Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/351/536/
Timestamp: 2019-04-20 10:57:19+00:00

Document:
The Act of August 26, 1950, gave to the heads of certain departments and agencies of the Government summary suspension and unreviewable dismissal powers over their civilian employees, when deemed necessary "in the interest of the national security," and its provisions were extended to "all other departments and agencies of the Government" by Executive Order No. 10450. Petitioner, a preference-eligible veteran under the Veterans' Preference Act, was summarily suspended from his classified civil service position as a food and drug inspector for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare on charges of close association with alleged Communists and an allegedly subversive organization. Later, he was dismissed on the ground that his continued employment was not "clearly consistent with the interests of national security." His appeal to the Civil Service Commission under the Veterans' Preference Act was denied on the ground that that Act was inapplicable to such discharges.
Held: his discharge was not authorized by the 1950 Act, and hence it violated the Veterans' Preference Act. Pp. 351 U. S. 538-558.
1. The 1950 Act authorizes a dismissal only upon a determination that it is "necessary or advisable in the interest of the national security." Such a determination requires an evaluation of the risk to the "national security" that the employee's retention would create, which depends not only upon the character of the employee and the likelihood of his misconducting himself, but also upon the nature of the position he occupies and its relationship to the "national security." P. 351 U. S. 542.
2. The 1950 Act is not the only, nor even the primary, source of authority to dismiss government employees, and the question in this case is not whether an employee can be dismissed on such grounds, but only the extent to which the summary procedures authorized by the 1950 Act are available in such a case. Pp. 351 U. S. 543-544.
3. This depends on the meaning of the term "national security," as used in the 1950 Act. Pp. 351 U. S. 542-544.
4. The term "national security" is not defined in that Act, but it is clear from the statute as a whole that it was intended to comprehend only those activities of the Government that are directly concerned with the protection of the Nation from internal subversion or foreign aggression, and not those which contribute to the strength of the Nation only through their impact on the general welfare. Pp. 351 U. S. 544-548.
5. This conclusion is supported by the legislative history of the Act. Pp. 351 U. S. 548-551.
6. A condition precedent to the exercise of the dismissal authority conferred by the 1950 Act is a determination by the agency head that the position occupied is one affected with the "national security," as that term is used in the Act. P. 351 U. S. 551.
7. No determination was made that petitioner's position was one in which he could adversely affect the "national security," as that term is used in the Act. Pp. 351 U. S. 551-558.
(a) Executive Order No. 10450 treats an adverse determination as to the loyalty of an employee as satisfying the statute, irrespective of the character of his job or the effect his continued employment might have upon the "national security." Pp. 351 U. S. 551-556.
(b) The failure of the Executive Order to state explicitly what was meant is the fault of the Government, and any ambiguities should be resolved against the Government. P. 351 U. S. 556.
(c) From the Secretary's determination that petitioner's employment was not "clearly consistent with the interests of national security," in the light of the Executive Order, it may be assumed only that the Secretary found the charges to be true, and that they created reasonable doubt as to petitioner's loyalty. Pp. 351 U. S. 556-557.
96 U.S.App.D.C. 379, 226 F.2d 337, reversed and remanded.
District of the Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. In November, 1953, he was suspended without pay from his position pending investigation to determine whether his employment should be terminated. He was given a written statement of charges alleging that he had "a close association with individuals reliably reported to be Communists" and that he had maintained a "sympathetic association" with, had contributed funds and services to, and had attended social gatherings of an allegedly subversive organization.
Although afforded an opportunity to do so, petitioner declined to answer the charges or to request a hearing, as he had the right to do. Thereafter, the Secretary of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, after "a study of all the documents in [petitioner's] case," determined that petitioner's continued employment was not "clearly consistent with the interests of national security," and ordered the termination of his employment. Petitioner appealed his discharge to the Civil Service Commission, which declined to accept the appeal on the ground that the Veterans' Preference Act, under which petitioner claimed the right of appeal, was inapplicable to such discharges.
Court of Appeals, with one judge dissenting, affirmed. 96 U.S.App.D.C. 379, 226 F.2d 337. Because of the importance of the questions involved in the field of Government employment, we granted certiorari. 350 U.S. 900.
