Source: https://www.scribd.com/document/332657571/Company-Law-Notes
Timestamp: 2019-04-25 11:58:51+00:00

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is in law a person. It is a distinct legal persona existing independent of its members.
which is distinct from the members compose it.
his family. The company went into liquidation within a year.
debenture holder nothing would be left for the unsecured creditors.
majority of the shareholders over others.
of an individual” are by construction to be read into the Act.
business with limited liability in the name of a joint stock company.
holding of a single share affords a sufficient qualification for membership.
can levy execution even on his private property.
shareholder has insurable interest in the company’s property.
With the financial backing that companies are able to provide. indeed very few.A company. Professional Management:. 8. Yet some of them. by filing prescribed documents with the registrar or companies. capital structure. Such an atmosphere of independence gives them the opportunity to develop extraordinary managerial capabilities. Lifting the Corporate Veil:. 3. In exceptional cases the law either goes behind the corporate personality to the individual members. 4. A company is. however. etc. can sue and be sued in its own name. against violation of his company’s fundamental rights. A company cannot claim the protection of such fundamental rights as are expressly guaranteed to citizens only. proceeding on behalf of the company. As compared with it. Criminal complaint can be filed by a company but it must be represented by a natural person. Again. A company has the right to protect its fair name. The advantages of incorporation are by no means inconsiderable and.‘Lifting of Corporate Veil’ means the circumstances in which the law disregards the corporate entity and pays regard instead to the economic realties behind the legal façade. Their independent functioning as managers is assured because of the fact that there is no one to exercise control over them. Company is not citizen:. as compared with them. however. Incorporation is a very expensive affair and requires a number of formalities to be complied with. The hardship caused by this pronouncement has. Finances:. which are of essence complications arising out of the privilege of trading with limited liability are as follows: 1. though a legal person. the formation of a partnership is very simple. The facility of borrow and giving security by way of a floating charge is also an exclusive privilege of companies.A company. Thus. Formality and expense:. It can sue for such defamatory remarks against it as are likely to damage its business or property etc 7. is not a citizen either under the Constitution of India or under the Citizenship Act. the disadvantages are. Further. being a body corporate. public financial institutions lend their resources more willingly to companies than to other forms of business organization. there is loss of privacy in the case of company.A public limited company is required to publish its constitution. a person in the eyes of law and it can claim the protection of such fundamental rights as are guaranteed to all persons whether citizens or not. Capacity to sue and be Sued:. the administration of a company has to be carried on strictly in accordance with the provisions of the Act. Loss of Privacy:.The corporate sector is capable of attracting the growing cadre of professional managers.The company is the only medium of organizing business which is given the privileges of raising capital by public subscription either by way of shares or debentures. they are able to develop the business to a considerable extent. been subsequently modified by holding that a citizen shareholder may petition. or ignores the separate . final accounts. 2.Disadvantage of incorporation is its expense and formality.6.
In People’s Pleasure Park co.personality of each company in favour of the economic entity constituted by a group of associated concerns. Third parties dealing with the company will normally have no right of resort against its members but they are entitled to see who these members are. The corporate veil is said to be lifted when the court ignores the company and concerns itself directly with the members of managers. Rohleder. Accordingly the company was not allowed to proceed with the action. In that capacity he appointed himself as a pilot of the compay.Occasionally it becomes necessary to determine the character of a company to see whether it is “enemy”. was in German hands. The German company held a bulk of shares in English Company. In such a case. While on the business of the company he was lost in a flying accident. If the action had been allowed the company would have been used as a machinery by which the purpose of giving money to the enemy would be accomplished. resident in Germany. The veil of the incorporation never means that the internal affairs of the company are completely concealed from view. And the question was whether the company had become an enemy company and should. It is impossible to ascertain the factors which operate to break down the corporate insulation. It can be neither friend nor enemy. be barred from maintaining the action. In Lee V. “In effect the magic of corporate personality enabled him to be master and servant at the same time. the courts may in their discretion examine the character of persons in real control of the corporate affairs. Lee’s Air Farming Ltd. Thus the real control of the Co. The holders of the remaining shares except one and all the directors were German. On the contrary. But where there is no such danger to public interest. are acting under the control of enemies. (a) Determination of Character:. It is not a natural person with mind or conscience. Lee incorporated a company of which he was the managing director. therefore. certain lands were . v. During the First War the English company commenced an action to recover a trade debt. what shares they hold and. V.. Continental Tyre & Rubber Co. His widow recovered compensation under the Workmen’s Compensation Act. The House of Lords laid down that the company incorporated in UK is a legal entity. It can be neither loyal nor disloyal. But it may assume an enemy character when persons in de facto control of its affairs are residents in any enemy country or. the beneficial interest in those shares if substantial. a company was incorporated in England for the purpose of selling tyres manufactured in Germany by a German Company. In Daimler Co. But the following grounds have become well established. in the case of quoted company. the courts may refuse to tear open the corporate veil. the legislature has always made it an essential condition of the recognition of corporate personality that it should be accompanied by the widest publicity. wherever resident. with the status and capacity which the law confers.
then in force. “the company was formed by the assessee purely and simply as a means of avoiding super-tax and the company was nothing more than the assessee himself. particularly when this is not in the interest of revenue. Bombay. An action was commenced fro annulment of this conveyance on the ground that all the members of the company being negroes. CIT. are not allowed to claim that they should be regarded as economically identical with the company. rejected this argument and held that members individually or collectively are not the corporation. They sold certain premises to the new company. (b) For benefit of revenue:. Associated Clothiers Ltd. yet the same when received by the shareholders as dividend could not be regarded as agricultural income. The court.transferred by one person to another perpetually enjoining the transferee from selling the said property to coloured persons. the property had. Members themselves. but only a transfer from self to self. in breach of the restriction. It did no business. The plaintiff was a member of a tea company. The difference between the selling price and the cost of the property in the hands of the assessee was assessed as their income. In Bacha F. It stands apart as a separate subject and. She received a certain amount as dividend in respect of shares held by her in the company and claimed that his dividend income should be regarded as agricultural income up to 60%. He transferred the property to a company composed exclusively of negroes. in contemplation of law. Income received was credited in the accounts of the company but the company handed back the amount to him as a pretended loan. The income of a tea company was exempt up to 60% as agricultural income and 40% was taxed as income from manufacture and sale of tea. In this case the assessee. formed a company holding all its shares. as a stranger to its own members. But. The court rejected that and held that it was sale from one entity to another and not a . This way he divided his income into four parts in a bid to reduce his tax liability. which “has a distinct existence an existence separate from that of its shareholders. It leads its own life. passed to the hands of coloured persons. Under the Income Tax Act. agricultural income was exempt from tax. Another attempt by the members of company to treat themselves at par with the company was frustrated In CIT V. the assessee was a wealthy man enjoying huge dividend and interest income. Guzdar V.The court has the power to disregard corporate entity if it is used for tax evasion or to circumvent tax obligation. but was created simply as a legal entity to ostensibly receive the dividends and interests and to hand them over to the assessee as pretended loans. The contended that this could not be done as there was no commercial sale. In Dinshaw Maneckjee Petit. But it was held that. He formed four private companies and agreed with each to hold a block of investment as an agent for it. it was held that although the income in the hands of the company was partly agricultural. however.
(d) Government Companies:. with no assets of its own except those transferred to it by the principal company. Horne. solicit or entice away the customers of the company. Here Horne was appointed as a managing director of the plaintiff company on the condition that he shall not at any time while he shall hold the office of a managing director or afterwards. The court will refuse to uphold the separate existence of the company where it is formed to defeat or circumvent law. These facts speak for themselves. to obtain the advantage of the customers of the plaintiff company. In India this question has frequently arisen in connection with Government Companies. It was held that the company was a mere cloak or sham for the purpose of enabling the defendant to commit a breach of his covenant against solicitation. There cannot be direct evidence that the second company was formed as a device to reduce the gross profits of the principal company for whatever purpose. V. be deemed to have lost its individuality in favour of its principal. The obvious advantage of forming a Government company is that it gives the activities of the . Associated Rubber Industry Ltd. This finding was further supported by the fact that the subsidiary was subsequently would up and amalgamated into the holding company. with no business or income of its own except receiving dividends from shares transferred to it by the principal company and serving no purpose whatsoever except to reduce the gross profits and of the principal company. The defendant company was a mere channel used by the defendant for the purpose of enabling him.trading with oneself. (c) Fraud of improper conduct:. a company created a subsidiary and transferred its investment holdings to it in a bid to reduce its liability to pay bonus to its workers. therefore.. A new company is created. the Supreme Court brused aside the separate existence of the subsidiary company. His employment was determined under an agreement. It is the duty of the court. Shortly afterwards he opened a business in the name of a company which solicited the plaintiff customers. for his own benefit. Evidence as to the formation of the company and as to the position of its shareholders and directors leads to that inference. An obvious purpose that it served and which stares one in the face is to reduce the amount to be paid by way of bonus to workman. to defraud creditors or to avoid legal obligations.The corporate entity is wholly incapable of being strained to an illegal or fraudulent purpose. A large number of private companies for commercial purposes have been registered under the companies Act with the President and a few other officers as the shareholders.A company may sometimes be regarded as an agent or trustee of its members or of another company and may. One clear illustration is Gilford Motor Co. In Workmen V. wholly owned by the principal company. and that the defendant company ought to be restrained as well as the defendant. in every case where ingenuity is expended to avid taxing and welfare legislation. to get behind the smokescreen and discover the true state of affairs.
