Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/321/194/
Timestamp: 2019-04-20 00:47:09+00:00

Document:
In order to compete with railroads in the transportation of hard-surface floor-covering, motor carriers proposed to establish rates 47.5 percent of first class, minimum 20,000 pounds (truckload), and 45 percent of first class, minimum 30,000 pounds (carload). The Interstate Commerce Commission rejected the proposed rates as unjust and unreasonable, and unjustly discriminatory between shippers, so far as subject to a minimum of 30,000 pounds. Held that, because of the inadequacy of the record, this Court is unable to determine whether the decision of the Commission conforms to law, and the decree of the District Court refusing to set aside the Commission's order must be reversed. P. 321 U. S. 209.
Appeal from a decree of a District Court of three judges refusing to set aside an order of the Interstate Commerce Commission, 34 M.C.C. 641.
rail competition. The schedules cover transportation of hard-surface floor covering, e.g., linoleum, from points in New England and Middle Atlantic states to various destinations in Middle Western states. The Interstate Commerce Commission, three Commissioners dissenting, rejected the schedules. 34 M.C.C. 641. In so doing, it upheld the previous conclusion of its Division 3. 31 M.C.C.193. A three-judge District Court, 28 U.S.C. § 47, sustained the Commission's decision. 48 F.Supp. 432. The appeal, under 28 U.S.C. §§ 47a, 345, brings the decree here for review. Eastern-Central is the principal appellant. We think the judgment must be reversed.
compete with the railroads for such shipments. They sought to utilize a new minimum weight. The rates tendered were approximately the equivalent of 70 percent of first class for shipments of less than 20,000 pounds, 47.5 percent for 20,000 to 30,000 pounds, and 45 percent for 30,000 pounds or more. The schedules therefore substantially put rail and motor rates on the same plane for less than 20,000 and more than 30,000 pounds, but placed motor rates substantially lower than rail rates for shipments of 20,000 to 30,000 pounds.
Certain western rail carriers protested. Thereupon, the proposed rates were made the subject of investigation and suspension proceedings. 49 U.S.C. § 316(d), (g), 49 Stat. 558-560, 54 Stat. 924. Hearings were begun before Division 3. While they were pending, appellants agreed to make applicable in connection with their proposed rate, minimum 30,000 pounds, a tariff provision that such shipments "must be received at and transported from the point of origin from one shipper in one day and on one bill of lading." [Footnote 2] The rail protestants therefore presented no evidence, and, after the hearing ,withdrew their protest. While the proceedings were pending, the rail carriers also reduced their rates minimum 30,000 pounds to 42.5 percent of first class.
"since these rates were suspended, four loads from the Western Trunk Line Territory, instead of 398, and three of those we haven't collected the charges on, because the rate was too high. . . ."
bulk of the westbound movement is frozen or salted fish.
Division 3 made findings and conclusions first that, based upon the costs proven and comparison with motor carriers' rates on numerous commodities, the proposed rates 45 percent were "just and reasonable provided the minimum that is applicable in connection therewith is reasonable." Accordingly, it examined the reasons advanced in support of the proposed minimum of 30,000 pounds.
should be permitted to establish a minimum weight greater than is physically possible to load in the motor equipment usually used by them, and, in our opinion, no such reason exists. Strictly speaking, the proposed minimum weight of 30,000 pounds is not a truckload minimum weight, but rather is a volume minimum weight, which necessitates the use of more than one unit of equipment to load and transport that quantity of linoleum. We adopt as a policy the condemnation as unreasonable of a volume minimum weight unless it is shown clearly that, as a result thereof, motor carriers can handle the traffic at the volume minimum weight at costs per 100 pounds which are less than the costs incurred at a reasonable truckload minimum weight."
"are just and reasonable and otherwise lawful except to the extent that they propose to establish a minimum of 30,000 pounds; that the proposed minimum of 30,000 pounds is unjust and unreasonable, and that a minimum of 20,000 pounds would be just and reasonable."
"without prejudice to the establishment . . . of truckload rates on linoleum, minimum 20,000 pounds, which are not less than 45 percent of the corresponding first-class rates."
"that the proposed rates 45 and 47.5 percent of first class are not unjust or unreasonable except to the extent that the proposed rates, 45 percent of first class, are subject to a minimum of 30,000 pounds."
