Source: http://everything.explained.today/European_Union/
Timestamp: 2019-04-26 07:45:01+00:00

Document:
The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4475757km2 and an estimated population of over 510 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. For travel within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.
The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome. The original members of what came to be known as the European Communities were the Inner Six: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The Communities and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its predecessors, the United Kingdom signified an intention to leave after a membership referendum in June 2016 and is negotiating its withdrawal. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.
The European Union provides more foreign aid than any other economic union. Covering 7.3% of the world population, the EU in 2017 generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of 19.670 trillion US dollars, constituting approximately 24.6% of global nominal GDP and 16.5% when measured in terms of purchasing power parity. Additionally, 27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower.
See main article: History of the European Union and History of Europe.
See main article: Ideas of European unity before 1945. During the centuries following the fall of Rome in 476, several European States viewed themselves as translatio imperii of the defunct Roman Empire: the Frankish Empire (481–843) and the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) were attempts to resurrect Rome in the West. The Russian Tsardom, and ultimately the Empire (1547–1917), declared Moscow to be Third Rome and inheritor of the Eastern tradition after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The gap between Greek East and Latin West had already been widened by the political scission of the Roman Empire in the 4th century and the Great Schism of 1054; and would be eventually widened again by the Iron Curtain (1945–91). Medieval Christendom  and the political power of the Papacy  are also often cited as premisses to European integration and unity.
During the interwar period, the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the observation of a larger and growing US market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent. In 1920, advocating the creation of a European economic union, British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote that "a Free Trade Union should be established ... to impose no protectionist tariffs whatever against the produce of other members of the Union." During the same decade, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, one of the first to imagine of a modern political union of Europe, founded the Pan-Europa Movement. His ideas influenced his contemporaries, among which then Prime Minister of France Aristide Briand. In 1929, the latter gave a speech in favour of a European Union before the assembly of the League of Nations, precursor of the United Nations.
During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities.  Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).
In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe."  In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.
See main article: Treaties of the European Union.
See main article: Geography of the European Union. The EU's member states cover an area of 4423147km2. The EU's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4810.45m (15,782.32feet) above sea level. The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level. The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65993km (41,006miles) long.
See main article: Demographics of the European Union.
As of 1 January 2016, the population of the European Union was about 510.1 million people (6.9% of the world population).  In 2015, 5.1 million children were born in the EU-28, corresponding to a birth rate of 10 per 1,000, which is 8 births below the world average. For comparison, the EU-28 birth rate had stood at 10.6 in 2000, 12.8 in 1985 and 16.3 in 1970. Its population growth rate was positive at an estimated 0.23% in 2016.
See also: List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits. The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over one million, including the two megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of London, and Paris. In addition to large agglomerations, the EU also includes several densely populated polycentric urbanised regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cities and now encompass a large metropolis. The largest of these polycentric metropolis include Rhine-Ruhr with approximately 11.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad with approx. 8.2 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine-Main with approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish Diamond with approx. 5.5 million (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.), Upper Silesia with approx. 5.2 million (Katowice, Ostrava et al.) and Greater Copenhagen with approx. 4 million (Copenhagen, Malmö).
See main article: Languages of the European Union.
Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.  English is the most widely spoken language in the EU, being understood by 51% of the EU population when counting both native and non-native speakers. German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (spoken by 16% of the EU population.) More than a half (56%) of EU citizens is able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.
Besides the 24 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people. Catalan, Galician, Basque, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh are not recognised official languages of the European Union but have semi-official status: official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages.  The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.
See main article: Religion in the European Union.
See main article: Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union and Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development.
There are similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.  Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.
See main article: Politics of the European Union.
See main article: Member state of the European Union.
There are six countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey, though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates, with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application.
See main article: Institutions of the European Union and Legislature of the European Union.
In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the Union. Visegrad Group, Benelux, Baltic Assembly, Nordic Council or Craiova Group.
See main article: Budget of the European Union.
The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007 and, while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level.  In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error. The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial effect of irregularities was €1,863 million.
Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership, previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state nor had the competence to accede. The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it.
See main article: Foreign relations of the European Union, Common Foreign and Security Policy and European External Action Service.
Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries. This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".
See main article: Common Security and Defence Policy.
See main article: Economy of the European Union and Regional policy of the European Union.