He laid emphasis upon the fact that the whole undertaking has been vested in the Central Government and. The employee who had certain rights as to provident fund. In order to assure the freedom the Supreme Court has reiterated in a number of cases that a Government company is not a department or an extension of the State. It was noted as rule that it is well settled that the mere fact that a man holds all the shares in a company does not make the business . but on behalf of the parent company. and then continued to carry it on as a subsidiary company. A Government Company will be regarded as an agent of the State only when it is performing in substance governmental or sovereign and not merely commercial functions. Here the statement of reasons stated that the company was being acquired in public interest and thus the new company was created to perform a function of public nature. UOI. therefore. When the business of the subsidiary was acquired by the defendant corporation the court allowed the parent company. brushing aside the legal distinction between the two companies. Accordingly its employees are not civil servants and prerogative writs cannot issue against it.State “a little of the freedom which was enjoyed by private corporation and the Government escaped the rules and principles which hampered action when it was done by Government department instead of a Government corporation. slow motion procedures and hierarchy of officers. V.. registered it as a company. The learned judge also stressed the fact that the law should not go by the fact whether the company is registered under the Companies Act or otherwise. it became a State undertaking. against the former company. Krishna Iyer J brushed aside this contention. In England it was held by the Court in a case that transport services provided by a company all of whose shares were owned by the Transport commission were services provided by the commission or by any person acting as agent for the Commission. In Smith. The parent company held all the shares except a few. but by the nature of the functions that the unit was performing. His claim was resisted on the grounds that the undertaking had been vested in a company registered under the companies Act and the question of a writ against private company could not arise. a company acquired a partnership concern. The subsidiary company was not operative on its own behalf. that the company in question arose out of the acquisition and vesting in the Central Government of the assets and business of Burmah Shell. to claim compensation in respect of removal and disturbance. Birmingham Corpn. In Som Prakash Rekhi V.. etc. Stone & Knight Ltd. appointed managers and exercised effectual and constant control. treated the subsidiary’s profits as its own. It is not an agent of the State. claimed them against the Government by means of a writ. The court noted the fact that the reason why the State chose to function through companies was not to frustrate employees. but to assure commercial flexibility and freedom from departmental rigidity.
Caddies.G. V. court seeks to dealt with the substance of a transaction rather than with the legal form in which it may be clothed. in so far as they acted at all in the matter. (Films) Ltd. In F. (f) Quasi-Criminal cases: In quasi criminal case. This is best illustrated by Trebanog Club case. merely as the nominee of. In Holdsworth & co. It is also well settled that there may be such an arrangement between the shareholders and a company as will constitute the company the shareholders agent for the purpose of carrying on the business and make it the business of the shareholders. In other words. This was held not to be a breach of contract by the company. The English Company had a capital of £ 100 in £1 shares.Consideration of the cases in which the courts have treated a company as the agent of its controlling shareholders suggests that they are more ready to do so where the shares are held by another company. It would be a mere travesty of the facts to say or to believe that this insignificant company undertook the arrangements for the making of the film. 3. they are coming to recognise the essential unity of a group enterprise rather than the separate legal entity of each company within the group. notwithstanding that it prevented him from working for the company employing him. Limited Liability: 2. Caddie had been appointed managing director of the parent company upon the terms that he should perform the duties and exercise the power in relation to the business of the company and its subsidiary companies which may from time to time be assigned to or vested in him by the board of directors of the company. They acted. IN these circumstances the Board of Trade refused to register it as a British film and their decision was upheld by the court. After disagreement between him and the board he was directed to confine his attention to one of the subsidiaries only. separate property . (e) Group Enterprises:. The argument that the subsidiary companies were separate legal entities each under the control of its own board of directors was described as too technical since an agreement must be construed in the light of the facts and realities of the situation which were that the parent company had full control of the internal management of its subsidiaries. and agent for the American company. 90 of which were held by an American Director... _________________________ Points of Difference between Company and Partnership1.carried on by the company his business. it was held that members club did not require a licence to sell liquor to club members. an American company produced a film called ‘Monsoon’ in India technically in the name of a company incorporated in England. not the legal framework. The production was financed by the American Company. The test was held to be the actual nature of the club. Perpetual succession.
the name of another registered company. whatever the name of the company. It contains the fundamental clauses which have often been described as the conditions of the company’s incorporation: 1. being a legal person. must have a name to establish its identity. A company may change its name by passing a special resolution and with the approval . professional management 7. no. Name Clause:. finance 9. Moreover.” Further. According to this the name of the company should not be identical with or should not too nearly resemble. Legal Status _________________________ Memorandum of Association An important step in the formation of a company is to prepare a document called the memorandum of association. the last word of the name must be “Limited”. A company. Two women forming a company for their personalized services were not allowed the name “Prostitutes Ltd. of members 8. and in the case of a private company “Private Limited”. the other company can also apply for an injunction to restrain the newcomer from having an identical name. Registration 11. for such a name may be declared undesirable by the Central government. There are certain legal requirements which are required to be observed while framing this clause.4. “The name of a corporation is the symbol of its personal existence.The first clause of the memorandum is required to state the name of the proposed company. formation 10. The name must not suggest connection with an unlawful activity or be offensive in form. transferable shares 5. if the liability of the members is limited. capacity to sue or be sued 6.
the second stage is reached namely. The Court declined confirmation in both cases. But if a company has been registered with a name which subsequently appears to be undesirable or resembling the name of another company. in the opinion of the Central Government. whichever is earlier. a special resolution to that effect must be passed. it may change its name by passing an ordinary resolution and with the approval of the Central Government. be affected by the alteration”.. to intervene in an application made under . But if it is proposed to carry the registered office from one city to another within the same State. Change of Registered Office Situation: A company can shift its registered office from one place to another within the same city. the Orissa High Court. a company desired to shift its registered office from the State of West Bengal to Bombay. V. 2. When this condition is fulfilled. confirmation by the Central Government. If the shifting of the registered office has the effect of taking the office from the jurisdiction of one Registrar of Companies to that of another within the same State. the interest of the State must be taken into account and are of considerable importance in confirming inter-State change of registered office. The court said that there is no statutory right of the State. All communication to the company must be addressed to its registered office. as it involves alteration of the memorandum itself. the exact place where the registered office is to be located must be decided and notice of the situation given to the Registrar who is to record the same. Within thirty days of incorporation or commencement of business. permission of the Regional Director must be taken. In Mackinnon Mackenzie & Co. including the loss of revenue and employment opportunities. town or village. shifting of the registered offices of certain companies to places outside Orissa was opposed by the State on Several Grounds. a special resolution of the company and.of the Central Government signified in writing. The alteration of the memorandum for this purpose is subject to the provisions of Section 17 which requires. In Orient Paper Mills Ltd.The second clause of the memorandum must specify the State in which the registered office of the company is to be situate. as State. The company’s petition was resisted by State on the ground of loss of revenue. State. A notice of any such change must be given to the Registrar within thirty days of the change. The Central Government can confirm the alteration only if the shifting of the registered office from one State to another is necessary for any of the purposes detailed in Section 17(1). the Calcutta High Court. The Court refused to sustain the contention of the State and allowed the transfer. Shifting of the registered office from one State to another is a much more complicate affair. to consider the objections of a “person or class of persons whose interest will. Based his decision on the grounds that in Federal Constitution every State has got the right to protect its revenue and. therefore. in the first place. Registered Office Clause:. in the second.
The company filed a petition for the confirmation of the court under Section 17(2) of the Companies Act. The resolution provided that the registered office of the company would be situated in the State of Mysore. The Court confirmed the transfer of the registered Office of the company but subject to the condition that the company furnished to the State a bank guarantee claimed as arrears of sales tax by the State. On the facts of the case the Court found strong grounds for sanctioning change of the registered office from the State of Maharashtra to the State of Mysore. or interfere in the management of the business of the company which is a matter entirely for the company itself. of Maharashtra. In Rank Film Distributors of India Ltd. The court observed that vague considerations of the impact of transfer on the general economy of the State are no ground for rejecting the confirmation of the transfer of the registered office from one State to another. West Bengal.Section 17 for alteration of the place of the registered office of a company. The Court held that where strong ground exist for sanctioning the transferof registered office from one State to another the mere fact that some of the shareholders may be different from the shareholders who passed the special resolution cannot be ground for refusing the confirmation of alteration of memorandum of association. The Court rejected the contention of the State of Maharashtra that the resolution passed by the company was four year old and that the shareholders ho passed the resolution as well the circumstances then previling had changed. The company in its general meeting passed a special resolution for alteration of its memorandum of Association. Company’s mils were already in Mysore and the resolution stated that the shifting would be helpful in carrying on company’s activities more economically and efficiently. but of persuasive force in regard to the change is to rob the company of the statutory power conferred on it by Section 17. The court held the shareholders are the best judges of what is good for the company and the State cannot assume to itself the role of a guardian of their interest. the registered office of the company was situated at Bombay. the company passed the resolution for transfer of its registered office from the State of . V. The Court also rejected the second contention of the State that it was not in the interest of the company or of the State to sanction the special resolution. The question of loss of revenue to one State would have to be considered in the total conspectus of revenue for the Republic of India and no parochial considerations should be allowed to turn the scale in regard to change of registered office from one State to another within India. In Minerva Mills V. Registrar of Companies. Govt. To hold that the possibility of the loss of revenue is not only relevant. The State’s contention that the transfer of registered office would affect adversely the general economy of the State was also rejected by the Court.
