Source: http://www.asmscience.org/content/book/10.1128/9781555816186.chap12
Timestamp: 2019-04-23 20:06:08+00:00

Document:
Frequency of reported outbreaks of gastroenteritis due to norovirus on cruise ships: 1994 –2005 ( 35 ). Solid columns, norovirus; open columns, other gastroenteritis outbreaks.
1. Anderson, L.,, S. Miller,, J. Greenblatt,, L. Steiner-Sichel,, V. Reddy,, R. Heffernan,, D. Cimini,, S. Balter,, D. Weiss,, M. Layton,, A. Agasan,, M. Backer,, A. Ebrahimzadeh,, M. Kacica,, C. Scott,, N. Chatterjee,, P. Smith,, M. Fuschino,, M. Bhat-Gregerson,, E. Forsyth,, K. R. Steingart,, P. Pace,, M. Payne,, M. Johnson,, J. Massey,, M. A. Widdowson,, J. S. Bresee,, R. I. Glass,, U. Parashar,, S. Monroe,, R. S. Beard,, H. White,, L. Hadley,, S. Bulens,, and M. Charles. 2003. Norovirus activity—United States, 2002. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 52: 41– 45.
2.Anonymous. 5 October 1989. Winona—workers may be Salmonella source. Star Tribune, Minneapolis, Minn.
3.Anonymous. 24 November 2001. State investigating hepatitis A cases. Boston Globe, Boston, Mass..
4.Anonymous. 23 November 2002. Cruise line cleans ship after virus sickens 500. New York Times, New York, N.Y..
5.Anonymous. 23 October 2004. How to better control C. difficile outbreak. The Gazette, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
6.Anonymous. 1 February 2005. Typhoid fever cases. BusinessWorld, Manila, The Philippines.
7.Anonymous. 13 March 2005. Uzbek typhoid outbreak traced to Turkmenistan—Kazakh paper. BBC Monitoring Central Asia, London, United Kingdom.
8.Anonymous. 24 April 2005. ‘Stop blaming people for typhoid outbreak’. New Straits Times, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
9.Anonymous. 20 July 2005. Thirteen typhoid fever cases reported in western Algeria. BBC Monitoring Middle East, London, United Kingdom.
10.Anonymous. 26 July 2005. Typhoid, hepatitis A rates growing in Russia— Onishchenko. Daily News Bulletin (English), Moscow, Russia.
11.Anonymous. 29 July 2005. First fatality in Fiji typhoid outbreak. BBC Monitoring Asia Pacific, London, United Kingdom.
12. Arness, M.,, M. Canham,, B. Feighner,, E. Hoedebecke,, J. Cuthie,, C. Polyak,, D. R. Skillman,, J. English,, C. Jenkins,, T. Barker,, T. Cieslak,, and D. N. Taylor. 1999. Norwalk-like viral gastroenteritis in U.S. army trainees—Texas, 1998. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 48: 225– 227.
13. Arness, M. K.,, B. H. Feighner,, M. L. Canham,, D. N. Taylor,, S. S. Monroe,, T. J. Cieslak,, E. L. Hoedebecke,, C. S. Polyak,, J. C. Cuthie,, R. L. Fankhauser,, C. D. Humphrey,, T. L. Barker,, C. D. Jenkins,, and D. R. Skillman. 2000. Norwalk-like viral gastroenteritis outbreak in U.S. army trainees. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 6: 204 – 207.
14. Bailey, M. S.,, C. J. Boos,, G. Vautier,, A. D. Green,, H. Appleton,, C. I. Gallimore,, J. J. Gray,, and N. J. Beeching. 2005. Gastroenteritis outbreak in British troops, Iraq. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 1625– 1628.
15. Baron, S. (ed.). 1996. Medical Microbiology, 4th ed. The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, Tex. [Online.] http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed. Accessed 27 June 2006.
16. Bidawid, S.,, J. M. Farber,, and S. A. Sattar. 2000. Contamination of foods by food handlers: experiments on hepatitis A virus transfer to food and its interruption. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 2759– 2763.
17. Bidawid, S.,, J. M. Farber,, S. A. Sattar,, and S. Hayward. 2000. Heat inactivation of hepatitis A virus in dairy foods. J. Food Prot. 63: 522– 528.
