer was reckless or negligent in selecting the employee, and the negligence or recklessness caused the damage. Nothing in this case suggests that the owner of the supermarket was negligent in choosing the employee responsible for lettuce removal. The negligence was on the part of the employee. While this would be enough for respondeat superior liability on the part of the owner under U.S. law, under German law, this negligence does not give rise to liability on the part of the owner. Thus, the only way in which to hold the owner of the supermarket liable, thus making it possible to recover damages, is via culpa in contrahendo:
The family was in the supermarket for the purpose of purchasing food; thus, they were in the supermarket for the purpose of initiating contract negotiations or a business relationship. This created a duty of care on the part of both the family and the owner. Since the family had put their trust in the owner of the supermarket by entering the building, the owner of the supermarket had a duty to maintain it in a safe condition. The lettuce leaf constitutes a breach of this duty, subjecting the owner to c.i.c. liability.
* Sections redesignated and amended by the Schuldrechtsmodernisierungsgesetz (Obligations Law Modernisation Act of 2002).
Full text of the provisions of the Civil Code mentioned above.
§ 179 Haftung des Vertreters ohne Vertretungsmacht (1) Wer als Vertreter einen Vertrag geschlossen hat, ist, sofern er nicht seine Vertretungsmacht nachweist, dem anderen Teil nach dessen Wahl zur Erfüllung oder zum Schadensersatz verpflichtet, wenn der Vertretene die Genehmigung des Vertrags verweigert.
(3) Der Vertreter haftet nicht, wenn der andere Teil den Mangel der Vertretungsmacht kannte oder kennen musste. Der Vertreter haftet auch dann nicht, wenn er in der Geschäftsfähigkeit beschränkt war, es sei denn, dass er mit Zustimmung seines gesetzlichen Vertreters gehandelt hat. § 280 Schadensersatz wegen Pflichtverletzung (1) Verletzt der Schuldner eine Pflicht aus dem Schuldverhältnis, so kann der Gläubiger Ersatz des hierdurch entstehenden Schadens verlangen. Dies gilt nicht, wenn der Schuldner die Pflichtverletzung nicht zu vertreten hat.
(2) Ein Schuldverhältnis mit Pflichten nach § 241 Abs. 2 entsteht auch durch 1. die Aufnahme von Vertragsverhandlungen,
Haftung für den Verrichtungsgehilfen
A statement of intent that is not meant seriously, which is made in the expectation that such statement would not be misunderstood to be serious, is void.
Voidability due to mistake
(1) A person who, when making a statement of intent, is mistaken as to its content or did not at all intend to make a statement of the content of the statement that was actually made, may void the statment if it appears that such person would not have made such statement if he had been aware of the facts and made a reasoned evaluation of them.
(2) A mistake as to such characteristics of the person or the object as are considered material in the normal course of dealing shall also be deemed to constitute a mistake.
Voidability due to incorrect transmission
A statement of intent that was incorrectly transmitted by the person or entity charged with its transmission may be voided pursuant to the requirements of § 119 for statements of intent mistakenly made.
Voiding party's duty to compensate
(1) If a statement of intent is void pursuant to § 118 or voided pursuant to §§ 119, 120, the person who made the statement of intent shall be liable to compensate the person to whom the statement was required to be made, if the statement was required to be made to a specific person, or, otherwise, to compensate any third party for any damage incurred by such person or such third party in reliance on the validity of the statement; provided, however, that liability shall not extend beyond the interest of such person or such third party in the validity of the statement.
(2) There shall be no duty to compensate if the person who suffered damage was aware of the grounds for voiding the statement, or was unaware of them due to negligence (should have been aware of them).
Liability of unauthorised agents
(1) An agent who, in concluding an agreement on behalf of another, fails to prove that he is authorised to represent such other, is liable, at the election of such other party, either to specifically perform such agreement or to compensation, if the principal refuses to authorise the conclusion of the agreement.
(2) If the agent was unaware of the lack of authorisation, the agent shall only be liable to compensate such damage as is incurred by the other party in reliance on the authorisation; however, the amount of such compensation shall not exceed the amount of the interest of the other party in the enforceability of the agreement.
(3) The agent shall not be liable if the other party knew or should have known of the lack of authorisation. Nor shall the agent be liable if his ability to conduct his own affairs has been limited, unless he acted with the consent of his legal representative. § 280 Compensation for breach of duty (1) If the debtor breaches a duty arising out of the obligation, the creditor shall be entitled to compensation for the damages arising from such breach. The foregoing shall not apply if the debtor is without fault in the breach of duty.
(2) The creditor shall only be entitled to compensation for delayed performance under the additional requirements of § 286 .
(3) The creditor shall only be entitled to compensation in lieu of specific performance under the additional requirements of § 281, § 282 or § 283.
Transactional and quasi-transactional obligations
(1) Unless otherwise provided by law, there must be a contract between the parties to a transaction in order for a transaction to create a relationship of obligation, and in order to modify the terms of a relationship of obligation.
(2) A relationship of obligation with the duties enumerated in § 241 II may also be created by 1. the initiation of contract negotiations,
2. the invitation to form a contract, if one party entrusts to the other party his rights, legal goods, and interests or allows the other party to influence such rights, legal goods, and interests in contemplation of a future transactional relationship , or
3. similar business contacts.
(3) A relationship with the obligations enumerated in § 241 Abs. 2 can also arise for persons who are not themselves intended to become parties to the contemplated contract. Such a relationship shall arise, inter alia, in cases in which such third party accepts a special trust or substantially influences the conclusion of the contract.
