Source: https://tr.scribd.com/document/2448859/G-L-Kavtaradze-The-Georgian-Chronicles-and-the-raison-d-etre-of-the-Iberian-Kingdom
Timestamp: 2019-04-20 04:53:22+00:00

Document:
human environment are of two types: of a sudden blow and of a continuous pressure.
‘Caucasica I’ though it did not have that heading at the time of its publication.
pan­Transcaucasian monarchy, for a brief period.
Barbarians and that of the reasonable men.
is explicitly depicted in the old Georgian and Armenian chronicles.
Vaxtang VI in the beginning of the eighteenth century.
represents at the same time a significant source for them.
3. Nino and tutor of David the Restorer. St. especially in its attempt to attach the local eponymous genealogies to the Tabula Popularum of Genesis. 800. Rapp. the name of what subsequently was known as its first part ­ The Life of Kings of K'art'li. 795 and 813 and must be assigned to ca.contemporary of the king. The story of the legendary invasion of the Caucasus by Alexander and the chronicle of the kings itself. 580 to 888 and coinciding with the time of analogous trends of the historiographical activity in neighbouring countries. the author of one of its parts. Arseni Beri (Ikaltoeli). The description of the oldest period of history until Alexander the Great's times. the author of the metaphrasical redaction of The Life of St. St. the medieval texts of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ can be divided into two groups representing distinct periods of Georgian historiographical evolution: pre­Bagratid and Bagratid. In his opinion. this fact demonstrates that. Arseni Beri's source was. the Georgian historian Juansher found the Georgian Chronicle which had been written only untill the reign of the Iberian king Vaxtang Gorgasali (fifth century). knows „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ only under the name of The History of Kings (Hambavi Mep'et'a) i. The very strong Armenophile tendencies reflected by The Life of the Kings are hardly imaginable to have been expressed after the first quarter of the eighth century or after the unprecedented aggravation of the Armeno­Georgian religious relations which . The Life of the Kings consists of three main parts: 183 1. Rapp attributes the emergence of local histories to the period of interregnum in Georgia. even in the twelfth century. in fact. he considers them as supplications for the restoration of the royal power ­ local historians glorified the Crown and appealed for its immediate reinstatement. Rapp. The History of the Conversion of K'art'li. According to St. 2. By the information of an Armenian translation. The last two are connected with "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" (the "Conversion of K'art'li"). of the second part of the eighth century). the pre­Bagratid text of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“. influenced by the Holy Scriptures.e. Archil II. the internal evidence of The Life of the Kings (which in reality terminates in the eve of king Mirian's Conversion to Christianity) and The Life of King Vaxtang Gorgasali dates their composition between ca. lasting from ca. Rapp considers The History of the Conversion of K'art'li as a hagiographical embelisment of a brief Conversion of Kartli of the seventh century. only in the eleventh century joined to The Life of the Kings. According to St. while the following events were added by Juansher himself.
the same person who donated quite another manuscript to St. The first one is without a date. The list of kings of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ is nearly identical with the list used in "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" and receives therefore the same confirmation by the data of foreign sources contemporaneous with the events mentioned as the latter (see below). but at the same time the version preserved in the latter differs from both Shatberdi and Chelishi redactions and testifies to the existence of its more archaic redaction. used by Leonti Mroveli. but paleographically there is no doubt that it precedes the Shatberdi manuscript. respectively. and such tendencies are even more improbable in the epoch of the obvious political hegemony of the Georgian political formations in the tenth­ eleventh centuries. suggests that we are faced with the protoredaction of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". as to Z. This manuscript offers much better readings than the Shatberdi and Chelishi redactions. it must be dated to the very beginning of the tenth century. It must also be taken into consideration that in the text of The Life of the Kings there was nothing immediately borrowed from The History of the Armenians by Movses Xorenac'i. though numerous coincidences exist without any doubt. used already from the beginning of the eighth century to designate the western part of Georgia instead of Egrisi. should indicate the early eighth century as the latest possible date for the earliest parts of the text in discussion. Also the fact of the absence of the term Ap'xazet'i 184 (Abkhazia) in the text. Sinai in the St. Catherine's monastery. Alexidze. The text of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" is included in „K’art’lis C’xovreba“. 185 Sinai recension. the text of which must be dated to the early eighth century. most of them believe that it had a place in .were already rather tense from the early seventh century when the Georgians finally accepted Orthodoxy as a result of the growing Persian influence on the monophysitic Armenian church. together with more than a hundred of other Georgian manuscripts dated mainly to the ninth­tenth centuries. Saba monastery in the late ninth century. The scepticism concerning „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ changed much after the discovery of the two Shatberdi and Chelishi manuscripts (palimpsests) of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" in 1888 and 1903. the investigator of the Mt. This fact is explained by the possible use of one and the same Armenian oral and written sources in both cases. Though the scholars assign the compilation of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" to different periods from the fourth to the ninth century. As the text of the second one begins almost precisely from the place where it ends in the first manuscript and because the donator of this manuscript is a certain Ioane. Two unknown manuscripts of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" were recently discovered on the Mt. which belong to the late tenth (973) and fourteenth­ fifteenth centuries. These two facts.
perhaps in the ninth century. the interpolation of conjunctions between prefixes and verbs and the use of a pre­Arab lexicon. the historical events. Even in the addition to the Shatberdi manuscript of the second part of the tenth century there is an indication of an older age of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". spread not only in Georgia but also far away from its frontiers. the narrative of the christened Jewish clerical author. is rich of short expressions and sentences of laconic brevity. P'ilon Tirakac'i. Tarchnishvili. the live and actions of Erismt'avars (rulers) and Cat'olici (patriarchs) of Georgia are written in one sitting. the language. the Emperor of Byzantine) and The Life of St Nino. Alexidze to support the opinion that the creation of the archetype of the narrative must be put back well before the ninth century. telling us that "this book ("Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay") was found after many years of its creation". In the opinion of M. The appendix contains the list of the rulers and Cat'olici from the second half of the seventh century to the turn of the ninth­tenth centuries. The existence of at least four significantly different redactions in the beginning of the tenth century. if taken from the military field. at the same time he considers the Chronicle and The Life of St. As to P. The translations of Gospels and Jakob C'urtaveli's martyrdom of St. Nina as separate compositions. in 686 or 696. Ingorokva. The first part of the narrative is unified and regular. Šušanik as well as epigraphical data belong to the same century. judging by the use of the x­ prefix. the time of the rule of Step'anos II (the time of the invasion of Caucasia by Heraclius. It was noticed that Georgians. The fact that the main text of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" records the history of the country only until the end of the first half of the seventh century and that the list of the persons living from that time till the ninth century appears only in the appendix.the seventh or ninth centuries. These shortness and simplicity of the style is considered as a proof of its chronological closeness with the described events and may also be an indication of its creation in the fifth century. Abiatar from Mcxet'a (the old capital of Iberia). We must be of course very cautious about the reliability of this information. should testify that the chronicle was written in the middle of the seventh century and redacted in the early tenth century. written in a matter­of­fact way. induces Z. clearly and vividly. in difference from Armenians. 186 though its sources go back to written material at least as early as the seventh century. did not develop a historiographical tradition . thematically combined with each other later on. The Life and Conversion of K'art'li was written in the fourth century and lost afterwards. "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" consists of two main parts: the Chronicle describing the history of Georgia from the beginning to the middle of the seventh century (663). but we know that the evidences of the Georgian written language can be traced back only to the fifth century. It was suggested that the text of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" was compiled at that time. the chronicle was presumably used by the Armenian author.
 It was recently correctly noticed that without attempt to use Georgian historical records and to reconcile them with Classical evidence. containing the story of the invasion of Iberia (K'art'li) by Alexander the Great and the foundation of the first East Georgian state differs most of all in comparison with other parts of the text of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" included in „K’art’lis C’xovreba“. some sixteen of the thirty­seven kings from the fourth century B. . though they are supported by foreign sources. thus. Often Georgian historiography is considered as being evolved from local hagiography. to the Chronicle of the Conversion of Iberia (K'art'li) is so great that the problem of its authenticity. the Chronicle of the Conversion of Iberia (K'art'li). the first part of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“.in quite the same way ­ as the hagiography became the most popular genre. to the sixth century A. Ammianus Marcellinus. in any case the similarity of The Life of the Kings. but also the undoubtedly imprint of the repeated literary redactions. Peter the Iberian as well as epigraphical data of the fifth­century and they were together with some events orally transmitted through several centuries in a remarkably accurate fashion. The initial part of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". are known from such sources as Tacitus. St. now lost. Iberian kingdom. Rapp does not even exclude the possibilty of the existence of a local written sources of early Georgian history.. Beside the many other examples of the coincidence between the two chronicles importance must be attached to the information about Alexander the Great of Macedon. in the opinion of researchers.C. together with the text of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". Therefore the source of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“. At the same time. very different from the initial parts of the above four manuscripts of Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". is ascribed. the arguments of some scholars working in the Georgian historiography are weakened. the story about the immigration of Kartvelians from their old homeland and the subsequent establishment of the Iberian monarchy as well as informations about the historical geography of Georgia of that period are considered to have been borrowed from ancient local historical 187 sources and traditions. Nevertheless. should not be considered anymore as an urgent subject of contemporary researches.D. Aelius Spartianus. as a result of parallel studies of these two chronicles. Procopius and the Syriac Life of St. presumably used data still unknown. Cassius Dio. These both chronicles reveal traces not only of the creativity of the folk. Appian. The lists of kings of the Chronicle of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" are very brief and chronologically defective. to whom the emergence of the Eastern Georgian. should be considered as a quite independent version or even as a compilation of Leonti Mroveli who.
 seem to corroborate the Georgian tradition about the Seleucid suzerainty over the early Iberian monarchy. Toumanoff. 1.e. this information of the Georgian chronicle reveals the active role which. 189 the Seleucids. Georgians are descendants of the newcomers from Arian­K'art'li. the kingdom of P'arnavas (Iberia) played in the relationship between Greece and Assyria (i. . after having arrived in K'art'li (Iberia). according to Leonti Mroveli." 188 Nobody knows with certainty what was implied in Arian K'art'li of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" and where it was located as the "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" does not give any explanation. made a raid on the frontier­province of Greeks with the aim to ruin the frontier regions of Pontus and to conquer Klarjeti. Alexander the Great. This suggestion can be proved by the Anatolian character of the pantheon of deities of the Iberian royal court. But because by the data of The Life of the Kings. By the statement of the Georgian historian G. to monopolize the strategic trade routes extending through Caucasia and ending at the Black Sea. the informations of the Classical authors about Seleucus I's project to dig a channel between the Black and the Caspian seas..C. was subject to Lazica (6. by the generally accepted opinion. and he took his country­men and idols Gac'i and Ga with him from his old homeland to Mtskheta. except the vague indications of the story of Azo of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". St. Azo is a king's son of the country of Arian­K'art'li. In this connection certain attention must be also paid to the information by Menander the Guardsman of the late sixth century. a new ruler of Iberia. we speak their language and all the kings of K'art'li are descendents of their kings. in the historical south­west Georgia. in the northeastern part of modern Turkey. namely that Iberia. By the second part of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" ­ The Life of St. Rapp underlines as well the connection between the Georgian tradition and the aspiration of Alexander's Hellenistic successors. between the Pontic and Seleucid kingdoms) which he consideres as a prove that the territory of the Iberians was extended to the southwestern direction in the third century B. Arseni Beri explained this event in the following way. In the view of C. "We. Melikishvili. installed his close supporter Azo as a king in Mtskheta. after the defeat of Azon. king P'arnavas.2 Apocryphal Alexander the Great and the Emergence of the Iberian Kingdom As to "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". 278­280). Arian K'art'li of the Georgian chronicle. alike Suania (Svaneti).C. Nino ­ the idols Gac'i and Ga were deities of the ancestors of Georgians in Arian K'art'li. No other episode is known from the sources about the subjection of Iberia to western or south­western Georgian political organisations before the sixth century. must be located southwest of modern Georgia. as well as the Caspian expedition of Patrocles in 283/282 B.
who were oppressing the land of Rome. Seleucus I's permanent ambassador in India at 304­297/293 B. who were the guard (p'rotitosik).C. already at the Classical times. these were descended from Mihrdat. and left over them (the Iberians ­ G. as to Abydenus narrates in these terms: ""the powerful Nebuchadnezzar. And part of them he led away and settled on the 190 right­hand side of the Pontus sea"".K.. the name of Alexander the Great's close supporter is Azon and different from "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" he was installed by Alexander as a patrician: "Alexander conquered all K'art'li. the proof that Movses Xorenac'i. The P'rotat'oselni were strong and courageos men. and who besides did not take Roman soldiers.). Azon appointed from among them commanders throughout the whole land of Georgia. but his fellow countrymen and the idols Gaci and Ga with him from his old homeland. They were seriously oppressing the Greeks in their own country. 18).As to The Life of the Kings. and gave him 100.000 men from the land of Rome. gathering an army. By the words of Movses Xorenac'i. in contrast to the first one. who was mightier than Heracles..000 soldiers. a Macedonian called Azon. 8). quoting this .) as patrician one Azon by name.. to Mcxet'a (320).  In Armenian translation of the twelfth century: "Over the country he appointed as patrician. came and attacked the land of the Libyans and Iberians. whom Alexander brought and left as prince over the captives from among the Iberian peoples that Nebuchadnezzar had brought..C. the name of Alexander's lieutenant is Azo and not Azon. gave them to the patrician Azon. Breaking their resistence. As it was noticed. which is called P'rotat'os. He brought them to K'art'li. and gave him 100. great and powerful family and called the title of their principality the bdeashkh of the Gugarats'ik. the satrap of Darius.opposite the Caucasus Mountain as governor of the north he (king Valarshak of Armenia ­ G. The information concerning the resettlement of the population from Lybia (Africa) and Western Iberia (Iberian peninsula) by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in the early sixth century B.. author of The History of the Armenians: ". son of Iaredos.." This information of The Life of the Kings is taken without any doubt from the "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". (And Iberia is on the edge of the world in the west)" (II. very brave and strong fighters. and left Azon in K'art'li as erist'avi with those troops in order to subdue K'art'li" (I. therefore he removed them from there and handed them over to Azon.) appointed. a relative of his from the land of Macedon. was ascribed to Megasthenes (historian. where.K. which is 'elder'.. he subdued them. Arian K'art'li.
 It must be also taken into account that Mithridates VI fostered a comparison of himself with Alexander the Great. satrap of Darius.). G.. attributes the foundation of the Iberian kingdom to Alexander the Great. Because of these data from the Georgian and Armenian chronicles the opinion prevails in the Georgian historiography that the origin of the Iberian kingdom must 191 be connected with the expansion of Hellenistic states of Asia Minor or of the South Georgian tribal societies. The central pass through the Great Caucasian range was frequently mentioned by ancient authors as "pillars or stronghold of Alexander". used the Armenian version is given by his mistranslation of the name Megasthenes as an adjective ("powerful") describing Nebuchadnezzar. the great king of the Achaemenian Iran. There is no doubt that Artashes is Artaxias of the Greek sources of the early second century B. similar to the Georgian annals. who was from the seed of Mithridates. It is impossibble to prove yet by whom they were caused.) ­ father­in­low of the Armenian king Tigran II (95­55 B.) and Mithridates ­ Mithridates VI. it is evident that Alexander never marched towards the Caucasus. gave his sister Artasham "as wife to a certain Mithridates. The informations of the Georgian and Armenian chronicles about Alexander's campaign to the Caucasus are apparently borrowed from the popular Alexander Roman ("Historia Alexandri Magni") of Pseudo­Callisthenes of the early medieval times (the narrative is probably of the fourth century) and connected with the widespread view ascribing the fortification of the Caucasian Gate (the same as Caspian Gate mentioned by some ancient authors) to Alexander. great bdeashkh of Georgia.C. claimed his provenance from one of the satraps of Darius.C. And he entrusted him with the government of the northern mountains and the Pontic Sea" (II. area is also reflected by The History of the Armenians by Movses Xorenac'i.. Eupator (111­63 B. At the same time. certain events seem to have really taken place in Central Transcaucasia in the late fourth ­ early third centuries B. It is known that Mithridates VI. whom Alexander had set over the prisoners from Iberia. Pontic. Though The History of the Armenians.C.C. (189­161 B. Thus the indication of the possible connections of the earliest stages of the Iberian kingdom with the northeastern Anatolian. Melikishvili considers this Mithridates // Mihrdat as a representative of the Mithridatic dynasty of the Pontic kingdom who at the same time can be identified with Azo//Azon of the Georgian chronicles.information from Eusebius. grandson of Valarshak and son of Arshak.C. though Pliny and Julius Solinus mentioned the . Eupator. In an another extract of The History of the Armenians Movses informed us that the king Artashes. like the various Mithridates of Pontus. 11).
