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Spice Up Your Life: Adipose Tissue and Inflammation – topic of research paper in Basic medicine. Download scholarly article PDF and read for free on CyberLeninka open science hub.
Spice Up Your Life: Adipose Tissue and Inflammation Academic research paper on "Basic medicine"
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Academic research paper on topic "Spice Up Your Life: Adipose Tissue and Inflammation"
Copyright © 2014 Anil K. Agarwal. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Cells of the immune system are now recognized in the adipose tissue which, in obesity, produces proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines. Several herbs and spices have been in use since ancient times which possess anti-inflammatory properties. In this perspective, I discuss and propose the usage of these culinary delights for the benefit of human health.
Up until recently, studies relating to adipose tissue were mostly neglected partly because adipose tissue (AT) was not considered to be a critical tissue, except for the fact that AT stores energy (as triglycerides) and releases it upon demand and partly because lipids are very hydrophobic in nature and are not easily soluble in aqueous solutions, further hampering biochemical analysis. Even now, most investigators still use the solvent system developed in 1950 by Bligh and Dyer, is a rapid chloroform and methanol lipid extraction method, although this extraction method is only efficient in extracting some, but not all, types of lipids.
lipodystrophy—are quite similar. Patients of both conditions suffer from hypertriglyceridemia, insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, and development of type 2 diabetes, and in women both conditions may contribute towards polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). These constellations of clinical features are also referred to as Metabolic Syndrome. Because of this, it has become apparent that AT is important for normal physiological function in the human body but may not be critical for human development and survival.
Figure 1: Schematic of body fat in a human population and the presence of macrophages in lean and obese adipose tissue. (a) The bell-shaped curve represents the distribution of body fat in a human population. The healthy weight (within the 1 standard deviation of the healthy weight) is shown between the black dashed lines. In recent decades, this curve has shifted to the right, shown by the diagonal shaded red lines. The increase in this body weight is also associated with various single nucleotide polymorphisms found in the general population. On the extreme ends, monogenic forms of congenital generalized lipodystrophy (CGL) and obesity are shown in the circles. Various genes associated with these monogenic forms are mentioned in the text. (b) Anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages in the lean adipose tissue are converted to proinflammatory Ml macrophages in the obese adipose tissue which depends on chronic nutrition, chemokine, and cytokine signaling.
been observed that survivors of childhood brain cancers have a higher risk of developing obesity. A prospective study, CanDECIDE study (Canadian Study of Determinants of Endometabolic Health in CHI1DrEn) has been proposed to determine the mechanism(s) associated with inflammation, childhood brain cancer, and the development of obesity . From these observations, it is clear that either losing AT or acquiring excess AT is both unacceptable strategies. Thus, maintaining an adequate amount of healthy AT seems to be a reasonable and acceptable possibility. There are several options for this group of individuals, although adopting a healthy diet and exercise program, when followed, is the most viable option.
In recent years, interest in AT has seen a renaissance. There have been studies which show that AT (specifically adipocytes), in addition to storing and releasing fatty acid, also secretes several proteins which act as hormones .
In addition, AT also secretes lipids which help to maintain systemic metabolic homeostasis . However, adipocytes are not the only cell type which constitutes AT. In addition, AT also contains stromal cells, vascular cells, and cells of the immune system like macrophages , specifically of the M2 type, which are anti-inflammatory in lean AT. Several proteins are secreted from adipocytes, often known as adipokines, but the two most widely studied adipokines are leptin  and adiponectin . During obesity, AT expands, attracting other cell types; the most important in recent years are the cells of the immune system.
In humans and rodents, AT is found in almost all anatomical regions of the body. It is interesting to note that, unlike other organs such as the liver, heart, or lung, the AT lacks a well-defined organ boundary and thus is mainly identified by anatomical location . AT found under the skin or dermis is mainly referred to as subcutaneous (sc) adipose tissue. AT can further be identified as sc abdominal or sc AT of the extremities. The AT found in the visceral cavity may be subdivided as omental, mesenteric, or perirenal . Adipose tissue located behind the eyes (retroorbital), knees (periarticular), around the hip joints, or beneath the skull has not received any specific nomenclature as yet. While the white AT is distributed throughout the body, the other type of AT—the brown adipose tissue (BAT)—is more restricted in its anatomical location and is mainly found in the interscapular and cervical (neck) region. In the past, BAT was mainly recognized neonatally and in infants and was thought to recede during adulthood. In recent years, new imaging techniques have identified that BAT still exists in the adult human population. While the physiological function of subcutaneous and visceral AT is widely studied, AT found at other locations has received little attention. However, identification of adult BAT has rejuvenated studies related to the physiological function of BAT.
brite adipocytes following tamoxifen administration, Rosenwald et al. revealed that the origin of brite adipocytes lies in the white adipocytes . Furthermore, this study also revealed that this conversion of white to brite is a reversible process as well.
6,	IL-1^, nitric oxide (NO), and IL-12 (Figure 1(b)). While such events in obesity are recognized by several investigators, it is still unclear how the expanding adipose tissue in obese individuals recruits these cells of the immune system.
inflammatory-associated obesity and its associated complications.
Ever since the identification of the role of low grade inflammation in obesity and its associated complications, efforts have been underway to reduce the burden of inflammation in AT. Thus, reducing the proinflammatory response in AT should be beneficial for human health.
