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Contracts Chapter 1 SOURCES AND DEFINITIONS OF CONTRACT LAW § 1.01 What is a Contract? A contract is formed in any transaction in which one or both parties make a legally enforceable promise. A promise is a commitment or undertaking that a given event will or will not occur in the future and may be express or implied from conduct or language and conduct. A promise is legally enforceable where it: • was made as part of a bargain for valid consideration; • reasonably induced the promisee to rely on the promise to his detriment; or • is deemed enforceable by a statute despite the lack of consideration. § 1.02 Types of Contracts Contract may be of the following types: 1) Express – an agreement manifested by words 2) Implied-in-fact – an agreement manifested by conduct 3) Implied-in-law ("quasi-contract") – not a true contract but an obligation imposed by a court despite the absence of a promise in order to avoid an injustice § 1.03 Sources of Contract Law 1) Common Law – in most jurisdictions, contract law is not codified, and thus the primary source of general contract law is caselaw. 2) Restatement – written by the American Law Institute to provide guidance to the bench and bar, the Restatement of Contracts (currently in the second edition) has no legal force but nevertheless provides highly persuasive authority. 3) Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) – created under the auspices of the American Law Institute and the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, has been adopted by every state except Louisiana. Proposed revisions to Article 2, governing contracts for the sale of goods, have been finalized and presented to the states for enactment. 4) United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) – ratified by many of the leading trading nations including the United States and China (but not the United Kingdom and Japan), it governs many transactions for the sale of goods between parties with places of business in different nations.
Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis, a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
UCC § 2-106(1) defines "sale" as the transfer of title for a price. Contracts that involve both goods and services must be evaluated to see which constitutes the primary purpose of the contract, with the secondary purpose being treated as incidental. If the primary function of the contract is to provide a service, the UCC does not apply, even if an incidental sale of goods occurs.  "Merchant" Defined A "merchant" is one "who deals in goods of the kind or otherwise by his occupation holds himself out as having knowledge or skill particular to the practices or goods involved in the transaction" or who employs an agent or broker in such occupation. [UCC § 2-104(1)]  "Good Faith" Defined Every contract for the sale of goods imposes an obligation of good faith dealing on all parties in its performance and enforcement. [UCC § 1-203] All parties, including nonmerchants, are subject to UCC § 1-201(19) which defines "good faith" as "honesty in fact in the conduct or transaction concerned." Merchants are subject to an additional good faith standard, set forth in UCC § 2-103(1)(b), which requires "honesty in fact and the observance of reasonable commercial standards of fair dealing in the trade."  "Record" Defined The proposed revision of Article 2 reflects the contemporary use of electronic communications by substituting all prior references to "writing" with "record," defined in proposed UCC § 1-201(33a) as "either a writing or a retrievable information in a computer's memory, a computer disk, or the like."
e. Non-goods contracts. on the other hand. where the individual has the option of refusing or taking action or makes a statement that the individual has reason to know will: (a) cause the electronic agent to complete the transaction. regardless of other expressions or actions by the individual to which the electronic agent cannot react. communications are given the meaning that the recipient of the communication should have reasonably understood. even in the absence of direct participation in such contract by the parties (i. generally manifested by an offer and acceptance (see chapters 3 and 4).PART I. § 2. must include terms that are sufficiently definite and certain.. Nevertheless subjective intent is relevant in determining whether the parties intended to be bound. according to the Restatement. revocation of offer. any legally effective communication sent by electronic means has effect upon receipt by the intended recipient's 4 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. a website. or (b) indicate acceptance of an offer. e. UCC § 2-204]. . or rejection of offer – are effective upon receipt by the person for whom the communication is intended. Without such subjective intent. goods contracts.04 Receipt of Electronic Communications A number of communications relevant to contract formation – such as an offer.g. Thus. CONTRACT FORMATION Chapter 2 OVERVIEW OF CONTRACT FORMATION § 2. In contracts for the sale of goods. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc." § 2..01 Mutual Assent Contract formation requires mutual assent to the same terms by the parties. the programming of such electronic agents suffices) (2) the interaction of an individual with an electronic agent. All rights reserved.02 Basis for Remedy A validly formed contract must provide a basis for determining the existence of a breach and for giving an appropriate remedy [Restatement § 33. do "not fail for indefiniteness even if one or more terms are left open if the parties intended to make a contract and there is a reasonably certain basis for giving an appropriate remedy. there is no contract. § 2. Current law favors an objective standard for determining a party's intent to be contractually bound. in general.03 Contract Formation by Electronic Agents Proposed new UCC § 2-204(4) recognizes the legal effect of contract formed by electronic agents resulting from: (1) the interaction of electronic agents of the parties.
electronic system. e-mailbox. .g. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. e. All rights reserved. [proposed new UCC § 2-213] 5 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.. even if he is unaware of such receipt.
§ 3. estoppel may be invoked if the offeree relied to his detriment on the estimate. [Restatement § 24]  Communications that do not constitute offers The following types of communications. the auctioneer solicits offers in the form of bids. However.02 When is the Offer Effective?  Receipt of offer An offer is not valid until received by the offeree or his agent. including professional opinions 2) statements of intention (including letters of intent which merely memorialize negotiations) 3) invitations to submit a bid 4) price estimates – However. which do not manifest an intent to be contractually bound. do not constitute offers: 1) opinions about future results. 5) advertisements. All rights reserved.01 What is an Offer?  "Offer" Defined An offer is a manifestation of an intent to be contractually bound upon acceptance by another party.Chapter 3 OFFER § 3. ." the auctioneer's request for bids or his statement that an item will go to the highest bidder will be deemed an offer. 6) auctions with reserve – An auction is "with reserve" unless announced to the contrary. In an auction with reserve. catalogs and mass mailings – Courts have ruled that it is unreasonable for one to believe that the merchant intends to be bound with all whom receive or read such literature unless the power of acceptance is clearly limited to the first person(s) that fulfills the act for which the incentive is offered. [Restatement § 68]  Duration of offer 6 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. if the auction is announced to be "without reserve. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. where the estimate is deemed to be a factual misrepresentation because it was made by an expert. An offer creates in the offeree the power to form a contract by an appropriate acceptance.
Generally.If the offer has a stated time within which the acceptance must be made. in the 7 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. courts hold that in telephonic or face-to-face communications in which an offer is made. § 3. the offeror must give the offeree the amount of time specified in the offer (or. the offeree began performance of the promised act to any extent [Restatement § 45] – Upon commencement of performance. an offer is generally revocable at any time prior to acceptance. Generally. the usual inference is that the time runs from the date on which the offeree would have received the offer under ordinary circumstances.  Communication of revocation An offer may be revoked by any words that communicate to the offeree that the offeror no longer intends to be bound. 3) the offeree relied to his detriment upon the offer itself if the such detrimental reliance was reasonably foreseeable by the offeror [Restatement § 87(2)] 4) in the case of a unilateral contract. it is assumed that the offeror intended to keep the offer open for a reasonable period of time.03 Revocation With limited exceptions (see  below). the offer lapses when the conversation terminates in the absence of a clear indication that the offer remains open beyond the conversation. An offer is also revoked by action that is inconsistent with the intent to be bound once the offeree learns of such inconsistent action. If no specific time is stated within which the offeree must accept. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 2) the offeree relied to his detriment upon an implied or express promise by the offeror not to revoke if such detrimental reliance was foreseeable by the offeror. to be determined based on the nature of the proposed contract.  Offers that may not be revoked An offer is irrevocable where: 1) there is an option contract in which the offeree gave consideration for an irrevocable offer for some period of time. prior dealings and other circumstances of which the offeree knows or should know. the time for accepting an offer begins to run from the time it is received by the offeree. If there was a delay in delivery of the offer of which the offeree is aware. All rights reserved. any attempted acceptance after the expiration of that time will fail and will merely constitute a counteroffer by the offeree. trade usage. .
which cannot be reinstated by the offeree's subsequent attempted acceptance. a merchant indicates in a signed writing that an offer to buy or sell goods will be held open for the stated time or a reasonable time if no time is specified. North Dakota) provide by statute that revocations are to be treated similar to acceptances. a reasonable time) in which to complete the bargainedfor promise. All rights reserved. not to exceed three months. However. if no consideration if given [UCC § 2-205]  Effective time of revocation A revocation is effective upon receipt by the offeree. § 3. California. South Dakota. a few jurisdictions (e. unless an offer is irrevocable. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.. courts might interpret these statutes to make a revocation of an offer effective when sent by the offeror.04 Termination of the Offer An offeree's power to accept an offer is terminated by: • the death or insanity of the offeror. However. Montana. . thus. which impliedly manifests a rejection of the offer • revocation of the offer • expiration of the offer 8 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. 5) in goods contracts.absence of a specified time.g. the offeree's mere preparation to perform does not preclude the offeror from revoking. • the offeree's counter-offer. such as in the case of an option contract • death or destruction of a person or thing essential to performance • the offeree's rejection of the offer. even without notice to the offeree of such occurrence • death or insanity of the offeree.
one who receives benefits from services that he knows or has reason to know are being offered with the expectation of compensation. Bilateral contracts are formed upon the giving of the promise to perform an obligation in the future.Chapter 4 ACCEPTANCE § 4. is liable for the reasonable value or stated value of such services. . the offers empower the offeree to only accept by return promise. and where he has a reasonable opportunity to reject them. unless otherwise indicated by language or circumstances.  Modern Approach Under the modern approach.01 Manner of Acceptance  Traditional Approach Traditionally. [b] Acceptance by Return Promise. in lieu of making the required promise. and 2) the offeror learns of the commencement of performance and acquiesces to such manner of acceptance. Restatement § 30(2)] This approach reflects the fact that many offers do not specify whether acceptance is to be by full performance or promise. [Restatement § 69]  Acceptance by silence 9 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. an offer invites acceptance by any means reasonable under the circumstances. Bilateral Contracts In a bilateral contract. The offeree's failure to perform does not constitute a breach since no contract is formed until the offeree renders full performance. the offer empowers the offeree to only accept by complete performance of the promise. Unilateral Contracts In a unilateral contract. the nature of the contract dictated whether the offer could be accepted by a return promise or by actual performance of the promised act. it is deemed a valid acceptance only if ratified by the offeror. Similarly. and failure to fulfill such promise results in breach. A contract may be formed even if an offer clearly indicates that acceptance is to be by promise if: 1) the offeree begins to perform. [UCC § 2206. If the act wrongs the offeror. [a] Acceptance by Performance.  Acts Inconsistent with Offeror's Ownership or Receipt of Benefits The common law holds that one who receives goods with knowledge or reason to know that they are being offered for a price is bound by the terms of the offer if he exercises dominion or control over such goods or engages in any other act inconsistent with the offeror's ownership.
All rights reserved. if the offeror is not notified of acceptance within a reasonable time. in non-goods contracts. if the offeree has reason to know that the offeror has no adequate means of learning of the performance with reasonable promptness and certainty. failure by the offeree to notify the offeror of the acceptance within a reasonable time may preclude the offerer from enforcing the contract. or • "where the offeror has stated or given the offeree reason to understand that assent may be manifested by silence or inaction. the offeror's contractual duty will be discharged unless: • the offeree exercises reasonable diligence to notify the offeror of acceptance. where an offer invites acceptance by performance. the same medium as was used to communicate the offer or any other medium "customary in similar transactions at the time and place the offer is received. it is reasonable that the offeree should notify the offeror if he does not intend to accept. even if the offeree effectively accepts an offer and a contract is formed. he may treat the offer as having lapsed prior to acceptance.02 Medium of Acceptance Unless the offeror indicates otherwise. or • the offeror learns of the performance within a reasonable time. . where commencement of performance is a reasonable mode of acceptance." [Restatement § 65] § 4. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the offeree may use any medium that is reasonable under the circumstances [UCC § 2-206(1)(a)] or. [Restatement § 54] In transactions for the sale of goods.03 Notice of Acceptance The offeror is entitled to notice of the acceptance. However." [Restatement § 69] § 4. [Restatement § 54 and § 56]  Notice of Acceptance by Performance Under common law. the offeree must exercise reasonable diligence to notify the offeror of the acceptance or ensure that the offeror seasonably receives the acceptance. [Restatement § 56] § 4. [UCC § 2-206(2)]  Notice of Acceptance by Return Promise Where the offeree accepts by promise. unless the offeror so specifies. or • the offer indicates that notification of the acceptance is not necessary. Thus.04 When an Acceptance Becomes Effective 10 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. no notice is required to make the acceptance effective. and the offeree in remaining silent and inactive intends to accept the offer.Silence may not constitute an acceptance except where: • based on prior dealings between the parties.
