Source: https://es.scribd.com/document/260139715/Cuccio-Et-Al-How-the-Context-Matters-2014
Timestamp: 2019-04-22 20:38:30+00:00

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or not-for-profit sectors. The research was supported by the European Union grant TESIS to VG.
challenging results have been reported in other set of studies [26, 27].
topic, namely the role of context in modulating motor simulation.
potential, which however in the absence of a context remains extremely vague.
In a fMRI study. meaning is always conceived of as the product of a pragmatic process and needs to be situated in a context to be correctly disambiguated and understood. 42–45]. in the desert. According to the context of utterance. Aim of the study The aim of the study is to test the hypothesis that embodied simulation occurring during linguistic processing can be contextually modulated to the extent that the very same sentence. Egorova. a critical word. depending on the context of utterance. In this study. is a dynamic process in which both speaker and hearer are actively involved. they have been conceived of as something given outside of speakers and that interacts with prefixed meanings in their ‘‘heads’’. 47] is part of the process of language comprehension in spite of being an automatic mechanism and is sensible to the context. and interpreted as a statement. was preceded by two different context sentences. or the linguistic game. for example the sentence ‘‘It is hot here’’ uttered in a room with a window and interpreted as a request to open the window. Authors of this study showed that the comprehension of indirect requests. What seems to still be missing is a redefinition of the ideas of meaning and semantics based on the notion of usage. 48]. Significantly. the PLOS ONE | DOI:10.g. this definition of meaning allows us to hypothesize that the mechanism of embodied simulation [46. Meaning. when contextual effects have been taken into account. in a study carried out with the time-resolved event-related potential (ERP) technique. Two previous studies have shown that the same target sentence. considering context in its broadest sense. also looked at different types of speech acts realized by means of the same target sentence. The pragmatic context is more than a mere element of enrichment of the linguistic expression.1371/journal. the same word was used to name or to request an object. Egorova and colleagues found that request-evoked potentials were larger in amplitude than those for naming.Context and Embodied Simulation which the speech act takes place . depending on the context of utterance. can activate in different ways the motor system [45. Until now. In the light of the definition of meaning as usage. Significantly. While the role of context in modulating embodied simulation during action recognition has already been demonstrated and widely discussed [38–41]. Shtyrov and Pulvermu¨ller . e. in this view.0115381 December 22. to use a Wittgensteinian term . activates the motor system much more reliably than the comprehension of the same sentence uttered in a different context. van Ackeren and colleagues  looked at motor simulation during the comprehension of indirect speech acts. In this view.pone. considered as the target-sentence. 2014 3 / 24 . in fact. we can instead think of meaning as the product of a process that entails different mechanisms such as. only recently has this issue been addressed in embodied language research [25. motor simulation and the integration of co-textual and contextual information. leads to the activation of different effector-specific areas of the brain. it is a fundamental feature of its possibility to signify something.
the very same sentence can recruit in different ways the motor system. Following Borregine and Kaschak . ‘‘Pablo kicks the ball’’ vs ‘‘Pablo kicks the habit’’). In this case. 2014 4 / 24 . sentences. then the common features will be temporarily bound to that task (linguistic processing in this example) becoming unavailable to the other task (the motor act).1371/journal. verbs considered as arm/ hand-action related described leg/foot actions and vice versa. the sentence ‘‘Pablo cuts the rope’’ preceded by two different sentences). In fact. we selected a list of Italian ambiguous idioms containing an action-related word. when the idiomatic meaning can be guessed from the meaning of the words forming the phrase. idioms are considered as opaque.Context and Embodied Simulation fronto-central cortex was the source underlying the ERP enhancement for Request suggesting the activation of motor knowledge.pone. However. As far as we know. inflexibility. Considering that transparent idioms are supposed to be more easily imageable and that their imageability can affect embodied representations PLOS ONE | DOI:10. that is. according to the context of utterance. figuration. In order to test this hypothesis. Sag and Wason  suggested. An idiom is defined as ambiguous if it has a plausible meaning both in the literal and in the figurative usage (ex. apart from the property of conventionality. we are going to look at motor simulation elicited by the very same target sentence when preceded by two different contexts (for example. In our study. although similar. we assessed embodied simulation occurring during the comprehension of idiomatic and literal sentences containing action-related words when these sentences are preceded by a brief context sentence.g. in our study a facilitation effect is expected during the processing of literal sentences when participants respond with the congruent effector. Idioms are multi-word units whose meaning does not correspond to the sum of their component parts . Previous works have mainly looked at motor simulation elicited by an actionrelated verb when this verb appears in two different. when no such direct connection is available and the relationship between the phrase and the figurative meaning is arbitrary. Stimuli were constructed in such a way that when idiomatic meanings were elicited.0115381 December 22. To kick the bucket). if a full simulation of the action-related word has run). a facilitation effect is expected only under conditions in which the same features are simultaneously active for different tasks (e. linguistic and motor task). For each idiom (target sentence) we worked out two brief context sentences that can trigger respectively the literal or the figurative interpretation of the target sentence. We hypothesize that.. they likely have enough (but not all) information to perform the motor task at an earlier stage of linguistic processing. none of the property usually ascribed to idioms (e. etc…) applies obligatorily to all idioms. This is precisely what we are going to do in this study.g. It is worth noting that idioms are considered as semantically transparent when there is a direct connection between the phrase and its figurative meaning. no study on figurative language has ever evaluated the role of pragmatic context on motor simulation in a similar way. In the light of this. They are considered conventional by definition. if one of the two different tasks is completed (for example. proverbiality. one literal and one figurative (for example. as Numberg. In our study. while they have to wait until the end of the sentence in the case of idiomatic meanings.
