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James R. Goff, under appointment by the Supreme Court, for Defendant and Appellant.
Wilbur F. Littlefield, Public Defender (Los Angeles), Dennis A. Fischer and H. Reed Webb, Deputy Public Defenders, as Amici Curiae on behalf of Defendant and Appellant.
Evelle J. Younger and George Deukmejian, Attorneys General, Jack R. Winkler and Robert H. Philibosian, Chief Assistant Attorneys General, S. Clark Moore, Assistant Attorney General, Shunji Asari and Mark Alan Hart, Deputy Attorneys General, for Plaintiff and Respondent.
On July 12, 1977, defendant Johnson was convicted of three counts of robbery (Pen. Code, § 211). fn. 1 On this appeal, he contends that his conviction should be reversed on the grounds, among others, that he was denied his right to a speedy trial and that substantial evidence does not support the judgment.
Section 1382, which interprets the state constitutional right to a speedy trial (see Cal. Const., art. I, § 15), provides that absent a showing of good cause, a defendant accused of a felony is entitled to a dismissal of the charges against him if he is not brought to trial within 60 days of the filing of the information. Defendant Johnson was not brought to trial within this statutory period. Instead, the trial court, at the request of the public defender, and over defendant's express objection, repeatedly continued the case, with the result that trial commenced 144 days after the filing of charges. Defendant raised his speedy trial claim in the trial court, but did not seek pretrial appellate intervention.
We summarize briefly our conclusions respecting the speedy trial issue. We conclude, first, that when a client expressly objects to waiver of his right to a speedy trial under section 1382, counsel may not waive [26 Cal. 3d 562] that right to resolve a calendar conflict when counsel acts not for the benefit of the client before the court but to accommodate counsel's other clients. Secondly, we conclude that, at least in the case of an incarcerated defendant, the asserted inability of the public defender to try such a defendant's case within the statutory period because of conflicting obligations to other clients does not constitute good cause to avoid dismissal of the charges. Finally, we reaffirm the holding of People v. Wilson (1963) 60 Cal. 2d 139 [32 Cal. Rptr. 44, 383 P.2d 452], that a defendant seeking post-conviction review of denial of a speedy trial must prove prejudice flowing from the delay of trial; we affirm here because defendant proved no prejudice.
In discussing defendant's contention that substantial evidence does not support his conviction, we take the opportunity to review and define the California standard for review of this contention in light of the recent United States Supreme Court decision in Jackson v. Virginia (1979) 443 U.S. 307 [61 L. Ed. 2d 560, 99 S. Ct. 2781]. [1a] We explain that whenever the evidentiary support for a conviction faces a challenge on appeal, the court must review the whole record in the light most favorable to the judgment below to determine whether it discloses substantial evidence such that a reasonable trier of fact could find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. Applying this test to the present case, we conclude that substantial evidence does support the conviction.
1. The trial court's failure to bring defendant to trial within 60 days from the filing of the information does not constitute reversible error.
Although the federal constitutional right to a speedy trial may indeed have an "amorphous quality" (Barker v. Wingo (1972) 407 U.S. 514, 522 [33 L. Ed. 2d 101, 112, 92 S.Ct. 2182]), our own Legislature has defined certain time periods beyond which the right suffers infringement and has simplified our courts' application of the right. Section 1382 provides: "The court, unless good cause to the contrary is shown, must order the action to be dismissed in the following cases: ... [¶] 2. When a defendant is not brought to trial in a superior court within 60 days after the finding of the indictment or the filing of the information ...; except that an action shall not be dismissed under this subdivision if it is set for trial on a date beyond the 60-day period at the request of the defendant or with his consent, express or implied, ... and if the defendant is brought to trial on the date so set for trial or within 10 days thereafter."
