Source: https://chemweb.com/articles/SV10541/0007900003
Timestamp: 2019-04-22 02:08:04+00:00

Document:
Geological evidence of oxygenic photosynthesis and the biotic response to the 2400-2200 Ma “Great Oxidation Event” by J. William Schopf (165-177).
Fossil evidence of photosynthesis, documented in the geological record by microbially laminated stromatolites, microscopic fossils, and carbon isotopic data consistent with the presence of Rubisco-mediated CO2-fixation, extends to ∼3500 million years ago. Such evidence, however, does not resolve the time of origin of oxygenic photosynthesis from its anoxygenic photosynthetic evolutionary precursor. Though it is evident that cyanobacteria, the earliest-evolved O2-producing photoautotrophs, existed before ∼2450 million years ago — the onset of the “Great Oxidation Event” (GOE) that forever altered Earth’s environment — O2-producing photosynthesis seems certain to have originated hundreds of millions of years earlier. How did Earth’s biota respond to the GOE? Four lines of evidence are here suggested to reflect this major environmental transition: (1) rRNA phylogeny-correlated metabolic and biosynthetic pathways document evolution from an anaerobic (pre-GOE) to a dominantly oxygen-requiring (post-GOE) biosphere; (2) consistent with the rRNA phylogeny of cyanobacteria, their fossil record evidences the immediately post-GOE presence of cyanobacterial nostocaceans characterized by specialized cells that protect their oxygen-labile nitrogenase enzyme system; (3) the earliest known fossil eukaryotes, obligately aerobic phytoplankton and putative algae, closely post-date the GOE; and (4) microbial sulfuretums are earliest known from rocks deposited during and immediately after the GOE, their apparent proliferation evidently spurred by an increase of environmental oxygen and a resulting upsurge of metabolically useable sulfate and nitrate. Though the biotic response to the GOE is a question new to paleobiology that is yet largely unexplored, additional evidence of its impact seems certain to be uncovered.
Thirty years of chlorophyll modeling by G. R. Seely (178-184).
This paper summarizes the progress over approximately thirty-year’s work of the author in developing a model of photosynthesis involving chlorophyll on polymeric substrates that would photosensitize endergonic electron transfer. The system finally achieved might, with proper modifications, serve as a means of generating power from solar energy.
Photosystem II: Its function, structure, and implications for artificial photosynthesis by James Barber (185-196).
Somewhere in the region of 3 billion years ago an enzyme emerged which would dramatically change the chemical composition of our planet and set in motion an unprecedented explosion in biological activity. This enzyme used solar energy to power the thermodynamically and chemically demanding reaction of water splitting. In so doing it provided biology with an unlimited supply of hydrogen equivalents needed to convert carbon dioxide into the organic molecules of life. The enzyme, which facilitates this reaction and therefore underpins virtually all life on our planet, is known as Photosystem II (PSII). It is a multisubunit enzyme embedded in the lipid environment of the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Over the past 10 years, crystal structures of a 700 kDa cyanobacterial dimeric PSII complex have been reported with ever increasing improvement in resolution with the latest being at 1.9 details of its many subunits and cofactors are now well understood. The water splitting site was revealed as a cluster of four Mn ions and a Ca ion surrounded by amino acid side chains, of which seven provide ligands to the metals. The metal cluster is organized as a cubane-like structure composed of three Mn ions and the Ca2+ linked by oxo-bonds with the fourth Mn attached to the cubane via one of its bridging oxygens together with another oxo bridge to a Mn ion of the cubane. The overall structure of the catalytic site is providing a framework on which to develop a mechanistic scheme for the water splitting process and gives a blue print and confidence for the development of catalysts for mimicking the reaction in an artificial photo-electrochemical system to generate solar fuels.
Primary radical ion pairs in photosystem II core complexes by V. A. Nadtochenko; I. V. Shelaev; M. D. Mamedov; A. Ya. Shkuropatov; A. Yu. Semenov; V. A. Shuvalov (197-204).