Thus. in which the action could occur. For each idiom (target-sentence) we elaborated two brief sentences describing two different contexts (context sentences). a context-sentence was presented for 4000 ms.actions. the role of context in modulating motor simulation is even more evident. Experiments were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.action related will describe leg-/ foot. due to the process of mental imagery.1371/journal. None of them was aware of the purpose of the experiment.Context and Embodied Simulation [51–54]. Experimental procedure Stimuli were presented at the centre of a computer screen on a white background. we aimed to show that contextuallybased interpretation prevails over literal meaning interpretation. Each trial started by presenting a fixation cross at the centre of the screen for 800 ms. with Arial font. They were written in black lowercase. The experimental protocols of the validation and of the three experiments were approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Parma (Comitato Etico Provinciale – AUSL di Parma) and all participants of the experiments gave written informed consent. range 19–32) entered the validation phase. a questionnaire was also administered to exclude that our results could be explained by the degree of imageability of each item. Finally.action related will describe arm-/hand-actions in the idiomatic meaning (see Table 1 and 2). we decided to select only transparent idioms. although transparent idioms. verbs literally considered as arm-/hand. In fact. verbs literally considered as leg-/foot. One context sentence in a stimulus pair elicited a literal interpretation of the target-sentence.0115381 December 22. Validation of the stimuli We selected 20 Italian ambiguous idioms. Each stimulus was presented once in a block. we had 20 stimulus pairs. a target- PLOS ONE | DOI:10. Participants Forty right-handed students (mean age 25 years. Vice versa. Participants were presented with 120 trials grouped in 3 blocks. They were recruited at the University of Parma. They had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. but each time it was preceded by a different context-sentence eliciting a different interpretation of its meaning. the same target-sentences could appear two times in each block. Then. Results from the questionnaire ruled out this possibility. Each stimulus pair was constructed in such a way that when idiomatic meanings were elicited. In summary. Furthermore. In this way.pone. 2014 5 / 24 . whereas the other elicited an idiomatic interpretation of the same target-sentence. All of them were native Italian speakers and reported no history of speaking disorders. Each idiom contained a verb or a noun relating to an action. could trigger a motor simulation related to their literal meaning.
dopo qualche incertezza si decise Literal La strada era interrotta per una buca. dopo qualche incertezza si decise Idiomatic A cena c’erano delle pietanze pessime Literal Sulla sabbia c’erano delle impronte Idiomatic Se gli avesse strappato i documenti avrebbe avuto lui la promozione Literal Se lo avesse fatto cadere avrebbe vinto lui la maratona Idiomatic Era il momento adatto per provare a scambiarsi una stretta di mano PLOS ONE | DOI:10.Context and Embodied Simulation Table 1.0115381 December 22.1371/journal. 2014 hand Calco` la mano foot 85% 4 4 hand Levo` le tende foot 96% 3 4 75% 4 4 80% hand Vi pianto` le tende foot 57% hand Continuava a battere sullo stesso tasto foot 67% 4 3 hand Gli diede una mano foot foot 4 5 foot 4 4 3 4 foot 4 4 hand 4 4 hand 3 3 hand 3 4 hand 81% 90% 4 3 foot Luca fece il primo passo 75% 92% foot Gli fece lo sgambetto 76% 99% foot Le aveva fatte con i piedi 86% 94% hand Salto` il fosso 59% 95% hand Si rimbocco` le maniche 86% 93% hand Doveva battere il ferro finche` foot era caldo 70% 87% hand Getto` l’amo 92% 95% hand Era a portata di mano 87% 55% 98% 4 4 90% 6 / 24 .pone. Interpretation C+T Context-sentences Target-sentences Evoked effector T F A Idiomatic Il ladro si accorse che l’allarme risuonava nell’edificio Taglio` la corda foot 3 4 80% Literal Il marinaio si accorse che l’ancora si era incagliata al fondale Idiomatic L’automobilista spinse sull’ acceleratore per arrivare in tempo Literal L’uomo esercito` una forte pressione sul coperchio per chiudere la scatola Idiomatic Voleva che la moglie non lo vedesse lı` Literal Voleva che la stanza non fosse cosı` buia Idiomatic Decise di rimanere in piedi davanti a quella porta Literal Decise di accamparsi in quelle radura per la notte Idiomatic Il calciatore stava ancora provando lo stesso tiro in porta Literal Il tecnico stava ancora aggiustando la lettera «L» della tastiera Idiomatic Aveva bisogno di una partner per la gara di ballo e lei si offrı` Literal Aveva bisogno di un appoggio per sollevarsi da terra e lui glielo offrı` Idiomatic Stava percorrendo gli ultimi metri verso il traguardo Literal Stava allungando il braccio verso la tazza sul tavolo Idiomatic Se fosse passata davanti alla sua scrivania lui l’avrebbe seguita Literal Se avesse pescato da quel pontile avrebbe preso molti pesci Idiomatic L’atleta stava superando il suo record nella corsa e non volle fermarsi Literal Il fabbro stava martellando su una lastra incandescente e non volle fermarsi Idiomatic C’era gia` buio e aveva ancora molti chilometri davanti a se´ Literal C’era gia` caldo e indossava ancora una camicia di velluto Idiomatic Il nuovo contratto era pronto per la firma. Validated Stimuli.