Section 14 of the Veterans' Preference Act, 58 Stat. 390, as amended, 5 U.S.C. § 863, provides that preference eligibles may be discharged only "for such cause as will promote the efficiency of the service" and, among other procedural rights, "shall have the right to appeal to the Civil Service Commission," whose decision is made binding on the employing agency. Respondents concede that petitioner's discharge was invalid if that Act is controlling. They contend, however, as was held by the courts below, that petitioner's discharge was authorized by the Act of August 26, 1950, supra, which eliminates the right of appeal to the Civil Service Commission. Thus the sole question for decision is whether petitioner's discharge was authorized by the 1950 Act.
"may, in his absolute discretion and when deemed necessary in the interest of national security, suspend, without pay, any civilian officer or employee of [his agency]. . . . The agency head concerned may, following such investigation and review as he deems necessary, terminate the employment of such suspended civilian officer or employee whenever he shall determine such termination necessary or advisable in the interest of the national security of the United States, and such determination by the agency head concerned shall be conclusive and final. . . ."
"to such other departments and agencies of the Government as the President may, from time to time, deem necessary in the best interests of national security,"
and the President has extended the Act under this authority "to all other departments and agencies of the Government." [Footnote 2] While the validity of this extension of the Act depends upon questions which are in many respects common to those determining the validity of the Secretary's exercise of the authority thereby extended to her, [Footnote 3] we will restrict our consideration to the latter issue and assume, for purposes of this decision, that the Act has validly been extended to apply to the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
used in the Act in a sense so broad as to be involved in all activities of the Government, for then the relationship to the "national security" would follow from the very fact of employment. For the reasons set forth below, however, we conclude (1) that the term "national security" is used in the Act in a definite and limited sense, and relates only to those activities which are directly concerned with the Nation's safety, as distinguished from the general welfare; and (2) that no determination has been made that petitioner's position was affected with the "national security," as that term is used in the Act. It follows that his dismissal was not authorized by the 1950 Act, and hence violated the Veterans' Preference Act.
effect for nearly three years after its passage. [Footnote 7] Thus, there was no want of substantive authority to dismiss employees on loyalty grounds, and the question for decision here is not whether an employee can be dismissed on such grounds, but only the extent to which the summary procedures authorized by the 1950 Act are available in such a case.
As noted above, the issue turns on the meaning of "national security," as used in the Act. While that term is not defined in the Act, we think it clear from the statute as a whole that that term was intended to comprehend only those activities of the Government that are directly concerned with the protection of the Nation from internal subversion or foreign aggression, and not those which contribute to the strength of the Nation only through their impact on the general welfare.
relations, internal security, and the stockpiling of strategic materials. Nor is this conclusion vitiated by the grant of authority to the President, in § 3 of the Act, to extend the Act to such other agencies as he "may, from time to time, deem necessary in the best interests of national security." Rather, the character of the named agencies indicates the character of the determination required to be made to effect such an extension. Aware of the difficulties of attempting an exclusive enumeration and of the undesirability of a rigid classification in the face of changing circumstances, Congress simply enumerated those agencies which it determined to be affected with the "national security" and authorized the President, by making a similar determination, to add any other agencies which were, or became, "sensitive." That it was contemplated that this power would be exercised "from time to time" confirms the purpose to allow for changing circumstances and to require a selective judgment, necessarily implying that the standard to be applied is a less than all-inclusive one.
have limited the Act to selected agencies. Presumably, therefore, Congress meant something more by the "interest of the national security" than the general interest the Nation has in the loyalty of even "nonsensitive" employees.
some overriding necessity, such as exists in the case of employees handling defense secrets.
The 1950 Act itself reflects Congress' concern for the procedural rights of employees and its desire to limit the unreviewable dismissal power to the minimum scope necessary to the purpose of protecting activities affected with the "national security." A proviso to § 1 of the Act provides that a dismissal by one agency under the power granted by the Act "shall not affect the right of such officer or employee to seek or accept employment in any other department or agency of the Government" if the Civil Service Commission determines that the employee is eligible for such other employment. That is, the unreviewable dismissal power was to be used only for the limited purpose of removing the employee from the position in which his presence had been determined to endanger the "national security"; it could affect his right to employment in other agencies only if the Civil Service Commission, after review, refused to clear him for such employment. This effort to preserve the employee's procedural rights to the maximum extent possible hardly seems consistent with an intent to define the scope of the dismissal power in terms of the indefinite and virtually unlimited meaning for which the respondents contend.
of inefficiency or incompetence would seem to present a surer threat to national security, in the sense of the general welfare, than a mere doubt as to the employee's loyalty.