§ 311a Inability to perform at time of conclusion of contract (1) The fact that the debtor is not obligated to perform on a contract pursuant to § 275 I - III and such inability to perform exists at the time of conclusion of the contract does not affect the enforceability of the contract.
(2) At the election of the creditor, the creditor may require compensation in lieu of performance or compensation for expenses incurred within the limitations of § 284 . The foregoing does not apply if the debtor was unaware of the inability to perform at the time of conclusion and is not at fault for such unawareness. § 281 I Sent. 2 and 3 and V shall apply accordingly.
Buyer's rights in case of defects
If the object is defective, the buyer may do the following, if the requirements of the respective provisions are fulfilled and unless other rights are elsewhere provided:
1. request replacements pursuant to § 439 ,
2. rescind the contract pursuant to §§ 440, 323 and 326 Abs. 5 or reduce the purchase price pursuant to § 441 and
3. request compensation pursuant to §§ 440, 280, 281, 283 and 311a or compensation for expenses incurred pursuant to § 284 .
Duty to report refusal
A person who is publicly licensed to procure certain transactions or has publicly offered to do so, shall, if he does not accept an assignment to procure such transactions, timely inform the person offering the assignment of such refusal. The foregoing also applies if a person has made an offer directly to the person offering the assignment to procure certain transactions.
(1) A person who appoints another to perform a task is liable to compensate for the damage such other unlawfully causes to a third party while performing such task. No duty to compensate shall arise if the employer exercised due care in selecting and supervising such employee, or if the damage would have arisen even if due care were exercised.
(2) The foregoing paragraph shall also apply to a person who contractually undertakes to procure one of the transactions enumerated in par. 1 sent. 2 .
unter 9:39 PM 0 Kommentare
Flexibility refers to the ability to partially restructure one's system of verbal associations and relationships. In order to successfully learn a language, one must be able to associate, for example, the concept of tree with the utterance Baum. Similarly, one must be able to hear /zhenonjenavistníchestvo/ and associate it with женоненавистничество and to associate 教育勅語　with /kyôiku chokugo/. Flexibility, as I use it, also includes the ability to adapt to new thought processes, which is essential when learning languages with radically different syntax and modes of expression.
In my opinion, while my basis for saying so is largely anecdotal, this conclusion should be qualified. In my own experience, the age of ten should not be assigned talismanic value in determining whether to start learning a language. However, early foreign language exposure is at least an important factor in the ability (or lack thereof) to learn a language later in life. The more foreign language exposure one has in early years, the greater the probability of acquiring an additional language even after the decade mark is reached. Often, there is a tendency toward excessive determinism in speaking about language acquisition. People often say - similarly to those who might assert that age ten is some sort of cutoff point - that "it is impossible to learn an L2 (second language) to the same degree of proficiency as one has with an L1," and similar statements. This is usually a case of broad allegations and narrow proof - the data adduced in support of these deterministic claims usually come nowhere near supporting such far-reaching conclusions. Suffice it to say, for our current purposes, that there are myriad factors at work, and any one (or group of several acting jointly) could conceivably influence an individual's ability to learn a language decisively.
Once you've begun to progress in your study of a language, and have at least a small vocabulary to fall back on, it's important to begin to use what you do know to help you figure out what you don't. There are a number of ways of going about this, and each has advantages and disadvantages. One common way of doing this - often unintentionally - is by reaching for the dictionary every time one encounters an unknown word or expression. This is generally not the best way; however, if a dictionary is to be used, it's important to make conscious use of the tool (assuming that you have a halfway decent dictionary, which is rarely the case). The first thing to do, when looking up words used in something you are reading is to look at the patterns that emerge: what is their relative placement in the sentence? A more advanced, and more useful version is to obtain the original and a translation of a given book (I often use the works of John Grisham or Stephen King), and read them side by side.
There is no "right way" to teach or learn a language. Certainly, however, there are those who claim otherwise. Berlitz, for example, requires all its language instructors to follow "the Berlitz Method(tm)." They are taught that all students will learn excellently by this method (speaking none of the student's native language during class, explaining all concepts in the foreign language, etc.), and that if they don't learn from The Method, there must be something wrong with them. No deviation from The Method is permitted. When you get to this point with any "method" or "philosophy," you're beyond the realm of science or education and are entering that of organised religion. A method is a tool - nothing more, nothing less. A tool is used if and when it appears to be the best way of getting the job done. You should no more trust a language instructor who says "this is the only method I use" than you would trust a carpenter who says "my philosophy is that there's no problem a hammer can't fix - now where're those windowpanes?" The "right" method is the method that results in you learning.
2Students of Japanese will profit from the convenience of the 対訳本　(taiyakubon), which puts the original and the translation of a given work on opposite pages. These most commonly cover the classics, but screenplays and more modern works are also available.
unter 9:29 PM 1 Kommentare
About Élise Hendrick
Schuldrecht §§ 241-242 BGB in japanischer Übersetz...
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References: OGH 
 § 406
 § 311
 § 437
 § 831
 § 276

§ 122

§ 179

§ 307
 § 309

§ 463

§ 663
 § 276
 BGH 
 § 276
 § 311
 § 831

§ 179
 § 280
 § 241
 § 119
 § 118
 § 280
 § 286
 § 281
 § 282
 § 283
 § 241
 § 241

§ 311
 § 275
 § 284
 § 281
 § 439
 § 441
 § 284