Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/426/167/
Timestamp: 2019-04-22 00:07:33+00:00

Document:
Although § 118 of the Clean Air Act obligates federal installations discharging air pollutants to join with nonfederal facilities in complying with state "requirements respecting control and abatement of air pollution," obtaining a permit from a State with a federally approved implementation plan is not among such requirements. There cannot be found in § 118, either on its face or in relation to the Act as a whole, nor can there be derived from the legislative history of the Clean Air Amendments of 1970, any clear and unambiguous declaration by Congress that such federal installations may not operate without a state permit. Nor can congressional intention to submit federal activity to state control be implied from the claim that under the State's federally approved plan it is only through the permit system that compliance schedules and other requirements may be administratively enforced against federal installations. Pp. 178-199.
WHITE, J., delivered the opinion of the Court in which BURGER, C.J., and BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, POWELL, and STEVENS, JJ., joined. STEWART and REHNQUIST, JJ., filed a dissenting statement, post, p. 426 U. S. 199.
implementation plan as long as it was adopted after public hearings and satisfied the conditions specified in § 110(a)(2).
"the specific rules to which operators of pollution sources are subject, and which, if enforced, should result in ambient air which meets the national standards."
"[The EPA] is relegated by the Act to a secondary role in the process of determining and enforcing the specific, source-by-source emission limitations which are necessary if the national standards it has set are to be met. . . . The Act gives [the EPA] no authority to question the wisdom of a State's choices of emission limitations if they are part of a plan which satisfies the standards of § 110(a)(2). . . . Thus, so long as the ultimate effect of a State's choice of emission limitations is compliance with the national standards for ambient air, the State is at liberty to adopt whatever mix of emission limitations it deems best suited to its particular situation."
"shall, to the extent practicable and consistent with the interests of the United States and within any available appropriations, cooperate with"
the Federal Government (1) having jurisdiction over any property or facility, or (2) engaged in any activity resulting, or which may result, in the discharge of air pollutants, shall comply with Federal, State, interstate, and local requirements respecting control and abatement of air pollution to the same extent that any person is subject to such requirements."
After enactment of § 118, there is no longer any question whether federal installations must comply with established air pollution control and abatement measures. The question has become how their compliance is to be enforced.
or allow physical conditions to exist on property owned by or subject to the control of such person, resulting in the presence of air contaminants in the atmosphere, unless a permit therefor has been issued by the Commission and is currently in effect. [Footnote 15]"
"when specifically requested by the Commission, include an analysis of the characteristics, properties, and volume of the air contaminants based upon source or stack samples of the air contaminants taken under normal operating conditions. [Footnote 16]"
"subject to such terms and conditions set forth and embodied in the permit as the Commission shall deem necessary to insure compliance with its standards. [Footnote 20]"
ambient air standards for the area in which the air contaminant source is located. Reg. AP-1, § 5(5), CA App. 122.
"It is clear that Section 118 . . . requires Federal facilities to meet state air quality standards and emission limitations and to comply with deadlines established in the approved state air implementation plans."
"Federal agencies are [not] required to apply for state operating permits . . . [o]ur aim is to encourage Federal agencies to provide the states with all the information required to assess compliance of pollution sources with standards, emission and discharge limitations and the needs for additional abatement measures. [Footnote 26]"
judgment; the District Court ordered the complaint dismissed. Kentucky ex rel. Hancock v. Ruckelshaus, 362 F.Supp. 360 (1973).
"We do not believe the congressional scheme for accomplishment of these purposes included subjection of federal agencies to state or local permit requirements. Congress did commit the United States to compliance with air quality and emission standards, and it is undisputed in this record that the federal facilities in Kentucky have cooperated with the Commission toward this end."
497 F.2d at 1177. We granted Kentucky's petition for certiorari, 420 U.S. 971 (1975), to resolve a conflict in the Courts of Appeals, [Footnote 29] and now affirm.
