Source: https://www.scribd.com/document/74210506/Survey-of-the-Law-of-Expatriation
Timestamp: 2019-04-25 17:50:28+00:00

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Expatriating a U.S. citizen subject to the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment on the ground that, after reaching the age of 18, the person has obtained foreign citizenship or declared allegiance to a foreign state generally will not be possible absent substantial evidence, apart from the act itself, that the individual specifically intended to relinquish U.S. citizenship. An express statement of renunciation of U.S. citizenship would suffice. An intent to renounce citizenship can be inferred from the act of serving in the armed forces of a foreign state engaged in hostilities against the United States.
June 12, 2002 MEMO RA NDUM O PINIO N FO R THE SO LICITO R GE NE RA L You have asked us for a general survey of the laws governing loss of citizenship, a process known as "expatriation" (also known within the specific context of naturalized citizens as "denaturalization"). See, e.g., Perkins v. Elg, 307 U.S. 325, 334 (1939) ("Expatriation is the voluntary renunciation or abandonment of nationality and allegiance."). Part I of this memorandum provides a general description of the expatriation process. Part II notes the relative difficulty of expatriating a person on the grounds that he has either obtained naturalization in, or declared allegiance to, a foreign state, absent evidence of a specific intention to relinquish U.S. citizenship apart from the act of naturalization or declaration itself. Part III analyzes the expatriation of a person who serves in a foreign armed force engaged in hostilities against the United States. (1) I. L a w o f e xp atri atio n It is now well settled that anyone may renounce his United States citizenship. (2) "In 1794 and 1797, many members of Congress still adhered to the English doctrine of perpetual allegiance and doubted whether a citizen could even voluntarily renounce his citizenship. By 1818, however, almost no one doubted the existence of the right of voluntary expatriation." Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 258 (1967). (3) In 1868, Congress declared that "the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Act of July 27, 1868, ch. 249, 15 Stat. 223, 223 (1868); see also 8 U.S.C. 1481 note (2000) (quoting R.S. 1999) (same). That declaration further stated that "any declaration, instruction, opinion, order, or decision of any officers of this government which denies, restricts, impairs, or questions the right of expatriation, is hereby declared inconsistent with the fundamental principles of this government." 15 Stat. at 224. Similarly, the Burlingame Treaty of 1868 between the United States and China recognized "the inherent and inalienable right of man to change his home and allegiance, and also the mutual advantage of . . . free migration and emigration . . . for purposes of curiosity, of trade, or as permanent residents." United States-China, July 28, 1868, art. 5, 16 Stat.
engaged in voluntarily"). Third, he must act "with the intention of relinquishing United States nationality." 8 U.S.C. 1481(a). (8) Expatriation occurs "at the time the expatriating acts were committed, not at the time his alienage was judicially determined."
United States ex rel. Marks v. Esperdy, 315 F.2d 673, 676 (2nd Cir. 1963), affirmed by an equally divided court, 377 U.S. 214 (1964); see also 8 U.S.C.
constitutional attack). Although any person who performs an act of expatriation is presumed to have done so voluntarily, that presumption can be rebutted with proof by a preponderance of the evidence that the act was performed involuntarily. 8 U.S.C.
1503 suit filed following issuance of certificate of loss of nationality).
Alternatively, a person might claim U.S. citizenship through a petition for a writ of habeas corpus challenging, for example, a deportation action. See, e.g., Marks, 315 F.2d at 675.
defendant had in fact renounced his citizenship. See, e.g., Kawakita v. United States, 343 U.S. 717, 722 (1952) (noting defense argument that acquittal on treason charge is required "since his duty of allegiance would have ceased with the termination of his American citizenship"). Similarly, one might claim loss of citizenship to avoid liability under U.S. tax laws. See, e.g., Matheson, 532 F.2d at 811 ("Here the estate of a wealthy deceased United States citizen seeks to establish over the government's opposition that she expatriated herself. As might be suspected, the reason is several million dollars in tax liability, which the estate might escape if it could sustain the burden of showing that the deceased lost her United States citizenship."). II. F o rei gn n atu ra liz atio n or decl ar ati on o f fo rei gn all e gia nce Under federal law, a U.S. citizen can lose his nationality if he voluntarily "obtain[s] naturalization in a foreign state . . . after having attained the age of eighteen years." 8 U.S.C. 1481(a)(1). Likewise, a citizen of the United States could be expatriated if he voluntarily "tak[es] an oath or mak[es] an affirmation or other formal declaration of allegiance to a foreign state or a political subdivision thereof, after having attained the age of eighteen years." 8 U.S.C. States nationality." 8 U.S.C. 1481(a)(2). In either case, however, no loss of citizenship may result unless the citizen acts "with the intention of relinquishing United 1481(a). The most common obstacle to expatriation in cases involving foreign naturalization or declaration of foreign allegiance is sufficient proof of a specific intention to renounce U.S. citizenship. Intent need not be proved with direct evidence, to be sure. It can be demonstrated circumstantially through conduct. Thus, in some cases, such as service in a hostile foreign military at war with the United States, the act of expatriation itself may even constitute "highly persuasive evidence . . . of a purpose to abandon citizenship."
an intention to relinquish citizenship in another country, for "[t]he concept of dual citizenship recognizes that a person may have and exercise rights of nationality in two countries and be subject to the responsibilities of both. The mere fact that he asserts the rights of one citizenship does not without more mean that he renounces the other."
