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Timestamp: 2019-04-22 04:34:59+00:00

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Soil rhizosphere is a very interesting and complicated environment surrounding plant roots. There are very many different types of microorganisms in the soil rhizosphere interacting with the other microbes and with plant roots. The properties of soil rhizosphere make it a unique and active area. The activity and interactions of rhizotrophic microorganisms can very much influence soil conditions and hence plant growth and microorganism activities . Arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM) are among the most important and influencing soil microbes significantly affecting the growth of plants and other soil microorganisms. The soil part around the plant roots and AM hypha, where AM and bacteria are interactive is called ‘mycorrhizosphere’. There are also different types of soil bacteria in the soil, which are interactive with AM, particularly in the rhizosphere and in most cases the interactions are synergistic. Consideration of the rhizotrophic interactions and their consequent effects on the soil properties and hence plant growth can have very important implications in agriculture and ecology. There are different effects resulted by such interactions, which modified soil structural properties  and soil enhanced availability of nutrients  are among the most important ones. Thus, it is pertinent to evaluate such interactions precisely and suggest some new perspectives for the future research, which can make the advance of the field more rapidly and result in more efficient agricultural strategies.
25]. which would eventually form the arbuscules and the vesicles. Relative to the complete recognition of symbiotic stages. which should yet be elucidated regarding the symbiosis of AM with the host plant . Compared with other AM-plant symbiosis some combinations are more common under field conditions . AM are able to develop symbiotic association with most terrestrial plants [5-8] and usually their symbiosis with the host plant is not host specific. biomass and nutrients uptake of plants. in the field of molecular microbe-plant interactions . they are also very much interactive with different bacteria including both the bacterial strains in the rhizosphere and in the bacterial strains in the cytoplasm of some fungal species . Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Soil Bacteria Although AM are very important symbionts to plants and their symbiosis can significantly enhance the growth of the host plant. which can greatly help the host plant especially under different stresses such as salinity and heavy metals. In their symbiosis. heavy metals and pathogens [12-19]. Vesicles are the specialized storage organelles with numerous and large vacuoles. the probability of some symbiotic combinations is more likely. AM are able to enhance plant tolerance to different stresses such as soil salinity and drought. Although the AM-plant symbiosis is not specific. 9. soil compaction. AM species determine very much the structure of plant communities [20. Miransari Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) are zygomycetes belonging to the order Glomales. Different efficiency of plants species in symbiosis with AM species affects their ecological functioning [5. The onset of the symbiosis and the beneficial effects of the two symbionts become likely through the communication of some signal molecules [9. the appearance of both AM and plants is almost 400 million years old . in symbiosis with plant species is very important. 18-22]. hence combination recognition of AM species. 21]. AM is able to greatly influence plants structure. The passage of AM into the plant roots is through their hypha. there are much more details. According to both fossil discoveries and DNA sequences. 11]. Plant responses to different species of AM are different. LLC . © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. which are the place of nutrient exchange with the plant roots. Arbuscules are branched structural hypha. 10]. particularly in agricultural producing areas with not much resources of input is of great significance and is a very interesting research topic. including the exchange of the signal molecules between the two partners [24. activated during the process of N fixation between rhizobium and the specific host plant.2 M. the host plants provide the fungi with their required hydrocarbon and receive nutrients. especially P from the fungi [6. Understanding such interactions. and in the meanwhile complicated. 12. and since AM greatly affect the variousness.