"that the constitution and the laws made in pursuance thereof are supreme; that they control the constitution and laws of the respective States, and cannot be controlled by them."
"[i]t is of the very essence of supremacy to remove all obstacles to its action within its own sphere, and so to modify every power vested in subordinate governments, as to exempt its own operations from their own influence."
desist from performance until they satisfy a state officer upon examination that they are competent for a necessary part of them. . . ."
v. Pennsylvania Milk Control Comm'n, 318 U. S. 261 (1943); Alabama v. King & Boozer, 314 U. S. 1, 314 U. S. 9 (1941), and cases cited. "Here, however, the State places a prohibition on the Federal Government." [Footnote 39] The permit requirement is not intended simply to regulate the amount of pollutants which the federal installations may discharge. Without a permit, an air contaminant source is forbidden to operate even if it is in compliance with every other state measure respecting air pollution control and abatement. It is clear from the record that prohibiting operation of the air contaminant sources for which the State seeks to require permits, App. 14-17, is tantamount to prohibiting operation of the federal installations on which they are located. Id. at 89-93.
requirements may be administratively enforced against federal installations.
The parties rightly agree that § 118 obligates federal installations to conform to state air pollution standards or limitations and compliance schedules. [Footnote 40] With the enactment of the Amendments in 1970 came the end of the era in which it was enough for federal facilities to volunteer their cooperation with federal and state officials. In Kentucky's view, that era has been replaced by one in which federal installations are not only required to limit their air pollutant emissions to the same extent as their nonfederal neighbors, but also, subject only to case-by-case Presidential exemption, to submit themselves completely to the state regime by which the necessary information to promulgate emission limitations and compliance schedules is gathered, and by which collection of that information and enforcement of the emission limitations and compliance schedules are accomplished. Respondents (hereafter sometimes EPA) take the position that the Congress has not gone so far. While federal and nonfederal installations are governed by the same emission standards, standards which the States have the primary responsibility to develop, the EPA maintains that the authority to compel federal installations to provide necessary information to the States and to conform to state standards necessary to carry out the federal policy to control and regulate air pollution has not been extended to the States.
"whether Congress intended that the enforcement mechanisms of federally approved state implementation plans, in this case permit systems, would be"
available to the States to enforce that duty. Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F.2d at 1247. In the case before us, the Court of Appeals concluded that federal installations were obligated to comply with state substantive requirements, as opposed to state procedural requirements, 497 F.2d at 1177, but Kentucky reflects the distinction between procedural and substantive requirements, saying that whatever is required by a state implementation plan is a "requirement" under § 118.
"is the mechanism through which [it] is able to compel the production of data concerning air contaminant sources, including the ability to prescribe the monitoring techniques to be employed, and it is the only mechanism which allows [it] to develop and review a source's compliance schedule and insure that schedule is followed. [Footnote 43]"
The difficulty with this position is threefold. First, it assumes that only the States are empowered to enforce federal installations' compliance with the standards. Second, it assumes the Congress intended to grant the States such authority over the operation of federal installations. Third, it unduly disregards the substantial change in the responsibilities of federal air contaminant sources under § 118 in comparison with 42 U.S.C. § 1857f(a) (1964 ed., Supp. V), supra, at 171. Contrary to Kentucky's contention that Congress necessarily intended to subject federal facilities to the enforcement mechanisms of state implementation plans, our study of the Clean Air Act not only discloses no clear declaration or implication of congressional intention to submit federal installations to that degree of state regulation and control, but also reveals significant indications that, in preserving a State's "primary responsibility for assuring air quality within [its] entire geographic area," the Congress did not intend to extend that responsibility by subjecting federal installations to such authority.
schedules appear in the emergence of § 118 from the House bill and Senate amendment from which it was derived.
