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ECRYS – Electronic Crystals – Cargèse, August 25th, 2011. Vortex pinning : a probe for nanoscale disorder in iron-‐based superconductors. Kees van der Beek.
Dec 25, 2005 - problems of modern physicsâthe study of molecular forces. The latter ...... In practice, van der Waals forces appear within a mix of forces.
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Cape Nature Porterville and Elandskloof ..... (untransformed) (b) three geographically different regions sampled (square = Porterville; circle = ..... western Utah.
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Groningen Journal of International Law, vol 4(1): International Criminal ... attention to both the elements of crimes and the modes of criminal liability.
DOI: 10.21827/59db69227860f Abstract In international criminal law theory, a conceptual divide is made between international crimes stricto sensu (genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, aggression) and transnational organised crime. This differentiation sustains the direct, respectively indirect enforcement mechanism: the so called ‘core crimes’ belong to the subject matter jurisdiction of international criminal tribunals and the International Criminal Court, whereas national jurisdictions aim to counter transnational crimes, by concluding ‘suppression conventions’ and seeking international cooperation on the basis of the aut dedere, aut judicare principle. Nevertheless, the division is questioned for being too rigid and simplistic, as the boundaries between the categories are increasingly blurred. On the one hand, political rebel groups and organised crime often unite to challenge the power monopoly of the state, while corrupt governments and private business conspire to exploit the local population (by pillage, deportation from their lands or pollution of the environment). On the other hand, there is an ongoing debate, triggered by the ICC Kenya Decision of March 2010, whether the commission of crimes against humanity is the ‘privilege’ of states and state-like groups, or whether the category should be expanded to cover larger organisations that are capable of committing such atrocities. In other words, there is a proliferation of state and non-state actors that engage in both ‘classic’ international crimes (war crimes, crimes against humanity) and transnational crime. These developments have fuelled the plea for supranational law enforcement in respect of transnational (organised) crime, exceeding the realm of inter-state cooperation on a horizontal basis. This essay will pay a modest contribution to this discussion by arguing that the quest for more effective law enforcement is bedeviled by the perplexity of fitting new patterns of crime and new perpetrators of international crimes into the classic mould of international criminal law. These two aspects are obviously intimately related and should not be considered in isolation. Any initiative to invigorate international criminal law enforcement - by for instance establishing new (international or regional) courts or by expanding the subject matter jurisdiction of existing courts – should therefore pay attention to both the elements of crimes and the modes of criminal liability.
Professor of International Criminal Law, University of Amsterdam.
For very forceful analyses of this phenomenon, see Shelley, LI, Dirty Entanglements; Corruption, Crime and Terrorism (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014); and Makarenko, T, “The Crime-Terror Continuum: Tracing the Interplay between Transnational Organised Crime and Terrorism”, 6(1) Global Crime (2004) 129, 133. ‘Thus, most criminal and terrorist groups operational in the 1990s and into the twenty-first century have developed the capacity to engage in both criminal and terrorist activities.’ 2 Recent case law of the ICC points in that direction, see Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision Pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute on the Authorization of an Investigation into the Situation in the Republic of Kenya, ICC-01/09, 31 March 2010, with Dissenting Opinion of Judge Hans-Peter Kaul. 3 For a comprehensive analysis of the ‘horizontal’ system, see Clark, RS, “Offenses of International Concern: Multilateral State Treaty Practice in the Forty Years Since Nuremberg”, 57 Nordic Journal of International Law (1988), 49. 4 See, for instance, Smith, JM, “An International Hit Job: Prosecuting Organized Crime Acts as Crimes Against Humanity”, 97(4) The Georgetown Law Journal (2009), 1112; and Schloenhardt, A, “Transnational Organised Crime and the International Criminal Court; Developments and Debates”, 24(1) The University of Queensland Journal (2005), 93. 5 The search for the most appropriate system of law enforcement in respect of transnational and international crimes is the central topic of van der Wilt, H and Paulussen, Ch, eds, Legal Responses to Transnational and International Crimes: Towards an Integrative Approach? (Elgar Publishers, Cheltenham, to be published in 2016 or 2017). For highly sophisticated reflections on the essence of transnational crimes, in relation to law enforcement, see the several publications by Boister, N, “‘Transnational Criminal Law’?”, 14(5) European Journal of International Law (2003), 953; and Id, “Treaty Crimes, International Criminal Court?” 12(3) New Criminal Law Review: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal (Summer 2009), 341; and Id, “Further reflections on the concept of transnational criminal law”, 6(1) Transnational Legal Theory (2015), 9.
