Source: https://openjurist.org/426/us/1
Timestamp: 2019-04-21 08:44:14+00:00

Document:
COLORADO PUBLIC INTEREST RESEARCH GROUP, INC., et al.
1. To the extent that the Court of Appeals excluded reference to the FWPCA's legislative history in discerning the meaning of the statute, the court was in error, for "(w)hen aid to construction of the meaning of words, as used in the statute, is available, there certainly can be no 'rule of law' which forbids its use, however, clear the words may appear on 'superficial examination.' " United States v. American Trucking Assns., 310 U.S. 534, 543-544, 60 S.Ct. 1059, 1063-1064, 84 L.Ed. 1345, 1350-1352. Pp. 9-11.
10 Cir., 507 F.2d 743, reversed.
A. Raymond Randolph, Jr., Washington, D. C., for petitioners.
David C. Mastbaum, Boulder, Colo., for respondents.
[Amicus Curiae Information from page 3 intentionally omitted] Nation's waterways of nuclear waste materials subject to gulation by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and its successors under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (AEA). 68 Stat. 919, as amended, 42 U.S.C. § 2011 Et seq. In statutory terms, the question is whether these nuclear materials are "pollutants" within the meaning of the FWPCA.
* Respondents are Colorado-based organizations and Colorado residents who claim potential harm from the discharge of radioactive effluents from two nuclear plants the Fort St. Vrain Nuclear Generating Station and the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons components plant. These facilities are operated in conformity with radioactive effluent standards imposed by the AEC pursuant to the Atomic Energy Act. The dispute in this case arises because the EPA has disclaimed any authority under the FWPCA to set standards of its own to govern the discharge of radioactive materials subject to regulation under the AEA. Respondents, taking issue with the EPA's disclaimer of authority, brought this suit against petitioners, the EPA and its Administrator, under § 505 of the FWPCA, 33 U.S.C. § 1365 (1970 ed., Supp. IV), which authorizes "citizen suits" against the Administrator for failure to perform nondiscretionary duties under the FWPCA. They sought a declaration that the definition of a "pollutant" under the FWPCA encompasses all radioactive materials, including those regulated under the terms of the AEA of 1954, and an injunction directing the EPA and its Administrator to regulate the discharge of all such radioactive materials.
On cross-motions for summary judgment, the United States District Court for the District of Colorado held that the AEC had exclusive authority to regulate discharges of radioactive materials covered by the AEA. 373 F.Supp. 991 (1974). The Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit reversed, holding that the FWPCA requires the EPA to regulate discharges into the Nation's waters of all radioactive materials, including those coved by the AEA. 507 F.2d 743 (1974). Because of the importance of the issue involved in this case, we granted certiorari. 421 U.S. 998, 95 S.Ct. 2393, 44 L.Ed.2d 664 (1975). We now reverse.
Since 1946, when the first Atomic Energy Act was passed, 60 Stat. 755, the Federal Government has exercised control over the production and use of atomic energy through the AEC replaced since the commencement of this litigation by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA).1 Under the AEA, private parties are permitted to engage in the production of atomic energy for industrial or commercial purposes, but only in accordance with licenses issued by the AEC (NRC) in the furtherance of the purposes of the Act. 42 U.S.C. § 2133.
The FWPCA established a regulatory program to control and abate water pollution, stating as its ultimate objective the elimination of all discharges of "pollutants" into the navigable waters by 1985. In furtherance of this objective, the FWPCA calls for the achievement of effluent limitations that require applications of the "best practicable control technology currently available" by July 1, 1977, and the "best available technology economically achievable" by July 1, 1983. 33 U.S.C. § 1311(b) (1970 ed., Supp. IV). These effluent limitations are enforced through a permit program. The discharge of "pollutants" into water is unlawful without a permit issued by the Administrator of the EPA or, if a State has developed a program that complies with the FWPCA, by the State.)6 33 U.S.C. §§ 1311(a), 1342 (1970 ed., Supp. IV).
It was the Administrator's exclusion of source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials from the permit program, and consequent refusal to regulate them, that precipitated the instant lawsuit. The question we are presented with, then, is whether source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials are "pollutants" within e meaning of the FWPCA.