Kawakita, 343 U.S. at 723-24.
repeatedly been recognized by the Supreme Court of the United States." Id. at 816. The court further noted that [h]ad Mrs. Burns wished to expatriate herself she could simply have unequivocally stated that she renounced her American citizenship. Instead, she used language to the effect that as a Mexican national she could not claim her rights as a United States citizen 'with respect to the Government of the Republic (of Mexico). . . .' This limited surrender did not preclude her from claiming rights as a United States citizen outside of Mexico. Indeed, once outside of Mexico she did not hesitate, consistent with this interpretation of her 1944 declaration, to invoke important rights and privileges inherent in her United States birthright. Thus we must conclude that the 1944 declaration amounted to nothing more than a statement of dual nationality.
Cir. 1972), that Elihu King was no longer a U.S. citizen. The court noted that, "to obtain British naturalization, King took an oath of allegiance to Queen Elizabeth II." Id. at 1189. That act "alone," however, was "insufficient to prove renunciation," although it did "provide substantial evidence of intent." Id. To reach its ultimate conclusion that Mr. King had renounced his U.S. citizenship, the court relied on other statements in which he demonstrated that he considered himself no longer to be a U.S. citizen as the result of his British naturalization. See id. at 1190 ("These statements indicate that while King never formally renounced his United States citizenship, he intended to do so when he became a naturalized British subject, and that he would do so at any time to 'simplify' matters.").
I therefore hereby expressly renounce ____ citizenship, as well as any submission, obedience, and loyalty to any foreign government, especially to that of ____, of which I might have been subject, all protection foreign to the laws and authorities of Mexico, all rights which treaties or international law grant to foreigners; and furthermore I swear adherence, obedience, and submission to the laws and authorities of the Mexican Republic.
words 'Estados Unidos' (United States) and 'Norteamerica' (North America), respectively." Id. The court thus concluded that "there is abundant evidence that plaintiff intended to renounce his United States citizenship when he acquired the Certificate of Mexican Nationality willingly, knowingly, and voluntarily." Terrazas, 653 F.2d at 288. In addition to the statement itself, the court noted, inter alia, the timing of Terrazas's actions, which suggested that he was attempting to avoid U.S. military service. Id. at 28889. Terrazas also never took steps to reverse his application, even after he had received his certificate of Mexican nationality, id. at 288, which also expressly recited his renunciation of any other citizenship, id. at 286. In sum, expatriating an individual on the ground that, after reaching the age of 18, a person has obtained foreign citizenship or declared allegiance to a foreign state generally will not be possible absent substantial evidence, apart from the act itself, that the individual specifically intended to relinquish U.S. citizenship. An express statement of renunciation of U.S. citizenship would suffice. III. Se r vic e in a h o stile fore ign ar me d for ce An individual who voluntarily "enter[s], or serv[es] in, the armed forces of a foreign state" (13) may be expatriated, "if (A) such armed forces are engaged in hostilities against the United States, or (B) such persons serve as a commissioned or noncommissioned officer." 8 U.S.C. U.S.C. 1481(a)(3). Nonetheless, no person may be expatriated unless he acts "with the intention of relinquishing United States nationality." 8 1481(a). That said, although the performance of an expatriating act cannot be used as "the equivalent of or as conclusive evidence of the indispensable voluntary assent of the citizen," such conduct "may be highly persuasive evidence in the particular case of a purpose to abandon citizenship." Terrazas, 444 U.S. at 261 (quotations omitted). Voluntary service in a foreign armed force that is engaged in hostilities against the United States has frequently been viewed as a particularly strong manifestation of an intention to abandon citizenship. As Attorney General Clark once opined, "it is highly persuasive evidence, to say the least, of an intent to abandon United States citizenship if one enlists voluntarily in the armed forces of a foreign government engaged in hostilities against the United States." 42 Op. Att'y Gen. at 401. See also 22 C.F.R. 50.40(a) (although "intent to retain U.S. citizenship will be presumed" when an individual "naturalize[s] in a foreign country" or "take[s] a routine oath of allegiance," no such presumption is provided "[i]n other loss of nationality cases").
appeal without opinion. 31 F.3d 1175. The Third Circuit took a similar view of service in a hostile foreign army in Breyer v.
