Source: https://www.contractedge.com/copyright-law-for-business-and-IT-professionals/
Timestamp: 2019-04-25 06:38:20+00:00

Document:
In this chapter, we will discuss copyright law, the most important of the intellectual property laws for Internet users. Patent law, trademark law, and trade secret law are discussed in chapter 2.
Ownership of copyrights and other intellectual property is discussed in chapter 3. Other laws that create rights somewhat like intellectual property law rights—privacy and publicity laws—are discussed in chapter 7. Laws protecting copyright management information and copy prevention devices are covered in chapter 24.
Copyright law in the United States is based on the Copyright Act of 1976, a federal statute that went into effect on January 1, 1978. We'll refer to this statute throughout the book as the Copyright Act. The Copyright Act (Title 17 of the United States Code) is available online in Adobe Acrobat PDF format at www.loc.gov/copyright/title17. The United States Copyright Office, part of the Library of Congress, handles copyright registrations (discussed later in this section) and provides information on copyright law on its Web site, www.loc.gov/copyright.
Much of the material that is on the Internet is protected by copyright, making copyright law a concern for those wishing to use material they find on the Internet. This topic is discussed in "Using Materials from the Web," chapter 9.
The types of preexisting material used for Web site content—text, graphics, photographs, and music—are copyrightable, and much of this material is protected by copyright. Web site owners and developers and Web product designers and publishers must avoid infringing copyrights owned by others, as explained in chapters 9 and 10.
Copyright protection is available for Web sites and new Web content. This topic is discussed in "Copyright Protection," chapter 26.
Literary works. Novels, fictional characters, nonfiction prose, poetry, newspaper articles and newspapers, magazine articles and magazines, computer software, software documentation and manuals, training manuals, manuals, catalogs, brochures, ads (text), and compilations such as business directories.
To receive copyright protection, a work must be "original" and must be "fixed" in a tangible medium of expression. 17 USC § 102(a). Certain types of works are not copyrightable.
EXAMPLE / John's book, Designing Web Sites, is original in the copyright sense so long as John did not create his book by copying existing material—even if it's the millionth book to be written on the subject.
While most works make the grade on the originality requirement—because they possess some creative spark, no matter how obvious—a phrase or slogan that has been in widespread use may lack the originality necessary for copyrightability. A federal appeals court held that a music publishing company could not claim copyright in the phrase, "You've got to stand for something, or you'll fall for anything," because the phrase lacked originality. Acuff-Rose Music Inc. v. Jostens Inc., 155 F3d 140 (2d Cir 1998). Short phrases rarely meet the originality requirement and are usually not copyrightable. However, they may qualify for trademark protection, discussed in "Trademark Law," chapter 2.
EXAMPLE / Web Developer used preexisting photographs and graphics (with the permission of the copyright owners) in a Web design project. The Web site as a whole owes its origin to Developer, but the photographs and graphics do not. Web Developer's copyright on the Web site does not cover the photographs, just the material created by Developer.
Facts owe their origin to no one and so are not original. In the United States, a compilation of facts (a work formed by collecting and assembling data) is protected by copyright only to the extent of the author's originality in the selection, coordination, and arrangement of the facts.
EXAMPLE / Ralph created a neighborhood phone directory for his neighborhood by going door-to-door and acquiring his neighbors' names and phone numbers. The directory's facts (names and phone numbers) are not original. Ralph's selection of facts was not original (he "selected" every household in the neighborhood). His coordination and arrangement of facts (alphabetical order by last name) is routine rather than original. The directory is not protected by copyright.
Facts and databases are discussed in "When You Don't Need a License," chapter 9.
In the case Urantia Foundation v. Maaherra, the court had to decide whether a book believed by both parties to be the words of celestial beings was copyrightable. The foundation claimed copyright ownership. The defendant, who had distributed a computer disk version of the book without the permission of the foundation, maintained that the book was not copyrightable because no human creativity was involved in creating the book. The court held that even if the book's content originated with a celestial being, there had been sufficient human selection and arrangement of material to satisfy copyright law's "originality" requirement. 114 F3d 955 (9th Cir 1997).
Works prepared by federal government officers and employees as part of their official duties are not protected by copyright. 17 USC § 105. Consequently, federal statutes (the Copyright Act, for example) and regulations are not protected by copyright. This rule does not apply to works created by state government officers and employees.
Titles of works are not copyrightable. However, titles may be protectible under trademark law. See "Titles," chapter 15.
The design of a useful article is protected by copyright only if, and to the extent that, the design "incorporates pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features that can be identified separately from, and are capable of existing independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article." 17 USC § 101 (definition of "pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works"). For example, while a standard belt buckle design is not protected, a three-dimensional belt-buckle design with a dolphin shape qualifies for limited protection.
Uncopyrightable works and works for which copyright protection has ended are referred to as "public domain" works. See "Public Domain Works," chapter 9.
Copyright protection arises automatically when an original work of authorship is fixed in a tangible medium of expression. 17 USC § 102. Registration with the Copyright Office is optional (but you have to register before you file an infringement suit, if you are a United States citizen or corporation).
The benefits of registering a copyright and using copyright notice are discussed in "Copyright Protection," chapter 26. The role of notice for works distributed prior to March 1, 1989, is discussed in "Public Domain Works," chapter 9.
