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Environmental law is global in its reach. Multinational companies make business plans based on the laws and regulations of the countries in which they are headquartered and have manufacturing facilities as well as the countries in which they distribute and sell their products. Moreover, multinational companies have global environmental, health and safety goals and practices that tend to be worldwide in their scope for reasons of policy and operational consistency.
For these and other reasons, this third edition of The Environment and Climate Change Law Review is timely and significant. This book offers a review, by leading environmental lawyers, of significant environmental laws and issues in their respective countries around the world, with updates since last year's edition.
Climate change continues to dominate international environmental efforts, and we have also witnessed efforts to promote sustainability. Many countries are making efforts to promote conservation and renewable or green energy. Changes in reliance on coal and nuclear energy have impacts on the demand for other energy sources. All of these changes have impacts on efforts to reduce greenhouse gases.
Environmental law continues to change and evolve, as new regulations are adopted and existing rules are amended or challenged in courts or interpreted by agencies. In the United States, 2017 has seen the election of a new President and an administration that have different priorities in the related areas of environment and energy. Future editions of this book will continue to focus on changes and developments.
This book presents an overview and, of necessity, omits many details. The book should thus be viewed as a starting point rather than a comprehensive guide. Each chapter of this book, including mine, represents the views of the author in his or her individual capacity, and does not necessarily reflect the views of the authors' firms or clients, or the authors of other chapters, or my views as the editor. This book does not provide legal advice, which should be obtained from the reader's own lawyers.
1 Jacquelyn F MacLennan is a partner and Tallat S Hussain is environmental counsel at White & Case LLP. The authors wish to thank Charlotte Van Haute and Vanessa Kempeneers for their assistance.
2 In November 1973, the First Environmental Action Programme was agreed, reflecting concerns about the `limits of growth' discussed at the first UN Conference on Environment in Stockholm in 1972. In March 2018, the European Parliament adopted a report on the implementation of the Programme, see http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A8-20180059+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN, accessed 5 December 2018.
3 The tools available for the European Union to achieve these goals are: better implementation of legislation; better information by improving the knowledge base; more and wiser investment for environment and climate policy; and full integration of environmental requirements and considerations into other policies, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/action-programme, accessed 5 December 2018.
4 Mission Statement of the President of the European Commission to the Commissioner for Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/cwt/files/vella_en.pdf, accessed 5 December 2018.
5 December 2018. Member States are scheduled to submit their draft National Climate and Energy Plans for the achievement of the 2030 climate and energy targets to the Commission by the end of 2018.
In the wake of the Paris Agreement9 and reflecting the European Union's prominent role in combating climate change impact, the political focus remains on environmental sustainability and tackling climate change.10 This is further reflected in the Commission's new long-term strategy to reach a climate-neutral economy by 2050. The importance of reducing CO2 emissions by 2030 was underscored by the President of the European Commission in his 2018 State of the Union Address.11 The proposed EU budget for the period 2021 to 2027 also foresees increased funding to support environment and climate action.
II LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK Environmental legislation in the European Union does not have a long history. The European Union's founding treaty, the Treaty of Rome, made no mention of environmental policy, and it was not until a 1973 European Council Declaration12 that environmental issues were even addressed in EU law and policy. Over the years and through various treaty revisions, the European Union has developed an environmental protection and climate change framework.13 Today, Article 3(3) of the Treaty on European Union (TEU), inserted by the 2009 Lisbon Treaty, lists among the European Union's objectives `sustainable development . . . based on . . . inter alia a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment'. Environmental policy is now listed as an element in the completion of the internal market through Article 114(3) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).
environmental problems, and in particular combating climate change.
of the Member States meeting in the Council of 22 November 1973 on the programme of action of the European Communities on the environment OJ C 112, 20.12.1973, pp. 153. In 1967, the Directive for harmonised classification and the labelling of dangerous chemicals was adopted (but not finalised until 1973). 13 See Sections II to IV for important parts of that framework; see also the Commission's website for an overview, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/index_en.htm, accessed 5 December 2018. 14 The European Union is also contributing to the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, which are now included in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the European Union and its Member States, see http://ec.europa.eu/environment/sustainable-development/SDGs/ implementation/index_en.htm, accessed 5 December 2018.
