Source: http://www.botanyeveryday.com/online-classes/2016-plant-talk-10-temperate-woody-plants
Timestamp: 2019-04-21 12:43:35+00:00

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Since the last class i have kept very very busy. The biggest adventure included teaching and a botanical survey at the SOURCE farm in St. Thomas Jamaica. It felt like a beneficial situation for everybody involved. i took note of over 100spp. On the land within the week i was there along with developing an ethnobotanical plant checklist of over 300spp. i was amazed to find out that of the roughly 3,000 spp. in Jamaica close to 900 are endemic and grow nowhere else in the world!
Returned home and the following day went right into a conference at Western Carolina University called Rooted in the Mountains focused on the Cherokee. Words can not express the sheer awesomeness and caliber of the presentations there. Unfortunately, attendance was low and it may or may not happen in this iteration again. However, i look forward to working more with colleague Dr. Jim Veteto and other speakers present like Tom Belt as well as Dr. Dave Cozzo and other folks to continue to have events in a similar vein in the future.
Right from that conference i went off to a workshop at Wellspring Mountain with herbalist Robert Rogers one of the North American authorities on Medicinal Mushrooms (R. D. Rogers, 2014b, 2014a; R. Rogers & Wasser, 2011). Then i taught botany following the workshop in exchange for my attendance.
Next onto a class for Corey Pine Shane’s Blue Ridge School of Herbal Medicine on Beverage Fermentation followed by some work at Warren Wilson College and checking in with my adopted grandmother Elly and then onto teaching at the legendary Jim Duke’s Green Farmacy north of Washington DC.
From there i went on to work in Frank Cook’s archives at the home of his father in Bethesda, MD. We are preparing for leading a trip to Peru through Plants and Healers International. As part of the preparation for the trip we are editing Frank’s book the Plants and Healers of Peru and Equador. His copious journals may help inform this process.
Since then i have been Guiding with No Taste Like Home, facilitated a Forage and Feast at Souflower Botanical Sanctuary and an Everything Apples event at the Appalachian Institute for Mountain Studies.
By far though the elephant in a rather crowded work room has been my time spent on behalf of the Asheville Tree Comission, Urban Agriculture Alliance and Buncombe county Master Gardener Cooperative Extension program largely focused on the mistake that led to the cutting down of nearly 20 year old apple trees in one of the first modern age edible parks in the country! The George Washington Carver edible park is supposed to be managed in partnership with the non-profit Bountiful Cities and the Buncombe County Fruit and Nut club with the oversight of entities like the Tree Commission. This unfortunate tree cutting event happening is especially disheartening as checks and balances were supposed to be built into the system! The action also goes in direct conflict with the work supported by the city at the Asheville Buncombe Food Policy Council and other agreements the city has made regarding planting edibles and promoting their growth in public places. There was a lot of citizen uproar and the action at the park was featured on the local TV news WLOS. This park has gotten press from many directions over the years from internationally known publications like the New York Times and Huffington Post to our own local Asheville Citizen Times and Mountain Xpress. Some historic photos and overview can be accessed at the Community Food Forests website. This park is one of the things that inspired me to move to Asheville in the late 90s as a young permaculturalist who dreamed of community food forests. It was great to see such a space already established right downtown. i sincerely hope that the various stakeholder groups in our local food movement can get on the same page to actualize the aspirations so many now hold dear.
In the next few weeks i will be teaching at the NC Arboretum, LEAF festival, and a Forage and Feast and Fermentation Extravaganza at Pickard’s Mountain in Chapel Hill, NC. Go to the Botany Every Day events tab on the website to learn more details. Hope to see some of you all around!
Most of what is blooming is in the Asteraceae including Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), Goldenrod (Solidago spp.), Joe Pye Weed (Eutrochium purpureum), Ironweed (Vernonia), Marigolds (Tagetes spp.) Quickweed (Galinsoga) white Wood Aster (Eurybia) and Wingstem (Verbesina spp.). Sigrid Neilsen has authored a great guide to keying out the Asteraceae with lavish illustrations updated taxonomy and a free key and affordable price for the book which can all be found here.
Many annuals from the Lamiaceae are blooming as well including Basil (Ocimum spp.), Oregano, Pineapple sage (Salvia elegans), Russian Sage (Perovskia atriplicifolia) and others.
Other family representatives blooming include Knotweeds (Polygonum spp.) (Polygonaceae), Butterfly bush (Buddleja sp.) Scrophulariaceae, Globe Amaranth (Gompherena) (Amaranthaceae) and Hollyhocks (Alcea sp.) Malvaceae.
That said here in southern Appalachia the first killing frost is right around the corner. Leaves are changing colors and i have noticed Kudzu nipped by cold already. Time to bring in the house plants and plant some garlic!
Such a time of abundance right now ready to be harvested! Typical things such as Corn, Beans, Squash, Tomatoes, Peppers, Potatoes and the like are in full effect from the garden. Choice wild edible greens like Lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) and Pigweed (Amaranthus spp.) are ready too. The big story though is the cultivated and wild fruit! Apples, Blueberries, Pears, Persimmons and Sumacs (Rhus spp.) are all booming around me. Soon Hawthorne (Crataegus spp.), American Rowan (Sorbus americana), and edible Viburnum spp. will be ready at higher elevations above 4,000 ft elevation. What is ready to harvest for thee?
The focus of the current class is woody plants. The study of trees is called dendrology (Hardin, Leopold, & White, 2001). Silviculture is a rather academic term and practice that deals with the raising of trees often times for lumber purposes (Jose, Jokela, & Miller, 2007; Nyland, 2007; Puettmann, 2008; Smith, Larson, Kelty, & Ashton, 1996; G. Williams, 1979). I have recently taken to studying more intensively the neotropics of which i have come across two reference for Trinidad and Tobago and one for Costa Rica in particular regarding Silviculture (Jiménez Madrigal, 2002; R. C. Marshall, 1939; Reginald Charles Marshall, Trinidad, & Forest Department, 1930). A number of publications are available geared more towards landowners while often taking wider management concerns into account (Beattie & Levine, 1993; Hansen, Severson, & Waterman, 2011; Hilts & Mitchell, 2009; Shirley & Graves, 1967). The state of North Carolina offers great prices through their forestry program for native trees available to purchase by landowners. What kind of resources does your state or country offer?
Many people are aware of the tragedy of industrial forestry often employing the technique of clearcutting (Devall, 1993; Jensen & Draffan, 2003; Lansky, 1992). Here are a few resources that speak to the human aspects of deforestation in the tropics (“Palm Oil and Tropical Deforestation,” n.d.; Sponsel, Headland, & Bailey, 1996; Zarin, Alavalapati, Putz, & Schmink, 2004). Palm Oil deforestation in Indonesia and Central America is a particularly worrying. Alternatives for sustainable management of tropical forests are an important subject for discussion (Ford & Nigh, 2015; Southgate, 1998; Zarin et al., 2004). Of course there are many other resources regarding these issues. Which ones are you aware of or can you find?
Much of the information below comes from my graduate research on the plants of Appalachia like many of the classes this year. However, it has since been expanded to cover information about woody plants from other temperate areas and a bit about subtropical/tropical areas as well. Here are featured 22 of the approximately one hundred and sixty plant families occurring in the Blue Ridge part of Appalachia (Wofford, 1989). The focus is on families that include a majority of woody species. Families are listed here in monographs because they have members representing a multitude of uses across a broad spectrum of topics. All families are listed alphabetically by botanical name. A common name corresponding to the typic genus for the family accompanies the title. In the case of the Aquifoliaceae and Caprifoliaceae there is no corresponding typic genus known and another common name has been chosen.