Reproduction Right. The reproduction right is the right to copy, duplicate, transcribe, or imitate the work in fixed form. Scanning a copyrighted work for use on a Web site is an exercise of the copyright owner's reproduction right.
Modification Right. The modification right (also known as the derivative works right) is the right to modify the work to create a new work. A new work that is based on a preexisting work is known as a "derivative work." Altering a photograph is an exercise of the modification right, as is creating an interactive version of a novel or creating a sequel to a computer game or motion picture.
Distribution Right. The distribution right is the right to distribute copies of the work to the public by sale, rental, lease, or lending. Whether using copyrighted material on the Internet is an exercise of this right is discussed in "When You Need a License," chapter 9.
Public Performance Right. The public performance right is the right to recite, play, dance, act, or show the work at a public place or to transmit it to the public. In the case of a motion picture or other audiovisual work, showing the work's images in sequence is considered "performance." Showing scenes from a copyrighted motion picture in sequence on the Web is an exercise of the public performance right, as is the use of a copyrighted musical composition on the Web.
Public Display Right. The public display right is the right to show a copy of the work directly or by means of a film, slide, or television image at a public place or to transmit it to the public. In the case of a motion picture or other audiovisual work, showing the work's images out of sequence is considered "display." Posting copyrighted material on the Web is an exercise of the public display right.
The exclusive rights are discussed in more detail in "When You Need a License," chapter 9, and "Determining What Rights You Need," chapter 10.
EXAMPLE / John scanned Photographer's copyrighted photograph, altered the image by using digital editing software, and used the altered version of the photograph on an e-commerce site. If John used the photograph without Photographer's permission, John infringed Photographer's copyright by violating the reproduction right, the modification right, and the public display right.
A copyright owner can recover actual or, in some cases, statutory damages from an infringer (see "Copyright Protection," chapter 26). The federal district courts have the power to issue injunctions (orders) to prevent or restrain copyright infringement and to order the impoundment and destruction of infringing copies.
There are two essential elements to an infringement case: (a) that the defendant copied from the plaintiff's copyrighted work; and (b) that the copyright was improper appropriation. Copying generally is established by showing that the defendant had access to the plaintiff's work and that the defendant's work is substantially similar to the plaintiff's work.
Willful infringement for purposes of commercial advantage or private financial gain.
Willful infringement by reproducing or distributing copies or phonorecords of copyrighted works having a total retail value of more than $1000 in a 180-day period.
David LaMacchia, an MIT student, invited users to post commercial software on his bulletin board for exchange with other users. LaMacchia made no money from the exchanges. He was arrested, but the court dismissed the suit because the criminal copyright law in effect at the time of the prosecution applied only to willful infringement for commercial motive or private gain. Congress then amended the law, adding the second violation category discussed in the paragraph immediately above. Prosecutors can use the provision to shut down barter boards through which pirated copies of software and computer games are traded.
The difference between civil and criminal cases is discussed in "Civil and Criminal Cases," in appendix A.
Under current law, the copyright term for works created by individuals is the life of the author plus seventy years. 17 USC § 302(a).
The copyright term for "works made for hire" is ninety-five years from the date of first "publication" (distribution of copies to the general public) or 120 years from the date of creation, whichever expires first. 17 USC § 302(c). Works made for hire are works created by employees for employers and certain types of specially commissioned works. See "The Work Made for Hire Rule," chapter 3, and "Copyright Ownership," chapter 6.
The duration of copyright for older works is discussed in "Public Domain Works," chapter 9.
The copyright owner's exclusive rights are subject to a number of exceptions and limitations that give others the right to make limited use of a copyrighted work. Major exceptions and limitations are outlined in this section. (They are discussed in detail in "When You Don't Need a License," chapter 9).
A work's facts are not protected by copyright, even if the author spent large amounts of time, effort, and money discovering those facts. In the United States, copyright protects originality, not effort or "sweat of the brow."
In Ticketmaster Corp. v. Tickets.com, Inc., the court held that extracting facts from a Web site is not copyright infringement. "This falls in the same category of taking historical facts from a work of reference and printing them in a different expression," the court stated. 54 USPQ2d 1344 (CD Cal 2000). The court also held that using facts from a Web site is neither an unfair business practice nor unjust enrichment.
A copyright owner has no recourse against another person who, working independently, creates an exact duplicate of the copyrighted work. The independent creation of a similar work or even an exact duplicate does not violate any of the copyright owner's exclusive rights.
The "fair use" of a copyrighted work, including use for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright. Copyright owners are, by law, deemed to consent to fair use of their works by others.
EXAMPLE / Publisher, a U.S. company, has discovered that bootleg copies of one of its software products are being sold in England. Because the United Kingdom is a member of the Berne Convention and the UCC, Publisher's work is automatically protected by copyright in England. When Publisher files a copyright infringement action in England against the bootlegger, Publisher will be given the same rights that an English copyright owner would be given.
The copyright laws (and other intellectual property laws) of a number of countries are posted at www.wipo.int/clea.
Works of foreign authors who are nationals of Berne or UCC-member countries automatically receive copyright protection in the U.S., as do works first published in a Berne Convention or UCC country. Unpublished works are subject to copyright protection in the U.S. without regard to the nationality or domicile of the author.

References: § 102
 v. 
 v. 
 § 105
 § 101
 § 102
 § 302
 § 302
 v.