. § 4. § 4. an acceptance is not operative until received by the offeror. it will still be deemed effective when sent if it is received within the time in which a properly dispatched acceptance would have been received. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 2) the offeror may waive the lateness and honor the acceptance. e. if the acceptance is seasonably but improperly dispatched. the acceptance becomes effective when it reaches the offeror.05 Late Acceptance A number of approaches are applied to communications that are intended as an acceptance but sent after the offer expires: 1) the communication may qualify as a counter-offer. an acceptance must conform to the terms set forth in the offer. 3) if the acceptance is nevertheless sent within a reasonable time. the acceptance will be effective upon receipt. an acceptance is effective when sent. [Restatement § 67] 4) In the case of option contracts. if the acceptance is late because of a delay in transmission that is apparent from the circumstances. albeit after the offer's stated expiration.06 Terms of Acceptance  Non-goods Contracts Under the "mirror image" rule.g. 3) If an acceptance is sent by means that are not appropriate or reasonable under the circumstances or if it is improperly dispatched. by an authorized medium and with proper postage and correct address. applied in common law transactions. [Restatement § 63(b)] 5) In transactions governed by the CISG. if sent by reasonable means. a contract is formed unless the offeror informs the offeree that the acceptance is too late. . All rights reserved. No contract is formed if the acceptance 11 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. 2) Absent such specification. 4) in transactions governed by the CISG. [Restatement § 66] However.An acceptance becomes effective according to the following rules: 1) The offeror may specify when the acceptance will be effective. the acceptance is valid and results in the formation of a contract if the offeror does not reject it within a reasonable time.
and 3) are supplied by the UCC by default or gap filler provision. despite a simultaneous suggestion of alternative terms. . a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. Regardless of the nature of the parties. The formation of a contract is generally precluded even if the discrepancy is trivial.  Contracts for the sale of goods The UCC rejects the mirror image rule. A contract is formed if the offeree unequivocally accepts the offeror's terms. if the offeree unambiguously accepts but states additional terms. although courts are now increasingly giving effect to an acceptance if the additional or different terms relate to an immaterial detail. [c] Electronic Agents 12 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. as long as the acceptance is not contingent on the offeror accepting the proposed changes. Where both parties are merchants. Such circumstances merely represent an attempt to modify the terms of an already formed contract based on the original terms. All rights reserved. whether or not contained in a record. regardless of the merchant-status of the parties. [b] Different Terms Section 2-207 is silent regarding the treatment of different terms but some authorities suggest that they require the offeror's assent.contains terms that are different from or additional to those set forth in the offer. • they materially alter it. unless the offeree expressly makes the acceptance conditional on the offeror's assent to the different or additional terms. It give effect to a definite and seasonable expression of acceptance even though it contains additional or different terms from those offered. terms in a contract under the UCC are those that: 1) appear in the records of both parties. the additional terms become part of the contract unless: • the offer expressly limits acceptance to the terms of the offer. or • notification of objection to them has already been given or is given within a reasonable time after notice of them is received. [UCC § 2-207(2)] Proposed revised § 2-207 eliminates the distinction between transactions where both parties are not merchants and those where both parties are merchants. 2) are agreed to by both parties. [UCC § 2-207] [a] Additional Terms In contracts where at least one party is a non-merchant. the terms are construed as mere proposals for modification and the terms of the existing contract are those set forth in the offer. Such communication merely constitutes a counter-offer.
An output contract measures the contract quantity by the output of the seller.11]  UCITA Applying a similar approach to the common law "last shot" rule. If an offeree dispatches more than one response to an offer.07 Rejection of Offer A rejection of an offer by the offeree is effective when received by the offeror. [proposed UCC § 2-211(4)] [d] Requirements and Output Contracts A requirement contract is one in which the term of quantity to be delivered is measured by the needs of the buyer. Nevertheless. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.Where an offer is communicated by an electronic program and the offeree has reason to know that he is dealing with an electronic agent not programmed to responds to additional terms or queries. the buyer is not permitted to buy from a thirdparty supplier. any additional or different terms stated in the acceptance are ineffective. the seller must deliver the required amount of product to the buyer but any excess produced may be sold to third parties. In such contracts. [CISG art. no contract is formed. The seller is not permitted to sell any of its products to a third party. a trivial variation of terms in an acceptance from those set forth in the offer does not prevent the formation of a contract unless the offeror objects. However. if the rejection is received later than when the acceptance was dispatched. All rights reserved. the terms of the acceptance govern. the UCITA provides that where a purchaser offers to license software. [UNIDROIT art.  CISG In transactions governed by the CISG. if an acceptance by the software licensor contains materially different terms. regardless of whether the rejection is sent before or after the acceptance. 19]  UNIDROIT A contract is formed with agreed terms and any standard terms that are not knocked out due to inconsistency. if one party objects to the knocking out of any of its standard terms. and the software is delivered to the offeror. and acts in reliance on such rejection. estoppel may operate to bar enforcement of such a contract where the offeror receives the rejection before the acceptance. [UCITA § 204(b)] § 4. 2. a contract is formed since an acceptance is effective upon dispatch but a rejection is effective upon receipt. 13 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. . the buyer must purchase all of the seller's output but may purchase from third party suppliers any excess it needs beyond the seller's output.
Kan. UCC § 2-207 governs the interpretation of the contract. Gateway 2000. 86 F. such conduct is deemed to be a binding acceptance of the licensor's offer. .. Reversing the trial court finding that a box-top license was intended as the final expression of the parties' agreement. Gateway.3d 17 (2nd Cir. 2d 1218 (D. such disclaimers. when a shrinkwrap package containing a software program contains a printed warning to the effect that unwrapping the package constitutes consent to the terms of the license contained therein. Utah 1997) (terms not upheld). 1996) (license terms upheld) with Novell v. with no mention by the seller's representative of the license terms.g. Zeidenberg. Netscape. Step-Saver Data Systems v. 104 F. Compare Hill v. Supp."  Clickwrap Where software is downloaded from the internet.3d 1447 (7th Cir. 1991). 306 F.  Shrinkwrapped Warranties Cases are divided on whether a purchaser is bound by an arbitration clause contained in a limited warranty that is packed within the product box and shrinkwrapped at the factory where the purchaser is unaware of such clause. 1997) (arbitration clause upheld) with Klocek v. the court noted that "[w]hen a disclaimer is not expressed until after the contract is formed.08 Acceptance of Terms on Packaging and in Shrinkwrap and Clickwrap Standard terms presented on or within product packaging present special problems with respect to contract formation. jurisdictions are split as to the binding effect of such license terms on the purchaser. and. with the licensee being required to click on the "I agree" button indicating agreement to the licensor's terms. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 2000) (arbitration clause not binding on the purchaser).03 supra) 14 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. Network Trade Ctr. (see text at § 2. All rights reserved. E.  Box-Top Licenses At least one court has held that if a purchaser is unaware of license terms printed on the box because the transaction was conducted over the telephone. such software license terms are binding on the licensee. Similarly.. to the extent they materially alter the parties' agreement. are not incorporated into the parties agreement. Compare ProCD v. 939 F. 2d 1332 (D.2d 91 (3rd Cir. Specht v. 25 F. 2002). 105 F. between merchants. such terms were not binding on the purchaser. Supp.§ 4. Proposed revised UCC § 2-204 adds new subsection (4)(b). recognizing the validity of acceptances in click-through transactions. Wyse Technologies. Under the UCITA.3d 1147 (7th Cir. enacted only in Maryland and Virginia.
 Bargained exchange Consideration is a bargained-for performance or return promise which is given by the promisee in exchange for the promisor's promise. which relates to whether there is a legal detriment incurred as part of a bargained exchange of promises or performances. however. a promise regarding a pre-existing obligation to the other party does not constitute a legal detriment. courts do require consideration to be "sufficient".01 Elements of Consideration With some exceptions (see § 5. due to the incapacity of the promisor – the sufficiency of the consideration is not necessarily negated. . Even if the promisor's promise induced performance or a return promise by the promisee.PART II. a promise must be supported by consideration in order to be enforceable.03).g. each alternative on its own must constitute sufficient consideration for the return promise. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. If a bargain gives a party a choice of alternative obligations. courts do not concern themselves with whether consideration is adequate.02 Sufficiency of Consideration  Adequate vs. If a promise is void or voidable – e. Consideration requires a bargained exchange in which each party incurs a legal detriment. the promise is merely an unenforceable gift.. In such circumstances. All rights reserved. Generally. comment a] 15 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. ISSUES OF ENFORCEABILITY Chapter 5 CONSIDERATION § 5. there is no bargained exchange. honoring the concept of freedom of contract.  Legal Detriment A legal detriment exists where the party: • engages in an act that the party was not previously obligated – whether statutorily or contractually – to perform. if such inducement was not sought by the promisor. § 5. Sufficient Consideration Adequacy of consideration relates to whether the bargain involves an exchange of equal value. [See Restatement § 78. Consideration need not be furnished by or to the parties themselves as long as it is part of the bargained exchange. or • refrains from exercising a legal right Under the pre-existing duty rule. On the other hand.
16 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis." However.  Discharge of Obligation by Lesser or Greater Performance Generally. comment c. Beer. An illusory promise may exist where a promise is subject to a condition which is within the control of the promisor. 88 (1917) (involving an agreement by the defendant to give the plaintiff the exclusive right to market its name and designs).L.Y.  Implied Promises of Best Efforts and Good Faith Dealing Agreements for exclusive dealings may appear to be based on an illusory promise since the promisor's performance is subject to conditions within its control. All rights reserved. Forbearance of an invalid claim or defense may also serve as consideration if the proponent of such claim or defense had a good faith belief in its validity and if there exists an objective uncertainty as to its validity. H. Nevertheless. 1884] However. knows that such condition cannot occur. if the promisor undertakes a greater obligation than is promised.  Illusory Promises An illusory promise cannot serve as consideration. Lady Duff-Gordon. [See Wood v. . or when the promisor. which furnishes the necessary consideration. Consideration must in fact be rendered. UCC § 2-306(2)]  False Recitals of Consideration Where there is a false recitation of consideration. a promise to pay a lesser amount than is owed or to partially perform a preexisting obligation does not constitute a legal detriment since the promisor is merely doing that which he is already obligated to do. Lucy. he incurs a legal detriment sufficient to form consideration for the discharge of the obligation. especially where such condition is related to the contract performance. most courts continue to deny enforcement where there is a false recital of consideration in option contracts. states "the option agreement is not invalidated by proof that the recited consideration was not in fact given. at the time of the promise is made. 222 N. There is some conflict as to whether a sham recital of consideration in option contracts is sufficient to enforce the promise. common law and the UCC have recognized an implied promise to use best efforts in an agreement for exclusive dealings. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. such as paying or performing before the obligation is due. Forbearance of Claims and Defenses Surrender of a validly disputed claim – one for which there is a factual or legal uncertainty as to its merits – or the release of a validly asserted defense is sufficient consideration for a return promise. [Foakes v. the agreement will not be enforced for lack of sufficient consideration. Restatement § 87.
. [Restatement § 71.g. provided the option time is relatively short (e. misrepresentation or undue influence.03 Enforceable Promises Without Consideration The following types of promises are enforceable without consideration: 1) promises that induce a foreseeable and detrimental change of position by the promisee (promissory estoppel) 2) a new express or implied promise to pay a debt that has become barred by the statute of limitations 3) a new express promise to perform all or part of a pre-existing obligation that has become discharged in bankruptcy 4) where an original promise is voidable due to the promisor's incapacity. a new promise by such promisor upon attaining capacity 5) where an original promise is voidable due to a valid defense by the promisor such as mistake. the consideration is insufficient. [See Restatement § 87. Nominal consideration If nominal consideration is given as a mere formality in order to create a binding contract rather than as a bargained exchange. and a written promise by a merchant not to revoke an offer [UCC § 2-205] 7) in some states.. illus. contract modifications [UCC § 2-209(1)]. a subsequent promise by such promisor 6) in contracts for the sale of goods. All rights reserved. a payment or promise to pay nominal consideration is sufficient consideration to make enforceable a promise not to revoke. contract modifications in non-sale-of-goods transactions. 10 days) and the price to be paid if the option is exercised is a fair price. comment b] § 5. 17 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.5] In option contracts. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. release of a claim by a signed writing [UCC § 1-107].
