Source: http://www.asmscience.org/content/book/10.1128/9781555816988.chap8
Timestamp: 2019-04-25 10:50:22+00:00

Document:
Water treatment system in a Brazilian private hospital. From right to left are seem one sand filter, two softeners (iron-exchange filters), two charcoal (carbon) filters, and a set reverse-osmosis membranes.
1. Agadoa, L. Y.,, and P. W. Eggers. 1995. Renal replacement therapy in the United States: data from the United States Renal Data System 1995 Annual Data Report. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 26( Suppl. 2): SI– SI86.
2. Amato, R. 1998. Clinical symptoms of inadequately treated water for hemodialysis, p. 261– 271. In AAMI Standards and Recommended Practices, vol. 3. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, Washington, D.C.
3. Anderson, R. L.,, B. W. Holland,, J. K. Carr,, W. W. Bond,, and M. S. Favero. 1990. Effects of disinfectants on pseudomonads colonized on the interior surface of PVC pipes. Am. J. Public Health 80: 17– 21.
4. Arnow, P. M.,, S. Garcia-Houchins,, M. B. Neagle,, J. L. Bova,, J. J. Dillon,, and T. Chou. 1998. An outbreak of bloodstream infections arising from hemodialysis equipment. J. Infect. Dis. 178: 783– 791.
5. Arvanitidou, M.,, S. Spaia,, C. Katsinas,, P. Pangidis,, T. Constantinidis,, V. Katsouyannopoulos,, and G. Vayonas. 1998. Microbiological quality of water and dialysate in all haemodialysis centres of Greece. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 13(4): 949– 954.
6. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. 1996. American National Standards for Hemodialysis Systems. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, Arlington, Va.
7. Berthoux, F.,, E. Jones,, R. Gellert,, S. Mendel,, L. Saker,, and D. Briggs. 1999. Epidemiological data of treated end-stage renal failure in the European Union (EU) during the year 1995: report of the European Renal Association Registry and the National Registries. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 14: 2332– 2342.
8. Bolan, G.,, A. L. Reingold,, L. A. Carson,, V. A. Silcox,, C. L. Woodley,, P. S. Hayes,, A. W. Hightower,, L. McFarland,, J. W. Brown III,, N. J. Petersen,, M. S. Favero,, R. C. Good,, and C. V. Broome. 1985. Infections with Mycobacterium cltelonei in patients receiving dialysis and using processed hemodialyzers. l. Infect. Dis. 152: 1013– 1019.
9. Bonnie-Schorn, E.,, A. Grassmann,, I. Uhlenbusch-Korwer,, C. Weber,, and J. Vienken (ed.). 1998. Good Dialysis Practice, 1st ed., vol. 1. Water Quality in Hemodialysis. Lengerich, Germany.
10. Cendoroglo Neto, M.,, S. A. Draibe,, A. E. B. Silva,, M. L. Ferraz,, C. A. P. Pereira,, R. C. Sesso,, A. M. B. Gaspar,, and H. Ajzen. 1995. Incidence and risk factors for hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infection among hemodialysis and CAPD patients: evidence for environmental transmission. Nephrol. Dial. Transpl. 10: 240– 246.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1986. Bacteremia associated with reuse of disposable hollow-fiber dialyzers. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 35: 417– 418.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1988. Outbreaks of gram-negative bacterial bloodstream infections traced to probable contamination of hemodialysis machines. JAMA 279: 646– 647.
13. D'Haese, P. c.,, and M. De Broe. 1996. Adequacy of dialysis: trace elements in dialysis fluids. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. U( Suppl. 2): 92– 97.
14. Favero, M. S.,, J. I. Tokars,, M. J. Arduino,, and M. J. Alter,. 1999. Nosocomial infections associated with hemodialysis, p. 897– 918. In C. G. Mayhall (ed.), Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control, 2nd ed. Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa.
15. Favero, M. S.,, N. J. Petersen,, L. A. Carson,, W. W. Bond,, and S. H. Hindman. 1975. Gram negative water bacteria in hemodialysis systems. Health Lab. Sci. 12: 321– 334.
16. Flunck, S.,, W. McKane,, T. Cairns,, V. Fairchild,, A. Lawrence,, J. Lee,, D. Murray,, M. Polpitiye,, A. Palmer,, and D. Taube. 1999. Cloramine-induced haemolysis presenting as erythropoietin resistance. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 14: 1687– 1691.
17. Frinak, S.,, H. D. Polaschegg,, N. W. Levin,, D. J. Pohlod,, F. Dumler,, and L. D. Saravolatz. 1991. Filtration of dialysate using on-line dialysate filter. Int. J. Artif Organs 14: 691– 697.
18. Gonzalez-Revalderia, J.,, M. Casares,, M. de Paula,, T. Pascual,, V. Giner,, and E. Miravalles. 2000. Biochemical and hematological changes in low-level aluminum intoxication. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 38: 221– 225.
19. Gordon, S. M.,, M. Tipple,, L. A. Bland,, and W. R. Jarvis. 1988. Pyrogenic reactions associated with the reuse of disposable hollow-fiber hemodialyzers. JAMA 260: 2077– 2081.
20. Hindman, S. H.,, L. A. Carson,, M. S. Favero,, N. J. Petersen,, L. B. Schonberger,, and J. T. Solano. 1975. Pyrogenic reactions during hemodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin. Lancet ii: 732– 734.
21. Hoen, B.,, A. Paul-Dauphin,, D. Hestin,, and M. Kessler. 1998. EPIBACDIAL: a multicenter prospective study of risk factors for bacteremia in chronic hemodialysis patients. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 9: 869– 876.