Finally, the conclusion we draw from the face of the Act that "national security" was used in a limited and definite sense is amply supported by the legislative history of the Act.
"This bill provides authority to terminate employment of indiscreet or disloyal employees who are employed in areas of the Government which are sensitive from the standpoint of national security."
areas in the scope of the authorities contained in this bill."
"Insofar as the [addition of § 3] is concerned, it was recognized by all witnesses that there were other sensitive areas within the various departments of the Government which are now, or might in the future become, deeply involved in national security. . . . In view . . . of the fact that there are now and will be in the future other sensitive areas of equal importance to the national security, it is believed that the President should have authority to make a finding concerning such areas and, by Executive action, place those areas under the authorities contained in this act. [Footnote 9]"
"The provisions of the bill extend only to departments and agencies which are concerned with vital matters affecting the national security of our Nation. [Footnote 10]"
The committee reports on H.R. 7439 in the next Congress similarly referred to the bill as granting the dismissal power only to the heads of the "sensitive" agencies. [Footnote 11] While these references relate primarily to the agencies to be covered by the Act, rather than to the exercise of the power within an agency, the standard for both is the same -- in the "interests of the national security" -- and the statements thus clearly indicate the restricted sense in which "national security" was used. In short, "national security" is affected only by "sensitive" activities.
"They are security risks because of their access to confidential and classified material. . . . But if they do not have classified material, why, there is no notion that they are security risks to the United States. They are security risks to the extent of having access to classified material. [Footnote 14]"
enough evidence against him. If that person is not in a sensitive job, it is not of any further concern to us. We are willing to take the view that, while we might have misgivings about his loyalty, he cannot prejudice our security because he does not have access to any of the classified or top secret material. [Footnote 15]"
It is clear, therefore, both from the face of the Act and the legislative history, that "national security" was not used in the Act in an all-inclusive sense, but was intended to refer only to the protection of "sensitive" activities. It follows that an employee can be dismissed "in the interest of the national security" under the Act only if he occupies a "sensitive" position, and thus that a condition precedent to the exercise of the dismissal authority is a determination by the agency head that the position occupied is one affected with the "national security." We now turn to an examination of the Secretary's action to show that no such determination was made as to the position occupied by petitioner.
Despite this verbal formula, however, it is our view that the Executive Order does not, in fact, require the agency head to make any determination whatever on the relationship of the employee's retention to the "national security" if the charges against him are within the categories of the charges against petitioner -- that is, charges which reflect on the employee's loyalty. Rather, as we read the Order, it enjoins upon the agency heads the duty of discharging any employee of doubtful loyalty irrespective of the character of his job and its relationship to the "national security." That is, the Executive Order deems an adverse determination as to loyalty to satisfy the requirements of the statute, without more.
clearly consistent with the interests of the national security," and prescribes certain categories of facts to which "such" information shall relate. The first category, § 8(a)(1), includes nonloyalty-oriented facts which, in general, might reflect upon the employee's reliability, trustworthiness, or susceptibility to coercion, such as dishonesty, drunkenness, sexual perversion, mental defects, or other reasons to believe that he is subject to influence or coercion. Section 8(a)(1) expressly provides, however, that such facts are relevant only "depending on the relation of the Government employment to the national security." The remaining categories include facts which, in general, reflect upon the employee's "loyalty," such as acts of espionage, advocacy of violent overthrow of the Government, sympathetic association with persons who so advocate, or sympathetic association with subversive organizations. § 8(a)(2)-(8). Significantly, there is wholly absent from these categories -- under which the charges against petitioner were expressly framed -- any qualification making their relevance dependent upon the relationship of the employee's position to the national security. The inference we draw is that, in such cases, the relationship to the national security is irrelevant, and that an adverse "loyalty" determination is sufficient ex proprio vigore to require discharge.
that the greater the sensitivity of the position the smaller may be the doubts that would justify termination; the Order undoubtedly leaves it open to an agency head to apply a stricter standard in some cases than in others, depending on the nature of the employment. On the other hand, by making loyalty information relevant in all cases, regardless of the nature of the job, § 8(a) seems strongly to imply that there is a minimum standard of loyalty that must be met by all employees. It would follow that the agency head may terminate employment in cases where that minimum standard is not met without making any independent determination of the potential impact of the person's employment on the national security.