18. Birkhead, G. S.,, D. L. Morse,, W. C. Levine,, J. K. Fudala,, S. F. Kondracki,, H. G. Chang,, M. Shayegani,, L. Novick,, and P. A. Blake. 1993. Typhoid fever at a resort hotel in New York: a large outbreak with an unusual vehicle. J. Infect. Dis. 167: 1228– 1232.
19. Bodovitz, K. 26 August 1988. East Bay officials seek source of typhoid cases. San Francisco Chronicle, San Francisco, Calif..
20. Bolduc, D.,, L. F. Srour,, L. Sweet,, A. Neatby,, E. Galanis,, S. Isaacs,, and G. Lim. 2004. Severe outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in health care institutions in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, fall, 2002. Can. Commun. Dis. Rep. 30: 81– 88.
21. Bon, F.,, H. Giraudon,, C. Sancey,, C. Barranger,, M. Joannes,, P. Pothier,, and E. Kohli. 2004. Development and evaluation of a new commercial test allowing the simultaneous detection of noroviruses and sapoviruses by reverse transcription-PCR and microplate hybridization. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 2218– 2220.
22. Bornemann, R.,, D. M. Zerr,, J. Heath,, J. Koehler,, M. Grandjean,, R. Pallipamu,, and J. Duchin. 2002. An outbreak of Salmonella serotype Saintpaul in a children’s hospital. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 23: 671– 676.
23. Bouallègue-Godet, O.,, Y. Ben Salem,, L. Fabre,, M. Demartin,, P. A. D. Grimont,, R. Mzoughi,, and F.-X. Weill. 2005. Nosocomial outbreak caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Livingstone producing CTX-M-27 extendedspectrum _-lactamase in a neonatal unit in Sousse, Tunisia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 1037– 1044.
24. Branswell, H. 11 April 2005. C. difficile strain high in toxins. The Gazette, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
25. Bresee, J. S.,, M.-A. Widdowson,, S. S. Monroe,, and R. I. Glass. 2002. Foodborne viral gastroenteritis: challenges and opportunities. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35: 748– 753.
26. Brock, T. D. 1999. Robert Koch. A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
27. Brown, D.,, J. Gray,, P. MacDonald,, A. Green,, D. Morgan,, G. Christopher,, R. Glass,, and R. Turcios. 2002. Outbreak of acute gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses among British military personnel—Afghanistan, May 2002. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51: 477– 479.
28. Burkholder, B. T.,, V. G. Coronado,, J. Brown,, J. H. Hutto,, C. N. Shapiro,, B. Robertson,, and B. A. Woodruff. 1995. Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis A in a pediatric hospital traced to an anti-hepatitis A virus-negative patient with immunodeficiency. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 14: 261– 266.
29. Canedy, D. 20 November 2002. Cruise line cancels trip after onboard sickness. New York Times, New York, N.Y..
30. Carey, E. 6 August 2004. Hospital cutbacks let virus flourish; patients are older, budgets tighter. New strains pose serious concerns. Toronto Star, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
31. Carroll, A. 28 January 2005. $20 million injected against superbug. The Gazette, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
32.. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002. Outbreak of Norwalk virus aboard Holland America’s Ryndam in Alaska. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,National Center for Environmental Health, Vessel Sanitation Program. [Online.] http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/surv/outbreak/2002/ ryndam.htm. Accessed 27 June 2006.
33.. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. About the vessel sanitation program. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Vessel Sanitation Program. [Online.] http://www. cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/desc/aboutvsp.htm. Accessed 27 June 2006.
34.. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. Vessel sanitation program. Advanced scores search. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Vessel Sanitation Program. [Online.] http://wwwn.cdc.gov/vsp/ InspectionQueryTool/Forms/ InspectionSearch.aspx. Accessed 27 June 2006.
35.. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. Updates of gastrointestinal illness among passengers and crew for international cruise lines. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Vessel Sanitation Program. [Online.] http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/ surv/GIlist.htm. Accessed 26 June 2006.
36. Christenson, B.,, A. Ringner,, C. Blucher,, H. Billaudelle,, K. N. Gundtoft,, G. Eriksson,, and M. Bottiger. 1983. An outbreak of Campylobacter enteritis among the staff of a poultry abattoir in Sweden. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 15: 167– 172.
37.. City of St. Louis. 2005. Hepatitis A vaccination requirement for food service workers. City of St. Louis Department of Health. [Online.] http://stlouis. missouri.org/citygov/health/hepaord.html. Accessed 27 June 2006.
