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2 1424 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 V. PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO THE VCCR VI. CONCLUSION I. INTRODUCTION In the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 193 nations announced their conviction that the family, as the fundamental group of society and the natural environment for the growth and well-being of all its members and particularly children, should be afforded the necessary protection and assistance so that it can fully assume its responsibilities within the community. 1 This proclamation reflects the nearly universal respect that the family unit is afforded. 2 Given this respect, governments must be cautious when interfering with the family realm. Child welfare laws generally reflect an attempt by the government to strike a balance between respecting the rights of parents to raise their children and protecting children when their parents are unable or unwilling to adequately care for them. 3 Although the central consideration is the best interests of the child, most child welfare systems presume that children are typically better off with their parents. 4 State intervention into familial life can traumatize all members of a family, 5 and this result is even more likely to occur when the family is living in a foreign country United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child pmbl., opened for signature Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force Sept. 2, 1990). 2. Convention on the Rights of the Child: Status, UNITED NATIONS TREATY COLLECTION (Oct. 23, 2013, 8:36 AM), src=treaty&mtdsg_no=iv-11&chapter=4&lang=en (showing 193 States Party). 3. See HON. WILLIAM G. JONES, U.S. DEP T OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVS., WORKING WITH THE COURTS IN CHILD PROTECTION (2006), available at ( The legal framework regarding the parent-child relationship balances the rights and responsibilities among parent, child, and State, as guided by Federal statutes. ). 4. See, e.g., TENN. CODE ANN (2013) ( The department s fundamental assumptions shall be that most children are better off with their own families than in substitute care.... [W]henever possible, preservation of the family should serve as the framework for services, but, in any case, the best interests of the child shall be paramount. ); see also United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, supra note 1, at art. 7 ( The child... shall have... as far as possible, the right to know and be cared for by his or her parents. ). 5. For a description of the kinds of trauma that children removed from their parents face, see UPENN COLLABORATIVE ON CMTY. INTEGRATION, REMOVAL FROM THE HOME: RESULTING TRAUMA, available at Monographs_Guidebooks/parenting/Factsheet_4_Resulting_Trauma.pdf (last visited Oct. 23, 2013). 6. See discussion infra Part II.B.
3 2013] expanding the vienna convention on consular relations 1425 In child welfare proceedings, parents have a fundamental right at stake: the right to the care and custody of their child. 7 If they are unable to adequately work with the government officials involved and fail to comply with judicial orders, they risk permanently losing their child. 8 When the parents are foreign nationals, they are on an unequal playing field. 9 Although the specifics of child welfare proceedings differ from country to country, a foreign national in any country would face similar challenges. Consular assistance can effectively remedy these concerns because it provides someone to advocate for the rights of both parent and child. 10 More importantly, this advocate would come from the same cultural background as the family and would speak its native language. These characteristics allow the advocate to assist the family in ways that an attorney from the country in which the proceeding is taking place likely cannot. 11 Recognizing these benefits, the United States and other countries entered into a number of international agreements providing for consular notifications when foreign nationals become involved in child welfare proceedings. 12 Most notably, Article 37 of the VCCR calls for automatic consular notification whenever the appointment of a guardian appears to be in the interests of a foreign national minor. 13 While this provision has the potential to provide substantial protections for families whose children are removed from them in foreign countries, it is flawed. Because Article 37 is triggered only when the child involved in the proceeding is a foreign national, it offers no protection to families of mixed citizenship status families 7. See, e.g., Santosky v. Kramer, 455 U.S. 745, 753 (1982) ( The fundamental liberty interest of natural parents in the care, custody, and management of their child does not evaporate simply because they have not been model parents or have lost temporary custody of their child to the State. ). 8. See C. Elizabeth Hall, Note, Where Are My Children... And My Rights? Parental Rights Termination as a Consequence of Deportation, 60 DUKE L.J. 1459, 1470 (2011) (describing the most common grounds for termination of parental rights). 9. See generally id. at 1470; Caitlin Delphin, Comment, Protecting the Interests of Foreign-National Minors in the United States Through Consular Notification: In re Interest of Angelica L., 45 NEW ENG. L. REV. 941, 952 (2011) ( Consular involvement at the outset of legal actions involving custody or guardianship of a minor foreign national can help to eliminate some of the hurdles that may cause delays in the resolution of the case. ); Pamela Kemp Parker, When a Foreign Child Comes into Care, Ask: Has the Consul Been Notified?, 19 A.B.A. CHILD L. PRAC. 177 (2001). 10. See Parker, supra note 9, at 177 ( A consular officer speaks the family s native language and can explain applicable child protection laws in the context of the customs and laws of the family s home country. ). 11. See id. ( The rapport that consular staff can often establish with citizens from the home country can alter the outcome of a case. ). 12. See discussion infra Part III. 13. Vienna Convention on Consular Relations art. 37, Apr. 24, 1963, 596 U.N.T.S. 261 [hereinafter VCCR].