In applying section 1382 to the present case, three questions arise: (1) Were the postponements in the present case granted at the request of defense counsel but over defendant's express objection, made "at the request of the defendant or with his consent?" (2) Did the trial court have "good cause" for denying defendant's motion to dismiss for lack of a speedy trial? (3) Was defendant prejudiced by the delay in bringing his case to trial? Initially we set forth the procedural history of this case as it bears on defendant's claim that he was denied a speedy trial; we then analyze the three issues in the order listed.
On June 14, the court excused counsel until June 23. fn. 4 A minute order for June 23, 1977, indicates that on that day the trial court, "due to congested calendar," trailed trial to a date "not later than June 27, 1977, or to such earlier date as a trial court is available (deemed 10th day, pursuant to stipulation)." On June 27, the court called the case for trial, and jury selection began. Thus defendant was brought to trial 144 days after the information was filed against him. During this entire period defendant, unable to make bail, was confined in jail.
On July 12, after the presentation of evidence at trial, fn. 5 the jury returned a verdict finding defendant guilty of the three counts of robbery with which he was charged, but finding not true the allegation that defendant was armed with a knife. The jury acquitted codefendant Sumlin.
Although defendant raised his claim of denial of a speedy trial by a pretrial writ of habeas corpus in the trial court, he did not seek pretrial appellate resolution of that issue. Following conviction, however, he appealed, asserting that the charges against him should have been dismissed for failure to bring the case to trial within 60 days from the filing of the information.
[2a] The postponement of trial to May 6, 1977, which put the trial date beyond the 60-day period, the second continuance to June 14, and the third continuance to June 23 were each granted at the express or implied request of the public defender, but in each instance over the express [26 Cal. 3d 566] objection of defendant. The postponements were not sought nor granted to serve the best interest of the defendant; they stem from calendar conflicts of the public defender, and the decision of the public defender and the court to resolve these conflicts by trying other cases in advance of that of defendant. We thus face the initial issue: whether appointed defense counsel may under these circumstances waive his client's right to a trial within the statutory period of section 1382 over the express objection of his client.
A. Counsel lacked authority to waive defendant's right to a speedy trial under section 1382.
The foregoing conclusion, although derived from the ethical principle that an attorney owes an undivided loyalty to the interests of his client, appears to us equally essential to fulfill the objectives of section 1382. That section confers a right upon the defendant, but that right becomes meaningless if counsel can disregard defendant's views and interests and waive the right. Routine waivers to accommodate crowded calendars of defense counsel, moreover, defeat the public interest in speedy criminal trials.
Under the circumstances of the present case we conclude that counsel, in view of his client's express objection, may not waive his right to a speedy trial under section 1382. Accordingly, the postponements [26 Cal. 3d 569] granted by the trial court in the present case at the instance of the public defender were not granted "at the request of the defendant or with his consent" within the meaning of section 1382, subdivision 2.
B. [3a] The record does not show "good cause" to deny defendant's motion to dismiss.
We come then to the ensuing issue of whether the congested calendar of appointed counsel can serve as sufficient "good cause" for a continuance and whether the court on that ground can avoid the designated dismissal. A defendant who is incarcerated pending trial, such as defendant Johnson, suffers particular harm when he is denied his right to trial within the statutory period. fn. 11 The following discussion of the "good cause" provision of section 1382 is limited to the case of an incarcerated defendant.
Although we perceive no objection to the principles stated in the preceding paragraph, we question those decisions which assume that court [26 Cal. 3d 571] congestion or excessive public defender caseloads necessarily constitute good cause to deny dismissal. (See, e.g., In re Lopez, supra, 39 Cal. 2d 118, 120 (court congestion); People v. Weiss (1958) 50 Cal. 2d 535, 559 [327 P.2d 527] (same); People v. Yniquez (1974) 42 Cal. App. 3d Supp. 13, 19 [116 Cal. Rptr. 626] (same); People v. Superior Court (Lerma), supra, 48 Cal. App. 3d 1003, 1009-1010 and cases there cited (unavailability of public defender).) In 1901 this court in In re Begerow (1901) 133 Cal. 349, 355 [65 P. 828], stated that the purpose of the state constitutional protection of the right to a speedy trial is "to protect those accused of crime against possible delay, caused either by willful oppression, or the neglect of the state or its officers." "[T]he state or its officers," we must observe, includes not only the prosecution, but the judiciary and those whom the judges assign to represent indigent defendants; "oppression" or "neglect" may include the failure to provide the facilities and personnel needed to implement the right to speedy trial.