18 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. 2) be signed by or on behalf of the party against whom enforcement is sought. All rights reserved. 4) state with reasonable certainty the essential terms of the unperformed promises. 3) Agreements made upon consideration of marriage. Many states likewise require a writing to memorialize a promise by an executor or other personal representatives to pay the obligations of the estate which they represent with their own funds. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. This requirement does not apply when the promise merely involves payment of another's debts with funds that belong to the debtor or which the promisor holds for the purpose of paying the debtor's obligations. beyond the quantity of goods shown in the record. e. 3) indicate that a contract has been made between the parties. .Chapter 6 STATUTE OF FRAUDS § 6." § 6. not merely if performance would appear impossible to complete within one year of the making of the contract. in the case of non-goods contracts. .02 Contracts Within the Statute of Frauds The following types of agreements fall within the statute of frauds: 1) Agreements that by its terms cannot be performed within a year from the making of the contract – The statute of frauds only applies if the contract specifically precludes performance within one year. default or miscarriage of another – A promise by a surety or guarantor to a creditor to pay the debt or perform the obligation of a principal debtor must be in writing where the creditor has reason to know of the surety/guarantor relationship. which requires the agreement to: 1) be memorialized in a writing or record. to provide a dowry or child support. . other than mutual promises to marry.g.01 Requirements of the Statute of Frauds Certain agreements must satisfy the statute of frauds. (see § 6. 5) specify the term of quantity.04 for an exception to this writing requirement) 2) Promise to answer for the debt. UCC § 2-201 specifically states that "a record is not insufficient because it omits or incorrectly states a term agreed upon but the contract is not enforceable . in the case of contracts for the sale of goods..
4) Agreements for the sale of land and for an interest in land (see § 6. All rights reserved.g. and agreements for the assignment of contract rights [UCC § 9-203(1)(a)] Other types of agreements upon which different states have imposed a writing requirement include: 1) agreements that by its terms cannot be performed during the lifetime of the promisor. 2) agreements by which a principal appoints an agent to execute a contract which is itself within a provision of the statute of frauds ("equal dignities" rule) 3) promises to pay debts. or otherwise marked 19 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. . The signature may be written. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.04 for an exception) 5) Agreements for the lease of real property for longer than one year 6) Agreement by a purchaser of real property to pay an indebtedness secured by a mortgage or deed of trust upon the property. An agreement may consist of several writings or records and only one need be signed if the circumstances clearly indicate that the various writings relate to the same transaction. intellectual property.03 Signature  Generally An agreement that falls within the statute of frauds must be signed by or on behalf of the party against whom enforcement is sought. unless assumption of the indebtedness by the purchaser is specifically provided for in the conveyance of the property.000 or more [UCC § 2A-201] 10) Agreements which creates a security interest in personal property if it is not in possession of the secured party. royalties – in the amount or value exceeding $5.04 for an exception) 8) Contracts for sale of other personal property – e.000 [UCC § 1-206] 9) Leases of goods in the total amount of $1. engraved. A signature may include any mark or symbol with which the signer intends to authenticate a writing. stamped. under the proposed revision.000 (see § 6. printed. 7) Contracts for the sale of goods for the price of $500 or more [UCC § 2-201]. the enforcement of which was barred by the statute of limitations 4) promises to pay debts discharged in bankruptcy 5) agreements to pay a commission to a real estate agent § 6. the price threshold is raised to $5.
in the absence of a writing. not the oral contract in its entirety. § 6. Signatures may include initials. . in the following circumstances: 1) where payment has been made and accepted or the goods have been received and accepted – Such partial performance makes only the portion performed and accepted enforceable. the contract may be enforced even against a merchant that did not sign the writing if: 1) within a reasonable time of the making of the oral contract. once the seller has made a substantial beginning in manufacturing or procurement of such goods. at least partially.  Signed Confirmation Between Merchants In a contract for the sale of goods between merchants. one merchant sends a signed writing to the other which would satisfy the statute of frauds as against the sender. imprinted signatures. provided that the seller can establish that the goods were intended for the buyer. This is not the majority position however. 2) in a contract for specially manufactured goods where the seller cannot sell such goods to third parties in the normal course of his business. All rights reserved. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 20 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. 2) the other merchant receives the writing and has reason to know of the writing's contents. letterhead. and the UCC [proposed revised UCC § 2-211(1)] recognize the validity of electronic signatures. and firm logos.  Electronic signatures UETA.04 Avoidance of the Writing Requirement  Goods Contracts Contracts for the sale of goods that fall within the statute of frauds may be enforced.on the writing. and 3) the non-signatory merchant fails to send a written notice of objection within 10 days of the date of receipt of the confirmation. "E-Sign". [UCC § 2-201(2)]  Signature by Party's Agent Some jurisdictions require a signed writing to evidence an agent's authorization to sign a contract that is subject to the statute of frauds on behalf of a party.
. However. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc..3) where the party against whom enforcement is sought admits in a pleading. most cases require some additional statement or promise. Some courts have refused to apply promissory estoppel to cases involving goods contracts because UCC § 2-201(3). does not include estoppel. comment a]  Contracts That Cannot be Completed Within One Year In a contract which cannot by its terms be completed within one year. including estoppel. which enumerates the circumstances under which the writing requirement may be avoided. [See Restatement § 129.  Promissory Estoppel A non-goods contract that fails to satisfy the statute of frauds may nevertheless be enforceable if the promisor's promise foreseeably induces action or forbearance on the part of the promisee or a third person and enforcement is the only means of avoiding an injustice. that the statute of frauds will not be raised as a defense to the enforcement. lack of a writing will not preclude enforcement once full performance has been completed. or that the statute of frauds does not apply to the transaction in question – the promisor may be estopped from raising the lack of writing as a bar to enforcement. which applies to all commercial transactions. All rights reserved.  Equitable Estoppel Where the promisor makes a representation pertaining to the writing and the party seeking to enforce the contract relied to his detriment upon such representation – e.g. a contract for the sale of real property will be enforceable if the buyer has taken possession and has made permanent improvements upon it. indicates that principles of law and equity. testimony or otherwise under oath that a contract was made but the contract is only enforceable up to the quantity of goods admitted. The extent of the improvements made that will justify enforcement varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. [Restatement § 139] Mere reliance on the oral contract itself is generally not enough to justify estoppel. [UCC § 2-201(3)(c)]  Contracts for the Sale of Real Estate Despite failure to satisfy the statute of frauds. are to supplement the specific provisions. section 1-103. that the writing has been executed. 21 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.
. lack of consideration or other invalidating cause  Finality of Writing The more formal and complete a writing is. course of performance or trade usage that supplies a consistent additional term is permitted. All rights reserved.03 Partial Integration If a writing is found to be a partial integration. or 2) partial integration – an expression of only a portion of the agreement.  Writing as Integration A written document that serves as a final embodiment of the agreement may be either a: 1) complete integration – an expression of the parties' agreement in its entirety. However. the parol evidence rule precludes the following types of extrinsic evidence: • prior agreements (whether written or oral) that contradict a term in the contract 22 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.01 Parol Evidence Rule The parol evidence rule operates in situations where there is a writing that represents the final embodiment of the contract or some of its terms. The parol evidence rule does not bar extrinsic evidence offered for the following purposes: • to aid in the interpretation of existing terms • to show that a writing is or is not an integration • to establish that an integration is complete or partial • to establish subsequent agreements or modifications between the parties • to show that terms were the product of illegality. The rule governs whether parties may introduce evidence of extrinsic agreements to prove the existence of additional or modified terms. the parol evidence rule precludes evidence of prior or contemporaneous agreements to contradict or supplement the contract. the writing need not be signed or complete in order to be deemed final.02 Complete Integration If a writing is found to be a complete integration. TERMS OF THE CONTRACT Chapter 7 PAROL EVIDENCE RULE § 7. Any relevant evidence may be admitted to demonstrate that the writing was not intended to be final. mistake.PART III. evidence of course of dealing. duress. [UCC § 2-202(1)] § 7. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the more likely it is that it represents the final embodiment of the agreement. § 7. Nevertheless. fraud.
2) "collateral contract" concept – All final writings are deemed to be partial integrations. comment b.• contemporaneous oral agreements Consistent additional terms to a partial integration may be established by evidence of: • contemporaneous writing(s) • course of dealing. course of performance or trade usage [Restatement §§ 214-216. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 23 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. it is a complete integration unless the additional terms are such that it would be natural to enter a separate agreement as to such terms. UCC § 2-202] § 7. in which case the writing is a partial integration. as it has been incorporated into the UCC and the Restatement Second. 4) "intention of the parties" approach (Corbin) – This approach allows all relevant evidence on the issue of intent. the writing is conclusively presumed to be a complete integration. This is the majority approach. including evidence of prior negotiations. 3) "reasonable person" approach (from Williston's rules) – If a writing appears to be a complete expression of the parties' agreement.05 Merger Clauses A merger clause establishes that the writing is intended to be the complete expression of the agreement between the parties. UCC § 2-202] § 7. mistake or other defense. however.04 Determining Whether a Writing is a Complete or Partial Integration There are several approaches to determining whether a writing is a complete or partial integration: 1) "four corners" or "plain meaning" rule – If the writing appears complete and final on its face. . may be given less weight than such clauses in non-adhesion contracts. All rights reserved. A merger clause contained in a contract of adhesion. [See Restatement § 210. Such clauses are generally conclusive on the issue of integration and will be enforced absent proof of fraud. There is increasing acceptance of this approach.
the meaning given to it as a whole or any individual terms therein is that of a reasonably intelligent person in the circumstances that surrounded the making of the contract. [UCC § 1-205(2)] 24 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.01 Approaches to Contract Intepretation The approaches used to determine whether a writing is an integration are also employed to determine what evidence may be referred in the interpretation of a contract as a whole or its individual terms. If the writing is not an integration and is unambiguous. [UCC § 2-208(1)] "Course of dealing" represents a sequence of previous conduct between the parties to a particular transaction which establishes a common basis of understanding for interpreting their expressions and conduct.Chapter 8 CONTRACT INTERPRETATION § 8. The majority of jurisdictions apply this rule. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 2) Williston's rules ("reasonable person" approach) – If a writing is an integration. despite growing criticism. Course of Dealing. UCC § 1-205(1)] "Usage of trade" represents a practice that is employed with regularity in a place. and Trade Usage In both common law and goods contracts. any course of performance accepted or acquiesced to without objection is relevant to the meaning of the agreement. espoused by Corbin and incorporated by the Restatement and UCC. and the other party knows of the nature of the performance and has an opportunity to object to such performance. All rights reserved. If a contract involves repeated occasions for performance by either party.02 Course of Performance. including the subjective intent of the parties. it must be interpreted solely on the basis of such writing. If the writing is not an integration and is ambiguous. justifying an expectation that the practice will be observed with respect to the agreement in question. § 8. [Restatement § 223. . "Course of performance" represents a pattern in the performance of the contract. course of dealing and trade usage may supply both additional terms and aid in construction of existing terms. course of performance. subjective intent of the parties is relevant. allows all relevant extrinsic evidence to assist in interpretation. 3) "Reasonable expectations of the parties" approach – This approach. vocation or trade. 1) "Plain meaning" rule – If a writing or term appears to be unambiguous on its face. the terms are to be interpreted by an objective test – the interpretations that a reasonable person would give them.
lawful and effective meaning to terms is preferred to an interpretation which imparts an unreasonable. course of dealing and trade usage. All rights reserved. 4) Technical terms and terms of art are to be given effect when used in relevant transactions. 2) In order of their significance and the weight to be given each are: express terms. 5) Wherever possible. unlawful or null effect. 3) Specific terms are to be given greater weight than general terms. § 8.§ 8. terms are deemed reasonably certain if they provide a basis for determining the occurrence of a breach and an appropriate remedy. [See Restatement § 203. § 206. all are to be interpreted together.  Open Terms 25 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. 3) Language is to be interpreted in accordance with its general prevailing meaning. the manifestations of the parties' intentions are to be interpreted as consistent with each other and with any relevant course of performance. if any. 2) A writing is to be interpreted as a whole. ambiguous language may be construed against the drafter. 5) In some cases.05 Certainty of Terms Contract terms must be reasonably certain. course of performance. UCC § 2-208] § 8. and if multiple writings pertain to the same transaction.04 Standards of Preference 1) An interpretation which gives a reasonable. course of dealing or trade usage. . a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. giving weight to the principal purpose of the parties in making the contract.03 Rules of Interpretation The following rules have developed to aid courts in interpretation: 1) Words and conduct of the parties are to be interpreted in light of all circumstances. such as adhesion contracts. 4) Negotiated terms are to be given greater weight than standard terms. if such purpose is ascertainable.