The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 512 million citizens. In 2017, the EU had a combined GDP of $21 trillion international dollars, a 17% share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP). As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). EU member states own the estimated second largest after the United States (33%) net wealth in the world, equal to 25% (US$72 trillion) of the $280 trillion global wealth.
Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe.  Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.
See main article: European Single Market.
See main article: Eurozone and Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union.
See main article: Energy policy of the European Union. In 2006, the EU-27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe). Around 46% of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported. In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in the EU.
See main article: Common Agricultural Policy.
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the long lasting policies of the European Community. The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers. It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and accounts for around 34%.
The Competition Commissioner, currently Margrethe Vestager, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national corporations. For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority. Another high-profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action.
See main article: Sport policies of the European Union. Association football is by far the most popular sport in the European Union by the number of registered players. The other sports with the most participants in clubs are tennis, swimming, athletics, golf, gymnastics, equestrian sports, handball, volleyball and sailing.
Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the Union's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe"),   has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The Commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification. Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people.
See main article: Media freedom in the European Union. Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".
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Current Article 1 of the Treaty on European Union reads: "The Union shall be founded on the present Treaty and on the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. Those two Treaties shall have the same legal value. The Union shall replace and succeed the European Community".
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This figure includes the extra-European territories of member states which are part of the European Union and excludes the European territories of member states which are not part of the Union. For more information see Special member state territories and the European Union.
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Web site: Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summary). Europa web portal. European Commission. 2006. PDF. 11 March 2011. 4. English is the most commonly known language in the EU with over a half of the respondents (51%) speaking it either as their mother tongue or as a foreign language..
Web site: Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summary). Europa web portal. European Commission. 2006. PDF. 11 March 2011. 3. 56% of citizens in the EU Member States are able to hold a conversation in one language apart from their mother tongue..
Slavic: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Polish, Slovak and Slovenian. Baltic: Latvian and Lithuanian.
Vasconic is still a putative family whose Basque would be the only surviving language. Basque is not an official language of the European Union but has a semi-official status.
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Book: Klimczak-Pawlak, Agata. Towards the Pragmatic Core of English for European Communication: The Speech Act of Apologising in Selected Euro-Englishes. 3 May 2014. Springer Science & Business. 9783319035574. en.
Web site: MEPs push for EU recognition of Catalan, Welsh languages. EURACTIV.com. en-GB. 28 June 2017.
Web site: Committee of Ministers – European Year of Languages Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 1539 (2001). Wcd.coe.int. 26 September 2012.
Book: Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.
News: EU celebrates 50th birthday-with a row about religion. The Independent. London. Stephen. Castle. 21 March 2007. 4 March 2008. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20080405065450/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/europe/eu-celebrates-its-50th-birthday--with-a-row-about-religion-440976.html. 5 April 2008.
Web site: Muslim Population. europa web portal. 1 November 2010.
Jewish population figures may be unreliable. Web site: World Jewish Population (2002). 3 May 2007. Sergio DellaPergola. American Jewish Year Book. The Jewish Agency for Israel. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20041222130930/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/demography/demjpop.html. 22 December 2004.
Special Eurobarometer 225. Social values, Science and Technology. Europa, web portal. Eurostat. Eurostat. 2005. 9. 11 June 2009. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf. 24 May 2006. dmy.
News: USA Today. What place for God in Europe. 24 July 2009. 22 February 2005. Peter. Ford.
Web site: The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th anniversary. Europa web portal. European Commission. 21 July 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070703000422/http://ec.europa.eu/education/news/erasmus20_en.html. 3 July 2007.
Web site: Erasmus turns 20 – time to grow up?. Jean-Sébastien. Lefebvre. 22 January 2007. Café Babel. 10 August 2007.
Web site: EACEA. About the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. Europa web portal. 21 July 2007.
Web site: Lifelong Learning Programme. Europa web portal. European Commission. 21 July 2007.
Web site: What is the ERC?. Europa web portal. European Research Council. 21 July 2007.
Web site: Energy. Europa web portal. European Commission. 12 November 2007.
Web site: Europa web portal. Europa (web portal). 26 November 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20101112200650/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/about_us/our_vision_en.htm. 12 November 2010. dmy-all.
Web site: Europa web portal. Europa (web portal). 26 November 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20101111154145/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm. 11 November 2010. dmy-all.
Web site: Europa web portal. Europa (web portal). 18 November 2010. 26 November 2010.
Web site: info about health care and EHIC. Nhs.uk. 29 April 2010. 26 November 2010.