The same reasoning, distinguishing between chronic conditions and exceptional circumstances, applies to the delay caused by the crowded calendars of public defenders. The state cannot reasonably provide against all contingencies which may create a calendar conflict for public defenders and compel postponement of some of their cases. On the other hand, routine assignment of heavy caseloads to understaffed offices, when such practice foreseeably will result in the delay of trials beyond the 60-day period without defendant's consent, can and must be avoided. A defendant deserves not only capable counsel, but counsel who, barring exceptional circumstances, can defend him without infringing upon his right to a speedy trial. Thus the state cannot rely upon the obligations which an appointed counsel owes to other clients to excuse its denial of a speedy trial to the instant defendant.
The dismissal of charges when a defendant is denied his right to a speedy trial whether because of conflicting obligations of appointed counsel, congested court calendars, or other causes will not result in defendants' escaping trial for serious crimes they may have committed. Under section 1387, the dismissal of a felony charge for lack of a speedy trial is not a bar to further prosecution unless the charge has been previously dismissed on such grounds. We are confident that in cases in which there has been a prior dismissal, both court and counsel will give special attention to securing a speedy trial, granting the case priority if essential to that purpose.
The trial court on March 23, 1977, did not inquire into any available means of protecting defendant's right to a speedy trial. It accepted the public defender's recital of conflicting obligations without inquiring whether the conflict arose from exceptional circumstances or resulted from a failure of the state to provide defendant with counsel able to protect his right. The record of the proceeding of March 23 thus does not demonstrate good cause to avoid dismissal of the charges. The same reasoning applies to the continuance ordered by the court on May 6, 1977.
When defendant, on May 27, 1977, by writ of habeas corpus moved to dismiss the charges, the trial court summarily denied his petition. fn. 18 [26 Cal. 3d 574] We believe that the court, instead, should have required the prosecution to show good cause to avoid the dismissal. Thus in summarily denying defendant's motion, the court committed error which, on the record, and in the absence of a prosecution showing of good cause, resulted in denying defendant's right to a speedy trial under section 1382.
C.  Defendant failed to prove prejudice arising from state's delay in bringing him to trial.
We come therefore to the question whether the abridgment of a defendant's right under section 1382 requires a reversal of the conviction. In People v. Wilson, supra, 60 Cal. 2d 139, 151-152, we addressed this issue and concluded that a defendant raising the issue after conviction must prove not only unjustified delay in bringing his case to trial but also prejudice flowing from that delay.
In the present case the record shows no prejudice to defendant arising from the delay. This is not a case in which the statute of limitations would have been a bar to new charges, or one in which a dismissal would itself have barred refiling. Defendant does not assert that the delay actually prejudiced his defense. Indeed, defendant by his silence on this issue essentially concedes the absence of prejudice, urging that we overrule Wilson and reverse his conviction without proof of prejudice.
We adhere, however, to the reasoning and holding in Wilson. That decision represents a considered policy judgment that defendants should [26 Cal. 3d 575] seek review of speedy trial claims before trial. The decision recognized also that once a defendant has been tried and convicted, the state Constitution in article VI, section 13, forbids reversal for nonprejudicial error. When a defendant has received a fair trial, we believe, neither the public interest nor the scope of article VI, section 13, call for reversal of that conviction because of nonprejudicial error in the scheduling of that trial.