5 2013] expanding the vienna convention on consular relations 1427 If the state suspects that a child has been abused or neglected, the state court will hold an adjudicatory hearing at which both the state and the parent may put on evidence. 17 Once the judge determines that the child is dependent and neglected, child protective services (CPS) workers and the parent develop a case (or permanency) plan. 18 This plan discusses the problems that led to the state s involvement with the family, lists services to be provided for both parent and child, and includes specific improvements that the parent needs to make within the stated time frame. 19 While the parent works toward the goals of the permanency plan, the child remains in the legal custody of the state but can be placed with the parent, in kinship care, in foster care, or in a group home. 20 The parent is primarily responsible for making progress on the permanency plan, but the state is required to make reasonable efforts to assist. 21 The ultimate goal is for all the components of the permanency plan to be achieved and for the child to be returned to the parent. However, if the state makes reasonable efforts and the parent fails to meet the requirements of the permanency plan, the state may petition to terminate the parent s rights. 22 Termination of parental rights (TPR) is the most extreme action that the CPS arm of the state can take. 23 The most common grounds for TPR include abandonment, failure to remedy a persistent condition that led to the removal of the child, and substantial ON CHILD PROTECTION 5 6 (Malcolm Hill, Anne Stafford & Pam Green Lister eds., 2002), available at Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom have child welfare systems that are similar to that of the United States. Id. Many Western European countries place an even greater emphasis on family unity. Id. In Sub-Saharan Africa, child protection is family and community oriented. See, e.g., TRAINING RESOURCES GROUP AND PLAY THERAPY AFRICA, STRENGTHENING CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEMS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 35 (Inter-Agency Grp. on Child Protection Sys. in Sub-Saharan Africa, Working Paper, 2012), available at protection_systems_in_sub-saharan_africa_-_august_2012_pdf ( A research study in Sierra Leone showed that.... [t]here is an interdependent relationship between parents and children in that children are needed to do family work and carry on the family name. ); see also id. at (discussing Mauritania s community-based mechanisms that improve coordination and service); id. at (describing the child welfare system in Ghana). 17. JONES, supra note 3, at Id. at Id. 20. Id. at See id. at 16 ( Federal law further requires that judges decide at each critical stage of an abuse or neglect case whether the agency has complied with the reasonable efforts requirement. ). 22. See id. at 36 ( Drafted by the CPS attorney, TPR petitions will allege facts that, if proven, would satisfy the grounds for termination in State law. ). 23. See id. at 35 ( Because of the seriousness and finality of the consequences, TPR has been called the death penalty of family law. ).