Web site: Consilium.europa.eu. PDF. 3 June 2013.
Web site: Eur-lex.europa.eu. 3 June 2013.
Web site: NHSconfed.org. NHSconfed.org. 17 May 2011. 3 June 2013. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20130728184655/http://www.nhsconfed.org/Publications/Factsheets/Pages/Cross-border-healthcare-commissioners.aspx. 28 July 2013.
According to P.C. Schmitter, ‘Comparative Politics: Its Past, Present and Future’ (2016), 1 Chinese Political Science Review, 397, at 410, "European Union is the most complex polity in the world".
These legislative instruments are dealt with in more detail below.
Web site: Answers The Most Trusted Place for Answering Life's Questions. Answers.com. 12 February 2016.
Web site: EU institutions and other bodies. Europa. 4 September 2009. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20090601191547/http://europa.eu/institutions/index_en.htm. 1 June 2009.
Web site: Accession criteria (Copenhagen criteria). Europa web portal. 26 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070705172736/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/accession_criteria_copenhague_en.htm. 5 July 2007.
Web site: The Greenland Treaty of 1985. The European Union and Greenland. Greenland Home Rule Government. 10 November 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20110503185125/http://eu.nanoq.gl/Emner/EuGl/The%20Greenland%20Treaty.aspx. 3 May 2011.
Article 50 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union.
Referred to by the EU as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia".
Web site: Iceland's EU bid is over, commission told. Fox. Benjamin. Reuters. 16 June 2013. 16 June 2013.
Web site: European Commission – Enlargement – Candidate and Potential Candidate Countries. Europa web portal. 13 March 2012. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20120408221338/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/index_en.htm. 8 April 2012.
Web site: The EU's relations with Switzerland. Europa web portal. 3 November 2010.
Web site: Use of the euro in the world. Europa web portal. European Commission. The euro outside the euro area. 27 February 2008.
Web site: European Countries. Europa web portal. 18 September 2010.
On, the constituent states of the former German Democratic Republic acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany, automatically becoming part of the EU.
Web site: European Union. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. 12 February 2016.
Web site: Treaty on European Union: Article 6. www.europarl.europa.eu.
Web site: EU Library Briefing:Lobbying the EU institutions. Europarl. 3 March 2018.
Web site: European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - Press release - Five Presidents' Report sets out plan for strengthening Europe's Economic and Monetary Union as of 1 July 2015. europa.eu.
Court of Justice of the European Union, Judgement of 5 February 1963 in Case 26/62, 'Van Gend en Loos', European Court Reports 1963, p. 1.
Single European Act, Article 100a, Approximation of Laws.
For example, David Marquand says it is 'less than a federation but more than a confederation'; Brigid Laffan and Kimmo Kiljunen both see it residing 'between a confederation and a federation'; Thomas Hueglin and Alan Fenna locate it 'somewhere between federation and confederation'; and Kalypso Nicolaidis argues 'it is more than a confederation of sovereign states; ... (however, it) should not become a federal state'.
Jacques Delors, the President of the European Commission upon entry into force of the Single European Act, which introduced the widespread use of majority voting to complete the single market, saw it as having at that stage become an 'Unidentified Political Object'. Speech at the People's University, Lille, 8 March 1987.
Web site: Is Europe still sui generis? Signals from The White Paper on European Governance. ... we see the notions of governance deployed in the White Paper as undermining the description of the EU as sui generis. It is becoming like a national state, but we differ from many of the critics (or enthusiasts) of the White Paper in one major way. Rather than seeing the EU becoming a state-like object, taking on the trappings of a 19th—or more correctly 20th—century state, we see national states moving towards the EU, adopting many of the governing practices advocated by the White Paper.. 12 February 2016.
Book: Schütze, Robert. European Constitutional Law. Cambridge University Press. 2012. 978-0-521-73275-8. Cambridge. 47–79.
For the derivation of this concept, see the Introduction of the entry on Federalism.