"the proposed rates, minimum 30,000 pounds, would give an unjust advantage to shippers of 30,000 pound lots and be unjustly discriminatory to shippers of 20,000-pound lots."
"We are mindful of the fact that we approved certain [motor carrier] rates subject to a minimum weight of 30,000 pounds on linoleum in Carpets and Carpeting, Official to Southern Territory, supra. However, our report therein expresses our doubt as to the propriety of establishing a minimum of 30,000 pounds in connection with the proposed column 45 basis, because it would require more than one unit of equipment to transport 30,000 pounds. That report was issued over a year ago, and now we are convinced that not only were our doubts as expressed therein well founded, but that, for the future, we shall follow the policy announced in the prior report herein with respect to minimum weight in excess of the loading capacity of the equipment customarily used by the motor carriers."
should be recognized in arriving at just rates is a matter, within reasonable limits, for the expert judgment of the Commission and that, in exercising its discretion, that body had met the requirements of Section 216(i) of the Motor Carrier Act. [Footnote 7] 49 U.S.C. § 316(i).
Notwithstanding the apparent difference between the Division and the full Commission in the former's view that the proposed rate minimum 30,000 pounds is unreasonable and the latter's that it is both unreasonable and unduly discriminatory, the net effect is that the rate is unlawful as a matter of policy which condemns all volume minimum rates unless it is clearly shown they will operate at costs per 100 pounds less than the costs incurred at reasonable loading capacity rates.
"the extent to which competition between carriers may render discrimination and prejudice not unlawful must be decided upon the facts in each case. [Footnote 8]"
literally, squarely contradicts the policy unless indeed the statement was intended to qualify it in situations not indicated or contained an implicit limitation from context that the only "facts in each case" which would be material are those which would prove a reduction in costs.
"the competition between rail and motor carriers for linoleum traffic does not constitute such a dissimilarity in circumstances and conditions as to render legal the proposed discrimination."
application becomes more manifest by virtue of the fact that the case, though presented and decided on its own record, was regarded and determined as a test case. [Footnote 9] Finally, the Commission's review of its previous decisions, upon which appellants relied, shows, we think, that its purpose, in the case of motor carriers, at any rate, is to adhere strictly to the policy and, in the manner made, may be taken to indicate that it contemplates no departure whatever. If so, the effect of the decision is not merely to adopt "a policy of administration," as the Commission and the intervenors before it assert, but is rather to adopt, as a rule of law, the principle that only upon a showing of reduction in operating costs may a volume minimum rate be found reasonable and not unduly discriminatory.
rail carriers to meet water competition. However, there was a showing that, in the circumstances, a material saving in costs per 100 pounds would be made in transporting such multiple-car shipments. In the Petroleum Shippers' case, the Commission considered authorizing multiple-car rates on petroleum, but declined to do so upon finding that the record did not establish existence of a substantial cost saving in such shipments.
"We are not convinced that it would be reasonable for the motor carriers to establish a minimum of 30,000 pounds in connection with the postponed column 45 basis, because it would require more than one unit of equipment to transport 30,000 pounds. On this record, however, we are not prepared to say that the column 45 rates, minimum 30,000 pounds, where not lower than the corresponding proposed rail-water carload rates, would be unlawful, provided that a rule is made applicable in connection therewith to the effect that shipments of not less than 30,000 pounds actually will be received at and transported from the point of origin from one shipper in one day and on one bill of lading."
237 I.C.C. 651, 657, 658.
And, in Peanut Butter from Montgomery, Ala. to Georgia, 22 M.C.C. 375, Division 2, although declaring in one breath that motor carriers should not maintain volume rates subject to minimum weights greater than equipment generally available can transport, in the next noted that the national motor freight classification is replete with such ratings, refused to condemn them, and said that, if they were restricted to apply only when tendered by one shipper, in one day and on one bill of lading, they would be "in consonance with Carpets and Carpeting from Official to Southern Territory, supra."