6 1428 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 noncompliance with the permanency plan. 24 Although state law controls TPR proceedings, the U.S. Constitution is also implicated because the Supreme Court in Santosky v. Kramer held that there are constitutional rights at stake. 25 Parents have a fundamental liberty interest in the care, custody, and management of their children. 26 Thus, the rights of parents cannot be terminated without due process of law. 27 In Santosky, the Supreme Court cautioned that this constitutional right does not evaporate simply because they have not been model parents or have lost temporary custody of their child to the State. 28 B. Additional Challenges for Foreign Nationals The child welfare process is more complicated when the parent, the child, or both are foreign nationals. When the parent is a foreign national, English may not be his first language, making it difficult for him to communicate with other parties and understand the legal proceedings. 29 Cultural differences between the foreign national s home country and the United States may result in misunderstandings or incorrect assumptions by the parent, state officials, or judges. 30 If the parent is in immigration detention, it can be difficult for the child welfare agency to work with the parent to fix the problems that led to the child coming into state custody. 31 CPS workers are accustomed to implementing necessary adjustments to work with incarcerated parents; 32 however, immigration detention differs from prison in several key ways. Immigration detainees tend to be located 24. See Hall, supra note 8, at 1470 (explaining that there are several basic actions that almost always constitute unfitness, including abandonment (failure to support or maintain contact with the child), failure to remedy a persistent condition that caused the removal of the child, and failure to comply with a reunification or rehabilitation plan). 25. See, e.g., Santosky v. Kramer, 455 U.S. 745, 753 (1982) (requiring a heightened standard of proof in termination of parental rights proceedings to protect the due process rights of parents). 26. Id. 27. See id. ( When the State moves to destroy weakened familial bonds, it must provide the parents with fundamentally fair procedures. ). 28. Id. 29. See, e.g., Delphin, supra note 9, at 951 (recounting the experience of a foreign national mother who struggled to understand court proceedings because English was her third language). 30. See Hall, supra note 8, at (discussing how cultural biases can affect family law proceedings). 31. See Nina Rabin, Disappearing Parents: Immigration Enforcement and the Child Welfare System, 44 CONN. L. REV. 99, (2011) (describing the challenges a detained immigrant mother faced to participate in dependency proceedings). 32. Id.
8 1430 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 welfare proceedings by supplying an attorney or a translator if necessary 41 and helping the parent understand the U.S. legal system. 42 Significantly, unlike an appointed attorney, the consular officers come from the same country and culture as the parent, providing the consular officers a better understanding of potential points of confusion for the parent. 43 According to experienced child welfare attorney Pamela Kemp Parker, The rapport that consular staff can often establish with citizens from the home country can alter the outcome of a case. 44 The consulate s connections in the parent or child s home country may also be beneficial. Consular officials can obtain helpful documents from their country, such as birth, marriage, or school records and assist the court in finding relatives who might be willing to take custody of the child. 45 If the child is being placed with a family member abroad, the consulate can issue travel documents or arrange for a consular official to accompany the child on a flight to the home country. 46 Throughout the court proceedings, the consular officials can help to ensure that the judge is not making decisions based on cultural bias and can provide information about the conditions under which children are raised in the immigrant s country of origin. 47 If the parent is deported, the consulate can facilitate communication between the parent and the child welfare agency. 48 Consular officials can also connect the parent with the child welfare agency in the parent s home country, enabling the parent to obtain the services required by the permanency plan, complete a home study, and hopefully have her child returned to her. 49 child being placed abroad, and even arrange for someone to accompany a child on a flight to the home country. ). 41. Delphin, supra note 9, at Parker, supra note 9, at See Delphin, supra note 9, at 953 ( Bridging the cultural gap between a foreign national s home country and the U.S. legal system is one of the main functions of a consulate.... ). 44. Parker, supra note 9, at See generally U.S. DEP T OF STATE, CONSULAR NOTIFICATION AND ACCESS 35 (3d ed. 2010), available at [hereinafter DOS MANUAL]. 46. Parker, supra note 9, at See Hall, supra note 8, at ( The involvement of foreign consular officers might cause the United States to treat the immigrant more fairly and with less bias against her country of origin. ). 48. See Delphin, supra note 9, at 954 ( Had the consulate been involved at an earlier time, it could have facilitated better contact between [the parent] and DHHS [the child welfare agency]. ). 49. See Rabin, supra note 31, at 142 (describing the benefits of the Mexican Consulate s role in facilitating communication between the CPS and Mexico s child welfare agency).
