Source: https://www.russianlawjournal.org/jour/article/view/73
Timestamp: 2019-04-21 03:35:00+00:00

Document:
On March 7, 2014, the International Criminal Court delivered its most recent judgment convicting Mr. Katanga as an accessory of crime against humanity in the form of murder and four counts of war crimes within the meaning of Art. 25(3)(d) of the Rome Statute. This decision along with its previous final decisions in the Lubanga and Ngudjolo cases has raised similar concerns about individual criminal responsibility regarding, inter alia, application of control over a crime doctrine as evidenced from the dissenting / separate opinions to them. This doctrine has already firmly settled within the ICC jurisprudence and yet some judges doubt if its application is justified, especially given the peculiarities of national origin irrelevant in the realm of the Rome Statute. The other raised concern is a potential application of the legality principle, since both Ngudjolo and Katanga judgments have investigated the same situations and come to the completely different results.
While the Rome Statute contains the most complete provision determining the modes of individual responsibility, Art. 25 thus appears to be far from being out of debates. To dispel some of them, this article analyzes practical application of Art. 25(3)(a) and (d) by the ICC and different approaches in this regard as well as general grounds for raising question on the necessity for individual criminal responsibility.
1. Affirmation of the Principles of International Law Recognized by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal, G.A. Res. 95 (I), U.N. GAOR , 1st Sess., pt. 2, at 1144, U.N. Doc. A/236 (1946), at <http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/1946a.htm> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
2. Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of Major War Criminals of the European Axis, Charter of the International Military Tribunal, Aug. 8, 1945, Art. 6, 82 U.N.T.S. 279, 284, at <http://www.refworld.org/docid/47fdfb34d.html> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
3. Ambos, Kai. Article 25. Individual Criminal Responsibility, in Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 752 (Otto Triffteter, ed.) (2nd ed., Beck; Hart; Nomos 2008).
4. Ambos, Kai. General Principles of Criminal Law in the Rome Statute, 10 Crim. L. Forum 1, 12–13 (1999), available at <http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract_id=1972243> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
6. Case of the S.S. ‘Lotus’ (Fr. v. Turk.), 1927 P.C.I.J. (ser. A) No. 9, at 18–19 (Sep. 7), available at <http://www.icj-cij.org/pcij/serie_A/A_10/30_Lotus_Arret.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
7. Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Apr. 26, 1946, Art. 5, T.I.A.S. No. 1589, at <http://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000004-0020.pdf> (accesed Mar. 12, 2015).
8. Dana, Shahram. Beyond Retroactivity to Realizing Justice: A Theory on the Principle of Legality in International Criminal Law Sentencing, 99(4) J. Crim. L. & Criminology 858 (2009), available at <http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7335&context=jclc> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
9. Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, in Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. GAOR, 53rd Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/56/10 (2001), reprinted in 2 Y.B. Int’l L. Comm’n 20 (2001), U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/2001/Add.1, at <http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/9_6_2001.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
10. Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, in Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. GAOR, 46th Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/46/10 (1991), reprinted in 2(2) Y.B. Int’l L. Comm’n 99 (1991), U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/1991/ Add.1 (Part 2), at <http://legal.un.org/ilc/documentation/english/A_46_10.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
11. Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, in Report of the International Law Commission, U.N. GAOR, 51th Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/51/10 (1996), reprinted in 2(2) Y.B. Int’l L. Comm’n 18 (1996), U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/1996/Add.1 (Part 2), at <http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft%20articles/7_4_1996.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
12. Fauchald, Ole K., & Stigen, Jo. Corporate Responsibility before International Institutions, 40 Geo. Wash. Int’l L. Rev. 1026, 1038–39 (2009), available at <http://www.jus.uio.no/ior/personer/vit/olefa/dokumenter/corporate-resp.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
13. Hailbronner, Kay, & Kau, Martin. Der Staat und der Einzelne als Völkerrechtsubjekte, in Völkerrecht 156 (Wolfgang G. Vitzthum. ed.) (5th ed., De Gruyter 2010).
14. International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg) Judgement and Sentences (Oct. 1, 1946), 41 Am. J. Int’l L. 172, 220–221 (1947).
17. Nitsche, Dennis. Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof ICC und der Frieden: Eine vergleichende Analyse der Befriedungsfunktion internationaler Straftribunale 169–170 (Nomos 2007).
19. Oppenheim, Lassa. 1 International Law: A T reatise 107 (2nd ed., Longmanns, Green & Co. 1912), available at <https://archive.org/details/internationalla03oppegoog> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
20. Regulations of the Court, at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/B920AD62-DF49-4010-8907-0D8CC61EBA4/277527/Regulations_of_the_Court_170604EN.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
21. Röling, Bert V.A. The Significance of the Laws of War, in Current Problems of International Law: Essays on UN Law and on the Law of Armed Conflict 46 (Antonio Cassese, ed.) (Giuffrè 1975).
22. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Jul. 17, 1998, Art. 25(3), 2187 U.N.T.S. 3, at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute_english.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
23. Shaw, Malcolm N. International Law 197 (6th ed., Cambridge University Press 2008).
24. Situation in Democratic Republic (Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga), <http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases/situations/situation%20icc%200104/related%20cases/icc%200104%200107/Pages/democratic%20republic%20of%20the%20congo.aspx> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
25. Situation in Democratic Republic of the Congo (Prosecutor v. Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui), <http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases/situations/situation%20icc%200104/related%20cases/ICC-01-04-02-12/Pages/default.aspx> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
26. Situation in Democratic Republic of the Congo (The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo) ¶¶ 323, 329–335, 338, 343–367, No. ICC-01/04-01/06 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Pre-Tr. Chamber I, Jan. 29, 2007), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc266175.PDF> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
27. Situation in Democratic Republic of the Congo (The Prosecutor v. Callixte Mbarushimana) ¶¶ 269–271, 273, 276–284, 286–289, 318–319, No. ICC-01/04-01/10 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Pre-Tr. Chamber I, Dec. 16, 2011), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1286409.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
28. Situation in the Central African Republic (The Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo) ¶¶ 369–370, No. ICC-01/05-01/08 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Pre-Tr. Chamber II, Jun. 15, 2009), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc699541.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
29. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo) ¶¶ 322, 920, 999, 1358, No. ICC-01/04-01/06 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Tr. Chamber I, Mar. 14, 2012), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1379838.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
30. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo) ¶¶ 1, 3, 6–8, 10–11, 19–21, No. ICC-01/04-01/06 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Tr. Chamber I, Mar. 14, 2012) (separate opinion of Judge Adrian Fulford).
31. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga & Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui) ¶¶ 500–518, 522–523, 540, No. ICC-01/04-01/07-717 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Pre-Tr. Chamber I, Sep. 30, 2008), available at <http://www.icccpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc571253.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
32. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga) ¶ 3, No. ICC-01/04-01/07 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Tr. Chamber II, Mar. 7, 2014) (concurring opinion of Judges Fatoumata Diarra and Bruno Cotte), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1748105.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
33. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga) ¶¶ 32, 124, 281, No. ICC-01/04-01/07 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Tr. Chamber II, Mar. 7, 2014) (minority opinion of Judge Christine Van den Wyngaert), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1744372.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
34. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (The Prosecutor v. Mathieu Ngudjolo) ¶¶ 404, 473, 484–486, 503, 516, No. ICC-01/04-02/12 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Tr. Chamber II, Dec. 18, 2012), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1579080.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
35. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (The Prosecutor v. Mathieu Ngudjolo) ¶¶ 22–24, No. ICC-01/04-02/12 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Tr. Chamber II, Dec. 12, 2012) (concurring opinion of Judge Christine Van den Wyngaert).
36. Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui) ¶¶ 12, 28, 30–33, No. ICC-01/04-01/07 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Tr. Chamber II, Nov. 21, 2012), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1529337.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
37. Situation in the Republic of Kenya (The Prosecutor v. William Samoei Ruto et al.) ¶¶ 283–284, 287, 291–292, 301, 306, 313, 333, 351, 354, No. ICC-01/09-01/11 (Intl. Crim. Ct., Pre-Tr. Chamber II, Jan. 23, 2012), available at <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1314535.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
38. Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda, Art. 6, U.N. Security Council Res. 955 (1994), U.N.Doc. S/RES/955 (November 8, 1994), <http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/peace/docs/scres955.html> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
39. Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Art. 7 (adopted by U.N. Security Council Res. 808 (1993), U.N. Doc. S/RES/808 (February 22, 1993)), at <http://www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Statute/statute_sept09_en.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
40. Summary of Trial Chamber II’s Judgment of 7 March 2014, Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute in the Case of The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga ¶¶ 55, 73, 77, 82, 84, <http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/ Documents/986/14_0259_ENG_summary_judgment.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
41. System Criminality in International Law 15 (Harmen van der Wilt & André Nollkaemper, eds.) (Cambridge University Press 2009).
42. The Prosecutor v. Du[ko Tadi] a/k/a/ ‘Dule,’ Opinion and Judgment ¶¶ 191–192, No. IT-94-1-T (Intl. Crim. Trib. for the Former Yugo., Tr. Chamber, May 7, 1997), available at <http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/tjug/en/tad-tsj70507JT2-e.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
43. The Prosecutor v. Ferdinand Nahimana et al., Judgment ¶ 483, No. ICTR-99-52-A (Intl. Crim. Trib. for the Former Yugo., App. Chamber, Nov. 28, 2007), available at <http://www.refworld.org/docid/48b5271d2.html> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).
44. The Prosecutor v. Milomir Stakić, Judgment ¶ 62, No. IT-97-24-A (Intl. Crim. Trib. for the Former Yugo., App. Chamber, Mar. 22, 2006), available at <http://www.icty.org/x/cases/stakic/acjug/en/sta-aj060322e.pdf> (accessed Mar. 12, 2015).

References: Art. 25
 Art. 25
 Art. 25
 Art. 6
 v. 
 Art. 5
 Art. 25
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 Art. 6
 Art. 7
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v.