Xovle gora III (the level of the fourth century B. in the opinion of G. Restorer. As P'arnavas of The Life of the Kings. expected Alexander's help against his neighbours ­ Colchians and Amazoneans ­ on the other hand. in 329­328 B. the Roman writer and politician of the second century A.C. came to Alexander on the bank of the Central Asian river Oxes (modern Amu Daria) and told him that he lived in the neighbourhood of the Colchians and Amazonians and offered his help if Alexander wished to conquer these tribes who lived in the region extended to the Pontus Euxinus (i.supremacy of Macedonians in Iberia. by the information of Georgian and Armenian chronicles. and Mithridates (Mihrdat) of The History of the Armenians seems to be a representative of the Mithridatides dynasty of Pontus.C. stone cannon­balls of the catapult were detected in Samadlo I. Alexander the Great after his arrival in K'art'li (Iberia) installed his lieutenant as a ruler. Pharasmanes. 192 Speri (modern Ispir in Turkey). Urbnisi ­ in Central Transcaucasian sites of the Classical period.). The desire of the local rulers to connect their own aims with the interests of Alexander the Great and to use his power for their realisation.e. the king of Central Asian "Chorasmieans". accomplished his raid to the south­west towards East Anatolia. Black Sea). 50 km north­west of Tbilisi. the heavenly representation of this pagan king is known. situated east of Gori and ca. Alexander of Great was so much worshipped in Georgia that the most powerful Georgian king. the raid of Alexander of Macedon or of his closest successors took place in the central part of Eastern Georgia. Pharasmanes. obviously does not concern the Central Transcaucasian homeland of Iberians. Lordkipanidze. According to him. mentioned by Arrian. where gold mines were. is reflected in The Campaign of Alexander by Flavius Arrian. the king of Chorasmieans. If on the one hand. As only the Macedonian army was equipped with such machines. From the tenth century church of Xaxuli (modern Turkish Haho). the enemy of the Colchians and Amazoneans. Furthermore. David IV.D.. I thought that exactly in this region ­ the northeastern part of Anatolia ­ not only Arian K'art'li mentioned in the Georgian chronicle but also the country of Pharasmanes. situated immediately east from Speri in the western part of the ancient Georgian province Tao. this information must be connected with the data of Armenian and Georgian chronicles concerning the dependance of the Iberian ruler on Alexander the Great. the name . As I tried to point out in another place. in correlation with his remark that eastern Iberians are known under the same name as the western Iberians because of the golden mines in both countries. dated back to the fourteenth century. but the southwesternmost part of their country. is called in Georgian annals the second or new Alexander. Up'liscixe. after the defeat of Azon (Azo). The information of Strabo that Menon was sent by Alexander with soldiers to Syspiritis near Caballa.
at the first glance. p'rotat'oseans. 194 for which reason they are called in the chronicle „p'rotat'oselni?“ what in Georgian means people of „P'rotat'o“ ­ p'rotat'oseans.K. The need to adjust Azo's personality of the "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" to the concept of The Life of the Kings about the authochtonity of Georgians and their first native king P'arnavaz induced. Melikishvili.) Roman soldiers who were taken by Azon with him. That is quite clear from the whole context of the early history of Georgia. "the Macedonian". as it was assumed. must have one and the same source. the data of Georgian and Armenian chronicles are only the reflection of this fact. Azo. We can only guess that the events of the late fourth ­ early third centuries B. I 193 assumed that if in the text of The Campaign of Alexander by Flavius Arrian. In the opinion of G. especially when considering the actual connection between Alexander's conquest of the Achaemenid empire and the replacement of the pax achaemenia by the pax macedonica with the subsequent independence of the Georgians and the establishment of their monarchy which mark the beginning of both the historical memory and the unbroken organic socio­political and cultural development of the nation. who became king in Mcxet'a with the help of Alexander the Great. Nobody knows exactly what . we paid attention to Strabo's information that Armenians enlarged their lands by cutting off from the Iberians the slopes of Pariadres Mountains and Chorzene. As to C. it is possible that cycles about Azo (Mihrdat of The History of the Armenians) and P'arnavas existed initially separately or that they are even versions of the one and the same story about the origin of the Iberian kingdom and that they were obviously united in the later literary version by the author of The Life of the Kings. under the name of the Chorasmiean's king Pharasmanes the ruler of the Iberian province of Chorzene was meant. But if the story about hundred thousand (?!­ G. the author (or redactor) of this chronicle to replace Azo by Azon. a part of whom was later assimilated in the local population.of whose country was presumably mixed up with the designation of the country in Central Asia ­ Chorasmii could be possible to locate. beside Gogarene. In connection with the problem concerned. Toumanoff. and his (Azo's) countrymen from Arian K'art'li by Azon's supporter "Roman soldiers". Consequently. one can not fail to notice the essential authenticity of the evidence of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" and to postulate therefore the reliability and antiquity of its sources. was wholly invented by the chronist and added to the story of "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" about the first Iberian king. were somehow connected with the processes which caused the emergence of the Iberian kingdom. Azo. then the above information of Arrian and the information of the Georgian chronicle about the son of the king of Arian K'art'li.C.
..e. resulting from the expansion of Alexander's army. of the whole Transcaucasian area which. "slaughtered all the mingled tribes living in K'art'li. He demanded the Georgians to worship the sun. "stand before one so as to protect". the moon and the five stars as well as to serve the unvisible God. πρό­τασσω with the meaning of advance­guard. that means that Alexander the Great. As this word means in Greek a "place or post in front". invading Iberia. in a first line. from the invasion of the northern nomadic tribes. though the author of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ used it without understanding its sense. In this connection we must pay attention to the statement of The Life of the Kings. being located immediately south from the Caucasian Gates ( i. defended the Mediterranean ­ Near Eastern οίκουμένη. i. more similar to the Georgian term P'rotat'os. the Attic dialect was used by Macedonians already from the time of Alexander's father Phillip II.e. It was recently also assumed that the term „p'rotat'oselni“ must be taken from the Greek πρό­τασις. As it is known. the Georgians.this term („p'rotat'oselni“) means or where their (the people of „P'rotat'o“) homeland was located. used to designate the Greek military corps of Alexander the Great's time. Gagoshidze. and widely spread throughout the Hellinistic world. pillars of Alexander) and representing a part of one and the same Hellenistic world. πρότασσω would become more credible if we would take into account the Attic form of the same Greek word: πρόταττω. In the view of Y.. namely to be the outpost of the civilized world in its struggle with the realm of Gog and Magog which was located in the hyperborean waste beyond the Great Caucasian Ridge. which can be traced back to 195 the legendary image of the great king are represented on the state emblem of the Republic of Georgia and under the hoofs of the horse of White Giorgi (the image of . and appointed for them a ruler and gave them an ideological basement ­ a necessary component of any state. moon and five stars. . 18). it is evident that Alexander never marched towards the Caucasus. It should be pointed out that even today sun.also slew or took captive all the foreign tribes. the creator of the universe (I. But if the term p'rotadoseans of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ is now connected with the alleged expansion of the Macedonian army. generally. The proposed explanation of the term p'rotat'oseans by the Greek word πρότασις. 17). it even expresses the historical destination of the Iberian kingdom and. I believe that the connection of the name of Alexander the Great with the emergence of the Georgian statehood indicates only the raison d'ètre of this state. But he spared the tribes descended from K'art'los" (I. the term „p'rotat'oselni“ could be derived from the Greek prόtaktoV with the meaning of advanced. the civilized world of common interests.
surrounded by Alexander's forces in the stronghold of Sarkine. which was soft and easily cut. But they had strong towns and were fearless warriors. . Secretly they began to hew out the rock and to drill through the cliff. established on the Kura river (Mtkvari ­ in Georgian) and along its northern tributaries (flowing down from the mountains of the Great Caucasian Ridge). must have represented the population of northern provenance. this fact must be considered as an additional proof of the borrowing of above part from "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" or from a third source. whose name is usually explained as original. they left the city empty. a symbol of the connection of its destiny with one of the main markers of the geographical and political division of the world.K. though by the words of the chronicier: "the description of their way of life is inexpressible". common for both these chronicles.George's icon ­ a symbol of natural challenge of the country. the Bun­Turks are mentioned. we have the description of the invasion of Georgia by Alexander the Great who saw there horrible barbarians. As only in this part of The Life of the Kings. 3 The Role of Caucasian Passes in the Early History of Transcaucasia In "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay" and The Life of the Kings. The Sarkinelians escaped through the hole by night and fled to the Caucasus. It seems that the Bun­Turks. Arseni Beri. though the text in connection 196 with earlier and later northern invaders speaks mainly of Khazars. as a place situated outside of Ovseti (that means the country of Ossetians or "Alans"). namely that Bun­Turks.) caused much hardship for the Sarkinelians. the Georgian author of the twelfth century. because he attacked them for eleven months. Alexander conquered all K'art'li" (I. and where afterwards the great breed of Qipchaks lived. fundamental. real Turks or as "Hun­Turks" and whom Alexander supposedly met in Central Transcaucasia. indicated the area where the Bun­Turks were resettled after Alexander having banished them from K'art'li. Alexander was astonished because no other people acted in such a disgusting way as they did. It is quite certain that Arseni Beri had the steppes of South Russia in mind. In Georgian annals the characterization of these barbarians is picturesquely expressed. 18). unknown to us. slipped through the hole in the rock and took shelter in the Caucasian mountains: "He (Alexander ­ G. By the words of Arseni Beri this place is a vaste country. rich in water. people who were called by Georgians "Bun­Turks and Kipchaks". describing Alexanders campaign towards the Caucasus. This fact is in a certain degree confirmed by the information in The Life of the Kings.Georgia) the Caucasian mountains are depicted instead of the dragon of St. broken through the south of the Caucasian mountains.
336). Ossetes and Kipchaks.K. They met him on the river which flows from the Darialan and descends into the valley of Ossetia" (I. Then the kings of Ossetia assembled their troops and were joined by a force from Xazaret'i. their sovereign. and made friendship and peace between them as (between) brothers. which is now called Daruband.. all the Xazars submitted to this king. for example. ravaged all the territory of Xazaret'i. The descendants of T'argamos were unable to resist them. 50. The information about the building of cities at the entrance to Khazaria seems to be the reflection of the permanent desire of the Transcaucasian population to fortify the entrances also at the northern edges of passes leading through the Caucasus. After that the Xazars appointed a king.000 cavalry. Khazars invaded the Northern Caucasia: "At that time the Khazars grew strong and began to attack the peoples of Lek and Kavkas. The Life of King Vaxtang Gorgasali points out that: "Vaxtang set out and stopped in T'ianet'i.. He created a safe passage for the Kipchaks. the King of Kings informs us about the control of all passes leading through the Caucasus by David for the massing of northerners for his army: "They [King David and his chancellor Giorgi ­ G. Gate of Alans) for their campaigns to the north of the Caucasus. long before king Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem. crossed the Caucasus mountain. In this way he easily united the two nations. By the information of The Life of the Kings. Like servants they presented themselves before him. He took control of the fortresses of Darial and those of all the passes of Ossetia and of the Caucasus mountain. By the information of Georgian annals. On his entry into Ossetia Vaxtang was 16 years old.. In connection with David the Restorer The Life of David. There all the kings of the Caucasus joined him. They plundered the land of the descendants of T'argamos.. Georgian kings used the Dariali Pass (Persian "Dar­i­ alan".As Khazars are mentioned in The Life of the Kings describing events of pre­Alexander time. 197 The Life of the Kings mentions two routes of the invasion of Transcaucasia from the north and indicates simultaneously the approximate time of the creation of the above part of the text by calling the invaders ­ "Xazars": "The Xazars knew two roads. and brought through a very great multitude" (I. destroyed all the cities of Ararat and of Masis and of the north. built cities at the entrance to Xazaret'i. and were met by the kings of Ossetia and all their princes. . because the multitude of the Xazars was numberless. and they requested help against the Xazars. and hostages were given by both sides. He advanced in the name of God and crossed the pass of Darialan. it becomes obvious that this ethnonym was used in the conventionl sense and implied nomadic tribes settled in the Northern Caucasia. They advanced and came out at the Pass of the Sea. All the peoples descended from T'argamos united. 11­12). 151)." (I.] entered Ossetia. and returned.
 This information must be connected with the data given in The History of the Armenians (§ 19) by Agathangelos. who.Khosrov king of Armenia began to raise forces and assemble an army..D. destroyed all the cities and castles of K'art'li. destroy completely. The Life of the Kings ascribes the opposition to the Khazar invaders of the Persian military leader (erist'avi) Ardam: "He came to K'art'li. passing the Daruband Pass ("Chor gate". and as a token of his own authority he set up a stele with an inscription in Greek so that it would be clear that he owed allegiance to the Romans" (II. The scale and importance of such possible northern invasions become obvious by the following words: 198 "He ravaged the whole country. Also Movses Xorenac'i. He attempted to eradicate. and overthrow the Persian kingdom and aimed at abolishing its civilization"...namely the Pass of the Sea. according to the realities of his time. Khosrov. they crossed to this side of the River Kura". began to wage war on K'asre. a certain Vnasep Surhap. opened the gates of the Alans and the stronghold of the Chor. an author supposedly of the late fifth century A. called also the northern tribes. Routing those powerful nations with sword and lance. 14). which is the Darial" (I. he took hostage one out of every hundred of all their active men. 65). Daruband. invaded the right bank of the River Kura: ". This Kosaro. extirpate. about the population of northern origin who penetrated Transcaucasia from Dariali as well as from Derbend Gate (stronghold of the Chor). king of the Armenians. and the Pass of the Aragvi. he brought through the army of the Huns in order to attack Persian territory and invade Asorestan as far as the gates of Ctesiphon". This is asserted for the epoch earlier than Alexander's fight with Bun­Turks and must therefore be considered as a later addition to the text comparable with "Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay". "gathered the Armenian army and passed across the great mountain to exact vengeance for his father's death. the author of The History of the Armenians. I mean the Khazars and Basilik'. He gathered the armies of the Albanians and the Georgians. but following the invitation by the Armenian king: ". The same story is as well reflected in The Life of the Kings: "Kosaro was king in Armenia... But the enemy was once again united and Valarsh in the subsequent battle was killed. and killed as many Xazars as he found in K'art'li" (I. ruining the populous cities and properous towns. the king of Armenians at first won and "pushed them back through the Chor pass". 13).the hosts of the northern peoples united. Valarsh. and passing through the Chor gate under the leadership of their king. His son. He left all the inhabited land devasted and plundered. Derbend). king of . "Khazars" and "Basiliks".
add troops from the Greeks.. the king of Iberia ­ G.Then . and nations of the North had put the king of Persia to flight. Thus he brought together all the north. in order to wage war on the Persians. it was necessary to defend the Caucasian passes from them. "with all the Armenians descended into the plain of Gargar and met northern /people/ in battle. Leks. Georgians. and oppose the Persians. and fought continuously. The Armenian king Trdat. in many quantifiable respects. on the one hand. Armenian and Persian monarchs were united in the defence of the Derbend Gate from the penetration of the northerners.] the king of the Persians sent an erist'avi with a large army against the Armenians and Georgians in order to impose tribute. open the passes of the Caucasians. king of the Persians. and the king of Persia was no longer able to resist" (I. Asp'agur opened the passes of the Caucasus and brought down the Ossetes. and they had increased their attacks on Persia and their ravages of Persia... in pursuit. bring down Ossetes and Leks. In the very first attack on Persia K'asre. so often appearing in old Armenian and Georgian chronicles. was the most devoted follower of this policy: 199 "He began to wage war on the Xazars. son of Artashir" (II. is easily understandable on the background of the fact that both these Transcaucasian countries constituted. a single social organism. as well as Georgians. The Life of the Kings mentions. and there they fought a battle. but they put him to flight and destroyed his army. king of Armenia.K. Sometimes the Leks defected from Mirian. 136).the Persians. On other occasions the Durjuks and Didos joined forces and brought down the Xazars. The last part of The Conversion of K'art'li by Nino informs us as well that: "In his time [Varaz­Bak'ar's. suggesting that they join forces.. The policy of Armenians. the Armenians. From then on no king of Persia was able to resist them. and Xazars. The idea of the joint Armeno­Iberian opposition to the Persians. on the other hand it was a big temptation to use their forces against their own southern enemies. and they increased their attacks on Persia and their ravages in Persia. king of the Georgians. Mirian would encounter them in Heret'i or Movakan. His nobles also urged opposition to the Persians" (I. he joined forces with Kosaro. Trdat took hostages from them according to ancestral custom and returned. chased them as far as the land of the Huns. 59­60). raised many troops.. that king Mirian who afterwards became the first Christian king of Georgia. But generally the interests of Georgian. according to Movses Xorenac'i. Asp'agur. 85).. Then the Armenians dispatched an envoy to Varaz­Bak'ar. and bringing them together marched to Persia to attack Shapuh. towards northerners was ambivalent: if. helped him. and whenever they brought down the Xazars to help them. drew up his line.