by domestic deliberation. 17. The Government has also to see that a notice has been served on the Registrar of Companies to enable him to state his objections. Court rejected the contention of the State that sufficient cause had not been shown for the transfer of registered office to the State of Maharashtra. for any of the reasons specified in S. The objects clause must be divided into three sub-clauses. if any. decided in favour of the transfer of the registered office. that the registered offices of most foreign film companies were situated in Bombay. In reference to creditors. their interests have been safeguarded either by paying them out or securing their payment. that there was better scope of expansion of the company’s business and that it was in the interest of shareholder that the registered office of the company should be moved to Bombay. 17(4) specially required notice to the Registrar. Company applied for the confirmation of the Court. and after all. To permit the State to contend that the proposed transfer would not enable the company to carry on its business more efficiency or economically would be to enable the State to have a voice in an aspect of the management of the affairs of the company which is not warranted by the Statute. Before confirming the alteration. The Court took the view that the principles laid down for the guidance of the court in dealing with application for confirmation of reduction of capital should be applied for confirmation of alteration of the memorandum of a company. 3.West Bengal to the State of Maharastra. the Central Government must satisfy itself that sufficient notice has been given to every debenture holder or person or class of persons whose interests are likely to be affected. the memorandum must state the objects for which the proposed company is to be established. that there shall be loss of revenue to the State.In the third clause. Court laid down that it was for the members of the company and not for the State to decide whether the registered office of the company should be transferred from one State to another in the interest of the company. “the country was one and indivisible. Dealing with the question of notice to the State the Court stated that though S. the shareholders had. namely: . The alteration of Memorandum of Association of the company was confirmed. The Court also rejected the State’s contention that transfer of the registered office of the company would adversely affect the economy of the State. The company pleaded that its head office had already been transferred to Bombay. It stated that “a broader perspective” must be taken into account in so far as the loss of one State would be balanced by gain to another. Objects and Powers Clause:. and that the opportunities of employment would be lessened. It held that the test to be applied was whether at the time when the resolution were passed. the Government has to feel satisfied that those who have raised objections. no specific provision had been made for notice to the State.
namely.This sub-clause must state other objects which are not included in the above clause. The ownership of the corporate capital is vested in the company itself.Section 17 provides that a company may change its objects only in so far as the alteration is necessary for any of the following pruposes: . Choice of objects lies with the subscribers to the memorandum and their freedom in this respect is almost unrestricted. The only obvious restriction are that the objects should not go against the law of the land and the provisions of the Companies Act.” The exercise of the power is. substantive and procedural. The object clause is their only guidance in this respect. “The intention of the Legislature is to prevent too easy an alteration of the condition contained in the memorandum. in the second place. Substantive Limits:. Alteration of objects: Section 17 allows alteration of objects within defined limits. therefore. It prevents diversification of a company’s activities in direction not closely connected with the business for which the company may have been initially established. (iii) States to which objects extend:. whose objects are not confined to one State.(i) Main Objects:.This sub-clause has to state the main objects to be pursued by the company on its incorporation and objects incidental or ancillary to the attainment of the main objects. gives a very important protection to the shareholders by ensuring that the funds raised for one undertaking are not going to be risked in another The object clause. The former defines the physical limits of alteration and the latter the procedure by which it can be effected. The creditors of a company trust the corporation and not the shareholders and they have to seek their repayment only out of the company’s assets. the statement of objects serves the public interest also. But in reality that capital has been contributed by the shareholders and is held by the company as though in trust for them. affords a certain degree of protection to the creditors also. The fact that the corporate capital cannot be spend on any project not directly within the terms of the company’s objects gives the creditors a feeling of security. (ii) Other Objects:. Public financial institutions providing loans to companies have to object-wise because they have their own list of priorities.In the case of non-trading companies. The statement of objects. 1. therefore fenced by safeguard which are calculated to protect the interests of creditors and of shareholders. by confining the corporate activities within a defined field. The limits imposed upon the power of alteration are of two kinds. Such fund must obviously be dedicated to some defined objects so that the contributors may know the purpose to which it can be lawfully applied. Thirdly. this sub-clause has to mention the States to whose territories the objects extend.
Registration of alteration: In the case of alteration of objects. The alteration of objects has become an internal matter. be inconsistent with the existing business. The matter being wholly internal. The Company Law Board had the discretion to refuse to confirm the alteration or the confirm it either wholly or in part or subject to such conditions as may be deemed fit. The requirement of seeking confirmation of the Company Law Board has been dispensed with. The new business must not. This contract operates within the framework of the Companies Act. With the objects remaining the same.(a) To enable the company to carry on its business more economically or more efficiently. (g) To amalgamate with any other company or body of persons. of the company. 2. 17 of the Act by the Companies Act the prescribed procedure for the altering objects is only the requirement of a special resolution and its filing with the Registrar. The documents have to be filed with the Registrar of the Place from where the office is to be shifted and also with . No outside confirmation is necessary. (d) To carry on some business which under existing circumstances may conveniently or advantageously be combined with the business of the company:. or any part of the undertaking.This is the only clause which allows a company to undertake any new business having no relation to its existing business except that it must be such as can conveniently or advantageously be combined with the companies existing business. (c) To enlarge or change the local area of the company’s operation:. 17(1). only the shareholders can object to any change which is extraneous to the company and its members. Procedure of alteration:Since the amendment of S. (b) To enable the company to attain its main purpose by new or improved means:This clause is intended to enable companies to take advantage of new scientific discoveries.This is to enable companies to carry their trades to new quaraters of the globe. In the case of inter-State shifting of the registered office a certified copy of the Central Government’s order and a printed copy of the altered memorandum must be filed with the Registrar within three months of the order. of course. a copy of the resolution should be filed with the Registrar of Companies within one month from the date of the resolution. What new business can be so combined must be determined by the persons engaged in the business. (e) To restrict or abandon any of the object specified in the memorandum. only the means of carrying them out are permitted to be changed under this clause. Thus a tyre company was allowed to undertake the general business of bankers and financiers. The only restraint now is that the special resolution of the company should be within the scope of the permissible range of alteration as outlined in S. (f) To sell or dispose of the whole.
Each subscriber must sign the document and must write opposite his name the number of shares he takes. Liability Clause:. Alteration takes effect when it is so registered. If it is proposed to register the company limited by guarantee. 5. A public company must have a minimum paid up capital of five lakh rupees or such higher amount as may be prescribed. But no subscriber shall take less than one share. are desirous of being formed into a company. Capital Clause:. Doctrine of Ultra Vires A company which owes its incorporation to statutory authority cannot effectively do anything beyond the powers expressly or impliedly conferred upon it by its statute or .The fourth clause has to state the nature of liability that the members incur. the several persons whose names and addresses are subscribed. If the company is to be incorporated with the limited liability. A private company is required to have a minimum paid up capital of 1 lakh rupees or such higher amount as may be prescribed by its articles. the clause must state that “the liability of the members shall be limited by shares”.The last clause states the amount of the nominal capital of the company and the number and value of the shares into which it is divided. this clause will state the amount which every member undertakes to contribute to the assets of the company in the event of its winding up.” The memorandum has to be subscribed by at least seven persons in the case of a public company and by at least two in the case of a private company. Within one month the Registrar will certify the registration. After incorporation no subscriber can withdraw his name on any ground whatsoever.the Registrar of place at which the new office is to be established. and if his shares be fully paid up his liability is nil. 4. in pursuance of this memorandum of association. This means that no member can be called upon to pay anything more than the nominal value of the shares held by him. The subscribers declare: “We. or so much thereof as remains unpaid. and we respectively agree to take the number of shares in the capital of the company set opposite our respective names. Subscription: The memorandum concludes with the subscribers’ declaration.
If the company could not make it. lend on hire. The company. null and void. It ensured that an investor in a gold mining company did not find himself holding shares in a fried-fish shop. to carry on the business of mechanical engineers and general contractors. If every shareholder of the company had been in the room and had said: “that is a contract which we desire to make. The purpose of these restriction is two fold.” The company entered into a contract with Riche. The shareholders would thereby. by unanimous consent. brought an action for damages for breach of contract. railway carriage and wagons and all kinds of ailway plants. etc.memorandum of association even if agreed by all the members. Ltd. . First. much less could be ratified. therefore. to finance the construction of a railway line in Belgium. and secondly. it would authorised the making of contracts of any and every description. and it gave those who allowed credit to a limited company some assurance that its assets would not be dissipated in unauthorized enterprises. And Riche. and. V. It states affirmatively the ambit and extent of powers of the company and it states negatively that nothing shall be done beyond that ambit. Hence the contract was entirely beyond the objects in the memorandum of association. are not dissipated in unauthorized activities. secondly. would virtually point to the carrying on of the business of any kind whatsoever and would. be altogether unmeaning. a firm of railway contractors. which we authorize the directors to make” the case would not have stood in any different position from that in which it stands now. If the term “general contractors” is not so interpreted. that the contract was ratified by a majority of the shareholders. It is the function of the memorandum “to delimit and identify and objects in such plain and unambiguous manner as that the reader can identify the field of industry within which the corporate activities are to be confined. His contentions were that the contract in question came well within the powers of the company. The memorandum of association of a company thus defined its objects. such as. Riche. Such a statement of objects has a two-fold operation. however. for instance. therefore. Its application to such companies was first demonstrated by the House of Lords in Ashbury Railway Carriage and Iron co. to protect creditors by ensuring that the company’s funds. The terms “general contractors” must be taken to indicate the mechanical engineers. to which they must look for payment. and that no attempt shall be made to use the corporate life for any other purpose than that which is so specified. An action outside the memorandum is ultra vires the company. But the House of Lords held that the contract was ultra vires and. to protect investors in the company so that they may know the objects in which their money is to be employed. of fire and marine insurance and the memorandum in place of specifying the particular kind of business. The subscribers are to state the objects for which the proposed company is to be established and then the company comes into existence for those objects and those only. repudiated the contract as one ultra vires.