15not at all.pone. 2014 7 / 24 .1371/journal. Interpretation C+T Context-sentences Literal Era il momento adatto per provare a camminare da solo Idiomatic Se lei avesse firmato quell’accordo lui ci sarebbe rimasto male Literal Se lui le avesse ancora fatto piedino lei avrebbe reagito Idiomatic Le sigarette erano proibite in quel locale Literal I documenti le erano caduti sul pavimento Idiomatic Il giocoliere si presento` al pubblico Literal Il calciatore gioco` la sua prima partita Idiomatic Il compito di disegno era molto difficile Literal La strada verso il paese era piena di ostacoli Idiomatic Al pittore mancavano gli ultimi tocchi di colore sulla tela Literal All’atleta mancavano pochi centimetri all’arrivo Idiomatic Il chirurgo si trovava in una fase dell’operazione delicata e pericolosa Literal L’escursionista si trovava in un tratto pieno di ostacoli e pericoloso Target-sentences Evoked effector T F foot Decise di pestargli i piedi hand 94% 4 4 foot Paolo ci passo` sopra hand hand 3 4 hand 4 4 3 3 hand hand foot 87% 95% 4 4 foot Stava camminando lungo una strada accidentata 36% 92% foot Era ad un passo dal traguardo 67% 73% foot Si fermo` quasi ad ogni passo 70% 97% foot Era arrivato per lui il momento di entrare in campo A 90% 97% 4 3 82% 91% Subject ratings of stimuli. The trial stopped when participants pressed a response-key. A5Accuracy. how much the idiom meaning was known) and one for semantic transparency (i.pone.t001 sentence was presented for a maximum duration of 3000 ms. They were instructed to respond by pressing a left or a right previously assigned response key. and selected stimuli for experiments 1 and 3. Cont. The response keys were counterbalanced between subjects. missing responses).0115381. one for the idiom familiarity (i. Each participant was also required to rate each idiom on two rating scales. 55 very much).0115381 December 22. Participants had to explicitly judge whether the target-sentence described a hand. .Context and Embodied Simulation Table 1. Idioms appeared in random order. with their right index finger. In both cases. Stimuli in italic were excluded. 55 very much. F5Familiarity.e. Results Four participants were removed from the analysis because their error rate exceeded 50% (wrong responses.e. Stimuli appeared in random order.1371/journal.or a foot. Results for each type of PLOS ONE | DOI:10. participants rated each idiom by choosing a number from the 5-point Likert Scale (familiarity rating: 15 not at all. doi:10... T5Transparency. how much the meaning of the words composing each idiom string contributed to the figurative meaning.related action based on what they could know from the preceding context sentence. transparency rating.
Interpretation C+T Context-sentences Target-sentences Evoked effector T F A Idiomatic The thief realized that the alarm was sounding aloud in the building He ran away foot 4 80% Literal The sailor realized that the anchor was stuck in the seabed He cut the rope hand Idiomatic The driver hit the gas pedal to be there in time He exaggerated foot Literal The man pressed the top of the box to close it He pressed the hand on it hand Idiomatic He didn’t want his wife to see him there He left foot Literal He didn’t want that room to be so dark He removed the curtains hand Idiomatic He decided to stand in front of that door He set up camp there foot Literal He decided to put up his tent there for the night He set up camp there hand Idiomatic The football player was still practising the same shot at the goal He was insisting foot Literal The technician was fixing the ‘‘L’’ key on the keyboard He kept beating on the same key hand Idiomatic He needed a partner for the dance contest and she volunteered She gave him a hand foot Literal He needed to support to get up from the ground and she offered She gave him a hand hand Idiomatic He was running the last metres to the finish line It was within reach. 2014 3 85% 4 4 87% 96% 3 4 75% 57% 4 4 80% 67% 4 3 92% 95% 4 5 70% 87% 4 4 86% 93% 3 4 59% 95% 4 4 86% 94% 4 4 76% 99% 3 3 75% 92% 3 4 81% 90% 4 3 55% 98% 4 4 90% 94% 8 / 24 .1371/journal. Validated Stimuli: English translation.Context and Embodied Simulation Table 2.pone.0115381 December 22. after some uncertainty he decided He signed it hand Literal The road was interrupted because of a pit. after some uncertainty he decided He jumped over the moat foot Idiomatic There were awful dishes at dinner She has done them with her feet hand Literal There were tracks on the sand She has done them with her feet foot Idiomatic If she ripped up his documents she would have the promotion instead of him She tripped him hand Literal If he made him fall down he would win the marathon instead of him He tripped him foot Idiomatic It was the right time to offer him a handshake Luca took the first step hand Literal It was the right time to try to walk by himself Luca took the first step foot PLOS ONE | DOI:10. foot Literal He was extending out his arm towards the cup on the table It was within reach hand Idiomatic If she had passed by his desk he would have followed her She had laid the bait foot Literal If she had fished from that pier she would have caught a lot of fishes She had laid the bait hand Idiomatic The athlete was breaking his running record and he did not want to stop He had to strike while the iron was hot foot Literal The blacksmith was hammering a white-hot sheet of iron and he did not want to stop He had to strike while the iron was hot hand Idiomatic It was already dark and he had still many kilometres to walk in front of him So he rolled up his sleeves foot Literal It was already hot and I was wearing a long-sleeved shirt So he rolled up his sleeves hand Idiomatic The new contract was ready to be signed.