There are bacterial-like structures in the cytoplasm of AM [38. 37]. Arbuscular mycorrhiza and bacterial interactions can take place in the rhizosphere before the onset of inoculation or after the establishment of the tripartite symbiosis between AM. It is very important to determine the bacterial population. While for other eukaryotic cells the association with bacteria is very common . This indicates the bacterial strains that are more efficient.000 genes related to AM plant host symbiosis. It is because the first plant that has been genetically sequenced is Arabidopsis thaliana.3 pg to 1. In addition to the large size of AM genome (0. 29]. particularly when interactive with AM. 39]. The presence of bacteria in AM species taken from the field has been indicated by ultra structural ways. which are communicated between the two partners at the time of symbiosis establishment . and can make the use of effective co-inoculation likely. the research related to rice genomic data can illustrate some very important knowledge regarding AM symbiosis . von der Weid et al. In addition. have been recently achieved .Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Soil Microbes 3 However.  used the green fluorescence protein technique. for AM fungi only a few strains of bacteria are integrated into the fungi [36. it should be mentioned that some very interesting achievements regarding the establishment of symbiosis between AM and the host plant including the recognition of the signal molecules involved. Arbuscular mycorrhiza are also great niches for other soil microbes and while some of the bacteria are attached to AM hypha. However. hence. which is not a host to AM . the significance of the host plant should also be noticed. For example. 34]. LLC . associated with AM fungi. Additionally. some of them are bound to plant roots [33. which has suppressing effects on the activity of plant pathogens and can stimulate the activity of some specific AM species. for tagging and visualizing the bacterial strain Paenibacillus brasilensis. with the highest physiological activities. the recognition of genes such as phosphate transporter genes  and metallothionein producing genes  related to the functional properties of AM are of great significance. their cellular structure and their variable genetical properties have made the advance of the field less rapid. These processes are of great significance. Also the discovery of genes such as NORK and SYMRK have made the identification of pathways related to signal perception by the host plant and bacteria and AM likely . plants including rice are host to AM and.12 pg/DNA) that has made the performance of AM genomic projects unlikely . especially in agricultural cropping © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. The synergistic interactions of AM and bacteria can stimulate plant growth through enhancing processes such as nutrients uptake and controlling plant pathogens. The obstacles related to mycorrhizal research including their mandatory biotrophic nature. There are different methods for the determination of bacterial association with AM. bacteria and the host plant . relative to the rhizobium-legume symbiosis [23. Different researches have indicated that there are about 100. using mutants have indicated the presence of proteins.
production of glycoproteins such as glomalin can also influence bacterial growth in the soil through improving soil structure . the bacteria. and the suppression of pathogens . which are not depending much on agrochemicals to maintain soil fertility and health. intraradices. stimulated by fungus exudates . According to Bianciotto et al. some are neutral and some are favourable . Scientists have also stated that the association of some bacteria with AM is specific  indicating that there are some kind of communications between the bacteria and AM. LLC . the solubilization of phosphate. calrum. These effects can be related to the alteration of root physiology by affecting the chemical combination of root products [42. intraradices. 43].  the intensity attachment of some species of Rhizobium and Pseudomonas to AM germinating spore and © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. Pseudomonas and Rhizobia that are in association with AM species of Glomus including G. and G. data related to the inoculation intensity of AM hypha by PGPR is little. The bacteria that are able to enhance plant growth through interacting with plant roots are called plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). The significance of bacterial attachment to the AM hypha and whether it can affect hyphal growth has yet to be elucidated. AM can also alter the combination of bacteria in the rhizosphere through competition for soil nutrients . root colonization of the host plant by AM. Paenibacillus. present in the non-soil water aggregates . In addition. This is also verified by the results of scientists who found that some bacterial genera including Arthrobacter and Bacillus were most common in the hyphosphere or the soil around specific AM hypha. versiforme. the co-inoculation of appropriate bacteria with AM can significantly contribute to enhanced plant growth . Although it has been indicated that some of the PGPR are able to perfectly inoculate plant roots. which are interactive with AM. mosseae. G. Additionally. G. it has been stated that bacterial genera are more frequent in the rhizosphere than hyphosphere indicating that root exudates can be more beneficial to the bacteria than hyphal products . However. but has yet to be verified . Miransari strategies.4 M. Additionally. These stimulating effects include the growth and germination of fungi and spores. while Pseudomonas spp. For example. if this is the case. Bacterial types. present in the water soluble aggregates are different from the bacteria. respectively. In addition to the nutritional effects of fungal products on bacterial growth. AM are also able to influence the combinations of soil bacterial populations . are saprophytes and symbionts that some of which are unfavourable. G. were most distributed in the Sorghum bicolour rhizosphere. There are different examples of enhancing association between bacteria and AM including species of Bacillus. This suggests that the likelihood of Gram-positive bacterial association with AM is higher related to the Gram-negative bacteria.