"all persons . . . privileged to be employed . . . [by the Government should] be adjudged by mutually consistent and no less than minimum standards,"
thus implying that the Order prescribes minimum standards that all employees must meet irrespective of the character of the positions held, one of which is the "complete and unswerving loyalty" standard recited in the first "Whereas" clause of the preamble.
new procedures which do not afford a right to appeal to the Civil Service Commission.
We therefore interpret the Executive Order as meaning that, when "loyalty" charges are involved, an employee may be dismissed regardless of the character of his position in the Government service, and that the agency head need make no evaluation as to the effect which continuance of his employment might have upon the "national security." We recognize that this interpretation of the Order rests upon a chain of inferences drawn from less than explicit provisions. But the Order was promulgated to guide the agency heads in the exercise of the dismissal power, and its failure to state explicitly what determinations are required leaves no choice to the agency heads but to follow the most reasonable inferences to be drawn. Moreover, whatever the practical reasons that may have dictated the awkward form of the Order, its failure to state explicitly what was meant is the fault of the Government. Any ambiguities should therefore be resolved against the Government, and we will not burden the employee with the assumption that an agency head, in stating no more than the formal conclusion that retention of the employee is not "clearly consistent with the interests of national security," has made any subsidiary determinations not clearly required by the Executive Order.
was not authorized by the 1950 Act, and hence violated the Veterans' Preference Act, the judgment of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and the case is remanded to the District Court for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
"SEC. 1. Notwithstanding the provisions of section 6 of the Act of August 24, 1912 (37 Stat. 555), as amended (5 U.S.C. 652), or the provisions of any other law, the Secretary of State; Secretary of Commerce; Attorney General; the Secretary of Defense; the Secretary of the Army; the Secretary of the Navy; the Secretary of the Air Force; the Secretary of the Treasury; Atomic Energy Commission; the Chairman, National Security Resources Board; or the Director, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, may, in his absolute discretion and when deemed necessary in the interest of national security, suspend, without pay, any civilian officer or employee of the Department of State (including the Foreign Service of the United States), Department of Commerce, Department of Justice, Department of Defense, Department of the Army, Department of the Navy, Department of the Air Force, Coast Guard, Atomic Energy Commission, National Security Resources Board, or National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, respectively, or of their several field services: Provided, That to the extent that such agency head determines that the interests of the national security permit, the employee concerned shall be notified of the reasons for his suspension and within thirty days after such notification any such person shall have an opportunity to submit any statements or affidavits to the official designated by the head of the agency concerned to show why he should be reinstated or restored to duty. The agency head concerned may, following such investigation and review as he deems necessary, terminate the employment of such suspended civilian officer or employee whenever he shall determine such termination necessary or advisable in the interest of the national security of the United States, and such determination by the agency head concerned shall be conclusive and final: Provided further, That any employee having a permanent or indefinite appointment, and having completed his probationary or trial period, who is a citizen of the United States whose employment is suspended under the authority of this Act, shall be given after his suspension and before his employment is terminated under the authority of this Act, (1) a written statement within thirty days after his suspension of the charges against him, which shall be subject to amendment within thirty days thereafter and which shall be stated as specifically as security considerations permit; (2) an opportunity within thirty days thereafter (plus an additional thirty days if the charges are amended) to answer such charges and to submit affidavits; (3) a hearing at the employee's request, by a duly constituted agency authority for this purpose; (4) a review of his case by the agency head, or some official designated by him, before a decision adverse to the employee is made final; and (5) a written statement of the decision of the agency head: Provided further, That any person whose employment is so suspended or terminated under the authority of this Act may, in the discretion of the agency head concerned, be reinstated or restored to duty, and if so reinstated or restored shall be allowed compensation for all or any part of the period of such suspension or termination in an amount not to exceed the difference between the amount such person would normally have earned during the period of such suspension or termination at the rate he was receiving on the date of suspension or termination, as appropriate, and the interim net earnings of such person: Provided further, That the termination of employment herein provided shall not affect the right of such officer or employee to seek or accept employment in any other department or agency of the Government: Provided further, That the head of any department or agency considering the appointment of any person whose employment has been terminated under the provisions of this Act may make such appointment only after consultation with the Civil Service Commission, which agency shall have the authority at the written request of either the head of such agency or such employee to determine whether any such person is eligible for employment by any other agency or department of the Government."