These cases disclose departures, though tentatively made, from the Commission's longstanding [Footnote 10] policy in the same respect, adopted when its powers extended only to rail carriers. Influenced primarily by the desire to secure shipping advantages for the small shipper equal to those given the large one, and thus to enforce the policy of the interstate commerce legislation against undue discrimination, the Commission at first declined to adopt wholesale rates. [Footnote 11] The major departure was in allowing lower rates for carload lots than for less-than-carload shipments. This was justified by the difference in costs. Accordingly, the structure became fixed with this as the major -- and for long, the only -- differential, and with it, the principle that such a saving in operations alone justifies a differential. That policy received judicial approval, [Footnote 12] and remained controlling so long as the Commission had authority only over railroads.
coordinator of different modes of transportation. With the addition of motor and water carriage to its previous jurisdiction over rails, it was charged not only with seeing that the rates and services of each are reasonable and not unduly discriminatory, but that they are coordinated in accordance with the National Transportation Policy, as declared by the later legislation. [Footnote 13] This, while intended to secure the lowest rates consistent with adequate and efficient service and to preserve within the limits of the policy the inherent advantages of each mode of transportation, at the same time was designed to eliminate destructive competition not only within each form, but also between or among the different forms of carriage.
were found in conflict. Each form of transportation presents, by reason of its peculiar operating conditions, its own problems for the function of ratemaking. And each, by virtue of competition with others, presents additional complications arising from the varied circumstances of their operation. Hence, in such situations, principles previously established for application within a single form of transportation cannot always be transplanted to control its relations with another, or those of both with the public generally, without consequences unduly harmful to one or to the public interest.
But whether and to what extent competition may have destructive effect, or other consequences hurtful to the public interest, in a particular situation may depend not merely on the difference in sizes of units, but on other factors. Each form of carriage has some inherent advantages over the others, such as mobility, speed, normal volume capacity, etc. Purely legal restrictions, such as limitations upon tonnage placed on trucks by state laws, create like or contrary effects. Whether, in a particular situation, the mere difference in loading capacity or some other or others of the many important factors affecting competitive position will be controlling depends upon the character of, and the factors involved in, that situation. And this is as true of one form of transportation as of another when, but for rate structures geared solely to costs of operation, it comes within a competitive tangent.
ruling has such consequences in this case -- namely, to force them to make the 45 percent rate available on shipments between 20,000 and 30,000 pounds, thus placing the railroads at a disadvantage on such tonnages and compelling the motor carriers to reduce their rates on them below what the competition requires; or to compel them to forego an equality of rate with the railroads on shipments of 30,000 pounds and more by charging only the one rate of 47.5 percent on all shipments of 20,000 pounds and more. From these alternatives, it is charged the consequence is to force the truckers "out of that very large field of traffic" and allocate it to the railroads. Whether this is the effect or not we have no means of knowing on this record. Nor can we tell, other than by sheer acceptance of the Commission's conclusion, in the form of its statement of the result and cryptic formulation of the policy on which it is rested, whether the proposed rates will give the motor carriers an undue competitive advantage as to shipments of 20,000 to 30,000 pounds, whether there will be discrimination in fact between classes of shippers, or whether, though these things may result in the particular situation, they will do so only by virtue of its peculiar features or by virtue of its conformity to conditions generally prevailing in regions competitive as between rail and motor carriers.
policies with, or adapting them to, the requirements of the presently effective National Transportation Policy and its application to a coordinated transportation system. Upon a matter of such consequence and complexity, our function in review cannot be performed without further foundation than has been made.
We do not mean by this to imply that the result the Commission has reached would not be sustained if a sufficient basis were supplied in the record. We do not undertake to determine what result the Commission should reach. But we cannot say the one at which it has arrived has the sanction of law without further basis than we now have. This, in itself, requires reversal. Consequently we need not speak concerning appellants' other contentions, except insofar as the pertinence of some of them to the necessary further proceedings requires.
which would justify it as being in the public interest so clearly that no other view would be tenable.
"are the normal units of quantity purchase and sale as revealed by the railroad carload rates which apply between the same localities only on shipments of 30,000 pounds."
Obviously, as the Commission noted, the mere existence of these rates in the tariffs hardly could be taken to prove the conclusion appellants sought to draw from that fact. Certainly it could not be taken as conclusive evidence. Whether or not, however, the proposed rates in fact would operate to create an undue discrimination between shippers, or classes of them, is a matter upon which the record factually throws no light. It is therefore one for further examination by the Commission.
understand, with a fair degree of assurance, why the Commission acts as it does. Cf. United States v. Carolina Freight Carriers Corp., 315 U. S. 475, 315 U. S. 488-489. Observance of this requirement is as necessary when an established policy is being extended to new and significant situations as when a new policy is being formulated and applied in the first instance. We do not undertake to tell the Commission what it should do in this case. That is not our function. We only require that, whatever result be reached, enough be put of record to enable us to perform the limited task which is ours.
