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The “American law in American courts” movement has gained momentum in recent years, with some state courts now legislatively barred from citing international or foreign law and almost all judges now scrutinized for their American bona fides. Much of the scholarship addressing anti-international law proposals has focused on the proposals’ merits. This Article, in contrast, assumes that international and foreign law are often necessary components of a domestic state court judge’s decisionmaking. The Article then looks at the likely impact of these laws and proposals on state court judges and courts. Social-science data on adjudication as well as other available information suggest that the anti-international law debate playing out in state legislatures may have significant impacts on judicial decisionmaking, particularly in state courts. Even in jurisdictions without a formal bar on such references, a jurist may be tempted not to cite to international or foreign law to avoid unnecessary controversy and preserve his or her future political viability. To complicate matters, the crisis of resources facing state courts means that state court judges rarely have sufficient research support to fully explore the facets of international and foreign law relevant to the cases before them, even if they deem it important to their decisionmaking. While adopting elements of the federal system such as life tenure and merit selection are possible responses, this Article also suggests more near-term approaches, including interventions by law schools and the bar designed to support the continued tradition of state court references to international and foreign law.
Does The Federal Government Have A Rightful Claim On Supremacy?
* Martha F. Davis is a Professor of Law at Northeastern University School of Law, Boston, Massachusetts. Thanks to James Craig and Cassandra Montgomery for their excellent research assistance, and to Rick Doyon for his technical assistance.
interventions by law schools and the bar designed to support the continued tradition of state court references to international and foreign law.
1 H.R.J. Res. 1056, 52nd Leg., 2d Sess. (Okla. 2010), available at https://www.sos.ok.gov/documents/questions/755.pdf (outlining the complete text of the legislative resolution). 2 Awad v. Ziriax, 754 F. Supp. 2d 1298, 1308 (W.D. Okla. 2010), affd, 670 F.3d 1111 (10th Cir. 2012). 3 Bill Raftery, Bans on Court Use of Sharia/International Law: 33 Bills in 20 States to Start 2012; Review of All Efforts Since 2010, GAVEL TO GAVEL (Jan. 30, 2012), http://gaveltogavel.us/site/2012/01/30/bans-on-court-use-of-shariainternational-law-33-bills-in20-states-to-start-2012-review-of-all-efforts-since-2010/.
Id. Kansas Governor Signs Measure Blocking Islamic Law, USA TODAY (May 26, 2012), http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/story/2012-05-26/kansas-governor-signs-antisharia-law/55224584/1 [hereinafter USA TODAY, Kansas Governor Signs Measure].
5 6 Martha F. Davis & Johanna Kalb, Oklahoma and Beyond: Understanding the Wave of State Anti-Transnational Law Initiatives, 87 IND. L.J. SUPP. 1, 3-4 (2011). These measures essentially codify conflict-of-law provisions that were already well-established under existing common law principles.
7 An Act Concerning the Protection of Rights and Privileges Granted Under the United States or Kansas Constitutions, S.B. 79, 3 2011-2012 Leg. (Kan. 2012), available at http://kslegislature.org/li_2012/b2011_12/measures/SB79/. 8 See, e.g., Kansas Senate Passes Law Banning Sharia, Other Foreign Laws from State Courts, N.Y. DAILY NEWS, May 11, 2012, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/kansas-senate-passeslaw-banning-sharia-foreign-laws-state-courts-article-1.1076862 [hereinafter N.Y. DAILY NEWS, Kansas Senate Passes Law Banning Sharia]; Op-Ed., Brownback Caves on Anti-Sharia Law, WINFIELD DAILY COURIER, May 31, 2012, http://www.winfieldcourier.com/articles/2012/05/31/opinion/editorial/doc4fc6d90f55afb073062 336.txt (asserting that everyone in the capitol knew the measure was targeting Sharia law). 9 N.Y. DAILY NEWS, Kansas Senate Passes Law Banning Sharia, supra note 8 (internal quotation marks omitted). 10 Andy Marso, Brownback Signs Bill that Caused Sharia Flap, TOPEKA CAPITOL-J., May 25, 2012, http://cjonline.com/news/2012-05-25/brownback-signs-bill-caused-sharia-flap.