"shall provide leadership in carrying out the policy and purposes of this Act and shall comply with the requirements of this Act in the same manner as any person. . . . [Footnote 51]"
"requires that Federal facilities meet the emission standards necessary to achieve ambient air quality standards, as well as those established in other sections of Title I. [Footnote 52]"
the Conference Committee in taking the Senate language of "requirements" meant thereby to subject federal facilities to enforcement measures obviously not embraced in the language of the House bill, it is remarkable that it made no reference to its having reconciled this difference in favor of extending state regulation over federal installations. Given the interchangeable use of "emission standards" and "emission requirements" in the Senate amendment, see n 52, supra, the predominance of the language of the Senate version in § 118 as enacted, [Footnote 53] and the absence of any mention of disagreement between the two bills, it is more probable that the Conference Committee intended only that federal installations comply with emission standards and compliance schedules than that its intention was to empower a State to require federal installations to comply with every measure in its implementation plan. See Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F.2d at 1247.
"The House bill and the Senate amendment declared that Federal departments and agencies should comply with applicable standards of air quality and emissions."
provision to require that the President, rather than the Administrator, be responsible for assuring compliance by Federal agencies. [Footnote 54]"
enforcement . . . is granted to EPA in those instances (i.e., new sources and hazardous pollutants) where EPA establishes the criteria.' [Footnote 56]"
Perhaps we could agree if the issue were not whether there is a clear and unambiguous congressional authorization for the regulatory authority petitioner seeks, for, as the Fifth Circuit has said, such a "scheme is a reasonable one." Alabama v. Seeber, supra, at 1244. But that is the issue, and the implications Kentucky draws from its evaluation of the manner in which the Congress divided responsibility for regulation of new sources and of hazardous air pollutants do not persuade us.
"any authority he has under this Act to implement and enforce such standards (except with respect to stationary sources owned or operated by the United States)."
and existing sources in §§ 111 and 114 clearly implies that existing federal sources were to be subject to the enforcement provisions of a State's implementation plan. The implication is said to arise from the different nature of the control required for the two types of installations. The difference is explained as follows: for existing sources, the first step for a State is to determine the general quality of air in the relevant air quality region, and then to compute the amounts of pollution attributable to each source. Next, appropriate emission standards necessary to meet the national ambient air quality standards must be assigned to the various sources, followed by determining the compliance schedule by which each installation will achieve the assigned standards by the attainment date prescribed in the Act. To carry out this process of gathering information and coordinating control throughout the State, it is said to be necessary for the States to have ready administrative authority over all sources, federal and nonfederal. This administrative authority, concededly a major part of an implementation plan as to nonfederal sources, must therefore have been intended to extend to federal sources as well.
mechanism to develop and coordinate application of these standards is unnecessary, especially because all new sources must be in compliance before operation begins, § 111(e). The Congress is said, therefore, to have exempted new federal installations from state enforcement of federally promulgated standards of performance because it was unnecessary to submit those installations to the same kind of coordinated control to which existing sources had been submitted.
The Act itself belies this contention. It recognizes that a "new source," even one in full compliance with applicable standards of performance, may hinder or prevent attainment or maintenance of air quality standards within the air quality region in which it is located, and requires a state implementation plan to include procedures for averting such problems. See §§ 110(a)(2)(D), (a)(4).
"[f]or the purpose (i) of developing or assisting in the development of any implementation plan under section 110 or 111(d), any standard of performance under section 111, or any emission standard under section 112, [or] (ii) of determining whether any person is in violation of any such standard or any requirement of such a plan. . . ."
of emission sources to keep records, to make reports, to install, use, and maintain monitoring equipment, and to sample its emissions. Second, as with §§ 111 and 112, the States "may" develop procedures to carry out the section. That Congress provided for this slight possibility that existing federal sources would be obliged to conform to state procedures for carrying out § 114 in addition to emission standards and compliance schedules scarcely implies, as petitioner suggests, that Congress intended existing federal sources to comply with all state regulatory measures, not only emission standards and compliance schedules. Rather than exempting new federal sources from an obligation to which they would otherwise have been subject, Congress may as well have been extending the obligation to conform to state § 114 regulatory procedures to existing -- but not to new -- federal sources which would not otherwise have been thought subject to such regulation.