"SEC. 3. The provisions of this Act shall apply to such other departments and agencies of the Government as the President may, from time to time, deem necessary in the best interests of national security. If any departments or agencies are included by the President, he shall so report to the Committees on the Armed Services of the Congress."
64 Stat. 476, 5 U.S.C. §§ 22-1, 22-3.
§ 1, Exec. Order No. 10450, 18 Fed.Reg. 2489, set forth in the Appendix, p. 351 U. S. 538.
§ 6, 37 Stat. 555, as amended, 5 U.S.C. § 652.
§ 14, 58 Stat. 390, as amended, 5 U.S.C. § 863.
Congress' reluctance to extend such powers to all agencies of the Government is also indicated by the prior legislation. At various times since 1942, similar summary dismissal statutes, of limited duration, had been enacted, but these had been limited to the obviously "sensitive" military departments, 56 Stat. 1053, 63 Stat. 987, 1023, and the State Department, 60 Stat. 458. The 1950 Act, introduced at the request of the Department of Defense, was designed to make the authority permanent, include several other "sensitive" agencies, and afford greater flexibility by permitting the President to extend the Act to other agencies which became "sensitive." H.R.Rep. No. 2330, 81st Cong., 2d Sess., p. 3; S.Rep. No. 1155, 80th Cong., 2d Sess., p. 4.
S.Rep. No. 1155, 80th Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 2-4.
H.R.Rep. No. 2330, 81st Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 2-5; S.Rep. No. 2158, 81st Cong., 2d Sess., p. 2.
"The purpose of the bill is to increase the authority of the heads of Government departments engaged in sensitive activities to summarily suspend employees considered to be had security risks. . . ."
"For instance, an employee who is working in some highly sensitive agency doing very confidential, secret defense work and who goes out and gets too much liquor may unintentionally or unwittingly, because of his condition, confide to someone who may be a subversive, secret military information about the character of work he is doing in that department. He is, by his conduct, a bad security risk, and should be discharged."
The relevant portions of the Executive Order, as it stood at the time of petitioner's suspension and discharge, are printed in the Appendix, post, p. 351 U. S. 558.
Section 6 of the Order, which formally prescribes the standards for "termination," in terms adopts the very language of the statute, "necessary or advisable in the interests of the national security." Section 7, however, provides that a suspended employee "shall not be reinstated" unless the agency head determines that reinstatement is "clearly consistent with the interests of the national security." Since non-reinstatement of a suspended employee is equivalent to the termination of his employment, it is apparent that the "clearly consistent" standard of § 7 is the controlling one. See also §§ 2, 8, and 3(a). In the view we take of the case, we need not determine whether the "clearly consistent" standard is, as petitioner contends, a more onerous one than the "necessary or advisable" standard.
Executive Order No. 9835 recited that it was "of vital importance" that all employees be of "complete and unswerving loyalty"; Exec. Order No. 10450 recites that "the interests of the national security require" that all employees be of "complete and unswerving loyalty." Executive Order No. 9835 listed six factors to be considered "in connection with the determination of disloyalty," Pt. V, subd. 2; these are repeated in substantially identical form in §§ 8(a)(2), (4), (5), (6), and (7) of Exec. Order No. 10450 as "information as to whether . . . [the employee's retention] is clearly consistent with the interests of the national security."
"did not have access to Government secrets or classified material, and was not in a position to influence policy against the interests of the Government."
Respondents' Brief, pp. 3-4; Record, p. 40.
No contention is made that the Executive Order might be sustained under the President's executive power even though in violation of the Veterans' Preference Act. There is no basis for such an argument in any event, for it is clear from the face of the Executive Order that the President did not intend to override statutory limitations on the dismissal of employees, and promulgated the Order solely as an implementation of the 1950 Act. Thus, § 6 of the Order purports to authorize dismissals only "in accordance with the said act of August 26, 1950," and similar references are made in §§ 4, 5, and 7. This explicit limitation in the substantive provisions of the Order is, of course, not weakened by the inclusion of the "Constitution," as well as the 1950 and other Acts, in the omnibus list of authorities recited in the Preamble to the Order; it is from the Constitution that the President derives any authority to implement the 1950 Act at all. When the President expressly confines his action to the limits of statutory authority, the validity of the action must be determined solely by the congressional limitations which the President sought to respect, whatever might be the result were the President ever to assert his independent power against that of Congress.