For a detailed discussion of the vague language of these provisions, see Penny M. Venetis, The Unconstitutionality of Oklahomas SQ 755 and Other Provisions Like It that Bar State Courts from Considering International Law, 59 CLEV. ST. L. REV. 189, 196, 200 (2011).
argue, these new facially neutral proposals simply reinforce legislatively what is already a legal chestnut in conflict of law situations, i.e., that a court should not rely on foreign law to override a states fundamental public policy.13 This Article argues, however, that the anti-international law debate playing out in state legislatures and conservative blogs may have negative impacts on judicial decisionmaking, particularly in the state courts.14 As the American law in American courts mantra has gained salience, more and more judges are now scrutinized for their American bona fides.15 As a result of this pressure, a judge may be reluctant to develop the international or comparative issues raised in domestic cases because he or she will be tarred as un-American. This Article proceeds as follows. First, in a background section, I discuss state-level debates on judicial reliance on foreign and international law, focusing on two cases that have been repeatedly cited by supporters of restrictive legislation. Second, I examine the legal impact of the proposed restrictions on foreign and international law, noting the wide agreement that foreign and international sources have a place in domestic legal analysis. Third, I examine data on judicial independence and discuss the aspects of state courts that make them particularly susceptible to public and political pressure of the kind mounted by supporters of foreign law bans. Finally, I offer some suggestions for more effective responses to antiinternational law proposals.
2007 U. ILL. L. REV. 637, 637-38 (2007). 13 See Monrad G. Paulson & Michael I. Sovern, Public Policy in the Conflicts of Laws, 56 COLUM. L. REV. 969, 969 (1956) (noting that choice of law rules are normally subject to a public policy limitation).
14 I focus on state court judges because, without life tenure, they are likely to be more vulnerable to political shifts. Further, while the principle of separation of powers is wellestablished federally, and acts as a brake on Congress meddling in judicial decisionmaking, the principle is not part of all state constitutions. See Venetis, supra note 11, at 212-13.
See, e.g., Am. Pub. Policy Alliance, American Laws for American Courts, PUB. POLY ALLIANCE, http://publicpolicyalliance.org/legislation/american-laws-for-american-courts/ (last visited Jan. 8, 2013) (criticizing courts that reference foreign law).
17 See, e.g., Becky Yeh, The Goal of Terrorism? Sharia Law, ONENEWSNOW (Apr. 14, 2011), http://onenewsnow.com/national-security/2011/04/14/the-goal-of-terrorism-sharia-law. 18 Bill Raftery, Bans on Court Use of Sharia/International Law, GAVEL TO GAVEL (May 29, 2012), http://gaveltogavel.us/site/2012/05/29/bans-on-court-use-of-shariainternational-lawsigned-into-law-in-kansas-sent-to-study-committee-in-new-hampshire-still-technically-alivein-mi-nc-pa-sc/ [hereinafter Raftery, Bans on Court Use of Sharia]. Federal legislators have made similar proposals to control decisionmaking by federal courts. See Davis & Kalb, supra note 6, at 3.
See, e.g., H.J. Res. No. 14, 84th Gen. Assemb. (Iowa 2011) (banning the use of legal precepts of other nations or cultures); H.B. No. 631, 2012 Reg. Sess. (Va. 2012) (providing that a foreign choice of law provision in any contract, arbitration agreement, or other agreement is unenforceable).
20 See, e.g., Aaron Fellmeth, International Law and Foreign Laws in U.S. State Legislatures, ASIL INSIGHTS, May 26, 2011, at 1, available at http://www.asil.org/pdfs/insights/insight110526.pdf. 21 S.D. v. M.J.R., 2 A.3d 412, 412 (N.J. Super. Ct. App. Div. 2010). 22 Bill Mears, Federal Court Blocks Oklahoma Ban on Sharia, CNN JUSTICE (Jan. 10, 2012), http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/10/justice/oklahoma-sharia/index.html.