119). PLOS ONE | DOI:10. F5Familiarity. SE50.99%.pone. grammatical structure. Interpretation C+T Context-sentences Target-sentences Evoked effector T F A Idiomatic She signed the agreement herself and that made him upset She stepped on his toes hand 4 70% Literal He rubbed his foot against her leg again. their literal translation is always possible when they are used as literal sentences. mean 582.66. familiarity and transparency of idioms containing a hand action verb do not differ significantly from those containing a foot action verb (Accuracy: hand target-sentences.1371/journal.0115381 December 22. familiarity: hand target-sentences. We selected only stimuli satisfying all these three criteria. we decided to translate idioms in figurative sentences according to their inferential meaning.720. Cont. transparency. For this reason. T5Transparency. Accordingly.pone. familiarity. mean 53.Context and Embodied Simulation Table 2. SE50.05. doi:10. mean score $3 .02 vs foot target-sentences. p50. Because the idioms in our experiment are ambiguous.1371/journal.t002 stimulus are reported in table 1. t6520.848. when a correspondent idiom was not found in English. vs foot target-sentences.03. verbal time.04 SE50. Target sentences in bold are the translations of Italian ambiguous idioms used as idiomatic sentences. SE50. is not always possible to translate them word by word. t951.65%.08.199. p50.07. 6 target-sentences and the associated context sentences were discarded from the list. mean582.0115381. SE50. $70%.142 p50. vs foot target-sentences. Accuracy. mean score $3.08. The literal translation of idioms from one language to another is not always possible because not always there is a direct correspondence between idiomatic expressions of different languages. mean53. 2014 9 / 24 .70 SE50. mean53.15. This was not always possible in the English translation. Target sentences in italic are the literal translations of Italian ambiguous idioms used as literal sentences. mean54. when they are used as figurative sentences. However. because they didn’t match established criteria (see table 1 and 2). A5Accuracy.67. transparency: hand target-sentences. Ratings given on the accuracy. length of the sentence. so she reacted She stepped on his toes foot Idiomatic The sign said that smoking was not allowed in that place Paolo just walked all over it hand Literal The document fell onto the floor Paolo just walked all over it foot Idiomatic The juggler presented himself to the audience It was the time for him to start doing his games hand Literal The football player played his first match It was the time for him to enter the field foot Idiomatic The recipe was very difficult He stopped at almost every single step hand Literal The path that he took to the village was full of obstacles He stopped at almost every single step foot Idiomatic The painter needed to do the last brush strokes on the painting The finish line was in sight hand Literal The athlete needed to do the last steps towards the goal The finish line was in sight foot Idiomatic The surgeon was at a difficult and dangerous stage of the surgery He was taking a treacherous road hand Literal The hiker was on a difficult and dangerous path He was taking a treacherous road foot 4 97% 3 4 67% 73% 4 4 36% 92% 3 3 87% 95% 4 4 90% 97% 4 3 82% 91% English translation of stimuli. t950. Italian stimuli where balanced on the basis of number of syllables. Experimental stimuli were selected according to the following criteria.
Context: ‘‘The Earth is part of the solar system and revolves around the Sun’’.g. targets containing a leg/foot related word literally interpreted (Literal Foot. IF).Context and Embodied Simulation The validation of the stimuli allowed us to select only those pairs of sentences in which participants drew the expected inference in the interpretation of the target. Contexts that trigger the idiomatic interpretation of the target. range 19–32) were recruited at the University of Parma to enter experiment 1.pone. Stimuli appeared in random order. Contexts that trigger the literal interpretation of the target. Participants sat comfortably in front of a computer screen at a distance of about 60 cm from it. Procedure The experiment was carried out in a sound-attenuated and dimly illuminated room. Each stimulus was presented once in a block. None of them was aware of the purpose of the experiment. The experiment consisted of 84 trials. All of them were native Italian speakers and reported no history of speech disorders.1371/journal. LH).0115381 December 22.5 years. LF). Inc. Sharpsburg. Participants had to perform 120 trials grouped in 3 blocks. 2014 10 / 24 . Participants Twenty-two right-handed students (mean age 24. targets containing an arm/hand related word idiomatically interpreted as describing a leg/foot action (Idiomatic Foot. Linguistic stimuli consisting of 14 Italian ambiguous idioms (see table 1 and 2) were presented in the centre of the computer screen on a white background. Each trial started by presenting a fixation cross at the centre of the screen for 800 ms. They were written in black lowercase using Arial font. We had 4 experimental conditions for the go-trials: targets containing an arm/hand related word literally interpreted (Literal Hand. IH). 3. targets containing a leg/foot related word idiomatically interpreted as describing an arm/hand action (Idiomatic Hand. The presentation of the stimuli and the recording of the participants’ responses were controlled by E-Prime software (Psychology Software Tools.. depending on the context of utterance. Each of the 14 target-sentences was associated to three different context sentences: 1. Contexts unrelated to the target interpretation (e. PA). PLOS ONE | DOI:10. The study was approved by the local ethical committee. Twelve trials before the Experiment served to familiarize with the task. 2. During the experiment each pair of context/target sentences was presented twice. Experiment 1 We set this experiment to test if embodied simulation occurring during linguistic processing can be contextually modulated to the extent that the very same sentence. leads to the activation of different effector-specific areas of the brain. target: ‘‘He gave him an hand’’).
Analysis of accuracy revealed only a significant main effect of Interpretation of Meaning (F1. The sum of correct response and the mean RTs were calculated for each condition.Context and Embodied Simulation Then.377524. PLOS ONE | DOI:10. responses either longer or shorter than 2 standard deviations from the individual mean were treated as outliers and not considered (2% of the data set). This type of analysis is widely used in language research because it prevents either the potential lack of power and the loss of information due to the prior averaging of the by-subject and by-item analyses [57. Participants were instructed to carefully read the sentences and to press a red button on a keyboard with their right hand.89 ‘‘salto` il fosso’’/‘‘He jumped over the moat’’.5 SD from the mean of the group). we excluded 3 target-sentences and their relative context-sentences from the analysis. respectively). SE57. Literal) and Effector of action (Hand vs. The mean percentage of correct response was 87. SE58.03).7%. Foot) as fixed factors. mean 567.000001). Also.2%. 58]. Error trials were excluded from further analyses. SE56. as the interpretation of Idiomatic trials was more difficult than the interpretation of Literal trials (mean 581%. Finally.5%. a context-sentence was presented for 4000 ms. 2014 11 / 24 . mean566.22. with Interpretation of meaning (Idiomatic vs. SE50. Results Two participants were excluded from the analysis as outliers (2.91 ‘‘Si fermo` quasi ad ogni passo’’/‘‘He stopped at almost every single step’’.0115381 December 22. mean590% SE50. p50.41). Two linear mixed-effects models were separately carried out on mean reaction times (RTs) and Analysis of correct responses (accuracy). because they did not reach the 70% of correct responses ‘‘Continuava a battere sullo stesso tasto’’/‘‘He kept beating on the same key’’. They had to refrain from responding when they judged that there was no relation of relevancy between the target-sentence and the contextsentence (go-no go paradigm).pone. a target-sentence was presented for a maximum duration of 3000 ms. the same items were not included in the next experiments. We adopted the linear mixed effect model because it is a robust analysis that allows to control for the variability of items and subjects . when they judged that there was a relation between the target-sentence and the context-sentence. Based on a further items analysis.1371/journal. We excluded another item (‘‘Taglio` la corda’’/He cut the rope) because a deeper examination of the stimuli revealed that this was the only case in which the inferential meaning of the figurative sentence was stable (‘‘To cut the rope’’ is always interpreted as meaning ‘‘To run away’’) compared to the inferential meaning elicited by the other idioms that is more contextually determined. The trial stopped when participants pressed a response-key.06 of correct responses. and Items as random factors.03 vs. Significant differences were explored using Sidak’s correction for multiple comparisons. mean568.8% (SE50. as fast and accurately as possible.