To the extent that the Court of Appeals excluded reference to the legislative history of the FWPCA in dcerning its meaning, the court was in error. As we have noted before: When aid to construction of the meaning of words, as used in the statute, is available, there certainly can be no 'rule of law' which forbids its use, however clear the words may appear on 'superficial examination.' " United States v. American Trucking Assns., 310 U.S. 534, 543-544, 60 S.Ct. 1059, 1064, 84 L.Ed. 1345, 1351 (1940) (footnotes omitted). See Cass v. United States, 417 U.S. 72, 77-79, 94 S.Ct. 2167, 2170-2171, 40 L.Ed.2d 668, 673-674 (1974). See generally Murphy, Old Maxims Never Die: The "Plain-Meaning Rule" and Statutory Interpretation in the "Modern" Federal Courts, 75 Col.L.Rev. 1299 (1975). In this case, as we shall see, the legislative history sheds considerable light on the question before the Court.
"Notwithstanding any other provisions of this chapter it shall be unlawful to discharge any radiological, chemical, or biological warfare agent or high-level radioactive waste into the navigable waters." 33 U.S.C. § 1311(f) (1970 ed., Supp. IV).
Respondents suggest that it would be inconsistent for Congress in one section of the FWPCA to prohibit the discharge of "radiological warfare agents" and "high-level radioactive waste," both of which are subject to AEA regulation, while at the same time exempting AEA-regulated materials from the FWPCA's permit program. We see no inconsistency. That Congress has chosen to ban completely the discharge of certain high-level radioactive material regulated under the AEA does not, by itself, indicate whether Congress wanted the discharge of other radioactive material regulated under the AEA to be subject to the FWPCA's permit program. Respondents argue further, however, that Congress' use of the phrase "(n)otwithstanding any other provisions of this chapter" before the ban on the discharge of high-level radioactive waste suggests that the discharge of such material would otherwise be subject to the FWPCA's permit program. This argument is not entirely without logical appeal, but we do not consider it determinative. Like the more general argument based on the definition of a "pollutant" as including "radioactive materials," this argument must be assessed against the background of the relevant legislave history.
The definition of "pollutant" in the House version of the bill, H.R. 11896, 92d Cong., 2d Sess., § 502(6) (1972), 1 Leg.Hist. 1068, contained the same broad reference to "radioactive materials" as did the definition in the Senate bill, S. 2770, 92d Cong., 1st Sess., § 502(f) (1971), 2 Leg.Hist. 1697, and the bill ultimately enacted as the FWPCA; for our purposes the definitions are identical. Moreover, the House version of the bill contained the provision now codified as § 1311(f), banning the discharge of radiological warfare agents and high-level radioactive waste "(n)otwithstanding any other provisions of this Act." H.R. 11896, Supra, § 301(e), 1 Leg.Hist. 965. Thus, the House Committee, describing the import of the precise statutory language with which we are concerned, cautioned that the definition of "pollutant" did not include those radioactive materials subject to regulation under the AEA.
"The Bureau of Radiological Health, which was transferred to the Environmental Protection Agency, should have the capacity to determine those levels of control which can be achieved for nuclear fue processing plants. If they do not, such a capability should be developed and this particular source should be added to the list of new sources as soon as possible." Ibid. U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 1972, p. 3725.
Petitioners assert that this statement by the Committee has no bearing on the question before the Court. The statement, petitioners suggest, reflects no more than a recognition, shared by them, that the plants referred to were not intended to be wholly excluded from the reach of the FWPCA a recognition that in their view means that the EPA can control the discharge from such plants of polluting materials other than source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials. In short, petitioners contend that the statement sheds no light on the question whether source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials are pollutants under the FWPCA.
We agree with the petitioners that the Senate Committee statement is addressed to the inclusion of nuclear fuels processing plants in the category of sources subject to the EPA's control, not to the inclusion of any particular materials within the definition of "pollutant." It is true that the reference to the development of control levels by the Bureau of Radiological Health11 does permit the inference that the Committee was contemplating controls over the discharge of AEA-regulated radioactive materials. Still, we are not prepared to attribute greater significance to this inference than to the more explicit statement contained in the House Committee Report, a statement that, as we shall see, is amply supported by the discussion on the floors of the House and the Senate.