the Restatement provides that only those contractual provisions that a reasonable person would anticipate and agree to should be considered part of the contract. While not per se objectionable.In goods contracts. the contract does not fail for indefiniteness if the parties have intended to make a contract and there is a reasonably certain basis for giving an appropriate remedy.06 Different Meanings Intended by the Parties Where the parties attach different meanings to a term. and the other knew (or had reason to know) the meaning attached by the first party.  Omitted Terms Where a contract is sufficiently defined but omits an essential term. even if terms are left open. [Restatement § 201] § 8. . e. To protect the non-drafter." provided in UCC § 2-305 through § 2-311. adhesion contracts are subject to greater scrutiny than contracts that result from negotiation between the parties. All rights reserved. the court may supply a term which is reasonable under the circumstances. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the interpretation that prevails is that of the party that did not know (or had no reason to know) of any different meaning attached by the other.. Both the common law and the UCC provide that such a term may be enforced as long as the discretion is exercised in good faith and "within limits set by commercial reasonableness." [UCC § 2-311(1)] § 8. course of dealing. [Restatement § 204]  Terms Set by One Party A contract may provide that one of the parties is to specify a term of performance.g.07 Adhesion Contracts An adhesion contract is a contract drafted by one party and reduced to a form agreement that generally presents no opportunity for negotiation. regarding price. [UCC § 2-204(3)] Unspecified terms can be supplied by course of performance. trade usage. time and place delivery. who is often in an inferior position. [Restatement § 211(3)] 26 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. and "gap fillers.
The modification must be a product of good faith and fair dealing. A modification resulting from an improper threat to breach the contract or to refuse to do business with the party from whom the modification is sought – referred to as "business compulsion". there is some disagreement as to whether a contract that is subject to the statute of frauds may be modified orally. comment 2] § 9. A party to a contract for the sale of goods must have a legitimate reason for seeking a modification. the parties may. [UCC § 2209(1)] In non-sale-of-goods executory contracts.01 Good Faith Modification Subsequent to the formation of a contract. by mutual assent. a modification must be supported by new consideration except: • if the modification is fair and equitable in light of circumstances not anticipated by the parties at the time contract was made (the "unforeseen difficulties exception").Chapter 9 MODIFICATION § 9.02 Consideration The UCC does not require modifications to be supported by consideration. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.04 Ineffective Modification as Waiver of Original Terms 27 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. All rights reserved. An example of a legitimate commercial reason to seek a modification may exist where a market shift would create a loss to the party seeking relief even if such circumstances would not justify an excuse of performance. or • to the extent that justice requires enforcement of the modification due to a material change of position in reliance on the modified promise. . "economic duress" or "extortion of a modification" – will be held unenforceable. [Restatement § 89] § 9. [UCC § 2-209(2). The UCC requires modifications to be in writing where: • required by a signed agreement between the parties (in order to give effect to any such requirement stated on a form supplied by a merchant to a consumer. the consumer must also sign the form) • the contract as modified falls within the statute of frauds. Nevertheless. [UCC § 2-209. modify the contract. promissory estoppel may be invoked to enforce an oral modification that is subject to the statute of frauds if it would be unjust to reinstate the original term(s) where a party materially changes position in reliance on the agreement to modify.03 Writing Requirement Under common law. Jurisdictions also differ as to whether the parties may waive a contractual requirement that modifications be in writing. (3)] § 9.
promise to render services or sell goods.. e. e. . Unlike terms in the formation or modification of a contract. an ineffective attempted modification that is unenforceable due to noncompliance with the writing requirement (and any consideration requirement under the common law) may constitute a waiver of the original terms. A waiver is only effective against an existing contractual right and cannot create a new obligation. waivers do not require mutual assent or consideration and do not fall within statutory writing requirements.Under both common law and the UCC.g.g. Waivers generally apply to conditions in the contract.. delivery or filing date if time is not of the essence. All rights reserved. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. but not essential parts of the bargain. Waivers can generally be retracted unless the other party has relied on such waiver to his detriment. 28 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.
ENFORCEMENT AND AVOIDANCE Chapter 10 PROMISSORY ESTOPPEL § 10.g. e. 51 (1898)] 2) Philanthropic subscriptions made to educational. All rights reserved. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the doctrine of promissory estoppel may be invoked to make such promise binding in order to prevent injustice. charitable or religious organizations 3) Promises to make a gift of land where the promisee takes possession of the land and makes improvements upon it. Second.g. not his expectation. 26 Wis. The Restatement.. Red Owl Stores.. or borrowing money [see.02 Applicability of Doctrine Examples of situations in which promissory estoppel may be applied include: 1) intra-family promises [e. with the knowledge and assent of the promisor 4) Promises made by a bailee relating to bailed goods and on which the bailor relies 5) Offers that become irrevocable by virtue of the reasonably foreseeable inducement of an action or forbearance of a substantial character on the part of the offeree before acceptance [Restatement § 87(2)]. purchase of property.PART IV. relocation.g. that the detriment be "substantial. Ricketts v. Scothorn.01 Defined When a promisee foreseeably relies to his detriment on the promisor's promise. 2d 683 (1965)] 8) Extensive contract negotiations in which one party gradually increasingly commits itself in reliance on the negotiations resulting in a binding contract.. The remedy in such cases is based on the extent of the promisee's reliance. .. e. 57 Neb. eliminated the requirement from the Restatement. First. where a general contractor receives bids from a subcontractor and relies on such bid in preparing its own bid for a project 6) Contract modifications where one party materially changed position based on it [Restatement § 89(c)] 7) Preliminary contract negotiations where one party encourages the other to engage in activities that would facilitate entering into a contract but which would be detrimental to such party if the transaction is not in fact consummated. even in the absence of an enforceable contract. the 29 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis." [Restatement § 90(1)] § 10. e. Hoffman v.g.
other party negotiates through a low ranking representative who lacks full authority to seal the agreement 9) Indefinite contracts that are too vague to be enforced but for which the courts may award reliance damages 10) Letters of intent upon which one party justifiably relies in the belief that the transaction will occur but it does not when the other party abandons the negotiations 30 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. . a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
duress. 3) If a party improperly transfers property to a bona fide purchaser for value. 4) Voidable contracts may be ratified by the party with the power to avoid the contract once the reason for such avoidance – such as minor age. [b] Mental Impairment 31 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. Likewise. duress or mistake generally render a contract merely voidable. . undue influence or mistake – no longer exists. § 11. currently 18 years old in most states – are generally voidable by the minor-party. neither party can enforce the contract. However. if the circumstances prevented a meeting of the minds. The legal effects of a contract being deemed voidable as opposed to void are: 1) Where a contract is merely voidable. for example. rights cannot be transferred in a void contract. Other defenses – typically those that pertain to law and public policy – may render a contract void. The distinction is not clear-cut. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. while defenses such as incapacity. mental impairment. A minor can furthermore avoid contractual obligations for a reasonable time after attaining the age of majority. the contract will be deemed void. Void contracts cannot be ratified. but the contract cannot be enforced against him. the injured party may recover the property if the contract governing the transaction is void but not if it was voidable. contracts with an illegal purpose will generally be deemed void unless the parties are not in pari delicto.02 Defenses Affecting Assent  Incapacity to contract [a] Minors Contracts entered into by a minor (an "infant") – one below the age at which state law deems persons to possess capacity to contract. the innocent party may enforce the contract. 2) Rights in a voidable contract are transferable. the contract will become binding against him. if he fails to disaffirm within a reasonable time.Chapter 11 VOID AND VOIDABLE CONTRACTS § 11.01 Distinction Between Void and Voidable Contracts Certain defenses – generally those that affect assent – can render a contract voidable by the aggrieved party. even if he misrepresented his age. If a contract is void. All rights reserved.
[Restatement § 16]  Duress If assent to a contract was obtained by coercion constituting duress. An improper threat of harm that induces the other party to assent to contract terms constitutes duress. [Restatement § 176(2)] Examples of duress include threats to: • commit a criminal or tortuous act against the party. if the contract is made on fair terms and the other party was without knowledge of the mental illness or defect..Mental incapacity can result from mental illness or defect – e. All rights reserved. • the effectiveness of the threat in inducing the manifestation of assent is significantly increased by prior unfair dealing by the party making the threat. However. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. senility. or • what is threatened is otherwise a use of power for illegitimate ends. the incapacitated party may be precluded from avoiding the contract where: • the contract has been fully or partially performed. . [Restatement § 15] A party that was intoxicated when the contract was made may avoid the contract only if the other party had reason to know that. "Improper threat" is established where: • the threatened act would harm the recipient and would not significantly benefit the party making the threat. by reason of intoxication.g. or • the circumstances have changed such that avoidance would be unjust. the contract may be avoided by the person subjected to the duress. A party that suffers a mental illness or defect at the time the contract is made may avoid the contract where the mental impairment prevented him from: • understanding the nature and consequences of the transaction. the party was unable to understand the nature and consequences of the transaction or was unable to act in a reasonable manner in relation to the transaction. or • acting in a reasonable manner in relation to the transaction. his family or his property • extort money • commence a civil action under circumstances which could be deemed abuse of process • refuse to do business with the party • blackmail the party • refuse to perform a contract in order to extract an economically unjustified modification 32 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. and the other party had reason to know of his condition. retardation – or drug or alcohol intoxication. insanity.
or • one party breaches a fiduciary relationship with the other party.  Undue influence A defense based on undue influence may arise where: • one party takes advantage of the other party's position of weakness. based on age.. All rights reserved. 2) the mistake materially affects the agreement.• terminate an employment contract unless the party or someone close to him consents to an agreement not connected with the employment contract. mental state. intoxication. e. 568 (1887). [Restatement § 152] The Restatement's requirement that the mistake concern a basic assumption deviates from early case law that required the mistake to concern the subject matter of the contract. The threat must be of sufficient gravity to make the contract voidable. . 2) the attorney informed the client of the nature and consequences of the transaction. The highest standard is applied in cases constituting "economic duress".g. [a] Mutual mistake The adversely affected party may void a contract based on mutual mistake made at the time of the contract formation where: 1) the mistake concerned a basic assumption on which the contract made. thus preventing the latter from exercising free will in the transaction.. 3) the attorney fully disclosed his own interest in the matter.. and 4) the attorney encouraged the client to obtain independent advice or rendered the client the type of advice that a disinterested attorney would have given a client. determined based on an examination of the victim's experience. [b] Unilateral mistake 33 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.g. such as refusals to do business with the victim. etc. Business contracts between an attorney and his client are presumptively invalid but can be overcome if the attorney demonstrates that: 1) the transaction was fair and equitable. Sherwood v. and 3) the adversely affected party does not bear the risk of the mistake. 66 Mich. sophistication. E. Walker. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. and other relevant personal characteristics. illness. age.  Mistake A mistake is an erroneous belief related to the facts as they exist at the time the contract is made.
and 3) mistake is of a clerical or computational error or other such misconstruction of the terms. violation of a legal duty or failure to act in good faith and in accordance with standards of fair dealing • failed to read the contract (with some exceptions for adhesion contracts or where a writing does not accurately reflect an existing agreement between the parties). . [d] Void Contracts based on Mistake Mistakes that prevent a meeting of the minds render a contract void. If the unilateral mistake is not palpable. [c] Mistakes that do not give rise to a defense A party seeking to avoid the contract may not rely on mistake as a defense where the party: • assumed the risk of mistake with respect to the accuracy of facts existing at the time the contract was made • is at fault for the mistake. the aggrieved party may avoid the contract where: 1) enforcement of the contract against the mistaken party would be unconscionable. [Restatement § 162] 34 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. erroneous calculation of costs or prices.Common law provides that a party may avoid a contract based on a unilateral mistake where the mistake was palpable. and 2) the person seeking to avoid the contract reasonably relied to his detriment on such assertion. the following circumstances must exist in order to avoid a unilateral impalpable mistake: 1) the agreement is entirely executory or the other party can be placed in the status quo ante. the other party knew or had reason to know of the mistake.g.. Additionally. such as where the contract contains an egregiously erroneous recording of a price.  Misrepresentation [a] Generally An aggrieved party may avoid a contract based on misrepresentation where: 1) the assertion was either material or fraudulent. 2) the mistake is substantial (but not astronomical as that would likely make the mistake palpable). a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.. e. i. All rights reserved. and 2) avoidance would not result in substantial hardship to the non-mistaken party. but generally only where the fault amounts to gross negligence.e. such as where: • the offeree knows that the offer is the product of a mistake • the offeror makes the offer to a party intending it for another who is aware of the mistake • the parties attach a materially different meaning to the communications and neither party is aware or has reason to be aware of the meaning attached by the other.