So it was found, in each instance, upon the evidence, and the finding is not disputed. The figures are only approximate: that is, 30,000 pounds represents not an exact carload capacity, since differences in loading characteristics of commodities and slight differences in carload capacities may make possible loading slightly more or less in a car. Similar, perhaps somewhat wider, variations affect trucks. The findings were that 20,000 pounds reasonably can be viewed as a minimum weight geared to truckload capacity, though in some instances as much as 22,000 or 25,000 pounds actually can be loaded in one vehicle.
Cf. Carpets and Carpeting from Official to Southern Territory, 237 I.C.C. 651; Peanut Butter from Montgomery, Ala. to Georgia, 22 M.C.C. 375.
Two proceedings, Investigation & Suspension Docket No. M-1216 and No. M-1445, were heard separately, but consolidated before the Division.
E.g., Molasses from New Orleans, La. to Peoria and Pekin, Ill., 235 I.C.C. 485.
This intervenor did not appear in the District Court, not having notice of the proceedings there until after the argument there. The appearance here is by virtue of an order granting a motion to intervene.
"does not negative the finding of an unjust advantage to shippers of 30,000 pound lots in cases where shippers of 20,000 pound lots are not given the same treatment."
"in that it has given 'due consideration . . . to the inherent advantages of transportation by such carriers, [and] . . . to the need, in the public interest, of adequate and efficient transportation service by such carriers at the lowest cost consistent with the furnishing of such service. . . .'"
"to . . . foster sound economic conditions . . . among the several carriers; to encourage the establishment and maintenance of reasonable charges, . . . without . . . unfair or destructive competitive practices; . . . all to the end of developing, coordinating, and preserving a national transportation system by water, highway, and rail. . . ."
Cf. note 13 infra, and text.
The Commission long has recognized that "reference to and . . . consideration of all pertinent facts, circumstances, and conditions affecting the rate in effect at any particular time" are necessary. 20 I.C.C. 43. Included as pertinent have been such "facts, circumstances and conditions" as the expense attributable to the character of the commodity -- e.g., whether it is subject to special risks or requires special services, cf. Interstate Commerce Commission v. Chicago, Great Western R. Co., 209 U. S. 108; 113 I.C.C. 389; 87 I.C.C. 711, or its transportation character is affected by the manner of packing, 98 I.C.C. 166; the value of the service rendered and of the commodity, e.g., 83 I.C.C. 334; 100 I.C.C. 471; 102 I.C.C. 325; cf. Interstate Commerce Commission v. Delaware L. & W. R.,; the possibility of securing continuous business or additional tonnage, Interstate Commerce Commission v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 145 U. S. 263; peculiar needs or conditions affecting specific areas, 9 I.C.C. 318; 113 I.C.C. 389; 146 I.C.C. 419; cf. Texas & P. R. Co. v. Interstate Commerce Commission, 162 U. S. 197; rates on the same or similar commodities elsewhere, 113 I.C.C. 389; 122 I.C.C. 235, and the need to meet competition, either by the same or other type of carrier, Interstate Commerce Commission v. Texas & P. R. Co., 162 U. S. 197; Interstate Commerce Commission v. Alabama Midland R. Co., 168 U. S. 144; Texas & P. R. Co. v. United States, 289 U. S. 627; Interstate Commerce Commission v. Illinois Central R. Co., 263 U. S. 515; Mississippi Valley Barge Line Co. v. United States, 292 U. S. 282; Barringer & Co. v. United States, 319 U. S. 1. See also 142 I.C.C. 121; 235 I.C.C. 485; 235 I.C.C. 723; 237 I.C.C. 651.
The brief of the National Industrial Traffic League, intervenor, points out that appellants and other carrier associations joined in a petition to the Commission for reargument and reconsideration of eleven cases previously decided by Divisions 2 and 3, including the one presently involved, I. and S. No. M-1216. The petition was rejected, since the petitioners were not parties of record to all the proceedings. But, coincidentally, the Commission reopened I. and S. No. M-1216 for oral argument.