K. having united.] was ten years old.) King Tiran. Valarshak.. ruled over Armenia. then Mirian would march to aid Daruband. It seems that the Bun­Turks of the Georgian annals and the Bulgars of the Armenian annal were one and the same tribe of northern origin. They devastated the plains.) in the fertile regions rich in wheat" (II. innumerable Ossete troops came down and ravaged K'art'li.K. 9).K. As to an information by Movses about much earlier times when Arshak. Mirian was always victorious. 67).] as far as Xunan.. often with my own blood have I saved Persia from the Xazars. the modern Turkish Göle.. established greater friendship toward our (Armenian ­ G. Many of them split off and came to our land and settled for a long time below of Kol (South­West Georgian province ­ Kola. and never did the Xazars win. that Shah "Shapuh son of Ormizd. Their identification with each other becomes more plausible if we take into account the story about the "barbarous foreign race" in the text of Movses Xorenac'i preceding the passage dedicated to the Bulgars and whose characterization resembles some traits of the Bun­Turks and the territory of their inhabitation ­ Central Transcaucasia. Sometimes without fighting the Xazars withdrew before Mirian." (I.they fought battles. except for Kasp [the proper form is Kaspi ­ G. and sometimes he routed them in battle" (I.all my days I have been occupied in fighting the Xazars.K. For the Xazars would come and besiege Daruband in order to capture it and open the broad pass.. west of Kars ­ G. penetrated the pass of Chor and encamped on the borders of Albania for four years" (III. and went through the pass of Daruband because its inhabitants gave them passage. The Life of King Vaxtang Gorgasali shows the importance of the Derbend Gate for the operations of the northern tribes in Iberia: "When Vaxt'ang [the proper form is Vaxtang ­ G. Movses informs us too.K. 145­146). He made most of his expeditions to Daruband. The essence of king Mirian's struggle is peculiarly clear expressed in the words ascribed to him by the same chronicle: ". "there was a great tumult in the zone of the great Caucasus Mountain in the country of the Bulgars. the son of Valarshak.].. Then they returned victorious to Ossetia" (I. but left untouched the fortified cities. 66). from the source of the Mtkuari [the Kura river ­ G. Such was the frequent result of battle with the Xazars. But when the Xazars came to Daruband. from where they began to invade Persia. . even supporting and assisting him: he saved him from an attack of the northern nations who. 12).. By this information.
namely that "poetry and historical study are akin".) the barbarous foreign race that inhabited the northern plain and the foothills of the great Caucasus Mountain and the vales or long and deep valleys that descend from the mountain on the south to the great plain. as to Ammianus Marcellinus. 6)." (II. Movses refers several times to the barbarous races north of the Caucasus. Sinor as Central Eurasia (the 201 same as Inner Asia) and as its periphery. E. a ravening greed for money. cf. It is obvious that Movses meant the same Bulgars in this connection. Mithridates. we have an indication of one of the functions of the Iberian state. For the advanced societies of the Near East the fear of the invasion of northern tribes.K. A History of the Georgian People. Toynbee's second type of stimulus created by human environment ­ the stimulus of continuous external prressure.. distinguished by D.. As to his information. The Huns. He ordered them to cast off their banditry and of assassinations and to become subject to royal commands and taxes.father of aforementioned Arshak. a Chinese chronicle records that "the Barbarians of the West and of the North are ravenous wolves who cannot be satiated". In the above paragraph Movses Xorenac'i considers the upper Basiani (the territory between the upper flows of the Araxes and the Kura) as a colony of Vlendur Bulgar Vund who dwelt in the area which was called after his name Vanand (the district around Kars). "burn with an infinite thrist for gold". Such a position of the Caucasus was already noticed by Pliny. namely that the Caucasian Gate divides the world in two parts (see above). were situated in the area exposed to the influences of A. As we have seen. D. mainly that of the Hunns. published 68 years ago and which as a epigraph has the phrase from the Decline of the West of Oswald Spengler. namely to defend the passes through these northern mountains (i. became more and more dangerous.e. 9 ­ G. W. By the characterization of the emperor of Byzans. In his book. the Caucasus) from the penetration of northern barbaric tribes. We can sum up that Georgia and Caucasia in general. Constantine II Porphyrogenetus. the Caucasian Gate. It seems to be clear that in another aforementioned fragment of Movses' text concerning the fact of the entrusting the government of the northern mountains by the Armenian king to the ruler of Iberians. at the time of the gradual increase of their activity. never satiated. II. 200 "summoned there (below of Kol. and so they demand everything and hanker after everything and have desires that know no limit or circumscription". "all the tribes of the North have as it were implanted in them by nature.C. from the Central Eurasia. Already in the third century B. localized to the contact zone of the two Worlds. together with the fortress of Kumania (to be identified with the . "sinful tribes of Gog and Magog". Allen underlines the big difference between the areas north and south of the Caucasian mountains.
13). was not very appropriate because it was only in winter open when the south wind rolled the waves back and the sea was driven back exposing the shallows along the coast. that the pass along the west coast of the Caspian Sea. the supressor of the barbarians. closed the entrance for the innumerable tribes living north from the Caucasus. he remarks in his Annals written in 109. The so­called Caspian Gate was mainly characterized by the name of the Iron Gate. The Life of the Kings attributes to Ardam. became most glorious. an effective remedy to terrify savage tribes. gave way to a littoral pass. the old legend about the Iron Gate arranged by him against barbarians. which means 'he shut the gate' " (I. was known. barbarous population broken into Iberia from the north through the Caucasian Pass.) ­ the reason which seems to have determined the use of the term Caspian Gate in the meaning of the Dariali Pass. localized to Western Iran. and a coastal fortification became necessary.. between the sea and mountains on the Albanian frontier. it already designated the Dariali Pass (the same as Caucasian Gate) in the first century A. as it was already underlined.g. because of the earlier much higher sea level of the Caspian Sea (e.Georgian fortress of Kumli).D. It is quite logical that the Bun­Turks whom he met by the information of Georgian annals in K'art'li.D. designed to block the coastal pass to northern nomadic invaders. in the first century B. It deserves to be mentioned that by the information of Pliny the timber logs of the Caucasian Gate were covered by iron sheets. the fortification of the Derbend Gate: "This erist'avi Ardam built a city at the Pass of the Sea and he named it Daruband. He.C. that the Derbend Gate could not be so 202 effective before the fifth century A. and a long time after his death.D. does not appear to have been founded prior to the sixth century when it was constructed by the Persian king Khosro Anushirvan (531­579). In the connection with the events of A. where the Iron Gate was established. later this name was given to the Derbend Pass. At the time of the fall of the Roman empire Alexander the Great's name as a fighter against the northern nomadic tribes. But we must take into account the fact. It seems that at that time the Caspian waters. on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. the legendary Persian military leader of the pre­ Alexander epoch. when the civilized world was threatened by their invasion. once higher. 32­37. are identical with the nomad. was. Tacitus gives the indication of the situation of earlier times. The Derbend Gate (the Arabian Bab­al­Abwab. If by the name of Caspian Gate at first the ravine of Sidara (Firus­Kukh). was revived. "Gate of Gates"). though it is well known that at different times this last name was given to various passes near the Caspian Sea. like the Egyptian sphinx. .
However. was in charge to control the route leading to the south­east. or related to it. The Ossetes came down and found the erist'avi of the Persians outside on the plain.K. This well pleased the Persian king and he accepted the Georgians' request. As far as the Caucasian Gate has been in Iberian hands. and therefore it was of principal importance for the Southeastern Transcaucasia and Iran.D. he deemed it the best and the strongest and closest to his northern enemies.] came to terms with the Ossetes. This fact indicates that the function of Harmastus 203 was to bar the route for innumerable tribes from the North coming down along the Tergi (Terek) and Aragvi ravines from the Caucasian Gate or Dariali. the capital of Eastern Georgia from the fifth century A. since he himself decided it was best to appoint his own son as king of Mc'xet'a [king Mirian ­ G. So the Georgians were liberated. has replaced Armazi as a capital in the first century A.K. from there he could wage war on them and control all . It seems that the name of one of the fortresses of Mtzkheta which was a part of a general fortification system of the capital and barred its northern entrance ­ Beltis­tsikhe ("fortress of Belti") is based on the Aramean. Whatever Persians they found. Already in connection with the Persian counter­offensive of legendary Ardam against the Khazars. of Ran and its surrounding territory. that opposite the Caucasian gates the Iberian city Harmastus (the same as the old capital of Eastern Georgia. The Life of the Kings reports about the collaboration of the North Caucasians (Ossetians) with the Georgians against the Persians: "They [the Georgians ­ G. a word with the meaning of "fortress" ­ "birta".. becomes understandable.the Persian king asked about the city of Mc'xet'a. already in the ruins of the citadel of Armazi Near Eastern (Urartian­Achamenian) architectural traditions are detactable. Allen. because of its greater strategic convenience during the war with the Alans. the Iberian state suceeded not only in defending the Caucasian Gate but also in using this "Gate" for its own strategical aims: in case of necessity to mass the additional military forces from the north against Georgia's southern enemies. E. and they killed him. But Ran and Heret'i were subject to the Persians" (I. the above information by Movses Xorenac'i.] described its size and strength and its proximity to the Xazars and Ossetes. namely. the Ossetes and Georgians slew them all.]. that the Armenian king "entrusted" the control of these mountains to the descendant of Alexander's Iberian protegée. D. For of all the cities of Armenia and of K'art'li. closing the ravine of Kura in the narrowest place of its middle flow. Mtzkheta. Pliny makes a very important remark. In the opinion of Georgian archaeologists.D. He insulted them... Tbilisi (Tiflis).K. and they [the Georgians ­ G. Kartli ­ Armazi) was situated. 13­14).. The strategic importance of the central part of Iberia ­ K'art'li ­ is underlined in connection with the story of the Georgian's attempt to gain the support of the Persian king of the late third century: ". It is interesting to notice that in the opinion of W. the next capital of Iberia..
Qru came to all the Caucasus. to settle „his clansmen“ in Transcaucasia cause the suspicion of the Arab leadership. 234).K. he sent word to Bugha that he should leave K'art'li to Humed. 256­ 257). 204 Much more complicated is the information of The Book of K'art'li narrating about the unordinary measures of the Arab military leader in connection with the northern enemies of the Arabs: "He [Turk Bugha. But when the amir­mumin became aware that he was negotiating with the Xazars. he seized the Passes of Dariel and of Daruband. the Arab military leader ­ G. The importance of the Caucasian passes were crucial for the Arabs. In the summer he wished to attack Ossetia. This attempt of Turk Bugha seems to have been stipulated by the nessecity to weaken the ability of the native Transcaucasian population to mass the northern tribes and to direct them against the southern intruders. These he settled at Šank'or. the availability in the Central Transcaucasia. It appears that measures taken by Turk Bugha. and the relatives of the erist'avis and nobles took refuge in the Caucasus and hid in the forests and caves. of Turkish origin. . He carried out all that the Georgians asked. and destroyed all the cities and innumerable fortresses in every region of K'art'li" (I. For the rulers of the states of the Eastern Mediterranean­Near Eastern area in all periods because of the necessity of the effective control of the Caucasian Gate which blocked up the way of the nomads. pitiaxses. too. The Life of King Vaxtang Gorgasali informs us about the destruction of the cities and the subjection of nearly the whole the Caucasus including both main Gates through the Great Caucasian Ridge: "All the mt'avaris. Already Tacitus noticed that Iberians were „masters of the various positions“ and could suddenly „pour“ the mercenaries from across the Caucasus against their southern enemies. * * * Regardless of the fact that we haven't any proof of the invasion of Central Transcaucasia by the Macedonians. in Iberia. 63­64). son of Xalil" (I.the Caucasians. and these he settled at Dmanisi. his clansmen.] opened the Pass of Daruband. and gave in oath and promise for everything" (I. From Darialan he brought through about one hundred Ossete households. of the political organisation with the sufficient strength to fullfill such a function ­ to be able to control the main pass through the Caucasus was desirable. the considerable interest of the Hellenistic states of the Near East in Iberia seems to have been doubtless. and brought through 300 Xazar households. Their aspiration to gain the control over these passes are depicted in Georgian annals.
the editor of the 1884 (Venice) edition of the Armenian text. indicating its defensive character (see above). Acharean connects this word with Greek φρούρα (with the meaning. though the Armenian text knows the designation "Romans". which is "elder" Macedonian called Azon. In the opinion of R. the distinction between the Romans (Hromi) and Greeks (Berdzeni) is very well known.000 soldiers. and conjectures the correction of „p'rotitosik“ (փրոտիտոսիկ) to „p'roiritosik“ (փրուրիտոսիկ).000 soldiers) were included in Alexander's army. "guard") or with a word derived from it: φρούρητός. Thompson. Tiroyean. who were the guard. Firstly. W.4 The Iberian Kingdom and Orbis Terarrum Although Georgian and Armenian chronicles attribute the foundation of the Iberian kingdom to the apocryphal invasion of Alexander the Great. and տ on the other. see above). since p' renders φ. As it is known. the word cannot derive from Greek πρότακτος as suggested by A. It seems that the Armenian translator. ր on the one hand. Secondly. At the same time the word „p'rotat'oselni“ is translated into Armenian as „p'rotitosik“ = "guard". identifed them with the Greeks. therefore he removed them from there and handed them over to Azon" (20).] appointed as patrician. They were seriously oppresing the Greeks in their own country. the term πρότασσω or πρόταττω with its meaning. and not π (as in patrik. there is no one word about their belonging to the Romans. but it does not explain the term „p'rotat'oselni“ (ფროტათოსელნი) used in the original Georgian text. two moments are not quite understandable in the text of The Life of the Kings from the point of view of the above discussed identification of the p'rotat'oseans with the Greek military corps of Alexander's time. it is not at all understandable that Azon's troops are designated as Roman soldiers. and gave him 100. very brave and strong fighters. Central Transcaucasia had a central part of the Roman's defensive designs concerning their eastern provinces. . hardly corresponds to the political situation of Alexander the Great's time as well as to the time of his immediate successors. In this connection the text of an Armenian translation of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ is of a certain interest: 205 "Over the country he [Alexander ­ G.K. which would give in Armenian p'rotitosik because of the similarity of Armenian letters ւ. For the author of The Life of the Kings as well as for the whole Georgian literature of the Early Middle Age. and is even more in accordance with the period of the Roman empire. H. feeling the logical discrepancy of the Georgian text by which the Roman troops of an unimaginable quantity (100.
5). namely that Iberia was situated on the route running from the north and naturally blocked it. they have on their banks fortified cities that are situated upon rocks.C. India and China on the other hand.. informed as to Pliny that at the time of this expedition a trade route coming from India and passing Bactria along the rivers Bactrus and Oxus to the Caspian Sea and afterwards upstream of the Kyrus (the Kura) to Phasis on the Pontus (the Black Sea) had been fixed. At the same time. Pompey's expedition repeated the old transit trading route leading from the Black Sea littoral to the Caspian ­ a circumstance which is indicative of the interest of the Romans in this route.). and with Central Asia. afterwards Colchis. Tigranes II. 3.C. Pompey was eager to advance with his forces upon the Caspian Sea but was forced to retreat at a distance of three days' march from it because of the number of venomous serpents.) first Transcaucasian expedition (65 B. except the above mentioned words of Pliny that the Caucasian Gate divides the world in two parts. Marcus Varro (116­27 B. ­ the Romans strove for the widening of their influence in Transcaucasia.C.). The key importance of the location of the Caucasus. situated to the west of it. 106­48 B. but this time passing Armenia. citadel of Armaz) had been built in order to guard the pass at the narrowest point where the Cyrus flows on the one side and the Caucasus is situated on the other one. Transcaucasia connected trade routes with the Northern Pontic area on the one hand. these being about sixteen stadia distant from each other ­ I mean Harmozice on the Cyrus and Seusamora on the other river" (XI..After the death of Mithridates VI Eupator and the capitulation of the king of Armenia. at first conquered Iberia. was vividly stated by Strabo. with a single file road requiring a four days' journey. The end of the road is guarded by a fortress which is hard to capture. As to him. and after this ascent comes a narrow valley on the Aragus River. and only then Albania.C. ­ both events took place in 66 B. the eastern neighbour of Iberia. can be deduced from the fact that Pompey set off from Armenia. It seems that campaigns to the western and eastern parts of Transcaucasia without a subjection of Central Transcaucasia which naturally controlled the most important pass through the . This region had an exceptionally great strategic importance as a defensive barrier against the penetration of the northern nomadic tribes. before the two rivers meet. As we know from Plutarch. Already a member of the Pompey the Great's (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. located in the central part of Transcaucasia. The strategical importance of Iberia. The urgent need to find new routes leading to the east is generally explained by the unparalleled strengthening of the contemporaneous Parthian state which blocked the earlier existing ways from the Mediterranean to India and Far East for the Romans.145] 206 Also by the words of Dio the fortress (Acropolis. "from the country of the nomads on the north there is a difficult ascent into Iberia requiring three days' travel.