acts constitute such a renunciation.
summary judgment on the issue of voluntariness. See Breyer v. Meissner, No. CIV. A. 976515, 2001 WL 1450625 (E.D. Pa. Nov. 16, 2001). According to the last published court order in the case, trial was set for mid-May, 2002. See Breyer v. Meissner, No. CIV. A. 976515, 2002 WL 922160, at *1 (E.D. Pa. May 7, 2002) ("a trial currently is scheduled in this matter for mid-May of this year so that the question of whether Breyer voluntarily relinquished his United States citizenship may be resolved"). In summary, both the Third Circuit and the district court in Schiffer (which the Third Circuit affirmed without opinion) have determined that the act of serving in a foreign armed force engaged in hostilities against the United States may itself manifest a specific intention to relinquish U.S. citizenship. Finally, we must point out that involuntary service in a hostile armed force does not constitute grounds for expatriation, because no person can lose his U.S. citizenship "unless he voluntarily relinquishes it." Terrazas, 444 U.S. at 260 (quoting Afroyim, 387 U.S. at 262). As our Office has noted, "conscription into military service, particularly in a totalitarian country, may make such service and any attendant oath of allegiance involuntary, if the individual would otherwise face physical punishment, imprisonment, or economic deprivation." Voluntariness of Renunciations of Citizenship Under 8 U.S.C.
that "[t]he choice of taking the oath or violating the law was for a soldier in the army of Fascist Italy no choice at all") (quotations omitted). The mere fact of conscription, alone, is not sufficient to defeat the statutory presumption of voluntariness, however. After all, military service is frequently performed willingly, freely, even voluntarily, although technically there is no enlistment but conscription under a 'compulsory' service law. We are not ready to believe that everyone inducted into an army, a navy, or an air force, performs his service solely because of the proximity of the court martial or the police station. Duress cannot be inferred from the mere fact of conscription.
may be available). 8. Additional restrictions on expatriation, not apparently relevant here, are enumerated in 8 U.S.C. 1483 (2000). First, "[e]xcept as provided in paragraphs (6) and (7) of section 1481(a) of this title, no national of the United States can lose United States nationality under this chapter while within the United States or any of its outlying possessions, but loss of nationality shall result from the performance within the United States or any of its outlying possessions of any of the acts or the fulfillment of any of the conditions specified in this Part if and when the national thereafter takes up a residence outside the United States and its outlying possessions." 8 U.S.C. 1483(a). Second, "[a] national who within six months after attaining the age of eighteen years asserts his claim to United States nationality, in such manner as the Secretary of State shall by regulation prescribe, shall not be deemed to have lost United States nationality by the commission, prior to his eighteenth birthday, of any of the acts specified in paragraphs (3) and (5) of section 1481(a) of this title." 8 U.S.C. 1483(b).
time a U.S. citizen seeks renunciation pursuant to that provision. 10. Under federal law, "[w]henever a diplomatic or consular officer of the United States has reason to believe that a person while in a foreign state has lost his United States nationality under [8 U.S.C. 1481-1489], he shall certify the facts upon which such 50.40(b)-(e), 50.50(b), 50.51 50.40(c) (2001) (same). belief is based to the Department of State, in writing, under regulations prescribed by the Secretary of State [currently codified at 22 C.F.R. (2001)]." 8 U.S.C. 1501 (2000). See also 22 C.F.R.
the circumstances causing a natural born citizen to seek naturalization in the first place.
See, e.g., Schiffer, 831 F. Supp. at 1169.
12. Mr. Kawakita had been tried and convicted of treason for beating and inflicting other acts of cruelty upon American prisoners of war held in Japan. See id. at 737-40. The Supreme Court affirmed the conviction after rejecting Kawakita's contention that he was no longer a U.S. citizen and therefore did not owe allegiance to the United States, one of the elements of a treason offense. See id. at 722. As noted above, Kawakita failed to persuade the Court that his expression of allegiance to Japan constituted grounds for expatriation. In addition, the Court rejected Kawakita's argument that he had effectively "serv[ed] in the Japanese armed services," another statutorily enumerated act of expatriation. Id. at 727 (quotations omitted). The Court instead found that Kawakita was merely an interpreter employed by a private Japanese company, and not a soldier in the Japanese army, for purposes of the expatriation statute. See id. ("Though petitioner took orders from the military, he was not a soldier in the armed services . . . . His employment was as an interpreter for . . . a private company."). 13. Assuming that the Taliban represents the "armed forces" of Afghanistan for purposes of the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, the President has concluded that the Taliban does not satisfy at least three of the four requirements of lawful combat, and therefore that Taliban fighters are ineligible for treatment as prisoners of war under the Convention.
Article 4 of the Third Geneva Convention of 1949, at 4-7 (Feb. 7, 2002).

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