E.g., Paine Bros. & Co. v. Lehigh Valley R. Co., 7 I.C.C. 218; Anaconda Copper Mining Co. v. Chicago & E. R. Co., 19 I.C.C. 592, 596; Rickards v. Atlantic Coast Line R. Co., 23 I.C.C. 239, 240; Woodward-Bennett Co. v. St. Paul, L.A. & St.L. R. Co., 29 I.C.C. 664, 665; J. W. Wells Lumber Co. v. Chicago, M. & St. P. R. Co., 38 I.C.C. 464, 465, and compare Scofield v. Lake Shore & Michigan So. R. Co., 2 I.C.C. 90.
Compare Interstate Commerce Commission v. Delaware, L. & W. R. Co., 220 U. S. 235, 220 U. S. 240-241.
Motor Carrier Act of 1935, 49 Stat. 543; Transportation Act of 1940, 54 Stat. 899.
"recognize and preserve the inherent advantages of each; to promote safe, adequate, economical, and efficient service and foster sound economic conditions in transportation and among the several carriers; to encourage the establishment and maintenance of reasonable charges for transportation services, without unjust discriminations, undue preferences or advantages, or unfair or destructive competitive practices; . . . all to the end of developing, coordinating, and preserving a national transportation system by water, highway, and rail, as well as other means, adequate to meet the needs of the commerce of the United States, of the Postal Service, and of the national defense."
54 Stat. 899. (Italics added.) Cf. McLean Trucking Co. v. United States, ante.
MR. JUSTICE FRANKFURTER, with whom the CHIEF JUSTICE and MR. JUSTICE REED concur, dissenting.
weighing at least 30,000 pounds -- a conventional railroad carload.
By schedules filed to become effective August 24th, 1940, Eastern proposed rates of 47.5% of first-class, minimum 20,000 pounds, and 45% of first-class, minimum 30,000 pounds. The practical effect of this change would be to require a shipper who could send only 20,000 pounds of linoleum to pay a higher rate than one who could ship a consignment of 20,000 and 10,000 pounds. And two shippers, one with 10,000 pounds and the other with 20,000 pounds, could combine their shipments at the lower rate, while a shipper of 10,000 pounds who could not conveniently join with others would have to pay the higher rate. These are the changes here in controversy. Upon the protest of the western trunkline rail carriers, later withdrawn when the appellants agreed that their 30,000 pound minimum rate would apply only on shipments "received at and transported from the point of origin, from one shipper in one day and on one bill of lading," operation of the proposed schedules was suspended, and Division 3 of the Commission held hearings to determine their validity. Upon their conclusion, Division 3 found that the proposed rates were reasonably compensatory, but that it was physically impossible to load 30,000 pounds of linoleum into a single unit of equipment, and that there was no showing that operating economics result when a 30,000 pound minimum shipment involving a truckload and fraction of another truckload is tendered. The Division thereupon concluded that minimum weight greater than a truckload is unreasonable unless such a rate is justified by savings in cost, and ordered the proposed schedules cancelled to the extent found unjust and unreasonable. 31 M.C.C.193.
the linoleum shippers and the National Industrial Traffic League, a group organized to promote the free interchange of commerce. The shippers and the Traffic League urged the Commission to leave the order of Division 3 undisturbed, while the motor carriers sought to justify the rates as legitimate means of meeting rail competition. The Commission agreed with Division 3 that the rates were unreasonable, and held that the 30,000 pound minimum, based on no difference in transportation cost, would be discriminatory. 34 M.C.C. 641.
If the sole issue were whether there would be discrimination in favor of the 30,000-pound lot shipper as against the 20,000-pound lot shipper, clearly the Commission could find as it did, and the court below properly did not undo what the Commission did. 48 F.Supp. 432. Is there in fact more? The appellants contend that rail competition excuses and legalizes the discrimination beyond the Commission's power to condemn. This Court does not yield to that claim, but it does hold that either the Commission must state with particularity why the evidence of competitive conditions in this record is so vague and inadequate as to afford no justification for discrimination or, in effect, requires the Commission to proceed with a full-dress investigation of the entire competitive relations between motor and rail carriers.