Because some bacterial strains such as Pseudomonas spp. Although. In addition to the stimulating effects of PGPR on plant growth through enhancing nutrients uptake. more research should be conducted to more clearly elucidate the processes involved in the interactions between AM and soil bacteria. 56]. 24. which were not able to produce such products. 50]. simultaneously . Mezorhizobium. The data regarding the simultaneous and enhancing effects of AM and PGPR on plant growth is little. and N-fixing bacteria are very beneficial to the host plants. It has just been recently that these effects have been tested. because it can substantially contribute to N production and utilization [55. which is related to the production of cellulose or other extracellular products by bacteria. 53]. collectively called rhizobia. Some of the bacteria are able to influence AM activity of spore germination and growth rate [51. Bradyrhizobium. suppressing pathogens and some beneficial biochemicals. Similar to AM-plant symbiosis the bacteria-legume symbiosis is also of very important agricultural and environmental implications. However. The N-fixing bacterial symbionts including the genera Azorhizobium. 52] and hence affecting plant growth through AM symbiosis. The strength of bacterial binding to AM hypha differs during the different physiological stages of attachment including a weak electrostatic attachment in the first stage followed by a strong attachment in the second stage. Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and N-fixing Bacteria Unlike AM. 25. N-fixing bacteria are able to establish symbiotic association with their specific host plant and fix atmospheric N [4. are settled in a plant membrane including compartment called symbiosome [4. to the AM hypha . it has been suggested that the related processes can be relatively similar. Rhizobium and Sinorhizobium.Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Soil Microbes 5 hypha under sterilized conditions was different depending on the strains of bacteria. their interactive effects with AM can also increase plant growth . some PGPR such as Pseudomonas putida are able to stimulate the root inoculation of host plants by AM . This can be very useful for the optimum determination of bioinoculants. LLC . © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. the level of specificity was not recognized. are able to colonize both plant roots and AM hypha. This is because for example. Researchers have stated that PGPR can have some very stimulatory effects on AM growth . This indicates that the co-inoculation of AM and specific PGPR can enhance the activity of AM during the symbiosis with the host plant . particularly PGPR [49. The interaction between AM and bacteria. necessary for sustainable agricultural cropping strategies . This hypothesis is supported by the less strong attachment of bacterial mutants. 21. which develop symbiosis with most terrestrial plants. there has been a lot of research on the interactive activities between AM and bacteria. 54].
is yet to be recognized. Nodules are produced by cortical cell division. This eventually results in the formation of nodules. there are some differences between the bacteria and AM for the preparation of the symbiosis with their partner. Accordingly. © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. and nutritional demand of nodules are different with plant roots. Different AM species are able to increase nodulation and N fixation differently [21. Although N fixation by rhizobial symbiosis supplies the host plant with additional N. The stages related to the development of symbiosis between the N-fixing bacteria and the host plant include: the root exudation of signal molecules. which are able to colonize legumes nodules. in which rhizobia with high energy and P requirements reside and fix N . the gene activation of bacteria by the exudates [24. The researches regarding AM variousness in legumes and their colonization of legume nodules are not much. nodules colonization of AM under field conditions and the species of AM. Under such a situation and with regard to enhancing the colonization rate. 62]. Miransari Process of N Fixation Through some very interesting and in the meanwhile complicated biochemical dialogue. 25] and production of some biochemicals by the bacteria  that can induce morphogenesis and physiological changes in the host roots. For example. However. Arbuscular mycorrhiza are also able to mineralize organic N in the mycorrhizosphere and increase N availability to the plant . Rhizobium and AM are synergistic . functioning. The beneficial effect of AM on P uptake by Rhizobium has been proved through providing the non-mycorrhizal plants with additional P resulting in enhanced plant growth. the weakening strength of the root cell walls for the passage of the bacteria into the roots is not common for AM passage into the roots . LLC . 25]. uptake of inorganic nutrients and plant growth. The structure. The extent of plant accommodation for the intracellular settlement of endosymbionts including AM and bacteria has yet to be recognized . high amounts of energy and P must be available to the symbiosis process . which are more efficient to supply P.6 M. which are the place of bacterial settlement and hence N fixation [24. It is believed that the N-fixing capability of Rhizobium may enhance if the host plant is also in symbiosis with AM. which is comparable with the growth of mycorrhizal plants [39. This can be very advantageous under the conditions that nutrients are not available at high amounts . the bacteria realize the presence of the specific host plant roots and chemotactically approach the plant roots. Legumes may prefer to develop symbiosis with AM species. 60]. Scientists have indicated that AM are able to colonize root nodules in the laboratory . Different species of AM are able to provide the host plant with various amounts of P [58-60]. There are some common genetical stages for both bacterial N fixation and AM symbiosis.