15 The precautionary principle is an approach to risk management that is based on the possibility that a given policy or action might cause harm to the public or the environment and if there is still no scientific consensus on the issue, the policy or action in question should not be pursued. Once more scientific information becomes available, the situation should be reviewed.
16 These were introduced into the Treaties by the Single European Act 1987 and are now contained in Article 191(2) TFEU.
17 EU environmental law must take account of available scientific and technical data, environmental conditions in the various geographic regions of the European Union, the potential benefits and costs of action or inaction, and the economic and social development of the European Union as a whole as well as the balanced development of its regions (see Article 192(3) TFEU). Legal acts adopted pursuant to Article 192 TFEU do not prevent Member States from maintaining or introducing more stringent protection measures, so long as such measures are compatible with the TEU and TFEU and are notified to the Commission (see Article 193 TFEU).
18 Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No. 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC OJ L 396, 30 December 2006, pp. 1850.
19 Article 288 TFEU provides: `[t]o exercise the Union's competences, the institutions shall adopt regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations and opinions'.
20 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora.
21 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives (Text with EEA relevance) OJ L 312, 22 November 2008, pp. 330.
22 Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe OJ L 152, 11 June 2008, pp. 144.
Finally, and beyond the European Union's specific environmental competences, the TFEU contains a horizontal environmental clause in Article 11, which requires environmental protection to be integrated into the definition and implementation of all EU policies and activities, in particular with a view to promoting sustainable development.29 This statement is echoed in Article 37 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (the Charter), which was incorporated into the EU Treaty from the Lisbon Treaty in 2009), raising the status of environmental protection to a fundamental right.
Justice in Environmental Matters, adopted on 25 1998, www.unece.org/env/pp/treatytext.html, accessed 5 December 2018; the Aarhus Convention has been implemented through various EU directives, including Directive 2003/4/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2003 on public access to environmental information, as well as regulations which align the internal procedures of EU institutions to the Convention. 27 The Kyoto Protocol sets internationally binding emission reduction targets. Both the European Union and its Member States are signatories. 28 The Paris Agreement, adopted on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016, http:// unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php, accessed on 5 December 2018. A work programme to fully implement the Paris Agreement was published on 20 June 2017. 29 On 27 June 2017, the European Parliament published a report on `EU action for sustainability', see http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A8-20170239+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN, accessed 5 December 2018. 30 See, e.g., https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-making-process/planning-and-proposing-law/ better-regulation-why-and-how_en, accessed 5 December 2018.
scrutinised and formally adopted by the European Council and the European Parliament, the Commission acts as the initial proposer of legislation in the EU legislative process. Article 17 TEU identifies the Commission's role as ensuring the application of the Treaties, including their environmental provisions, and secondary measures (such as directives and regulations). The Commission is also often described as the `Guardian of the Treaties' for the European Union.31 If the Commission considers that a Member State has failed to fulfil its EU environmental law (or other) obligations, it may bring infringement proceedings, as described in Section IV, infra.
The department of the Commission responsible for fulfilling its general functions in the environmental sphere is the Directorate-General for Environment, which has a staff of just over 500. In 2010, a new Directorate-General for Climate Action was created, responsible for dealing with consequences of climate change and implementing the EU ETS.32 The Directorate-General for Energy is responsible for energy policy, and these three Directorate Generals have to work together closely, recognising the importance of energy policy in creating a sustainable environment.
Regulation 933/1999 and EC Regulation 401/2009), the European Environment Agency has been operational since 1994. It has 33 member countries, including the 28 EU Member States and Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey, www.eea.europa.eu, accessed 5 December 2018. 34 For some of the more significant cases before the CJEU relating to environmental issues such as air, waste, water and nature conservation see http://ec.europa.eu/environment/legal/law/pdf/leading_cases_en.pdf, accessed 5 December 2018. 35 The EU institutions include the Commission, Council and European Parliament.