unless it is expressly prohibited. Firstly.have been attempting to do the very thing which by the Act of Parliament. the House of Lords. The directors of a company were authorised “to make payments towards any charitable or any benevolent object. The court said that the directors could not spend the company’s money on any charitable or general object which they might choose. or (b) incidental to. and some indirect or remote benefit which the Company may obtain and by doing an act not otherwise within the object clause. they were prohibited from doing.” Power to carry out an object. having authority to keep steam vessels for the purpose of a ferry. or (c) which is otherwise authorised by the Act. Thus a company may do an act which is : (a) necessary for. Great Eastern Railway Co. Thus a railway company. of shares in other joint stock companies. The doctrine has been affirmed by the Supreme Court in its decision in A Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar V. the attainment of its objects. may use them for excursion trips to the sea when they are otherwise unemployed. general or useful object”. The company’s business having been taken over by the LIC it had no business left to promote. observed that the doctrine of ultra vires. will not be permitted by the extension. should be maintained. In Attorney_General V. The above Supreme Court decision is an authority for two propositions. unless expressly authorised in memorandum is ultra vires. In accordance with a shareholders’ resolution the directors paid two lakh rupees to a trust formed for the purpose of promoting technical and business knowledge. The payment was held to be ultra vires. as it was explained in the Ashbury case. on behalf of the company. They could spend for he promotion of only such charitable objects as would be useful for the attainment of the company’s own objects. Again a railway company whose railroad is carried over arches may convert the arches into shops. In India the origin of doctrine dates back to 1866 when the Bombay High Court applied it to a joint stock company and held on the facts of the case before it that “the purchase by the directors of a company. undoubtedly includes power to carry out what is incidental or conducive to the attainment of the objects. for such extension merely permits something to be done which is connected with the objects to be attained as being naturally conductive thereto. that a company’s fund cannot be diverted to every kind of charity even if there is an . otherwise “it might as reasonably be contended that a railway company are not entitled to sell the hay which grows on their banks so as to make something out of it. or for any general public. But it ought to be reasonably and not unreasonably understood and applied and that whatever may be fairly regarded as incidental to the objects authorised ought not to be held as ultra vires. LIC. Acts incidental to or naturally conductive to the main object are those which have reasonably proximate connection with the object.
Such a objects clause naturally defeats the very purpose for which it is there. The court said: “In construing a memorandum in which there are general words they must be taken in connection with what are shown by the context to be the dominant or main objects. the memorandum of a company stated that it was formed for working a German Patent which would be granted for manufacturing coffee from dates. it was held that the main object for which the company was formed had become impossible and. Secondly. In a bid to control this tendency the courts adopted the “main objects rule” of construction. Secondly. it lays a trap for the unwary creditors. The ultra vires doctrine confines corporate action within fixed limits. First. and also established works in Hamburg where they made and sold coffee from dates without any patent. that objects must be distinguished from powers. It is what the company was formed for and all the rest is subordinate to that. it seems to be plain that the real object of this company which is called German Date Coffee Co. The courts have striven in two ways to curb evasion.unrestricted power to that effect in the company’s memorandum. however. were followed by wide powers expressed in general words. for obtaining other patents for improvements and extension of the said invention. While it handicaps the ambitious managers. That is why there has been a revolt against it almost ever since its inception. it was held in Re German Date Coffee Co. therefore. This. they have applied the ejusdem generic rule to the construction of objects clauses. the House of Lords had to consider a memorandum which contained an objects clause with thirty sub-clauses enabling the company to carry on almost every kind of business which a company could adopt. It will not do under general words to turn a company for manufacturing one thing into a company for importing something else. For example. The intended German patent was never granted. Taking that as the governing principle. Brougham. in Cotman V. The rule owes its origin to the decision in the Ashbury case where it was held that the words “general contractors” must be read in connection with the company’s main business. it was just and equitable that the company should be would up. has been circumvented by the practice of inserting an express declaration in the objects clause to the effect that each of the specified objects or powers should be deemed to be independent and in no way ancillary or subordinate one to another. saying that when the main objects. but the company purchased a Swedish patent. was to manufacture a substitute for coffee in Germany under a patent. the latter should be construed as covering their exercise only for the purposes of the main objects.” . and to acquire and purchase any other invention for similar purposes. specified in the first few paragraphs. One of the methods of bypassing ultra vires is the practice of registering memorandum containing a profusion of objects and powers. A petition having been presented by two shareholders.
represents the corporate capital. the company’s right over that property must beheld secure. For. that is to say outside the objects as defined by its memorandum is wholly void and of no legal effect. 3. but their Lordships held that it excluded the “main objects rule” of interpretation. Thus the rule has failed to prevent the evasion of ultra vires. And now the decision of the Court of Appeal in Bell Houses Ltd.011. V. gown-makers and other activities of allied nature. 4. Ultra vires acquired property: If a company’s money has been spent ultra vires in purchasing some property. City Wall Properties Ltd has stamped its approval upon another technique of evasion. Ultra Vires Contracts: A contract of a corporation which is ultra vires. Breach of warranty of authority: It is the duty of an agent to act within the scope of his authority.078 as owing to them. any member of the company can get an injunction to restrain it from proceeding with it. 2. But a clause of this kind does not state any objects at all. In this case a company’s objects clause authorised it to carry on any other trade or business which in the opinion of the board of directors could be carried on advantageously in connection with the company’s general business. 5.In Cotman V. If any part of it has been diverted to purposes foreign to the company’s memorandum. Another firm supplied veneers to the company and had a claim of £ 1. A third firm sought to prove for a simple contract debt of £ 107 in respect of . For example in Beauforte (Jon) (London). As much it is their duty to keep within the limits of the company’s powers. that asset. The court held that the clause to be valid and an act done in bona fide exercise of it to be intra vires. The company decided to undertake the business of making veneered panels which was admittedly ultra vires and for this purpose erected a factory at Bristol. Consequences of ultra vires transactions: Whenever a company gets involved in an ultra vires transaction the question arises at to what are it’s effects. Broughman the main objects rule was excluded by a declaration in the object clause that “every clause should be construed as substantive clause and not limited or restricted by reference to any other sub clause or by the name of the company and none of them should be deemed as merely subsidiary or auxiliary”. it leaves the objects to be determined by the directors bona fides. 1. For if he goes beyond he will be personally liable to the third party for breach of warranty of authority. A firm of builders who constructed the factory claimed £ 2. Personal liability of directors: It is one of the duties of directors to see that the corporate capital is used only for the legitimate business of the company. the directors will be personally liable to replace it. Rather. though wrongly acquired. a company was authorised by its memorandum to carry on the business of costumiers. The directors of a company are its agents. The House of Lords expressed strong disapproval of the inclusion of such a clause. Injunction: Whenever an ultra vires act has been or is about to be undertaken.
in the opinion of the board of directors. Many News magazines like Indian Law Review etc. it was not ultra vires This decision of the Court was highly criticized all over. like articles. In Bell House Ltd. whatever the objects clause may provide.. an activity not bona fide designed to enhance the financial prosperity of the company will necessarily be ultra vires since “charity cannot sit at the boardroom table” and “there are to be no cakes and ale except for the benefit of the company. None of these applicants had actual knowledge that veneered business was ultra vires.” 6. the chairman acquired knowledge of sources of finance for property development. and held that since the directors honestly believed that the transaction could be advantageously carried on as ancillary to the company’s main objects. In other words. But this was reversed on appeal. . void. The reason is that every one dealing with a company is supposed to know its powers. the plaintiff company’s principal business was the acquisition of vacant sites and the erection thereon of housing estates. The trial judge held that the contract was ultra vires the plaintiff company and. is made a contract only between shareholders and the company. be advantageously carried on by the company in connection with its general business. but will not liable either civilly or criminally for anything which its officer do in connection with some entirely different business. The statement of objects indicates the permissible range of corporate activity. In the course of transacting the business. therefore. Everything else beyond that is implicitly prohibited so that the corporate capital may be preserved for the benefit of shareholders and creditors. Every contract made on behalf of the company whether within or beyond its powers should be valid. But that protection does not in any way suffer if the memorandum. Ultra Vires Torts: A company may be liable for torts or crimes committed in pursuance of its stated objects but should not be liable for acts entirely outside its objects. V. The nature and consequences of ultra vires rule points to some of its inherent complications resulting in occasional injustice. yet none of them could make the company liable for his claim. addressed this decision as Death of Doctrine of Ultra Vires and as An Obituary to doctrine of Ultra Vires. It is sometimes suggested that there is an over-riding principle that.000 for the same. The company introduced the financer to the defendant company and claimed the agreed fee of £ 20. City Wall Properties Ltd. The court of Appeal relied on the clause in the memorandum which authorised the company “to carry on any other trade or business whatsoever which can.coke supplied to the factory. if the objects of the company are restricted to running a tramway it will be liable for anything which its officers do within the actual or usual scope of their authority in connection with or ancillary to running trams.