had been defeated in Pompey's campaign. Mommsen’s conjecture of the Albanians of the above fragment of Tacitus to the Alans would have only the factual indication of the real state of affairs. at that time. induced Iberia and Albania to attack Parthia with the participation of Sarmatians but without an active support by the Roman army. Artaxata. at the time of Marcus Antonius' (83­30 B. 44­51. Ant. at this time. Mithridates.. and Illyria summoned and sent on by Nero to the Caspian passes. n. Pharasmanes I of Iberia captured the capital of Armenia. After the King of Iberia.. XIII. 18.2). Orois. XIV. As to Tacitus’ information. 31­6. Roman troops with Canidius (Publius Canidius Crassus) were sent against the Iberians 207 and Albanians. Britain. against the Parthians. in the expedition which he was preparing against the Albanians („quos idem Nero electos praemissosque ad claustra Caspiarum et bellum quod in Albanos parabat“) (Hist. was under the control of the Alans. XII. Jos. The victory over the Iberian king Pharnabaz (Pharnavaz II) and the Albanian king Zober and their attraction to the unity and "friendship" with Romans encouraged Antonius.) Parthian expedition.C. The folllowing hundred years was the time of the strengthening of the Iberian kingdom. 5­6. 37. Plin. The Iberians succeeded not only in expelling the Parthians from Armenia but also in replacing them with the support of the Romans and the warlike nomad forces which they (Iberians) took from the north via the Dariali pass. and the chief of the Albanian tribes. LX. there were also many detachments from Germany. but this "friendship" did not last a long time. the Caucasian Gate. We can not exclude that Albania. the Romans. they were declared by the Romans as their "friends and allies". using effective diplomacy.. XV. were not quite save. from this throne Mithridates was afterwards overthrown by his nephew and Pharasmanes’ son Radamistus (Tac. 8­9. VI. quite contrary to his earlier purpose. h. 204). Under Tiberius (14­37). 1. 8. 97).6. 26. 83. 26. Already in 36 B. XI. Dio LVIII. In such a case. and installed his brother. Dio remarks that Pompey was compelled to fight first with the Iberians.. It is not excluded that. At the end of his reign (in 66­67) Nero (54­68) initiated a grandiose plan for a new Caucasian expedition. different from Iberia Albania did not assist Romans in 208 the course of their recent campaigns.C. it was intended to cross the Caucasus (the Dariali pass).Caucasus. In Tacitus’ . Ann. Th. Tacitus is right stating that the Iberians dominated many passes and could successfully convey the northerners across the Caucasus to the south by the Caspian route to use them according to the political aims of Iberia (see above p. The reason for this encouragement was probably the role of the mountain passes through the Caucasus which were controlled by both these kingdoms and due to which it was possible to use the nomadic tribes from beyond the Caucasus for the Roman interests. 3. Artag. on the Armenian throne (35­52).
for a certain man threw a net over him from a great distance. and fought them. and prevented it. Nero's preventing measures would be most plausible. Already Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus. for he was master of that passage which king Alexander shut up with iron gates. who met them. where as being Scythians and inhabiting at the lake Meotis. ye Parthians.. and fell upon the Medes unexpectedly. informs us that: "a nation of the Alans. laid a design of falling upon Media. with which intention they treated with the king of Hyrcania.. ever­warring. 222­225). unless he had immediately cut the cord with his sword. in order to plunder them. laid waste the . which.K. forcing the latters to change their pro­ Roman orientation because of his aggressive policy towards them.. who showed himself as a skillfull diplomat. but had like to have been taken alive in the battle. Pharasmanes. So the Alans... This king [of Hyrcania ­ G. and proceeded as far as Armenia. correspondingly.information. 209 The Alans. 39­65) mentioned Alans in connection with the Caspian Gate: "And you. there was a war among Iberia and Albania in the middle of the first century A. posed a grave threat to the stability in Transcaucasia. if when I sought The Caspian gates. and ran away. Flavius Josephus (37 ­ after 93). pressed. These Alans therefore plundered the country without opposition. The danger of the intrusion of the northerners seems to have been actuall enough. and the parts beyond it. and had soon drawn him to him.] gave them leave to come through them. I suffered you In Persian tracts to wander. Whatever may have been the nature of the projects conceived and then abandoned by Nero.. VIII. and with great ease. striving for the lands south of the Caucasian Mountains. so they came in great multitudes. citing the words of the Iberian king.. seems ultimately to have succeeded in the deterioration of the Roman­Albanian relations. Pharasmanes I. and on th' Alaunian tribes Fierce. If we would also take into account the fact that relations of Rome with Parthia simultaneously improved as never before. they would have more likely involved an action together with Parthia than against it ­ the common interest in the preservation of peace was now cemented by a common danger coming from beyond the Caucasus.. concerning the events which took place immediately after Nero. then an explanation of the expectation of a threat coming from the north for the eastern regions of the empire in the nearest future and. and the Roman military strategy demanded the participation in the defence of this area. Now Tiridates was king of that country. nobody durst make any resistance against them. and plundered their country. nor compelled To seek for shelter Babylonian walls" (The Civil War.. laying all waste before them. and.D.. being still more provoked by this sight.
and a great quantity of the other prey they had gotten out of both kingdoms. must be explained not only by the need to defend eastern provinces. but commercial. The control of the Caucasian passes would have given the most favourable opportunity for the foundation of Pax Romana in the Near East. The enhancement of the Cappadocian province by two legions and a governor of the rank of a consular at the time of Vespasian because of the constant offensives by barbarians is usually ascribed to these events. the fact that almost every Roman campaign in Mesopotamia began with an expedition into Armenia disproves the belief that Roman interest in Caucasia was not military. who. I am of the opinion that the main task of the Romans in Transcaucasia was not only to block the penetration of the northern barbarians via the Caucasus. 210 in contrast to Nero. but even predeterminated by the need to overcome the traditional. In the view of N. the successor of Nero. Even only the existence of such a threat was an important weapon in the Roman hands against their eastern adversaries. intensively sought the cooperation of Vespasian (69­79).country. was not eager to have common defensive projects with the Parthians and prefered to have plans not only independent of them. This information is connected with the report of Cassius Dio. though not always quite evident. along with them. namely that Vologaeses. 4). potentially ready for the involvement. The availability of the allied regional power would be of a certain . but also to have a possibility to direct them according their own strategical interests. Parthian opposition in the east. the concentration of the Roman forces on the eastern frontier and even outside of their genuine outlines. and drove a great multitude of the men. 7. It seems that the relations between Rome and Parthia drastically changed under Vespasian. These forces could anytime threaten the geopolitical status quo in the Near Eastern ­ Eastern Mediterranean area. but also in the context of their main political task to have an advantage as to the intensity of the pressure on the Caucasus ­ on the area which had a key­importance because of immense military resources beyond of it. though without success. At the same time. The manipultion of such hardly manageable forces as the northern nomads was an extremely difficult and dangerous task and required the involvement of the Roman military detachments in the area. and then retreated back to their own country" (The Jewish War. the king of Parthia. But there are also some facts reflecting a more complicated picture of this period: the armed confrontation between Romans and Parthians. against the Alans. The army units were needed in Cappadocia as well as the garrisons in Transcaucasian sites as a guarantee of the realisation of the Roman designs. Everything was done by Romans to create a solid barrier to eastern enemies and to encourage a pro­Roman orientation of Iberia and Albania. Debevoise. 7.
from Syria to Satala.significance. Legio XVI Flavia Firma. From this view­point the attraction of the Iberians has a paramount implication. Imperator Titus Caesar.. The information about the activity of the Romans in Iberia was taken from a Greek inscription found in the vicinity of Mc'xet'a.. the capital of Iberia: "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus." It is interesting that Vespasian is known in The Life of the Kings. In his opinion. Bartom and K'art'am ­ G. this fact means that in 75 Roman troops and engineers were already in Iberia and that therefore Fronto's expedition should have begun before this date. As we have here the expression: "exercitus qui in... est" and not the formula usually used: "exercitus qui est in. whom the Jews had released at the crucification of the Lord in place of our Lord Jesus" (I.. This date finds a confirmation and can be even fixed more precisely by the time when the Romans helped the Iberians to fortify Harmosike (in Georgian ­ Armazc'ixe) which was afforded in 75. had at the same time traditionally strong ties with Alano­Sarmatian nomadic tribes ­ a favourable circumstance for both sides and which was maintained throughout the whole Medieval epoch with a certain success. 77. were under the control of the legate of Cappadocia. Heil suggested. As to H. the emperor of the Romans. Torelli assumed that. Halfmann. From there refugee Jews came to Mc'xet'a and settled with the old Jews. king of Iberians. The fact that the stone inscription was found 7 km south from Mc’xet’a and not in the neighbourhood of the Dariali pass must of course by no means exclude the possibility that the defensive constructions were built against Alans. the diplomatic language of the inscription must not obscure the fact that Roman military troops were stationed in Iberia and that Nero's plans which were frustrated by the outbreak of a revolt in the west. having the supremacy over the Caucasian Gate. have been adopted and largely fulfilled by Flavian emperors..] reign Vespasian.. as it was by M. A. Hirrius Fronto's expedition corps is considered as an indication 211 of the date of the invasion of Alans. the date of the displacement of the Roman legion. and. M.". Among them were the sons of Barabbas. Armenia Minor.. though in connection with his campaign to Jerusalem: "During their [the kings of Iberia. of the Roman counter­ offensive. and its unification with Legio XII Fulminata in the M. The Iberians. independently of the fact whether it took place as a precaution against attacks of enemies or only as a consequence of their attacks.K. At the same time. Bosworth. captured Jerusalem. informs us about his post as „leg(atus) pr(o) pr(aetore) [imp(eratoris) Caesaris Vespasiani Aug(usti) exercit]us qui in A[­­­]“. in this case. As to A. represented by legionaries from XII Fulminata or XVI Flavia. at the same time.... son of Augustus.. strengthened walls for Mithridates. son of Augustus.. it has no connection with the normal commanders .. an inscription of Marcus Hirrius Fronto Neratius Pansa found at Saepinum (Sepino in Terravecchia). and Domitianus Caesar. 44)..D. Roman troops in 212 Iberia.
from Xunan as far as the head of the Mtkuari. is undoubtedly related with the name of the first Iberian king. king of Iberia ­ G. as to the text. In the view of Toumanoff. ruling simultaneously. and. from The History of Armenians. as Mihrdat/Mithridates. who (alike Azorki?) is also known. By the data of The Life of the King.D. Melikishvili. ruled in Armazi. this polyonomy must have caused the anonymous author of the source of Leonti Mroveli to split one king into two. are placed by the Georgian annals at the time approximately contemporary to Mithridates of the inscription. Between them he divided all his territory. secondly. Therefore scholars think that it was Mithridates II of Iberia who was mentioned by both these names. Azo. all this he gave to his son Bartom. one a Roman and the other one an Iranian vassal in the years 370­378. Bartom and K'art'am have been grandfathers of Armazeli and Azorki. Azorki and Armazeli. from Heret'i as far as the entrance to K'art'li and Egrisi. with a brief division of the country between two kings. As to G. one for a local use and a second. and the text could be completed by the following form: „leg(atus) pr(o) pr(aetore) [imp(eratoris) Caesaris Vespasiani Aug(usti) exercit]us qui in A[rmeniam Maiorem or in A[lanos or in A[lbanos missus est­­­]“.K. by the existence of the institution of the vitaxa of Iberia in the mid­first ­ mid­second century. In his opinion.of exercitus on the frontiers. Two kings of K'art'li. and all Klarjet'i. but a territorial epithet applied to the name Azorki who. Hirrius Fronto's post. K'art'li south of the Mtkuari. it is possible that some Iberian kings have had two names. must be interpreted as that of a commander of an eastern expedition.: "In the first year of his [Aderki. the land by Muxnar and all K'art'li north of the Mtkuari. Inner K'art'li. The name Azorki. and it seems possible that it was not at all the name of a king. Then Aderki died" (I. taking into account the approximate date of the inscription (A. The Life of the King dates this division to the first century A. Armazeli in Georgian means "of Armazi". whereas the land by Armazi. Mithridates. 75) ­ the time of the incursion of the Alani into Parthia and the erection of a defensive wall for the Iberian king ­ as well as Fronto's particular experience of political and military affairs in the East. connected. Azorki in Armazi and Armazeli in Mc'xet'a. which represented the dynastic name of the Iberian kings and had been known already from The History of Armenians of Movses Xorenac'i. 35) and even gives us a concrete indication about the territory of both Iberian kingdoms: "Now Aderki had two sons who were called. one Bartom and the other K'art'am.] reign was born 213 our Lord Jesus Christ in Bethlehem of Judaea" (I. 43). at first. The city of Mc'xet'a and the land on the Mtkuari. he gave to his son K'art'am.D. was used only in the outside world. on its part. .
having united with all the mountain peoples and having brought over to their side also half the land of Georgia. They took numberless captives and plunder. Artashes came up and encamped to the south. about the partition of the Iberian kingdom in two parts p.D. which can be possibly located on the lower flow of the Iori in Udabno where recently a big fortificated complex dated from the Late Bronze Age till the Early Medieval times was detected. 214 As to the camping­place on the river Iori. Ambazoukes.. Bazuk and Abazuk. one of the two brother­kings of Ossetes.] were courageous and decisive men. 212): "At that time Alans. all these Northerners had crossed the Mtkuari and reached Kambec'oan. came forth with the army of Ossetia. The nation of the Alans gave a little ground. and there was war between these two valiant nations skilled in archery. is also by Movses Xorenac'i vividly described in The History of Armenians. and filled with all this wealth they went off by the road of P'arisos. 50). The kings of the Ossetes. This story of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ about the joint Iberian ­ North Caucasian campaign in Armenia presumably dated in the second half of the first century A. ... though a Hun by blood. and the river divided them" (II. seems to be the same as Ambazoukes of The History of Wars of Procopius of Caesarea (c. and encamped on the northern bank of the river. cf. The following parts of the same story bear undoubtedly the marks of the folklore creativity. was caused probably by the association with biblical Gog and Magog. They were camped on the Iori and were dividing the prisoners and booty" (I. two gigantic brothers called Bazuk and Abazuk. wanted to give the stronghold at the Caspian Gate which he owned to the Romans before the war with Persia began in 502. though he considers only half of Georgia as allies of the Alans (cf. The king of the Leks came forth. 430­518). They conspired together and planned to recover the borders of K'art'li. Skilfully and secretly they joined forces. spread out over our land in a great host. [they] summoned the Ossetes and Leks.Flavius Josephus' information about the invasion of the Alans in Armenia has. a friend of the Romans and of the emperor Anastasius I (c. bringing Durjuks and Didos.. The "division" in two of his name in „K’art’lis C’xovreba“. Priscus of Panium and John Lydus mentioning together with the Caspian Gates the fortress of Iouroeipaach or Biraparach. and plundered Sirakuan and Vanand as far as Bagrevand and Basian. at the same time. They turned and ravaged the Plain as far as Naxcevan. They brought with them Pacaniks and Jik's.K. 45­46). The kings of Georgia gathered their troops. they invaded Armenia unexpectedly. above. Artashes also gathered the mass of his troops. passed over the great river Kura. 500­562+). a corroboration in „K’art’lis C’xovreba“'s story about Azorki and Armazeli: "These kings [Azorki and Armazeli ­ G. The above­mentioned Abazuk of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ (in Armenian translation ­ Anbazuk). Before the Armenian troops had gathered. and this entire numberless host assembled.