Due to time constraints some notable families that are useful or make up a sizable part of the Appalachian woody flora have been excluded. These include Witchhazel (Hamamelidaceae), Mulberry (Moraceae), Olive (Oleaceae), and Elm (Ulmaceae). The references consulted for the statistics of family geographic representation include Flowering Plant Families of the World (Heywood, Brummitt, Culham, & Seberg, 2007), Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Blue Ridge (Wofford, 1989) and a Synonynized Checklist of the Vascular Flora of the United States, Canada and Greenland (Kartesz, 1994). The work by the Karteszs also covers Puerto Rico, Hawaii and the Virgin islands. Heywood et al. split some families up that are considered as larger in the older sources of Wofford and Kartesz. Notations are included in the discussion of taxonomy for individual families. Several other books might be worth referencing for those interested in plant family patterns. (Castner, 2004; Evert, Eichhorn, & Raven, 2012; W. S. Judd, Campbell, Kellog, Stevens, & Donahue, 2008; Zomlefer, 1994). Newer references i have come across more recently include (Group, 2009; Mabberley, 2008a; Simpson, 2010; Soltis, 2005; Spichiger, Savolainen, Figeat, & Jeanmonod, 2004; Weakley, 2015; Woodland, 2009). The Plant List is an excellent source of online taxonomy especially at the species level.
The role of trees is something important to consider. Pragmatically trees provide habitat, food, building materials, textiles, shade, paper, carbon sequestration and many more services as well. However, on an energetic note, certain trees have given me more solace than any person ever could. Trees have played many other spiritual and intangible roles in society as well (Altman, 2000; Caldecott, 1993; Hageneder, 2005; Hugo, 2011; Wells, 2010). Old growth forests in particular tend to very inspiring (Bash, 2002; Kelly & Braasch, 1988; Maloof, 2011; Rapp, 2002; Valentine, 2011). The history of trees in general is rather fascinating (Thomas, 2014; Wells, 2010).
We have a couple great resources for the role of woody plants in supporting wildlife in the southeast (Huegel, 1995; J. H. Miller & Miller, 2005). There is also another good framing of this subject from a permaculture perspective(Jacke & Toensmeier, 2005a, 2005b). The difference between native species and exotic ones in this regard can be profound (Tallamy, 2009) Oaks and Cherries are some real winners in particular in regards to supporting wildlife. Many microbial associations are supported by various trees as well. Forestry Professor Suzanne Simard at the University of British Columbia has done a lot to highlight the ways trees communicate to each other in part mediated by microbial connections.
Many people think of Native Americans as passive in their influence on the forest. However, a literature has developed that shows a much more active role in managing arboreal ecosystems (Abrams & Nowacki, 2008; Black, Ruffner, & Abrams, 2006; Delcourt & Delcourt, 1998; Delcourt, Delcourt, Ison, Sharp, & Gremillion, 1998; McEwan, Dyer, & Pederson, 2011).
Trees in urban environments have very particular needs and constraints (E. F. Gilman, 1997; Watson, 1998). Gingko biloba is a popular addition to cityscapes as is the London Plane tree (Platanus x acerifolia). Elms were a historical favorite that was unfortunately afflicted by the Dutch Elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi) a few decades ago and lost to the cityscape for that reason. Diane Rehm hosted a great show on Urban Trees. Tree planting and care is an art that may take much study to master (E. Gilman, 2001; Watson, 1994, 2005). Selecting the right tree for the landscape can be aided by a number of good resources as well (Dirr, 1997, 1998; Flint, 1997; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1998). One aspect that people sometimes select for is variegation (Houtman, 2004). DAVEY is one operation with over 130 years of experience in arboriculture. There is a robust literature documenting the benefits and ecosystems services of urban forests (Dwyer, Nowak, Noble, & Sisinni, 2000; Escobedo & Nowak, 2009; Gregory McPherson, 1992; Jonnes, 2016; McHale, Gregory McPherson, & Burke, 2007; E. G. McPherson et al., n.d.; E. G. McPherson & Simpson, 1999, 2003; G. E. McPherson, Nowak, & Rowntree, 1994; G. McPherson, Simpson, Peper, Maco, & Xiao, 2005; Nowak et al., 2008; Nowak & Crane, 2000; Nowak, Crane, & Stevens, 2006) .
Edible landscaping is becoming more and more popular these days (Creasy, 1982; M. Judd, 2013; Kourik & Kane, 1986; Tiruneh & Hager, 2011). One type of edible landscaping dealing with trees in particular is called Forest Gardening (Crawford, 2010; Hart, 1996; Jacke & Toensmeier, 2005a, 2005b; Mudge, Gabriel, & Munsell, 2014; Whitefield, 1998). Village Homes outside of Davis, CA is one excellent example of forest gardening being implemented on community scale (Corbett & Corbett, 2000). A couple resources cover many of the nuts of the world and in the eastern US cultivated and wild including woody plants and some non-woody ones as well (Krochmal & Krochmal, 1982; Menninger, 1977).
One of the biggest distinctions in the tree world is between hardwoods also known as broadleaves and conifers. Conifers are a more ancient lineage with a once wider distribution. A number of great references cover the amazing world of conifers (Eckenwalder, 2009; Farjon, 2008, 2010; Elbert L. Little, n.d.).
The two main families of conifers include the Pinaceae and Cupressaceae. Pinaceae members tend to have needles in different numbers and arrays in place of broad leaves. Pine (Pinus), Fir (Abies), Spruce (Picea), Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga), Hemlock (Tsuga), Classic Cedar (Cedrus) and Larch (Larix) are all included in this family. These genera also tend to have vitamin C in their needles which may come in handy in the case of being cut off from traditional sources. However, too much intake of Pinaceae needle tea can be damaging due to the presence of resins (Elpel, 2013).
Cupressaceae members often have foliage with imbricate (layered) scales that are sharp to the touch. The most common members are Juniper (Juniperus) and Cypress (Cupressus). Many trees that formerly went by Cupressus in the Americas have changed to the genus (Callitropsis) (Judd et al., 2008). Thuja and Chamaecyparis occur in the east and the west and go by a host of common names including types of Cedar. Incense Cedar (Calocedrus) is a common genus in the western United States. i am aware of a few book resources for the study of western trees specifically (Earle, Spellenberg, & Nelson, 2014; Elbert L. Little, 1976; Petrides, 1998b, 2005; Sudworth, 1967).
The formerly separate members of Taxodiaceae are now included within the Cupressaceae family (Judd et al., 2008). North American members include California Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) and Bald Cypress (Taxodium spp.). Dawn Redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) was a species thought to be extinct until it was found in the 1940s’ (Judd et al., 2008). This sub-family holds the tallest and biggest tree titles for the planet and also some of the oldest trees as well. Bald Cypress and Dawn Redwood also belie the title evergreen as they both lose their leaves in the winter. Larch from the Pinaceae is another example in this regard. Other more exotic genera traditionally included in the Taxodiaceae include Cryptomeria, Athrotaxis, Cunninghamia, Glyptostrobus, Sciadopitys, and Taiwania.
Smaller families of conifers include the Yew (Taxaceae), Podocarp (Podocarpaceae), Monkey Puzzle (Araucariaceae), Umbrella Pine (Sciadopitayaceae) and interestingly the not needled and monogeneric Ginkgo (Ginkgoaceae). The Podocarp and Monkey Puzzle families often occur in the Southern Hemisphere. One of the largest trees i have ever encountered was a Podocarpus centuries/millenia old growing near 10,000 ft elevation and the Cerro de la Muerte in Costa Rica. It is located on the Seeyle family land which i highly recommend visiting if you are ever in the area www.lasvueltas.com. It took over 15 people to make a ring around this massive elder tree and is one of my greatest memories from travels with Frank Cook.