64] suggesting that AM species combination may be different in roots and nodules. It is also worth mentioning that legume roots exclusively contained sequence type 50. © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. Although sequence type Glo8 was found more in legume nodules. and scientists have been trying to find the most efficient combination of AM and bacteria . sequence type Acau5 was just found in legume nodules. Cu and Zn. pass through the infection thread. The tripartite symbiosis between AM. which are more efficient . Additionally. however the area for the symbiosome membrane is 21. the combination of AM species was unique for legume nodules. These all suggest that legume nodules may have enhancing or inhibiting effects on root colonization of some AM species . just when residing in plant roots. which are very important for nodulation and N fixation. Thus. AM absorb  glucose and fructose.Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Soil Microbes 7 Nodule formation also alters plant physiological properties and induces plant systematic acquired resistance [21. Different mutants are categorized based on lacking the ability to synthesize cytochromes (necessary for bacteroids formation). since different nutrients must be translocated into the cells containing the symbionts.500 µM2 . however the combination was similar for three different legume species. AM communities in legume roots are different with non-legume roots. which are not available in pathogenic interactions . Endosymbiosis is accompanied with the production of a high amount of symbiosome membrane. While N-fixing bacteria utilize dicarboxylates as their source of energy . Some AM species are able to develop symbiosis with plants containing high amounts of N. This is also in agreement with the finding that N fertilization can alter the combination of AM species and also with the finding that the level of G. the symbiosome membrane form two different components. the specificity between AM. Compared with plant roots. as legumes would develop symbiosis with AM species. after fertilization with N and P fertilizers . there is very little relevant data under field conditions. While the mutants of Bradyrhizobium japonicum are not able to activate under low oxygen conditions. The symbiosis of AM species with legume plants make them more efficient. intraradices with the Glo8 sequence type increased. for example the area of plasmamembrane for a nodule cell with bacteroids is about 2800 µM2. Also the prebacteroid  and the prearbuscular membranes have ATPase activities. the bacteria is able to develop a mechanism by which they can be active and fix N  under such conditions. Although the colonization of legume nodules by AM have been proved in the laboratory. Hence. and its host plant can be very important. and hence hexoses are translocated to the AM fungi . one for the inclusion of the symbionts and one for the control of different proteins compositions and their activities. different compositions of proteins including different transporters are located within the symbiosome membrane. bacteria and legumes is of great significance both for agriculture and for ecology. and transcribe different plant genes necessary for nodulins formation . LLC . for example through enhancing nutrient uptake such as P.