The second described the victories of Alexander. however. and fought them. The first of these composed the accounts of the Trojans and of Achilles ­ how Agamemnon and Priam. in pursuit. the final result of the fight is described in a quite different way as if the author. Drawing from his horse's armor a strap of sinew wound around with leather and forcefully throwing it from behind. and who defeated whom. for a certain man threw a net over him from a great distance. he skillfully caught him on the left shoulder and the right armpit. and prevented it.. the king of the Basilk approached the king [Trdat ­ G. laid waste the country. which arrows could not pierce. 85). He agilely wielded his two­edged sword and cut his opponent through the middle. and. along with them. not so much to spur his horse as to grasp the sinew in his left hand and draw it to himself with a violent pull. and thus they use them as a proof of the Caucasian route of the invasion through the Dariali Pass. also splitting the head and reins of his horse. And because he was unable to dislodge the giant [Trdat] with his hand. and ran away. or again Odysseus and Orestes fought. at the same time.].. who met them.KK. and a great quantity of the other prey. being still more provoked by this sight. he was. would have changed it with intention: "King Trdat with all the Armenian descended into the plain of Gargar and met the northern [people] in battle. his valiant exploits and triumphs. Trdat. these data of the Georgian and Armenian chronicles are comparable with the above information of Flavius Josephus. Though. and had soon drawn him to him.. and drove a great multitude of the men. The whole army. I consider worthy of lamentation those narrators. Tiridates. 216 . he grasped his horse's chest. Movses Xorenac'i has retained the version of the story of Flavius Josephus given in the Josephus’ following fragment about the rescue of the Armenian king. King of Kings. from the Alanian captivity: "Now Tiridates was king of that country. the people of Basilk's. I mean the Hellenes Homer and Aristobulus. but had like to have been taken alive in the battle. seeing their king and general cut in half by such a fearsome arm. So the Alans. and then retreated back to their own country". turned in flight. While the third put in writing the affliction wrought on his fellow­countrymen by Vespasian and Titus" (I.. and also the Hebrew Josephus. unless he had immediately cut the cord with his sword. wearing chain armor. The giant was quick. in The History of Armenians this narrative about king Tiridates (Trdat) is connected with the invasion of another northern people. chased them as far as the land of the Huns" (II. having before him Josephus’ text. 342). for he [Trdat] had raised his arm to strike someone with his sword. It must be noticed that Flavius Josephus is known in The History of David. or Achilles and Hector. of the first part of the twelfth century.In the opinion of specialists of Caucasian history. under the name of Hebrew Josephus: 215 "When I come to begin my story.
as it is known. in Armenia are mentioned.„K’art’lis C’xovreba“ also mentions the fact of the strengthening of the castles at the time of Azork and Armazeli.] victoriously entered K'art'li. 47).. south­ west of Baku and two miles from the Caspian. Though in Iberia the units of Roman armed forces could only stay with the approval of the Iberian authorities. Mithridates attempted at least to continue his father's. N. took refuge in Mc'xet'a. L. and brother's Armenian policy. uncle's. between the Great Caucasian 217 Range and the Caspian Sea: "Imp(eratore) Domitiano Caesare Aug(usto) Germanic(o) L(ucius) Iulius Maximus (centurio) leg(ionis) XII Ful(minatae)". in 76 M. the best place to close the entrance of Armazc'ixe from the south­south­east direction. but only after the defeat of the northern coalition by the Armenians: "Both Georgian kings wounded. in the hardness of their hearts were not afraid. Then Sumbat [the leader of the Armenians ­ G. It was cut on a rock of Beyük Dash ("Big Stone") and must be dated after 84. the stone with Vespasian's inscription has been found near the railway bridge close to the Hydroelectrical station on the right side of the Kura. received triumphal insignia for some diplomatic victory over the Parthian king. The presence of the Roman troops in central and eastern parts of Transcaucasia was not. that while these precautions (the strengthening of the castles by the Romans in Iberia) were ostensibly for the purpose of curbing Alani.. whatever he found outside the castles and cities.. Among other Iberian great kings mentioned in the Greek and . He ravaged K'art'li. as it seemed. owing to the suddenness of his invasion. Elnitskij proposed that L. It must be also taken into account that in one of the Aramaic inscriptions of the Armasc'ixe necropolis of the time of Mithridates (an ally of Vespasian). but fortified their castles and cities. But he did not attack the fortified cities because he was not prepared. the father of the future emperor. At the same time we are not quite sure if the fortification of the walls of Armazc'ixe by Vespasian was intended exclusively against the Alans. Toumanoff. the victories of an Iberian vitaxa's. Šaragas'. the Caspian Gate is represented as the natural sphere of operations of the Cappadocian army. a short­termed event (not to speak about its western part which was nearly constantly under their authority). Now these kings of Georgia. in contrast that of Colchis which was part of the Roman empire. Phasis or Harmosike.. Vologaeses I. Debevoise underlines. composed in 95. In the poem Silvae of Statius (45­96). as the title Germanicus of the emperor indicates. Arzok and Armazel. Ulpius Trajan." (I. The fact that the Iberian monarchs bear the title of the Great King witnesses the significant potential of the Iberian kingdom.K. Iulius Maximus of the detachment of XII legio belonged to the Roman garrison of Absarus. Already half a century ago. they might also have been directed against the Parthians. As it is known. found in Gobustan. As to C. An additional evidence of the late Flavian's presense in Transcaucasia is given by another inscription.
This undeciphered inscription. pitiax of Parsman the king. found in Mc'xet'a in Greek and Aramaic. this personality cannot have been an Iberian noble who received the Roman citizenship because grants to distinguished members of client kingdoms would have been conferred by the emperor. is attested in the Iberian royal house. has been afterwards used once more at the time of the building of the church. gives an additional proof about the long­term stay of the Romans or their descendants in Iberia. As it seems. Flavius Dades. Great King". daughter of Zewah the younger. XII Fulminata was also mentioned on a stone." The Greek text contains the entire form of the name of Serapit's father­in­law: Publicius Agrippa. wife of Yodmangan ­ both victorious and having wrought many victories as chief of the court of Hsepharnug the king ­ son of Agrippa. would be of course in the interest of the Roman empire. this stone. an ally of Parthians. seems to have been already a wholly Iberian. Yodmangan. Therefore the participation of the detachment of Legio XII Fulminata in the campaign of the Iberian king against Albania. A bilingual epitaph of a mid­second century A.D. son of King P'arasmanes. The existence of the Latin and Greek inscriptions in the territories between the Caspian Sea and Iberia is presumably connected with the aforementioned Roman and Iberian common strategical interests in the controlling of the passes located in this area.D. king Mithridates. It seems that its owner was a native whose ancestors was given the citizenship by a Flavian emperor as a privilege. Only one Roman name. what was simultaneously the guarantee of the expansion of their political power and the achievement of the superiority over their eastern adversaries. whom Flavians helped to strengthen fortresses. though his son. seems to be very likely.The extention of domains of the Iberian king to the east. A strange inscription is depicted under the bas­relief of a rosette on a huge bloc of sandstone which is inserted in the wall of Ninocminda of the church of the sixth century near Sagarejo (40­45 km east of Tbilisi). of the left bank of the Araxes at Karjagino. depicted on a silver bowl. chief of the court of Parsman the king.Aramaic (of the Armazic type) inscriptions of the graves of the Armazis­c'ixe necropolis. Though the Flavians have been . The Greek epitaph found at Büyük Degne apparently belongs to the second century A. Bosworth. characterisic of the same region. and we should expect the recipient to bear an imperial nomen. Great King. undoubtedly is not Latin. In the opinion of A. though having some Latin letters. is called: "King Mithridates. Maybe it was used by Roman soldiers as a secret script. now lost. The Aramaic version which is slightly different from the Greek reads: 218 "I am Serapit.
the Iberian claim for the Caucasian οίκουμένη and a perdurable Pan­Caucasian cosmocratic tradition of their monarchy. while the shape and decoration of the bowl suggest that it is very similar to silver bowls of the mid­third century. Amazaspus. is buried here by the sacred city which Nicator built around the olive­nurturing stream of Mygdon. In the opinon of C.. 251. It seems that from the Roman times the long­termed aspiration of the Georgian kingdom to unify under its sovereignity all existing passes from the Black Sea to the Caspian begins which. and the other prominent Iberians took place“ (LXIX. the defence and/or control of which represented the main function of that Medieval kingdom. at the same time. Antonius increased his domain. Cassius Dio immortalized such an episode dated to the early years of the reign of Antonius Pius (138­161): „When Pharasmanes the Iberian came to Rome with his wife. Pharasmanes I of Iberia. Toumanoff. All these above facts indicate not only the existence of the close collaboration between the Romans and the Iberians founded on the coincidence of their strategical interests in the Caucasia. Artaxata. The friendly relations between Rome and Iberia were retained also in the following centuries.more active in Iberia than their descendants.D. Mithridates. but also the real integration of some Romans in the kingdom of Iberia. He died companion to the Ausonian leader. Amasaspus. set up an equestrian statue in the temple of Bellona and viewed an exercise in arms in which this chieftain. D. is mentioned: "The illustrious king's scion. 115). Tuapse on the Black Sea to Derbend on the Caspian. The context of the grave witnesses that it cannot have been deposited earlier than A. son of Iberian.. 1996. 219 Iberia was not powerful enough to follow its political aims quite independently. the ally of Rome. The evidence about the interrelations between and Rome under Trajan is represented by the epitaph found in Rome where the brother of the Iberian king.e. a Trajanic date for Dades is considered most improbable. Quite recently. The Roman involvement in Central Transcaucasia was also revealed on a large scale by the archaeological excavations. 15. during the archaeological . going for the lord to Parthian battle. allowed him to offer sacrifice on the capital. killed in Nisibis by Parthians (A. his son. captured the Armenian capital. " It was assumed that Amazaspus was at the head of the Iberian forces coming to Nisibis to fight for Trajan. the brother of King Mithridates. was strengthened by the victory over a neighbouring Armenian cosmocracy when in A. Iberian. 3). whose native land lies by the Caspian Gates. emphasizing especially the northern borderline from c. i. is expressed by the formula of its territorial integrity: "from Nikopsia till Daruband". too many interests of different countries were overlapping each other in the central part of Transcaucasia ­ immediately to the south of the main pass through the Caucasus.D. 35.
but as Roman soldiers by the text of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“. at the same time it could be a possible proof that Fronto received such an appointment. Titus or Domician) and was erected by the contemporary Iberian king who was the ally of Rome and got. the title of Azon of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ ­ the commander of the p’rotat’oseans ­ „patrik“. they could still.e. was afterwards understood (already before the compilation of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“) as the Greek expression. as well as the pretensions of the south­easterns powers to extend their control of the area emerged. immediately before his eastern expedition. translated by R. received by him in 73/74. for convenience 220 or for flattery. which means people of P'rotado.D. with the meaning of "place or post in front" (see above). As the word „p'rotadoselni“ of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ cannot be derived from Greek πρότακτος ­ Georgian p' renders Greek φ. be called by the name of their commander.. Azon's troops are designated not as Macedonians. is maybe the reflection of Hirrius Fronto’s title adlectio inter patricios. i. W. . In the opinion of some scholars. and consequently the completion of the important lacuna in the Saepinum inscription by adding Albanos to the end (exercit]us qui in A[lbanos). Maybe the term under discussion designating initially the army unit under the command of Hirrius Fronto. As it was already above underlined. h ­ 32 cm) was found in the territory of Armaztsikhe (Bagineti). the citizenship of Rome. Thomson as patrician. It is known that. the ruler of Iberia installed by Alexander the Great of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“.excavations in Mtskheta. undoubtedly belonging to a statue. then the campaign of Hirrius Fronto’s expedition against Albanians. At the same time. the necessity of the involvement of Roman troops in Central Transcaucasia to prevent an undesirable offensive from the north. πρόταττω. together with the name of Flavius. would become most plausible. it would not be less plausible to propose the connection of the word „p'rotado­selni“. Hirrius Fronto. Only in the middle of the second part of the first century A. On its surface the pedestal has hollows in the form of human feet. not π ( see above). All these data give us the possibility to assume that the story about the p'rotadosean followers of Azon. a presumable commander of an eastern expedition under Vespasian ( see above). in the centre of a temple of the first century A.D. the statue belonged to a Roman Emperor (Vespasian. even if military units had a permanent title.with the name of M. It is made of a monolith stone and has a decoration of a classical style in the form of the „Ionic“ colonnade on the frieze. must be connected with the Roman times. a pedestal of a quadrangular form (70 cm x 70 cm. If we take into account the traditional opposition of Albanians to Romans and the location of the inscriptions of Beyük Dash and Karjagino (see above) which mentioned Legio XII Fulminata in the former Albanian territory.
storm. in spite of the unquestionably lunar character of Armaz and his connections with the Hittite lunar god ­ Arma ­. this information reflects the fact that P'arnavaz's name is derived from Avest. The Life of the Kings considers Armazi as the Persian name of king P'arnavaz: 221 "This same P'arnavaz made a great idol named after himself. and to his left a man of silver whose name was Gaim. The "rod of lightnings". xarenahvant with the meaning "brilliant".. in his hands he held a sabre glittering like lightning. "splendid" or from the epithets attributed to the Hittite version of Tešub and that. In the view of C. striking terror into the crowd.. These the people of K'art'li regarded as gods" (I. though obviously of Anatolian provenance. and it turned in his hands. The same text in the Armenian adaptation is represented in the following way: ". the two eyes adorned with emeralds and beryl. Toumanoff. Armazi. He erected this idol Armazi at the entrance to K'art'li. while the bull's horns also serve to symbolize the moon. because. is described as ".a man attired in a bronze breast­plate and a golden helmet. rain and fertility ­ Tešubs domain ­ can be easily associated with the lunar religion. Furthermore. for eyes he had emeralds and berils. because P'arnavaz was called Armaz in Persian.. and to his left the silver image called Gayim" (47). "swords" and „armours“ („flaky­armours“ or "breast­plates"). He moved this. to his right was a man of gold whose name was Gac'i. And he celebrated a great feast of dedication for the idol which had been erected" (I. holding a sword in his hand like a rod of lightning.a man of bronze standing. like Armazi. As soon as Iuppiter Dolichenus. This is Armazi.. who. by no means it should have been needed to exclude his essential identity with Teshub.* * * From the viewpoint of the Roman ­ Iberian relations the character of the supreme deity of Iberia. on his head a strong helmet.. 25). began to dominate the Roman conquerors when they annexed 222 Syria in 64 . Armazi. the Iberian idol. reveales some traits typical of the most important god of the Roman empire ­ Juppiter Optimus Maximus Dolichenus should be taken into account. are attributes of the god of Roman militaries (and not only of them) Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Dolichenus who had. together with the Phrygian cap. In the text of The Conversion of K'art'li by Nino. attached to his body was a golden suit of chain­armour. At the same time. as it is known. the Syrian god Hadad of Doliche (modern Dülük. and from then on it was called Armazi because of idol.. north of Gaziantep in south­east Turkey). his rootes in the god of storm of the Hittite religious pantheon.. To his right stood a gold image named Gac'. 89­90). the second part of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“.
deities of the Dolichenian pantheon. Gac'i and Gaym („Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay“ cites Gac’i and Ga). the Hittite divinity of vegetation and fertility. dioscuri ­ Casstor and Pollux. was nobody else than Šandaš/Šantaš. According to the scholars. Azo or Mihrdat/Mithridates. Gac'i and Ga (Gaym) correspond to the Anatolian deities Attis and Kibela. The adjective „stabile“ (მყარი) would be expected in connection with Armazi’s headdress if it represented something like a Phrygian cap because a coul of the Georgian type is in reality a quite „unstabile“ piece of a cloth with a triangulary shaped upper part (like a Phrygian cup) and long sleeves surrounding breast and back. perhaps representations of solar and lunar deities.B. not only of Appolo and Diana. we should assume as to the problem of the implication of the information about the first Iberian king. Juno Dolichena and Asclepius etc. the initial stimulus of which has been given by Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid empire . To sum up. It seems that the Iberian religious pantheon consisted mainly of the deities of the syncretic nature and that the characteristics of these deities were afterwards enriched by some traits typical of the Roman period. Iuppiter Dolichenus. the divine twins. Especially interesting is the description of Armazi’s headdress as a „stabile coul or hood“ (ჩაბალახი მყარი) and not as a „strong hamlet“ as translated in English (see above. The gold and silver images to the right and left hand of Armazi. buttt also Greek imaginations. he acquired the name of Roman supreme god ­ Iuppiter Optimus Maximus ­ and personified not only Oriental. The data of „Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay“ and The History of Armenians are genuine witnesses of these events. that certain events seem to have really taken place 223 in Central Transcaucasia in the late fourth ­ early third centuries B. Zaden..C. have parallels in Apollo Citharoedus and Diana Lucifera. The intensity of the Roman involvement in Central Transcaucasia could put its imprint on locally existing religious cults. 225). while the second god of the Iberian religious hierarchy. was the „preserver of the whole world“. but also of Hercules and Minerva. at the same time. The frequent representation of other deities together with Iuppiter Dolichenus. Isis and Serapis.C. the main supporter of the Roman rule and Roman emperor and. which were sommehow connected with the processes which caused the emergence of the statehood in Iberia (Eastern Georgia). The distinctly portrayed subordinate position of the deities of sun and moon to Iuppiter Dolichenus is to be detected on the bronze slab from Doliche where both these deities are placed beneath the feet of Iuppiter Dolichenus who was surrounded by stars. was one of the most peculiar manifestations of the cult of Dolichenus. p. the promoter of the Roman power extending it to the East. It was suggested that Diana was the lunar partner of a solar Apollo and that they had a permanent precise doctrinal position in the theology of Iuppiter Dolichenus. of the Georgian and Armenian chronicles.
While waiting for the arrival of the Persians. required the integration of Roman military contigents in the Iberian society.] to preserve the religion of our fathers. having the supremacy over the Caucasian Gate. or fled from Syria or from Xazaret'i. At that time whoever came from Greek territory for reason of persecution. In my opinion..K. Even in connection with the constant Arian­Turanian struggle the sympathy of the Georgian chronicier is on the side of Turks who already before the time of Alexander arrived in Mc'xet'a searching a refuge after they had been defeated by the Persians.. We would occupy our castles and cities. presumably to those of the Flavian period (A.death is better for us than the sight of such a state of affairs.expressed in opposition to the mixing of the Georgians with the Persians. On the other hand. The origin of such feelings after the capitulation of the Persians to the Arabs in the middle of the seventh century is hardly imaginable. The control of the Caucasian passes could give the most favourable opportunity of the preservation of Pax Romana in the Near East. The Iberians. the information of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“ about the dissolvement of the p'rotodoseans in the Georgian society should be explained exactly by this fact. the Georgians befriended them all for the sake of their help against the Persians" (I.." otherwise ". and perish all together" (I.... based on their joint strategical interests as parts of one and the same orbis terarrum. In his words: "The Turks and Georgians joined in a willing alliance. The close collaboration between the Romans and the Iberians. and that our treatment be as nobility. The military units in Cappadocia and the garrisons in Transcaucasian sites served as a guarantee for the fulfilment of Roman plans. 63).and which was connected with the emergence of the Iberian (East Georgian) statehood in post­Alexander's times. 15). It must be also taken into consideration that nearly in whole the text of The Life of the Kings the tendency of the opposition to the Persian monarchy is quite obvious. were the most important ally of the Romans in the region. they fortified the castles and cities. the Macedonian conqueror of Iberia. The quite obvious tendency of The Life of the Kings. and request no mixing of Persians with us. the narrative about the first Iberian king in the story of Azon of „K’art’lis C’xovreba“. 69­96) in Central Transcaucasia. The chronicle preserved the attitude of Georgian aristocracy with regard to the forced invitation of the Persian king's son in his position of a king of Iberia (the future king Mirian) and of the husband of princess Abeshura ­ the sole representative of the Georgian royal family: ". should be considered as an indirect proof of such a possibility. 224 .D. seems to have been mixed with a still unknown source which was dedicated to Roman activities.we shall ask him [the Persian king ­ G.