They had to refrain from responding when they judged that there was no relation of relevancy between the target-sentence and the context sentence (go-no go paradigm). Leg/Foot) as fixed factors. 1).related target-sentences. The interaction between Interpretation of Meaning and Effector of action was also significant (F1.31. 2014 12 / 24 . it could also be objected that this facilitation effect.Context and Embodied Simulation Analysis of RTs showed the main effect of Interpretation of meaning (F1. Experiment 2 Participants Fifteen right-handed students (mean age 23.5. RTs and Accuracy entered in two separated linear mixed-models with Contextactivation (Arm/Hand vs. IF: mean51242 ms SE568.16. Experiment 2 was set to rule out this possibility. could be primarily determined by context-sentences.001).49.32.1371/journal. IH: mean51390. because these sentences contained action-related words that could induce a pre-activation in the motor system. Abstract target sentences did not describe any hand or foot actions. p50.0000001) with faster RTs in LH condition than IH condition (LH: mean 51064 ms. as fast and accurately as possible.70). p50. LF condition and IF condition did not differ from each other (LF: mean 1276 ms SE567. range 19–29 years) were recruited at the University of Parma for this experiment. SE597. RTs in LH condition were faster than in IF condition (LH: mean 51064 ms.23. p50. Each target sentence was replaced by an abstract sentence balanced on the basis of its syntactic structure. Procedure In this experiment stimuli and procedure were the same as in Experiment 1 except for target-sentences (see table 3). p50. 358529.1). number of words and syllables. In addition.49 IF: mean 51241 ms SE568.79 p50.32. None of them was aware of the purpose of the experiment.000001).00001) showing that RTs to Literal trials were faster (mean 51171 ms.97. The study was approved by the local ethical committee. SE563.33) than idiomatic trials (mean 1315 ms. SE563.pone. IH condition mean51242 SE568. while this was not the case for foot.23. (LF mean 1276 ms SE567. p50.23.0115381 December 22. when they judged that there was a relation between the abstract target-sentence and the context sentence. SE567.93. 358519. and Items as random factors. SE567. Participants were instructed to carefully read the sentences and to press a red button on a keyboard. All of them were native Italian speakers and reported no history of speech disorders. PLOS ONE | DOI:10. times and modes of the verb. rather than being generated by the combination of target and context sentences. However. see fig. This latter result can be interpreted as the product of a facilitation effect due to the interpretation of target sentences in specific contexts.
p50. Analogously.02). Experiment 3 aimed at investigating this issue.8% SE50. 14. 2) demonstrating that context sentences by themselves did not significantly facilitate the congruent responses (hand responses).9%. Experiment 1. responses either longer or shorter than 2 standard deviations from the individual mean were treated as outliers and not considered (7% of the data set). A previous item analysis showed that every item reached at least 70% of correct responses. The sum of correct response and the mean RTs were calculated for each condition. doi:10. the main effect of Context-activation was significant (F1. Vertical bars on the histograms indicate standard error of mean.10 vs. Mean RTs for hand/arm and leg/foot target-sentences. in which a hand response was requested. SE50.04). The asterisk indicates a statistical significance between the means.50.250. Mean 597. p50. SE562. Participants were significantly less accurate when they responded to context-sentences with arm/hand action verbs than contextsentences with leg/foot action verbs (mean 588.pone.84.2657. The mean percentage of correct response was 85.1371/journal. see fig. Arm/Hand context: mean 5981.68% (SE50. a literal hand facilitation effect was found.46. hand responses.Context and Embodied Simulation Fig.02).4% SE50. a facilitation effect can be expected for the literal interpretation of target sentences containing foot-related words in comparison to the idiomatic (hand-related) interpretation of the same target sentences if a foot response is requested. Leg/Foot context mean 51005.04 vs. Regarding Accuracy.63 ms SE561.1371/journal.pone.0115381. In Experiment 1. Analysis of RTs revealed that they do not differ between context-sentences of these two variables (F1.87. PLOS ONE | DOI:10.g001 Results Trials in which participants failed to respond correctly were excluded from the analysis of RTs (mean56.0115381 December 22. 2014 13 / 24 . 1.01). Error trials were excluded from further analyses.