In essence it can be said that now the object clause of the companies are so lengthy that the real object behind the incorporation of the company buried beneath the heaps of the multi utility objects. It has outlived its usefulness. but of business. whether Company should have a general contracting capacity or not. Or whether the Doctrine of Ultra Vires should be abolished. the modern gold mining company may quite probably have power under its memorandum to operate fried fish shops. aids in procuring subscriptions. Shareholders are concerned in the appreciation in the Share Value. it is not possible for them to attend the meeting of the company even AGM. Such persons are called promoters. and who take the necessary steps to carry that intention to carry that intention into operation. They want to cash the gain at the shortest time possible. The interest of shareholders and creditors are not much secured by this doctrine. companies would. Now the framers of the Memorandum of Association used to make the object clause of the companies so lengthy that it covers almost each and every possibility available under this sky within the scope of the companies. The emphasis upon its business implication is quite apparent from the state meant that the term is used to sum up ‘in a single word a number of business operations. Now it may seem. Apart from this the object clause of the company can also be altered by the Board of Directors even by special resolution. He brings together the persons who become interested in the enterprise. Basically the shareholders are scattered all over the globe. A promoter is a person who brings about the incorporation and organization of a corporation. They are no more concerned with the business policies and the strategies of the Company. Therefore. Promoters Before a company can be formed there must be some persons who have the intention to form a company. nor a term of law. in this respect be equated with partnerships. A promoter is one who undertakes to form a company with reference to a given project and to set it going. and sets in motion and machinery which leads to the formation itself. The term ‘promoter’ is not a term of art. In view of the present business scenario it will be right to remove the Doctrine of Ultra Vires. familiar to the commercial world by which a company is generally brought into existence. The object behind the Doctrine of Ultra Vires has lost its relevance. it should be reformed so that as regards 3rd parties a company would have all the powers of a natural person and the object clause in is memorandum would operate solely as a contract between the company and its members regarding the extent of the authority conferred on its directors and officers. in other words.e. therefore.A question is posed in the present scenario i. and who takes the necessary steps to .
Thus a solicitor. A company was then incorporated to take over the island and to work the mines. Duty and Liability: Fiduciary Position: The position of promoters in relation to the company was explained in Erlanger V. as they stands. They have the power of defining how and when. it is incumbent upon them to take care that they provide the company with an executive body who shall both be aware that the property which they are asked to purchase it the promoter’s property and who shall be competent and impartial judges as to whether the purchase ought or ought not be made. The company failed and the liquidator sued the promoter for refund of the profit. A person who acts in a professional capacity is not a promoter. undoubtedly in fiduciary position. A prospectus was then issued. and his d ings with it must be open and fair. . These three directors purchased the island for the company at a price of £ 1. The promoters is in the situation akin to that of a trustee of the company. Many persons took shares. in what shape and under what supervision the company shall start into existence and begin to act as a trading corporation. A group of persons headed by E purchased an island containing phosphate mines for £ 55. he must faithfully disclose all facts relating to the property. They should sell the property to the company through the medium of a board of directors who can and do exercise an independent and intelligent judgment on the transaction.10. by becoming party to the share issues or to procuring subscriptions. also excludes such a person from the category. But any such person may become a promoter if he helps the formation of the company by doing an act outside the scope of his professional duty. The only material contention urged on behalf of the promoters was that the company’s board of directors had full knowledge of the facts. E named five persons as directors. in Section 62. the chief duty of the promoters as a fiduciary agent is to disclose to the company his position. A person may become a promoter even after the formation of the company.accomplish that purpose. They have in their hands the creation and moulding of the company. for example. his profit and his interest in the property which is the subject of the purchase or sale by the company. an accountant or a valuer. In short. The purchase of the island was adopted by the shareholders at their first meeting. New Sombrero Phosphate Co. while providing for the liability of a promoter for misrepresentation in prospectus. Of the three others. who prepares on behalf of the promoters the primary documents of the proposed company is not a promoter similarly. Two were abroad.000. Thus the first and the foremost duty of a promoter is that if he starts a company for the purpose of buying his property and wants to draw his payment from the money obtained from shareholders. two were persons entirely under E’s control.000. Rejecting this the court said that if they propose to sell their property to the company. The Companies Act. It was suggested in Erlanger case that it should be made to an independent and competent board of directors. but the real circumstances were not disclosed to them.
They first bought up some of the charges upon the property for sums below the amount which the charges afterwards realized.000. it is just not possible to constitute an independent board of directors. and thereby made a profit of £ 20. Disclosure has also to be made of any interest of the promoters in the promotion of the company or in any property acquired by the company during the two years or proposed to be acquired.40. when they were really there to hoodwink the shareholders.000 to the company. Here it was said that since the promoter owes a duty of disclosure to the company the primary remedy against him in the event of breach is for the company to bring proceedings for recession of any contract with him or for the recovery of any secret profits which he has made.80. or a public company which like that of Saloman & Co. In the case of private company. contended that the fact was known to the parties to the transaction.Subsequent experience. were to obtain from them the money.000. that it to say the company must have done nothing to show an intention to ratify the agreement after finding out about the non disclosure or misrepresentation. Barnes. Case. So far as the right to rescind is concerned.000 and £ 1. It was held that the promoters ought to have disclosed to the company the profit of £ 20. formed a limited company and resold the property for £ 1. buy a property called ‘Olympia’ and resell it to a company. and so. of which thy ewer first directors. Disclosure is not the most appropriate word to use when a person who plays many parts announces to himself in one character what he has done and is dong in another. Shares were issued but the company afterwards went into liquidation.40. to cheat the shareholders. far from protecting them. They brought the property for £1. and this. the produce of their nefarious plans. who was one of the promoters. showed that it may not always be possible for the promoters to give to the company an independent board of directors. this must be exercised on normal contractual principles.000 but not the profit of £ 20. They issued a prospectus inviting application for shares and disclosing the two prices of £ 1. The Companies Act now requires through Section 56 the promoters earnings to be disclosed in the prospectus itself. The defendant. . that is to say. is to be treated as a disclosure to the company. consists of only the family members. A syndicate of persons was formed to raise a fund. This was emphasized by the House of Lords in their well known decision in Gluckstein V. forsooth. however. Here it was held that a promoter cannot effectively contract out of his duties by inserting a clause in the articles whereby the company and the subscribers agree to waive their rights. In such a case the promoters hall disclose his interest and profit to the shareholders of the company.000. But it will not be enough to disclose the truth to the first few shareholders.000. The disclosure should be made to the whole body of persons who are invited to become the shareholders.80. The duty continues even after incorporation until the profits are fully disclosed and fully accounted for. Rejecting this contention the court said that it is too absurd to suggest that a disclosure to the parties to this transaction is a disclosure to the company. They were there by the terms of the agreement to do the work of the syndicate. Remedies for breach of promoters’ duties: The remedies available against the breach of duties by promoters are best explained in Lagunas Nitrate Co.
Moreover. the promoter may be liable to those who have acquired securities of the company in reliance on mis-statement in listing particulars on prospectuses to which the promoters was a party. it was stated by the court that in view of the wide powers now exercised by the court whether the restitution in integrum rule operates as any real restraint at any rate where the promoters has been fraudulent or where he himself responsible for the dealings alleged to have resulted in restitution being impossible. In addition to the remedies of the company. Barnes itself. and even there a monetary adjustment will often enable the third parties right to be satisfied. however authority for saying that if the property on which the profit was made was acquired before the promoter became a promoter.In Erlanger Case. The remedies available against him are the same as those against the officers of the company or others responsible for the listing particular or prospectuses. determination of the exact movement of time at which the promotion began. but if he has made a profit on some ancillary transaction there is no doubt that this too may be recovered. According to this view it may be necessary for this purpose to make the admittedly difficult. The classic illustration of this is Gluckstein V. The only circumstances where this requirement seems likely to impose a serious limitation is where innocent third parties have acquired rights to the property concerned. If the contract is rescinded the promoter’s secret profit will normally disappear as a result. Doctrine of Indoor Management (Constructive Notice) Constructive Notice: The memorandum and articles of association of every company are registered with . There is. there can be no claim for the recovery of the profit as such. a secret profit may be recovered although the company elects not to rescind.
Kotla Venkataswamy V. He is presumed to have understood not merely the company’s powers but also those of its officers. the duty of every person dealing with a company to inspect its public documents and make sure that his contract is in conformity with their provisions. but certain preliminaries are required to be gone through on the part of the company before that power can be duly exercised. shows the practical effects of this rule. Constructive notice is more or less an unreal doctrine. “he is to be in the same position as if he had read them”. The company’s articles provided that the directors might borrow on bonds such sums as may from time to time be authorised by a resolution passed at a general meeting of the company. the bond is nevertheless invalid. In Premier Industrial Bank case. It was held that the plaintiff could not claim under this deed. This kind of presumption notice is called constructive notice. such as special resolutions and particulars of charges which are required by the Act to be registered with the Registrar. The latter seeks to protect the company against the outsider. the person contracting will not be prejudiced by irregularities that may beset the indoor working of the company. They are open and accessable to all. she may have acted in good faith and her money may have been applied to the purpose of the company. It is. then . The office of the Registrar is a public office and consequently the memorandum and articles become public documents. The plaintiff accepted a deed of mortgage executed by the secretary and a working director only. The shareholders claimed that there has been no such resolution authorizing the loan and. But whether a person actually reads them or not.the Registrar of Companies. the plaintiff had the right to infer that the necessary resolution must have been passed. He will be presumed to know the contents of those documents. there is constructive notice not merely of the memorandum and articles. The company was. Once it was found that the directors could borrow subject to a resolution. therefore. Rammurthy. therefore. but also of all the documents. The directors of a company borrowed a sum of money from the plaintiff. If the contract is consistent with the public documents. therefore. held bound by the loan. Notwithstanding. the secretary and a working director on behalf of the company. The court observed: “If the plaintiff had consulted the articles she would have discovered that a deed such as she took required execution by three specified officers of the company and she would have refrained from accepting a deed inadequately signed.. Turquand. The rule had its genesis in Royal British Bank V. it was stated that if the directors have power and authority to bind the company. It does not take notice of the realities of business life. Doctrine of Indoor Management: The role of the doctrine of indoor management is opposed to that of the rule of constructive notice. The articles of association of a company required that all deeds etc. It follows that there is no notice as to how the company’s internal machinery is handled by its officers. should be signed by the managing director. Another effect of this rule is that a person dealing with the company is taken not only to have read those documents but to have understood them according to their proper meaning. the former operates to protect outsiders against the company. however. it was taken without their authority. Further.