"For example, a recent decision of the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, in the case of Norern States Power and Light versus Minnesota, raises the issue. I would like to point out that the committee considered speaking specifically to that decision, but chose to remain silent so as not to prejudice the decision or any appeal from it.
"MR. PASTORE. Yes. As a matter of fact, that decision held that the Federal Government did pre-empt in this field under existing law. That is the opinion, and we hope this legislation does not change that opinion in any way, and does not affect existing law. That is all I am concerned with.
Respondents contend that this colloquy "merely reiterates that the FWPCA does not alter the regulatory authority of the AEC" over source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials. Brief for Respondents, 40-41. The exchange, they assert, says nothing about the EPA's authority to regulate the same materials. The discussion is consistent, they claim, with their position that the AEC must defer to the EPA in the setting of effluent limitations for AEA-regulated materials that, for example, NRC licenses must conform to permits issued under the FWPCA. We disagree.
In the course of the House's consideration of the FWPCA, an unsuccessful attempt was made to alter the AEA's scheme for regulating the discharge of the radioactive materials involved in this case. Representative Wolff proposed to amend what is now 33 U.S.C. § 1370 (1970 ed., Supp. IV), which gives States the authority to set more stringent limits on the discharge of pollutants, by adding a paragraph giving the States the authority to regulate the discharge of radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants. The debate on that amendment and its defeat by a 3-to-1 vote provide solid support for the conclusion that the FWPCA's grant of regulatory authority to the EPA and the States did not encompass the control of AEA-regulated materials.
"The amendment presents the House with a very complex and difficult proposition. It proposes to take authority for the setting of pollution control standards from the AEC and places it in the hands of EPA. For normal operations involving pollution, that control properly belongs under EPA. But atomic energy is a peculiar field. To date, the operation of the atomic energy program has been under the control of the Commission itself. Eventually, such control will be delegated to the States as more and more knowledgeable people at the State level become involved in the atomic energy program. That time, however, has not yet arrived. Until we reach that stage it is obvious that the control of which we speak should remain with the Atomic Energy Commission itself, as the committee points out on page 131 of House Report 92-911 (quoted Supra, at 11), which accompanies this bill. For this reason, I would oppose the amendment offered by my distinguished colleague." Id., at 554-555.
"The bill as reported establishes a program of effluent limitations and standards, and section 510 clearly provides that the States may set more restrictive standards should they so desire. The proposed amendment is aimed at two so-called pollutants radioactive materials and thermal discharges and seeks to collaterally amend any statute enacted by the Congress relative to them without any specific reference to the statutes that might be affected. As to radioactive materials, the target of the amendment is obvious. It seeks to reverse the decisions of the courts which have held that the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 preempted to the Federal Government, acting through the Atomic Energy Commission, the exclusive jurisdiction to regulate most radioactive materials. Clearly, if such is the will of the House, it should be undertaken only after a thorough examination of the impact of such a decision and it should be done directly by amending the statute involved the Atomic Energy Act not collaterally through this legislation. If this amendment had been proposed as a piece of original legislation, it would have been referred to the appropriate committee for hearings and evaluation of all the pertinent factors involved in such a decision. I could go on with the explanation of those factors, but this is not the time nor the place for such a consideration in the first instance. This bill is not the appropriate vehicle for amending a major piece of legislation, thoroughly considered in committee and by the Congress, which established at the direction of the Congress a thorough and pervasive regulatory program relative to radioactive materials." Id., at 556.
Respondents urge that the Wolff amendment was addressed only to the question of the States' regulatory authority, and that its defeat did not reflect any intent to foreclose regulation of source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials by the EPA. We do not agree that the House's consideration of the Wolff amendment leaves room for EPA regulation. Several of the opponents of the amendment were quite explicit in their reliance upon the House Committee Report's statement that radioactive materials subject to AEA regulation were excluded from the coverage of the FWPCA.17 Neither Representative Wolff nor Representative Frenzel took issue with that interpretation in the course of the debate on their amendment,18 and indeed it is arguable that their amendment was premised on the assumption that source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials were wholly beyond the scope of the FWPCA. If these materials were covered by the Act that is, if they were "pollutants" the amendment was wholly superfluous, for the Unamended provision that is now 33 U.S.C. § 1370 (1970 ed., Supp. IV) would permit the States to regulate their discharge. But regardless of the underlying assumptions of the sponsors of the Wolff amendment, the interpretation respondents would place upon its defeat is unacceptable. As respondents would have it, the House expressed an intent to permit EPA regulation of the materials in question, but to preclude state regulation of the same materials under the FWPCA. That result could find no basis in the language of the Act. In our view, then, the House's consideration and rejection of the Wolff amendment offers additional support for the interpretation stated in the House Committee Report that source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials are beyond the reach of the FWPCA.