S.D., 2 A.3d at 418; see also Prevention of Domestic Violence Act of 1991, N.J. STAT. ANN. 2C:25-17 et seq. (West 2012). 24 See N.J. STAT. ANN. 2C:25-28(a). 25 See S.D., 2 A.3d at 426. 26 Id. at 421-22. 27 Id. at 417-18. 28 See id. at 418. 29 See, e.g., Sharia Law Comes to New Jersey?, FOX NATION (Aug. 6, 2010), http://nation.foxnews.com/justice/2010/08/06/sharia-law-comes-new-jersey.
mere religious belief and opinions, they may [interfere] with practices.); S.D., 2 A.3d at 42225. See S.D., 2 A.3d at 421, 426. Id. at 426. 34 See, e.g., Lee Tankle, The Only Thing We Have to Fear is Fear Itself: Islamophobia and the Recently Proposed Unconstitutional and Unnecessary Anti-Religion Laws, 21 WM. & MARY BILL RTS. J. 273, 280-82 (2012). 35 Barbara Bradley Hagerty, All Things Considered: Court Strikes Down Oklahoma Shariah Ban, NATL PUB. RADIO (Jan. 10, 2012), available at http://www.npr.org/2012/01/10/144984595/courtstrikes-down-okla-sharia-ban.
Leah Nelson, Oklahomas Sharia Law Ban Creates Controversy, INTELLIGENCE REP., no. 141 (Spring 2011), http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-allissues/2011/spring/oklahoma-shariah-law-ban-creates-controversy.
Awad v. Ziriax, 754 F. Supp. 2d 1298, 1304 (W.D. Okla. 2010), affd, 670 F.3d 1111 (10th Cir. 2012). Id. at 1307-08; Awad, 670 F.3d at 1132-33. Raftery, Bans on Court Use of Sharia, supra note 18. 41 Dave Roberts, Being Muslim in Kansas, KWCH 12 EYEWITNESS NEWS (Oct. 31, 2010, 8:01 PM), http://www.kwch.com/news/kwch-news-dr-kansas-muslims,0,5533930.htmlstory.
Marso, supra note 10. See Tim Murphy, Meet the White Supremacist Leading the GOPs Anti-Sharia Crusade, MOTHER JONES (Mar. 1, 2011, 4:00 AM), http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/02/davidyerushalmi-sharia-ban-tennessee (describing evolution of anti-Sharia proposals).
Id.; USA TODAY, Kansas Governor Signs Measure, supra note 5. Marso, supra note 10. Id. Id. Id. Id. Id.
Marso, supra note 10. See USA TODAY, Kansas Governor Signs Measure, supra note 5. 55 Matthew J. Franck, A Solution in Search of a Problem, NATL REV. ONLINE (June 15, 2012, 5:10 PM), http://www.nationalreview.com/bench-memos/303028/solution-search-problemmatthew-j-franck.
See id. R. LAFOUNTAIN ET AL., EXAMINING THE WORK OF STATE COURTS: AN ANALYSIS OF 2010 STATE COURT CASELOADS 1 (National Center for State Courts 2012), available at http://www.courtstatistics.org/OtherPages/~/media/Microsites/Files/CSP/Home%20Page/csp_2012.ashx (reporting that state court caseloads nationwide exceeded 106 million). 58 Thomas E. Baker, The U.S. Courts of Appeals: Problems and Solutions, FED. LAW., Aug. 1998, at 31, 35-36 (featured within The Ninth Circuit: To Split or Not to Split).
See, e.g., Franck, supra note 55.
60 Matthew Schmitz, Anti-Sharia Laws Are Magic, NATL REV. ONLINE (June 18, 2012, 12:23 PM), http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/303135/anti-sharia-laws-are-magic-matthewschmitz.
Paulson & Sovern, supra note 13, at 969; Nelson, supra note 36 (quoting Oklahoma Law Professor Joseph Thai on existing Oklahoma law: We do not enforce foreign law that is contrary to state policy. We never have and we never will.). 62 USA TODAY, Kansas Governor Signs Measure, supra note 5. 63 See, e.g., Phyllis Schlafly, Is Relying on Foreign Law an Impeachable Offense?, EAGLE FORUM (May 2005), http://www.eagleforum.org/psr/2005/may05/psrmay05.html.