In the northern temperate regions conifers tend to grow on more harsh sites. Some examples include dry, fire prone, windswept, acidic, snow buried or frigidly cold. They tend to have shallower roots than broadleaves, thicker bark and sometimes quicker growth as some adaptations for their chosen path. Most of them will not sprout from stumps. Redwoods are a notable exception. More conifers are put into plantations than probably any other trees. Pines in particular are popular in this regard i.e. Loblolly (Pinus taeda), Slash (Pinus elliotii) and Monterey (Pinus radiata).
The Hemlock Wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) and Balsam Wooly adelgids (Adelges piceae) are devastating pests. The Hemlock “Reishi” mushroom (Ganoderma tsugae) is one famous associated fungal species. It is a bit of a silver lining on the fact that most Hemlocks in the east have been decimated by the adelgid pest. An entomologist friend Richard McDonald recently told me that he has high hopes for beneficial insect identified in the western U.S, that may help control the hemlock wooly adelgid in the east as well. Pine bark beetles (Dendroctonus spp.) are another challenging insect pest. Pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), which is hosted on Currants (Ribes spp.) acts as a microbiological threat. Mushrooms from the family Boletaceae famously co-habitate with conifers in beneficial mycorrhizal relationships.
A lot of wild Ericaceae members are associated with the understory of conifers out west and to a certain degree in the east as well. Members of the non-photosynthesizing group formerly known as the Monotropaceae have now been subsumed by the Ericaceae and tend to grow along with conifers as well. The Rhododendrons within the Ericaceae have an extensive literature all their own (Bryant, 1996, 2001; K. Cox, 2005; K. N. E. Cox & Glen, 1998; P. A. Cox & Cox, 1988; Cullen, 2005; Davidian, 1982, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c; Hawthorne, 2014; Leach, 1961; Reilly, 1992; Salley & Greer, 2005; Towe, 2004; Vanveen, 1986; Young, 1981).
Hardwoods tend to grow on nice sites and have tap roots. They are mostly deciduous in the north but often evergreen in the tropics. They often prefer more basic soils than conifers. Their diverse arrays of fruits also tie them into a wider web of fauna. Many specific broadleaf trees have whole industries built around them including examples like tool handles, pencils, toothpicks, baseball bats and hockey sticks.
Many of the broadleaf trees that are native to North America are currently under assault from exotic insect or disease pests (C. E. Little, 1995). Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) has killed millions of Ash trees and continues to spread. Gypsy Moths (Lymantria spp.) and Sudden Oak Death (Phytopthora ramorum) are affecting Oaks. Dogwood Anthracnose is taking out these iconic small trees. Other species are under attack as well including Butternut (Juglans cinerea) and Red Bay (Persea borbonia). Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch Elm disease are afflictions of the last century that have radically changed forest composition in the east. The plight of tree diseases has been well documented (Brosi, 2010; Clark, Brosi, Schlarbaum, & Grissino-Mayer, 2008; Coyier & Roane, 1986; Dalgleish & Swihart, 2012; Dreistadt, 2004; Hepting, 1971; C. E. Little, 1995; Sinclair & Lyon, 2005).
(Sap) indaceae i.e. Buckeye (Aesculus) Golden Rain Tree (Koelreuteria) and Maple (Acer).
Compound versus simple leaves are the next distinguishing trait with woody plant identification especially. Compound leaves are fairly uncommon and more distinguished depending on leaf orientation. Opposite compound typically denotes Mochatel (Adoxaceae), Ash (Oleaceae) and Maple/Buckeye (Sapindaceae) families. Woody plants with alternate compound leaves typically fall in the Walnut (Juglandaceae), Rose (Rosaceae) or Bean (Fabaceae) families. Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) (Simaroubaceae) is another pinnately compound alternate plant that is invasive in many areas especially in disturbed locales. However, like many invasive plants it is also a potent medicinal (Scott, 2010).
Leaf margin, hairiness, buds, and scars are additional traits used in dendrological identification. Hairiness denoted by such terms as hirsute, pillose, pubescent, stellate, strigose, tomentose, , etc…are often reason enough for classic species delineation. Winter identification mostly depends on bark, bud type (number/shape of scales) and leaf/vascular bundle scars. We have played winter tree id in the Asheville area to much enjoyment and delight as well as humbled bafflement even in familiar terrain. Some books exist that can help specifically with winter id (Core & Ammons, 1999; Gilkey & Packard, 2001; Harlow, 1946; Jones & Wofford, 2013; Lance, 2004; Symonds, 1958; Trelease, 1967; Watts & Watts, 1970; M. D. Williams, 2007; Wojtech, 2011). Trees and shrubs can provide quite a bit of “winter interest” in the garden when selected properly (Buffin, 2005; Price, 2007; Simeone, Curtis, Barnett, & Tankersley, 2005). My friend and teacher Sevensong has a great handout on winter tree id that he has graciously offered to share online.
Many great references exist to help one in the exploration of woody plants and their uses (Brockman, 1986; Dirr, 1998; Elias, 1980; Hardin, Leopold, & White, 2001). In Appalachia the references i use most are represented by a handful of books (Petrides, 1998a; Radford, Ahles, & Bell, 1968; Swanson, 1994; Weakley, 2012; Wofford, 1989). Swanson in particular is key! Other older and less comprehensive references are also available (Stupka, 1964). A couple bibliographies have been developed for information on Southern hardwoods too (W. D. Miller, 1967, 1974).
In the Sierra Nevada’s of the U.S. i have been thankful for a compact lightweight book by Petrides (2005). In the past i have also consulted bigger more comprehensive resources for woody plants of the Western U.S. (Petrides, 1998b; Sudworth, 1967).. There is also a reference specific to trees and shrubs of California (Stuart & Sawyer, 2001). The Flora of the California is known as the Jepson Manual (Hickman, 1993). A newer version has been published as well (Baldwin, Goldman, Keil, Patterson, & Rosatti, 2012). California also has great online botany information through Cal Flora These are the definitive resources to the over 5,000 plant taxa that occur within the Golden state. Quite a few books have been written for exploration of woody plants in the desert Southwest (J. E. Bowers, 1998; J. Bowers & Wignall, 1993; Carter, 1997; Elmore, 1976; MacKay, 2003).
Specific resources have been generated for the more tropical clime of Florida (Kurz & Godfrey, 1962; Elbert L. Little, 1978; G. Nelson, 1998). i am aware of a few references for Costa Rica as well (Céspedes & Lindquist, 2007; Condit, Pérez, & Daguerre, 2010; Poveda, Jiménez, & Zamora, 2011; Zamora, Jimenez, & Poveda, 2004). There is a handy pocket guide for trees and shrubs of Hawaii as too (Pratt, 1998). Thanks to my recent travel and interest in the Caribbean i have come across quite a few resources on woody plants from the region (Leiva, 2007; Elbert Luther Little & Wadsworth, 1964; Marcelle, Hawthorn, & Jules, 2004; Pertchik, Pertchik, & White, 1951; Seddon & Lennox, 1980; Storer, 1964; Tanner, 1977).
i know of at least one good guide to trees of England (Sterry & Sterry, 2008). i also have a guide to both trees and shrubs from a company based in England that covers over 9,000 plants in over 650 genera (Nurseries, 1992)! One guide covers over 500 trees of both Europe and North America (Phillips, 1978). Another guide by Phillips (2002) references 450 genera of trees and shrubs once again accompanied by great photographs.