the plaintiff accepted a transfer of a company’s property from its accountants. the directors could not defend the issue of debentures of themselves because they should have known that the extent to which they were lending money to the company required the assent of the general meeting which they had not obtained.” 2. Brayhead Ltd. invite inquiry. Where a person holding directorship in two companies agreed to apply the money of . A newly appointed director entered into contracts of indemnity and guarantee with the company through a director whom the company had knowingly allowed to hold himself out as having the authority to enter into such transactions. Any other rule would “encourage ignorance and condone dereliction from duty. Dinshaw & Co.the person contracting with the directors is not bound to see that all these preliminaries have been observed. Knowledge of an irregularity may arise from the fact that the person contracting was himself a party to the inside procedure. according to which the mere fact that a person is a director does not mean that he shall be deemed to have knowledge of the irregularities practiced by the other directors. that the accountant had authority to effect transfer of the company’s property. 1. it would be unhappier still if the company could escape liability by denying the authority of the officials to act on its behalf. the principle is clear that a person who is himself a part of the internal machinery cannot take the advantage of irregularities. But apart from this. In view of the fact that companies having come to occupy the central position in the social economic life of modern communities. Exceptions: The rule is now more than a century old. The rule is based upon obvious reasons of business convenience in relations. in Morris V. But the details of internal procedure are not thus open to public inspection. The Memorandum of association and article of association are public documents. Hence an outsider is presumed to know the constitution of a company. His appointment as a director also fell through because none of the directors appointing him was validly in office. Gower explained that the lot of creditors of a limited company is not a particularly happy one. He is entitled to presume that the directors are acting lawfully in what they do. it was expected that its scope would be widened. The new director had no knowledge of the irregularity. The trend of decisions has been slightly altered by Hely-Hutchinson V. although in fact he had no such authority. The company was held liable. Kanssen a director could not defend an allotment of shares to him as he participated in the meeting which made the allotment.. in the absence of a power of attorney. Knowledge of irregularity:The first and the most obvious restrictions is that the rule has no application where the party affected by an irregularity had actual notice of it. The plaintiff could not have supposed. the transfer was held void. Similarly. Suspicion of irregularity:The protection of the “the Turquand rule” is also not available where the circumstances surrounding the contract are suspicious and. But the course of decisions has made it subject to the following exceptions. therefore. Patent Ivory Manufacturing Co. In Howard V. In Anand Bihari Lal V. but not what may or may not have taken place within the doors that are closed to him. open to public inspection.
which is well established. 3. If the act is one which is ordinarily within the powers of such an officer. the company should be estopped from denying the genuiness of the document. In Ruben V. Buckhurst. It cannot apply to a forgery. In Freeman V. his representation express or implied should bind the principal. as the case was decided on the principle that the secretary did not have actual or implied authority to represent that a forged document was genuine and. The effect of a delegation clause is that a person who contracts with an individual director of a company. therefore. The plaintiff contended that whether the signature were genuine or forged was a part of the internal management and. then the company cannot dispute the officer’s authority to do the act. the court said that it was something so unusual that the plaintiff were put upon inquiry to ascertain whether the persons making the contract had any authority in fact to make it. applies to irregularities of which they have no notice. Forgery:The Forgery may in circumstances exclude the Turquand rule. It was said that it is quite true that persons dealing with limited liability companies are not bound to inquire into their indoor management and will not be affected by irregularities of which they have no notice. may assume that the power of delegation has been exercised. 4. entered into a contract to purchase an estate. We hold the matter liable as a matter of social and economic policy. whether the director have or have not actually invested him with authority to do it.one company in payment of the debt of the other. They formed a limited company with certain . which is well established. Great Fingall Consolidated. He had not enough money to pay for it and obtained financial assistance from H. who had affixed the seal of the company and forged the signatures of two directors. Commissioner of Police. a document on which a company borrowed a sum of money was executed by the managing director who was the chief functionary of the company and. therefore. But it was held that the rule has never been extended to cover such a complete forgery. Articles of Association generally contains what is called the “power of delegation”. at the mercy of any servant or agent who should purport to contract on their behalf. the plaintiff was the transferee of a share certificate issued under the seal of the defendant company. Representation through Articles:This exception deals with the most controversial and highly confusing aspect of the Turquand rule. In Official Liquidator V. there was no estoppel against the company. The basis of liability is the eminently practical view that if authority is conditioned on facts peculiarly within the agent’s knowledge. to comply with the requirements of the articles. But this doctrine. the company was not allowed to eschew liability under the document. who carried on business as a property developer. But this doctrine. knowing that the board has power to delegate its authority to such an individual. The certificate was issued by the company’s secretary. applies to irregularities which otherwise might affect a genuine transaction. the signatures of two other directors were forged. This statement has been regarded as a dictum. Any other rule would place limited companies without any sufficient reasons for so doing. ‘K’.
Acts outside apparent authority: Lastly. The quorum of directors was. Unless. (iii) that contractor was induced by such representation to enter into the contract that is. 5. Since such a transaction is apparently . There was power under the articles to appoint a managing director. the plaintiff cannot claim the protection of the Turquand rule simply because under the articles power to do the act could have been delegated to him. a company cannot escape liability. The plaintiff accepted a transfer of a company’s property from its accountant. The fact that the plaintiffs had not examined the company’s articles and had not enquired whether K was a properly appointed managing director did not prevent them from establishing their claim against the company based on their reliance on K’s ostensible authority. The court laid down that the following conditions must be fulfilled to entitle a contractor to enforce against a company a contract entered into on behalf of the company by an agent who has no actual authority to do so: (i) that a representation that the agent had authority to enter on behalf of the company into a contract of the kind sought to be enforced was made to the contractor. K’s act in employing the plaintiff was within the ordinary ambit of the authority of such a managing director. comprised the board. and. It was held that the company was liable for the fees claimed because K throughout acted as managing director to the knowledge of the company and thus was held out by the company as being managing director. he in fact relied upon it. Dinshah & Co. four. a firm of architects and surveyors for the submission of an application for planning permission etc. A clear illustration is Anand Behari Lal V. if the act of an officer of a company is one which would ordinarily be beyond the powers of such an officer. but the board did not in fact do so. employed on behalf of the company. and the ostensible authority thus conferred could bind the company since its articles of association in fact provided for there being a managing director of the company. been delegated to the officer with whom he dealt. again without express authority of the board. Thus the principle that emerges from these authorities that once it is shown that the contract in question is within the ostensible authority of the officer through whom it was made. K to the knowledge of the board acted as if he were managing director of the company in relation to finding a purchaser for the estate. The firm claimed from the company their fees for work done. (ii) that such representation was made by a persons or person who had ‘actual’ authority to manage the business of the company either generally or in respect of those matters to which the contract relates. by the articles of association. it can show that under its memorandum or articles of association it had no capacity either to enter into a contract of that kind or to delegate the authority in the matter to the officer. IN such a case the plaintiff cannot sue the company unless the power has. K and H with a nominee of each. and (iv) that under the memorandum and article of association the company was not deprived of the capacity either to enter into a contract of the kind sought to be enforced or to delegate authority to enter into a contract of the kind to the agent. in fact.capital subscribed equally by K and H to buy the estate with a view to selling it for development. H was at all material times abroad.
accept. it was void. had power to draw and accept bills of exchange by articles. and shall exercise their powers honestly in the interest of the company and all the shareholders. the company was not bound. Not even a ‘delegation clause’ in the articles could have validated it. it is the company which is liable on it and not the directors. They had a branch at Manchester under a branch manager who. He cannot be described as a servant of the company or of anyone. properties and their powers and as such must account for all the money over which they exercise control and shall refund any money improperly paid away. In general the directors owe no duties to the individual members as such. the defendant company. etc. The defendant’s business was that of forwarding agents. therefore. it is their duty to perform fully and entirely. but he will be fiduciary o it. . directors can be treated as managing partners as they are charged with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the company. and other shareholders are virtually dormant partners. draw. Where the directors contract in the name. and in fraud. The directors are persons selected to manage the affairs of the company for the benefit of the shareholders. Schenkers Ltd. The directors are also treated as trustees of the company. drawing of bills was not within the ostensible authority of this branch manager and. which if they undertake. unless he was. without having received any authority from the company. by its memorandum. In the first place it should be noted that whereas the authority of the directors to bind the company as its agents normally depends on the directors to bind the company as its agents normally depends on their acting collectively as a board. Directors are trustees of the company’s money. They are rather the officers of the company. authorised. unless it had given him actual authority or was otherwise precluded from setting up the want of authority. Some of their duties to the company are of the same nature as those of a trustee. A director is not a servant of any master. On the position of the directors as trustees. It was held that having regard to his position. therefore. govern the relations of directors with the company and of persons dealing with the company through its directors. It is an office of trust. The company was sued on these bills as drawers. bills on company’s behalf”. their duties of good faith are owed by each director individually. Directors Duties Directors are professional men hired by the company to direct its affairs. the Nigerian Act contains the provision. in fact. A director is in fact a director or controller of the company’s affairs. and on behalf of the company.beyond the scope of an accountant’s authority. the directors were empowered “to determine who shall be entitled to sign. directors again resemble trustees who must normally act jointly but each of whom severally owes duties are owed to the company and to the company alone. In Kreditbank Cassel V. One of several directors will not as such be an agent of the company with power to saddle it with responsibility for his acts. If the company is considered as large partnership.. drew seven bills purporting to do so on company’s behalf. To this extent. The general principles of agency. Yet they are not the servants of the company. and not their own sectional interests.