. or Misrepresentation by a Third Party The defenses of duress. attorney-client). § 11. such as when there exists a special relationship of trust between the parties (e. undue influence and misrepresentation may be available to an aggrieved party even if committed by a third party. unless such other party materially relied on the agreement. if the other party to the contract knew or had reason to know that the victim was improperly induced to enter the contract. education. and the transaction's subject matter. All rights reserved.g. Undue Influence. Misrepresentations regarding the law or that constitute an opinion do not render the contract voidable. and circumstances under which it was made. nature.04 Remedies in Avoidable Contracts  Reformation 35 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. and experience. Some cases have even allowed such defenses in the absence of the other party's knowledge. whether or not a reasonable person would have been induced. except where: • there is a relationship of trust and confident between the parties (particularly important in cases regarding a misrepresentation of the law where the maker of the statement is a lawyer) • the maker of the statement is in fact or claims to be an expert on such matter • the maker of the statement has superior access to facts underlying the false opinion • the statement is made by a third person posing as a disinterested person • the statement is such that no reasonable person in the position of the maker of the statement could legitimately hold such opinion § 11. [b] Misrepresentations of Law and Opinion Misrepresentations of fact may render a contract voidable. Reliance on opinion may be reasonable in some cases where the opinion is expressed by one who possesses or appears to possess superior knowledge on such matter.A misrepresentation is material if: • it would be likely to induce a reasonable person to agree to the bargain. including the party's age. or • the party who made the misrepresentation knew or should have known that it was likely to induce the other party to manifest assent to the bargain. A misrepresentation is fraudulent if it was made with: 1) the intention of inducing the other party to rely on it.. and 2) knowledge of its falsity or lack of adequate foundation for the representation. (scienter) Reasonableness of the reliance is assessed based on the totality of the facts.03 Duress. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
a party that has rendered full or partial performance under a contract may be entitled to restitution. If the incapacity should have been obvious to a reasonable person. the remedy of reformation may be available. A minority position holds that the mentally incapacitated party need only return consideration still retained. regardless of whether he is the plaintiff or the defendant. the incapacitated party will generally be liable only for the consideration received that he still has in his possession. mistake or misunderstanding.05 Defenses Based on Unconscionability. In addition to restitution for consideration (in whole or in part). such as food and medical care. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. regardless of whether his incapacity was apparent to the other party. relates to the aggrieved party's understanding of the contract terms due to factors such as: • inconspicuous print in the writing 36 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. a defense based on unconscionability must present both procedural and substantive unconscionability. an incapacitated party will generally be held liable for the full value of any necessities furnished to him or his dependents. A minority of states (lead by New Hampshire) takes a different approach and holds a minor liable for the entire value of any benefits received.When a record does not reflect the parties' agreement due to duress. which is manifested by unfair surprise. A mentally incapacitated party who seeks avoidance may be liable for restitution if the other party had no reason to know of the incapacity. in whole or in part. Most states hold that a minor who is a plaintiff in an action to avoid a contract must make full restitution but a minor-defendant need only be liable for the value of tangible consideration still retained. may be void or voidable based on unconscionability. . except where the rights of third parties. Special rules apply where a contract is avoided based on incapacity. § 11. If the contract performances are severable.  Restitution Where enforcement of a contract is avoided. or violation of public policy. Reformation does not seek to remake the bargain.  Unconscionability Generally. the court may refuse to enforce the terms that offend law or public policy and enforce the remainder of the contract. such as good faith purchasers for value. not the contract itself. Procedural unconscionability. Reformation addresses nonconformities – typically typographical and other inadvertent errors – in the record that evidences or embodies the agreement. will be unfairly affected. illegality. All rights reserved. Law and Public Policy A contract.
an employment contract that violates the wage-hour law may be enforced against the employer despite the fact that the employer may not enforce the illegal wagehour provision against the employee. e.. under the principle of in pari delicto. such as contracts that involve: • a crime • a tort • a violation of a licensing requirement • a restraint of trade or interference with contractual relationships of others • impairment of family relationships • an interference with the administration of justice • an agreement not to be bound by usury. All rights reserved. in whole or in part.• • • • unintelligible legal language lack of opportunity to read the contract or seek clarification of terms illiteracy imbalanced bargaining positions (such as in adhesion contracts) Substantive unconscionability relates to contracts that are. . 37 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. deemed to be oppressive. limitations or consumer protection statutes • an exculpatory clause that would absolve a party for liability for harm caused by intentional or reckless conduct • an exculpatory clause that would absolve an employer for harm caused to an employee by simple negligence • an exculpatory clause that would absolve a public utility or other public service for harm caused in the course of fulfilling the public service function • a situation in which the parties are not in pari delicto (not equally at fault) If a contract violates a law intended to protect a given class of persons. the contract may not be enforced against a party who is a member of such protected class but such member may nevertheless enforce the contract against the other party. such as: • provisions that deprive one party of the benefit of the agreement or an adequate remedy for the other party's breach • provisions that bear no reasonable relation to the risk involved • provisions that are substantially disadvantageous to one party without producing a commensurate benefit to the other party • a great disparity between the cost and the selling price of the item that is the subject of the contract in absence of objective justification for such disparity  Illegality and Violation of Public Policy Contracts that violate law or public policy may be denied enforcement. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.g.
[Restatement § 261] Applying the same criteria. comment d] Increased cost alone does not excuse performance but an alternative performance that requires an unreasonable expenditure of resources may make performance of the contract impracticable. as well as make reasonable substitute performance if available.Chapter 12 IMPRACTICABILITY AND FRUSTRATION OF PURPOSE § 12. after a contract is formed.02 Partial Impracticability If the circumstances giving rise to the impracticability affect only part of the performance. he must do so. his duty to render that performance is discharged. circumstances arise which make a party's performance impossible or impracticable. injury or loss. Events that may make performance of the contract impossible include: • death or disability of a person indispensable to performance of the contract • destruction of the subject matter of the contract or other thing necessary for the performance of the contract. Performance will be discharged only if the partial impracticability makes the remaining performance substantially more burdensome. UCC § 2-615 provides that a seller's delayed delivery or nondelivery of goods based on impracticability is not a breach. All rights reserved. and the promisor can render substantial performance of his obligations. expenses. 38 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. § 12. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. impossible or impracticable. or performance in the contemplated sense. 3) non-occurrence of the event must have been a basic assumption upon which the contract was made. 2) the party seeking relief must not have been at fault in causing the event to occur. . and 4) the party seeking relief must not have assumed the risk of the event occurring. The proposed revision expands the availability of the impracticability excuse to "performance" and "non-performance" of any and all sellers' contractual duties.01 Supervening Impossibility and Impracticability of Performance If. In order to prove impracticability: 1) an event must have occurred that makes performance. provided the destruction is not the fault of the party asserting impossibility • failure of a specific thing necessary for performance to come into existence • supervening governmental action that makes performance of the contract illegal • where performance would subject the party to potential harm • shortages or significant price increases in materials due to embargo or war • other circumstances that would involve "extreme or unreasonable difficulty." [Restatement § 261.
cancel the contract. where all that is frustrated is the party's ability to make a profit but not the actual purpose of the contract. [Restatement § 266] § 12. [UCC § 2615(b)] § 12. e.g. after the contract is formed. When the temporary impracticability ceases. [Restatement § 265] This principle does relieve a party for mere "economic" or "commercial" frustration. no duty to perform arises where: 1) the party raising the excuse. § 12. 2) the nonoccurrence of such event was a basic assumption on which the contract was made. 39 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis..05 Temporary Impracticability and Frustration Where a party is unable to perform due to a temporary impracticability. the obligation may be discharged. had no reason to know of the facts giving rise to the impracticability or frustration. and if there is a reasonable probability that substantial performance will not occur. the other party may be able to suspend performance of the contract. illness. if the impracticability affects only a part of the seller's capacity to perform. without fault. All rights reserved.03 Supervening Frustration of Purpose If. and 2) the non-existence of such facts is a basic assumption on which the contract was made. circumstances arise which substantially frustrate a party's purpose in entering into the contract. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the party's remaining duties are discharged. the seller must allocate production and deliveries among its customers. . if the delay will make the performance substantially more burdensome.In goods contracts.04 Existing Impracticability and Frustration of Purpose If the impracticability or frustration of purpose exists at the time the contract was made. and 3) the language or the circumstances do not prohibit excuse based on frustration of purpose. provided: 1) the party seeking discharge was not at fault.
such duty is due first. which in turn becomes the condition precedent to the next performance installment. and neither party has a duty to perform until the other has performed • conditions subsequent – an event. as well as implied conditions which may be found based on course of performance.01 Timing of Performance of Duties Unless the contract specifies otherwise. PERFORMANCE AND BREACH Chapter 13 EXECUTION OF CONTRACTUAL DUTIES § 13. 2) Where the duty of only one party requires a period of time for performance. All rights reserved. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc..g. Substantial Fulfillment Express conditions.02 Conditions A condition is the occurrence or non-occurrence of an event that gives rise to or extinguishes a contractual duty. Constructive conditions – which are judicially imposed in the interest of justice – may be fulfilled by substantial performance. with each being constructively conditioned on tender of the other. Courts may interpret an express or implied condition as a constructive condition where substantial performance has been rendered in order to avoid a forfeiture. trade usage or other conduct. .PART V. 3) Where the contract provides for a series of performances and payments. A conditional duty becomes due upon either the fulfillment or excuse of such condition. E. that discharges such duty  Strict vs. performance of one part is a condition precedent to payment. must be strictly fulfilled in order to give rise to a conditional duty. occurring after a duty has arisen. course of dealing. the condition of tender of payment is likely one to require strict fulfillment. Fulfillment of conditions becomes due as follows: • conditions precedent – a promise which by its terms is to be performed prior to the return promise • concurrent conditions – promises that are capable of being performed simultaneously. some of the rules that dictate the order of performance of contractual duties are: 1) Promises capable of simultaneous performance are each due simultaneously. § 13. 40 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.
5) equitable estoppel where a party wrongfully prevented the occurrence of a condition 6) avoidance of disproportionate forfeiture unless the occurrence of such condition was a material part of the bargain 7) impossibility of performance of a non-material condition does not relieve the other party of his duty to perform if there would be forfeiture (need not be an extreme forfeiture in cases of impossibility) 8) unreasonable withholding of approval by a third party in some circumstances  Approval as a Condition [a] Approval by a Third Party Generally.g. However. and upon demonstration by the other party that he was otherwise ready. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. . whether the condition will be enforced or excused depends on the matter subject to approval. 4) election to continue performance after a condition has failed. All rights reserved. if there is no forfeiture involved. Excuse of conditions If a condition fails to occur. election does not foreclose an action for damages.. an election cannot be withdrawn. Waiver is only available for conditions that solely benefit the party waiving it. a condition that a third party approve the performance will be enforced and will not even be excused by the third party's death or incapacity or unreasonable withholding of approval. time or manner of delivery) that has not yet failed. A condition may be excused by: 1) rejection of a proper tender of performance. if such performance was a condition of the aggrieving party's duty. A waiver can be withdrawn and the condition reinstated if the other party has not relied on such waiver to his detriment. If the approval pertains to aesthetics. willing and able to perform 3) waiver of a non-material condition (e. Under the majority view. taste and fancy. if the approval concerns a matter of utilitarian 41 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. even if the other party has not relied to his detriment on it. If the failed condition constitutes a breach. If the failure of the condition of approval will result in forfeiture by the other party. where acceptance of the performance is a condition precedent to the rejecting party's duty to perform 2) wrongful prevention or hinderance of the other party's performance. the other party may still be obligated to perform his contractual duties if the condition is excused. the honest judgment of the third party is likely to be upheld and the condition enforced.
courts generally enforce such condition – even if the other party will suffer forfeiture – where: • approval concerns a matter of aesthetics or taste. 42 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. [b] Approval by a Party Where a party's duty is conditioned on his own approval of the other party's performance. All rights reserved. and the disapproval is based on honest dissatisfaction. .function or a matter on which the third party possesses no special expertise. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. or • approval concerns a matter of utilitarian function and it was not unreasonably withheld. such condition of approval will generally be excused if deemed to have been unreasonably withheld.