will be allowed only when geared to a capacity loading which makes possible a real saving in costs of operation,"
"The extent to which competition between carriers may render discrimination and prejudice not unlawful must be decided upon the facts in each case"
is to be accepted. Burke has said somewhere that he could not imagine English law without the law reports. Substantially the same considerations that call for giving reasons in rendering judicial decisions apply to the determinations of such agencies as the Interstate Commerce Commission. "We must know what a decision means before the duty becomes ours to say whether it is right or wrong." See United States v. Chicago, M., St. P. & P. R. Co., 294 U. S. 499, 294 U. S. 511. But we should not be more exacting of reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission explaining its orders than we are of the opinions of lower courts whose judgments come before us for review.
those who ship 20,000 pound lots. And the record becomes even more barren when it is noted that the competitive conditions said to require adoption of the proposed discriminatory tariffs were not such as to prevent the rail carriers' acquiescence in the adoption of the new schedule when, on appellants' theory, the rail carriers had advantages intended to be mitigated by the new rates. The Commission found that either 47.5% or 45% was an allowable rate for either a 30,000 or 20,000 pound shipment -- either rate "was within the zone of reasonableness." It thereby permitted the motor carriers to compete on an entire equality with the rail carriers. But it forbade discrimination as between linoleum shippers equally placed. What the appellants really complain of is not that they cannot meet the railroad competition at the 45% rate on 30,000 pound lots, but that they cannot do so and yet collect 47.5% on lots of 20,000 pounds which are outside rail competition. Be that as it may, a mere arithmetic difference between railroad rates and motor carrier rates is quite blind. The rates themselves may not be at all revealing on competitive conditions; they may not tell what a shipper gets for his money and what he is paying for. That is, the quality of the service, the advantages of one type of service over the other, the availability of equipment, safety, labor cost, and many other factors may all give significance to the figures that figures themselves do not give.
the economic wisdom of excluding motor carriers from large-bulk linoleum trade or limiting their participation in such trade, the availability of other commodity shipments to replace linoleum trade diverted to rail carriers, the availability of and cost of transporting commodities which might be used to fill the truck only partially loaded with linoleum -- these are only a few of the factors which may become relevant. Compare III-B Sharfman, The Interstate Commerce Commission, pp. 572 et seq. The appellants introduced no evidence on the basis of which the Commission could intelligently weigh these considerations. To hold that the Commission must, on its own initiative, embark on such an investigation in a proceeding of this nature is to impose what may well be a crippling burden.
"General commodities, except those of unusual value, and except dangerous explosives, household goods as defined in Practices of Motor Common Carriers of Household Goods, 17 M.C.C. 467, commodities in bulk, commodities requiring special equipment, and those injurious or contaminating to other lading, over regular routes. . . ."
justify competitive discriminatory rates which might otherwise be unreasonable.
That the Commission is an expert body to which Congress has seen fit to commit the regulation of the intricate relationships between the various means of national transportation is a well worn phrase which ought not to lose its significance in practice when the actions of the Commission come here for review. We should be very reluctant to define for the Commission the occasions which appropriately demand investigation of general transportation problems, and more particularly when a contest over the rate on a particular commodity included in a network of tariffs calls for such a general investigation. Surely it is within the special competence of the Commission to put on a discriminating carrier the duty of justifying by proof his plain discrimination as to a particular rate and not permit him to compel the Commission by a mere assertion to embark upon a far-flung inquiry. There are undoubtedly occasions when the Interstate Commerce Commission will undertake such an investigation in the public interest. But it ought not to be compelled to do so upon the occurrence, from an administrative point of view, of a more or less accidental filing of a tariff revision. When the carrier seeks to supplant a lawful rate, as is the case here, the burden is on it to supply all the essential information to justify the proposed new rate. § 216(g), Part II of the Interstate Commerce Act, 49 U.S.C. § 316(g). If it does not do so, it has failed to sustain the duty cast upon it by law, and the Commission, in so finding, has duly exercised its authority. The Commission's dispositions of Molasses from New Orleans, La. to Peoria and Pekin, Ill., 235 I.C.C. 485 and Petroleum Rail Shippers' Assn. v. Alton & S. R., 243 I.C.C. 589, are entirely consistent, so far as that is relevant, with its order in this case.
* "First-class" is used to designate the rates applied to a class of commodities. Percentages of a class rate are used as rates for designated commodities.

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