"(a) Except as provided in subsection (b), any person may commence a civil action on his own behalf -- "
"(1) against any person (including (i) the United States, and (ii) any other governmental instrumentality or agency to the extent permitted by the Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution) who is alleged to be in violation of (A) an emission standard or limitation under this Act or (b) an order issued by the Administrator or a State with respect to such a standard or limitation. . . ."
"For purposes of this section, the term 'emission standard or limitation under this Act' means -- (1) a schedule or timetable of compliance, emission limitation, standard of performance or emission standard . . . which is in effect under this Act (including a requirement applicable by reason of section 118) or under an applicable implementation plan."
"in which any Federal property, facility, or activity is located may seek to enforce the provisions of this section pursuant to section 304 of this Act. [Footnote 60]"
the two measures, we cannot credit the argument that § 118 was intended to impose on federal installations any broader duty to comply with state implementation measures than specified in § 304. The absence in § 304 of any express provision for enforcing state permit requirements in federal court is therefore too substantial an indication that congressional understanding was that the "requirements" federal facilities are obliged to meet under § 118 did not include permit requirements to be overcome by assertions to the contrary.
stopped short of subjecting federal installations to state control.
MR. JUSTICE STEWART and MR. JUSTICE REHNQUIST dissent. They agree substantially with the reasoning of the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F.2d 1238, and they would reverse the judgment before us on the grounds set out in that opinion.
In EPA v. California ex rel. State Water Resources Control Board, post, p. 426 U. S. 200, also decided this day, we consider a closely related issue under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, 33 U.S.C. § 1251 et seq. (1970 ed., Supp. IV).
As renumbered and amended, 84 Stat. 1689, 42 U.S.C. § 1857f.
Pub.L. 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676.
36 Fed.Reg. 8186 (1971). See 40 CFR pt. 50 (1975). Title 40 CFR § 50.1(e) (1975) defines "ambient air" as "that portion of the atmosphere, external to buildings, to which the general public has access."
The EPA is guided in compiling a list of air pollutants by § 108(a) of the Clean Air Act, as added, 84 Stat. 1678, 42 U.S.C. § 1857c-3(a).
The range of a State's initiative in meeting its primary responsibility to assure air quality is somewhat greater for existing sources of air pollution, such as those involved in this case, than for "new sources." See infra at 426 U. S. 190-194.
Train v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 421 U. S. 60, 421 U. S. 64 (1975).
As amended, 81 Stat. 499, 42 U.S.C. § 1857f(a) (1964 ed., Supp. V).
Congress first called on federal agencies to cooperate with efforts to reduce air pollution in 1959, Pub.L. 86-365, 73 Stat. 646.
H.R.Rep. No. 91-1146, p. 4 (1970), 2 Legislative History of the Clean Air Amendments of 1970 (Comm.Print compiled for the Senate Committee on Public Works by the Library of Congress), p. 894 (1974) (hereafter Leg.Hist.).
S.Rep. No. 91-1196, p. 37 (1970), 1 Leg.Hist. 437.
The full text of § 118 appears at n 41, infra.
37 Fed.Reg. 10842, 10868-10869 (1972). Approval of the plan was later vacated because the EPA had not given interested persons an opportunity to participate in its consideration of the plan. Buckeye Power, Inc. v. EPA, 481 F.2d 162 (CA6 1973). After resubmission to the EPA and publication as a proposed rulemaking, 39 Fed.Reg. 10277 (1974), the plan was approved with an exception not pertinent here. Id. at 29357.