protects the leadership (…) from detection or implication in commission of crimes.’6 It is a conspicuous element that transnational organised crime shares with the ‘core crimes’ which are typically depicted as ‘system criminality’.7 The organisational ‘prong’ raises two issues in the realm of law enforcement. First, one may wonder how the organisational veil can be pierced and the leadership, that pulls the strings but remains behind the screens, can be held criminally responsible. Secondly, it might be attractive and effective to prosecute the organisation as an entity. This article explores what legal steps have been taken to target the leadership of transnational criminal organisations and to dismantle these organisations by means of criminal law. The system of individual criminal responsibility for core crimes that is briefly discussed in Section Two serves as a normative framework. Section Three will mainly focus on and discuss the relevant provisions on criminal responsibility in the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime of 2000. In Section Four, I will address some recent initiatives within the area of corporate criminal responsibility. Section Five rounds up with some reflections, pointing out the inherent limitations of criminal law and international relations.
Guymon, CLD, “International Legal Mechanisms for Combating Transnational Organized Crime: The Need for a Multilateral Convention”. 18(1) Berkeley Journal of International Law (2000), 53, 56. 7 Nollkaemper, A, “Introduction” in Nollkaemper, A and van der Wilt, H, eds, System Criminality in International Law (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009), 1. ‘The term system criminality refers to the phenomenon that international crimes – notably crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes – are often caused by collective entities in which the individual authors of these acts are embedded.’ 8 See for instance the contributions in Nollkaemper & van der Wilt, Ibid; and van Sliedregt, E, Individual Criminal responsibility in International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012); and Ambos, K, Treatise on International Criminal Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013), 102-232; and Stewart, J, “The End of “Modes of Liability” for International Crimes”, 25(1) Leiden Journal of International Law (2012), 165. 9 The JCE-doctrine has been introduced by the Appeals Chamber of the ICTY in Prosecutor v. Tadić, Judgment, Case No. ICTY-94-1-A, 15 July 1999, paras 185-229 as customary international law and has subsequently been applied in numerous cases, including ICTY, Prosecutor v. Krajišnik, Judgment, Case No. ICTY-00-39/40, 27 September 2006; Id, Prosecutor v. Brđanin, Judgment, Case No. ICTY- 99-36-A, 3 April 2007 and Id, Prosecutor v. Popović et al., Judgment, Case No. ICTY-05-88-T, 10 June 2010.
Compare, for instance, Danner, AM, and Martinez, JS, “Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility and the Development of International Criminal Law”, 93(1) California Law Review (2005), 150; and Ohlin, JD, “Three Conceptual Problems with the Doctrine of Joint Criminal enterprise”, 5 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2007), 89; and Badar, ME, “’Just Convict Everyone!’, Joint Perpetration from Tadić to Stakić and back again”, 6(2) International Criminal Law Review (2006), 293. 11 See Article 25, United Nations, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) 2187 UNTS 90 (Rome Statute): ‘The Court shall have jurisdiction over natural persons pursuant to this Statute’ (italics added). In a similar vein Article 5, UN Security Council, Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994) (ICTR Statute) and Article 6, UN Security Council, Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993) (ICTY Statute). On the vain efforts to introduce corporate criminal responsibility in the Rome Statute, see van der Wilt, H, “Corporate Criminal Responsibility for International Crimes: Exploring the Possibilities”, 12(1) Chinese Journal of International Law (2013), 4377. 12 Article 4 (3), sub b ICTY, respectively 2 (3), sub b ICTR Statute qualify conspiracy to commit genocide as a punishable offence. ‘Planning’ of international crimes is included as a ground for individual responsibility in Article 7 (1) of the ICTY Statute, respectively Article 6(1) of the ICTR Statute. 13 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Delalić and others, Judgement, Case No. IT-96-21-T, 16 November 1998, paras 330401. Superior responsibility features in Art. 28 of the Rome Statute and in Article 7(3) ICTY, respectively Article 6(3) of the ICTR Statute. 14 Article 27 of the Rome Statute; Article 7(2) of the ICTY, respectively Article 6(2) of the ICTR Statute. 15 Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in ICC, Prosecutor v. Katanga and Chui, Decision on Confirmation of the Charges, ICC-01/04-01/07, 30 September 2008, paras 477-518; confirmed by the Trial Chamber in its judgement in Prosecutor v. Katanga, 7 March 2014, paras 1403-1416. See, however, the critical dissenting opinion by Judge Christine Van den Wyngaert.