pone. so she reacted She thought to frighten him Se lei avesse firmato quell’accordo lui ci sarebbe rimasto male Decise di mostrarsi di carattere She signed the agreement herself and that made him upset.1371/journal. doi:10.Context and Embodied Simulation Table 3. Stimuli used in Experiment 2. Note that target sentences in this case are abstract sentences that did not describe any hand or foot actions. 2014 14 / 24 .pone.0115381 December 22.1371/journal.0115381.t003 PLOS ONE | DOI:10. She decided to show his strong character All’atleta mancavano pochi centimetri all’arrivo Era il suo momento di gloria The athlete needed to do the last steps towards the goal It was his moment of glory Al pittore mancavano gli ultimi tocchi di colore sulla tela Era soddisfatto di se´ stesso The painter needed to do the last brush strokes on the painting He was pleased with himself L’escursionista si trovava in un tratto pieno di ostacoli e pericoloso Stava riflettendo sulle probabilita` di riuscita The hiker was on a difficult and dangerous path He was thinking about the chances of success Il chirurgo si trovava in una fase dell’operazione delicata e pericolosa Stava apprezzando il fascino delle sfide The surgeon was at a difficult and dangerous stage of the surgery He was enjoying the fascination of challenges Stimuli used are in italic and the corresponding English translations in bold. Context Activation Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Foot Hand Context sentences Abstract Target L’automobilista spinse sull’ acceleratore per arrivare in tempo Rischio` la vita The driver hit the gas pedal to be there in time He risked his life L’uomo esercito` una forte pressione sul coperchio per chiudere la scatola Sfogo` la rabbia The man pressed the top of the box to close it He let of steam Aveva bisogno di una partner per la gara di ballo e lei si offrı` Le sembro` molto gentile He needed a partner for the dance contest and she volunteered He seemed very gentle to her Aveva bisogno di un appoggio per sollevarsi da terra e lui glielo offrı` Gli fece molta pena He needed to support to get up from the ground and she offered She felt so sorry for him Stava percorrendo gli ultimi metri verso il traguardo Era fiero di se´ stesso He was running the last meters to the finish line He was proud of himself Stava allungando il braccio verso la tazza sul tavolo Era un momento di relax He was reaching out his arm towards the cup on the table It was a relaxing moment L’atleta stava superando il suo record nella corsa e non volle fermarsi Dimostrava di sperare nel proprio successo The athlete was breaking his running record and he did not want to stop He showed to believe in his success Il fabbro stava martellando su una lastra incandescente e non volle fermarsi Dimostrava di essere un vero perfezionista The blacksmith was hammering a white-hot sheet of iron and he did not want to stop He showed to be a perfectionist C’era gia` buio e aveva ancora molti chilometri davanti a se´ Si auguro` buona fortuna It was already dark and he had still many kilometres to walk in font of him He wished for luck C’era gia` caldo e indossava ancora una camicia di velluto Si sentı` in imbarazzo It was already hot and he was wearing a long-sleeved shirt He felt embarrassed Sulla sabbia c’erano delle impronte Lo aveva intrigato il mistero There were tracks on the sand He was intrigued by the mystery A cena c’erano delle pietanze pessime Lo aveva preso il disgusto There were awful dishes at dinner He felt discussed Era il momento adatto per provare a camminare da solo Luca provo` una grande gioia It was the right time to walk by himself Luca felt a sense of joy Era il momento adatto per provare a scambiarsi una stretta di mano Luca Provo` una grande pace It was the right time to offer him a handshake Luca felt a sense of piece Se lui le avesse ancora fatto piedino lei avrebbe reagito Penso` di incutergli timore He rubbed his foot against her leg again.
The mean percentage of correct response was 89. with Interpretation of meaning (Idiomatic vs. rather than hand. and Items as random factors. An Item analysis showed that every item reached at least 60% of correct responses. Foot) as fixed factor.67. As in Experiment 1. Literal) and Effector of action (Hand vs. Post hoc analyses (Sidak) revealed faster RTs in LH condition than IH condition (LH: mean 5987 ms. Results Three participants were discarded from the analysis because their error rates exceeded 30% (missing responses or wrong responses. 2014 15 / 24 . 359511. p50.).38% (SE50. IH condition.93. range 19–30) were recruited at the University of Parma for this experiment.Context and Embodied Simulation Experiment 3 This experiment was carried out to verify whether a facilitation effect could be found during the literal interpretation of sentences containing foot-related words in comparison to the idiomatic (hand-related) interpretation of the same target sentences if participants responded with the foot.pone. Procedure The experimental procedure was the same used in the Experiment 1 except for the fact that participants performed foot.49.01. 377523.1371/journal. Error trials were excluded from further analyses. None of them was aware of the purpose of the experiment. p.5 years. Trials in which participants failed to respond correctly (3% of data set) were excluded from the analysis of RT). Analysis of RTs showed only a significant Interpretation of meaning by Effector of action significant interaction (F1. responses higher or lower than 2 standard deviations from the individual mean were treated as outliers. 01 as the interpretation of Idiomatic trials was more difficult than the interpretation of Literal trials (mean 583%.003). SE564.001. mean51151. SE564. The sum of correct responses and the mean RTs were calculated for each condition.0115381 December 22. Furthermore. no significant difference in RTs was expected between the literal and idiomatic interpretation of sentences containing hand-related words.03 vs. p50. Participants Twenty-three right-handed students (mean age 24. mean595% SE50. Significant differences were explored using Sidak’s correction for multiple comparisons. responses on the same keyboard used in Experiment 1.07 of correct responses). SE50.03). Analysis of accuracy revealed only a significant main effect of Interpretation of Meaning (F1. two linear mixed-effects models were separately carried out on mean RTs and accuracy. They were native Italian speakers and reported no history of speech disorders. LF condition and IF condition did not differ from each other (LF: PLOS ONE | DOI:10.0.