Ultrafast absorption spectroscopy with 20-fs resolution was applied to study primary charge separation in spinach photosystem II (PSII) reaction center (RC) and PSII core complex (RC complex with integral antenna) upon excitation at maximum wavelength 700–710 nm at 278 K. It was found that the initial charge separation between P680* and ChlD1 (Chl-670) takes place with a time constant of ∼1 ps with the formation of the primary charge-separated state P680* with an admixture of: P680*(1−δ) (P680δ+1Chl D1 δ− ), where δ ∼ 0.5. The subsequent electron transfer from P680δ+Chl D1 δ− to pheophytin (Pheo) occurs within 13 ps and is accompanied by a relaxation of the absorption band at 670 nm (Chl D1 δ− ) and bleaching of the PheoD1 bands at 420, 545, and 680 nm with development of the Pheoband at 460 nm. Further electron transfer to QA occurs within 250 ps in accordance with earlier data. The spectra of P680+ and Pheo− formation include a bleaching band at 670 nm; this indicates that Chl-670 is an intermediate between P680 and Pheo. Stimulated emission kinetics at 685 nm demonstrate the existence of two decaying components with time constants of ∼1 and ∼13 ps due to the formation of P680δ+Chl D1 δ− and P680+Pheo D1 − , respectively.
Interaction of molecular oxygen with the donor side of photosystem II after destruction of the water-oxidizing complex by D. V. Yanykin; A. A. Khorobrykh; O. M. Zastrizhnaya; V. V. Klimov (205-212).
Photosystem II (PSII) is a pigment-protein complex of thylakoid membrane of higher plants, algae, and cyanobacteria where light energy is used for oxidation of water and reduction of plastoquinone. Light-dependent reactions (generation of excited states of pigments, electron transfer, water oxidation) taking place in PSII can lead to the formation of reactive oxygen species. In this review attention is focused on the problem of interaction of molecular oxygen with the donor site of PSII, where after the removal of manganese from the water-oxidizing complex illumination induces formation of long-lived states (P680+· and TyrZ·) capable of oxidizing surrounding organic molecules to form radicals.
Long-wavelength chlorophylls in photosystem I of cyanobacteria: Origin, localization, and functions by N. V. Karapetyan; Yu. V. Bolychevtseva; N. P. Yurina; I. V. Terekhova; V. V. Shubin; M. Brecht (213-220).
The structural organization of photosystem I (PSI) complexes in cyanobacteria and the origin of the PSI antenna long-wavelength chlorophylls and their role in energy migration, charge separation, and dissipation of excess absorbed energy are discussed. The PSI complex in cyanobacterial membranes is organized preferentially as a trimer with the core antenna enriched with long-wavelength chlorophylls. The contents of long-wavelength chlorophylls and their spectral characteristics in PSI trimers and monomers are species-specific. Chlorophyll aggregates in PSI antenna are potential candidates for the role of the long-wavelength chlorophylls. The red-most chlorophylls in PSI trimers of the cyanobacteria Arthrospira platensis and Thermosynechococcus elongatus can be formed as a result of interaction of pigments peripherally localized on different monomeric complexes within the PSI trimers. Long-wavelength chlorophylls affect weakly energy equilibration within the heterogeneous PSI antenna, but they significantly delay energy trapping by P700. When the reaction center is open, energy absorbed by long-wavelength chlorophylls migrates to P700 at physiological temperatures, causing its oxidation. When the PSI reaction center is closed, the P700 cation radical or P700 triplet state (depending on the P700 redox state and the PSI acceptor side cofactors) efficiently quench the fluorescence of the long-wavelength chlorophylls of PSI and thus protect the complex against photodestruction.
Mechanism of primary and secondary ion-radical pair formation in photosystem I complexes by G. E. Milanovsky; V. V. Ptushenko; D. A. Cherepanov; A. Yu. Semenov (221-226).