"The conference report does not change the original intent as it was made clear in the colloquy between Senators Muskie and Pastore in the course of the debate in the other body. I also note that an amendment to H.R. 11896 was offered on March 28, 1972, which would have overturned the Northern States Power against Minnesota case.
"The distinguished gentleman from California (Mr. Holifield) spoke in opposition to the amendment and pointed out the necessity of not changing the careful division of authority between the States and the Federal Government over nuclear materials and facilities as enunciated in the Northern States case. The amendment was defeated by a 3-to-1 vote of the House.
"I can say to the gentleman from Illinois that the managers in no way detracted from the intent of the language in H.R. 11896. I also note that the Committee on Public Works in its report on H.R. 11896 states on page 131 that the term 'pollutant' as defined in the bill includes 'radioactive materials.' These materials are not those encompassed in the definition of source, byproduct, or special nuclear materials as defined by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, and regulated pursuant to that act. 'Radioactive materials' encompassed by this bill are those beyond the jurisdiction of the Atomic Energy Commission. Examples of radioactive materials not covered by the Atomic Energy Act, and, therefore, included within the term 'pollutant' are radium and accelerator produced isotopes. This language adequately reflects the intent of the managers of the conference report." Id., 226-227.
"The term 'source material' means (1) uranium, thorium, or any other material which is determined by the Commission pursuant to the provisions of section 2091 of this title to be source material; or (2) ores containing one or more of the foregoing materials, in such concentration as the Commission may by regulation determine from time to time." 42 U.S.C. § 2014(z).
"The term 'special nuclear material' means (1) plutonium, uranium enriched in the isotope 233 or in the isotope 235, and any other material which the Commission, pursuant to the provisions of section 2071 of this title, determines to be special nuclear material, but does not include source material; or (2) any material artificially enriched by any of the foregoing, but does not include source material." 42 U.S.C. § 2014(aa).
"The term 'byproduct material' means any radioactive material (except special nuclear material) yielded in or made radioactive by exposure to the radiation incident to the process of producing or utilizing special nuclear material." 42 U.S.C. § 2014(e).
The permit program of Colorado, where this case originated, was approved by the EPA on April 8, 1975. 40 Fed. Reg. 16713.
"The term 'pollutant' means dredged spoil, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water. This term does not mean (A) 'sewage from vessels' within the meaning of section 1322 of this title; or (B) water, gas, or other material which is injected into a well to facilitate production of oil or gas, or water derived in association with oil or gas production and disposed of in a well, if the well used either to facilitate production or for disposal purposes is approved by authority of the State in which the well is located, and if such State determines that such injection or disposal will not result in the degradation of ground or surface water resources." 33 U.S.C. § 1362(6) (1970 ed., Supp. IV).
Respondents suggest that the EPA's original interpretation of the term "radioactive materials" was to the contrary. They note that the initial public notice on the Fort St. Vrain permit application published before the EPA regulations interpreting the Act to exclude coverage of AEA-regulated radioactive materials contemplated the imposition of limitations on the discharge of "liquid radioactive wastes." Since we do not depend upon the EPA interpretation of the Act in reaching our conclusion, it is unnecessary to consider whether any alleged inconsistencies in the EPA's position warrant our treating it with less deference than would otherwise be the case. See, E. g., Train v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 421 U.S. 60, 87, 95 S.Ct. 1470, 1485, 43 L.Ed.2d 731, 750 (1975); Udall v. Tallman, 380 U.S. 1, 16-18, 85 S.Ct. 792, 801-802, 13 L.Ed.2d 616, 625-627 (1965).
The Bureau of Radiological Health was transferred to the EPA from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare pursuant to § 2(a)(3)(ii)(C) of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970, which established the EPA. 84 Stat. 2087, 5 U.S.C.App., p. 610.