[UCC § 2-312(1). Goods that may be deemed merchantable include those that: • pass without objection in the trade under the contract description • in the case of fungible goods. are of fair average quality within the description • are fit for the ordinary purposes for which such good are used • run of even kind. packages and labeled 43 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. and quantity within each unit and among all units involved • are adequately contained. The UCC abolished the common law warranty of "quiet possession" which assured the buyer that no one would later assert a claim to such goods." unless such warranty is modified or excluded (see § 14. if the goods are made according to specifications furnished by the buyer.02). the seller warrants that: 1) good title in the goods is conveyed. (2)] Proposed revised UCC § 2-312(1) adds that the seller warrants that transfer of the title will not unreasonably expose the buyer to litigation arising from any colorable claim to or interest in the goods.Chapter 14 WARRANTIES IN SALES OF GOODS § 14.02). However. 2) the seller has the right to transfer the title in the goods. .01 Sellers' Warranties  Warranty of Good Title and Against Infringement [a] Good Title Unless such warranty is disclaimed (see § 14. quality. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. [UCC § 2-312(3)]  Implied Warranty of Merchantability Contracts for the sale of goods by a merchant of goods of such kind include an implied warranty that the goods are "merchantable. the buyer must hold the seller harmless against any such claims for infringement that arise out of compliance with such specifications. in all transactions for the sale of goods. All rights reserved. liens or encumbrances of which the buyer at the time of contracting has no knowledge. This warranty also applies to the service for value of food or drink. [b] Against Infringement If a seller is a merchant that regularly deals in goods of the kind that are the subject of the contract. patent or trademark infringement. the seller furthermore warrants that the goods are delivered free of any rightful claim of copyright. and 3) the goods are not subject to any security interest.
02). and the seller reasonably expects the record to be furnished to a remote purchaser. The seller need not use terms such as "warranty" or "guarantee" or possess a specific intention to make a warranty. opinion or commendation of the goods. and 2) the buyer relies on the seller's skill or judgment to select or furnish goods suitable for such purpose. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. [UCC § 2-315]  Express warranties Where a seller: • makes an affirmation of fact or promise relating to the goods.• conform to any promise or affirmations of fact made on the container or label [UCC § 2-314]  Implied Warranty of Fitness for a Particular Purpose Unless excluded or modified (see § 14. promise." defined as "a buyer that enters into a contract with the seller. and the record is in fact furnished to the remote purchaser. and (2) advertising or other communication to the public. or description. at the time of contracting. or • makes a remedial promise to a remote purchaser. . All rights reserved." [a] Express Warranties in Record Packaged with Goods Where a seller. the seller creates an express warranty that the goods will so conform. a sale of goods includes an implied warranty that the goods will be fit for a particular purpose where: 1) the seller. "Remote purchaser" is defined as "a person that buys or leases goods from an immediate buyer or other person in the normal chain of distribution. [UCC § 2-313] The proposed revision limits the application of § 2-313 to express warranties made by a seller to "an immediate buyer." New sections govern what are now referred to as "obligations" of a seller to remote purchasers created by (1) a record packaged with or accompanying the goods. and 44 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. has reason to know of the buyer's particular purpose for which he seeks to purchase the goods. or • provides a description of the goods. or • provides a description of the goods. the seller has an obligation to such purchaser that: 1) the goods will conform to the affirmation of fact. No express warranty is created by the seller's affirmation of the value of the goods. unless a reasonable person in the position of the remote purchaser would not believe that an obligation was created. or • provides a sample or model of the goods to be delivered that becomes part of the basis of the bargain. in a record packaged with or accompanying goods: • makes an affirmation of fact or a promise that relates to goods.
" for example. [UCC § 2-312(2)]  Implied Warranty of Merchantability A disclaimer or limitation of this warranty must expressly mention "merchantability. All rights reserved. [UCC § 2-313A] [b] Express Warranties in Advertisements Where a seller makes an affirmation of fact or promise that relates to goods. [UCC § 2-313B] § 14. 45 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.2) the seller will perform the remedial promise. The statement. adding the requirement in cases of consumer contracts that the exclusion or limitation be in a record. and the remote purchaser enters into a transaction of purchase with knowledge of and with the expectation that the goods will conform or that the seller will perform the remedial promise." The implied warranty of merchantability may be furthermore excluded with respect to obvious defects if the buyer had an opportunity to inspect the goods before entering into the contract (see § 14." and if in writing. or makes a remedial promise to a remote purchaser in an advertisement or other communication to the public. . or that he is purporting to sell only such right or title as he or a third person may have. "There are no warranties which extend beyond the description on the face hereof. the seller has an obligation to the remote purchaser that the goods will conform and that the seller will perform the remedial promise.02. this term must appear conspicuously. be conspicuous and state "The seller undertakes no responsibility for the quality of the goods except as otherwise provided in this contract.02). a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.02 Disclaimer of Warranties  Good Title The warranty of good title may only be disclaimed or modified by specific language or by circumstances that give the buyer reason to know that the seller does not claim title in himself. [UCC § 2-316(2)] The proposed revision adds that in order to exclude all implied warranties of fitness. [UCC § 2-316(2)] The proposed revision distinguishes between consumer contracts and other contracts." Implied warranties of fitness are also subject to further limitation as set forth in § 14.  Implied warranty of fitness Any exclusion or modification of the implied warranty of fitness must be in writing and must appear conspicuously. except as otherwise provided in the contract. is sufficient to exclude all implied warranties of fitness. a consumer contract must state "The seller assumes no responsibility that the goods will be fit for any particular purpose for which you may be buying these goods. provides a description of the goods.
and may be excluded by course of dealing." [UCC § 2-316. All rights reserved. [b] Discoverable Defects Upon Inspection When the buyer. there is no implied warranty with regard to defects which the buyer should have discovered upon examination. where a consumer contract is in a record. . all implied warranties are excluded by expressions such as "as is. but the disclaimer will be denied effect if inconsistent with the express warranty. . "The particular buyer's skill and the normal method of examining goods in the circumstances determine what defects are excluded by the examination. . [See UCC § 2-316(1)] § 14. before entering into the contract. [UCC § 2-316(3)(a)] Under the proposed revision. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. they are to be construed as consistent with each other wherever reasonable. while a nonprofessional buyer will be held to have assumed the risk only for such defects as a layman might be expected to observe. [UCC §§ 2-314(3). 2-316(3)(c)] 46 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. [UCC § 2-316(3)(b)] The proposed revision puts the onus on the seller to demand such examination in order for the refusal to examine the goods to negate the implied warrant. . A professional buyer examining a product in his field will be held to have assumed the risk as to all defects which a professional in the field ought to observe. such terms must appear conspicuously in the record.03 Implied Warranties Arising from Course of Dealing or Trade Usage In addition to the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness." "with all faults. comment 8]  Express Warranties Where a contract contains both an express warranty and a disclaimer of warranty." or other language which makes plain that there is no implied warranty. course of performance or trade usage. or has refused to examine the goods. other implied warranties may arise from course of dealing or trade usage. unless otherwise excluded or modified. has examined the goods or a sample or model. Implied Warranties Generally [a] "As is" and Other Similar Language Unless the circumstances indicate otherwise.
the aggrieved party may not cancel the contract and can only sue for partial damages. and the buyer breaches by wrongfully rejecting goods. [Restatement § 241] § 15. taking into account all the circumstances including any reasonable assurances. or • continue the contract and sue for partial damages If the breach is not material. . or failing to make a payment when due.  Material Breach in Non-Goods Contracts If a party fails to perform a promise and the breach is material. All rights reserved. In contracts for the sale of goods. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. • the extent to which the aggrieved party can be adequately compensated for the benefit of which he will be deprived. • the likelihood that the breaching party will cure his failure. a seller breaches the contract by offering a tender or delivery of non-conforming goods. An anticipatory repudiation of obligations also serves to breach a contract. wrongfully revoking acceptance of goods.02 Anticipatory Repudiation  What Constitutes a Repudiation A party repudiates a contractual duty by: • making a statement indicating that he will breach the contract • engaging in a voluntary affirmative act that renders him unable to perform the duty 47 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.Chapter 15 NON-PERFORMANCE AND DEFECTIVE PERFORMANCE § 15. Factors which are relevant to a determination of whether a breach is material are: • the extent to which the aggrieved party will be deprived of the benefit he reasonably expected.01 Breach Generally  What Constitutes a Breach Any non-performance of a contractual duty which has become due constitutes a breach. • the extent to which the breaching party has acted according to standards of good faith and fair dealing. in addition to repudiation. the aggrieved party may: • cancel the contract and sue for all damages under the contract. • the extent to which the breaching party will suffer forfeiture. and no cure is forthcoming.
failing to provide an assurance of due performance in response to such a request by the other party when there exists reasonable grounds to believe that the obligor will not perform. In order for the rejection to be effective. a repudiating party may retract his repudiation up to the time his next performance under the contract is due. [UCC § 2-610]  Retraction of Repudiation In goods contracts.03 Non-conforming Tender of Goods  Rejection of Non-conforming Tender [a] Generally Within a reasonable time after delivery or tender of goods. 251. proposed revised § 2-610(2)]  Effect of Anticipatory Repudiation In non-goods contracts. unless the aggrieved party has since: • cancelled • materially changed his position • otherwise indicated that he considers the repudiation final. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the buyer must seasonably notify the seller of such rejection. • . [Restatement § 253] In goods contracts. an anticipatory repudiation which will substantially impair the value of the contact to the aggrieved party. [UCC § 2-611] The Restatement likewise allows for retraction of repudiation under similar circumstances but without terminating the right of retraction upon the repudiating party's next performance installment. [Restatement § 256] § 15. UCC § 2-609(4). [b] Single lot contracts If the non-conformity occurs under a single lot contract. All rights reserved. allows the aggrieved party to: • await performance by the repudiating party for a commercially reasonable time • seek remedy for breach even if he has notified the repudiating party that he would await performance and has urged retraction • suspend his own performance. [Restatement §§ 250. a buyer may reject goods that fail to conform to the contract. anticipatory repudiation by one party entitles the other party to: • bring an action for damages for total breach • discharge his remaining obligations. the buyer may: 48 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. [UCC § 2-602] The buyer cannot reject the goods once he has accepted them.
All rights reserved. • after a reasonable opportunity to inspect. or accept any commercial unit and reject the remainder [UCC § 2-601] The UCC adopts the "perfect tender" rule for single lot contracts. . and the seller is entitled to cure the non-conformity under certain conditions (see § 15. Any material burden in curing the non-conformity must fall on the seller but the buyer must cooperate in curing the defective tender. the buyer may reject goods for any non-conformity. the buyer's rejection must be exercised in good faith. [UCC § 2-612. or by a further delivery or partial rejection. comment 5]  Acceptance of Goods An acceptance of a tender or delivery of goods can occur in one of the following ways: • after a reasonable opportunity to inspect. or • the buyer engages in any act that is inconsistent with the seller's ownership of the goods. and the buyer accepted it: • on the reasonable assumption that the non-conformity would be cured and it has not been seasonably cured. the buyer must make a reasonable minor outlay of time or money to cure an over-shipment. etc. does not apply to installment contracts. if the non-conformity substantially impairs its value to him. the buyer indicates to the seller either that the goods conform to the contract or that he will retain them despite their nonconformity. and cannot be cured. even if the seller has substantially performed. [UCC § 2-612] Substantial impairment may pertain to the quality of the goods. [UCC § 2-608(1)] 49 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. A buyer may reject an installment only if the non-conformity substantially impairs the value of the installment. [UCC § 2-606]  Revocation of Acceptance of Non-conforming Goods A buyer who initially accepts non-conforming goods may revoke the acceptance. [c] Installment contracts The perfect tender rule. the buyer fails to make an effective rejection. by means such as allowances against the price. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. accept the whole lot. Nevertheless. or • without discovering such non-conformity if his acceptance was reasonably induced by the difficulty of discovery before acceptance or by the seller's assurances. otherwise applicable to goods contracts. For example.• • • reject the whole lot. timing of tender. quantity.04). and thus.