The mechanisms of the ultrafast charge separation in reaction centers of photosystem I (PS I) complexes are discussed. A kinetic model of the primary reactions in PS I complexes is presented. The model takes into account previously calculated values of redox potentials of cofactors, reorganization energies of the primary P700+A 0 - and secondary P700+A 1 - ion-radical pairs formation, and the possibility of electron transfer via both symmetric branches A and B of redox-cofactors. The model assumes that the primary electron acceptor A0 in PS I is represented by a dimer of chlorophyll molecules Chl2A/Chl3A and Chl2B/Chl3B in branches A and B of the cofactors. The characteristic times of formation of P700+A 0 - and P700+A 1 - calculated on the basis of the model are close to the experimental values obtained by pump-probe femtosecond absorption spectroscopy. It is demonstrated that a small difference in the values of redox potentials between the primary electron acceptors A0A and A0B in branches A and B leads to asymmetry of the electron transfer in a ratio of 70: 30 in favor of branch A. The secondary charge separation is thermodynamically irreversible in the submicrosecond range and is accompanied by additional increase in asymmetry between the branches of cofactors of PS I.
Efficiency of photochemical stages of photosynthesis in purple bacteria (A critical survey) by A. Yu. Borisov (227-234).
Based on currently available data, the energy transfer efficiency in the successive photophysical and photochemical stages has been analyzed for purple bacteria. This analysis covers the stages starting from migration of the light-induced electronic excitations from the bulk antenna pigments to the reaction centers up to irreversible stage of the electron transport along the transmembrane chain of cofactors-carriers. Some natural factors are revealed that significantly increase the rates of efficient processes in these stages. The influence on their efficiency by the “bottleneck” in the energy migration chain is established. The overall quantum yield of photosynthesis in these stages is determined.
Singlet-triplet fission of carotenoid excitation in light-harvesting LH2 complexes of purple phototrophic bacteria by I. B. Klenina; Z. K. Makhneva; A. A. Moskalenko; N. D. Gudkov; M. A. Bolshakov; E. A. Pavlova; I. I. Proskuryakov (235-241).
The current generally accepted structure of light-harvesting LH2 complexes from purple phototrophic bacteria conflicts with the observation of singlet-triplet carotenoid excitation fission in these complexes. In LH2 complexes from the purple bacterium Allochromatium minutissimum, a drop in the efficiency of carotenoid triplet generation is demonstrated, which correlates with the extent of selective photooxidation of bacteriochlorophylls absorbing at ∼850 nm. We conclude that singlet-triplet fission of carotenoid excitation proceeds with participation of these excitonically coupled bacteriochlorophylls. In the framework of the proposed mechanism, the contradiction between LH2 structure and photophysical properties of carotenoids is eliminated. The possibility of singlet-triplet excitation fission involving a third mediator molecule was not considered earlier.
From localized excited states to excitons: Changing of conceptions of primary photosynthetic processes in the twentieth century by R. Y. Pishchalnikov; A. P. Razjivin (242-250).
A short description of two theories of the primary photosynthetic processes is given. Generally accepted in 1950s–1990s, the localized excited states theory has been changed to the modern exciton theory. Appearance of the new experimental data and the light-harvesting complex crystal structure are reasons why the exciton theory has become important. The bulk of data for the old theory and outstanding experiments that have been the driving force for a new theory are discussed in detail.
Size variability of the unit building block of peripheral light-harvesting antennas as a strategy for effective functioning of antennas of variable size that is controlled in vivo by light intensity by A. S. Taisova; A. G. Yakovlev; Z. G. Fetisova (251-259).