9 2013] expanding the vienna convention on consular relations 1431 Anecdotal evidence indicates that consular assistance has the potential to make a major difference in the outcome of child welfare proceedings. One often-cited case is In re Angelica L., where a Guatemalan mother living in the United States had her children removed from her custody and was subsequently deported. 50 Due to her failure to strictly comply with the case plan, Maria s parental rights were terminated. 51 Maria attempted to comply with her case plan after her deportation but was unsuccessful because of the difficulties of staying in touch with her caseworker and obtaining the services required by her case plan in her home country of Guatemala. 52 If the Guatemalan Consulate had been aware of the case, its officials could have facilitated communication between Maria and child welfare officials in the United States and possibly could have assisted Maria in complying with her case plan. 53 Furthermore, Maria s first language was Quiché, but, during her trial, she was provided a Spanish interpreter. 54 This made it difficult for her to understand the proceedings or adequately explain the attempts she had made to comply with her case plan. 55 If the Guatemalan Consulate had been involved, it might have been able to assist with this language barrier. 56 Cultural biases also played a role in the termination of Maria s parental rights, 57 even though the Supreme Court has warned against allowing such biases to improperly affect TPR cases. 58 Maria had been deported to Guatemala, and the juvenile court did not want to send her children to Guatemala to live with her. 59 During the trial, the court heard testimony that Guatemala has a lower standard of living, poorer people, and fewer economic opportunities than the 50. See generally State v. Maria L. (In re Interest of Angelica L.), 767 N.W.2d 74 (Neb. 2009). 51. See id. at 87 (discussing the state s motion to terminate parental rights and the subsequent hearing). 52. See id. at 95 (describing Maria s efforts to comply with her case plan and the state s limited efforts to assist her). 53. Delphin, supra note 9, at See Maria L., 767 N.W.2d at 80, 88 ( Maria also maintained that she had a difficult time understanding what people said at the termination hearings, because Spanish is her second language and everyone was talking too quickly. ). 55. See Delphin, supra note 9, at ( If Maria were able to better understand the proceedings, she would have likely been able to explain to the juvenile court how she attempted to comply with her case plan. ). 56. Id. 57. See Hall, supra note 8, at 1482 ( [T]he Nebraska Juvenile Court, in terminating Ms. Luis s parental rights, relied on testimony about the lack of economic opportunities and the unfamiliar... educational system [and] athletic opportunities available in Guatemala. ). 58. See id. at 1485 (citing Santosky v. Kramer, 455 U.S. 745, 763 (1982)). 59. See id. at 1482 (describing the Nebraska Juvenile Court s preference for placing Maria s children in the stable home of the American adoptive parents rather than sending them back to Guatemala with Maria).
10 1432 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 United States. 60 Guatemalan consular officials likely would have spoken up to give the court a better understanding of the country and prevent the court from basing its decision on cultural biases. 61 On appeal, the Nebraska Supreme Court overturned the termination of Maria s parental rights. 62 In doing so, it recognized the benefits that consular involvement could have provided, noting that the state should have made greater efforts to involve the Guatemalan consulate and keep the family unified. 63 A concurring judge indicated that consular involvement could have prevented the rather startling departure from Maria s rights and the children s best interests that occurred in this case. 64 Although terminations of parental rights made under the types of unfair circumstances present in Maria s case are frequently reversed on appeal, 65 they are not always. 66 Moreover, the frequency of appeal in these types of cases is low due to the parents lack of funding to appeal or difficulty accessing the U.S. legal system after being deported. 67 III. CONSULAR NOTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW A. The VCCR The VCCR is a multilateral treaty that entered into force on March 19, 1967, and was ratified by the United States on December 24, Currently, 173 countries are parties to the VCCR. 69 The U.S. State Department has said that the VCCR establishes the baseline for most obligations with respect to the treatment of foreign nationals and that the basic consular notification requirements of 60. Maria L., 767 N.W.2d at See Hall, supra note 8, at 1500 ( The involvement of foreign consular officers might cause the United States to treat the immigrant more fairly and with less bias against her country of origin. ). 62. Id. at Maria L., 767 N.W.2d at Id. at 97 (Gerrard, J., concurring). 65. Hall, supra note 8, at 1462 (quoting Marcia Yablon-Zug, Separation, Deportation, Termination 26 n.129 (July 26, 2010) (unpublished manuscript), available at Id.; see Perez-Velasquez v. Culpeper Cnty. Dep t of Soc. Servs., No , 2009 WL , at *2 (Va. Ct. App. June 30, 2009) (upholding the termination of a deported father s parental rights on appeal); State Dep t of Children s Servs. v. Ahmad, No. M COA-R3-PT, 2005 WL , at *2 (Tenn. Ct. App. Apr. 26, 2005) (upholding the termination of a deported mother s parental rights on appeal). 67. Hall, supra note 8, at DOS MANUAL, supra note 45, at Vienna Convention on Consular Relations: Status, UNITED NATIONS TREATY COLLECTION, chapter=3&lang=en (last updated Oct. 23, 2013).