64 See, e.g., ISLAMISTS AND THE IMPOSITION OF SHARIA LAW, ARKDART.COM, http://www.akdart.com/islam10.html (last visited Apr. 5, 2013).
Sarah Cleveland, Our International Constitution, 31 YALE J. INTL L. 1, 6-7 (2006); see also Martha F. Davis, The Spirit of Our Times: State Constitutions and International Human Rights, 30 N.Y.U. REV. L. & SOC. CHANGE 359, 359 (2006).
73 See, e.g., Vicki Jackson, Constitutional Dialogue and Human Dignity: States and Transnational Constitutional Discourse, 65 MONT. L. REV. 15, 27-29 (2004). 74 Lantz v. Coleman, No. HHDCV084034912, 2010 WL 1494985, at *16-21 (Conn. Super. Ct. Mar. 9, 2010), affd sub nom., 38 A.3d 84, 109-10 (2012).
http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/administrative/house_of_delegates/resolutions /2011_hod_annual_meeting_113a.doc (resolving [t]hat the American Bar Association opposes federal or state laws that impose blanket prohibitions on consideration or use by courts or arbitral tribunals of foreign or international law).
82 See CYNTHIA BROUGHER, CONG. RESEARCH SERV., APPLICATION OF RELIGIOUS LAW IN U.S. COURTS: SELECTED LEGAL ISSUES 1-3 (May 18, 2011), available at http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41824.pdf; Walter Jenny, Jr., Op-Ed., State Question is Xenophobic, EDMOND SUN, Sept. 15, 2010, http://www.edmondsun.com/opinion/x422129888/State-question-is-xenophobic (arguing that the proposed ban on foreign law would hurt business interests in Oklahoma).
Abbott v. Abbott, 130 S. Ct. 1983, 1993 (2010) (applying the Hague Convention on Child Abduction). Along these lines, Justice Kennedys opinion for the Court notes that: The Convention defines rights of custody, and it is that definition that a court must consult. This uniform, text-based approach ensures international consistency in interpreting the Convention. It forecloses courts from relying on definitions of custody confined by local law usage, definitions that may undermine recognition of custodial arrangements in other countries or in different legal traditions, including the civil-law tradition. Id. at 1991. Omar Sacirbey, Shariah or Not, Muslim Divorces Can Get Tricky, WASH. POST, Oct. 1, 2012, http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-10-01/national/35500824_1_shariah-islamic-law-validmarriage.
Minow, supra note 70, at 7-8. In recent years, nominees Roberts, Alito, Sotomayor, and Kagan have all been asked questions along these lines by the Senate Judiciary Committee. See, e.g., Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of John G. Roberts, Jr. to Be Chief Justice of the United States: Hearing Before the S. Comm. on the Judiciary, 109th Cong. 199-201 (2005) (statement of Judge John G. Roberts, Jr.); Confirmation Hearing on the Nomination of Samuel A. Alito, Jr. to Be an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States: Hearing Before the S. Comm. on the Judiciary, 109th Cong. 47071 (2006) (statement of Judge Samuel A. Alito, Jr.); Adam Liptak, Analysis: Sotomayor on Foreign Law, NY TIMES (July 17, 2009, 10:56 AM), http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/17/analysis-sotomayor-on-foreignlaw/?pagewanted=print (describing questioning during Sotomayor confirmation hearing); Nathan Koppel, To Cite or Not to Cite? Senators, Kagan Spar Over Foreign Law, WALL ST. J. L. BLOG (June 30, 2010, 6:23 PM), http://www.blogs.wsj.com/law/2010/06/30/to-cite-or-not-to-citesenators-kagan-spar-over-foreign-law/ (describing questioning during Kagan confirmation hearing).
Senator Tom Coburn, Judge Sotomayor Rescinds Her Promise Not to Use Foreign Law 1 (2010), available at http://www.coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=518fddc9-69ef-44878eef-a176a2df900d (last visited Apr. 5, 2013).