38. Cramer, E. H.,, D. Forney,, A. L. Dannenberg,, M. A. Widdowson,, J. S. Bresee,, S. Monroe,, R. S. Beard,, H. White,, S. Bulens,, E. Mintz,, C. Stover,, E. Isakbaeva,, J. Mullins,, J. Wright,, V. Hsu,, W. Chege,, and J. Varma. 2002. Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with noroviruses on cruise ships—United States, 2002. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51: 1112– 1115.
39. Cruz, J. R.,, F. Cano,, L. Rodriguez,, C. A. Rios,, P. Guerra,, and Z. Leonardo. 1991. International notes: Shigella dysenteriae type 1—Guatemala, 1991. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 40: 421, 427– 428.
40. Cuthbert, J. A. 2001. Hepatitis A: old and new. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14: 38– 58.
41. Daniels, N. A.,, D. A. Bergmire-Sweat,, K. J. Schwab,, K. A. Hendricks,, S. Reddy,, S. M. Rowe,, R. L. Fankhauser,, S. S. Monroe,, R. L. Atmar,, R. I. Glass,, and P. Mead. 2000. A foodborne outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses: first molecular traceback to deli sandwiches contaminated during preparation. J. Infect. Dis. 181: 1467– 1470.
42. Daniels, N. A.,, J. Neimann,, A. Karpati,, U. D. Parashar,, K. D. Greene,, J. G. Wells,, A. Srivastava,, R. V. Tauxe,, E. D. Mintz,, and R. Quick. 2000. Traveler’s diarrhea at sea: three outbreaks of waterborne enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli on cruise ships. J. Infect. Dis. 181: 1491– 1495.
43. DaRosa, A. 28 March 2004. Flu-like bug hits Vegas casino; 1,475 cases seen since December. San Diego Union-Tribune, San Diego, Calif.
44. Dendukuri, N.,, V. Costa,, M. McGregor,, and J. M. Brophy. 2005. Probiotic therapy for the prevention and treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 173: 167– 170.
45. Deneen, V. C.,, J. M. Hunt,, C. R. Paule,, R. I. James,, R. G. Johnson,, M. J. Raymond,, and C. W. Hedberg. 2000. The impact of foodborne calici-virus disease: the Minnesota experience. J. Infect. Dis. 181: S281– S283.
46. Derfel, A. 26 September 2004. More money for superbug ruled out: wait-and- see with C. difficile. The Gazette, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
47. Derfel, A. 23 October 2004. Five hospitals ignore C. difficile guidelines. The Gazette, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
48. Derfel, A. 5 April 2005. Patients to join fight against dangerous bug: drug targets C. difficile. National Post, Don Mills, Ontario, Canada.
49. Doganci, T.,, E. Araz,, A. Ensari,, M. Tanyuksel,, and L. Doganci. 2002. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in childhood using various techniques. Med. Sci. Monit. 8: MT223– MT226.
50. Dougherty, K. 23 June 2005. Quebec plans wiser use of antibiotics to curb hospital infections. The Gazette, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
51. Dryden, M. S.,, N. Keyworth,, R. Gabb,, and K. Stein. 1994. Asymptomatic foodhandlers as the source of nosocomial salmonellosis. J. Hosp. Infect. 28: 195– 208.
52. Eggertson, L. 2004. C. difficile: by the numbers. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 171: 1331– 1332.
53. Eggertson, L. 2005. Quebec reports C. difficile mortality statistics. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 173: 139.
54. Eggertson, L.,, and B. Sibbald. 2004. Hospitals battling outbreaks of C. difficile. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 171: 19– 21.
55. Evenson, B. 27 October 2000. Virus passed on gridiron left players heaving lunch: football itself was likely carrier of the bug: study. National Post, Don Mills, Ontario, Canada.
56. Fernandez Canigia, L.,, J. Nazar,, M. Arce,, J. Dadamio,, J. Smayevsky,, and H. Bianchini. 2001. [ Clostridium difficile diarrhea: frequency of detection in a medical center in Buenos Aires, Argentina] [English abstract; article in Spanish]. Rev. Argent. Microbiol. 33: 101– 107.
57. Ferroni, A.,, J. Merckx,, T. Ancelle,, B. Pron,, E. Abachin,, F. Barbut,, J. Larzul,, P. Rigault,, P. Berche,, and J. L. Gaillard. 1997. Nosocomial outbreak of Clostridium difficile diarrhea in a pediatric service. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16: 928– 933.