Pet. for Cert. 46a. Although § 5(1) does not explicitly apply to federal facilities, the definition of "person" in § 2(32) of the Regulation includes any "government agency . . . or other entity whatsoever." App. in No. 73-2099 (CA6), p. 111 (hereafter CA App.). The applicability of § 5(1) to federal facilities a a matter of Kentucky law has not been disputed.
Reg. AP-1 §§ 5(2)(a), (c), CA App. 120.
See generally Reg. AP-10, CA App. 209-227.
Reg. AP-1, § 5(2)(c), CA App. 120.
Id., § 5(3)(a), CA App. 121.
Id. § 5(4), CA App. 121.
The Army facilities are the United States Army Armor Center and Fort Knox, Fort Campbell, and the Lexington and Blue Grass Activities, Lexington-Blue Grass Army Depot.
Two TVA facilities are involved, the Shawnee and Paradise Power Plants.
The AEC facility is the Paducah gaseous Diffusion Plant for the production of enriched uranium, operated under contract by the Union Carbide Corp. Since the Commission initiated its efforts to secure a permit application from the AEC or its contractor, the Energy Research and Development Administration has succeeded to the AEC's responsibility for the Paducah plant. Pub.L. 93-438, 88 Stat. 1233; see 40 Fed.Reg. 3242, 3250 (1975).
"the same emission data and other information for [TVA] power plants which your permit application forms are designed to elicit from applicants who are required to secure permits in order to continue their operations."
For the Commission's convenience, the TVA supplied the information on the Commission's own permit forms. Id. at 52.
In addition to § 118, the letter referred to Executive Order No. 11507, 3 CFR 889 (1966-1970 Comp.), which antedates the Amendments, as a policy source. This Order, cited in the complaint, has ben superseded by Executive Order No. 11752, 3 CFR 380 (1974). See infra at 426 U. S. 199.
"advice on this matter, at this time, is to provide the data specifically requested by the states so they may make a determination as to: (1) the facilities compliance with the approved state air implementation plans and (2) the abatement action facilities must take in order to meet implementation plan requirements."
"We recommend that each Federal facility under your jurisdiction which has an air pollution discharge should initiate immediate discussion, if it has not already been accomplished, with the respective states, regarding development of a compliance schedule as required by their implementation plan. This compliance schedule should include the standards or emission limitations which must be met, the abatement equipment to be constructed, corrective measures to be taken, and the timetable for taking these actions in order to meet established implementation plan deadlines. Your agency will be obligated under the compliance schedule to conduct monitoring and to keep operating records. Whenever a state makes a reasonable and specific request to review operating records, we recommend that your agency adopt an open-door policy by providing the requested data."
The suit was brought by the Attorney General without the concurrence of the Commission. The District Court's ruling that Kentucky law permitted the Attorney General to sue without a request from the Commission is not challenged here.
Section 113, as added, 84 Stat. 1686, 42 U.S.C. § 1857c-8, empowers the EPA Administrator, upon finding that any person is in violation of an applicable provision of an implementation plan or that violations of an applicable implementation plan are so widespread as to appear to result from ineffective state enforcement and upon giving notice, to commence appropriate action either by issuing an order to any person requiring compliance with the plan's requirements or by bringing a civil action under § 113(b) in district court. The District Court and the Court of Appeals both ruled that, even if federal facilities were obligated to secure operating permits, the Administrator's duty to proceed under § 1 13 was discretionary. The decision not to commence actions under § 113 was therefore unreviewable. 5 U.S.C. § 701(a)(2); § 304(a)(2) of the Clean Air Act as added, 84 Stat. 1706, 42 U.S.C. § 1857h-2(a)(2). Our disposition of the case makes it unnecessary to reach this alternative ground for judgment in favor of the EPA respondents.
After the petition was filed, a divided panel of the Fifth Circuit concluded that § 118 does require federal facilities to secure a state operating permit and to comply with state "enforcement mechanisms." Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F.2d 1238 (1974), cert. pending, No. 7851. See also California v. Stastny, 382 F.Supp. 222 (CD Cl.1972).