Slavs. What could be the reason of such a neglect of the state borders of the Soviet Union and China. the situation observed by D. instead of the Central Eurasian heartland. namely. often ephemerical.K. . predetermined by the geographical disposition of Transcaucasia south of the Great Caucasian Ridge. deeply rooted national or cultural traits". Toynbee's theory of marches. Sinor deserves attention. which. Of the latter a unique combination of cultural features was characteristic. political arrangements which are given priority in defining an area over more lasting. 5 The Caucasus as a Marchland Today. Uralians and Sino­Tibetians ­ was mainly based on stock­breeding. but in its periphery. in spite of their obvious connection with the Central Eurasian Communist World (D. Central Eurasia. that the boundaries of the former Communist countries mainly coincided with the zone of habitation of the nomad tribes of Inner Asia or.) on the basis of. while the countries of the so­called free­market economy are located in the Eurasian periphery. Sinor. we must await the re­evaluation of the role and importance of the countries which represented earlier the marches of both. in the place of old sedentary civilisations of Europe. after the annihilation of the communistic system and the crucial changes in most of the parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. were included in the external boundaries. beginning already from pre­christian times. From the point of view of A. the Western and the Eastern Worlds. But two exceptions are in the aforementioned scheme.The quite obvious opposition to the eastern political formations and pro­western orientation revealed by the above mentioned Classical written and epigraphical sources and Georgian chronicles was a leitmotiv of the whole history of Georgia. more correctly. Sinors work was published in 1987. of the Middle East and Southeast and East Asia set up on agricultural economy. two years before the breakdown of the communistic system). and it was maybe the main reason of the christianization of Iberia in the first half of the fourth century. it becomes obvious that the main reason why Transcaucasia was not included in Central Eurasia. that "particularly artificial are distinctions made (between the countries ­ G. two of the most important communist countries? If we recall the words of D. Transcaucasia and South China. can be revealed in the long history of this region. covering the area from the western boundaries of Poland and Finland to the Pacific Ocean and from the Northern Ocean to the Caucasus. This heartland of the huge Eurasian continent ­ the homeland of the Iranians.
the only period of the residence of the Qipchaks in Georgia. The picturesque image of the population of the northern provenance under the name of Qipchaks was retained in the Georgian folk ballad "I Came Across a Qipchak" which can be considered as dating from the twelfth­thirteenth centuries. . Sinor supposes that the main case of the conflict was not the rivalry between the nomads and sedentary farmers. In the opinion of D. In the conflict between the peoples of both these areas the Central Eurasian population had usually played the role of the aggressor. the Near East. Other Central Eurasian boundaries were more unstable and varied from time to time. Africa. first of all by the climate being too cold and too dry for a thriving agriculture. Sinor. the conflict thus being economically motivated: one group trying to improve its living conditions on the expense of the other one. but between "haves" and "have nots". Mackinder's old scheme as to which the Pivot Area comprises the territory of the Russian empire and Nortern Iran.D. On the road at the edge of the Mukhrani. Japan and Russian Far East. He asked me for wine and I gave him wine. the attacks of outsiders being stopped or repulsed by insiders. Indonesia. The ballad contains such verses: "I came across a Qipchak. sheltered by the Georgian king. the Seljuk Turks and the Kitans. west and south of Moscow and Western Caucasia. I offered him pheasant. it would be very difficult to replace Transcaucasia from the external zone (a disposition dictated by the nature itself) to the Central Eurasian heartland. shifting between its own population and that of the surrounding. The main reason of this conflict was the absence of substantial farming caused by a combination of physical­geographical factors of Central Eurasia. Sinor's assumption coincides with H. Mongols or Manchus respectively. Australia. He asked me for meat and I fed him meat. He asked me for bread and I fed him bread. and used as mercenaries against the invasions of Seljuk Turks. D. I offered him wheat­flour bread. David the Restorer. 225 excluding the regions of north. The latter. India and China compile the Inner or Marginal Crescent different from the Outer or Insular Crescent which include America. located north of the "Caucasian Chain". together with Europe. sedentary civilisations according to the balance of power. the Roman province of Pannonia and the Greek territories in Asia Minor and Northern China became for a while "Inner Asia" when they were occupied by the Huns. It seems that because of the determining role of one of the world's most important mountaneous chains as the Caucasus was and still is.
I offered him Badaga [boiled grape­juice] wine. . In that case the function of the marches. whereas a moral barrier ­ a dam in the hearts of men ­ can resist the ravages of time and neutralize the assaults even of the common sense. They had the same function as the Caucasian Gate for Transcaucasia. as it was pointed out. There was always a need for a barrier to be erected between two Worlds such as the Greater Wall of China or Adrian's Wall (Roman Limes). in some aspects. these conflicts have continued until modern times. particularly of Georgia and Armenia. He asked me for my wife and I couldn't give her. be ascribed to the first model of A. must induce us to view with some indulgence the efforts made by previous populations to solve an insoluble problem. Sinor’s opinion. in the opinion of D. perhaps. Khoresmenians. ." 226 The provision of food could avert invasions of the impoverished population and in many occasions even did. was divided not only between the north and the south but also between the east and the west. herdsmen tribes of Ak­Koinlu and Kara­Koinlu should. with the sudden outbursts of activity and lulls. mostly due to exhaustion. In the history of the Mediaeval Transcaucasia the invasions of a certain part of Central Eurasian population ­ Turk­Seljuks. The merits and demerits of providing "foreign aid" for impoverished nations is nowadays a circumstance which.. the banishment of the Barbarian beyond the borders of οίκουμένη or orbis terarrum and the prevention of further intrusions was the spirit which prompted Alexander of Great of the legend to shut beyond the Iron Gates and set into impenetrable mountains the impure people of Gog and Magog. the mythical embodiment of the quintessential Barbarians ­ a foremost duty of the ruler was to combaat the Barbarians. A permanent hostility towards the outsider. Tatar­hordes of Tamerlan. the main decisive factor of this model. As to him. even to soothing this very days. the added advantage of strengthening the bonds of solidarity. The above scheme. parallels in the history of Caucasia. the main part of these invasions had taken place not only from the north as it . I cut down horse and man. . In other words. Sinor that such constructions can be crumbled or taken by assaults. holding the polity together and making it more amenable to a government which alone is capable of protecting the population against the enemies of all others (sui generis) ­ the barbarians. Toynbee's stimulus which was created by human environment and expressed in the form of the sudden external blow. presents in D. Sinor. has. worked out on the base of the written sources of the Classical and Mediaeval writers. But we must agree with D. Mongols.. at the first glance. but the systematic character of the invasions of Central Eurasian populations seems to take the form of his second model ­ the stimulus of continuous external pressure.
as we already underlined. which we call Darian. determinated its destination to be the outpost of the highly developed Eurasian periphery against Central Eurasia. Such a destiny of the Georgian state can be observed in the course of its history. It seems quite obvious that there was an interconnection between the formation of the royal power in Iberia and the emergence of the Iberian state as well as of the urgent need to defend the Caucasian Gate from the penetration of northern tribes. was an area of influences of the two opposite models of the 227 Caucasica II historical development. and he posted the neighbouring mountain people to guard them. the time of the annexation of the East Georgian (K'art'l­Kaxet'ian) kingdom by the Russian empire. Georgians. It was stated that Georgians of the mountains. to be the stronghold of the civilized South and West against the barbarian North and East. And he built the gates of Ossetia. claimed to descend from the old garrisons of the Georgian kings. You have no more your banners. You have no more the king Heraclus. Khazars. like Cimmerians.was at earlier times in connection with other Central Eurasian nomadic tribes. or in other words. Scythians. You mustn't betray one another Or your enemy will scratch out your eyes. The interest of the Near Eastern­Mediterranean societies in Transcaucasia was inevitable as Transcaucasia because of its location in the edge of the civilized and barbarian worlds. . Ossetians etc. The interpolation to the The Life of King Vaxtang Gorgasali (Tkn) attributes this function of the Georgian mountain­dwellers to king Vaxtang: "So he subdued the Ossetes and Kipchaks. Above them he built high towers. . Bolgars. characterized by a slow rate of development. but also from the south or south­east direction. Sarmatians." . Alans. The poem known as The Mourning of the King Heraclus II is included in the Georgian folk poetry of the end of the eigtheenth ­ beginning of the nineteenth century.. And your canons became silent. you don't understand That your iron gate is opened. It runs: "Oh. Of the house of Bagrationi. but the factor of the Great Caucasian Ridge. Huns. The great nations of the Ossetes and Kipchaks cannot pass through them without the permission of the king of the Georgians" (I. 156). . living along the Dariali Pass and who spoke a curiously mediaeval dialect.
appropriators and producers. you don't understand that that your iron gate is opened. ხოლო ვახტანგ მეფისა ვიდრე აქამომდე აღწერა ჯუანშერ ჯუანშერიანმან. ესე ფროტათოსელნი იყვნეს კაცნი . ძე იარედოსისი. At the same time. As we can judge.. N. were two firestones with the help of which the fire of the statehood south of the central part of the Great Caucasian Ridge. Georgians. 1:"წიგნი ესე ქართველთა ცხოვრებისა ვიდრე ვახტანგისამდე აღიწერებოდა ჟამითი- ჟამად. the rulers of the Iberian kingdom permanently and successfully used the favourable strategical location of their country to balance the pressure of the powers coming from all sides of the world. The constant opposition between the barbarian and civilized peoples. რომელსა ჰქჳან ფროტათოს." From the first glance it is posible to think that the iron gate was used in the poetry in a transferred sense. და მისცა ასი ათასი კაცი ქუეყანით ჰრომით. This function of the state seems to have been one of the main decisive factors which challenged the emergence of Georgian state in the central part of Transcaucasia in the later part of the first millennium B.In this poem our attention is attached to the words. 3: "დაიპყრა ალექსანდრე ყოველი ქართლი.C. 248)". და დაუტევა მათ ზედა პატრიკად სახელით აზონ. orbis terarrum) in its struggle with the barbarian Realm of Darkness beyond the Caucasian Gate. 248)". APPENDIX N. but if we recall the fact that the Dariali Pass. "Oh. crossing the central part of the Great Caucasian Ridge. This theme however does not belong to the scope of interest of this article. caused the creation of the statehood in Central Transcaucasia ­ the Iberian kingdom. (I. for its part. Toynbee's impulses created by the human environment: the continual external pressure the Challenge of which was followed by the Response which. 2: "მიერითგან შემდგომი მომავალთა ნათესავთა აღწერონ ვითარცა იხილონ.. Thus the concept of the "Iron Gate" can rightly be applied to the Caucasian or Dariali Gate as the reflection of the concrete political function of the 228 Georgian statehood ­ the control of one of the most importaant strategical passes of the world. ნათესავი მისი ქუეყანით მაკედონით. N. brigands and creators. illustrating the decline of power of the country.. was known as the "Iron Gate" at ancient times. it would be possible that these words reflect the concrete fact of the loss of one of its function of the Georgian state ­ the ability to defend its northern gate ­ Dariali Pass. in the Eastern Georgian or Iberian kingdom was lighted. The raison d'ètre of this state was to be the stronghold of the civilized world (οίκουμένη. the above discussed factors of the geopolitical character not only cause the emergence of the statehood in Central Transcaucasia at the Classical epoch but also stipulated its historical development at the subsequent time. The location of Georgia in the contact zone of Central Eurasia and its Periphery predetermined its belonging to the second model of A. ძმისწულის ქმარმან წმიდისა არჩილისმან (I..
და შეივლტოდეს კავკასიად. და წინააღუდგენ სპარსთა. და განახუნენ კარნი კავკასიანთანი.. და ჰმსახურებდენ ღმერთსა უხილავსა. და წარმოვიდეს. და დაუტევეს ცალიერად ქალაქი (I. შესლვასა მისსა ოვსეთად იყო ვახტანგ წლისა თექუსმეტისა. და განჴურიტეს კლდე იგი. და აღაშენნეს ქალაქნი პირსა ხაზარეთისასა. ვითარ იოტეს სომეხთა და ქართველთა და ჩრდილოსა ნათესავთა მეფე სპარსთა. და მიერითგან ვერღარა წინააღუდგა ამათ მეფე იგი სპარსთა. და ვითარცა მონანი დადგეს წინაშე მისსა. რომელი განვლის დარიალანსა და ჩავლის ველსა ოვსეთისასა (I. და დაემორჩილნეს ყოველნი ხაზარნი მეფესა მას ჩინებულსა მათსა.. რომელ არს დარიალა (I. და წარჩინებულნი თჳსნიცა ეტყოდეს წინააღდგომასა სპარსთასა (I. მპყრობელად ქართლისა (I. და გამოიყვანა სიმრავლე ფრიად დიდი (I. და უცხონი იგი ნათესავნი მოსრნა და დაატყუევნა. და წარმოიძღუანეს იგი და გამოვლეს ზღჳს-კარი. და პირველსავე შესვლასა სპარსეთად ეწყო ქასრე. და მივიდის კოსარო მეფისა თანა სომეხთასა ბრძოლად სპარსთა. N. 7: "მას ჟამსა შინა განძლიერდეს ხაზარნი და დაუწყეს ბრძოლად ნათესავთა ლეკისათა და კავკასიოსთა. რათა შეკრბენ და მოირთონ ძალი ბერძენთაგან. და შეწეოდა მას ასფაგურ. და ვერღარა ოდეს წინააღუდგა მეფე სპარსთა (I. ლეკნი და ხაზარნი. და დაუტევა ქართლს ერისთავად აზონ. რამეთუ იყო სიმრავლე ურიცხჳ ხაზართა. რომელი ლბილ იყო და ადვილად საჴურეტელი. 13)". 18)". N. რომელსა აწ ჰქჳან დარუბანდი. და მოეგებნეს მდინარესა ზედა. და მარადის ჰბრძოდის: ოდესმე გააგდიან მირიანს .. 18)''. 14)". და შემუსრნეს ყოველნი ქალაქნი არარატისანი და მასისისანი და ჩრდილოსანი.. და განამრავლეს შესვლა სპარსეთად და ტყუენვა სპარსეთისა. 18)". და ამან ასფაგურ განუხუნის კარნი კავკასიანთანი და გამოიყვანნის ოვსნი. და ესრეთ ადვილად შეაერთნა ორნივე ნათესავნი. და ყო შორის მათსა სიყუარული და მშჳდობა ვითარცა ძმათა. განვლო კარი დარიალანისა. N. მაშინ სომეხთა მოგზავნეს ვარაზ-ბაქარისსა მოციქული და რქუეს. იწყეს ფარულად კლდესა კაფა. რათა პატივსცემდნენ მზესა და მთოვარესა და ვარსკულავთა ხუთთა. მაშინ მეფეთა ოვსეთისათა შეკრიბნეს სპანი მათნი და მოირთეს ძალი ხაზარეთით. 12: "ხოლო სომხითს მეფე იქმნა კოსარო.. 136)". და მოსრნა ყოველნი იგი ნათესავნი აღრეულნი ქართლს მყოფნი. რომელ არს ზღჳს-კარი დარუბანდი და არაგჳს-კარი. რამეთუ ჰრბძოდა თერთმეტ თუე. ოვსთა და ყივჩაყთა. და მოიყვანნა ქართლად. N.. და ითხოვეს შუელა ხაზართა ზედა. და აღიხუნა ციხენი დარიალასა და ყოველთა კართა ოვსეთისათა და კავკასიისა მთისათანი. და აღიხუნეს მძევლნი ორთაგანვე. N. 59-60)".ძლიერნი და მჴნენი. და მუნ მიერთნეს ყოველნი მეფენი კავკასიანნი ორმოცდაათი ათასი მჴედარი. და მოსრა ყოველი რაოდენი ხაზარი პოვა ქართლსა შინა (I. და გარდავლეს მთა კავკასია. N. და წარემართა სახელსა ზედა ღმრთისასა. და გამოიყვანნეს ოვსნი და ლეკნი.. 13: "ამის-ზე გამოგზავნა სპარსთა მეფემან ერისთავი სპითა დიდითა სომეხთა და ქართველთა ხარკისა დადებად. 151)". და დაუტევნა ნათესავნი ქართლოსიანნი (I. და ეკირთებოდეს ქუეყანასა ჰრომისასა. 4: "დაიპყრა ალექსანდრე ყოველი ქართლი. და მის თანა სპანი იგი. და ამან კოსარო მეფემან უწყო ბრძოლად ქასრე მეფესა სპარსთასა. 10: "მოვიდა ქართლად და შემუსრნა ყოველნი ქალაქნი და ციხენი ქართლისანი. 11: "და ისწავეს ხაზართა ორნივე ესე გზანი. ამისსა შემდგომად ხაზართა იჩინეს მეფე.(I. N. ვერ წინააღუდგეს თარგამოსიანნი. და შექმნა გზა მშჳდობისა ყივჩაღთათჳს. წარტყუენეს ქუეყანა თარგამოსიანთა. 11-12)". N. და განკრბეს ჴურელსა მას სარკინელნი ღამე. და მოტყუენეს ყოველნი საზღვარნი ხაზარეთისანი. დამბადებელსა ყოვლისასა (I. 9: ''შევიდეს ოვსეთს და მოეგებნეს მეფენი ოვსეთისანი და ყოველნი მთავარნი მათნი. 17)".. 6: "ხოლო სარკინელთა შესჭირდა. ხოლო შეკრბეს ყოველნი ნათესავნი თარგამოსიანნი. მეფე სპარსთა და აოტეს იგი და მოსრეს სპა მისი. და განამრავლეს შესვლა სპარსეთს და ოჴრება სპარსეთის. 14: "და იწყო ბრძოლად ხაზართა. 8: "წარვიდა ვახტანგ და დადგა თიანეთს. 336)''. მისცა აზონს პატრიკსა. 5: "და უბრძანა ალექსანდრე აზონს. მეფე ქართველთა. 229 N. N. 230 N.