§ 15. the new standard is whether the cure is appropriate and timely under the circumstances. many cases hold that there is no right in non-goods contracts for the breaching party to cure.05 Assurance of Due Performance  Right to Make a Demand for Assurances Both the Restatement and the UCC provide that where there are reasonable grounds to believe that a party will not be able or willing to perform. except in consumer contracts. [UCC § 2-508] In non-goods contracts. the seller may be entitled to cure the conformity. when the buyer had accepted without prior discovery of the non-conformity and the acceptance was reasonably induced either by the difficulty of the discovery before acceptance or by the seller's assurances. Between merchants. the standard for the seller's right to cure after the contract time has expired is no longer whether he had reasonable grounds to believe the non-conforming goods would be acceptable. 2) A seller's right to cure is expanded to situations where the buyer has justifiably revoked an acceptance of goods. The revocation is not effective until the buyer notifies the seller of it. the party entitled to receive such performance may make a demand for assurances from the other party that performance will be forthcoming. if the seller had reasonable grounds to believe the non-conforming goods would be acceptable with or without money allowance. The proposed revision makes additional changes to the rules governing cure. Under the proposed revision.04 Cure of Non-conformities If the buyer rejects a delivery or tender of non-conforming goods. [Restatement § 251. unless the contract expressly provides such right. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. 50 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. § 15. the seller may have "further reasonable time" to make a conforming delivery. commercial standards dictate the reasonableness of grounds for insecurity and adequacy of any assurance offered. However. the seller may seasonably notify the buyer of his intention to cure and then make a conforming delivery within the contract time. although the seller may still be in breach with respect to the initial delivery. the Restatement suggests a party that commits a material breach may attempt to cure the breach [See Restatement § 241(d)]. .The buyer must notify the seller of the revocation within a reasonable time after he discovers or should have discovered such defects and before there is any substantial change in the condition of the goods. After the contract time has expired. 3) A seller shall compensate the buyer for reasonable expenses incurred due to the seller's breach and subsequent cure. If the time for performance has not yet expired. UCC § 2-609] Such demand in goods contracts must be in writing. All rights reserved. in all cases: 1) A seller must have acted in good faith in order to be entitled to cure a nonconformity. upon seasonably notifying the buyer.
51 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. Suspension of Performance Pending Assurances Upon making a demand for assurances. All rights reserved. . a party may. suspend any performance for which he has not already received the agreed exchange until he receives such assurance.  Effect of Failure to Provide Assurances A party's failure to provide assurances within a reasonable time – in goods contracts not to exceed 30 days – constitutes a repudiation of the contract by such party. if reasonable. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
Restitution damages may be measured by: • the reasonable value of the benefit received in terms of what it would have cost to obtain such benefit from another source • the extent to which the value of the party's property has been increased or his other interests advanced. 156 Eng.01 Types of Remedies  Expectation damages Expectation damages compensate the injured party for the benefit he would have received had the contract not been breached. A party seeking consequential damages must demonstrate that the damages were foreseeable at the time the contract was formed.g. minus any amount he would have spent in performance of the contract. Hadley v. and may be measured by the contract price. 145 (1845). a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.Chapter 16 REMEDIES § 16..  Reliance damages Reliance damages compensate the injured party for expenses or loss incurred in reasonable reliance on the contract that was breached. General damages are the natural and probable consequence of a breach and are deemed to have been within the contemplation of the breaching party.  Restitution Restitution compensates a party for the benefit conferred on the other party as a result of partial performance or reliance. A party seeking general damages need not offer further proof that the damages were foreseeable. loss in value. Consequential (or special) damages arise from the special facts and circumstances of the case and are not deemed to be within the contemplation of the breaching party unless he was made aware of such specific facts and circumstances. and may not exceed the anticipated benefit of the bargain. Expectation damages – which may be general or consequential – must be foreseeable. Baxendale. All rights reserved. Such damages must be proven with certainty. . Reliance damages are only awarded when expectation damages cannot be proven. to either party • where a contract is unenforceable (e. due to lack of consideration or writing) • where a contract is voidable 52 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. or lost profits. Restitution may be available: • in cases of breach. and is aimed at preventing unjust enrichment. Rep.
such damages in commercial contracts need only reasonable in light of anticipated or actual harm. the reasonableness of stipulated damages must reflect: 1) the anticipated or actual harm caused by the breach. only stipulated damages in consumer contracts must be reasonable in light of all three factors. such as in the case of unreasonably large damages.• where a duty is excused or discharged due to impracticability. In sales contracts. Stipulated damages will be enforced if they reflect an honest effort to anticipate the harm caused by a breach. stipulated damages must be reasonable in light of: 1) the anticipated or actual harm caused by the breach. the breaching party is entitled to restitution for any benefit he conferred by way of part performance or reliance in excess of the loss that he caused the aggrieved party by his breach. and 3) the inconvenience or nonfeasibility of otherwise obtaining an adequate remedy. [Restatement § 374(1)]  Stipulated damages (liquidated damages) At the time the contract is formed. however. 2) the difficulties of proof of loss. [Restatement § 373] [b] Restitution by Breaching Party Where the aggrieved party justifiably suspends his performance on the ground that other party's breach discharged his remaining duties.  Incidental Damages 53 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. if the injured party has performed all of his contractual duties and the breaching party owes no performance other than payment for a definite sum of money for the injured party's performance. Under common law. [a] Restitution by Injured Party An party injured by a breach is entitled to restitution for any benefit he conferred on the breaching party by way of partial performance or reliance. non-occurrence of a condition. frustration of purpose. and 2) the difficulties of proof of loss. the parties may agree to a fixed sum of money or a set formula for setting damages in the event of a breach. [UCC § 2-718] Under the proposed revision. Stipulated damages will be deemed invalid if they represent an attempt to punish the breaching party. All rights reserved. Restitution is not available. . or disclaimer by a beneficiary • in void contracts to a party not in pari delicto.
less expenses saved. The buyer may recover the difference between the cost of cover and the contract price. the buyer may recover the price already paid. [UCC § 2-711] The proposed revision allows recovery of any contract price paid only if the buyer has rightfully cancelled the contract. incidental. § 16. whether or not he cancels the contract. [UCC § 2-712] As long as the cover was made in good faith. except in consumer contracts. or where the seller's nonconforming tender results in the buyer' rightful rejection or justifiable revocation of acceptance of goods. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the buyer may "cover" by making a reasonable substitute purchase.[UCC § 2-709] Consequential damages will become available as well in the proposed revision. rejected the goods or revoked acceptance of the goods [proposed UCC § 2-711(2)(a)]  "Cover" Where a seller fails to deliver goods or repudiates. . All rights reserved. and consequential damages [UCC § 2-711]  Recovery of Price Paid Where a seller fails to deliver goods or repudiates. in good faith and without unreasonable delay.  Damages for Non-delivery or Repudiation 57 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.04 Buyer's Remedies  Generally A seller breaches a contract for the sale of goods by: • wrongfully failing to make delivery • wrongfully failing to perform a contractual obligation • making a non-conforming tender of goods • repudiation Remedies available to a buyer for a seller's breach include: • recovery of price paid • deduction of damages from outstanding payments due • cancellation of the contract • "cover" • specific performance and replevin • liquidated damages • expectation. the price need not have been the lowest available and the goods need not be identical to those stated in the contract. or where the seller's nonconforming tender results in the buyer' rightful rejection or justifiable revocation of acceptance of goods. along with incidental or consequential damages.
measured by the difference. except in consumer contracts. [UCC § 2-716(3)]  Damages Resulting From Acceptance of Non-conforming Goods If the buyer has accepted non-conforming goods and has given notice to the seller of his claim. to be determined in any reasonable manner [UCC § 2-714(1)] • recover damages for breach of warranty. . market price is to be set at the expiration of a commercially reasonable time after the buyer learned of the repudiation. or where the seller's nonconforming tender results in the buyer' rightful rejection or justifiable revocation of acceptance of goods. the buyer may: • recover damages for the loss he reasonably incurs. In the case of a seller's repudiation. after reasonable effort. proposed revised § 2-713 changes the time at which the market price is set to the time of tender under the contract.  Specific Performance and Replevin Where the seller fails to deliver or repudiates. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. [UCC § 2-716(1)] The proposed revision allows parties to contract for the remedy of specific performance in circumstances where the remedy would not otherwise be available. the buyer may obtain specific performance of the contract where the goods are unique or in other proper circumstances. All rights reserved. The buyer may have a right of replevin for goods identified in the contract if. the buyer may resell any goods in his possession or control to offset any payments made on their price and any incidental expenses [UCC § 2-711(3)]. [UCC § 2-713] The proposed revision provides different times at which market price is to be set based on the manner of breach. the buyer is unable to effect cover or circumstances indicate that such an effort will be unavailing. at the time and place of acceptance. The buyer may not 58 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. In the case of a seller's non-delivery or a buyer's rightful rejection or justifiable revocation. such as when the buyer is unable to cover. upon notifying the seller of his intention to do so [UCC § 2-717]  Resale and Offset Where a buyer rightfully rejects non-conforming goods or justifiably revokes acceptance of goods. between the actual value of the goods and the value the goods would have had if they had been as warranted [UCC § 2-714(2)] • recover incidental and consequential damages [UCC § 2-714(3)] • deduct all or part of the damages resulting from the breach from any part of the price still due to the seller under the contract. but no later than the time of tender under the contract.Where a seller fails to deliver goods or repudiates. the buyer may recover damages measured by the difference between the market price at the time when the buyer learned of the breach and the contract price along with incidental and consequential damages less any expenses saved.
a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the seller may reclaim the goods upon a demand made within ten days after the buyer's receipt of the goods. If the buyer has received goods on credit while insolvent. and • becomes insolvent within ten days of receipt of the first payment installment the buyer may recover the goods from the seller upon tendering any unpaid portion of their price. the buyer may deduct all or part of the damages resulting from the breach from any part of the price still due to the seller under the contract. Furthermore. The 10-day limit does not apply if the buyer misrepresented its solvency to the seller in a writing within three months before delivery. and the seller: • fails to deliver or repudiates.  Deduction of Damages from Payment Due Upon notifying the seller of an intention to do so. [UCC § 2-717] § 16. [UCC § 2-711 and § 2-502]  Buyer's Insolvency Where the seller discovers the buyer is insolvent. 59 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. the revision would eliminate the exception regarding the misrepresentation in writing within three months before delivery. he will be precluded from all other remedies with respect to such goods. the seller is not limited to making the demand within ten days but may do so within a reasonable time after the buyer's receipt of the goods. If the seller successfully reclaims the goods.05 Remedies in the Case of Insolvency in Goods Contracts  Seller's Insolvency Where a buyer has made partial or full payment for goods that have been identified. .keep any profit resulting from the resale nor may he retain funds from such resale to cover the amount of damages to which he believes he will be entitled. All rights reserved. [UCC § 2-702] Under the proposed revision. he may refuse delivery except for cash including payment for all previously delivered goods.
an agreement to rescind is binding without additional consideration since the release of each party's rights provides the consideration.02 Rescission  When Available Parties to a contract may mutually agree to rescind their contract where: 1) there are duties still to be performed by both parties.  Writing Requirement The common law generally permits oral rescissions. [UCC § 2-209(2)]  Consideration If both parties' duties are executory. Where such provision appears on a form supplied by a merchant. and 2) any vested third party rights will not be affected. even if the contract falls within the statute of frauds. . a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. In contracts for the sale of goods. a rescission must be in writing if there is a signed agreement that expressly requires any rescission to be in a signed writing. If one 60 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.Chapter 17 DISCHARGE § 17. All rights reserved. the form must be signed by the other party unless the other party is also a merchant. An exception exists where the rescission would result in a transfer of title to land.01 Events that Discharge Contractual Duties A party's contractual duties may be discharged by the following types of occurrences: • complete performance • rescission of the contract • substitute contract • accord and satisfaction • novation • an account stated • avoidance of duties in a voidable contract • illegality • bankruptcy • rejection of proper tender • occurrence of a condition subsequent • breach by the other party • impracticability and frustration of purpose • failure of consideration § 17.