88 See, e.g., Oakland Cnty. Bar Assn, Judicial Candidate Questionnaire: P. Daniel Christ, OCBA 7 (2012), http://www.ocba.org/resource/attach/2521/JCQWebChrist.pdf.
See Conservative Coal. of Montgomery Cnty., Questions for Candidates for Judicial Offices: Claudia Laird, CCMC 1 (2010), http://www.conservativecoalitionmc.org/candidates/2010-3JudgeCourt-2-ClaudiaLaird.pdf.
See, e.g., Michael Solimine, Response: State Judicial Elections and the Limits of Calibrating Access to the Federal Courts, 96 VA. L. REV. IN BRIEF 41, 41 (2010) (Almost all state court judges are subject to some sort of popular election to attain or retain office.).
91 See, e.g., Robert Barnes, Ruth Bader Ginsburg Says She Would Forbid State Judicial Elections, WASH. POST (Mar. 12, 2010), http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2010/03/11/AR2010031105136.html (noting Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburgs opposition to the election of judges). 92 Controversial decisions may have an impact on the election. See, e.g., A.G. Sulzberger, In Iowa, Voters Oust Judges over Marriage Issue, N.Y. TIMES (Nov. 3, 2010), http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/03/us/politics/03judges.html?pagewanted=all&_r=1&. 93 See, e.g., CHRIS BONNEAU, THE FEDERALIST SOCY, A SURVEY OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE CONCERNING JUDICIAL ELECTIONS 7-8 (Mar. 14, 2012), available at http://www.fedsoc.org/publications/detail/a-survey-of-empirical-evidence-concerning-judicial-elections (noting that the evidence that judges consider their likelihood of reelection when making judicial decisions is pretty persuasive, while questioning whether that is problematic).
See id. (identifying that numerous studies show elections influence judicial behavior). For general background on the origins and development of state judicial elections, see F. Andrew Hanssen, Learning About Judicial Independence: Institutional Change in the State Courts, 33 J. LEGAL STUD. 431, 433-34 (2004). 96 Michael H. LeRoy, Do Partisan Elections of Judges Produce Unequal Results When Courts Review Employment Arbitrations?, 95 IOWA L. REV. 1569, 1569 (2010).
98 DANIEL R. PINELLO, THE IMPACT OF JUDICIAL-SELECTION METHOD ON STATE-SUPREMECOURT POLICY: INNOVATION, REACTION, ATROPHY 130-31 (1995).
BONNEAU, supra note 93, at 7-8. Larry T. Aspin & William K. Hall, Retention Elections and Judicial Behavior, 77 JUDICATURE 306, 306-07, 312-13 (1994).
Id. at 312-13. Brandice Canes-Wrone & Tom S. Clark, Judicial Independence and Nonpartisan Elections, 2009 WIS. L. REV. 21, 21 (2009). 103 Id. at 47-48, 64. 104 Brandice Canes-Wrone, Tom S. Clark, & Jee-Kwang Park, Judicial Independence and Retention Elections, 28 J.L. ECON. & ORG. 211, 213-14 (2012).
Id. at 211. See id. at 229.
See Sulzberger, supra note 92. See Nelson, supra note 36 (noting that Oklahoma State Representative Cory Williams, who voted against the foreign law ban, was nearly defeated for re-election).
109 See Tricia Perry, Thoughts on International Law in U.S. Courts: Our Constitution or Blackstones?, HUFFINGTON POST (Feb. 15, 2010, 3:46 PM), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tricia-perry/thoughts-on-international_b_457314.html (noting that even Justice Scalia, who in the past has refused to use international law to support Supreme Court opinions, agrees that international law may be valid in the interpretation of a treaty where many different nations are parties). 110 Daniel Berkowitz & Karen Clay, The Effect of Judicial Independence on Courts: Evidence from the American States, 35 J. LEGAL STUD. 399, 399-401 (2006).
See, e.g., Nelson, supra note 36 (citing particular examples of international law that were raised in Oklahoma courts). 112 Id. (noting that dealing with foreign laws is a regular part of business practice in Oklahoma).
