Source: https://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/3d/27/123.html
Timestamp: 2019-04-21 10:22:11+00:00

Document:
William A. Resneck, Reed & Resneck, Fred Okrand, Mark O. Rosenbaum and Terry Smerling as Amici Curiae on behalf of Defendants and Appellants.
Frederick W. Clough, City Attorney, Anthony C. Fischer, Assistant City Attorney, and James O. Kahan, Deputy City Attorney, for Plaintiff and Respondent.
Burt Pines, City Attorney (Los Angeles), Claude E. Hilker and William B. Burge, Assistant City Attorneys, Ann Hayes, Deputy City Attorney, Robert W. Parkin, City Attorney (Long Beach), Arthur Y. Honda, Deputy City Attorney, Donald S. Greenberg, City Attorney (San Buenaventura), Elwyn L. Johnson, City Attorney (Modesto), George D. Lindberg, City Attorney (Chula Vista), William C. Marsh, City Attorney (Monterey), Stanley E. Remelmeyer, City Attorney (Torrance), James M. Ruddick, City Attorney (Marysville), Robert R. Wellington, City Attorney (Marina, Del Rey Oaks), John W. Witt, City Attorney (San Diego), and D. Dwight Worden, City Attorney (Del Mar), as Amici Curiae on behalf of Plaintiff and Respondent.
"2. A group of not to exceed five (5) persons, excluding servants, living together as a single housekeeping unit in a dwelling unit."
The record shows that appellants are three residents of a house in a single-family zone where the minimum lot-size is one acre. They and other individuals form a group of 12 adults who live in a 24-room, 10-bedroom, 6-bathroom house owned by appellant Adamson. The occupants are in their late 20's or early 30's and include a business woman, a graduate biochemistry student, a tractor-business operator, a real estate woman, a lawyer, and others. They are not related by blood, marriage, or adoption.
They moved into the house after Adamson acquired it on December 1, 1977. On February 9, 1978, following warnings, the city attorney sued for a temporary restraining order, preliminary injunction, and permanent injunction. A restraining order was issued on March 7, 1978; a preliminary injunction on March 29, 1978.
Appellants' household illustrates the kind of living arrangements prohibited by the ordinance's rule-of-five. (§ 28.04.230, subd. 2, supra.) They chose to reside with each other when Adamson made it known she was looking for congenial people with whom to share her house. Since then, they explain, they have become a close group with social, economic, and psychological commitments to each other. They share expenses, rotate chores, and eat evening meals together. Some have children who regularly visit. Two (not including Adamson) have contributed over $2,000 each to improving the house and defraying costs of this lawsuit. Emotional support and stability are provided by the members to each other; they enjoy recreational activities such as a trip to Mexico together; [27 Cal. 3d 128] they have chosen to live together mainly because of their compatibility.
Regarding physical environment, the house has 6,231 square feet of space and is hidden from the street by trees and a fence. It has off-street parking for at least 12 cars. Appellants have built a wall around part of the property and a new, private driveway to help isolate them from neighbors' houses. There is no evidence of overcrowding though, after appellants had arrived, some neighbors did notice a larger number of cars parked on the property and an understandable increase in the number of residents.
Appellants say that they regard their group as "a family" and that they seek to share several values of conventionally composed families. A living arrangement like theirs concededly does achieve many of the personal and practical needs served by traditional family living. It could be termed an alternate family. It meets half of Santa Barbara's definition because it is "a single housekeeping unit in a dwelling unit." It fails to meet the part of the definition that requires residents, if they are more than five and are not servants, to be related by blood, marriage, or adoption.
Valid laws can, of course, be written to help promote and protect values that family life enhances. The question in this case is whether that kind of law may deny to individuals who are not family members certain benefits that family members enjoy.
Do the ordinance's restrictions, with those three exceptions, respect the commands of the California Constitution concerning people's rights to enjoy life and liberty, to possess property, and to pursue and obtain happiness and privacy?