Web site: Federal Constitutional Court Press Release No. 72/2009 of 30 June 2009. Judgment of 30 June 2009: Act Approving the Treaty of Lisbon compatible with the Basic Law; accompanying law unconstitutional to the extent that legislative bodies have not been accorded sufficient rights of participation. 17 November 2012. Due to this structural democratic deficit, which cannot be resolved in an association of sovereign national states (Staatenverbund), further steps of integration that go beyond the status quo may undermine neither the States' political power of action nor the principle of conferral. The peoples of the Member States are the holders of the constituent power. The Basic Law does not permit the special bodies of the legislative, executive and judicial power to dispose of the essential elements of the constitution, i.e. of the constitutional identity (Article 23.1 sentence 3, Article 79.3 GG). The constitutional identity is an inalienable element of the democratic self-determination of a people.. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20121022061516/http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/en/press/bvg09-072en.html. 22 October 2012.
Book: Wiener. Antje. Diez. Thomas. European Integration Theory. Liberal Intergovernmentalism. Andrew. Moravcsik. Andrew. Moravcsik. Every constitutional system reaches a point where it is mature, where it no longer needs to move forward to remain stable. The EU has reached that point. The EU is not a state in the making: it is the most ambitious and successful of international organisations.. 2009. 2004. 2nd. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-922609-2.
Web site: Wellfire Interactive. MEPs must be elected on the basis of proportional representation, the threshold must not exceed 5%, and the electoral area may be subdivided in constituencies if this will not generally affect the proportional nature of the voting system. Fairvote.org. 26 November 2010.
Web site: Institutions: The European Parliament. Europa web portal. 25 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070624114722/http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/parliament/index_en.htm. 24 June 2007.
Web site: How does the EU work. Europa (web portal). 12 July 2007.
Web site: President of the European Council. 24 November 2009. 24 November 2009. PDF. General Secretariat of the Council of the EU.
The Latin word consilium is occasionally used when a single identifier is required, as on the Council Web site.
Web site: Institutional affairs: Council of the European Union. 6 January 2010. Europa. European Commission. It is commonly called the Council of Ministers. .
Web site: Institutions: The Council of the European Union. Europa web portal. 25 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070703155822/http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/council/index_en.htm. 3 July 2007.
Web site: Q&A on Interinstitutional Agreement on Budgetary Discipline and Sound Financial Management 2007–2013.
Book: David. Profile Books. London. 1999. 1-86197-102-8. David Smith.. Will Europe work?.
Web site: EU Budget in detail 2010. Europa web portal. European Commission. PDF. 20 December 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20100815112106/http://ec.europa.eu/budget/budget_detail/current_year_en.htm. 15 August 2010.
Article 287 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (ex Article 248 TEC).
Web site: Institutions: Court of Auditors. Europa (web portal). 8 February 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20091222001147/http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/auditors/index_en.htm. 22 December 2009.
Web site: Annual Report of the Court of Auditors on the implementation of the budget concerning the financial year 2009, together with the institutions' replies. https://web.archive.org/web/20110221211745/http://eca.europa.eu/portal/pls/portal/docs/1/5926723.PDF. yes. 21 February 2011. 12. 18 December 2010.
Web site: Protection of the European Union's financial interests – Fight against fraud – Annual Report 2009 (vid. pp. 6, 15). Europa. https://web.archive.org/web/20100729063014/http://ec.europa.eu/anti_fraud/reports/commission/2009/en.pdf. 29 July 2010.
Web site: Competences and consumers. 25 November 2010.
Web site: Sources of EU law. https://web.archive.org/web/20080228193407/http://ec.europa.eu/ireland/general_information/legal_information_and_eu_law/sources_eu_law/index_en.htm. 28 February 2008. European Commission. 5 September 2007.
According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen. Eur-Lex. European Court of Justice. 1963. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:NOT. See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.
Philippe. de Schoutheete. Andoura. Sami. The Legal Personality of the European Union. Studia Diplomatica. LX. 2007. 1. 15 November 2010. Its examples are the ratifications of United Nations Convention against Corruption and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by EU. And Article 47 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union.
According to the principle of Supremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL  ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: Factortame litigation: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2)  1 AC 603, Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 October 1986  3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze  2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo  1 CMLR 173.
Web site: Article 19 of the Treaty on European Union. eur-lex.europa.eu. 31 October 2010.
Web site: Court of Justice: presentation. Europa web portal. 26 December 2009.
Web site: General Court: presentation. Europa web portal. 26 December 2009.
Web site: Civil Service Tribunal: presentation. Europa web portal. 26 December 2009.
Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr und Vorratstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel; Article 6(2) of the Maastricht Treaty (as amended).
Web site: Respect for fundamental rights in the EU – general development. The European Parliament. European Parliament Fact Sheets. 6 September 2008.