This work continuous a series of studies devoted to discovering principles of organization of natural antennas in photosynthetic microorganisms that generate in vivo large and highly effective light-harvesting structures. The largest antenna is observed in green photosynthesizing bacteria, which are able to grow over a wide range of light intensities and adapt to low intensities by increasing of size of peripheral BChl c/d/e antenna. However, increasing antenna size must inevitably cause structural changes needed to maintain high efficiency of its functioning. Our model calculations have demonstrated that aggregation of the light-harvesting antenna pigments represents one of the universal structural factors that optimize functioning of any antenna and manage antenna efficiency. If the degree of aggregation of antenna pigments is a variable parameter, then efficiency of the antenna increases with increasing size of a single aggregate of the antenna. This means that change in degree of pigment aggregation controlled by light-harvesting antenna size is biologically expedient. We showed in our previous work on the oligomeric chlorosomal BChl c superantenna of green bacteria of the Chloroflexaceae family that this principle of optimization of variable antenna structure, whose size is controlled by light intensity during growth of bacteria, is actually realized in vivo. Studies of this phenomenon are continued in the present work, expanding the number of studied biological materials and investigating optical linear and nonlinear spectra of chlorosomes having different structures. We show for oligomeric chlorosomal superantennas of green bacteria (from two different families, Chloroflexaceae and Oscillochloridaceae) that a single BChl c aggregate is of small size, and the degree of BChl c aggregation is a variable parameter, which is controlled by the size of the entire BChl c superantenna, and the latter, in turn, is controlled by light intensity in the course of cell culture growth.
Chlorophyll fluorescence induction, chlorophyll content, and chromaticity characteristics of leaves as indicators of photosynthetic apparatus senescence in arboreous plants by V. V. Ptushenko; O. S. Ptushenko; A. N. Tikhonov (260-272).
Parameters of chlorophyll fluorescence induction (CFI) are widely used for assessment of the physiological state of higher plant leaves in biochemical, physiological, and ecological studies and in agricultural applications. In this work we have analyzed data on variability of some CFI parameters — Φ PSII max = F v/F m (relative value of variable fluorescence), q NPQ (non-photochemical quenching coefficient), R Fd (“vitality index”) — in autumnal leaves of ten arboreous plant species of the temperate climatic zone. The correlation between the chlorophyll content in the leaves and fluorescence parameters characterizing photosynthetic activity is shown for two representative species, the small-leaved linden Tilia cordata and the rowan tree Sorbus aucuparia. During the period of mass yellowing of the leaves, the Φ PSII max value can be used as an adequate characteristic of their photochemical activity, while in summer the q NPQ or R Fd values are more informative. We have established a correlation between the Φ PSII max value, which characterizes the maximal photochemical activity of the photosystem II, and “chromaticity coordinates” of a leaf characterizing its color features. The chromaticity coordinates determined from the optical reflection spectra of the leaves serve as a quantitative measure of their hues, and this creates certain prerequisites for a visual expert assessment of the physiological state of the leaves.
Long-distance signal transmission and regulation of photosynthesis in characean cells by A. A. Bulychev; A. V. Komarova (273-281).
Photosynthetic electron transport in an intact cell is finely regulated by the structural flexibility of thylakoid membranes, existence of alternative electron-transport pathways, generation of electrochemical proton gradient, and continuous exchange of ions and metabolites between cell organelles and the cytoplasm. Long-distance interactions underlying reversible transitions of photosynthetic activity between uniform and spatially heterogeneous distributions are of particular interest. Microfluorometric studies of characean cells with the use of saturating light pulses and in combination with electrode micromethods revealed three mechanisms of distant regulation ensuring functional coordination of cell domains and signal transmission over long distances. These include: (1) circulation of electric currents between functionally distinct cell domains, (2) propagation of action potential along the cell length, and (3) continuous cyclical cytoplasmic streaming. This review considers how photosynthetic activity depends on membrane transport of protons and cytoplasmic pH, on ion fluxes associated with the electrical excitation of the plasmalemma, and on the transmission of photoinduced signals with streaming cytoplasm. Because of signal transmission with cytoplasmic flow, dynamic changes in photosynthetic activity can develop far from the point of photostimulus application and with a long delay (up to 100 s) after a light pulse stimulus is extinguished.
Role of ascorbic acid in photosynthesis by B. N. Ivanov (282-289).
Experimental data concerning the role of ascorbic acid in both the maintenance of photosynthesis and in the protection of the photosynthetic apparatus against reactive oxygen species and photoinhibition are reviewed. The function of ascorbic acid as an electron donor in the “Krasnovsky reaction”, as well as its physiological role as a donor to components of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, which was first studied by A. A. Krasnovsky in the 1980s, is discussed. Data on the content and transport of ascorbic acid in plant cells and chloroplasts are presented.

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