12 1434 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 agreements were created prior to the ratification of the VCCR, and since the VCCR s ratification, bilateral agreements have become less common. 81 However, the VCCR did not nullify any pre-existing treaties, meaning these bilateral consular conventions are still in force. 82 When two countries that are both party to the VCCR also have a bilateral treaty, the stricter consular notification requirements control. 83 For example, the United States has bilateral agreements with fifty-seven mandatory notification countries, which require automatic consular notification when one of their foreign nationals is arrested or detained. 84 Unlike the VCCR, mandatory notification treaties compel consular notification even if the foreign national specifically asks that his or her consulate not be notified. 85 There are no major differences, however, between these bilateral conventions and Article 37. The only notable variation is a provision in some bilateral treaties specifying that a foreign national child s consulate may contact the receiving state and suggest an appropriate guardian for the child. 86 A third type of international legal document regulating consular notification is the memorandum of understanding (MOU). MOUs have become popular between child welfare agencies in the United States and Mexican Consulates. 87 The primary purpose of these MOUs is to acknowledge each party s obligations under the VCCR and the bilateral consular convention between the parties and to facilitate compliance with these obligations. 88 An MOU generally does 81. Id. at Id. at Id. at Id. 85. Id. at See, e.g., Consular Convention Between the United States of America and the People s Republic of China art. 30, U.S.-China, Sept. 17, 1980, 33 U.S.T (stating that [a] consular officer of the sending State may... contact the appropriate authorities of the receiving State, and may propose appropriate persons to be appended to act as guardians ); Consular Convention Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics art. 11, U.S.-USSR June 1, 1964, 19 U.S.T. 5018, 655 U.N.T.S. 213 (entered into force July 13, 1968) (stating that [a] consular officer may recommend to the courts or other competent authorities of the receiving state appropriate persons to act in the capacity of guardians or trustees for citizens of the sending state ). 87. See Sample Forms from Public Child Welfare Agencies, FAMILY TO FAMILY CALIFORNIA, (last updated Nov. 9, 2012) (providing examples of MOUs that have been enacted). 88. See, e.g., MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING ON CONSULAR PROTECTION OF MEXICAN NATIONALS BETWEEN THE COUNTY OF RIVERSIDE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SOCIAL SERVICES, CALIFORNIA, AND THE CONSULATE OF MEXICO IN SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA 1 (2007), available at Consulate.pdf (agreeing [t]o comply with the provisions set forth by the Vienna Convention ).
13 2013] expanding the vienna convention on consular relations 1435 not impose additional consular notification requirements outside of the VCCR; instead it provides more detailed guidelines regarding how consular notification and involvement will be accomplished within the jurisdiction. 89 In some cases, however, an MOU has imposed additional consular notification requirements outside the provisions of the VCCR. 90 One MOU provides for consular involvement in child welfare proceedings that involve both Mexican national minors and Mexican American minors. 91 While a Mexican national minor is a child who was born in Mexico, a Mexican American minor is a child who was born in the United States but is eligible for Mexican nationality as the biological minor of a Mexican national. 92 Another MOU calls for consular notification whenever the child has at least one Mexican national parent, regardless of the child s citizenship status. 93 Thus, these two agreements provide greater protection than the VCCR, which is triggered only when the child is a noncitizen. These MOUs demonstrate recognition among those working in the child welfare field of the benefits offered by consular notification and the need for greater protection than the VCCR provides. However, the advantages of MOUs are limited because, as soft law, they are unenforceable. 94 Ultimately, the VCCR has the greatest potential for safeguarding the rights of foreign national parents and 89. See generally MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN THE STATE OF ILLINOIS, DEPARTMENT OF CHILDREN AND FAMILY SERVICES AND THE CONSULATE GENERAL OF MÉXICO IN CHICAGO REGARDING CONSULAR NOTIFICATION IN CASES INVOLVING MINORS (2007), available at Consulate.pdf [hereinafter Illinois MOU] (providing an example of the detailed guidelines regarding the implementation of the VCCR); PROTOCOL OF COOPERATION BETWEEN THE CONSULATE GENERAL OF MEXICO IN LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, AND THE LOS ANGELES JUVENILE DEPENDENCY COURT (2009), available at ProtocolMexicanConsulateLAJuvenileCourt2009.pdf (illustrating further the detailed guidelines within an MOU that describe how to implement the VCCR). 90. See generally Illinois MOU, supra note 89 (providing an example of when an MOU imposes additional consular notification requirements outside of the VCCR); MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN THE CONSULATE GENERAL OF MEXICO IN EL PASO, TEXAS AND THE CONSULATE OF MEXICO IN ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO, AND THE CHILDREN, YOUTH, AND FAMILIES DEPARTMENT OF THE STATE OF NEW MEXICO OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA REGARDING CONSULAR FUNCTIONS IN CERTAIN PROCEEDINGS INVOLVING MEXICAN MINORS AS WELL AS MUTUAL COLLABORATION (2009), available at [hereinafter New Mexico MOU] (providing an additional example of an MOU with provisions outside the VCCR). 91. Illinois MOU, supra note Id. 93. New Mexico MOU, supra note See JEFFREY L. DUNOFF ET AL., INTERNATIONAL LAW: NORMS, ACTORS, PROCESS 36 (Vicki Been et al. eds., 3d ed. 2010) (describing soft law as declared norms of conduct understood as legally nonbinding by those accepting the norms ).