 As was indicated in the foregoing excerpt from the 1972 ballot pamphlet and stressed by the unanimous court in White v. Davis, supra, "the amendment does not purport to prohibit all incursion into individual privacy but rather that any such intervention must be justified by a compelling [public] interest." (13 Cal.3d at p. 775.) Has Santa Barbara demonstrated that, in fact, such an interest does underlie its decision to restrict communal living?
The over-all intent of the ordinance, according to section 28.01.001, is "to serve the public health, safety, comfort, convenience and general welfare and to provide the economic and social advantages resulting from an orderly planned use of land resources, and to encourage, guide and provide a definite plan for future growth and development of said City." By themselves those words hardly justify the restrictions that appellants contest here.
Does the ordinance's rule-of-five truly and substantially help effect those goals? Looking first at the final two words in section 28.15.005 (just quoted), is a "residential environment" in fact dependent on a blood, marriage, or adoption relationship among the residents of a house? Is transiency, for example, determined by lack of any biological or marriage relation among the residents? We are not persuaded by facts presented here.
Regarding "low density" (in the first sentence of § 28.15.005) the ordinance limits only the number of unrelated residents. It does not limit the number of related residents, or of servants. It does not appear to have been designed to prevent overcrowding, which may be a legitimate zoning goal. It proscribes some groups that in their homes are not crowded; yet, simply because the members are related, it leaves uncontrolled some groups that are crowded.
The city argues that related groups tend to have a natural limit, making a legal limit unnecessary; and data on average-size families are presented. Comparable data have not been presented, however, on the average sizes of unrelated groups who live as single housekeeping-units; and, at best, density control is achieved quite indirectly, if at all, by regulating only the size of unrelated households.
Other aims of the ordinance's restrictions are to maintain "the essential characteristics of the districts" and "a suitable environment for family life where [in single-family zones only] children are members of most families." But the rule-of-five is not pertinent to noise, traffic or parking congestion, kinds of activity, or other conditions that conceivably [27 Cal. 3d 133] might alter the land-use-related "characteristics" or "environment" of the districts.
We do not here address the question, How many people should be allowed to live in one house? (Cf. § 28.87.030(4b) of the ordinance, which concerns density and prohibits "increase in the intensity of ... [a] nonconforming use," including "[i]ncrease in the number of persons ... which has a detrimental effect on the surrounding community.") We merely hold invalid the distinction effected by the ordinance between (1) an individual or two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption, and (2) groups of more than five other persons.
 Santa Barbara contends that appellants might preserve their life style by moving out of the one-family zone and seeking a permit in a two- or multiple-family zone for a boarding house ("[a] building where meals and/or lodging are provided for compensation for six (6) or more persons by pre-arrangement for definite periods" -- § 28.04.100).
The city's contention that, pursuant to those and other rules, appellants should seek a permit lacks merit. Troubling questions arise with respect to (1) the justification for requiring that permit procedures be "exhausted" when the constitutional attack on the ordinance is meritorious (cf. State of California v. Superior Court (1974) 12 Cal. 3d 237, 250-251 [115 Cal. Rptr. 497, 524 P.2d 1281]), (2) the reasonableness of requiring that appellants not reside in a one-family zone, (3) the great breadth of city officials' discretion to deny the permit, and (4) the rationality of presuming that Ms. Adamson in fact does operate a "boarding house." fn. 5 (See too People v. Perez (1963) 214 Cal. App. 2d Supp. 881, 885 [29 Cal. Rptr. 781] (re permit procedure: "To be valid it should be limited to those uses only for which it is difficult to specify adequate conditions in advance").) Those questions have not been addressed persuasively in the briefs submitted by the city attorney and amici who support his contentions here.
 Chapter 28.92 of the ordinance contains these sections: "28.92.010 Variances.
"When practical difficulties, unnecessary hardships or results inconsistent with the general purposes of this chapter occur by reason of a [27 Cal. 3d 136] strict interpretation of any of the provisions of this chapter, either the Planning Commission or City Council may upon its own motion, or the Planning Commission upon the verified application of any property owner or authorized agent shall, in specific cases, initiate proceedings for the granting of a variance from the provisions of this chapter under such conditions as may be deemed necessary to assure that the spirit and purposes of this chapter will be observed, public safety and welfare secured, and substantial justice done. All acts of the Planning Commission and City Council under the provisions of this section shall be construed as administrative acts performed for the purpose of assuring that the intent and purpose of this chapter shall apply in special cases, as provided in this section, and shall not be construed as amendments to the provisions of this chapter or map. Individual economic circumstances are not a proper consideration for the granting of a variance."