22. Jackson, B. M.,, C. M. Beck-Sague,, L. A. Bland,, M. A. Arduino,, L. Meyer,, and W. R. Jarvis. 1994. Outbreak of pyrogenic reactions and gram-negative bacteremia in a hemodialysis center. Am. J. Nephrol. 14: 85– 89.
23. Jochimsen, E. M.,, W. W. Carmichael,, D. M. Cardo,, S. T. Coookson,, C. E. M. Holmes,, M. B. C. Antunes,, D. A. Melo Filho,, T. M. Lyra,, V. S. T. Barreto,, S. M. F. O. Azevedo,, and W. R. Jarvis. 1998. Liver failure and death after exposure to microcystins at a hemodialysis center in Brazil. N. Engl. J. Med. 338: 873– 878.
24. Kaitwatcharachai, c.,, K. Silpapojakul,, S. Jitsurong,, and S. Kalnauwakul. 2000. An outbreak of Burkholderia cepacia bacteremia in hemodialysis patients: an epidemiologic and molecular study. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 36: 199– 204.
25. Kaysen, G. A.,, F. T. Stevenson,, and T. A. Depner. 1997. Determinants of albumin concentration in hemodialysis patients. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 29: 658– 668.
26. Keshaviah, P., 1999. Water treatment for hemodialysis, p. 173– 189. In L. W. Henderson, and R. S. Thuma (ed.), Quality Assurance in Dialysis, 2nd ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
27. Keshaviah, P.,, and D. Luehmann. 1984. The importance of water treatment in hemodialysis and hemofiltration. Proc. Eur. Dial. Transplant Assoc. 21: Ill.
28. Laude-Sharpe, M.,, M. Canoff,, L. Simard,, C. Pusineri,, M. Kazatchkine,, and N. HaeffnerCavaillon. 1990. Induction of IL-l during hemodialysis: transmembrane passage of intact endotoxin (LPS). Kidney Int. 38: 1089- 1094.
29. Laurence, R. A.,, and S. T. Lapierre. 1995. Quality of hemodialysis water: a 7-year multicenter study. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 25: 738– 750.
30. Lonnemann, G.,, T. C. Behme,, B. Lenzner,, J. Floege,, M. Schulze,, C. K. Colton,, K. M. Koch,, and S. Shaldon. 1992. Permeability of dialyzer membranes to TNF-α inducing substances derived from water bacteria. Kidney Int. 42: 61– 68.
31. Lowrie, E. G.,, and N. L. Lew. 1990. Death risk in hemodialysis patients: the predictive value of commonly measured variables and an evaluation of death rates between facilities. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 15: 458– 482.
32. Pegues, D. A.,, C. U. Oettinger,, L. A. Bland,, J. C. Oliver,, M. J. Arduino,, S. M. Aguero,, S. K. McAllister,, S. M. Gordon,, M. S. Favero,, and W. R. Jarvis. 1992. A prospective study of pyrogenic reactions in hemodialysis patients using bicarbonate dialysis fluids filtered to remove bacteria and endotoxin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3: 1002– 1007.
33. Pereira, B. J.,, S. N. Natov,, S. Sundaram,, C. H. Schmid,, F. R. Trabelsi,, J. A Strom,, and A. J. King. 1996. Impact of single use versus reuse of cellulose dialyzers on clinical parameters and indices of biocompatibility. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 7: 861– 870.
34. Petersen, N. J.,, K. M. Boyer,, L. A. Carson,, and M. S. Favero. 1978. Pyrogenic reactions from inadequate disinfection of a dialysis fluid distribution system. Dial. Transplant. 7: 52– 57.
35. Powe, N. R.,, B. Jaar,, S. L. Furth,, J. Hermann,, and W. Briggs. 1999. Septicemia in dialysis patients: incidence, risk factors, and prognosis. Kidney lilt. 55: 1081– 1090.
36. Roth, V. R.,, and W. R. Jarvis. 2000. Outbreaks of infection and/ or pyrogenic reactions in dialysis patients. Semin. Dial. 13: 92– 96.
37. Rudnick, J. R.,, M. J. Arduino,, L. A. Bland,, L. Cusick,, S. K. McAllister,, S. M. Aguero,, and W. R. Jarvis. 1995. An outbreak of pyrogenic reactions in chronic hemodialysis patients associated with hemodialyzer reuse. Artif. Organs 19: 289– 294.
38. Schena, F. P. 2000. Epidemiology of end-stage renal disease: international comparisons of renal replacement therapy. Kidney Int. 57( SuppL 74): S39– S45.
39. Sundaram, S.,, T. W. Barrett,, K. B. Meyer,, C. Perrella,, M. Cendoroglo Neto,, A. J. King,, and B. J. Pereira. 1996. Transmembrane passage of cytokine-inducing bacterial products across new and reprocessed polysulfone dialyzers. 1. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 7: 2183– 2191.
40. Tokars, J. I.,, E. R. Miller,, M. J. Alter,, and M. J. Arduino. 2000. National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 1997. Semin. Dial. 13: 75– 85.
41. Urena, P.,, A. Herbelin,, and J. ZingrafT. 1992. Permeability of cellulosic and non-cellulosic membranes to endotoxins and cytokine production. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 7: 16– 28.
42. Varma, P. P.,, R. Kumar,, P. K. Prasher,, and N. D. Roy. 1999. Hypochromic anaemia in chronic renal failure: role of aluminum. J. Assoc. Physicians India 47: 690– 693.
43. Vorbeck-Meister, I.,, R. Sommer,, F. Vorbeck,, and W. Horl. 1999. Quality of water used for haemodialysis: bacterial and chemical parameters. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 14: 666– 675.
44. Yeun, J. Y.,, R. A. Levine,, V. Mantadilok,, and G. A. Kaysen. 2000. C-reactive protein predicts all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am. J Kidney Dis. 35: 469– 476 .

References: V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V.