Some specific resources for shrubs often combined with vines are available as well (Curtis, 1945; Foote & Jones, 1989; Grimm, 1966; Hyams, 1965; Keeler, 1969; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1998; Zucker, 1966). My favorite resource by George Symonds (1963) contains photographs for side by side comparisons of different species bark, flowers and fruits.
A number of resources also cover trees of North America in a broad fashion (Brockman, 1986; Peattie, 2013; Russell & Cutler, 2003; Sargent, 1965). According to one such reference there are at least 652 native species and over 100 introduced species of trees in North America (Elias, 1980).
Overall guides to the trees of the world exists as well (Russell & Cutler, 2003; Russell & Walters, 2007). i also have come across one exquisite guide to trees of the world covering almost 2,000 species and cultivars with awesome illustrations and ethnobotanical references (More & White, 2005). One rather comprehensive partly digital resource covers 8,500 different trees and shrubs of the world and also come with a handy interactive CD (Wasson, 2001). A book by Thomas Pakenham (2003) takes note of remarkable trees of the world and makes for a jaw dropping bucket list for the intrepid traveler and pilgrim.
Clearly a lot of awesome resources are out there in book form and certainly some great websites exist as well. One great free resource that i recently came across with numerous publications on tree care is from Bartlett Tree Experts http://www.bartlett.com/resourceList.cfm.
Below are monographs for most of the major woody plant families in the temperate world! Families are listed alphabetically by scientific name. Your support to develop this further is greatly encouraged. Factoids and funds could move this along to a more comprehensive place!
Family descriptions are covered systematically. The first section includes a chart showing distribution in the world, North America and the Blue Ridge using the sources underlined in the introduction above. A modern taxonomic commentary depending on three main sources follows (Heywood, Brummitt, Culham, & Seberg, 2007; W. S. Judd et al., 2008; Weakley, 2015). Next follows a listing of genera known in Appalachia according to Wofford (1989). The number of species for each genus is in parentheses. The first number is for native species. The second number when present is for introduced species. The introduced species numbers are also highlighted to further show their patterns of distribution. Introduced plants in general tend to be represented by one species from an exotic genus. The native species almost always out number introduced species when contained within the same genus. A list of taxa excluded by Wofford follows. Excluded taxa are normally reported from a limited range and are often cultivated plants that may escape locally. Within the above three botanical sections all plant names are in scientific terminology only. In the below usage categories common names precede scientific names at least the first time the plant is mentioned i.e. Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Common plant names are capitalized as usual because they are at least as important as people to me!
Finally, species that fit into the categories of food, medicine, poison, insect affiliation, invasiveness, dye plants, other crafts, aesthetics and aromatics are included. Foods included comprise wild and cultivated taxa. One source is the primary reference mixed with over a 15 years of personal experience regarding wild foods (Couplan, 1998). Don’t ever eat flowers or other parts of plants from a florist or other synthetic chemical intensive source. Always be absolutely positive of the identification and utilization of anything you plan to consume! Medicinal notations address only some extremely important plants due to time limitations. Invasiveness is mostly only covered relative to Appalachia and specifically inclusion in the Blue Ridge Flora. One cited reference was used primarily (J. H. Miller, Chambliss, & Bargeron, 2006). However, personal experience with exotic invasive plants informed commentary that is not cited. Many invasive plants in Appalachia are also invasive throughout their introduced range. Plant uses by bees were compiled primarily from three comprehensive book sources with the addition of 14 years of personal experience (H. B. Lovell, 1977; J. H. Lovell, 1999; Pellett, 1977). Dye plants included are noted when not so plentiful to be confusing. For the Fabaceae and Rosaceae for instance only some dye plants of special interest are included. Highlighted sections are still a work in progress.
Taxonomic commentary: This family is now often included as a part of the more tropical Sapindaceae (Heywood et al., 2007; Judd et al., 2008; Weakley, 2008). That is why no distribution occurs for world scope.
Food: Sap from various species. Seeds are also said to be edible (Couplan, 1998).
Aesthetics: Paper bark maple (Acer griseum) is a marvelous landscape tree with exfoliating bark. Many other “Japanese” maples i.e. A. palmatum etc. are popular landscape plants.
Food: Fruits of Sumac (Rhus spp.) have been used by Native Americans and others to make a type of pink lemonade due to malic acid. Cold infusion and straining is necessary. Heat brings out bitter tannins. Many popular exotic food stuffs are in this family. These include Pistachio (Pistacia spp.), Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Mango (Mangifera indica), and Brazilian pepper (Schinus spp.). In the Caribbean the June Plum (Spondias sp.) is also enjoyed. A type of Sumac (Rhus coriaria) is ground up and used as a flavoring spice called Zaatar in the Middle East.
Toxicity: Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), Poison Oak (T. toxicarium), and Poison Sumac (T. vernix) can cause severe skin irritation for susceptible individuals. Poisonwood/Burn Plum (Metopium spp.) Allergic reactions are known to occur for certain people with many if not all the members of this family!
Insects: Bees freely work Rhus spp. for nectar.
Invasiveness: Poison ivy is native but can quickly take over disturbed areas.
Dye Plants: Smoketree (Cotinus coggygria), Sumacs (Rhus copallina, R. copallinum, R. coriaria, R. glabra, R. hirta, R typhina) (Bliss, 1993; Cannon & Cannon, 2003; Fern, 2008; Krochmal & Krochmal, 1974; Moerman, 1998; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).
Aesthetics: Fruits of Rhus spp. make great additions to flower arrangements fresh or dry. Cotinus is a beautiful landscape plant with purple cultivars that can also be employed in flower arrangements to striking effect.
Taxonomic commentary: Nemopanthus has now been moved to Ilex (Heywood et al., 2007).
Food: The roasted leaves of some members have been used to prepare a caffeinated beverage including Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) and Yaupon Holly (I. vomitoria) (Couplan, 1998). Ilex cassine and I. guayusa also have significant amounts of caffeine (Edwards & Bennett, 2005; Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). The fruits of Gallberry (Ilex glabra) are said to be edible (Couplan, 1998).
Toxicity: Triterpine saponins and their esters (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). The berries are often considered to not be edible, however, the leaves tend to be not toxic (Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007).
Insects: Gallberry (Ilex glabra) is important for bees in warmer areas (Pellett, 1976). Many other species of Ilex are good sources of nectar as well.
Wildlife: Many birds appreciate the fruits of Hollies.
Other Crafts: Ilex spp. have traditionally been use for wood work.
Aesthetics: Many species are very attractive in the landscape for evergreen foliage and showy fruits. Plants are dioecious so males and females are required for fruiting.
Food: The leaves and roots of Sarsaparilla (Aralia californica) are used by Daniel Nicholson in California for tea. This is the only native member of Araliaceae in the state. Other members of Aralia from the Eastern U.S. have been used similarly especially in the preparation of root beer (Peterson, 1978). Some young shoots of Aralia spp. have been eaten in the spring (Couplan, 1998). However, i know from direct experience that Aralia spinosa may cause some irritation especially if one tries to consume it raw.
Medicine: Multiple species of Panax are adaptogenic (Winston & Maimes, 2007; Yance, 2013) Aralia spp. may be medicinal as well. Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus) is a major medicinal in the northwest U.S. (Pojar et al., 1994).
Toxicity: Triterpine saponins occur in the Araliaceae including English Ivy (Hedera helix) (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). Hedera helix may also cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007). Members of Aralia may cause irritation to susceptible individuals especially if consumed raw.
Insects: Insects love members of this family in bloom.
Invasiveness: English ivy (Hedera helix) is a prolific exotic invasive.
Dye Plants: Hedera helix (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009).
Other Crafts: Vines of ivy can be used for various decorations.