If the Commission considers a Member State has failed to fulfil an obligation under the Treaties, including complying with EU environmental treaty obligations and implementing EU legal acts in the environmental sphere, it is responsible for bringing infringement proceedings against the Member State in question, under Article 258 TFEU. The Commission will first deliver a reasoned opinion on the matter after giving the Member State concerned the opportunity to make submissions. If the Member State concerned does not comply with the opinion of the Commission within the prescribed period, the Commission may bring the matter before the CJEU.39 There are numerous examples of the Commission using Article 258 TFEU to ensure that Member States properly implement EU environmental legislation, such as directives like the Waste Framework Directive.
For example, in a recent case against the UK government, the CJEU found a Welsh coal plant, Aberthaw power station, in breach of the nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions limits set out in the Large Combustion Plants Directive (Directive 2010/75).40 The CJEU judgment confirmed the Commission's finding that the power station had emitted more than double the relevant NOx since 2008. Consequently, the United Kingdom is required to take measures necessary to comply with the judgment and if it still fails to act, the Commission may open another infringement procedure under Article 260 TFEU, with only one written warning before referring it back to the CJEU.41 The CJEU has the power to impose a financial penalty on a non-compliant Member State, depending on the duration and severity of the infringement. Recent examples of penalties being imposed by the CJEU have been against Italy and Greece in the context of the Waste Framework Directive.42 These cases demonstrate the magnitude of financial penalties that the CJEU may impose on Member States that do not comply with its judgments: Greece was ordered to pay a lump sum of 10 million and 14.52 million for every further six months of non-compliance, and Italy was ordered to pay a 40 million lump sum and 42.8 million for every further six months of non-compliance.
at 107; and C-583/11 P, Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and Others v. European Parliament and Council of the European Union, ECLI:EU:C:2013:625. The Commission recognises the access to justice concern and in April 2017 issued an interpretative communication aimed at providing clarity on the application of the law; see http://ec.europa.eu/environment/aarhus/pdf/notice_accesstojustice.pdf, accessed 5 December 2018. 38 See Article 267 TFEU. 39 The Commission's power of enforcement under Article 258 TFEU is discretionary http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/legal/law/procedure.htm, accessed 5 December 2018. 40 C-304/15, Commission v. United Kingdom, ECLI:EU:C:2016:706. 41 The implications of Brexit for UK environmental policy are not covered in this chapter. 42 C-378/13, European Commission v. Hellenic Republic, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2405 and C-196/13, European Commission v. Italian Republic, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2407.
43 Directive 2004/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage.
44 On 28 February 2017, the Multi-Annual Work Programme (20172020) `Making the Environmental Liability Directive more fit for purpose' has been developed in response to the REFIT evaluation. The goal of the work programme is to make the ELD deliver better on its original objectives (to prevent and to remedy environmental damage based on the polluter-pays principle) and thus to contribute to a better environment by preserving natural resources (biodiversity, water, land) in the European Union. The Multi-Annual Work Programme is aimed to be updated annually to changing developments, growing knowledge and new needs: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/legal/liability/pdf/MAWP_2017_2020.pdf, accessed 5 December 2018.
`criminal' by Member States is set out in the Environmental Crime Directive (Directive 2008/99/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on the protection of the environment through criminal law (Text with EEA relevance) OJ L 328, 6.12.2008, pp. 2837). 48 C-534/13 Ministero dell'Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare and Others v. Fipa Group srl and Others, ECLI:EU:C:2015:140. 49 C-529/15 Folk, ECLI:EU:C:2017:419. 50 Directive 2013/34/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on the annual financial statements, consolidated financial statements and related reports of certain types of undertakings, amending Directive 2006/43/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directives 78/660/EEC and 83/349/EEC (Text with EEA relevance) (OJ L 182, 29.6.2013, p. 19), see in particular Articles 19 and 29a. 51 http://ec.europa.eu/finance/company-reporting/non-financial_reporting/index_en.htm#related-documents, accessed 5 December 2018.
VI ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION As discussed above, over the years, the European Union has developed a complex regime of environmental protection legislation on air and water quality, chemicals, and solid and hazardous waste, which is law in EU Member States. Other initiatives of the European Union (e.g., concerning single-use plastics) are only at an early stage at present.
i Air quality Air Quality Framework Directive Directive 2008/50 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe (Air Quality Framework Directive (AQFD))52 updates and draws into one instrument almost all EU directives on air quality management, including air quality standards and targets for particular pollutants such as SO2, NOx, lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), benzene, PM-10, PM-2.5 and ozone.