The AEA, as amended in 1959, 73 Stat. 688, 42 U.S.C. § 2021, does permit the States to assume, pursuant to agreements with the AEC, a limited role in regulating source and byproduct materials, and special nuclear materials in quantities not sufficient to form a critical mass. But state regulatory programs must be compatible with the AEC's regulatory program, § 2021(d)(2), and States are precluded from playing any role in several significant areas of regulation including the setting of limitations on radioactive discharges from nuclear power plants. § 2021(c)(1); Northern States Power Co. v. Minnesota, 447 F.2d 1143, 1149 n.6 (CA8 1971).
Respondents contend that a discussion between Senator Buckley and Senator Muskie on the Senate floor is indicative of an intent to permit the EPA to regulate the discharge of AEA-regulated radioactive materials. Senator Buckley expressed concern about § 511(c)(2)(B) of the FWPCA, 33 U.S.C. § 1371(c)(2)(B) (1970 ed., Supp. IV), which precludes agencies other than EPA from "impos(ing), as a condition precedent to the issuance of any license or permit, any effluent limitation other than any such limitation established pursuant to this chapter." Referring to recent action by the AEC to control thermal pollution of the Hudson River, Senator Buckley asked Senator Muskie whether § 511(c)(2)(B) would bar AEC decisions "of this type" setting tougher limitations than those prescribed by the EPA. Senator Muskie's response was that the AEC would be required to abide by EPA effluent limitation controls "with respect to the subject matter which the Senator has raised." 1 Leg.Hist. 198. The subject matter raised was thermal pollution, and we do not interpret Senator Muskie's response as suggesting that a similar conclusion would be reached with respect to pollution by AEA-regulated radioactive materials.
See also Id., at 546-547 (remarks of Rep. Holifield); 553 (remarks of Rep. Hosmer); 553 (remarks of Rep. Clausen); 557 (remarks of Rep. Harsha).
In addition to the comments of Representatives Stanton and McCormack, quoted above, see Id., at 587-588 (remarks of Reps. Holifield, Jones, Harsha, and Hosmer).
The statements of Representatives Wolff and Frenzel referred to above suggest that they recognized the absence of any role for the EPA in regulating materials in question. In explaining the need to vest regulatory power in the States, they both referred to the inadequacy of regulation by the AEC, without any mention of the prospect of regulation by the EPA.
It should not escape mention that one supporter of the Wolff amendment, Representative McClory, urged its adoption "in order to make eminently clear that we are controlling nuclear . . . pollution in this bill." Id., at 555. To the extent that this statement suggested that the amendment merely clarified what the House bill already provided, it is a far less persuasive indicator of legislative intent than the contrary statements by the successful opponents of the amendment. Similarly, Representative Frenzel's statement the day after the Wolff amendment was defeated that the FWPCA applied to AEA-regulated radioactive materials, 1 Leg.Hist. 745-746 is not entitled to great weight.
We also note that in the course of its consideration of the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, 88 Stat. 1233, which created the NRC and ERDA, the House rejected an amendment that would have transferred from those agencies to the EPA the authority to set emission standards for source, byproduct, and special nuclear materials. 119 Cong.Rec. 42615-42616 (1973).
"The functions of the Atomic Energy Commission under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, . . . (that) consist of establishing generally applicable environmental standards for the protection of the general environment from radioactive material. As used herein, standards mean limits on radiation exposures or levels, or concentrations or quantities of radioactive material, in the general environment outside the boundaries of locations under the control of persons possessing or using radioactive material." § 2(a)(6), 84 Stat. 2088, 5 U.S.C.App., p. 610.
See AEC-EPA Memoranda of Understanding, 38 Fed.Reg. 24936, 32965 (1973). See also Environmental Protection Agency, Proposed Standards for Environmental Radiation Protection for Nuclear Power Operations, 40 Fed.Reg. 23419 (1975).

References: v. 
 § 2011
 § 505
 § 1365
 § 2133
 § 1311
 v. 
 v. 
 § 1311
 § 502
 § 502
 § 1311
 § 301
 § 1370
 § 1370
 § 2014
 § 2014
 § 2014
 § 1362
 v. 
 v. 
 § 2
 § 2021
 § 2021
 § 2021
 v. 
 § 511
 § 1371
 § 511
 § 2