72.g002 mean51121 ms. hand responses. see fig. Differently from Experiment 1. Mean RTs for context-sentences preceding abstract targetsentences. IF: mean51061 ms SE564.892 of the Qualtrics Research Suite.1371/journal. 2014 16 / 24 . Experiment 2.0115381.52). IF: 1061 ms SE564. IH condition mean51151. Literal) and Effector of action (Hand vs. whereas Items were random factors. Foot) were fixed factors.82.38. SE563. 3). Results Ratings of participants were submitted to the same linear mixed-models used in Experiment 1 and 2.pone. Version 37. In line with the results from Experiment 1 and 3. 2.pone. They were asked to rate the imageability of each idiomatic/literal sentence presented in Experiment 1 and 3. range 19–35) was recruited following the same inclusion criteria previously described. SE563.Context and Embodied Simulation Fig. p50.02 years.1371/journal. p50. Participants were required to evaluate how much they could imagine the action described in the sentence. For the rating we used a 101-point visual analogue scale (VAS).90). SE564. post-hoc analysis revealed also that RTs for LH condition did not differ from RTs for IF condition (LH: mean 5987 ms. doi:10.82.67.01.0115381 December 22. Vertical bars on the histograms indicate standard error of mean. as in Experiment 1. with 0 corresponding to very little and 100 corresponding to very much. Copyright 2014. A new group of 38 right-handed students (mean age 26. The questionnaire was administered online using Qualtrics software. p50. SE564. did not differ significantly (LF: mean51121 ms. Interpretation of meaning (Idiomatic vs. the analysis showed the main PLOS ONE | DOI:10. Imageability questionnaire A further questionnaire was administered to exclude that our results could be explained by the degree of imageability of each item [51–54].38. LF and IH conditions.
45 p50. In fact. participants faced the same task as in Experiment 1 but they had to respond with the foot.01). we observed significantly faster RTs for the literal interpretation of sentences containing hand-related words compared to the idiomatic interpretation of the same sentences. 15. our data did not support the former hypothesis. These results clearly suggest that the degree of imageability alone could not fully explain the facilitation effect for the LH condition (faster RTs) compared to the IF and LF conditions observed in Experiment 1 (hand responses). see fig 4). each target sentence had two different possible interpretations with four factors at play: meaning (literal or idiomatic) and effector (hand or foot). While this latter result was confirmed. are sufficient to determine motor facilitation. Experiment 2 ruled out the possibility that context-sentences alone. Discussion This study aimed to test the hypothesis that motor simulation occurring during linguistic comprehension can be contextually modulated. participants showed no facilitation effect during the interpretation of foot-related literal sentences. 2014 17 / 24 .Context and Embodied Simulation effect of Interpretation of meaning (F1. However. In Experiment 3. 15.58) nor the interaction between Meaning and Effector were significant (F1.38. In order to test this hypothesis we chose a list of 14 Italian ambiguous idioms containing actionrelated words and we predicted that the very same sentence activates in different ways the motor system according to its literal or idiomatic interpretation in the context of utterance. in this experiment. neither the main effect of Effector (F1. The other half contained a foot-related word and could be interpreted both as foot-related literal sentences and hand-related idiomatic sentences.32 p50. as literal sentences were easier to imagine than idiomatic sentences (mean575.9519. No significant difference in RTs was expected between the literal and idiomatic interpretation of sentences containing hand-related words. but absent in Experiment 3 (foot responses). 1). Our results directly support this hypothesis only in relation to the comprehension of hand-related action sentences. In this same experiment. 15. A facilitation effect was expected during the literal interpretation of sentences containing foot-related words in comparison to the idiomatic interpretation of the same sentences.0115381 December 22. did not lead to any differential facilitation of the hand response.92 vs mean 557/100. the same context-sentences.2/100 SE52. followed by abstract sentences.51. When participants responded with the hand (Exp. When responding with the foot. SE52.pone. We interpreted these faster RTs as the product of a facilitation effect.0.950.93).950. PLOS ONE | DOI:10. In summary. in spite of containing action related words. no significant difference in RTs was found between literal and idiomatic interpretation of sentences containing foot-related words.1371/journal. Half of the target sentences contained a hand-related word and could be interpreted both as hand-related literal sentences and foot-related idiomatic sentences. p.
It was observed that to carry out either a lexical or a semantic task makes a difference in the recruitment of the motor system determining differences in the effects that linguistic processing has on the performance of a concomitant motor act . It is important to note that we specifically asked the participants of our study to make a judgement of relevancy because we aimed to assess the role of context in the interpretation of target sentences and we needed to be sure that they interpreted target sentences on the basis of context sentences.0115381. 2014 18 / 24 . the data of this study directly support our claim that motor simulation during language comprehension is modulated by the context of utterance only in relation to sentences containing hand-related words. The question is which method best explains the processes involved in language comprehension and which is more similar to real-life situations.g003 Why is the foot different? Or. participants faced a complex pragmatic task while previous studies have been mainly focused on lexical (to understand if a string of letters is a word) or semantic (to make a judgement on the basis of the word meaning) tasks.0115381 December 22.pone.1371/journal. The asterisk indicates a statistical significance between the means.pone. doi:10. Also. 3. relevancy judgements or when only reading times are measured. Experiment 3. In our study. with different tasks requirements. the extent of the temporal overlapping between linguistic and motor tasks determines another significant difference .1371/journal. foot responses. Previous studies [60–61] have already shown differences between task requirements when participants are asked to make meaningfulness judgements. can converge and complement each other to gain a deeper understanding of the processes involved in language comprehension. Vertical bars on histograms indicate standard error of mean. PLOS ONE | DOI:10. The discussion about the methods to be adopted in the research on the mechanisms underlying language processing is still open.Context and Embodied Simulation Fig. We believe that findings obtained from different empirical methods. why is the hand special? Overall. Mean RTs for hand/arm and leg/foot target-sentences.