and (4) that. A director is the managing partner of the concern and although a debts is due to the concern it doesn’t give right to call him a trustee of that debt which remains cases and in some respects be analogous to the liability of trustee. it is a quite obvious that to apply to directors the strict rules of the courts with respect to ordinary trustees might fetter their action to an extent which would be exceedingly disadvantageous to the companies they represent. and still holds grounds as a basic proposition. Some directors will always be faithless to their trust. But the court held that there was no such fiduciary duty towards individual shareholders and.In Regal’s case it was said that ‘director have sometimes been trustees. Wright. The directors are trustees of the company and not of individual shareholders. materially reduce the chance of abuse. In this case. (3) that they must not fetter their discretion as to how they shall act. Three directors offered to buy the shares at a price assessed by an independent valuer but they did not disclose that they were in the process of negotiating the sale of the company at a price per share considerably higher than the amount offered to the shareholders. it was said that ‘again directors are called trustees. The law. In applying the general equitable principle to company directors four separate rules have emerged.Traditionally the duties of the directors were nonstatutory. which is that they are really commercial men managing a trading concern for the benefit of themselves and all other share holders in it. therefore. and sometimes they have been called managing partners. after pointing out that traders have discretion vested in trustees of a debt under a settlement. This principle was laid down in Percival V. when properly enforced. will without driving away from the field competent men. it does not matter what you call them so long as you understand what their true position is. therefore. the directors were not bound to disclose negotiation which ultimately proved abortive.’ Later. or which are under their control. continues to struggle against their wile and imposes upon them certain duties which. The selling shareholders had written to the company’s secretary asking him if he knew anyone willing to purchase their shares. negotiations for the sale of a company’s undertaking were on foot and without disclosing this the directors purchased shares from the plaintiff shareholders. or commercial trustees.’ However. They were fashioned out essentially from the common law as developed . but they are not trustees of a debt due to the company. These are : (1) that directors must act in good faith in what they believe to be the best interests of the company. without the informed consent of the company they must not place themselves in a position in which their personal interests or duties to other persons are liable to conflict with their duties to the company. They are not doubt trustees of assets which have come to their hands. (2) that they must not exercise the powers conferred upon them for purposes different from those for which they were conferred. Fiduciary Obligation: Liability for breach of trust:. but the plaintiffs claimed that the non-disclosure was a breach of the fiduciary duty entitling them to repudiate the sale. Directorships will always be susceptible to abuse. The court also pointed out that a premature disclosure of this kind might well be against the best interests of the company. The negotiations proved to be abortive. They can capitalize their strategic position in the company to serve their own interest.
Trading In Corporate Control: A director who acquires property while in office will. He must have acquired property only by reason of fact that he was a director and in the course of the exercise of the office of director. The matter was. The Nigerian Act contains the provisions in this regard. the solicitor and the chairman were sold at a profit. And thus a capital of £5000 was raised. The action was brought by the plaintiff company to recover this profit. Gulliver carries the principle to the farthest limit.through the cases. It was held that in the circumstances the directors. and while ostensibly acting for the company. the directors of a company diverted a contract opportunity of the company to themselves and by their votes as holders of three fourths majority resolved that the company had no interest in the contract. It was held that the benefits o the contract belonging in equity of the company and the directors could not validly use their voting power to vest it in themselves. but it was unable to provide for more than 2000 shares. The original intention was that the plaintiff company should hold all the shares in the subsidiary. V. on the other hand. 500 shares were taken by each of the three directors.A director should not exploit to his own use the corporate opportunities. but the landlord required a guarantee of the rent by the directors unless the paid-up capital of the subsidiary company was £5000. In Cook V. 500 shares by the solicitor of the company and the remaining 500 were allotted to certain persons found by the chairman of directors. Greatest good faith is expected in the discharge of their duties. Business Opportunities:. Regal (Hastings) Ltd. Deeks. men who assume complete control of a company’s business must remember that they are not at liberty to sacrifice the interests. Two cinemas were taken and all the shares in the plaintiff company and the subsidiary company were sold. which they are bound to protect. But. But now company legislation of some countries has made a departure from this tradition.000 divided into shares of £ 1 each. rearranged: 2000 shares were allotted to the plaintiff company. be able to account for his profits upon resale if two elements are present. divert in their own favour business which should properly belong to the company they represent. It says that a director of a company stands in a fiduciary relationship towards the company and shall observe the utmost good faith towards the company in any transaction with it or on its behalf. The doctrine of corporate opportunity has been described as an act of a director or controlling shareholders in diverting from the benefit of the corporation any enterprise or transaction in which reasonable persons would agree that the corporation had some expectancy or interest. They were offered a lease of the two cinemas. other than the chairman. therefore. were in . The plaintiff company were the owners of a cinema in Hastings and then to sell the whole property of the company as a going concern. Good faith requires that all their endeavours must be directed to the benefit of the company. however. The 3000 shares allotted to the directors. For the purpose of acquiring the new cinemas they formed a subsidiary company with a capital of £5. The court observed that it is quite right to point out the importance of avoiding the establishment of rules as to directors’ duties which would impose upon them burdens so heavy and responsibilities to great that men of good position would hesitate to accept the office.
Cooley.a fiduciary relation to the company and liable. therefore. But the Gas Board plainly told him that the Government would not allow the contract to the company. The plaintiff company has to establish two things: first. to the court. Further it was said that ‘it is of the highest importance that it is the duty of directors of companies to use their best exertions for the benefit of those whose interests are committed to their charge. and not in the least relaxed. seems to be just and clear. but was willing to deal with him personally. but it is very proper that the rule should be strictly pursued. that the trustee is the only person of all mankind who might not have the leave. took a lease for his own benefit. in my judgment. finding that impossible to get a renewal of the benefit of the infant. or suggestion or arguments. as to whether the principal did or did not suffer any injury in fact. that what they did resulted in a profit to themselves. Court held that ‘it appears. Industrial Development Consultants Ltd. Sandford. by reason of the dealing of the agent. The liability of the directors to account. on renewals would be made for the benefits of ‘a person to whose use lands or other hereditaments were held by another person(Centui que use). The directors. Case of Keech Vs. They acquired these shares only by reason of the fact that they were the directors of the Regal and in the course of their execution of that office. V. The trustee. is a reaffirmation of the belief in the Regal standard of honesty. there would be temptation to induce such inability on the part of the company and to profit by it. It was absolutely unobtainable. secondly. But if they were permitted to retain the profit. The real ground for the decision seems to be that the opportunity to take 5000 shares was the corporate opportunity. is an illustration of articleness of the rule of equity in this regard and of how far the rule is independent of those outside considerations. under the . The solicitor was not in a fiduciary relationship and was not liable. therefore. But to hand over this profit to the purchaser shareholders would be to give them the benefit of any undeserved reduction in the price which they had willingly paid up. He resigned from the company. to repay to it the profit they had made on the shares. should have been in favour of the old shareholders who had really suffered. that what the directors did was so related to the affairs of the company that it can properly be said to have been done in the course of their management and in the utilization of their opportunities and special knowledge as directors and. and that they are bound to disregard their own private interest whenever a regard to them conflicts with the proper discharge of such duty. A lease of the profits of a market had been devised to infant was refused. and must be applied inexorable by this court. if a trustee on the refusal to renew might have a lease for himself. took the shares in good faith because the company was financially unable to make use of the opportunity. therefore. very important that we should concern in laying down again and again the general principle that in this court no agent in course of his agency is allowed to make any profit without the knowledge of his principal. Recovery. to receive evidence. nevertheless be that. that the rule is an inflexible rule. The court said that this may seems hard. The managing director of a company tried to get from the Gas Board a Government contract for the company. Though his duty to obtain it for the infant was incapable of performance. for the safety of mankind acquires that no a gent shall be able to put his principal to the danger of such as a inquiry as that. however. which is not entitled.
“Winding up precedes dissolution. namely: (a) Members voluntary winding up. which itself is of two kinds. Having earned a handsome profit. “Winding up of a company is the process whereby its life is ended and its property administered for the benefit of its creditors and members. must account. voluntary winding up. called a liquidator. Winding Up According to Professor Gower. 2.pretence of ill-health and then promptly obtained the contract for himself. pays its debts and finally distributes any surplus among the members in accordance with their rights. and . is appointed and he takes control of the company.” The company is not dissolved immediately at the commencement of winding up. Compulsory winding up under the order of the Tribunal. collects its assets. he had to face an action from the company to account for it. therefore. The court held that the managing director had acted in breach of his duty and. Its corporate status and powers continue. An administrator. The Act provides for two types of winding up: 1.