It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria, Assembly.coe.int. This is a political and not a legal requirement for membership.
The European Convention on Human Rights was previously only open to members of the Council of Europe (Article 59.1 of the Convention), and even now only states may become member of the Council of Europe (Article 4 of the Statute of the Council of Europe).
Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (in French), ruled that the European Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR.
Web site: EU Policy on Death Penalty. Europa. European Union External Action Service. 4 June 2013.
See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze [1973 ECR 981].
Web site: How EU takes decisions. 1 November 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20110102215021/http://europa.eu/institutions/decision-making/index_en.htm. 2 January 2011. dmy-all.
Web site: European police office now in full swing. Europa web portal. 4 September 2007.
Web site: Eurojust coordinating cross-border prosecutions at EU level. Europa web portal. 4 September 2007.
Web site: What is Frontex?. Frontex. Europa web portal. 4 September 2007.
Web site: European arrest warrant replaces extradition between EU Member States. Europa web portal. 4 September 2007.
Web site: Jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and in matters of parental responsibility (Brussels II). Europa web portal. 5 September 2008.
Web site: Minimum standards on the reception of applicants for asylum in Member States. Europa web portal. 5 September 2008.
Web site: Specific Programme: 'Criminal Justice'. Europa web portal. 5 September 2008.
Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19 July 2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2 December 2000, p. 16–22).
Web site: Qualified-Majority Voting: Common commercial policy. 3 September 2007. Europa web portal.
Web site: https://web.archive.org/web/20070708111806/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/european_political_cooperation_en.htm. yes. 8 July 2007. European political co-operation (EPC). 3 September 2007. Europa web portal. The European commission. Europa Glossary.
News: Divided EU agrees Iraq statement. BBC News. BBC. 27 January 2003. 13 March 2009.
Web site: European External Action Service gives Europe voice on world stage. German Foreign Ministry. 4 June 2013. 1 December 2010.
Web site: European External Action Service. Europa web portal. 2010. 26 June 2010.
Peterson. John. August 2008. Enlargement, reform and the European Commission. Weathering a perfect storm?. Journal of European Public Policy, special issue: Reforming the European Commission. Taylor and Francis. 15. 5. 761–780. 10.1080/13501760802133328. .. harv.
Web site: Bildt. Carl. Carl Bildt. Europe must keep its 'soft power'. Financial Times on Centre for European Reform. 2005. 26 June 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070609135542/http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/bildt_ft_1june05.html. 9 June 2007. yes. dmy.
Web site: Free trade agreements. European Commission. 22 May 2018.
Web site: Agreements. European Commission. 17 March 2016.
Web site: NATO Member Countries. 25 August 2009.
Finn. Laursen. The EU 'neutrals,' the CFSP and defence policy. Biennial Conference of the European Union Studies Association. 27. University of Pittsburgh. 29 May – 1 June 1997. Seattle, WA.. 24 July 2009.
Web site: The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database. Milexdata.sipri.org. 3 June 2013. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20100328072123/http://milexdata.sipri.org/. 28 March 2010.
http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10685127 "Britain and France to work together"
Web site: EU battlegroups. Europa web portal. Council of the European Union. July 2009. 3 June 2013.
Web site: Overview of the missions and operations of the European Union. April 2003. Europa web portal. Council of the European Union. https://web.archive.org/web/20111202213910/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/eeas/security-defence/eu-operations?amp;lang=en. yes. 2 December 2011. 3 June 2013. dmy-all.
Web site: CSDP structures and instruments. Europa web portal. Council of the European Union. 3 June 2013.
Web site: The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a European Great Power Concert, Danish Institute of International Studies. Diis.dk. 27 April 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20110429211047/http://www.diis.dk/sw87465.asp?csref=RSS. 29 April 2011.
Web site: ECHO's finances. https://web.archive.org/web/20130718150202/http://ec.europa.eu/echo/funding/finances_en.htm. 18 July 2013. ec.europa.eu. Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection, European Commission.
Web site: Development aid rises again in 2016. OECD. 11 April 2017. 23 December 2017.
Web site: World Economic Outlook Database, April 2018. 27 October 2017.
Web site: World Economic Outlook Database, October 2014 Edition. October 2014. International Monetary Fund.
Web site: Global Wealth Report. Credit Suisse.
Web site: Triennial Central Bank Survey 2007. BIS. 19 December 2007. 25 July 2009.