although a motor simulation PLOS ONE | DOI:10. Sato et al. In a top-down process. The asterisk indicates a statistical significance between the means.1371/journal. RTs were longer than or around 1000 ms in all the conditions. that have been shown to be involved in idiomatic comprehension and in other linguistic tasks that entail a contextually based semantic disambiguation [62–63]. the adequate motor program to perform the key-press motor act . the involvement of the sensorimotor system in language comprehension cannot be directly observed except for the comprehension of literal hand-related sentences. at the behavioural level. Our peculiar linguistic task very likely determined a ‘‘delay-like’’ condition that made it impossible to directly observe the involvement of the sensorimotor system during language processing except for hand-related action verbs.g004 In the light of these considerations. In this case. 4. the involvement of the motor system was evident at the behavioural level only during the comprehension of hand-related literal sentences. doi:10.0115381.1371/journal.pone. the recruitment of the motor system could be mediated by activation of prefrontal areas. such as the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPF). Mean ratings of participants for hand/arm and leg/foot target-sentences. 2014 19 / 24 . more precisely. 13] suggested that in a semantic task carried out in a delayed condition (when participants perform the key-press motor act 1000 ms after the onset of the linguistic stimulus) no interaction is directly observable between language and the sensorimotor system. the DLPF cortex could select the pertinent motor simulation and. Vertical bars on histograms indicate standard error of mean. why is the hand special? The intimate relationship between language and hand motor control that has been widely demonstrated  could be the reason why. in our task. Why is the foot different? Or. Imageability questionnaire. also. Significantly.0115381 December 22. in our study.Context and Embodied Simulation Fig.pone. [11. However. we hypothesize that the pragmatic task in our study determined a contextually based interpretation that led to a peculiar modality of recruitment of the motor system.
PLOS ONE | DOI:10. According to this model. 56].1371/journal. Considering that this is not the case. Chersi. As soon as more contextual information will become available. by inhibiting a wrong one or by using both mechanisms at the same time. Alternatively. 27. this variability in itself is a challenge to the invariant and non-mediated nature of motor simulation. However. However. and pragmatic) and the kind of linguistic stimuli used in the experiment. when contextual cues are enough to understand the agents’ intention. contextual effects on motor simulation during linguistic comprehension have been assessed in behavioural  and fMRI studies . how precisely this happens is still an open question. Interestingly. Although it is not easy to make a direct comparison between these studies because they differ in many respects. context might act before the onset of any motor simulation associated to linguistic processing determining the selection of the contextually salient pattern of motor activation. Ferrari & Fogassi  proposed a computational model of neural chains for action in the parietal lobe in which both inhibition and selection mechanisms are involved. These findings suggest that contextual information prevails over semantics. when contextual cues are ambiguous. adopting the classic definition of automaticity. such variability in findings suggests that motor simulation during language processing is not constant. semantic. Lately.pone. non-compatible neural chains will be inhibited. all intentions compatible with the act are prompted and multiple chains are activated in parallel. the selection of a specific action goal is expressed by the high activity level of a specific neural chain. Contextual effect on motor simulation Recently. divergent findings have also been obtained in other studies [26.0115381 December 22. It varies under different experimental conditions. Only further investigations with different techniques (e. we should expect to always find it. Instead. motor simulation during linguistic processing can still be considered automatic.g. According to this model. in spite of being automatically triggered by intrinsic semantic features. Context is a fundamental part of the construction of meaning and can act by selecting the right neural chain of motor simulation. If motor simulation during linguistic comprehension were automatic and invariant. these mechanisms are not mutually exclusive. namely that a mechanism is considered automatic if it is independent of top-down control . neuroimaging studies found somatotopic activation of the pre-motor and primary motor cortical areas related to the literal meaning of action verbs during the comprehension of metaphors and idioms [22–25].Context and Embodied Simulation likely also took place in the other conditions. TMS or neuroimaging) will allow us to fully comprehend this issue. also accordingly to the level of interpretation elicited by the task (lexical. One hypothesis is that motor simulation. could be inhibited by the processing of contextual information. 2014 20 / 24 .
Binkofski F. (2005) Listening to action-related sentences modulates the activity of the motor system: a combined TMS and behavioral study.0115381 December 22. 3. Broca’s area is both involved in tasks such as complex finger movements. In fact. 7. Stud Hist Philos Sci Part A 41: 305–308. This point is particularly important and should be further investigated. Our findings together with previous studies  contribute to the discussion on the notion of automaticity. mental imagery of grasping actions. Wrote the paper: VC MA MC FL. In fact. 4. it has also been suggested that language evolved exactly from manual gestures [65–73]. Performed the experiments: VC MA. 72]. References 1. Fodor JA (1983) The modularity of mind: An essay on faculty psychology. Cogn Brain Res 24: 355–363.Context and Embodied Simulation Conclusions Our data. traditionally considered a language area. suggest that motor activation during the processing of action related words is not fixedly associated to the literal meaning of words but depends on the context of utterance. 6. the classical concept of automaticity is currently under revision and it is now proposed  that high-level cognitive mechanisms interacts with automatic processes. together with previous findings [48. Gibbs Jr RW (2003) Embodied experience and linguistic meaning. Many reasons have been proposed to support this evolutionary hypothesis and all of them further highlight this intimate relationship between hand and language. Gallese V. Buccino G. Borreggine KL. MA: MIT Press. 50. Author Contributions Conceived and designed the experiments: VC FF LF VG. our data further highlight the intimate relationship between hand and language. Cogn Sci 30: 1097–1112. Annalisa Pelosi for the statistical support. Cambridge University Press. Melli G. Acknowledgments We thank Prof.1371/journal. 5. Gibbs Jr RW. Moreover. Cambridge. 67. Perlman M (2010) Language understanding is grounded in experiential simulations: a response to Weiskopf. 8. and hand-imitation tasks and in syntactic processing involving reconstruction and interpretation of structured sequences of sentences [70. MIT Press. 2014 21 / 24 . Gibbs Jr RW (2006) Embodiment and cognitive science. 2. MA. No relation like this exists between language areas and areas that control the movements of the foot. Finally. Pylyshyn ZW (1984) Computation and cognition. Brain Lang 84: 1–15. Kaschak MP (2006) The action–sentence compatibility effect: It’s all in the timing. our data support the general claim that automatic mechanisms can be sensitive to the context. 71]. PLOS ONE | DOI:10. Also. Previous studies have widely shown that Broca’s area. Kaschak MP (2002) Grounding language in action. et al. Glenberg AM. Riggio L.pone. Cambridge. Psychon Bull Rev 9: 558–565. Analyzed the data: MA. is also involved in hand motor control [70. 68].
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