"[The Congress shall have Power to] exercise exclusive Legislat[ive] . . . Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings. . . ."
Mayo v. United States, 319 U. S. 441, 319 U. S. 445 (1943) (footnote omitted).
United States v. United Mine Workers, 330 U. S. 258, 330 U. S. 272 (1947) (footnote omitted). See United States v. Herron, 20 Wall. 251, 87 U. S. 263 (1874); United States v. Knight, 14 Pet. 301, 39 U. S. 315 (1840).
United States v. Wittek, 337 U. S. 346, 337 U. S. 359 (1949) (footnote omitted).
Mayo v. United States, supra at 319 U. S. 447, 319 U. S. 448 (footnote omitted).
Kern-Limerick, Inc. v. Scurlock, 347 U. S. 110, 347 U. S. 122 (1954).
Paul v. United States, 371 U. S. 245, 371 U. S. 263 (1963).
California ex rel. State Water Resources Control Board v. EPA, 511 F.2d 963, 968 (CA9 1975), rev'd on other grounds, post, p. 426 U. S. 200.
California Pub. Util. Comm'n v. United States, 355 U. S. 534, 355 U. S. 54 (1958).
"the date or dates by which a source or category of sources is required to comply with specific emission limitations contained in an implementation plan and with any increments of progress toward such compliance."
Basically, a compliance schedule is a means by which a State phases in attainment with the ultimate emission limitations that must be achieved. See Train, 421 U.S. at 421 U. S. 68-69.
"Each department, agency, and instrumentality of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the Federal Government (1) having jurisdiction over any property or facility, or (2) engaged in any activity resulting, or which may result, in the discharge of air pollutants, shall comply with Federal, State, interstate, and local requirements respecting control and abatement of air pollution to the same extent that any person is subject to such requirements. The President may exempt any emission source of any department, agency, or instrumentality in the executive branch from compliance with such a requirement if he determines it to be in the paramount interest of the United States to do so, except that no exemption may be granted from section 111, and an exemption from section 112 may be granted only in accordance with section 112(c). No such exemption shall be granted due to lack of appropriation unless the President shall have specifically requested such appropriation as a part of the budgetary process and the Congress shall have failed to make available such requested appropriation. Any exemption shall be for a period not in excess of one year, but additional exemptions may be granted for periods of not to exceed one year upon the President's making a new determination. The President shall report each January to the Congress all exemptions from the requirements of this section granted during the preceding calendar year, together with his reason for granting each such exemption."
See 42 U.S.C. § 1857f(a) (1964 ed., Supp. V), supra at 171.
Brief for Petitioner 21 (emphasis added).
Id. at 30. Several States which have filed briefs as amici curiae join Kentucky in recognizing that the issue is whether a State may enforce its emission limitations against a federal installation. See Brief for Alabama as Amicus Curiae 4, 5, 37-38; Brief for California as Amicus Curiae 9.
Although use of a permit system may have been "encouraged" by the EPA as its "preferred approach," see Train, 421 U.S. at 421 U. S. 68-69, the EPA has never made a permit system to control emissions from existing stationary sources a mandatory part of an implementation plan. The closest the EPA has come to this was a provision in a proposed rulemaking, 36 Fed.Reg. 6680, 6682 (1971), later eliminated, id. at 15486, that might have been interpreted to mean that an implementation plan must include a system requiring permits for the construction and operation of modifications to existing sources that would be modified before the Administrator promulgated proposed standards of performance for new sources under § 111 of the Clean Air Act. Compare 42 U.S.C. § § 1857c-6(a)(2), (b), with 36 Fed.Reg. 6682 (1971), proposing 42 CFR § 420.11(a)(4).