58. Francis, S.,, J. Rowland,, K. Rattenbury,, D. Powell,, W. N. Rogers,, L. Ward,, and S. R. Palmer. 1989. An outbreak of paratyphoid fever in the UK associated with a fish-and-chip shop. Epidemiol. Infect. 103: 445– 448.
59. Froude, J. 2004. Remembering Typhoid Mary. Irish America 20: 22.
60. Gallimore, C. I.,, D. Cubitt,, N. du Plessis,, and J. J. Gray. 2004. Asymptomatic and symptomatic excretion of noroviruses during a hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 2271– 2274.
61. Glass, R. I.,, J. Noel,, T. Ando,, R. Fankhauser,, G. Belliot,, A. Mounts,, U. D. Parashar,, J. S. Bresee,, and S. S. Monroe. 2000. The epidemiology of enteric caliciviruses from humans: a reassessment using new diagnostics. J. Infect. Dis. 181: S254 – S261.
62. Green, K. Y.,, T. Ando,, M. S. Balayan,, T. Berke,, I. N. Clarke,, M. K. Estes,, D. O. Matson,, S. Nakata,, J. D. Neill,, M. J. Studdert,, and H.-J. Thiel. 2000. Taxonomy of the caliciviruses. J. Infect. Dis. 181: S322– S330.
63. Harasim, P. 5 November 2004. Visitors leave LV with virus. Las Vegas Review- Journal, Las Vegas, Nev. .
64.. Health Protection Agency. 2005. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a hospital in south east England. CDR Weekly 15(24): 2-– 3. [Online.] http://www.hpa.org.uk/cdr/archives/archive05/News/news2405.htm. Accessed 27 June 2006.
65. Hedberg, C. W.,, K. E. White,, J. A. Johnson,, L. M. Edmonson,, J. T. Soler,, J. A. Korlath,, L. S. Theurer,, K. L. MacDonald,, and M. T. Osterholm. 1991. An outbreak of Salmonella enteritidis infection at a fast-food restaurant: implications for foodhandler-associated transmission. J. Infect. Dis. 164: 1135– 1140.
66. Herrera, P.,, A. Cotera,, A. Fica,, T. Galdo,, and M. Alvo. 2003. [High incidence and complications of Clostridium difficile diarrhea among patients with renal diseases] [English abstract; article in Spanish]. Rev. Med. Chil. 131: 397– 403.
67. Hossain, M. A.,, K. Z. Hasan,, and M. J. Albert. 1994. Shigella carriers among non-diarrhoeal children in an endemic area of shigellosis in Bangladesh. Trop. Geogr. Med. 46: 40– 42.
68. Isakbaeva, E. T.,, M.-A. Widdowson,, R. S. Beard,, S. N. Bulens,, J. Mullins,, S. S. Monroe,, J. Bresee,, P. Sassano,, E. H. Cramer,, and R. I. Glass. 2005. Norovirus transmission on cruise ship. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 154 -– 157.
69. Jacobs, R. J.,, S. F. Grover,, A. S. Meyerhoff,, and T. A. Paivanas. 2000. Cost effectiveness of vaccinating food service workers against hepatitis A infection. J. Food Prot. 63: 768– 774.
70. Jean, J.,, J.-F. Vachon,, O. Moroni,, A. Darveau,, I. Kukavica-Ibrulj,, and I. Fliss. 2003. Effectiveness of commercial disinfectants for inactivating hepatitis A virus on agri-food surfaces. J. Food Prot. 66: 115– 119.
71. Jensenius, M.,, S. H. Ringertz,, D. Berild,, H. Bell,, R. Espinoza,, and B. Grinde. 1998. Prolonged nosocomial outbreak of hepatitis A arising from an alcoholic with pneumonia. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30: 119– 123.
72. Johnson, R. 23 November 2002. Inspectors to board Disney cruise ship to search for cause of stomach virus. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Pittsburgh, Pa..
73. Johnson, R. 27 November 2002. More fall ill on voyage of Disney ship; federal health officials could delay the Magic’s next cruise for more cleaning. Orlando Sentinel, Orlando, Fla..
74. Kapikian, A. Z. 2000. The discovery of the 27-nm Norwalk virus: an historic perspective. J. Infect. Dis. 181: S295-– S302.