20: "და ყოველნი მთავარნი და პატიახშნი. რამეთუ ყოველთა ქალაქთა სომხითისა და ქართლისათა. N. ხალილის ძესა (I. და ოდესმე დურძუკთა და დიდოთა მოირთნიან და გამოიყვანიან ხაზარნი. ზრახავს. თჳნიერ კასპისა. და შეიწყნარა ვედრება ქართველთა. N. და ოდესმე ბრძოლითა აოტნის (I. რომელი ჯვარცმასა უფლისასა განუტევეს ურიათა უფლისა ჩუენისა იესოს წილ (I.. ხოლო ამათსა მეფობასა უესპასიანოს ჰრომთა კეისარმან წარმოტყუენა იერუსალემი. N. და განვლეს კარი დარუბანდისა.. 66)". და მოკლეს იგი. და შევიდეს ოვსეთს გამარჯუებულნი (I. და მისცა ქართლი. 234)".ლეკნი და მათ გამოიყვანიან რა ხაზარნი თანაშემწედ მათდა. ხოლო რანი და ჰერეთი დარჩა სპარსთა (I. და რომელ პოვეს სპარსი. სომხითი. 256-257)".. N. და დაიმალნეს ტყეთა და ღრეთა. სახლი სამასი.. 63-64)". N. 17: ამან არდამ ერისთავმან აღაშენა ქალაქი ზღჳს-კარს. მტკუარსა სამხრით ქართლი. N. 16: "მაშინ ვითარ იქმნა ვახტანგ წლისა ათისა. გარდამოვიდეს ოვსნი სპანი ურიცხუნი და მოტყუენეს ქართლი თავითგან მტკურისათ ვიდრე ხუნანამდე. გარდამოიყვანეს ოვსნი და პოვეს ერისთავი სპარსთა ველსა გარე.. და დაიპყრა კარი დარიელისა და დარუბანდისა. და განთავისუფლდეს ქართველნი.. ვითარმედ ხაზართა. ტომთა მისთა. და ამათ განუყო ყოველი ქუეყანა თჳსი: მისცა ქალაქი მცხეთა და ქუეყანა მტკუარსა შიდა ქართლი. 35)". 25: "ხოლო ამას ადერკის ესხნეს ორნი ძენი. და ენება ზაფხულის შესვლა ოვსეთად. ყოველი მოსწყჳდეს ოვსთა და ქართველთა. და მოაოჴრნეს ველნი არამედ ციხე-ქალაქნი დაურჩეს. N. აღუსრულა ყოველი იგი სათხოველი ქართველთა. კეთილად სთნდა სპარსთა მეფესა. და მისცა ყოველსა ზედა ფიცი და აღთქმა. N. და მრავალგზის სისხლითა ჩემითა დამიცავს სპარსეთი ხაზართაგან (I. 231 N. რამეთუ მოვიდიან ხაზარნი და მოადგიან დარუბანდს. რომელი ითარგმანების "დაჴშა კარი (I. (I. (I. მაშინ ეწყჳს და ვეროდეს სძლეს ხაზართა. 23: "ვითარცა იტყჳს ესაია: აღიღე და წარწყმიდე ყოველი წული მათი. რანი.. ნათესავნი ერისთავთა და წარჩინებულთანი შეიმეოტნეს კავკასიად. რათა დაუტეოს ქართლი ჰუმედს. და შემუსრნა ყოველნი ქალაქნი და უმრავლესნი ციხენი ყოველთა საზღვართა ქართლისათა (I.. მუხნარით კერძი ქალაქი და ყოველი ქართლი მტკუარსა ჩრდილოეთი. და ესრეთ მრავალგზის გადაიჴადა წყობა ხაზართა. რამეთუ თჳთ გზა სცეს დარუბანდელთა. 145- 146)". ტიტოს და სპასიანოსის მიერ. 19: "ხოლო გამოიკითხა სპარსთა მეფემან პირველად ქალაქისა მცხეთისა. 43). და კლარჯეთი ყოველი მისცა ქართამს ძესა თჳსსა. 44)". და დასხნა იგინი დმანისს. და დასხნა იგინი შანქორს. რათამცა წარიღეს და განაღეს კარი ფართო. ჰერეთითგან ვიდრე თავადმდე ქართლისა და ეგრისისა . და უთხრეს სივრცე და სიმაგრე მისი და მახლობელობა ხაზართა და ოვსთა. 13)". N. რომელთა ერქუა სახელად ერთსა ბარტომ და მეორესა ქართამ. მაშინ წარვიდის მირიან შუელად დარუბანდისა: ოდესმე უომრად მიჰრიდიან ხაზართა მათ მირიანს. ხუნანითგან ვიდრე თავადმდე მტკურისა. 15: "მუნ ყოველნი დღენი ჩემნი დამიყოფიან ბრძოლასა შინა ხაზართასა. 18: "ეზრახნეს ოვსთა. და მუნით იწყეს გასლვად სპარსთა ზედა. რათა ჰბრძოდეს მათ მუნით და იპყრობდეს ყოველთა კავკასიანთა. მოუვლინა ბუღას." . ბეთლემს ურიასტანისასა (I.ესე ყოველი მისცა ბარტომს ძესა თჳსსა. მიეგების მათ წინა მირიან ჰერეთს ანუ მოვაკანს და მუნ ეწეჳს მათ. და მოკუდა ადერკი (I. მოვაკანი და ჰერეთი. 164)". 22: "და მეფობდეს შემდგომად მისსა ძენი მისნი. N. ყოვლისა უფროსად და უმაგრესად გამოარჩია და მახლობელად ჩრდილოთა მტერთა. ხოლო ოდეს მოვიდიან ხაზარნი დარუბანდს. ხოლო ამირ-მუმნმან ვითარ ცნა. დარიალანით გამოიყვანნა ოვსნი ვითარ სახლი ასი. და უფროსი ლაშქრობა მისი იყვის დარუბანდს. ხოლო არმაზით კერძი ქალაქი. 67)". და კნისობდა. რომელთა თანა ერთნეს შვილნი ბარაბასნი. და უწოდა სახელი დარუბანდი. რამეთუ თჳთცა უკუთესად გამოარჩია მცხეთას დასუმა ძისა მისისა მეფედ. და მუნით ოტებულნი ურიანი მოვიდეს მცხეთას და დასხდეს ძუელთავე ურიათა თანა. და მოვლო ყრუმან ყოველი კავკასია. 24: "ხოლო პირველსავე წელსა მეფობისა მისისა იშვა უფალი ჩუენი იესო ქრისტე. 21: ''განაღო კარი დარუბანდისა და გამოიყვანნა ხაზარნი. რანისა და მის კერძოთა. და ყოვლადვე მირიან სძლის. 13-14)".
342)". ამაგრებდეს ციხეთა და ქალაქთა. არზოკ და არმაზელ. ნუ უკუე შეიწყნაროს ვედრება ესე ჩუენი.შემოიხუეწნეს ორნივე მეფენი ქართლისანი მცხეთას. რომელთა ჩუენ დარიანისად უწოდთ. მაშინ სუმბატ გამარჯუებული შემოვიდა ქართლად. და შექმნა კარნი ოვსეთისანი. და იქცეოდა ჴელთა შინა... და აღიღეს ტყუე და ნატყუენავი ურიცხჳ. ხოლო მესამემან ვესპასიანე ტიტოჲს- მიერნი მეტომეთა თჳსთა-ზედანი ჭირნი მისცნა აღწერასა (I.დგა კაცი ერთი სპილენძისა. 232 N. და მოაოხრა ქართლი. და კუალად იყო მარჯუენით მისსა კაცი ოქროსი და სახელი მისი გაცი. მას ჟამსა შინა სადათაც ვინ მივიდის ძჳრის-მოქმედთაგან საბერძნეთით. და აღივსნეს ყოვლითავე ხუასტაგითა. და გამოვლეს გზა ფარისოსისა. და თავსა მისსა ჩაბალახი მყარი. და სახელი მისი გაიმ. და ვითხოვოთ ჩუენ თანა არა აღრევა სპარსთა და წარჩინეულად პყრობა ჩუენი. არა ჴელეწიფების გამოსლვად დიდთა მათ ნათესავთა ოვსთა და ყივჩაყთა თჳნიერ ბრძანებისა ქართველთა მეფისა (I. 25)''. და შეითქუნეს ესენი და განიზრახეს ძიება საზღვართა ქართლისათა. ყოველივე დაიმეგობრიან ქართველთა შემწეობისათჳს სპარსთა ზედა (I. N. N. და შევიდეს ესენი სომხითს და უგრძნეულად წარმოსტყუენეს შირაკუანი და ვანანდი ბაგრევანამდე და ბასიანამდე. გინა ხაზარეთით.. რამეთუ ფარნავაზს სპარსულად არმაზ ერქუა. N. 31: ". N.. ვიდრე შეკრბებოდეს სპანი სომეხთანი. 33: "და იყვნეს ესე თურქნი და ქართველნი ნებისმყოფელ ერთმანერთისა. და მიერითგან ეწოდა არმაზი კერპისა მისთჳს. და მარცხენით მისსა უდგა კაცი ვეცხლისა. 156 ჩანართი .. ძმანი ორნი გოლიათნი. 63)''. და განიყოფდეს ტყუესა და ნატყუენავსა (I. მაშინ სიკუდილი უმჯობეს არს თავთა ჩუენთათჳს ვიდრე მონახვასა ესევითარისასა.. ხოლო ციხე-ქალაქთა არა ჰბრძოდა. ვაებისა ღირსად შევრაცხენ დიდნი იგი და სახელოვანნი გამომეტყუელნი. და დაადგინა მცველად მახლობელნი იგი მთეულნი. და თუალნი ესხნეს ზურმუხტი და ბივრილი. 30: "და ამანვე ფარნავაზ შექმნა კერპი დიდი სახელსა ზედა თჳისსა: ესე არს არმაზი. და შეიქცეს და ჩატყუენეს დაშტი ვიდრე ნახჭევანამდე.. 27: ''ხოლო ამად რა თხრობად მოვიწიე.. თუ ვითარ აღამემნონ და პრიამოს. 32: "ვითხოვოთ მისგან დამჭირვა სჯულსა ზედა მამათა ჩუენთასა.. და ვინ ვის მძლე ექმნა.. 47). გინა ასურით ოტებული. და ამის გამო დაისწავლეს ქჳთკირი. და აქამომდე არა იყო ქართლსა შინა საქმე ქჳთკირისა. ანუ აქილევი და ეკტორი. და ქმნა სატფურება დიდი კერპისა მისთჳს აღმართებულისა (I. 26: "ესე მეფენი არმაზელ და აზორკ იყვნეს კაცნი მჴნენი და შემმართებელნი.. რომელი პოვა ციხეთა და ქალაქთა გარე. რომელნი-იგი ღმერთად უჩნდეს ერსა მას ქართლისასა (I.. მოწყლულნი. და მათ გარდამოიტანნეს თანა პაჭანიკნი და ჯიქნი.. და ამათ მეფეთა ქართლისათა შემოკრიბნეს სპანი თჳსნი და შეკრბა ესე ყოველი სიმრავლე ურიცხჳ. 45-46)". ხოლო მეფენი ესე ქართლისანი. რამეთუ არა მზა იყო მსწრაფლ გამოსვლისაგან. და ტანსა მისსა ეცუა ჯაჭჳ ოქროსი. ამათ მეფეთა ქართლისათა აზორკ და არმაზელ მოუწოდეს ოვსთა და ლეკთა. და გარდამოიყვანნეს ოვსთა მეფენი. სიფიცხლითა გულისა მათისათა არა შეუშინდეს." (I. და გარდამოვიდა მეფე ლეკთა და გარდამოიტანნა დურძუკნი და დიდონი. N. და აღაშენა მას ზედა გოდოლნი მაღალნი. და დაებანაკათ იორსა ზედა. ესე ყოველნი ჩრდილონი განსრულ იყვნეს მტკუარსა და მისრულ იყვნეს კამბეჩოანს. მერმეცა ოდისეოს და ორესტესი ეკუეთნეს. 13)". და წარმოზღუდა ცხჳრი არმაზისი ვიდრე მტკურამდე (I. N. ვითარცა ელვა.N. 29: მანვე მოზღუდა მცხეთა ქალაქი ქჳთკირითა. 15)''. სპითა ოვსეთისათა. და ჴელთა მისთა აქუნდა ჴრმალი ბრწყინვალე. ვიტყჳ უკუე უმიროსსა და არისტოვლის ელინთა... და სიმარჯჳთ ფარულად შეკრბეს. ამანვე არდამ მოჰკიდა კირი-ზღუდე ციხესა არმაზისასა და აქათ მტკურამდის. დავსხნეთ თავნი ჩუენნი ციხეთა და ქალაქთა შინა და მოვსწყდეთ ყოველნი (I.. რომელთაგანმან ერთმან ტროადელთა და აქეველთანი შეამკვნა თხრობანი. მოელოდეს მოსლვასა სპარსთასა. 89-90)'''. სიმჴნენი და ძლევა-შემოსილობანი. N. არამედ განამაგრნეს ციხენი და ქალაქნი თჳისნი. და მეორემან ალექსანდრესნი წარმოთქუნა მძლეობანი. ამართა კერპი იგი არმაზი თავსა ზედა ქართლისასა. 28: ". 34: ''ხოლო დაიმორჩილა ოვსნი და ყივჩაყნი. ხოლო იოსიპოს ებრაელსა. სახელით ბაზუკ და აბაზუკ.
R. H. A History of Wars on the Turco­ Caucasian Border 1828 ­ 1921. vol. Acharean. Text. T'iroyan's edition (Venice 1884). Norfolk. Dio’s Roman History. N. D. W. ბაგრატიონთა გვარია. . 1959. Braund. Alexidze. Cary on the basis of the version . With an English translation by E. Antichthon. 35: "ვერ გაგიგიათ ქართველნო. The Georgian Chronicle (Juansher's Concise History of the Georgians). 1953. Apakidze. Baku: Azerneshr (in Russian). A History of the Georgian People from the Beginning down to the Russian Conquest in the Nineteenth Century. Bosworth. The Arabs. აღარ სჭექს ზარბაზანია. 1992. Vespasian's Reorganization of the North­East Frontier.81. A. Blockley. 1993. A. D. . . W.თკ)''. Collected Studies Series c529. Unpublished. vol. 10. 1996. 1968. Allen. & Muratoff. The Caspian Gates in Roman­Persian Relations in Ancient Transcaucasia. Bedrosian. Translation. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC ­ AD 562. I. Sources of the Armenian Tradition (Series). 1977. შაგეხსნათ რკინის კარია. Settimane di Studio del centro Italiano di stum sull'alto ibedioevo XIII Il Caucaso: Cerniesa fra Culture dal Medditeraneo all Persia (Seccoli 4­11) 20­ 26 aprile 1995. K'art'uli tek'sti da dzveli somxuri t'argmani gamokvlevit'a da lek'sikonit. The New Recensions of the "Conversion of Georgia" and the "Lives of thirteen Syrian Fathers" Recently Discovered on Mount Sinai. Papers and Monographs. Ottawa: Francis Cairns. R. 1994. C. B. E. C. King Flavius Dades. Studies in Early Islamic History and Culture. Braund. Tbilisi: Tbilisis saxelmcip'o universitetis gamomc'emloba (in Georgian). 1953. and Historiographical notes. 1995. Hayeren Armatakan Bararan. Z. K'art'lis C'xovrebis dzveli somxuri t'argmani. Cary. Translated from the At'. Mc'xet'a ­ Kartlis samepos dzveli dedakalaki. Bosworth A. K. E. Long Branch. The History of Menander the Guardsman. New Jersey. B. Classical and Medieval Texts. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abuladze. Yerevan (in Armenian). Allen. Band 96. Journal of the Australian Society for Classical Studies.G. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphie. 17. E. London. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Tbilisi (in Georgian). ერთმანეთს ნუ უღალატებთ. 1932. Arrian and the Alani. 1971. D. Byzantium and Iran. მეფე აღარ გყავსთ ერეკლე. P. E. 233 Aliev. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 1991. D. Georgia in Antiquity. ARCA. D. Cambridge: University Press. აღარ გაქვსთ ბაირახები. Caucasian Battlefields. Braund. 1997. მტერმა არ გთხაროსთ თვალია". 1985. Bosworth. Antichnaya Kavkazskaya Albaniya. Introductory Essay. 1976.