14 1436 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 children because the majority of nations are parties to the convention. 95 IV. INADEQUACIES OF THE VCCR Although the VCCR s wide applicability is beneficial, the treaty as it is currently written is inadequate. There are two main problems with Article 37. First, Article 37 is triggered only in child welfare proceedings involving foreign national children, even though the same issues necessitating consular involvement exist when the child is a citizen with a foreign national parent. 96 Second, the text of the article does not provide a clear enforcement mechanism, leading to inconsistent and generally poor enforcement. 97 If the treaty is not enforced, it offers no protection at all. A. Coverage Gap: Protecting Children but Not Parents The text of Article 37 makes it clear that consular notification is triggered whenever a foreign national child is taken into state custody. 98 Consular officials help these children in a number of ways. For example, they can secure documents from the child s home country or find a relative who can take temporary custody of the child so the child does not have to live in a foster home. 99 Consular officials primarily protect the rights of children by protecting the rights of their parents. 100 Given the goal of family unity, child welfare cases are not just about the children. 101 Government officials are charged with providing services to help resolve whatever problems led to the separation of the family. 102 Since parents are responsible for providing for and protecting their families, they bear the burden of achieving reunification. The VCCR s focus on the nationality of the child makes little sense given that 95. Vienna Convention on Consular Relations: Status, supra note 69 (noting that currently 173 countries are party to the VCCR). 96. See discussion infra Part IV.A. 97. See discussion infra Part IV.B. 98. See VCCR, supra note 13, at art. 37 (stating that the authorities are to inform the consular without delay in any case where the appointment of a guardian or trustee appears to be in the interests of a minor ). 99. See discussion supra Part I.C Id See JONES, supra note 3, at 31 (discussing the efforts undertaken by CPS to help the parents and the family as a whole, not just the child) See id. (discussing the steps that CPS will take to address the issues causing the separation of the family).
15 2013] expanding the vienna convention on consular relations 1437 much of the assistance a consulate can provide benefits foreign national parents regardless of their child s citizenship. 103 One might argue that foreign national parents should not be entitled to consular notification and assistance in child welfare proceedings, since the VCCR does not entitle foreign national adults to consular notification in most judicial proceedings. The one exception is Article 36, which requires that foreign nationals be informed of their consular notification rights when they are arrested or detained. 104 This exception is reasonable because when a foreign national is arrested or detained his or her fundamental interest in personal liberty is at stake. 105 However, the fundamental liberty interest that parents have in the care and custody of their children is analogous to the liberty interest at stake in a criminal trial. 106 Because this significant right is at stake in child welfare proceedings, the VCCR should protect foreign nationals involved in those proceedings the same way that it protects foreign nationals involved in criminal proceedings. The importance of parents rights is well established in U.S. jurisprudence. 107 The Supreme Court in Troxell v. Granville said, The liberty interest at issue in this case the interest of parents in the care, custody, and control of their children is perhaps the oldest of the fundamental liberty interests recognized by this Court. 108 Similarly, in Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Court held that the primary role of parents in the upbringing of their children is now established beyond debate as an enduring American tradition. 109 The tradition of treating parental rights as fundamental is not limited to the United States, as the Supreme Court tied the United States adherence to the concept to the broader tradition of Western 103. Consular assistance that is beneficial regardless of the child s citizenship includes, providing a translator for the parent and helping the court to be sensitive to the parent s culture VCCR, supra note 13, at art See, e.g., Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union art. 6, 2000 O.J. (C 364) 1 (stating that [e]veryone has the right to liberty and security of person ) See, e.g., Santosky v. Kramer, 455 U.S. 745, 753 (1982) (describing the fundamental liberty interest that parents have in the care and custody of their children) See, e.g., id. ( [F]reedom of personal choice in matters of family life is a fundamental liberty interest protected by the Fourteenth Amendment. ); Troxell v. Granville, 530 U.S. 57, (2000) (noting that liberty includes the right of parents to establish a home and bring up children and discussing, further, cases that have established the rights of parents regarding child rearing) Troxell, 530 U.S. at Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205, 232 (1972).