75. Kapikian, A. Z.,, R. G. Wyatt,, R. Dolin,, T. S. Thornhill,, A. R. Kalica,, and R. M. Chanock. 1972. Visualization by immune electron microscopy of a 27-nm particle associated with acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. J. Virol. 10: 1075– 1081.
76. Kelly, D.,, and S. Skidmore. 2002. Hepatitis C-Z: recent advances. Arch. Dis. Child. 86: 339– 343.
77. Kim, K.-H.,, I.-S. Suh,, J. M. Kim,, C. W. Kim,, and Y.-J. Cho. 1989. Etiology of childhood diarrhea in Korea. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27: 1192– 1196.
78. Kim, S. W.,, K. R. Peck,, S.-I. Jung,, Y.-S. Kim,, S. Kim,, N. Y. Lee,, and J.-H. Song. 2001. Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a potential cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. J. Korean Med. Sci. 16: 742– 744.
79. Kingsley, D. H.,, and G. P. Richards. 2003. Persistence of hepatitis A virus in oysters. J. Food Prot. 66: 331– 334.
80. Knoop, F. C.,, M. Owens,, and I. C. Crocker. 1993. Clostridium difficile: clinical disease and diagnosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 6: 251– 265.
81. Konomi, N.,, C. Miyoshi,, C. La Fuente Zerain,, T.-C. Li,, Y. Arakawa,, and K. Abe. 1999. Epidemiology of hepatitis B, C, E, and G virus infections and molecular analysis of hepatitis G virus isolates in Bolivia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37: 3291– 3295.
82. Lai, C. W.,, R. C. Chan,, A. F. Cheng,, J. Y. Sung,, and J. W. Leung. 1992. Common bile duct stones: a cause of chronic salmonellosis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 87: 1198– 1199.
83. La Porte, T.,, D. Heisey-Grove,, P. Kludt,, B. T. Matyas,, A. DeMaria, Jr.,, R. Dicker,, A. De,, A. Fiore,, O. Nainan,, and D. S. Friedman. 2003. Foodborne transmission of hepatitis A—Massachusetts, 2001. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rpt. 52: 565– 567.
84. Leavitt, J. W. 1996. Typhoid Mary. Captive to the Public’s Health. Beacon Press, Boston, Mass..
85. L’Ecuyer, P. B.,, J. Diego,, D. Murphy,, E. Trovillion,, M. Jones,, D. F. Sahm,, and V. J. Fraser. 1996. Nosocomial outbreak of gastroenteritis due to Salmonella senftenberg. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23: 734 – 742.
86. Levitz, J. 5 August 2005. Scrubbed clean, Camp Yawgoog reopens Sunday. The Providence Journal, Providence, R.I..
87. Lin, F.-Y. C.,, J. M. Becke,, C. Groves,, B. P. Lim,, E. Israel,, E. F. Becker,, R. M. Helfrich,, D. S. Swetter,, T. Cramton,, and J. B. Robbins. 1988. Restaurant-associated outbreak of typhoid fever in Maryland: identification of carrier facilitated by measurement of serum Vi antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26: 1194 – 1197.
88. Llovo, J.,, E. Mateo,, A. Muñoz,, M. Urquijo,, S. L. W. On,, and A. Fernández-Astorga. 2003. Molecular typing of Campylobacter jejuni isolates involved in a neonatal outbreak indicates nosocomial transmission. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 3926– 3928.
89. Longfield, R.,, E. Strohmer,, R. Newquist,, J. Longfield,, J. Coberly,, G. Howell,, and R. Thomas. 1983. Hospital-associated outbreak of Shigella dysenteriae type 2—Maryland. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 32: 250– 252.
90. Lopman, B. A.,, M. H. Reacher,, I. B. Vipond,, D. Hill,, C. Perry,, T. Halladay,, D. W. Brown,, W. J. Edmunds,, and J. Sarangi. 2004. Epidemiology and cost of nosocomial gastroenteritis, Avon, England, 2002-2003. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10: 1827– 1834.
91. Louie, T. J.,, and J. Meddings. 2004. Clostridium difficile infection in hospitals: risk factors and responses. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 171: 45– 46.
92. Lyerly, D. M.,, H. C. Krivan,, and T. D. Wilkins. 1988. Clostridium difficile: its disease and toxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1: 1– 18.
93.. MacDonald, N. 30 August 2004. Virus causes mayhem in hospitals, rest homes. Dominion Post, Wellington, New Zealand.