M. Geburtstag gewidmet. Pompej na Kavkaze: Kolkhida. Cary on the basis of the version of H. H. III.). Samadlo (arkheologicheskie raskopki). The Medieval Alexander. The Loeb Classical Library. B. Weimar: Verlag J. 1950. Gagoshidze. M. ‘Nachbehandlung’: M. Foster. The Loeb Classical Library. Nationalism and Social Change. 1. With an English translation by E.of H. 1938. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1. ­ Georgica. Cary. The Loeb Classical Library. 1969a. L'Armenie entre Rome et Iran. 1936. Tezisyi dissertatsii. B. Leningrad (in Russian). V. Die Alanen und die römische Ostpolitik unter Vespasian. 1­3. Bd. Tbilisi: Metsniereba (in Georgian). Armenia between Byzantium and the Sasanians. 1994. Albania. H. London: William Heinemann & Cambridge. 8. Enzyklopädie der Antike. 1976. Schneider (Hrsg. (in Russian). Vestnik drevnej istorii. Heft 8. 1983. T. vol. 1986. L. Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie. Severochernomorskie zametki. Golden. S. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. vol. 1986. Halfmann. Ann Arbor.B. Feodal'nye obrazovaniya Kartli v period marzabanstva (532­627 gg. Dreher. The Chronological­Genealogical Table of the Kings of Georgia. London: William Heinemann & Cambridge. Gigineishvili. & Giunashvili. Cary. Dio’s Roman History. East European Studies. Cambridge: University Press. Elnitskij.2. vol. 234 Eremyan. Cary on the basis of the version of H. Eck. Gugushvili. H. 2000. London: Variorum Reprints.). Friedrich Karl Dörner zum 80. E. Vestnik drevnej istorii. A Political History of Parthia.­L. in: Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. 1979. London: William Heinemann & Cambridge. Essays in the History of Armenia. Foster. Iberia. N. Foster. Chaumont. Neratius. III. Hirrius Fronto Neratius Pansa. Debevoise. V. M. Cary. E. Halfmann H. 1956. 1991. no. New York. 1969. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Yu. N. Cancik & H. Garsoian. B.) Forschungsstelle Asia Minor im Seminar für Alte Geschichte der . 3: Studien zum antiken Kleinasien. G. (in Russian). Azerbaijan and Georgia.Suny (ed. in: Der neue Pauly. Berlin. B. Stuttgart. in: Transcaucasia. 1935. The Turkic Peoples and Caucasia. B. Shatberdis krebuli X saukunisa.S. Metzler. ­ Epiigraphica Anatolica.). 1985. in: Studien zum antiken Kleinasiens. A. Dio’s Roman History. Zeitschrift für Epigraphik und historische Geographie Anatoliens. R. C. A. P. 1979. Fähnrich. With an English translation by E. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. B. Tbilisi: Metsniereba (in Russian). Kurze Grammatik der Georgischen Sprache. W. (Asia Minor Studien.
K. XI­B (in Georgian). G. A Greek­English Lexicon. 1992. I. 1958. III (in Georgian). Leonti Mroveli's literaturuli cqaroebi. R. Translation and Commentary by R. 1990. P. Chr. K'art'veli eris istoria. 2 (in Russian). M. Caucasica. Bonn: Habelt. Für die Red. 4 (in Georgian). Hewsen. 1985. I (in Georgian). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Anatoliashi kartvelur tomta gansakhlebis sakitkhisatvis. P. Tbilisi: Saxelgami (in Georgian). vol. Inadze. ­ Sak'art'velos saxelmcip'o muzeumis moambe. Jones. sind verantwortl. ­ Enis.). Liddel. ­ Sbornik materialov dlya opisaniya mestnostej i plemen Kavkaza. K. M. II. Tbilisi (in Georgian). The Limits of Empire. Introduction. Reihe B. 1923. 1914. 1905. 1989. vol. Kekelidze. 1955.Westfälischen­Wilhelms­Universität Münster. M. istoriisa da materialuri kulturis institutis mac'ne. 1950. do n. Lordkipanidze. Ingoroqva. (Ed. 1941.Wiesbaden. . Recherches sur les Res Gestae Divi Saporis. H. Hirrius Fronto Neratius Pansa. 1953. A.e. in: Orbis Terrarum. Bd. The Roman Army in the East. legatus exercitus Africae. Heil. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. 1941a. G. Honigmann. Problemy vojny i mira v antichnoi Gruzii (VI­IV vv. ­ Mnat'obi. Des vorliegenden Bd. Leonti Mroveli. Daniela Pohl und Jutta Teichmann. Ingoroqva. 1996. 1996. ­ Chiiron. Isaac. G. L. 77. P. R. Hewsen. ­ Tbilisis saxelmcip'o universitetis moambe. Kekelidze. II.: Antke Schütte. E. Cambridge. Mitteilungen der Kommission für Alte Geschichte und epigraphik des Deutsches Archäologischen Instituts. Mass. L. XXXV (in Russian). H. Internationale Zeitschrift für Historische Geographie der Alten Welt. Tbilisi (in Georgian). I. Jones. Nr. 235 Kavtaradze.: Harvard University Press & Lndon: William Heinemann Ltd. Javakhishvili. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ingoroqva. 19. 1998. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. 2. The Geography of Ananias of Širak (Ašxarhac'oyc'). St. M. K'art'uli mcerlobis istoriis mokle mimoxlva. X (in Georgian). Dzvel­kartuli matiane "mok'c'evay k'art'lisay" da antikuri xanis iberiis mep'eta sia. Bruxelles. G. & Maricq. B. Iberiisa da romis urt'iert'oba meore saukunis pirvel naxevarshi. K'art'uli literaturis istoria. Janashvili. The Long and Short Recensions.) 1924. ­ Istoriis institutis shromebi. 1939. H. H. Probleme der historischen Geographie Anatoliens und Transkaukasiens im ersten Jahrtausend v. The Geography of Strabo. A New Revised and Augmented throughout by H. The Journal of Caucasian Studies. Kavtaradze. K’art’lis C’xovreba ­ Djitie Gruzii. & Scott.
Byzantium. Beihefte zu Tübinger Atlas des Vordered Orients. G. ­ Kulturis istoriis sakitxebi. Melikishvili. in: The Geographical Journal. 1986. Melikishvili. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Olshausen. Gruziya s drevnejshikh vremen do IV v. II Principat. I. (UMI reprint #9722070). & Biller. D. vol. D. H. 236 Rapp.6.e. 7. 1909. K istorii drevnei Gruzii. O mestonakhodjdenii Caspia via i Caspiae portae. Manandyan.). Iulius Solinus.e. vol. . Untersuchungen zur historischen Geographie von Pontos unter den Mithradatiden. Imagining History at the Crossroads: Persia. G. 25 (in Russian). Wiesbaden: Dr. 1959. The Relations of the Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Iberia in the Second Half of the 1st Century A. 1983. Tek'sti dadgenili qvela dzirit'adi xelnaceris mixedvit'. in: Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. H. Ph. N. Tbilisi: Saxelgami (in Georgian). H. Mommsen. C. 1904.C. New York: Walter de Gruyter. B. Temporini (Hrsg. n. 2. A.). Tbilisi: Tbilisis saxelmtsipo universitetis gamomcemloba. Herausgegeben von Gertrud Pätsch. Nr. and the Architects of the Written Georgian Past. 1980. T. Teil I. Brill. Tbilisi (in Russian). S. University of Michigan.. A. Olshausen (Hrsg. in: Vestnik Drevnej Istorii 1 (in Russian). I: Gruziya s drevnejshikh vremen do IV v. Iberer und Hyrkanier. 1989a. 1997. Berlin: Weidmannische Verlagsbuchhandlung. Melikishvili. McGing. 1930. 29/1. The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator King of Pontus. G. E.XXIII. Obrazovanie Kartlijskogo (Iberijskogo) gosudarstva. Qaukhchisvili. Ptolemeeva karta kavkazskoi Albanii i uroven' Kaspiya. Mitford. 1997. G. B.Mackinder. 1989. Ya. S. Reihe B. Eine Chronik aus Georgien 300­1200. Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium. The Geographical Pivot of History. T. Pätsch. 1979. E. ­ Ocherki Istorii Gruzii. Tbilisi: Metsniereba (in Russian). Berlin. Cappadocia and Armenia Minor: Historical Setting of the Limes. Fasc. Leiden: E. Ludwig Reichert Verlag. 1948. T. 1984. Mommsen. in: Antike Diplomatie. Mommsen. ­ Isttoricheskie zapiski. Olshausen. The Provinces of the Roman Empire. K'art'lis C'xovreba. A. ­ Ocherki Istorii Gruzii I. 1955. Istochniki. n. Leipzig. St. Iterum recensuit Th. J. Leipzig: Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. E. A. 1999.2 (Siebenter Band. diss. Halbband). II.J. VI. in: Caucasica.J. J. A. Tbilisi: Metsniereba (in Russian). Noneshvili. London. Markwart. 1958. Historisch­geographische Aspekte der Geschichte des Pontischen und Armenischen Reiches. 1985. Mouraviev. Zur Frage ständiger Gesandtschaften in Hellenistischer Zeit. Das Leben Kartlis.
vol. Rapp. 1982. H. Schütte. Pohl. A. Hildesheim. in: Alte Gescichte: Wege­Einsichten­Horizonte: Festschrift für Eckart Olshausen zum 60. M. (Ed.). Sinor. K'art'lis c'xovreba. 1998. B. 1989. 1978. Bd. U. 1965. Teichmann (Hrsg. Asia Minor Studien. St. VI: The Imperial Peace . Jupiter Dolichenus. J. Introduction: The Concept of Inner Asia. Delmar. D. 1994. Mitteilungen der Kommission für Alte Geschichte und epigraphik des Deutsches Archäologischen Instituts. 19.der Zeus von Doliche und der kommagenische Königskult.).C. ­ Chiron. Brill. Speidel. J. Temporini. (Ed. Bd. Principat. London.) 1998. D. Literatur). Anatolian and Caucasian Studies. A. D. Ridley. siebenter Band (2. 3. D. Studien zur Klassischen Philologie und ihren Grenzgebieten. Auxiliary Units Named after their Commanders: Four New Cases from Egypt. H. H. Delmar. The Literature of Georgia.) 1998a. Metzler. Flavian Wars and Frontiers. M. Pontos samep'o. Berlin. 4. Ein Hannibal aus dem Osten? Die „letzten Pläne“ des Mithridates VI. Iupiter Dolichenus. B. Geburtstag. R. von Pontos. Enzyklopädie der Antike. London: Longmans. 1998. The Pharsalia of Lucan. Sonnabend (Hrsg. A. Bonn: Habelt. Weimar: Verlag J. M.K. Stuttgart. Schwertheim. Sonnabend.K.D. Geschichte und Kultur Roms in Spiegel der neueren Forschung. The Georgian Royal Annals and their Medieval Armenian Adaptation. 1956. 1991. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Zürich. 1980. to A. H. E. Rivista italiana di egittologia e papirologia.P. Tbilisi (in Georgian). Rayfield. New York: Olms. 1980. Forschungsstelle Asia Minor im Seminar für Alte Geschichte der Westfälischen­Wilhelms­Universität Münster. 1987. to A. Cambridge etc. 1. Vol. in: Studien zum antiken Kleinasien: Friedrich Karl Dörner zum 80. Sanikidze. Speidel. I. A History. II. II.N. Herausgegeben von H. Syme. Vol.C. 1995. Translated by Sir Edward Ridley. 1984. Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 B. in: The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. New York: Walter de Gruyter. The Georgian Royal Annals and their Medieval Armenian Adaptation. Spudasmata. Cancik & H. K. Sinor (ed. New York: Caravan Books. Sherk. 114. Geburtstag gewidmet. P. in: Aufstieg und Niedergang der römische Welt. Roman Galatia: The Governors from 25 B. Speidel. Halbband). Georgisch (III. Stuttgart. Sonnabend. St. 1896. and Co. Leiden: E. L.C. E.). Sarkissian.Rapp.). New York: Caravan Books. Schyboll. ­ Aegyptus. 69. Der Himmelsgott auf dem Stier. Green. H. Sherwin­White. Bd. P. The Religion of Iuppiter Dolichenus in the Roman Army. Anatolian and Caucasian Studies. in: The Cambridge History. The Council of Chalcedon and the Armenian Church. 62 (1­2).D. P. Schneider (Hrsg. London: S. in: Der neue Pauly. Fellmeth & H. Pyrrhos und die „Furcht“ der Römer vor dem Osten. K'art'lis c'xovreba. R.
C. The Medieval Armenian Adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles. 1961.. Thought and Religion. New York. Tbilisi (in Georgian). Beiträge zur alten Geschichte.D. 1947. E. . Studies in Ancient and Medieval History. ­ Traditio. La découverte d'une inscription géorgienne de l'an 1066. P. Chicago. London. 70­192. B. M. Rewriting Caucasian History. Charlesworth (eds. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ­ The Journal of Roman Studies. 1957. New York. vol. Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Taqaishvili. Sources arméno­géorgiennes de l'histoire ancienne de l'Église de Géorgie. 1996. I. Tarchnishvili. Thomson. 1955. in: Dzveli Sak'art'velo. Mass. E. New York.W. A Cook. R. 1969. V. M. Translation and Commentary by R. Medieval Georgian Historical Literature (VIIth ­ XVth Centuries). 1963. Zur Geschichte der Alanen. Chronology of the Early Kings of Iberia. M. 9. 1947. XXV. Torelli. Thought and Religion. The Original Georgian Texts and the Armenian Adaptation. W. The Oldest Manuscript of the Georgian Annals: The Queen Anne Codex (QA). ­ Traditio. E.Thomson. Toumanoff. Tarchnishvili. XXVIII (in Russian). C. Mok'c'evai K'art'lisais Chelishuri varianti. 1900. in: Le Muséon 60. Translation and Commentary on the Literary Sources by R. Studies in Ancient and Medieval History. Washington: Georgetown University Press. Sami istoriuli k'ronika. 1984. 1968. Hirrius Fronto Neratius Pansa. E. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1980. Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments. W. Klio. W. 1976. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (First published 1936). Toumanoff. 1943. C.Thomson. Studies in Ancient and Medieval History. 1479­1495. The Cursus Honorum of M. R. W. W. Tarn. 1890. Thomson. History of the Armenians. in: Bedi Karthlisa 26­ 27. R. ­ Traditio. Thought and Religion. I. 1909. 1909. S. W.A. Città del Vaticano: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana. Tarchnishvili. Tbilisi (in Georgian). Toumanoff. M. Translated with Introduction and Commentary by R. Thomson. W. Cambridge. C. M. M. In: Sbornik materialov dlya opisaniya mestnostej i plemen Kavkaza. Agathangelos History of the Armenians. in: Bedi Karthlisa 36­37. LVIII. Tarchnishvili. 237 Taqaishvili. Toumanoff. Thomson. Adcock. F. Taqaishvili.). Gescichte der kirchlichen georgischen Literatur (Studi e Testi 185). 5. Moses Khorenats'i . Täubler E. Le dieu lune Armazi.
1935. vol. London. 1. C. M. Winkler.M. 1895. Auburn and Buffalo. Back: http://kavtaradze. John E. no. Trever. J. 1953. 1956. London: Austin. Plinius Secundas d. 1959.geocities.com/ or publications2. Ocherki po istorii i kul'ture kavkazskoj Albanii. in: Georgica. Toronto: Oxford University Press. A.Ä. et al. A. I. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Chanur­megrulis p'onetika. The Asianic (Asia Minor) Elements in National Georgian Paganism. vol. W. Darmstadt. Journal of Georgian and Caucasian Studies.. Moscow ­ Leningrad (in Russian). Translated by William Whiston. The Works of Flavius Josephus. von. Tseretheli.II. V. Naturkunde. Bücher III/IV.com/komblege/kavta.htm & http://www. Whinston. New York. 1895. S. Zhgenti. Beardsley. Winkler in Zusammenarbeit mit R.Toynbee. 1988. A Study of History. Tbilisi (in Georgian). München & Zürich: Artemis. Herausgegeben und übersetzt von G. K. König. Flavius Josephus.wetpaint. Lateinish­Deutsch.html . Geographie: Europa. G.

References: sui generis
 V. 
 V. 
 v. 
 v. 
 v. 
 V. 
 V.