SEC. 1. In addition to the departments and agencies specified in the said act of August 26, 1950, and Executive Order No. 10237 of April 26, 1951, the provisions of that act shall apply to all other departments and agencies of the Government.
investigation as may meet the requirements of the national security with respect to per diem, intermittent, temporary, or seasonal employees, or aliens employed outside the United States. Should there develop at any stage of investigation information indicating that the employment of any such person may not be clearly consistent with the interests of the national security, there shall be conducted with respect to such person a full field investigation, or such less investigation as shall be sufficient to enable the head of the department or agency concerned to determine whether retention of such person is clearly consistent with the interests of the national security.
(b) The head of any department or agency shall designate, or cause to be designated, any position within his department or agency the occupant of which could bring about, by virtue of the nature of the position, a material adverse effect on the national security as a sensitive position. Any position so designated shall be filled or occupied only by a person with respect to whom a full field investigation has been conducted: Provided, that a person occupying a sensitive position at the time it is designated as such may continue to occupy such position pending the completion of a full field investigation, subject to the other provisions of this order: and provided further, that, in case of emergency, a sensitive position may be filled for a limited period by a person with respect to whom a full field preappointment investigation has not been completed if the head of the department or agency concerned finds that such action is necessary in the national interest, which finding shall be made a part of the records of such department or agency.
been conducted a full field investigation under Executive Order No. 9835 of March 21, 1947, and, after such further investigation as may be appropriate, shall readjudicate, or cause to be readjudicated, in accordance with the said act of August 26, 1950, such of those cases as have not been adjudicated under a security standard commensurate with that established under this order.
SEC. 5. Whenever there is developed or received by any department or agency information indicating that the retention in employment of any officer or employee of the Government may not be clearly consistent with the interests of the national security, such information shall be forwarded to the head of the employing department or agency or his representative, who, after such investigation as may be appropriate, shall review, or cause to be reviewed, and, where necessary, readjudicate or cause to be readjudicated, in accordance with the said act of August 26, 1950, the case of such officer or employee.
and agencies by or in accordance with the said act of August 26, 1950, or pursuant to the said Executive Order No. 9835 or any other security or loyalty program relating to officers or employees of the Government, shall not be reinstated or restored to duty or reemployed in the same department or agency and shall not be reemployed in any other department or agency, unless the head of the department or agency concerned finds that such reinstatement, restoration, or reemployment is clearly consistent with the interests of the national security, which finding shall be made a part of the records of such department or agency: Provided, that no person whose employment has been terminated under such authority thereafter may be employed by any other department or agency except after a determination by the Civil Service Commission that such person is eligible for such employment.
"(i) Any behavior, activities, or associations which tend to show that the individual is not reliable or trustworthy."
"(ii) Any deliberate misrepresentations, falsifications, or omissions of material facts."
"(iii) Any criminal, infamous, dishonest, immoral, or notoriously disgraceful conduct, habitual use of intoxicants to excess, drug addiction, or sexual perversion. "
"(iv) An adjudication of insanity, or treatment for serious mental or neurological disorder without satisfactory evidence of cure. *"
"(v) Any facts which furnish reason to believe that the individual may be subjected to coercion, influence, or pressure which may cause him to act contrary to the best interests of the national security."
(2) Commission of any act of sabotage, espionage, treason, or sedition, or attempts thereat or preparation therefor, or conspiring with, or aiding or abetting, another to commit or attempt to commit any act of sabotage, espionage, treason, or sedition.
(3) Establishing or continuing a sympathetic association with a saboteur, spy, traitor, seditionist, anarchist, or revolutionist, or with an espionage or other secret agent or representative of a foreign nation, or any representative of a foreign nation whose interests may be inimical to the interests of the United States, or with any person who advocates the use of force or violence to overthrow the government of the United States or the alternation of the form of government of the United States by unconstitutional means.
association, movement, group, or combination of persons which is totalitarian, Fascist, Communist, or subversive, or which has adopted, or shows, a policy of advocating or approving the commission of acts of force or violence to deny other persons their rights under the Constitution of the United States, or which seeks to alter the form of government of the United States by unconstitutional means.