94.. Massachusetts Department of Public Health. 27 November 2001. Hepatitis A outbreak in Bristol County. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Executive Office of Health and Human Services, Department of Public Health, Boston, Mass. [Online.] http://www.mass.gov/dph/media/2001/pr1127.htm. Accessed 27 June 2006.
95. Mayo, M. A. 2002. Virus taxonomy—Houston 2002. Arch. Virol. 147: 1071– 1076.
96. Mbithi, J. N.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, J. R. Boulet,, and S. A. Sattar. 1992. Survival of hepatitis A virus on human hands and its transfer on contact with animate and inanimate surfaces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 757– 763.
97. Mbithi, J. N.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, and S. A. Sattar. 1990. Chemical disinfection of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 3601– 3604.
98. Mbithi, J. N.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, and S. A. Sattar. 1991. Effect of relative humidity and air temperature on survival of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 1394 – 1399.
99. Mbithi, J. N.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, and S. A. Sattar. 1993. Comparative in vivo efficiencies of hand-washing agents against hepatitis A virus (HM-175) and poliovirus type 1 (Sabin). J. Clin. Microbiol. 59: 3463– 3469.
100. McCarthy, M.,, M. K. Estes,, and K. C. Hyams. 2000. Norwalk-like virus infection in military forces: epidemic potential, sporadic disease, and the future direction of prevention and control efforts. J. Infect. Dis. 181: S387– S391.
101. McCaustland, K. A.,, W. W. Bond,, D. W. Bradley,, J. W. Ebert,, and J. E. Maynard. 1982. Survival of hepatitis A virus in feces after drying and storage for 1 month. J. Clin. Microbiol. 16: 957– 958.
102. McCullough, M.,, and L. Krieger. 8 September 2005. Rumors of dysentery, cholera are unfounded, health officials say. Knight Ridder Tribune News Service, Washington, D.C. .
103. McIntyre, L.,, L. Vallaster,, C. Kurzac,, J. Fung,, A. McNabb,, M.-K. Lee,, P. Daly,, M. Petric,, and J. Isaac-Renton. 2002. Gastrointestinal outbreaks associated with Norwalk virus in restaurants in Vancouver, British Columbia. Can. Commun. Dis. Rep. 28: 197– 203. [Online.] http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ publicat /ccdr-rmtc/02vol28/dr2824ea.html. Accessed 27 June 2006.
104. Miller, M. A.,, M. Hyland,, M. Ofner-Agostini,, M. Gourdeau,, and M. Ishak. 2002. Morbidity, mortality, and healthcare burden of nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in Canadian hospitals. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 23: 137– 140.
105. Minooee, A.,, and L. S. Rickman. 1999. Infectious diseases on cruise ships. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29: 737– 744.
106. Monroe, S. S.,, T. Ando,, and R. I. Glass. 2000. Introduction: human enteric caliciviruses—an emerging pathogen whose time has come. J. Infect. Dis. 181: S249– S251.
107. Morse, D. 29 November 2002. Disney Cruise Line will remove ship from service for cleanup. The Wall Street Journal, New York, N.Y..
108. Moshkowitz, M.,, E. Ben Baruch,, Z. Kline,, M. Gelber,, Z. Shimoni,, and F. Konikoff. 2004. Clinical manifestations and outcome of pseudomembranous colitis in an elderly population in Israel. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 6: 201– 204.
109. Muto, C. A.,, M. Pokrywka,, K. Shutt,, A. B. Mendelsohn,, K. Nouri,, K. Posey,, T. Roberts,, K. Croyle,, S. Krystofiak,, S. Patel-Brown,, A. W. Pasculle,, D. L. Paterson,, M. Saul,, and L. H. Harrison. 2005. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 26: 273– 280.
110. Nastasi, A.,, C. Mammina,, M. R. Villafrate,, G. Dicuonzo,, E. Aiello,, and G. Scaglione. 1991. Reemergence of Shigella dysenteriae type 2 in Sicily: an epidemiological evaluation. Microbiologica 14: 219– 222.
111.. New York State Department of Health. 2004. Hepatitis A and food service workers. New York State Department of Health. [Online.] http://www.health.state.ny.us/nysdoh/communicable_diseases/en/hepafood.htm. Accessed 27 June 2006.
112. Norén, T.,, T. Åkerlund,, E. Bäck,, L. Sjöberg,, I. Persson,, I. Alriksson,, and L. G. Burman. 2004. Molecular epidemiology of hospital-associated and community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection in a Swedish county. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 3635– 3643.