Web site: Compositional Analysis of Foreign Currency Reserves in the 1999–2007 Period. The Euro vs. The Dollar As Leading Reserve Currency. Aristovnik. Aleksander. Čeč. Tanja. 30 March 2010. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, Paper No. 14350. 27 December 2010.
News: Boesler. Matthew. There Are Only Two Real Threats To The US Dollar's Status As The International Reserve Currency. 8 December 2013. Business Insider. 11 November 2013.
News: Global 500 2010: Countries – Australia. Fortune. 8 July 2010. Number of companies data taken from the "Pick a country" box.
Web site: PDF. Euro area unemployment rate at 10.3%, EU28 at 8.9%. 1 March 2016. Europa web portal. 1 March 2016.
Web site: Database - Eurostat. ec.europa.eu.
Web site: National Average Wage Index. SueKunkel. www.ssa.gov.
Web site: Select Committee on European Union. Nineteenth Report. Chapter 2: The European Union Structural and Cohesion Funds. 2008. 28 February 2012.
Web site: EU Structural and Cohesion funds. 1 November 2010. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20100529083348/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/structural_cohesion_fund_en.htm. 29 May 2010.
Web site: 7th Research Framework Programme (FP7). Euractiv. 2004. 27 June 2007.
Web site: The Single Market. Europa web portal. 27 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20071001122551/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm. 1 October 2007.
Web site: The European Economic Area (EEA). Europa web portal. European Commission. 10 February 2010.
Web site: A Single Market for goods. Europa web portal. European Commission. 27 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070621214532/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_18_en.htm. 21 June 2007.
Web site: A Single Market for Capital. Europa web portal. European Commission. 27 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070518000627/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_42_en.htm. 18 May 2007.
Web site: Living and working in the Single Market. Europa web portal. European Commission. 27 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070613212310/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_15_en.htm. 13 June 2007.
Web site: A Single Market for Services. Europa. European Commission. 27 June 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070610133514/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm. 10 June 2007.
News: Almunia says 'undesirable' to act on Sweden's euro refusal. Teresa. Kuchler. EUobserver.com. 25 October 2006. 26 December 2006.
Web site: ERM II. Danish Finance Ministry. 20 March 2009. 26 December 2009. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183816/http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx. 3 May 2011.
Web site: ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem. European Central Bank. 15 September 2007.
Web site: ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem. European Central Bank. 7 July 2011.
Web site: Europe seals deal on financial supervision. euobserver.com.
Energy consumption and production: EU27 energy dependence rate at 54% in 2006: Energy consumption stable. Eurostat. 10 July 2008. 12 September 2008.
A tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a standardised unit defined on the basis of one tonne of oil having a net calorific value of 41.868 Gigajoules.. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20080923204027/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008_MONTH_07/8-10072008-EN-AP.PDF. 23 September 2008. dmy-all.
Book: Euratom Supply Agency—Annual Report 2007. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2008. 978-92-79-09437-8. Luxembourg. 22. EU supply and demand for nuclear fuels. PDF. European uranium mining supplied just below 3% of the total EU needs, coming from the Czech Republic and Romania (a total of 526 tU).. 1 March 2009.
News: Q&A: EU energy plans. BBC. 9 March 2007. 13 July 2007.
Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff. Kazakhstan's Gas: Export Markets and Export Routes. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. PDF. November 2008. 17 November 2011.
Web site: 'Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe. MSNBC. 24 January 2007.
Web site: Ukraine-Russia gas dispute—call for stronger EU energy policy. Europa web portal. European Parliament. 27 February 2008.
Web site: The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules. European Commission. 1 October 2003. 15 August 2007. PDF. Europa web portal.
Web site: Mirea. Silvia. The trans-European transport network: new guidelines and financial rules. The Railway Journal. 15 August 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070423082000/http://www.cfr.ro/JF/engleza/0304/ten-t.htm. 23 April 2007.
Web site: White Paper on Transport. Euractiv. 22 September 2004. 15 August 2007.
Web site: EUR 650 million for the Polish Road Network.
Web site: Barrot. Jacques. Jacques Barrot Home Page, Commission vice president for transport. Europa web portal. 21 July 2007.
Web site: Stead. David. Robert Whaples (eds). Common Agricultural Policy. EH.Net Encyclopedia. 22 June 2007. 30 August 2007.