More research is required to specify the effects of different AM species combinations on plant and nodule performance. as for example by application of less N fertilizer and the beneficial interacting effects of bacteria with other soil microorganisms including AM. The environmental and economical approaches of N fixation are also very significant. (4) AM symbiosis development is influenced by rhizobial signals . Miransari The following reasons indicate the specificity of legume nodules in their association with AM species: (1) the high tendency of nodules for nutrients such as P. 22] and hence. They also found that AM species isolated from the field were able to colonize legume nodules by forming hypha around the nodules and producing hypha and spores in the nodules. legume mutants.8 M. These are all the likely explanations indicating the different tendency of root nodules for different AM species as all affect the ability of AM species to colonize legume nodules .4 to 2. This kind of association can be very beneficial both to the plant and to the symbiotic microbes. The parameter most influencing the Shannon index is the specific plant species rather than the number of plant species. Some AM species (with Glo8 and Glo3 sequences) have the ability to colonize a wide range of host legume plants in both roots and nodules . might result in the association of some AM species with legume nodules. To make the tripartite symbiosis highly efficient the interactions between the plants. Using the same PCR methods the variousness of AM species ranged from 0. LLC . may not also develop symbioses with AM species . Scientists [78. using the Shannon index under cultivated field and tropical rain forest conditions . As previously mentioned usually legume plants are able to make tripartite symbiosis with N-fixing bacteria and AM.3. parameters such as the nature of plants functionality (legumes or non-legumes). and (5) the different physiology of nodules and roots and also the alteration of root exudates by rhizobial symbiosis and the induction of systematic acquired resistance in plants. 79] have indicated some interesting aspects related to such kind of symbiosis. which are not able to develop symbioses with rhizobia. Plant host species determine the combination of AM species in legume roots indicating that the tendency of different host plants for symbiosis development with different AM species differs. Seed inoculation of legumes with N-fixing bacteria including rhizobia and bradyrhizobium can be of some very practical applications as the method has turned into a very useful applicable technology in both developed and developing countries . Cu or Zn. Hence. (3) the similarities between the stages of nodule and AM symbiosis. (2) high nodule N concentration may be preferable to some AM species (for example AM species with Glo8 and Acau5 sequences). as there are some very important common stages [21. and also on the structure and combination of plants . © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. species of plants and root components including roots and nodules can determine AM communities in plants. the bacteria and the AM must exactly be elucidated.
because the mutated gene in the mutants (MYC—) controls both the AM symbiosis and the nodule formation (nod—) . Hence. AM and rhizobium can synergistically and significantly affect the symbiotic related parameters . Since P uptake is one of the nutrients. fixed N. AM are able to transfer the absorbed N from the soil to the plant. N uptake. nodule dry weight. almost few researches have indicated the beneficial effects of AM. most affected by AM symbiosis. their contribution to intensive agriculture should also be clearly indicated . manihotis and Gigaspora margarita . legume roots can develop symbiosis with AM. P and K uptake were significantly increased in different varieties of Phaseolus vulgaris and Vicia faba. The network of mycorrhizal hypha are able to transfer N between and within the plants. tropici and also mixed species of Glomus clarum. both local and inoculated on bacteria-legumes symbiosis. AM and rhizobium inoculation increased the uptake of Zn and Cu. leguminosarum bv. especially during the seedling and reproductive stages can be very beneficial to the host plant. The different responses of legume species to AM inoculation have also been attributed to different root morphology and architecture and also different dependency on AM . has yet to be elucidated . Under non-sterile conditions. inoculated with a mixture of R. The data regarding the effect of AM on micronutrients uptake when in a tripartite symbiosis with rhizobium and legumes is very few. it is very necessary to develop non-mycorrhizal legumes mutants so that the effects of inoculated AM in the presence of local AM on legumes plants can also be exactly elucidated under field conditions. However. Most researches regarding the effects of AM symbiosis on plant growth have been conducted under controlled and greenhouse conditions. hyphal colonization. etunicatum. which is related to the stimulating effects of AM on mineralizing bacteria. plant dry matter. LLC . fixed N and P uptake . which can help the plants such as forage and crop legumes absorb higher rate of N. the organic matter utilizing and mineralizing by AM and hence plant and AM nutrient uptake. The mutants that have been developed so far have not been very applicable. G. phaseoli and R. AM may affect N fixation. However. AM inoculation. By enhancing N uptake and hence plant growth and also through affecting bacterial dependence on atmospheric N. AM symbiosis is most effective in soils where the amount of available P is at low or medium levels. in mycorrhizal-legume plants the enhanced P concentration. It has been stated that AM are able to mineralize organic N present in organic matter and hence make soil N more available to the bacteria interactive with AM. Compared with control. In addition to the important role of AM in cycling the nutrients. G. The other very important point is the recognition role of signal molecules such as flavonoid biochemicals that can have on AM and bacteria and legumes © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. and there have been few researches regarding the effects of AM symbiosis on plant growth under field conditions.Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Soil Microbes 9 However.