"(A)(i) in the case of a plan implementing a national primary ambient air quality standard, it provides for the attainment of such primary standard as expeditiously as practicable but (subject to subsection (e)) in no case later than three years from the date of approval of such plan (or any revision thereof to take account of a revised primary standard); and (ii) in the case of a plan implementing a national secondary ambient air quality standard, it specifies a reasonable time at which such secondary standard will be attained;"
"(B) it includes emission limitations, schedules, and timetables for compliance with such limitations, and such other measures as may be necessary to insure attainment and maintenance of . . . primary or secondary standard[s], including, but not limited to, land use and transportation controls; [and]"
"(C) it includes provision for establishment and operation of appropriate devices, methods, systems, and procedures necessary to (i) monitor, compile, and analyze data on ambient air quality and, (ii) upon request, make such data available to the Administrator. . . ."
"nothing in this Act shall preclude or deny the right of any State . . . to adopt or enforce (1) any standard or limitation respecting emissions of air pollutants or (2) any requirement respecting control or abatement of air pollution; except that, if an emission standard or limitation is in effect under an applicable implementation plan or under section 111 or 112, such State . . . may not adopt or enforce any emission standard or limitation which is less stringent than the standard or limitation under such plan or section."
(Emphasis added.) Although the meaning of the italicized phrase in this section, which was added by the Conference Committee, see H.R.Conf.Rep. No. 91-1783, p. 48 (1970), 1 Leg.Hist.198, is not entirely clear, it seems plain that as employed in § 116 the phrase is not synonymous with "emission standards and limitations." As the Fifth Circuit observed in Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F.2d at 1245, the use of "or' in § 116 is clearly disjunctive." Yet it is agreed that, as used in § 118, the phrase does embrace such standards and limitations; indeed the EPA argues the two are synonymous.
"'standard or limitation respecting emissions of air pollutants' is a subcategory of the broader class of 'requirement[s] respecting control or abatement of air pollution.'"
Brief for Alabama as Amicus Curiae 20. To the contrary, from § 116 it appears more logical to conclude that "standards" and "requirements" are separate categories which, together, compose all measures which a State is not denied the right to adopt or enforce.
Unlike Kentucky and the Fifth Circuit, Alabama v. Seeber, supra at 1245-1246, which conclude that use of the phrase in § 116 elucidates its scope and meaning in § 118, we are unable to draw from § 116 any support for the position that Congress affirmatively declared that federal installations must secure state permits. To reaffirm, as does § 116, a State's inherent right as a general matter to employ permits in the exercise of its police power in the area of air pollution control may mean that the Federal Government has not preempted the area from state regulation, but does not constitute the kind of clear and unambiguous authorization necessary to subject federal installations and activities to state enforcement.
Provision in § 118 for Presidential exemption on a case-by-case basis and in the "paramount interest of the United States" from compliance with emission standards or compliance schedules does not clearly imply that federal installations are otherwise subject to the enforcement mechanisms of a state implementation plan.
H.R. 17255, 91st Cong., 2d Sess., § 10 (§ 111) (1970), 2 Leg.Hist. 938 (emphasis added).
H.R.Rep. No. 91-1146, supra, n 11, at 4, 2 Leg.Hist. 894 (emphasis added).
S. 4358, 91st Cong., 2d Sess., § 7 (§ 118(a)) (1970), 1 Leg.Hist. 573 (emphasis added).
S.Rep. No. 91-1196, supra, n 12, at 23, 1 Leg.Hist. 423 (emphasis added). Throughout the Senate amendment and in the Report the terms "requirements," "emission requirements," and "emission standards" were used interchangeably. Compare proposed § 118(a) ("requirements") and the Report ("emission standards") with proposed § 111(a)(2)(D) ("emission requirements"), 1 Leg.Hist. 545.
For example, only the Senate amendment equated the federal installation's duty to comply with "requirements" to any person's duty, a feature of § 118 as enacted. Similarly, only the Senate amendment, in § 118(b) (1 Leg.Hist. 574), provided that a State might sue in federal court to enforce the provisions of § 118(a). H.R.Conf.Rep. No. 91-1783, supra at 55, 1 Leg.Hist. 205. That provision was incorporated in the Amendments in § 304(a), through the definition of "person" retained in § 302(e), as added, 77 Stat. 400, 42 U.S.C.§ 1857h(e).