The AQFD first sets up a regime for the monitoring and assessment of ambient air quality, for the collection, exchange and dissemination of air quality information and to better understand the impacts of air pollution for the development of appropriate policies.53 Air quality assessment occurs in `zones of agglomerations',54 established by Member States. This allows areas with relatively common air quality characteristics to be assessed together. Physical monitoring is only required in zones where concentrations of relevant pollutants are above certain thresholds set by the Directive.55 Otherwise, modelling or objective-estimation techniques suffice to generate the relevant data.56 In all events, scientific methods are central to Member States establishing and meeting their assessment obligations.
52 Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe OJ L 152, 11.6.2008, pp. 144.
53 ibidem., Recital 21. 54 Article 4. 55 Annex II. 56 Article 6(3) and (4). 57 Chapter III. 58 Article 2(10). 59 Article 23. 60 Article 24. 61 Article 25. 62 Article 23(1).
industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control) Text with EEA relevance OJ L 334, 17 December 2010, pp. 17119. 69 That meet the criteria in Annex I of the IED. 70 Ibidem, Article 4. 71 Article 5 et seq. 72 Article 11. 73 http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/BREF/LCP/JRC107769_LCP_bref2017.pdf, accessed 5 December 2018.
ii Water quality The European Union's regulation of water quality standards is primarily through Directive 2000/60/EC, the Water Framework Directive.80 Addressing both diffuse and point-source pollution, and establishing binding targets for water quantity and quality in relation to a wide range of water bodies, the Directive is both comprehensive and holistic.81 There is also issue-specific legislation such as the Directive on environmental quality standards (water policy)82 and the Directive on groundwater83 (requiring Member States to take all measures necessary to prevent inputs into groundwater of hazardous substances).
limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air from medium combustion plants (Text with EEA relevance) OJ L 313, 28.11.2015, pp. 119. 80 Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for the Community action in the field of water policy. 81 Compare with European Community Water Policy COM (1996) 59 final. 82 Directive 2008/105/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on environmental quality standards in the field of water policy, amending and subsequently repealing Council Directives 82/176/EEC, 83/513/EEC, 84/156/EEC, 84/491/EEC, 86/280/EEC and amending Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. OJ L 348, 24.12.2008, pp. 8497. 83 Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2000 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration. 84 The Waste Framework Directive, Article 3(1); Member States must also draw up river basin management plans, either individually or collectively, for transboundary rivers, and publish their plans and send copies to the Commission.
iiiChemicals Chemicals are regulated at an EU level by the REACH Regulation.90 In principle, all chemical substances fall within the scope of that Regulation, whether they are used in industrial processes or day-to-day products, as well as products made of those substances.91 Moreover, REACH establishes obligations for the entirety of the supply chain. In general, to comply with REACH, companies must identify and manage the risks linked to the substances they manufacture and market or import in the European Union: they have to demonstrate to the European Chemical Agency (ECHA) how the substances can safely be used and must communicate risk management measures to users. If the risk cannot be managed, ECHA, together with the Commission and Member States, can ban hazardous substances or decide to restrict a use or make it subject to prior authorisation.
ECLI:EU:C:2015:433. 88 ibidem., Article 10. 89 ibidem., Article 4(1)(a)(i). 90 Cited above. 91 ibidem., Title I, Chapter 1. 92 REACH Title II, Chapter 2. 93 REACH Title II, Chapters 1 and 2. 94 ibidem. 95 REACH Title II. 96 REACH Article 23.
97 See e.g. https://echa.europa.eu/-/300-people-gather-in-helsinki-for-last-minute-advice-ahead-of-thefinal-registration-deadline-for-chemicals, accessed 5 December 2018.