Aesthetics: Hedera helix is famous for covering buildings but can cause some damage to the outside surface. Many Aralia spp. are beautiful plants with showy blossoms. Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus) is stunning in the understory of the Pacific Northwest conifer forests.
Miscellaneous: English Ivy is one of the best plants studied for improving indoor air quality (Wolverton, 1997).
This is a mostly vegetative family with one prominent shrubby member (Berberis) in Appalachia and a host of medicinal uses.
Food: The edible berries are sour and often need to be sweetened in the Barberry (Berberis) and cultivated Oregon grape (Mahonia) genera. Fruits of Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) may be consumed when fully ripe!!!
Medicine: Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) is a potent medicine for women’s issues. Berberine contained in many members is a powerful immune boosting anti-microbial medicine. Podophyllotoxin from Mayapple is used as an anti-cancer drug (Duke & Foster, 1999).
Toxicity: This family tests the boundaries between food, medicine and poison. Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) contains an alkaloidal convulsant poison (Nelson et al., 2007). Podophyllum contains a mitotic inhibitor (Nelson et al., 2007).
Insects: Berberis spp. are attractive to bees but rarely provide much honey.
Invasiveness: The exotic Japanese Barberry (Berberis thunbergii), Beale’s Barberry (Mahonia bealei) and Heavenly Bamboo (Nandina domestica) all can be invasive (Miller et al., 2006).
Dye Plants: Many species of Barberry (Berberis spp.) and Oregon Grapes (Mahonia spp.) can be used for dyes (Bliss, 1994; Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).
Aesthetics: The flowers of Oregon grape are often showy and slightly fragrant. The fruits of various Barberries and Oregon grapes are attractive. Though spiny, they can be used in flower arrangements.
Food: Nuts from Corylus including the European Filbert (C. avellana) and the American Hazelnut (C. americana). The inner bark of the Alder has a tradition of use by Native Americans as a survival food (J. Pojar et al., 1994). Alder has also been used to smoke food. A number of Birch species can be tapped for their sap which can be consumed raw or brewed into various different types of beverages (Couplan, 1998). The tradition in Northern and Eastern Europe of using the saps for brewing has been studied in particular (Svanberg et al., 2012).
Medicine: Alder is a typical medicine for the Native people of the Pacific Northwest (J. Pojar et al., 1994). Black Birch (Betula lenta) contain methyl salicylates which act as mild analgesics akin to the chemistry in Aspirin and correspond to the smell of wintergreen (Duke & Foster, 2014).
Insects: Alders (Alnus spp.) are an important early source of pollen for bees.
Alder (Alnus spp.) (Bliss, 1994; Eaton, 1973; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).
Other Crafts: Wood used by western tribes for bowls and masks (J. Pojar et al., 1994).
Aesthetics: Many species make handsome landscape trees especially Harry Lauder’s walking stick (Corylus avellana ‘contorta’). Purple leaved varieties have been developed as well.
Miscellaneous: Alders fix nitrogen though a different microbial association regarding actinomycetes rather than the better known Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium from the Fabaceae. Wax Myrtle (Myrica gale) and Sweet Fern (Comptonia) from the Myricaceae and Ceonothus from the Rhamnaceae do this as well (Evert et al., 2012).
Taxonomic commentary: The Caprifoliaceae is a messy family in transition. Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) and Viburnums (Viburnum spp.) have been moved to Adoxaceae (Spears, 2006). A number of genera have sometimes been given their own families i.e. Sambucaceae, Diervillaceae, Linnaeaceae (Heywood et al., 2007). American Elderberries are sometimes treated as subspecies of the European one (Sambucus nigra) but our most recent southeastern flora keeps them at the level of species rank (Weakley, 2015).
Food: Fruits from Black Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) and Blue Elderberry (Sambucus cerulea) are used for jelly, wine, syrup etc. Some black fruited Viburnums are edible raw (V. cassinoides, V. alnifolia, V. lantana, V. nudum, V. prunifolium, V. rufidulum) and red fruited Viburnums are best cooked (V. trilobum, V opulus) (Couplan, 1998). Fruits from the horse gentian (Triosteum perfoliatum) can be roasted as a coffee substitute (Couplan, 1998). Flowers of Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) are famous for the little drop of nectar inside and also can be used to adorn salads, cakes and the like. Fruits of at least some honeysuckles mostly from the Pacific Northwest i.e. (L. ciliosa, L. hispidula, L. involucrata and L. villosa) are edible but others are poisonous and unfortunately even the poisonous ones are purported to taste good (Couplan, 1998).
Medicine: Sambucus nigra and S. canadensis are famous medicinals for colds and flu. Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) is a prevalent flu remedy in China used as part of the formulation Yin chiao. Crampbark (Viburnum opulus) and Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium) have a long history of use for women’s health. Other species have been used medicinally by Native Americans (Moerman, 1998, 2003).
Toxicity: Sambucus contains cyanogenic glycocides and only the stemless fruits should be consumed in any quantity. Some debate exists on the possible toxicity of Red Elderberry (S. racemosa) and a Black Elderberry (S. ebulus) in Europe is considered to be outright poisonous at least in one source (ANWB, 2005). Snowberry fruits (Symphoricarpos spp.) contain saponins and a small amount of chelidonine (Nelson et al., 2007).
Insects: Blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium) is good for stimulating early brood production. Sambucus nigra is important for pollen. Most Lonicera spp. flowers have tubes too long for bees to reach their nectar. However, some bush and fly honeysuckles (L. morrowi and L. tatarica) are visited by bees. Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) is much sought after by bees when abundant.
Invasiveness: Seven taxa of Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) are introduced and invasive to various degrees though a few are not included in Wofford (1989). These include (L. japonica), Breath of Spring (L. fragrantissima), Morrow’s Honeysuckle (L. morrowii) Coral Honeysuckle (L. sempervirens), Standish’s Honeysuckle (L. standishii) Tatarian Honeysuckle (L. tatarica) and Bell’s Honeysuckle (L. x bella) (Miller et al., 2006). Japanese Honeysuckle is by far one of the most widespread exotic invasives covering over 45,000,000 acres according to one analysis (Oswalt, Thompson, & Smith, 2009). The native Honeysuckle (L. sempervirens) makes a great alternative to the Japanese Honeysuckle (Burrell, 2006).
Dye Plants: Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) (Cannon, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).
Other Crafts: The exotic invasive Lonicera japonica can be used for basketry (Hill, 1997).
Aesthetics: Many species are attractive ornamental plants and smell wonderful.
Food: Young parts of Bittersweet (Celastrus spp.) have been consumed in the past after boiling (Couplan, 1998). Not recommended!!!
Toxicity: Celastrus fruits are said to be poisonous containing an unknown gastrointestinal irritant (Nelson et al., 2007). Khat (Catha edulis) is an addictive narcotic used in Africa in places like Somalia (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008).
Insects: Native Bittersweet Celastrus scandens is worked freely by bees.
Invasiveness: The Oriental Bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) is one of the most challenging exotic invasive plants of the Appalachian region. It is distinguished from the native C. scandens that is crosses with by having axillary fruits and different shaped leaves. Winged burning bush (Euonymus alatus) and Winter Creeper (E. fortunei) can be exotic invasives though neither is considered in the Blue Ridge Flora (Miller et al., 2006; Wofford, 1989).
Other Crafts: Wreathes and baskets can be made from Celastrus orbiculatus though care should be made not to spread invasive fruits or harvest the native which is not common east of the smokies.
Aesthetics: Euonymous spp. and Celastrus spp. have beautiful foliage and fruits in the fall.