H.R.Conf.Rep. 91-1783, supra at 48, 1 Leg.Hist. 198. We are not persuaded by the argument that reference to the President's replacing the EPA Administrator as the one "responsible for assuring compliance by Federal agencies" only implicates the President's power to "exempt any emission source of any department, agency, or instrumentality in the executive branch from compliance with . . . a requirement." 42 U.S.C. § 1857f. Both the House and Senate Reports referred quite plainly to the power to exempt and to make exceptions when referring to the President's (or the Administrator's) power to act in the paramount interest of the United States on a case-by-case basis. S.Rep. No. 91-1196, supra at 23, 1 Leg.Hist. 423; H.R.Rep. No. 91-1146, supra at 15, 2 Leg.Hist. 905. Thus, reference in the Conference Report to the President's authority to assure compliance merely expresses what is implied by the very grant of authority to exempt some federal sources -- the authority, as to those installations subject to Presidential control, to enforce in the first instance the new regimen of federal compliance with primarily state formulated and administered implementation plans rests in the Federal Government, not in the States.
Brief for Petitioner 33, quoting Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F.2d at 1244.
Regulation of "new sources" of air pollutants, by EPA-promulgated "standards of performance" (see infra, n 59), is provided for in § 111 of the Clean Air Act, as added, 84 Stat. 1683, 42 U.S.C. § 1857c-6.
Regulation of "hazardous air pollutants" is provided for in § 112 of the Clean Air Act, as added, 84 Stat. 1685, 42 U.S.C. § 1857c-7.
"a standard for emissions of air pollutants which reflects the degree of emission limitation achievable through the application of the best system of emission reduction which (taking into account the cost of achieving such reduction) the Administrator determines has been adequately demonstrated."
S. 4358, § 7 (§ 118(b)), 1 Leg.Hist. 574. See n 53, supra.
Reply Brief for Petitioner 15-16.
"to require the enforcement of, the provisions of this Act including any applicable schedule or timetable of compliance, emission requirement, standard of performance, emission standard, or prohibition established pursuant to this Act . . . against any person, including, but not limited to, a governmental instrumentality or agency. . . ."
S. 4358, § 9 (§ 304(a)(1)), 1 Leg.Hist. 704. Because the Senate amendment retained previously enacted § 302(e) of the Clean Air Act, see n 53, supra, defining "person" as "an individual, corporation, partnership, association, State, municipality, and political subdivision of a State," it is clear, as the Senate Report confirms, that, in the Senate amendment, it was only by virtue of § 118 that a State could sue a federal facility for enforcement in district court under § 304. S.Rep. No. 91-1196, supra at 37, 1 Leg.Hist. 437.
See United States v. United Mine Workers, 330 U.S. at 330 U. S. 273.
The Senate Committee on Public Works has recently reported such legislation. See S.Rep. No. 9717 (1976).
Tr. of Oral Arg. 22.

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 § 1251
 § 1857
 § 50
 § 108
 § 1857
 v. 
 § 1857
 § 118
 v. 
 § 5
 § 2
 § 5
 § 5
 § 5
 § 5
 § 118
 § 1857
 § 113
 § 1
 § 113
 § 701
 § 304
 § 1857
 § 118
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 § 1857
 § 111
 § 1857
 § 420
 § 116
 v. 
 § 116
 § 118
 § 116
 v. 
 § 116
 § 118
 § 116
 § 116
 § 118
 § 10
 § 7
 § 118
 § 111
 § 118
 § 118
 § 118
 § 304
 § 302
 § 1857
 v. 
 § 111
 § 1857
 § 112
 § 1857
 § 7
 § 9
 § 302
 § 118
 § 304
 v.