16 1438 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 civilization as a whole. 110 The European Union also recognizes the significance of the parent child relationship in its Charter of Fundamental Rights. 111 Article 14 acknowledges the right of parents to direct the education of their children, 112 and Article 24 states, Every child shall have the right to maintain on a regular basis a personal relationship and direct contact with both his or her parents, unless that is contrary to his or her interests. 113 Although Article 24 frames the right as that of the child s, it represents the judgment that the parent child relationship should not be severed except in extraordinary circumstances. The EU member countries recognized these fundamental rights by signing the Treaty of Lisbon, which entered into force on December 1, The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 115 applies to twenty additional countries that are not a part of the European Union. 116 This treaty recognizes a right to respect for private and family life and limits state interference with the family. 117 Throughout Europe, the spirit of these two treaties is implemented through the laws of individual countries. For example, Germany s Civil Code, while providing for judicial action in cases of child endangerment, includes a principle of proportionality, which states that [m]easures which entail a separation of the child from its parental family are admissible only if the danger cannot be countered in another way. 118 This principle means that parental rights will only be terminated in extreme cases. 119 Furthermore, care and education of their children is considered a natural basic right of 110. See Parham v. J.R., 442 U.S. 584, 602 (1979) ( Our jurisprudence historically has reflected Western civilization concepts of the family as a unit with broad parental authority over minor children. ) Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, supra note 105, at arts. 7, 14, Id. at art Id. at art Treaty of Lisbon: The Treaty at a Glance, EUROPA, treaty/glance/index_en.htm (last visited Oct. 23, 2013) European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 222 (amended by Protocols Nos. 11 & 14) Simplified Chart of Signatures and Ratifications: Human Rights, COUNCIL OF EUROPE (Feb. 28, 2013), Court.asp?MA=3&CM=16&CL=ENG European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, supra note 115, at art BÜRGERLICHES GESETZBUCH [BGB] [CIVIL CODE], Jan. 2, 2002, Bundesgesetzblatt 42, 1666a (Ger.), available at englisch_bgb/englisch_bgb.html#p Nina Dethloff, Parental Rights and Responsibilities in Germany, 39 FAM. L.Q. 315, 327 (2005).