Taxonomic commentary: The landscape plant Aucuba japonica has sometimes been included with the Cornaceae. It is now often put in its own family (Aucubaceae) (Heywood et al., 2007). Some debate remains as to whether Nyssaceae is a separate family or a subfamily of Cornaceae (Heywood et al., 2007; Weakley, 2015).
Dogwoods can apparently be broken up into clades. Potentially four sections: Big plants with showy Bracts i.e. C. florida, C. kousa, Little plants with showy bracts i.e. C. canadensis. The biggest group is the small bract group broken into two parts the Cornels i.e. C. mas, C. officinalis, C. sessilis, and a much larger section of which C. alternifolia and C. ammomum are part (“Cornus (genus) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,” n.d.). Edibility seems to follow along these grouping lines.
Food: Fruits of Bunchberry (C. canadensis) and the introduced landscape plants Cornelian cherry (C. mas) and Asian Dogwood (C. kousa) are edible (Couplan, 1998). The Black Fruited Dogwood (Cornus sessilis) has been enjoyed by friends and myself in California. It is not included in Couplan (1998) but edibility is supported from other sources (Clarke, 1978; Fern, 2008).
Medicine: Cornus canadensis was used medicinally as an anti-malarial during the Civil War (Porcher, 1970).
Toxicity: Most fruits are inedible to people. Bloodtwig dogwood (Cornus sanguinea) can cause skin irritation (Nelson et al., 2007).
Wildlife: The fruits of Dogwoods are appreciated by many migrating birds and represent an important food source for them.
Dye Plants: Dogwoods (Cornus spp.) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).
Other Crafts: The wood of Cornus florida is very hard and dense. It may be used for mallets and other durable goods. Dogwood twigs have also been used in basketry and as toothbrushes.
Aesthetics: Many dogwoods are beautiful landscape trees with exceptional bark characteristics. Flowers wilt soon after cutting foliage. The most common native Dogwood Cornus florida is threatened by an anthracnose disease that may remove it from the natural environment.
of Pacific Northwestern Native Americans (Pojar et al., 1994).
Number for world genera and species from D.J. Mabberly (2008b).
Invasiveness: Some species of Juniperus are weedy and have taken over millions of acres (Judd et al., 2008).
Dye Plants: Eastern Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) (Eaton, 1973).
Other Crafts: Wood is highly valued and rot resistant.
Aesthetics: Many members of this family are valued in the landscape including Junipers (Juniperus spp.), Psuedo Cypress (Chamaecyparis spp.), Arborvitae (Thuja spp.) and Cypress (Cupressus spp.).
Taxonomic commentary: This family now includes the formerly distinct Pyrolaceae and Monotropaceae (Heywood et al., 2007). Kartesz (1994) treated these two/three families separately. Their totals are compiled under Ericaceae here. No exotic members are included in Wofford. Heywood et al. include 8 subfamilies and 20 tribes.
Food: Fruits from Blueberries/Cranberries (Vaccinium spp.) and Huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.) are relished for pies, jams, wines etc. Fruits from Manzanita (Arctostphylos spp.) are enjoyed in the western U.S.
Toxicity: Honey from several members of the Ericaceae including Rhododendron spp. may be toxic (Kingsbury, 1964; Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007; Pellett, 1977). Mountain laurels (Kalmia spp.), Fetterbush (Pieris spp.) and Dog Hobble (Leucothoe spp.) are all toxic to livestock. Their wood should also probably not be burned. Sodium channel activators are present in Mtn Laurel (Kalmia spp.), Fetterbush (Pieris spp.), Maleberries (Lyonia spp.), Rhododendron spp., Pernettya spp. and Doghobble (Leucothoe spp.) (Nelson et al., 2007). Grayanotoxins or andromedatoxins are usually attributed to Ericaceae toxicity.
Insects: Vaccinium and Gaylussacia provide good surplus nectar for bees. A special honey is produced in Appalachia from the Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum). Bees are also fond of Fetterbush (Pieris spp.).
Invasiveness: None of the many species included in the Blue Ridge Flora is introduced (Wofford, 1989)!
Madrone (Arbutus menziesii) and Bear berry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) (Bliss, 1994; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).
Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) (Eaton, 1973; Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).
Other Crafts: Wood from Rhododendron spp. and Mountain laurel (Kalmia spp.) is used for ornamental fence railings.
Aesthetics: Many of the plants in this family are used in the landscape especially for their spring flower displays.
This is a very important family. Most members aid in fixing nitrogen in the soil symbiotically with special bacteria that live in their roots. Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient. Therefore, many members of this family are often used as cover crops. Only a few of the members in the temperate zone are woody shrubs or trees but they are almost all significant in various ways. Redbud (Cercis canadensis) amongst some other members from the family does not fix nitrogen.
Taxonomic commentary: The Fabaceae is the third biggest family in the world. The family is so big and diverse that it is often split into three sub families: Mimosoideae, Caesalpinioideae, Papilionoideae (Heywood et al., 2007).
Woody Blue Ridge Genera: Albizia (1), Cercis (1), Cladrastis (1), Gleditisia (1) Pueraria lobata (1), Robinia (3), Wisteria (2) W. sinensis not included in Wofford!
Food: The Fabaceae is also one of the chief sources of protein for vegetarians. Beans (Phaseolus spp.) are native to Central America (Van Wyk, 2005). Peas (Pisum sativum), Chickpeas (Cicer arientinum) and Lentils (Lens spp.) are all sources of protein for people and animal forage. Red Bud (Cercis spp.) and Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) flowers are choice edibles. Red clover (Trifolium pratense) leaves and flowers are good in tea in moderation.
Medicine: Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus), Senna (Cassia spp.), Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Red clover (Trifolium pratense), Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) and Silk tree/Mimosa (Albizzia julibrissin) are just a few of the famous medicinals from this family (Van Wyk & Wink, 2004).
Toxicity: Many members are toxic even possibly deadly and plants from this family should never be sampled without absolute positive identification. Alkaloidal convulsant poison containing genera include Gymnocladus, Sophora, Laburnum and Baptisia (Nelson et al., 2007). Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and Rattlebox (Sesbania spp.) contain saponins (Kingsbury, 1964). Triterpine and steroidal saponins may occur in the Fabaceae in general (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008). Rattleboxes Sesbania and (Crotalaria) contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Nelson et al., 2007). Vicia spp. and Trifolium spp. can cause photosensitivity through their effect on the liver (Kingsbury, 1964). Some people are allergic to members of the Fabaceae including soybeans (Glycine max). Aflotoxin is a toxic fungus that can occur on peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and other nuts. Robinia contains a toxalbumin (Nelson et al., 2007). Wisteria spp. contains wistarine which is a gylcocide (Nelson et al., 2007). Other potentially toxic members include Locoweeds (Astragalus spp.), Senna (Cassia), Sweet peas (Lathyrus spp.) and Lupines (Lupinus spp.) (Blackwell, 1990).
Insects: The following plants are beloved by bees and other insects: Indigo (Baptisia spp.), Red Bud (Cercis canadensis), Clover (Trifolium spp.), Sweet Clovers (Melilotus spp.), Vetch (Vicia spp.) Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum), Bird’s Foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) and False Indigo (Amorpha spp.). Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) also provides pollen for bees.
Invasiveness: Silk tree (Albizia julibrissin), Crown Vetch (Securigera varia syn Coronilla varia), Scotch Broom (Cystisus scoparius), Korean Clover, (Kummerowia stipulaceae), Japanese Clover (K. striata), Shrubby Lespedeza (Lespedeza bicolor), Sericea Lespedeza (L. cuneata), Thunberg’s Lespedeza (L. thunbergii), Bird’s Foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), Black Medick (Medicago lupilina), Yellow Sweetclover (Melilotus officianalis), Kudzu (Pueraria lobata), Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia), Garden Vetch (Vicia sativa), Japanese Wisteria (Wisteria floribunda), Chinese Wisteria (W. sinensis) (Miller et al., 2006). Introduced species of Trifolium are especially prevalent in many cultivated environments.