Several phytochemicals have been in use since prehistoric times, although the anti-inflammatory properties of these culinary herbs and spices were only recognized recently. These phytochemicals belong to several chemical groups but most belong to polyphenols, flavonoids and their analogs. When consumed in small quantities, certain plants, including plant roots themselves and their extracts, have been reported to have beneficial effects in reducing systemic inflammation and type 2 diabetes and increasing insulin sensitivity. A recent report shows that high-fat fed mice given dietary capsaicin, a component of chili pepper, showed improved glucose tolerance, reduced liver fat, and improved insulin sensitivity . In another study, the topical application of capsaicin in mice saw a reduction in visceral adipose tissue resulting in decreased inflammation and increased insulin sensitivity . Capsaicinoids, a group of chemicals found in chili pepper, have also been shown to have a beneficial effect on weight loss in humans . This effect has been shown to be due to increased energy expenditure, increased lipid oxidation, and decrease in appetite . A meta-analysis of the use of capsaicinoids further confirms their role in weight loss . However, further investigations are needed to evaluate their role in long-term usage. Although it is unclear what role capsaicin plays in cancer, studies with capsaicin extract, which is a mixture of several molecules, including norhydro-capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydro-capsaicin, and nonivamide, have resulted in showing both the carcinogenic and anticarcinogenic activities of capsaicin (reviewed in ). Why capsaicin has demonstrated both activities might be due to the fact that various capsaicin extracts used in the studies do not carry the same chemical entities or might vary in the concentration of various chemical components or because of their different metabolism rates in humans and animals [43, 44].
the plant source might result in beneficial effects for these patients . I have discussed genetic causes of lipodystrophy and, by itself, loss of adipose tissue does not attract cells of the immune system. However, the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of patients affected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) did result in partial lipodystrophy. Although lack of adipokines such as leptin or adiponectin  has been reported, information regarding cells of the immune system is scarce and treatment with plant derived products is yet to take hold.
I have listed in Table 1 several of these plants and roots which have been used in many cultures to enhance the food flavors. In the process, these cultures have also benefitted from their anti-inflammatory properties, which have been extensively reviewed in [22, 26, 49, 50]. This is not to say that consuming all of these spices will make the obesity-associated inflammation go away, but they will help alleviate some of its effects. A sustained but balanced diet and exercise is still required to combat obesity and associated inflammation. There are no systematic controlled clinical trials using these spices and herbs to further provide the rationale for using these spices for this purpose. This is partly because these phytochemicals are often not extracted, purified, and identified as a single chemical entity and partly because these phytochemicals vary according to the geographic location which further makes the outcome of these studies scientifically unreliable. However, these herbs and spices have been used from prehistoric times with beneficial effects. Another aspect to consider is that while one single spice might bring a small biological effect, when used in combination with a mixture of spices, they might show additive effects. Therefore, while controlled clinical trials might improve our confidence in the usage of these spices, nevertheless, their usage in crude form in our daily lives will still bring benefits.
Table 1: Shown are some of the more commonly used herbs and spices, possible active ingredients, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. This is not an exhaustive list of herbs and spices but is used to illustrate the beneficial effects of these herbs and spices. For many, the entire range of active ingredients is unknown and most are used in powder form or as an aqueous extract. A few are used as an oil extract.
N.D.: not determined; aka: also known as; NF-k^: nuclear factor kappa B; Cox-2: cyclooxygenase isoform 2; decrease in activity; T: increase in activity.
sensing ion channel, which responded to menthol in inducing BAT thermogenesis. Transient receptor potential vanilloid-4 (TRPV4) has also been found to be expressed in the BAT and is believed to be the inhibitor of the molecular function of beige adipose tissue. Thus, inhibition of TRPV4 leads to an increase in the thermogenic gene expression in WAT . In addition to BAT, TRPV4 is also present in sympathetic nervous system (SNS) which could further regulate BAT. The physiological ligand for TRPV4 is still unknown but has provided new avenues for regulation BAT.
alkamides, isothiocyanates, and terpene dialdehydes found in the diet we consume. Although most spices, such as capsaicin, piperazine, chili, and rutaecarpine—found in a Chinese herb (Wu-Chu-Tu) , have been found to activate TRP1 in the palate, it is possible that they might activate other ion channels. Therefore, these spices might have benefits in activating BAT in addition to flavoring our food. Indeed, a recent study demonstrated the beneficial effect of capsinoids when ingested by humans for over a 6-week period, increasing energy expenditure and reducing body fat .
active substance. In fact, such variation can be noted from season to season within the same geographic location. Second, the very extraction method employed, while this might be optimized, could also alter the chemical composition of the active substance. Third, the fact that each plant extract consists of several individual chemically distinct compounds further complicates the isolation of a single active compound.
Overall, the purpose of this perspective is to advance the idea of the beneficial effect of spices used in all cultures— some more than others—including their effects in alleviating inflammation, a partner in obesity causing associated metabolic complications. A recent study demonstrated the beneficial effect of curcumin, the active substance of turmeric, as an effective treatment for inflammatory bowel disorder . Salicylate, or its acetylated form, aspirin, is the oldest and most widely prescribed drug first identified in plants . Its effect in lowering blood glucose was first reported by Yuan et al. [59,60]. Salsalate's beneficial effect was recently reported in placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial [61, 62]. Although controlled clinical trials for many of the phytochemicals are not feasible for the reasons mentioned above, more efforts are needed to isolate and identify the chemical entity and biological activity of phytochemicals as has been demonstrated for curcumin and salsalate.
The author declares no conflict of interest related to this work.
The author thanks Chandra Mohan, M.D., Ph.D., Division of Rheumatic Diseases and Department of Internal Medicine for reviewing this work and Katie Tunison, M.S., for copy-editing the paper and generating Figure 1. The author is supported by Grants from the National Institutes of Health, R01-DK54387, by the Southwestern Medical Foundation and the Center for Human Nutrition at UT Southwestern Medical Center.
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