(2) That it has to be found out whether the non-commencement or suspension of business was for some good reasons accounting for it.. They are as follows: 1. it was held that the suspension of business for a whole year is sufficiently accounted for and does not furnish an indication that there is no intention to carry on the business. Default in holding Statutory meeting: If a company has made a default in delivering the statutory report to the Registrar or in holding the statutory meeting. The power of the court of order winding up has been vested in the Tribunal. a creditor. Failure to commence business: If a company does not commence its business within a year from its incorporation or has suspended business for a whole year. If it is brought by any other person e.g. resolved that it be wound up by the Tribunal. among others. Bengal Steamship Co. 3. Winding up by Tribunal: Section 433 has been recast. Where the company itself was the petitioner and the financial position of the company was eroded. the court ordered winding up in public interest.(b) Creditors’ voluntary winding up. The power is discretionary and may not be exercised where winding up would be opposed to the public or company’s interests. however. But this principle does not apply to private companies since they are not required to hold such a meetings. The flats were acquired by the Government during the First World War and the company was not able to replace them immediately in view of the rise in prices. Special resolution: If the company has. the order may be refused. If the suspension is satisfactorily accounted for and it appears to be due to temporary causes. (3) That the fact of non-commencement or suspension of business is an evidence which indicates that the company has no intention of carrying on business or that it is not likely to do so. The cases in which a company may be wound up are given in Section 433. it may be ordered to be wound up. In a petition to wind up the company. it may be ordered to be wound up. although they give the jurisdiction to the court to do so. A company ma be wound up at the order of the Tribunal. not bound to order winding up similarly because the company has so resolved. This resulted in suspension of business for more than a year. by special resolution. A long line of decisions of the line point thus established. The petition for winding up on this ground can be presented either by the Registrar or by a contributory. An illustration is the decision of the Calcutta High court in Murlidhar V. 2. a company employed a steamer and two flats. The Tribunal is. Here again the power is discretionary and will be exercised only when there is a fair indication that there is no intention to carry on business. This is also called compulsory winding up. To carry on its business. it must be filed before the expiration of fourteen days after the last day on which the statutory meeting ought to have been held. Three additional grounds of winding up have been added. the following propositions of law: (1) That the mere fact that business has not been commenced within a year of that business has been suspended for a whole year or more by itself is not a ground for a court to order winding up. The power of the Tribunal is discretionary and instead of making a winding up order the Tribunal may direct that the statutory report shall be delivered or that the meeting shall be held. .
if it is proved to the satisfaction of the Tribunal that the company is unable to pay its debts. According to this section a company shall be deemed to be unable to pay its debts in the following three cases: (a) Statutory Notice: Firstly. there was failure to resume business for five years and the prospects also seemed gloomy. Failure to pay in spite of several communications including service or statutory notice was held to be evidence of neglect and inability. There is yet another consideration in the matter or order for winding up and that is taking into consideration the wishes of the majority of the shareholders.(4) That the decisive question is whether there is a reasonable hope of the company commencing or resuming business and doing it at a profit. Reduction in Membership: If the number of members is reduced. question of bona fide dispute may be raised and the court may. the company may be ordered to be wound up. had to be abandoned on account of rains. and (3) the company produces prima facie proof of the facts on which the deference depends. a demand for payment and the company has for three weeks neglected to pay or otherwise satisfy him. Neglect to pay a debt on demand is omission to pay without reasonable cause. it could not be said that the company had neglected to pay. and whether the substratum of the company has disappeared. Inability to pay debts: A company may be ordered to wound up if it is unable to pay its debts. Where there was no 21 days notice. The expression “neglects to pay the sum demanded” in Section 434(1)(a) is not equivalent to the word ‘omitted’. where the dispute is not real. (c) Commercial Insolvency: Lastly. winding up may be ordered. below two. Inability to pay debts is explained in Section 434. In British India General Insurance Co. the Tribunal can direct the liquidator to take care of the interests of the financial institutions which had advanced large sums of money to the company and also to investigate whether a secured creditor bank had sold the company’s assets at prices lower than their real value. 5. After ordering winding up on this ground. However. if a creditor to whom the company owes a sum exceeding one lakh rupees has served on the company. The debt must be presently payable and the title of the petitioner demanding it should be complete. case where a cricket match. being insured. 4. The principles on which the company court acts are: (1) that the defence of the company is in good faith and one of substance. instead of passing winding up order. In reference to the concept of “unable to . however. allow the petition to stand over on an undertaking by the company to file a suit for setting aside the decree. in the case of a public company. In a case where. The debt must be really due. (2) the defence is likely to succeed in point of law. the insurance company appointed a surveyor to determine whether this type of loss was covered by the terms of the policy. Even in the case of a decretal debt. (b) Decreed Debt: Secondly. a company shall be deemed to be unable to pay its debts if execution or order process issued on a decree or order of any Court in favour of a creditor of the company is returned unsatisfied in whole or in part. the defeat was held to be not curable even by a subsequent notice during the pendency of the proceedings. but is put forward by the company as a cloak to hide its inability to pay its debts. the application for winding up would be allowed. below seven and in the case of a private company.
“where at the relevant time there is reasonable hope of tiding over the difficulty and emerging into a region in which the company might reasonably expected to carry on at a profit”. Dharmaraja Nadar. And they are as follows: (i) Deadlock: Firstly. but whether in a commercial sense the company is solvent. Ltd. 414.79. the company is entitled to regard its uncalled capital as money available for the discharge of its debts. The proper test is whether in a commercial sense the existing liability would be paid by it while it continued to carry on as a company. Moreover. when there is a deadlock in the management of a company. who traded separately as cigarette manufacturers. 6. The circumstances in which the courts have in the past dissolved companies on this ground can be resolved into general categories. the company would be able to discharge its debts. In Yenidje Tobacco Co.pay debts: it has been observed that though it is not necessary that there should be a statutory demand or any demand at all. the company may be regarded as commercially insolvent. the court shall take into account the contingent and prospective liability of the company. In Shree Shanmaugar Mills V. it may not be ordered to be wound up on this ground. Just and Equitable: The Tribunal can order the winding up of a company when “the Tribunal is of the opinion that it is just and equitable that the company should be wound up”. its assets were of the value of Rs. but one of them dissented from the award. If it is not so. Thus there was a complete deadlock and consequently the company was ordered to be wound up although its business was flourishing. 8. The Court held that the value of such assets without which the company could not carry on business. This gives the Tribunal a very wide discretionary power to order winding up whenever it appears to be desirable.00. excluding which only a sum of Rs. For a long period edjusdem generis dominated interpretation of the just and equitable provisions. Both then became so hostile that neither of them would speak to the other except through the secretary. (ii) Loss of Substratum: Secondly.” A perusal of the balance-sheet of the company must show that its assets are sufficient to meet its liabilities. “What has to be ascertained is not whether if all assets were converted into cash. 10. But the rule has been entirely abandoned and the widest character and the courts are left to work out for themselves for the principles on which such orders should be granted. Though the Court is not bound to construe this clause (ejusdem generis) as only covering ground of a like nature with those specified in clauses 1 to 5 yet it will require grounds of a like magnitude before acting under the clause. should not be taken into account. In determining this. 3. A good . it is just and equitable to order winding up. a company resisted a petition on the ground that while its liabilities amounted only to Rs. the articles provided that any dispute would be resolved by arbitration. However. agreed to amalgamate their business and formed a private limited company of which they were the shareholders and the only directors. it is just and equitable to wind up a company when its main object has failed to materialize or it has lost its substratum. They had equal voting rights and.72. W and R.130. It was found that these assets included building and machinery.000 would be available to discharge the debts. the court would not be easily satisfied that a company is unable to pay its debts from the mere non-payment of a debt which was never demanded of it. therefore.
For example ad campaign of any undergarments company or fashion designer may appear immoral or indecent to any class of the society. and. Company was formed for the purpose of manufacturing coffee from dates under a patent from Germany and also for working other patents of similar kind. But a mere apprehension on the part of some shareholders that the assets of the company will be frittered away and that loss instead of gain will result has been held to be no ground. It is very possible to define these terms in relation to an artificial person which itself is represented by natural persons. 424-G: A company may be wound up by the order of the Tribunal if it is of the opinion that the company should be would up under the circumstances specified in Section 424-G as a sick industrial company.: If the company has made a default in filing with the Registrar its balance-sheet and profit and loss account or annual return for any five consecutive financial years. These grounds are: 7. Yet there is no summery available on this matter though the application of this clause is can be presumed on the basis of clause 2 of the section accordingly the powers of the Tribunal is discretionary and it may provide the company with a chance to file the documents. public order. for a company to carry on business when there is no hope of achieving the object of trading at a profit. decency or morality. Default in filing Balance Sheet etc.” (iii) Losses: Thirdly. it is considered just and equitable to wind up a company when it cannot carry on business except at losses. the mere fact that some of its objects were philanthropic will not prevent the company from being ordered to be wound up as being one formed for an illegal purpose. The provision to this clause provides a safeguard to the company that application under this clause can only be filed by the Central or State government 9. Court observed that where the main object of the company is the conduct of a lottery. 8. and it was impossible to carry out the objects for which it was formed. Act of a company for promotion of its business/products like advertising may appear decent or immoral to someone. Winding up under circumstance of S. This clause is of very wide amplitude and vague so far as the term “decency or morality” is concerned.illustration is German Date Coffee Co. it was held that “the substratum of the company had failed. It will be needless. friendly relations with foreign States. In Universal Mutual Aid and Poor Houses Association V. (iv) Oppression of Minority: Fourthly. If Tribunal . therefore. So this matter is entirely based on the discretion of the court to decide what is moral and decent. (v) Fraudulent Purpose: It is just and equitable to wind up a company if it has been conceived and brought forth in fraud or for illegal purposes. the security of the State. Besides above mentioned grounds for winding up of a company another three grounds for the winding up of a company is provided in the amendment of Company Act in the year 2002. The German patent was never granted and the company embarked upon other patents. on the petition of a shareholder. But. it was just and equitable that the company should be wound up. it is just and equitable to wind up a company where the principle shareholders have adopted an aggressive or oppressive or squeezing policy towards the minority. Act of company against Sovereignty and interest of India: If the company has acted against the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India. indeed. Thopa Naidu.
. Mayank Mehandru at 10:07 PM ‹ › Home View web version Powered by Blogger.is of the view that the company can’t exceeds its accumulated losses while meeting its financial obligations then it can order for its winding up.

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 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V.