Dye Plants: At least thirty seven species of Fabaceae are listed as used for dye (Fern, 2008). Appalachian native and naturalized genera include, Indigo (Baptisia australis) Dyer’s Indigo (B. tinctoria) and Broom (Cystisus scoparius).
Other Crafts: Beans from various members i.e. (Caesalpinia, Crotolaria, Enterlobium) have been used for jewelry. Black Locust wood is very rot resistant and is often used for fence posts and even structurally as part of the foundation for houses. Wisteria and Kudzu can be used for basketry.
Aesthetics: Many members of the Fabaceae have a stunning array of attractive characteristics.
Blue Ridge Genera: Castanea (2), Fagus (1), Quercus (20) Wofford excluded: Quercus virginiana.
Food: The Fagaceae represents an incredible food resource from every genus represented in the Blue Ridge. This family contains the Oaks (Quercus spp.), Chestnuts (Castanea spp.) and Beeches (Fagus spp.) Acorns from White Oaks such as (Quercus alba) and Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus/montana) contain lower tannin amounts and therefore need less leaching. All Oaks produce edible nuts. Some are more choice than others. A number of mushrooms of which many are edible are also associated with the Oaks (Binion et al., 2008). Native Americans far from being passive forest dwellers of Oak/Chestnut forest often set fires to achieve various goals of which some were related to increasing food availability (Delcourt & Delcourt, 1998; Delcourt et al., 1998).
Toxicity: Tannins are present in many members and are not good to consume in high amounts. American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) contains saponins as well (Kingsbury, 1964).
Insects: Fagus grandifolia and Quercus spp. provide pollen for bees. Bees also get honeydew from Quercus spp. galls. Gypsy moths are a pest threatening Oaks currently. Oaks also provide food for many other insects as well (Tallamy, 2009).
Other Crafts: Endless crafts can be made from the woods of all members of the Fagaceae. Acorns from Quercus spp. offer excellent craft opportunities as well. i especially like the variation in Acorn tops which have served as fairy hats to enterprising folk artists like my friend Sarah Hinds. White Oak baskets are one of the mainstays of Appalachian craft (Law & Taylor, 1991).
Aesthetics: Most members of the Fagaceae are stunningly beautiful landscape trees that often hold on to many of their leaves in the fall. They can get to be quite large and old especially in open grown environments.
Miscellaneous: There is a great publication available online detailing the Oaks of eastern North America (Stein, Binion, & Acciavatti, 2012). Another covers the Oaks of California (Pavlik, Muick, & Johnson, 1993). One covers the whole continent (H. A. Miller & Lamb, 1984). Lastly there is a resource for the Oaks of Central America as well (Kappelle, 2008).
Blue Ridge Genera: Carya (7), Juglans (2) Wofford excluded: Pecan (Carya illionensis).
Food: Many species provide edible nuts including Mockernut Hickory (Carya tomentosa) Pecan (Carya illionensis), Sweet Hickory (C. laciniosa), Shagbark Hickory (C. ovata), Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) and Butternut (J. cinerea). The sap from several genera and species has been consumed by various peoples (Couplan, 1998). English Walnut (Juglans regia) is famous the whole world over.
Medicine: The hulls from the Juglans nigra are used as an anti-parasitic. Following the doctrine of signatures English Walnut is purported to be good for brain health.
Toxicity: Juglone in the root of Juglans nigra is alleleopathic to many plants. Juglans nigra can also cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007). Aflotoxin is a toxic fungus that can occur on various nuts.
Insects: Carya spp. are important for bees as a source of pollen and honeydew.
Invasiveness: Juglans nigra is prone to come up strong in open farm fields left uncultivated. Every member of the family represented in Wofford is native to the Blue Ridge.
Dye Plants: All of the above species can be used for dyes. Some are colorfast without mordants.
Other Crafts: Juglans spp. and Carya spp. woods are highly valued for a diversity of crafts including veneers, paneling, carving, utensils etc. Carya spp. are also used for BBQ woodchips.
Aesthetics: Most members make striking landscape trees. Hickory leaves have a beautiful mustard yellow color in the fall.
Aromatics: Leaves and bark of Hickory (Carya spp.) and Walnut (Juglans spp.) are aromatic.
Food: Fruits of Spice Bush (Lindera benzoin) are used like allspice. Twigs and leaves of Spice Bush and Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) are used in tea. Roots of Sassafras were used for a traditional root beer. Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis) is popular as a pot herb. Leaves of California Bay (Umbellularia californica) can be used like Bay leaves though they are stronger in taste. Nuts have also been consumed when prepared properly. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) is famous as a flavoring spice and also is a potent medicinal. The famous fruit Avocado (Persea spp.) is in this family. Red Bay in the same genus (Persea spp.) grows in Florida and its leaves have been used for flavoring.
Toxicity: Presence of the phytochemical safrole has led to disuse of Sassafras. However its toxicity is less than many commonly consumed substances including beer (Duke & Foster, 1999). The master’s thesis of Kate Cummings (2012) is available for consultation on this topic at greater depth in relation to different forms of preparation and the resulting safrole content. Consumption in moderation is probably prudent. California Bay is the carrier of Sudden Oak Death.
Birds: Fruits of various members from the Lauraceae are relished by birds in their long migration south for the winter.
Dye Plants: Sassafras can be used as a dye plant (Fern, 2008; Krochmal & Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).
Aesthetics: Most members of the Lauraceae are attractive at all times of year.
Aromatics: Bark, leaves, flowers are often aromatic for most members of the Lauraceae.
Taxonomic commentary: This is a small family with primitive flower characteristics and a distinct link to Eastern Asia.
Food: The copious nectar from Tulip Tree flowers can be consumed. The leaves of Sweet Bay (Magnolia virginiana) are used like bay laurel leaves in cooking. The flowers of Cucumber Magnolia can be eaten and the flowers and buds of several Asian species as well as young and tender leaves have been eaten in different parts of Asia (Couplan, 1998). My friend, colleague and fellow forager Robin Harford makes particularly delectable food items including a syrup from M. liliiflora.
Toxicity: Magnolia grandiflora can cause contact dermatitis (Nelson et al., 2007).
Insects: Tulip tree (L. tulipifera) is one of the major bee trees in the Appalachian region.
Invasiveness: None known though Tulip Tree can quickly take over abandoned farm fields and outpace the growth of sometimes more desirable hardwoods in forest situations due to a strategy of long lasting buried seeds.
Dye Plants: Liriodendron tulipifera can be used as a dye (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974).
Aesthetics: The exotic but not invasive Saucer Magnolia (M. x soulangeana) and Star Magnolia (M. stellata) make beautiful landscape plants. Many species native to north America are planted for ornament as well.
Aromatics: Many members of the Magnoliaceae have fabulous smells.
Other Crafts: The fruiting structure of Magnolia can be used ornamentally. Magnolia wood is a classic one used in carving and making bowls. Tulip tree wood is also used in carving, basket making and wood siding.
Wofford excluded Althea rosea, Malva rotundifolia and Modiola caroliniana.
Food: Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is a cultivated crop that is famous in the south. Most leaves can be consumed raw, cooked or as tea including Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis), Mallow (Malva spp.) flowers are edible as are almost all species in the family. The calyces of Cranberry Hibiscus or Roselle (Hibiscus acetosa and H. sabdariffa) make a fabulous beverage. Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus) is imminently edible for flowers and cooked greens. Chocolate (Theobroma cacao) formerly from the Sterculiaceae is now in this family as well.