113. Ochs, R. 13 April 1998. Long Island: our story. Dinner with Typhoid Mary. A household in Oyster Bay is stricken, and the trail leads to the cook, Mary Mallon. Newsday, Long Island, N.Y..
114. Oguike, J. U.,, and A. C. Emeruwa. 1990. Incidence of Clostridium difficile in infants in rural and urban areas of Nigeria. Microbiologica 13: 267– 271.
115. Ojeda, A.,, V. Prado,, J. Martinez,, C. Arellano,, A. Borczyk,, W. Johnson,, H. Lior,, and M. M. Levine. 1995. Sorbitol-negative phenotype among enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli strains of different serotypes and from different sources. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33: 2199– 2201.
116. Parkes, D. 6 June 2004. Dirty hospitals raise risk: doctor. Deadly infections under public spotlight. The Gazette, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
117. Pazos, R.,, A. Isusi,, R. Fernández,, L. Barbeito,, A. Bravo,, I. Cantón,, P. Gayoso,, and R. Lebrato. 2003. Brote nosocomial de diarrea por Clostridium difficile en un servicio de cirugía vascular [Nosocomial diarrhea outbreak due to Clostridium difficile in a vascular surgery department]. Enferm. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin. 21: 237– 241.
118. Pépin, J.,, L. Valiquette,, M.-E. Alary,, P. Villemure,, A. Pelletier,, K. Forget,, K. Pépin,, and D. Chouinard. 2004. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 171: 466– 472.
119. Poutanen, S. M.,, and A. E. Simor. 2004. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 171: 51– 58.
120.. ProMED-mail. 19 January 2005. Typhoid fever—Congo DR ( Kinshasa). Typhoid fever in the Democratic Republic of the Congo—update. ProMEDmail 20050119.0183. [Online.] http://www.promedmail.org/pls/askus/f?p=2400:1202:8169964021050853870::NO::F2400_P1202_CHECK_DISPLAY, F2400_P1202_PUB_MAIL_ID:X,27785. Accessed 27 June 2006.
121.. ProMED-mail. 26 January 2005. Typhoid fever—Gabon (Libreville). Typhoid outbreak extends to capital hit by water supply problems. ProMEDmail 20050126.0281. [Online.] http://www.promedmail.org/pls/askus/f?p=2400:1202:8169964021050853870::NO::F2400_P1202_CHECK_DISPLAY, F2400_P1202_PUB_MAIL_ID:X,27882. Accessed 27 June 2006.
122.. ProMED-mail. 27 April 2005. Typhoid fever—Kenya (Bungoma) (02). Kenyan medics worried about spread of typhoid. ProMED-mail 20050427.1174. [Online.] http://www.promedmail.org/pls/askus/f?p=2400:1202:8169964021050853870::NO::F2400_P1202_CHECK_DISPLAY,F2400_P1202_PUB_ MAIL_ID:X,28778. Accessed 27 June 2006.
123. Prouty, A. M.,, W. H. Schwesinger,, and J. S. Gunn. 2002. Biofilm formation and interaction with the surfaces of gallstones by Salmonella spp. Infect. Immun. 70: 2640– 2649.
124. Ray, D.,, D. Tribby,, J. Eyster,, S. Coopes,, W. Hall,, H. McGee,, E. Renshaw, Jr., G. Winter, and N. Hayner. 1982. Epidemiologic notes and reports. Typhoid fever—Michigan. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 31: 544, 549– 550.
125. Reynolds, M. 24 November 2001. Rash of hepatitis A cases hits 4 Mass. communities. Providence Journal, Providence, R.I..
126. Reynolds, M. 13 December 2001. D’Angelo sued over hepatitis A outbreak. Providence Journal, Providence, R.I..
127. Reynolds, M. 12 March 2002. Final report: D’Angelo main source of outbreak. Providence Journal, Providence, R.I..
128. Reynolds, M. 4 February 2004. Judge OKs settlement for hepatitis exposure. The Providence Journal, Providence, R.I..
129. Sabetta, J. R.,, S. Hyman,, J. Smardin,, M. L. Cartter,, and J. L. Hadler. 1991. Foodborne nosocomial outbreak of Salmonella reading—Connecticut. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 40: 804 – 806.