Web site: Agriculture: Meeting the needs of farmers and consumers. 26 August 2011. European Commission. ... the common agricultural policy is the most integrated of all EU policies and consequently takes a large share of the EU budget. Nevertheless, its portion of the EU budget has dropped from a peak of nearly 70% in the 1970s to 34% over the 2007–2013 period.. Europa: Gateway to the European Union. 4 November 2011.
News: Jeffery. Simon. The EU common agricultural policy. The Guardian. 26 June 2003. 30 August 2007. London.
Web site: Sugar: Commission proposes more market-, consumer- and trade-friendly regime. 14 April 2007. Europa. 30 August 2007.
Web site: Europa web portal. Competition: making markets work better. European Commission. 12 November 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20081204085802/http://ec.europa.eu/comm/competition/index_en.html. 4 December 2008. yes. dmy-all.
News: Lungescu. Oana. BBC News. Examining the EU executive. 23 July 2004. 18 September 2007.
Web site: Europa web portal. The Commission prohibits GE's acquisition of Honeywell. 3 July 2001. 12 November 2007.
News: Gow. David. The Guardian. Microsoft caves in to European Commission. 22 October 2007. 12 November 2007. London.
Web site: Bozoki. Andras. Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union. Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union.pdf. PDF. 4 June 2013. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20130222205051/http://www.ecoc-doc-athens.eu/attachments/1249_Cultural%20Policy%20and%20Politics%20in%20the%20European%20Union_speech_Bozoki_Andras.pdf. 22 February 2013. dmy-all.
Web site: European Culture Month. European Commission. Europa web portal. https://web.archive.org/web/20080202062436/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/eac/ecocs/present_cap/retrospective_en.html. 2 February 2008. 27 February 2008.
Web site: An Overture to the European Union Youth Orchestra. The European Youth Orchestra. 12 August 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070611140551/http://www.euyo.org.uk/about/history.htm. 11 June 2007. yes. dmy.
Web site: European Capitals of Culture. Europa web portal. European Commission. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20100803205745/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc413_en.htm. 3 August 2010.
M. van Bottenburg. B. Rijnen. J.C. van Sterkenburg. Sports participation in the European Union : Trends and differences. WJH Mulier Instituut. dspace.library.uu.nl. 33 (table 2.5). 2 March 2018.
News: Fordyce. Tom. 10 years since Bosman. BBC News. 11 July 2007. 13 July 2007.
News: IOC, FIFA presidents welcomes new EU treaty, call it breakthrough to give sports more power. International Herald Tribune. 19 October 2007. 21 October 2007. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20081201201945/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/10/19/sports/EU-SPT-OLY-EU-Treaty.php. 1 December 2008.
Web site: Sports coaches from Israel travel to UK for training. Eeas.europa.eu. 29 March 2011. 3 June 2013.
Riché, Preface xviii, Pierre Riché reflects: "[H]e enjoyed an exceptional destiny, and by the length of his reign, by his conquests, legislation and legendary stature, he also profoundly marked the history of Western Europe."
Web site: Der Karlspreisträger Seine Heiligkeit Papst Johannes Paul II. außerordentlicher Karlspreis 2004. Karlspreis.de. 1 January 2012. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20120117151907/http://www.karlspreis.de/preistraeger/seine_heiligkeit_papst_johannes_paul_ii/ansprache_von_seiner_heiligkeit_papst_johannes_paul_ii.html. 17 January 2012.
Book: Chamberlin, Russell. The Emperor Charlemagne. The History Press. Stroud, Gloucestershire. 2004. 978-0750934824.
Web site: Laureates. karlspreis.de. 12 February 2016.
Web site: Winners 2015. charlemagneyouthprize.eu. 12 February 2016.
Web site: HOLY MASS FOR THE CANONIZATION OF BLESSED QUEEN EDWIG.
Web site: European Neighbourhood Policy and Enlargement Negotiations. 8 February 2016. European Commission. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20160124161814/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/policy/policy-highlights/media-freedom/index_en.htm. 24 January 2016. dmy-all.
Book: Mollin, Sandra. Euro-English : assessing variety status. Gunter Narr Verlag. 2006. 9783823362500. Tübingen. 56. 804963256.
Web site: How is ARTE funded? - ARTE Entreprise. 26 June 2016.
Web site: Media Programme. European Commission. Europa. 13 June 2013. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20130621054048/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/media/about/index_en.htm. 21 June 2013.
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "European Union".

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