Insects: Hollyhock (Althaea rosea) is popular with bees.
Invasiveness: Rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus) can become locally invasive. Malva spp. can spread readily.
Dye Plants: Cotton (Gossypium spp.) (A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974). Hibiscus spp. (Buchanan, 1995; Fern, 2009) and Malva spp. (Bliss, 1994; Fern, 2009).
Aesthetics: Many members have beautiful flowers including Hibiscuses (Hibiscus spp.) and Hollyhocks (Alcea spp.).
Food: Tea and beer can be made from the needles of Pine (Pinus spp.) and Spruces (Picea spp.). The sap from Picea spp. can be used like a chewing gum according to a personal conversation with Doug Elliot.
Toxicity: The smoke from resinous yellow Pines especially their cones should not be inhaled in large quantities. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) can cause contact dermatitis (L. S. Nelson, Shih, & Balick, 2007). The resin present in needles should also not be consumed in large quantities and a cold versus hot extraction in tea is preferred for this reason (Elpel, 2013).
Insects: Pine Bark beetles are a problem from coast to coast in the United States.
Other Crafts: Endless crafts can be pursued using the cones alone. White pine wood is generally considered more choice than yellow pine wood. White pines tend to have needles grouped in 5’s. This is probably the most important family in the world for timber.
Aesthetics: Many species make great evergreen landscape trees and are often used as Christmas trees as well. Virginia Pine (Pinus virginiana) can tend to look trashy as it gets older with many dead persistent branches and Eastern White Pine (P. strobus) is susceptible to tremendous damage even in large healthy trees during winter storms. That said many of the most stunning trees of the hundreds of species i have met are in the pine family mostly from the western United States including Bristlecone Pine (P. aristata) Sugar Pine (P. lambertiana), Coulter’s Pine (P. coulteri), Gray Pine (P. sabiana) Ponderosa Pine (P. ponderosa) However, i have a special place in my heart for the southeastern Longleaf Pine (P. palustris) who’s ecology, ethnobotany, tragic history and potential restoration has been documented extensively (Earley, 2006; Finch, 2012; Jose et al., 2007; Latham, 2013; Neel, Sutter, Way, & Franklin, 2012; Outland, 2004; Streich, 2012; Way, 2011).
Taxonomic commentary: The taxonomy of Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.) and Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.) is very messy (Lance, 2004). A whole book has been dedicated to the Hawthorns alone in an attempt to whittle down the over 1,000 named species in the southeast to around 200 proper species after eliminating synonyms (Lance, 2014).
Wofford excluded: Potentilla anserine, P. intermedia, P. rivalis, Prunus caroliniana, Rosa bracteata, R. damascena, R. gallica, Rubus discolor, R. illecebrosus, Sanguisorba minor, Spiraea prunifolium, S. salicifolia, S. x vanhouttei.
Food: This is one of the major families for fruits in the temperate world including Apples (Malus spp.), Pears (Pyrus spp.), Quince (Cydonia, Chaenomeles) Strawberry (Fragaria spp.). Almonds, Apricots, Cherries, Nectarines, Peaches, and Plums are all in the same genus (Prunus spp.). Juneberries (Amelanchier spp.), Hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), Chokeberry (Aronia spp.) and Mountain Ash/Rowan (Sorbus spp.) are a few wild genera that are foraged for food. Many shrubs including cane fruits (Rubus spp.) and Roses (Rosa spp.) also are edible. Apple wood is used to smoke food as well.
Toxicity: Cyanogenic glycocides are present in some members of the Rosaceae (L.S. Nelson et al., 2007). Some people are allergic to members of the Rosaceae such as Strawberries. Agrimony (Agrimonia spp.) and Tea Rose (Rosa odorata) can cause contact dermatitis in particular (Nelson et al., 2007). Triterpine saponins occur in the Rosaceae too (Wink & Van Wyk, 2008).
Insects: Most plants in the Rosaceae provide copious amounts of early pollen and nectar for bees. Japanese Beetles can be a pest on members of this family. Black Cherry (Prunus serotina) is one of the greatest supporters/targets of insects (Tallamy, 2009).
Invasiveness: Shrubby Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) and Eelkek (R. mollucana) both are not listed in Wofford (1989) but are high priority invasives for many states. Wineberry (R. phoenicolasius) can be somewhat invasive locally. Wild Strawberry (Duchesnea indica), Sulphur Cinquefoil (Potentilla recta) and Bradford pear (Pyrus calleryana) can be invasive. Japanese spiraea (Spiraea japonica) is an exotic invasive shrub. Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) is one of the worst exotic invasives in the eastern U.S. covering many million acres alone (Miller et al., 2006; Wofford, 1989) However, some predators both microbiological and entomological are working to reduce the multiflora population (Amerine, 2000; Kay, Lewis, & Langeland, 1995).
Dye Plants: Apples (Malus spp.) Cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), Pear (Pyrus communis), Plum (Prunus americana), Peach (P. persica), Wild Black Cherry (P. serotina). Brambles (Rubus fruticosus, R. idaeus, and R. tricolor). An incredible 124 species of Prunus and 158 species of Rubus have been listed as dyes (Fern, 2008)!
Other Crafts: Wood is good for carving.
Aesthetics: Many members of the Rosaceae have beautiful flowers, attractive fruits and nice bark.
Wofford excluded: Populus x canescens, Populus nigra, Salix caprea, S. cinerea ssp. cinerea, S. cinerea ssp. oleifolia, S. pentandra, and S. purpurea.
Medicine: Willows are famous for their salicylic acid compounds that act like aspirin to bring about pain relief when applied in sufficient dosage (Foster & Hobbs, 2002; Van Wyk & Wink, 2004).
Insects: Willows (Salix spp.) provide early food to bees in the late winter time.
Invasiveness: Silver poplar (Populus alba) can be invasive (Miller et al., 2006).
Other Crafts: Many species of Willows are used for basketry (Trestain, 1998). Living fences and structures have also been formed out of Willow. Various species are coppiced. The unopened inflorescences are famous as additions to floral arrangements as well.
Aesthetics: Many species of both genera are valued landscape plants especially Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica). Willows and Poplars are some of the most cold hardy deciduous trees. They light up places with their beautiful yellow leaves in the fall.
Food: Grapes (Vitis spp.) are commonly used fresh and for jams, jellies, juices, wines, etc. Some are bigger and better than others. Leaves of Vitis spp. have also been consumed most famously as dolmas from Greece.
Toxicity: Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) and Boston Ivy (P. tricuspidata) contain irritant raphides (Nelson et al., 2007). Ampelopsis spp?
Insects: Ampelopsis spp. and Parthenocissus spp. are good honey plants.
Grapes (Vitis spp.) (Fern, 2009; A. Krochmal & C. Krochmal, 1974; Nicholson & Clovis, 1967).
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) (Fern, 2008).
Other Crafts: The vines of various species can be used to make baskets but should only be used when abundant.
My apologies if you have found yourself waiting for this last class to be posted…Even after 6 years of teaching this class and several more years researching materials for it i sometimes find it hard to carve out the time to edit and update as much as i would like. This year has been particularly hard in that regard with blocks of computer time few and far between with so much work out in the field…i had hoped to recruit some help in other arenas through apprentices but a lot of that has fallen through. Remember that past classes from the last year are up and available if you simply can’t wait for new versions to come out….
Below are items to think about/comment on. Please write me directly at marc@botanyeveryday.com or leave information at the Facebook group.
i WOULD REALLY LOVE TO HEAR WHAT YOU HAVE TO SAY!!!
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