"1. That there are exceptional or extraordinary circumstances or conditions applicable to the property involved, or to the intended use of the property, that do not apply generally to the property or class of use in the same zone or vicinity.
"2. That the granting of such variance will not be materially detrimental to the public welfare or injurious to the property or improvements in such zone or vicinity in which the property is located.
"3. That such variance is necessary for the preservation and enjoyment of a substantial property right of the applicant possessed by other property in the same zone and vicinity.
"4. That the granting of such variance will not adversely affect the Comprehensive General Plan."
Further (as to the requirement that city officials find the variance necessary for the preservation and enjoyment of a substantial property right of the applicant possessed by other property in the same zone and vicinity), "[t]his finding can be made by a showing that owners of other homes and lots in the same zone and vicinity can use the home by [sic?] an unlimited number of related persons."
Finally, "[t]he second and fourth findings will depend upon the precise site selected, the information developed as part of the review process and whether conditions on the approval could be devised to remove any inconsistency with the findings. For example, an investigation may reveal that the area has adequate public parks, utilities, street capacity, or that a condition mitigating the injurious impact may be imposed. If water availability is a problem, it may be possible to require water conservation. If street capacity is a problem, a limit on average daily trips may be possible."
Bird, C. J., Tobriner J., and Mosk, J., concurred.
The majority, perceiving in these provisions some sort of dark animus against nontraditional living arrangements, fn. 2 concludes that here at stake is "the right to live with whomever one wishes or, at least, to live in an alternate family with persons not related by blood, marriage, or adoption." (Majority opn., ante, at p. 130; fn. omitted.) As I read the ordinances, that right is expressly granted. The question before us, then, is whether those ordinances, insofar as they limit the number of unrelated persons who may live in a single dwelling unit, violate any cognizable constitutional rights.
Justice Brennan, joining in the plurality opinion but adding a word in concurrence, stated the distinction thus: "Indeed, Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas, 416 U.S. 1 (1974), the case primarily relied upon by [the city], actually supports the Court's decision. The Belle Terre ordinance barred only unrelated individuals from constituting a family in a single-family zone. The village took special care in its brief to emphasize that its ordinance did not in any manner inhibit the choice of related individuals [27 Cal. 3d 141] to constitute a family, whether in the 'nuclear' or 'extended' form. This was because the village perceived that choice as one it was constitutionally powerless to inhibit." (Id., at p. 511 [52 L.Ed.2d at pp. 544-545], final emphasis added.) The implication of this statement, in light of the express holding in Belle Terre, is clear.
The majority, faced with the authorities delineated above, quite understandably chooses to shift their focus away from the protections offered by the federal Constitution. Turning instead to the comprehensive terms of article I, section 1 of the state Constitution, and seizing upon certain expansive general passages to be found in White v. Davis (1975) 13 Cal. 3d 757 [120 Cal. Rptr. 94, 533 P.2d 222], they quickly and without significant discussion conclude that the right of privacy set forth in that provision "comprehends the right to live with whomever one wishes or, at least, to live in an alternate family with persons not related by blood, marriage, or adoption." (Majority opn., ante, at p. 130, fn. omitted.) Having thus discovered the "fundamental" right they seek, they then proceed to set in motion the mighty engine of strict scrutiny. The ordinance, needless to say, does not survive its batterings.
In my view the majority have proceeded a bit too hastily. The necessary condition precedent to the application of strict scrutiny, and the search for a "compelling state interest" which it entails, is the determination that the right at stake is one lodged in the fabric of our Constitution. That determination, in the context of the instant case, requires that we find that right to be one comprehended within the guarantee of privacy set forth in article I, section 1. The relevant authorities, in my view, do not support the conclusion that "the right to live with whomever one wishes or, at least, to live in an alternative family with persons not related by blood, marriage, or adoption" is one enjoying that status.