Signal molecules are biochemical compounds stimulating the activity of different genes. 84]. Under limited availability of soil P. The coinoculation of AM and P solubilizing bacteria increased plant N and P uptake. which is not available to plants. such cDNAs are not expressed in mycorrhizal roots indicating the P transporters that they are active in P uptake under nonsymbiotic conditions only . There are some pea mutants (Pisum sativum L. 86]. controlled by the same genes including hyphal passage into the plant roots by appressorium (Myc1).10 M. respectively. 25. which are able to activate P transporters. Miransari symbiosis [24. 84]. the signal molecule formononetin is commercially available and has been indicated to be very effective on AM symbiosis [7.) that are not able to develop symbiosis with both AM and N-fixing bacteria. There are common legume plant genes and biochemical molecules affecting the tripartite symbiosis of the legume host plant with AM and N-fixing bacteria. This significantly increases P uptake by AM hypha and hence the symbiotic host plant . Organic and inorganic P is made available by phosphatase and organic acid producing bacteria. present in organic and inorganic matter. is strongly bound in the insoluble structures of P and also is attached to the clay surface layers. LLC . There are stages in both symbioses. The presence of a tripartite symbiosis in legumes indicates that legumes have some kind of genetical controlling processes that make this kind of symbiosis likely . Scientists have already cloned the cDNAs from the roots of M. Symbiosis and Signaling The symbiosis of AM and N-fixing bacteria with the host plants are the most important mutual symbioses—agriculturally and ecologically . involved in the process of symbiosis. 83. relative to control plants . For example. However. in the soil that are able to enhance P uptake by AM and plant through enhancing the solubility of soil P. The synergistic effects of AM and soil solubilizing P bacteria has been indicated by different researches . 25]. Soil inorganic form of P. Symbiotic bacteria or AM spores realize the presence of the host plant in the © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. For the onset of symbiosis between the host plants and microbes the exchange of signal molecules is necessary [24. Effects of Bacteria on P Utilization by AM Plant P transporters are located in the periarbuscular membrane. truncatula. the interaction effects between P solubilizing bacteria and AM result in the enhanced plant colonization by the host plant and the increased bacterial population in the rhizosphere. the development of arbuscule and AM development rate [85. soil P solubilizing bacteria. 79. 78. There are some bacteria.
including morphological and although both factors induce similar genes. the symbiotic bacteria make a chemotactic move to the roots and the spores begin to germinate. LLC . indicating that different plant receptors perceive Nod and Myc factors. Thus the two factors must result in the activation of different pathways in the plant . © 2010 by Taylor & Francis Group. the spores may also germinate in the absence of the host plant. there are identical genes in both symbioses that are activated during the symbiosis . So future research may focus more precisely on the interactions between the host plant. However. scientists have found that there are many common stages between bacterial and AM symbioses with the host plant including the exchange of signal molecules . rhizobium and AM result in different responses. regulated by the transcriptional factor NodD) produce some signal molecules. NOD. The great importance of the interactions among the host plant AM and soil bacteria taking place in soil is more indicated. In addition. For example. Accordingly. the following conclusions may be drawn. as previously mentioned. Although because of the differences in host specificity between bacteria and AM the responses of the two symbionts are different. which alter the cell cycling in the cortex of plant roots cells and hence resulting in morphological and physiological changes and eventually nodule formation [24. Since legumes are able to develop symbiotic association with both N-fixing bacteria and AM.Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Soil Microbes 11 soil through the secretion of these molecules by the plant roots. There should be more than a single gene for the perception of Nod (bacteria) and Myc (AM) factors. In addition to their individual functioning in the soil the combined effects of soil microbes are also very important as for example for the production of bioinoculants or their enhancing effects on soil structure and plant nutrients uptake can increase plant growth and hence crop yield. called lipo-chito-oligosaccharides. but they are not able to proceed with the following stages of symbiosis. 57]. The stimulated genes of symbiotic bacteria (nodulation genes. Conclusion Accordingly. Nod factors require some extra genes for inducing responses in the host plant. Accordingly. some of the signal molecules necessary for the AM-plant symbiosis have been recently identified . Because. AM and soil bacteria for the more efficient use of soil microorganisms for the development of very advanced agricultural strategies. they are ideal for the study of the common stages of symbiosis between the two symbionts . 25. These interactions must be clearly elucidated as they can have some very significant implications in agriculture and ecology. Nod and Myc factors induce genes in different parts of the plant root including epidermis and cortex. respectively.
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