(FCD) and Fdration des magasins de bricolage et de l'amnagement de la maison (FMB) v. Ministre de l'cologie, du dveloppement durable et de l'nergie, ECLI:EU:C:2015:576) has clarified the scope of the duty to notify under REACH in respect of SVHCs. 104 REACH Title V. 105 REACH Annex XIII. 106 REACH Title VII. 107 C-290/13 P, Rtgers Germany GmbH and Others v. European Chemicals Agency, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2174. 108 ibidem. 109 REACH Title VII, Chapter 2. 110 REACH Title VII.
for appropriate disposal or recovery any of its stock of raw materials that cannot be returned; and c `requirement to discard' includes stockpiles of banned pesticides that must be discarded and therefore must be managed as waste.
by the CJEU, as well as national courts, from the late 1980s to the present day, in particular as to the meanings of `discard', `intention to discard' and `requirement to discard'. 118 Wastewater Framework Directive, Article 2. 119 ibidem.
or revise waste management plans under the Waste Framework Directive. See http://europa.eu/rapid/ press-release_IP-18-3987_en.htm, accessed 5 December 2018. 129 See, for example, C-378/13, European Commission v. Hellenic Republic, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2405 and C-196/13, European Commission v. Italian Republic, ECLI:EU:C:2014:2407. The Commission issued a report on 27 February 2017 assessing the implementation of the Waste Framework Directive (20102012): http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=COM:2017:0088:FIN, accessed 5 December 2018.
vPlastics In January 2018, the Commission adopted an EU-wide strategy on plastics, including a plan to make all plastic packaging on the EU market recyclable by 2030, a reduction of single-use plastics and restrictions on the use of microplastics. The Commission also adopted a Monitoring Framework, composed of a set of 10 indicators, which will measure progress towards the transition to a circular economy at EU and national levels.
On 28 May 2018, the Commission issued a proposal for a Directive banning or reducing 10 single-use plastics causing marine litter.134 Where alternatives are readily available and affordable, the Commission proposes to ban single-use plastic products from the EU market. For products without straightforward alternatives, the Commission proposes to limit their use through a national reduction in consumption, design and labelling requirements, and waste management or clean-up obligations for producers. At the time of writing, the proposal was being discussed among the institutions (the Commission, the European Parliament and the Council).
130 European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste.
131 Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on end-oflife vehicles (OJ L 269, 21.10.2000, p. 34). The Commission issued a report on 27 February 2017 assessing the implementation of the End-of-Life Vehicles Directive (2008-2011 and 2011-2014): http://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52017DC0098 accessed 5 December 2018.
132 Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC OJ L 266, 26 September 2006, pp. 114.
133 Regulation (EC) No. 1013/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 June 2006 on shipments of waste.
134 See http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/pdf/single-use_plastics_proposal.pdf, accessed 5 December 2018.
135 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/process_en.htm, accessed 5 December 2018. 136 ibidem.
Internally, the European Union has adopted as a central policy the `2030 Climate and Energy Package',138 a range of climate change measures with three key targets: achieving a 40 per cent cut in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels), 27 per cent of EU energy from renewables and 27 per cent improvement in energy efficiency.
of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/ EC and 2003/30/EC (Text with EEA relevance) OJ L 140, 5 June 2009, pp. 1662. 140 It was recently reported that 11 EU Member States have already achieved their 2020 targets on the share of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of energy. Sweden had the highest share in 2016 (53.8 per cent), ahead of Finland (38.7 per cent), Latvia (37.2 per cent), Austria (33.5 per cent) and Denmark (32.2 per cent). The lowest proportions of renewables were registered in Luxembourg (5.4 per cent), Malta and the Netherlands (both 6 per cent). See https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521 /8612324/8-25012018-AP-EN.pdf/9d28caef-1961-4dd1-a901-af18f121fb2d, accessed 5 December 2018. 141 See Directive 2012/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and repealing Directives 2004/8/EC and 2006/32/EC, also https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/news/commission-proposes-new-rule s-consumer-centred-clean-energy-transition, accessed 5 December 2018. 142 https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/effort_en, accessed 5 December 2018. 143 Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the geological storage of carbon dioxide and amending Council Directive 85/337/EEC, European Parliament and Council Directives 2000/60/EC, 2001/80/EC, 2004/35/EC, 2006/12/EC, 2008/1/EC and Regulation (EC) No. 1013/2006 (Text with EEA relevance) OJ L 140, 5 June 2009, pp. 114135. 144 The overall targets for a low-emission mobility sector have been presented by the Commission in a Communication. This set of new measures includes: a proposal for a Regulation on new emission performance standards for new passenger cars and for new light commercial vehicles, the Clean Vehicle Directive, an Action Plan for the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure across Europe, the Combined Transport Directive, the Directive on Passenger Coach Services and the battery initiative. See https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/road/news/2017-11-08-driving-clean-mobility_en, accessed 14 December 2017. 145 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-18-6543_en.htm, accessed 5 December 2018.