130. Sato, H.,, H. Kato,, K. Koiwai,, and C. Sakai. 2004. [A nosocomial outbreak of diarrhea caused by toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive Clostridium difficile in a cancer center hospital] [English abstract; article in Japanese]. Kansenshogaku Zasshi 78: 312– 319.
131. Schwartz, E.,, N. Piper Jenks,, P. Van Damme,, and E. Galun. 1999. Hepatitis E virus infection in travelers. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29: 1312– 1314.
132. Sirinavin, S.,, L. Pokawattana,, and A. Bangtrakulnondh. 2004. Duration of nontyphoidal Salmonella carriage in asymptomatic adults. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38: 1644 – 1645.
133. Smith, J. L. 2001. A review of hepatitis E virus. J. Food Prot. 64: 572– 586.
134. Soper, G. A. 1919. Typhoid Mary. The Military Surgeon 45(1). [Online.] http://www.nova.edu/~kornblau/LE_class/typhoid.html. Accessed 27 June 2006.
135. Soyletir, G.,, A. Eskiturk,, G. Kilic,, V. Korten,, and N. Tozun. 1996. Clostridium difficile acquisition rate and its role in nosocomial diarrhoea at a university hospital in Turkey. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 12: 391– 394.
136. Strausbaugh, L. J.,, S. R. Sukumar,, and C. L. Joseph. 2003. Infectious disease outbreaks in nursing homes: an unappreciated hazard for frail elderly persons. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36: 870– 876.
137. Tachibana, H.,, S. Kobayashi,, K. Nagakura,, Y. Kaneda,, and T. Takeuchi. 2000. Asymptomatic cyst passers of Entamoeba histolytica but not Entamoeba dispar in institutions for the mentally retarded in Japan. Parasitol. Int. 49: 31– 35.
138. Thayer, J.,, C. Milat,, B. Meier,, J. Hadman,, S. Paciotti,, R. Palmer,, C. Story,, D. Larson,, L. Bjerkness,, H. Parker,, V. Jensen,, R. Rognstad,, P. Anderson,, J. Lynne,, N. Therien,, B. Bartleson,, L. Kentala,, J. Lewis,, and J. M. Kobayashi. 1990. Epidemiologic notes and reports. Typhoid fever—Skagit County, Washington. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 39: 749– 751.
139. Thomas, C.,, M. Stevenson,, D. J. Williamson,, and T. V. Riley. 2002. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: epidemiological data from Western Australia associated with a modified antibiotic policy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35: 1457– 1462.
140. Titov, L.,, N. Lebedkova,, A. Shabanov,, Y. J. Tang,, S. H. Cohen,, and J. Silva, Jr. 2000. Isolation and molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile strains from patients and the hospital environment in Belarus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 1200– 1202.
141. Tsang, T. H. F.,, E. K. Denison,, H. V. Williams,, L. V. Venczel,, M. M. Ginsberg,, and D. J. Vugia. 2000. Acute hepatitis E infection acquired in California. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30: 618– 619.
142. Valiquette, L.,, D. E. Low,, J. Pépin,, and A. McGeer. 2004. Clostridium difficile infection in hospitals: a brewing storm. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 171: 27– 29.
143. Weir, E.,, and K. Flegel. 2005. Protecting against Clostridium difficile illness. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 172: 1178.
144. White, K. E.,, M. T. Osterholm,, J. A. Mariotti,, J. A. Korlath,, D. H. Lawrence,, T. L. Ristinen,, and H. B. Greenberg. 1986. A foodborne outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis. Evidence for post-recovery transmission. Am. J. Epidemiol. 124: 120– 126.
145. Widdowson, M.-A.,, E. H. Cramer,, L. Hadley,, J. S. Bresee,, R. S. Beard,, S. N. Bulens,, M. Charles,, W. Chege,, E. Isakbaeva,, J. G. Wright,, E. Mintz,, D. Forney,, J. Massey,, R. I. Glass,, and S. S. Monroe. 2004. Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis on cruise ships and on land: identification of a predominant circulating strain of norovirus—United States, 2002. J. Infect. Dis. 190: 27– 36.
146. Widdowson, M.-A.,, A. Sulka,, S. N. Bulens,, R. S. Beard,, S. S. Chaves,, R. Hammond,, E. D. P. Salehi,, E. Swanson,, J. Totaro,, R. Woron,, P. S. Mead,, J. S. Bresee,, S. S. Monroe,, and R. I. Glass. 2005. Norovirus and foodborne disease, United States, 1991-2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 95– 102.

References: V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V.