17 2013] expanding the vienna convention on consular relations 1439 parents. 120 The French Civil Code recognizes parental authority, an interrelated set of rights and duties that belong to parents automatically by virtue of the filial relationship. 121 In Russia, the right to raise one s child is considered to be a personal inalienable right of every parent. 122 Recognition of the fundamental nature of parental rights exists outside of the European continent as well. Mexican law acknowledges a concept of parental authority similar to that of France. A Mexican court has described parental authority as granting a series of correlative rights and obligations... such as custody of the minors, the authority to raise them, discipline them, represent them in legal acts, administer their property, feed and care for them, etc. 123 Japanese courts, as early as 1964, accepted as essential the right of parents to be involved in the upbringing of their children, as well as the right of children to maintain relationships with their parents. 124 The majority of African nations 125 have pledged to protect the parent child relationship in the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (the Charter). 126 The Charter requires States Party to respect the rights of parents to provide guidance to their children in areas such as education 127 and religion. 128 Article 19 provides that every child is entitled to parental care and protection and has the right to reside with his or her parents whenever 120. Andreas T. Hanke, Custody and Visitation Rights in Germany After the Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights, 45 FAM. L.Q. 353, 354 (2011) Hugues Fulchiron, Custody and Separated Families: The Example of French Law, 39 FAM. L.Q. 301, 301 (2005) Olga A. Khazova, Allocation of Parental Rights and Responsibilities After Separation and Divorce Under Russian Law, 39 FAM. L.Q. 373, 378 (2005) Patricia Begné, Parental Authority and Child Custody in Mexico, 39 FAM. L.Q. 527, 531 (2005) (internal citation omitted) See Satoshi Minamikata, Resolution of Disputes over Parental Rights and Duties in a Martial Dissolution Case in Japan: A Nonlitigious Approach in Chotei (Family Court Mediation), 39 FAM. L.Q. 489, 500 (2005) ( Although the Civil Code contains no provision providing a child with a right to contact with the nonresident parent, the right is regarded by lawyers as essential for the welfare of the child and has been recognized by court cases as early as ) A total of forty-six countries out of fifty-three in the African Union have ratified the Charter. Achievements of the ACERWC, AFRICAN COMMITTEE OF EXPERTS ON THE RIGHTS AND WELFARE OF THE CHILD, (last visited Oct. 23, 2013) Organization of African Unity [OAU], African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, published on July 11, 1990, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/24.9/49, (entered into force Nov. 29, 1999), available at See id. at art. 11 ( States Party to the present Charter shall respect the rights and duties of parents, and where applicable, of legal guardians to choose for their children's schools.... ) See id. at art. 9 ( States Parties shall respect the duty of parents and where applicable, legal guardians to provide guidance and direction in the enjoyment of [the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion] subject to the national laws and policies. ).
18 1440 vanderbilt journal of transnational law [vol. 46:1423 possible. 129 Further, Article 19 states that children should not be separated from their parents against their will unless a judicial authority determines it is in their best interest. 130 Even when children are separated, they are entitled to maintain personal relations and direct contact with both parents. 131 Some of these provisions confer rights upon parents, while other provisions establish rights of children, but they all indicate a desire for minimal interference with the parent child relationship. The rights of parents were affirmed on an international level through the CRC, which promises to respect the rights and duties of parents. 132 The CRC also states that a child shall not be separated from his or her parents against their will unless it is in the child s best interests. 133 Increasingly, individual countries are recognizing the right of maintaining the parent child relationship as a right conferred on the child. 134 Most relevant international treaties, such as the CRC, also frame this right as a right of the child. 135 Still, the recognition of a child s right to a relationship with his or her parents does not automatically disavow a similar parental right. For example, in England, the focus of family law has shifted, with the concept of parental rights being replaced by the concept of parental responsibility. 136 Nevertheless, the country adheres to the decision of the European Court of Human Rights holding that Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights confers a right upon parents 129. Id. at art Id Id See United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, supra note 1, at art Id. at art See, e.g., Asha Bajpai, Custody and Guardianship of Children in India, 39 FAM. L.Q. 441, 456 (2005) ( Visitation is the right of the child to see the parent and not that of the parent to impose on the child. ); Tshepo L. Mosikatsana, Children s Rights and Family Autonomy in the South African Context: A Comment on Children s Rights Under the Final Constitution, 3 MICH. J. RACE & L. 341, 378 (1998) ( The right to parental care is the child s right, not the parents right.... Parenting rights and the right to family life have not been constitutionalized in South Africa. ) See United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, supra note 1, at art. 9 ( States Parties shall respect the right of the child who is separated from one or both parents to maintain personal relations and direct contact with both parents on a regular basis, except if it is contrary to the child's best interests. ); African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, supra note 126, at art. 19 ( Every child who is separated from one or both parents shall have the right to maintain personal relations and direct contact with both parents on a regular basis. ) See N.V. Lowe, The Allocation of Parental Rights and Responsibilities The Position in England and Wales, 39 FAM. L.Q. 267, (2005) (discussing the Children Act 1989 and the key substantive shift from the concept of parental rights to the concept of parental responsibility, including the abandonment of rights of custody ).
CONSTITUTIONAL DEFENSES IN DSS CASES Maitri Mike Klinkosum Winston-Salem, NC The task of raising and preserving constitutional defenses is as important an endeavor in DSS cases as it is in criminal cases.

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