The familiar dictum of Chief Justice Marshall (McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 406 [4 L. Ed. 579, 601]) bears renewed emphasis in cases of this kind. We deal here not with legislative wisdom but with constitutional principle. It may well be that an enlightened municipality, alert to the flow of social currents and the development of wholesome and valuable communal living arrangements outside the framework of the traditional family structure, might wish to tailor its zoning requirements in such a manner as to accommodate such arrangements on an essential parity with those of family groups. The City of Santa Barbara, to a significant extent, has done so, permitting such arrangements to coexist with family groups in its single-family zone, but placing a numerical limit on the size of such "alternate" groups -- clearly with a view to imposing some limit on the size of living groups within the zone which are not subject to the normal biological and social limits of the natural family. It might well be that a legislator having the wisdom of Solomon would remove all such limits. That, however, is not the question before us. The question before us is whether the failure to remove them is unconstitutional. In my view, and as the cases which I have discussed above make clear, the answer to that question is decidedly no.
I would affirm the order.
Clark, J., and Richardson, J., concurred.
FN 1. The full text of article I, section 1 is as follows: "All people are by nature free and independent and have inalienable rights. Among these are enjoying and defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing, and protecting property, and pursuing and obtaining safety, happiness, and privacy."
Regarding "happiness" see the concurring opinion of Field, J. in Butchers' Union Co. v. Crescent City Co. (1884) 111 U.S. 746, 754, 759 [28 L. Ed. 585, 589, 592, 4 S. Ct. 652] ("to secure to every one the right to pursue his happiness unrestrained, except by just, equal, and impartial laws"); cf. Ex parte Drexel (1905) 147 Cal. 763, 764 [82 P. 429]; State v. Cromwell (1943) 72 N.D. 565 [9 N.W.2d 914, 918].
FN 2. Cf. article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "No one shall be subject to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks." Article 16(3) reads: "The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State." Article 17(1): "Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others."
See too article 29(2): "In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society."
FN 3. Cf. Justice Marshall's dissenting opinion in Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas (1974) 416 U.S. 1, 16 [39 L. Ed. 2d 797, 808, 94 S.Ct. 1536]: "The choice of household companions -- of whether a person's 'intellectual and emotional needs' are best met by living with family, friends, professional associates, or others -- involves deeply personal considerations as to the kind and quality of intimate relationships within the home. That decision surely falls within the ambit of the right to privacy protected by the Constitution."
Concerning uncertainty as to current federal law see Tribe, American Constitutional Law (1978) § 15-18, p. 974, § 15-21, p. 989; Carlin, Moore v. City of East Cleveland: Freedom of Personal Choice for the Extended Family (1978) 10 Sw.U.L.Rev. 651; Perry, Modern Equal Protection: A Conceptualization and Appraisal (1979) 79 Colum.L.Rev. 1023, 1073; Comment (1978) 91 Harv.L.Rev. 1427, 1576-1578.
See also Williams & Doughty, Studies in Legal Realism: Mount Laurel, Belle Terre and Berman (1975) 29 Rutgers L.Rev. 73, 74: "The New Jersey Supreme Court is beginning to deal realistically with major problems of the mid-1970's; the United States Supreme Court, rather surprisingly, is still merely repeating what were the fashionable liberal shibboleths of the mid-1930's."
FN 5. Cf. section 28.04.170, which states that a boarding house is not a "dwelling."
Even more meritless than the boarding-house proposal are (1) the proposal that Ms. Adamson seek a room-rental permit under section 28.94.030(1), and (2) the suggestion that her and her associates' relationship is akin to membership in a social club or fraternity. Cf. section 28.04.150 ("the purpose of [a club] ... is to render a service customarily rendered for members and their guests"); section 28.94.030(12) ("[n]ormal clubhouse facilities"); section 28.94.034 ("clubs providing primarily indoor recreation facilities rather than outdoor facilities are prohibited"); section 28.94.031(21) ("Fraternity and sorority houses in the R-2 Zones").

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