For installations to receive free allowance allocations, they must meet the relevant sector's benchmarks.153 For those installations that are not at a significant risk of carbon leakage, free allowances decline annually, to 30 per cent of all allowances in 2020 and no free allowances available in 2027.154 The power generation sector is not eligible for free allocation, except under special conditions in a few Member States.
146 The Commission strategy does not set targets or propose new initiatives to be taken. The purpose of the strategy is to start an EU-wide debate, which should allow the European Union to adopt a strategy by early 2020 for the UNFCCC, as requested under the Paris Agreement.
147 Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC (Text with EEA relevance).
as of 2021 and reinforcing the above-mentioned market stability reserve; (2) continuing the free allocation of allowances as a safeguard for the international competitiveness of industrial sectors at risk of carbon leakage; and (3) helping industry and the power sector to meet the innovation and investment challenges of the low-carbon transition via several low-carbon funding mechanisms.
the period after 2020. The text will now have to be formally approved by the European Parliament and the Council, see https://ec.europa.eu/clima/news/eu-emissions-trading-system-landmark-agreement-betwe en-parliament-and-council-delivers-eus_en, accessed 5 December 2018. 157 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/energy-package-clean-energy-all-europeans, accessed 5 December 2018. 158 Directive (EU) 2018/844 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 amending Directive 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings and Directive 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency, available here: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?toc=OJ%3AL%3A2018%3A1 56%3ATOC&uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2018.156.01.0075.01.ENG, accessed 5 December 2018. 159 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-18-6383_en.htm, accessed 5 December 2018. 160 On 7 November 2017, the Commission published a report assessing the progress made towards meeting the European Union's climate commitments two years after the adoption of the Paris Agreement: COM(2017) 646 final of 7 November 2017 `Two years after Paris, progress towards meeting the EU's climate commitments'. 161 See also the recent Commission report on the implementation of the EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change: COM(2018) 738 final of 12 November 2018. 162 www.eea.europa.eu/environmental-time-line/the-next-50-years, accessed 5 December 2018. 163 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/action-programme, accessed 5 December 2018.
JACQUELYN F MACLENNAN White & Case LLP Jacquelyn MacLennan has practised EU environmental law in Brussels for more than 25 years. She represents major multinational corporations, governments, trade associations and NGOs, focusing on EU and international regulations (e.g., REACH, RoHS, WEEE, other chemicals and packaging regulation, environmental impact assessments, Aarhus Convention, Montreal Convention, Kyoto Convention and Paris Agreement, and emissions trading regulations). She also advises on EU competition law, trade law and internal market regulatory issues, and specialises in problems in the interface of environmental law with these other areas of EU law. Jacquelyn litigates regularly before the EU and UK courts, and represents clients before the European Commission. She is recognised as a Leading Lawyer: Environment: EU Regulatory Belgium, Chambers Europe 2018. She regularly teaches EU law and speaks at conferences on the subject of environmental law. She is an Honorary Fellow at the Europa Institute of the University of Edinburgh. TALLAT S HUSSAIN White & Case LLP Tallat Hussain is senior environmental counsel in the project development and finance group at White & Case LLP in London. She is an environmental lawyer with over 20 years of public and private sector experience in the United Kingdom, Europe, the Americas and throughout EMEA. Her extensive practice includes representing corporate and financial clients in various sectors, including infrastructure, oil and gas, mining, manufacturing and renewable power, with an emphasis on regulatory compliance and environmental and social impact assessment. Much of her work focuses on various international requirements such as the Equator Principles, IFC Performance Standards and OECD Guidelines. Tallat has diverse experience with climate change issues at local, international and regional levels. She also advises on corporate social responsibility, human rights and sustainability issues, including climate change policy and sustainable finance mechanisms such as green bonds and loans. Tallat sits on the legal advisory group of the Climate Bonds Initiative and the core advisory group for the UK Green Finance Initiative.

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