SEC. 11. On and after the effective date of this order, the Loyalty Review Board established by Executive Order No. 9835 of March 21, 1947, shall not accept agency findings for review, upon appeal or otherwise. . . .
of this order, and the Department of Justice shall continue to furnish the information described in paragraph 3 of Part III of the said Executive Order No. 9835, but directly to the head of each department and agency.
"(iv) Any illness, including any mental condition, of a nature which, in the opinion of competent medical authority, may cause significant defect in the judgment or reliability of the employee, with due regard to the transient or continuing effect of the illness and the medical findings in such case."
Believing that the Court should not strike down the President's Executive Order on employee security by an interpretation that admittedly "rests upon a chain of inferences," we cannot agree to the judgment of reversal. In our opinion, the clear purpose of the Congress in enacting the Summary Suspension Act, 64 Stat. 476, is frustrated, and the Court's opinion raises a serious question of presidential power under Article II of the Constitution which it leaves entirely undecided.
Petitioner, a food and drug inspector employed in the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, was charged with having "established and . . . continued a close association with individuals reliably reported to be Communists." It was further charged that he had "maintained a continued and sympathetic association with the Nature Friends of America, which organization" is on the Attorney General's list, and, "by [his] own admission, donated funds" to that group, contributed services to it and attended social gatherings of the same. Petitioner did not answer the charges, but replied that they constituted an invasion of his private rights of association.
"that not all positions in the Government are affected with the 'national security' as that term is used . . . [and] that no determination has been made that petitioner's position was one in which he could adversely affect the 'national security.'"
It therefore strikes down the President's Executive Order because "the standard prescribed by [it] and applied by the Secretary is not in conformity with the Act." This compels the restoration of the petitioner to Government service. We cannot agree.
We have read the Act over and over again, but find no ground on which to infer such an interpretation. It flies directly in the face of the language of the Act and the legislative history. The plain words of § 1 make the Act applicable to "any civilian officer or employee," not, as the majority would have it, "any civilian officer or employee in a sensitive position." The Court would require not only a finding that a particular person is subversive, but also that he occupies a sensitive job. Obviously, this might leave the Government honeycombed with subversive employees.
"applies potentially to every executive agency, not only the sensitive ones. . . . There is no distinction made in the bill between so-called sensitive employees, that is, employees who have access to confidential and secret information, and the regular employees."
Executive." Fleming v. Mohawk Wrecking & Lumber Co., 331 U. S. 111, 331 U. S. 116.
The President having expended the coverage of the Act to the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, it became the duty of the Secretary to dismiss any employee whenever she deemed it "necessary or advisable in the interests of national security." She made such a finding. It is implicit in her order of dismissal. Her "evaluation as to the effect which continuance of [petitioner's] employment might have upon the national security'" has been made. She decided that he should be dismissed. Under the Act, this determination is "conclusive and final."
questions where possible, Peters v. Hobby, 349 U. S. 331, 349 U. S. 338, not to create them.
We believe the Court's order has stricken down the most effective weapon against subversive activity available to the Government. It is not realistic to say that the Government can be protected merely by applying the Act to sensitive jobs. One never knows just which job is sensitive. The janitor might prove to be in as important a spot securitywise as the top employee in the building. The Congress decided that the most effective way to protect the Government was through the procedures laid down in the Act. The President implemented its purposes by requiring that Government employment be "clearly consistent" with the national security. The President's standard is "complete and unswerving loyalty" not only in sensitive places, but throughout the Government. The President requires, and every employee should give, no less. This is all that the Act and the Order require. They should not be subverted by the technical interpretation the majority places on them today. We would affirm.
"if Congress had meant to prohibit the President from acting in this respect under [the Act], a serious question as to the validity of that enactment would arise."
It devoted eight pages of its brief to this point. Furthermore, the Court of Appeals noted that, if it "thought the President's Order inconsistent with the act of the Congress, [it] would have to decide the constitutional question thus presented."
"Now, Therefore, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and statutes of the United States . . . and as President of the United States."
Executive Order No. 10450, 18 Fed.Reg. 2489. In issuing the Order, the President invoked all of his powers, and since his Order is voided by the majority as not being in conformity with the Act, the question of the scope of his other constitutional or statutory powers is presented.

References: § 863
 § 3
 § 1
 § 3
 § 8
 § 8
 § 8

§ 1

§ 6
 § 652

§ 14
 § 863
 § 7
 § 6
 § 1
 v. 
 v.