See Weigend, T, “Perpetration through an Organization: The Unexpected Career of a German Legal Concept”, 9(1) Journal of International Criminal Justice (2011), 91-113. 17 Compare Ambos, K, “Command responsibility and Organisationsherrschaft: ways of attributing international crimes to ‘the most responsible’” in Nollkaemper & van der Wilt, supra nt 7, 157. Compare also Olàsolo, H, “The Application of Indirect Perpetration through Organised Structures of Power at the International Level” in Olàsolo, H, Essays on International Criminal Justice (Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland, 2012), 120, who agrees with Ambos that the notion of indirect perpetration through organized structures of power is today a serious option to hold criminal leaders to account, adding that ‘application of notions of accessorial liability in this type of case (…) relegates superiors to a secondary role which does not correspond to their actual relevance.’ 18 See van der Wilt, HG, “The Continuous Quest for Proper Modes of Criminal Responsibility”, 7(2) Journal of International Criminal Justice (2009), 307-314. 19 UN General Assembly, United Nations Convention Against Organized Transnational Crime, 15 November 2000, UN 2225 UNTS 209 (UNCTOC). 20 Article 5 (1), sub a, under ii, UNCTOC.
(criminal) liability of such entities. A second reason for divergence is directly related to the different systems of law enforcement governing international crimes and transnational organised crime. At first blush, the (re-)introduction of ‘conspiracy’ in the UNCTOC seems rather spectacular. However, as indicated above, States Parties must make a choice between criminalising conspiracy and participation in a criminal enterprise. The system of indirect criminal law enforcement that is predicated on the action of domestic jurisdictions requires greater flexibility. Drafters of suppression conventions can therefore afford to be bolder in suggesting far-reaching solutions, because, at the end of the day, states still have the discretion ‘to take it or leave it’. I will return to this topic in the final section. Meanwhile, the different legal reactions on criminal organisations and their leaders are perhaps problematic in view of the convergence between international crimes stricto sensu and transnational organised crime. A more coherent, integrated approach is therefore worthy of consideration.
of such an International Criminal Law Section.32 The subject matter jurisdiction of this future regional court contains a mixture of international crimes stricto sensu and transnational crimes.33 The definitions of the core crimes have, by and large, been copied from the Rome Statute (Articles 28B – 28D), while the subsequent provisions (Articles 28E – 28LBis) define the other offences.34 For the purpose of this essay, it is highly interesting that Article 28N on Modes of Responsibility is largely modelled on the corresponding provision in the UNCTOC: “An offence is committed by any person who, in relation to any of the crimes or offences provided for in this statute: (i) Incites, instigates, organizes, directs, facilitates, finances, counsels or participates as a principal, co-principal, agent or accomplice in any of the offences set forth in the present Statute (…).” 35 Moreover, like the UNCTOC, the Malabo Protocol provides for corporate criminal liability. Article 46C of the Protocol stipulates that ‘[f]or the purpose of this Statute, the Court shall have jurisdiction over legal persons, with the exception of States.’ The subsequent sections of the provision elaborate on the way the mens rea of corporations can be established. As the African Criminal Chamber has not yet come into being, it is clearly impossible to predict how it will perform in practice.36 However, the architecture of its Statute is promising, as it displays an understanding of the close connection between modes of criminal responsibility and the nature of specific crimes.
Nuremberg Trial and International Law (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Leiden, 1990), 213 and Jørgensen, NHB, “Criminality of Organizations under International Law” in Nollkaemper and van der Wilt, eds, supra nt 7, 202-206. 38 Bassiouni, MC, Introduction to International Criminal Law: Second Revised Edition (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, 2012), 22-27. 39 Articles 22-33, Rome Statute, Part 3 – General Principles of Criminal Law 9. 40 Blomsma, CJ, “The Need to Identify a General Part of Criminal Law for the EU” in Marianne Hirsch Ballin, MH, et al, eds, Shifting Responsibilities in Criminal Justice; Critical Portrayals of the Changing Role and Content of a Fragmented Globalizing Law Domain (Eleven International Publishing, Utrecht 2012), 125 who acknowledges the urgency of introducing a General Part of criminal law ‘when a system of direct enforcement enters into force’.
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