113 See, e.g., SANAZ ALEMPOUR ET AL., COMMITTEE ON JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE COMPENDIUM UPDATE 2007, at 41 (2007), available at http://www.floridabar.org/DIVEXE/GCBillReport.nsf/Attachments/80329743B13E746D852573 02004BA34A/$FILE/Compendium%20Special%20Topic%20of%20Judicial%20Independence% 20-%20After%20%E2%80%A6.pdf?OpenElement (noting Justice OConnors view that the judiciary must remain independent); OConnor: U.S. Must Rely on Foreign Law, WND (Oct. 31, 2003, 1:00 AM), http://www.wnd.com/2003/10/21551/ (noting Justice OConnors opinion that decisions of international courts will be increasingly important in domestic cases). 114 See NAWJ 34th Annual Conference: Meet Me in Miami, Nov. 7-11, 2012, Miami, Florida, NATL ASSOC. OF WOMENS JUDGES, http://www.nawj.org/annual_2012.asp#schedule (last visited Apr. 6., 2013). 115 Raftery, Bans on Court Use of Sharia, supra note 18. 116 See, e.g., Cathy H. Serrette, Invoking Human Rights Law in Litigation: A Maryland Judges Perspective, 45 CLEARINGHOUSE REV. 238, 238-39 (2011); Stephen Breyer, U. S. Supreme Court Justice, The Supreme Court and the New International Law, Address at the American Society of International Law 97th Annual Meeting (Apr. 4, 2003), available at http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/wpcontent/uploads/pdf/Supreme_Court_New_Interl_Law_Just_Breyer%20.pdf. 117 See, e.g., Nicole Jones, Court Budget Crisis Creates Long Lines at Legal Self-Help Centers, KALW (Nov. 1, 2012, 3:13 PM), http://kalw.org/post/court-budget-crisis-creates-long-lineslegal-self-help-centers (noting the effect judicial budget cuts have on the legal system without taking into account the added strain of interpreting international and comparative law).
See OPPORTUNITIES WITH INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS AND FOREIGN COURTS, YALE LAW SCH. CAREER DEV. OFFICE. 34-35 (2010-2011), available at http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/CDO_Public/CDO-10-IntlTribunals-PUBVer.pdf.
119 See Ed Finkel, Crunching Clerks, A.B.A. J. (Feb. 1, 2010, 3:50 AM), http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/crunching_clerks (describing cuts in state and federal clerkships).
See Breyer, supra note 116. See Patrick M. McFadden, Provincialism in United States Courts, 81 CORNELL L. REV. 4, 57, 62-65 (1995). 122 See, e.g., Nelson, supra note 36 (quoting University of Oklahoma Professor Joseph Thai). 123 See, e.g., PAUL BREST ET AL., PROCESSES OF CONSTITUTIONAL DECISION-MAKING: CASES AND MATERIALS (6th ed. 2010).
121 124 See Frank J. Macchiarola & Joseph Scanlon, 19 FORDHAM URB. L.J. 695, 703-05 (1991) (stating that lawyers and law students must participate in public service activities in order to improve society). 125 Deena Hurwitz, Lawyering for Justice and the Inevitability of International Human Rights Clinics, 28 YALE J. INTL L. 505, 527 (2003).
and student organizations should be on call to state courts to provide necessary research and briefing to ensure that relevant international and foreign materials are before the courts for consideration. Engaging in such research will not only enhance student skills but will broaden the resources available to judges, with positive results for the quality of judicial opinions.
126 See, e.g., Abbot v. Abbot, 130 S. Ct. 1983, 1990-91 (2010) (giving credence to the Chilean Family Courts order that the child should remain in Chile unless the father gave permission for the minor son to return to the U.S.). 127 See, e.g., AT&T Corp. v. Microsoft Corp., 414 F.3d 1366, 1371 (Fed. Cir. 2005), revd, 550 U.S. 437 (2007).
See, e.g., Medelln v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, 504-06 (2008) (stating that unless a treaty has been ratified by Congress, an international law obligation is not legally binding in the United States).
See THE FEDERALIST NO. 78 (Alexander Hamilton).
result in a diminished Judiciary.
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