. a substitute contract immediately discharges all duties under the original contract. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. [Restatement § 295(2)] 61 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. extinguishing the duties of the parties under the old contract and substituting a new contract between the remaining original party and the new party. thus preserving the right to bring action against the other co-obligors. In order to avoid this result. an obligee may enter into a contract not to sue the obligor. § 17. All rights reserved.07 Release of a Co-obligor A release. § 17.06 Account Stated An account stated is an agreement by a creditor and debtor as to the amount due under a contract. rescission or accord and satisfaction that discharges one co-obligor releases other co-obligors that are jointly responsible for performing the duty in question. an action may be brought on the substitute contract alone. If the obligor breaches the substitute contract. [Restatement § 281] § 17.party has fully performed. who sends the debtor a statement of the amount due on his account.04 Substitute Contract Unlike an accord and satisfaction which merely suspends the original contractual duty.03 Accord and Satisfaction An accord is an agreement between parties of a pre-existing contract that the obligee will accept the performance stated in the accord in satisfaction of the obligor's contractual duty. the obligee may bring action on the original contract or the accord. "The account stated does not itself discharge any duty but is an admission by each party of the facts asserted and a promise by the debtor to pay according to its terms. Failure to object by the recipient of the account stated manifests assent to be bound by its terms.05 Novation A novation is an agreement by which a new party replaces one of the original parties to a contract. § 17. the other party must furnish consideration to support the rescission. Performance of the accord suspends the contractual duty but if the obligor breaches the accord. such as when a debtor opens an account with a creditor." [Restatement § 282(2)] § 17.
Upon an effective assignment. . [Restatement § 324] In commercial contracts. OTHER PARTIES Chapter 18 ASSIGNMENT AND DELEGATION § 18. the obligee/assignor's right to receive the promised performance is extinguished. [Restatement § 321(1)] A purported assignment of rights arising from a contract not yet formed is not an assignment itself but merely a promise to make an assignment in the future. [UCC § 1-206(1)] 62 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. Otherwise. The assignment is "for value" if the assignee provides consideration for the assignment of rights. the assignment is gratuitous.g.PART VI. an assignment of personal property.000 in the absence of a writing.01 Assignment  Definition and Nature of Assignment An assignment is a manifestation of an obligee's intention to transfer to an assignee its right to receive performance from the obligor. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. An assignment may be gratuitous or for value. UCC § 2-210(2)] Even if a contract precludes assignment of the performance due under the contract. intellectual property. or if the assignment serves as security for or in total or partial satisfaction of a pre-existing debt. which applies to most commercial assignments. [Restatement § 321(2)] Article 9. is not enforceable beyond $5. e.  Writing Requirement Common law assignments need not be in writing. All rights reserved.. [UCC § 2-210(2)]  Assignment of Future Rights Modern common law permits the assignment of payment expected to arise from an existing employment or other continuing business relationship.  Non-assignable Rights A contractual right may not be transferred if the assignment: • would materially alter the obligor's duty • would materially increase the burden or risk imposed on the obligor • would materially impair the obligor's chance of obtaining the return performance • would materially reduce the value of the performance to the obligor • is precluded by the contract [Restatement § 317(2)(a). likewise authorizes assignment of future rights under various circumstances. a party may nevertheless assign the right to damages arising out of contract.
life insurance polices. . and some courts). Upon vesting. A gratuitous assignment may become irrevocable: • if the assignee obtains payment or satisfaction of the obligation • if the assignee obtains judgment against the obligor • if the assignee obtains a new contract of the obligor by novation • to the extent necessary to avoid injustice where there was foreseeable reliance by the assignee or a subassignee on the assignment [Restatement § 332]  Modification of Contract Following Assignment Under common law. in accordance with reasonable commercial standards. the assignor must generally transfer such item to the assignee in order for the assignee to be able to enforce that right. if the assignment is accompanied by delivery of an integrated writing that embodies the contract even though it is not a symbolic writing.  Revocation of Assignments Except as noted below. even after the obligor has received notice of the assignment. The assignee re-acquires rights under the modified or substitute contract. All rights reserved. [UCC § 9-405] 63 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. a right. a gratuitous assignment may be revoked by: • the assignor making a subsequent assignment of the same right. savings account books. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. stock certificates • under some authorities (Restatement § 332. i. the parties may modify or substitute the contract with respect to unexecuted performances. In commercial contracts. Rights Embodied in a Tangible Item If a tangible thing represents a given right. e.e. a writing of a type customarily accepted as a symbol or as evidence of the right assigned. • the assignor's death or loss of capacity • notification of the revocation received by the assignee or the obligor A gratuitous assignment is irrevocable: • if the assignment is in a writing either signed or under seal that is delivered by the assignor • if the assignment is accompanied by the delivery of a symbolic writing. If a token or instrument evidences. comment d. the assignee's rights vest upon the obligor's receipt of notification of the assignment.. bonds. delivery of such item may demonstrate the assignor's intention to transfer but lack of such delivery does not necessarily preclude a finding that there was a valid assignment. mortgages. as opposed to represents. the parties may not modify the contract in such a manner as to impair the assignee's rights..g.
or d) receives a tangible token or symbolic writing. The common law has several approaches to determining priority among several assignees: 1) "English" rule – this minority position provides that the first assignee to give notice to the debtor prevails 2) "New York" rule – priority is given to the first to receive an assignment. Article 9 requires the assignor to file a one-page "financing statement" in a public office such as the office of the Secretary of State. the first assignee may recover from a second assignee who already received payment from the obligor. c) enters into a new contract with the obligor. If the assignment is voidable and the obligor pays the assignee in good faith without notice of the cause of the voidability.g. although the obligor's duty is discharged by payment to the second assignee 3) "Massachusetts" rule – this rule which was adopted by the Restatement provides that the first assignee prevails unless a second assignee who pays value in good faith without notice of the first assignment: a) obtains payment for the obligor. lack of consideration. or present or prospective failure of performance by the obligee 64 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. In general.g. However. e. Voidable Assignments An assignment may be voidable on the same grounds as a contract. duress.. All rights reserved.g. .  Multiple Assignments of the Same Right Partial and multiple assignments are permissible under modern law since the availability of joinder protects the obligor from multiple lawsuits by multiple assignees. b) recovers a judgment against the obligor. mental impairment. surrender of which is required by the contract.. In certain commercial transactions. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. and thus an obligor may assert against an assignee defenses based on: • voidability (e. public policy. infancy. priority is given to the first person that files the financing statement. multiple assignments of the same right are governed by Article 9.. non-occurrence of a condition. lack of capacity) • unenforceability (e. if he pays the assignee knowing that the assignment is voidable. putting other potential assignees and creditors on notice that the contract rights have been assigned. failure to satisfy a writing requirement) • impracticability. the obligor's duty to the assignor is discharged. [UCC § 9-109]  Defenses by the Obligor against the Assignee An assignee has no greater rights than the assignor. he may still be liable to the assignor.
except where: 65 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.02 Delegation of Duties  Right to Delegate Unless the parties otherwise agree. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. the defense of payment is available to the obligor if payment was made prior to receiving notice of the assignment and before the assignee demands payment. A novation can be implied where the delegator repudiates his obligations and the obligee accepts performance from the delegatee without expressly reserving his rights against the delegator. Examples of delegable duties include: • duty to pay money • duty to deliver a fungible good • duty to perform impersonal. such as those of an attorney or accountant (although delegation by the professional to other members of the firm is not precluded) • otherwise delegable duties to a person who lacks the requisite skill or experience [See Restatement § 318(2). UCC § 2-210(1)]  Liability of Delegator Delegation does not extinguish the delegator/obligor's duty. a novation results and the delegator is released from the obligation to perform. if the obligee agrees to a substitution of the delegatee for the delegator/obligor. The delegatee's promise to perform serves as the consideration that supports the release. An obligee does not waive his rights against the delegator by acceptance of complete or partial performance by a delegate. routine or mechanical services unless circumstances indicate that the specific performance of the obligor was sought However. an obligor may delegate the performance of his duties under the contract to another provided the obligee will receive the substantial benefit of the bargain. the duty may be found to be too personal to delegate. if the performance to be rendered is for personal services or otherwise involves the exercise of skill and discretion. All rights reserved. After such demand.• any claim that accrues before the obligor receives notice of the assignment. or • subsequent agreement or modification between the obligor and assignor. . [Restatement § 336] Once the obligor receives notice of the assignment. the obligor cannot assert against the assignee defenses based on: • payment made to the assignor made after the notice. Under Article 9. However. [UCC § 9-406] § 18. the obligor may not longer make payments to the obligee/assignor and claim a defense of payment. Examples of duties that are generally found to be non-delegable include: • professional services.
an obligee may treat any assignment which delegates performance as creating reasonable grounds for insecurity and may demand assurances from the assignee/delegatee. his failure to do so gives rise to the following rights: • the delegator may sue for breach of contract • the obligee may sue as a third party beneficiary of the contract between the delegator and delegatee In contracts for the sale of goods. All rights reserved. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. [Restatement §§ 322(1). a contract term prohibiting "assignment of the contract" bars only the delegation of performance of a duty or condition by the assignor to an assignee. 328(1). UCC § 2-210(3).1) the duty is non-delegable due to its personal nature. [UCC § 2-210(5)]  Delegation Clauses Contract clauses permitting delegation of duties are enforceable if the obligee's assent to the clause was given for consideration or if the delegator changed his positions in reliance on the obligee's consent. Clauses that prohibit delegation are generally interpreted to only prohibit delegation of duties that are of a personal or unique nature. (4)] 66 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis.03 Interpretation of Assignment Clauses Unless circumstances indicate otherwise. If the delegatee does promise to perform. A contract term providing for "assignment of the contract" or "all of my rights under the contract" or other similar terms encompasses both an assignment of rights and delegation of unperformed duties under the contract. § 18. . and 2) the obligee accepted the performance knowing that it was rendered by a delegatee  Liability of Delegatee A delegatee is not liable for the performance of contractual duties unless he expressly or impliedly assumes responsibility for such performance.
Chapter 19 THIRD PARTY CONTRACTS § 19. he is deemed to have accepted them) • upon a change in position. • at the time the third party learns of the contract and agrees to accept the benefits flowing from it (if the third party does not expressly reject the benefits. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc.02 From Whom Third Party May Seek Enforcement Where the promisor fails to perform the promise that was made for the benefit of a creditor beneficiary and the creditor beneficiary brings action against the promisee. Jurisdictions differ as to whether the third party's rights vest: • at the time the contract is made. Third parties possessing the right of enforcement fall into two categories: 1) donee beneficiaries – third parties upon whom the promisee attempts to confer a gift 2) creditor beneficiaries – third parties to whom the promisee owes a debt.01 Third Party's Right of Enforcement In order for a third party to be entitled to enforce a contract of which it is the beneficiary. even if only slight. § 19. although some courts allow an action for specific performance. in most jurisdictions the promisee does not have an action against the promisor. by the third party beneficiary in reliance upon the contract (this is the majority approach set forth in Restatement § 311(3)) 67 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. All rights reserved.03 Vesting of Third Party's Rights Once the third party's rights have vested. the promisee may then bring action against the promisor. the principle parties to the contract must have intended to create legally enforceable rights in the third party. where the promisor fails to perform the promise that was made for the benefit of a donee beneficiary and the donee beneficiary brings action against the promisee. which is to be satisfied by performance of the promise The Restatement instead uses the term "intended beneficiary" to designate all third party with rights of enforcement. without the third party's consent. However. the original parties cannot modify or rescind a contract in such a manner that would derogate the third party beneficiary's rights. [Restatement § 302] A third party upon whom the parties to the contract did not intend to bestow enforcement rights is classified as an incidental beneficiary to the contract. . § 19.
Some states apply different vesting rules to donee and creditor beneficiaries. § 19. except for any modification or rescission that derogates the third party's rights after such rights have vested. 68 Copyright © 2004 LexisNexis. .While some states apply a consistent rule for all third party beneficiaries. All rights reserved. others apply different rules depending on the status of the beneficiary. a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. with the rights of donee beneficiaries vesting earlier – at the time the contract is made or upon learning of the contract and accepting the benefits – and the rights of creditor beneficiaries vesting upon a change in position.04 Defenses Against the Third Party Beneficiary The promisor can assert any claim or defense arising out of the contract against the third party that he could have asserted against the promisee. Some states provide for immediate vesting of the rights of a third party beneficiary who is a minor.
ACCOUNT RECEIVABLE FRAUD: THE ROLE OFINTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEM.

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