[6a] In summary, calendar conflict by appointed counsel does not permit counsel to waive defendant's rights under section 1382 over his client's express objection; likewise calendar conflict on the part of defense counsel or the trial court cannot routinely serve to justify denial of a motion to dismiss when trial is postponed beyond the statutory period. These conclusions, we believe, are essential to enforce the right of defendants and the People to a speedy trial and to forestall the danger that counties may adopt a practice of regular and routine circumvention of the 60-day period specified by the Legislature. fn. 19  In the interest of justice and sound judicial adminsitration, our conclusion that congested calendars of defense counsel or trial courts will not necessarily constitute good cause to deny a motion to dismiss under section 1382 should not be applied to rulings denying such a motion to dismiss rendered prior to the date of finality of this opinion.
2. [8a] Substantial evidence supports defendant's conviction.
The foregoing principles of judicial review are plainly consistent with Jackson v. Virginia, supra, 443 U.S. 307. Concern respecting the validity of the California standard arises, however, from language in other cases which could be interpreted to suggest that an appellate court should sustain a conviction supported by any evidence which taken in isolation might appear substantial, even if on the whole record no reasonable trier of fact would place credit in that evidence. Justice Elkington, in his dissenting opinion in People v. Blum (1973) 35 Cal. App. 3d 515 [110 Cal. Rptr. 833], catalogs a number of examples. He notes, for example, cases which state that the appellate court need only determine whether there is "any substantial evidence, contradicted or uncontradicted" (35 Cal.App.3d at p. 522), and other cases which indicate that the court should not consider that part of the evidence which would "tend to defeat" the judgment below (Id.).
We do not believe it necessary to disapprove past decisions merely because they contain language which could be misconstrued to permit affirmance based on a standard of review which might contravene Jackson v. Virginia, supra, 443 U.S. 307. We think it sufficient to reaffirm the basic principles which govern judicial review of a criminal conviction challenged as lacking evidentiary support: the court must review the whole record in the light most favorable to the judgment below to determine whether it discloses substantial evidence -- that is, evidence which is reasonable, credible, and of solid value -- such that a reasonable trier of fact could find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.
[8b] Cognizant of these principles, we turn to examine the record in the present case. Defendant was convicted of the robbery of employees of Jim Dandy Fast Foods chicken restaurant and two of its customers. Ms. Watley, one of the customers, testified that while she was waiting for her order to be filled, she saw three men enter the restaurant. Another man remained outside in a car. One of the men, armed with a shotgun, went to the counter and confronted the sales clerk. Defendant, who was unarmed, and a third man armed with a knife approached Ms. Watley. Defendant turned her around and pushed her against the counter; his companion took her purse. She began to cry. Defendant, trying to reassure her, told her not to cry, that he would try to get her purse back. Defendant's companion tried to remove the bracelet of a customer, Ms. Washington, who was standing next to Ms. Watley. Defendant told him to let the woman remove the bracelet herself; she did so and handed it to defendant's companion. The three men left together in the waiting car.
Police officers testified that when they stopped the getaway car, three men leapt from the car and escaped. The fourth occupant, defendant Johnson, was apprehended leaving the car. A search of the vehicle uncovered the shotgun, two knives, and Ms. Watley's purse with some of its contents missing.
Defendant testified in his own behalf. He said he met the three other men, whom he knew only by surname or nickname, at a liquor store and went with them to Jim Dandy to buy food. To his surprise the two men who accompanied him into the store started to rob the people there. He took no part in the robbery, but merely attempted to reassure and calm the victims. He left with the other men in the car because it was his car, and he did not want them to take it.
Even without the testimony of Ms. Horton, the testimony of Ms. Watley and the police officers establish a basis upon which a reasonable trier of fact could conclude that defendant was a participant, albeit an unusually kind participant, in an armed robbery. Defendant's own testimony largely corroborates Ms. Watley; his claim that notwithstanding outward appearances he really did not intend to aid in the robbery presents a defense which a reasonable jury could disbelieve. We conclude that substantial evidence supports the conviction, that is, that a reasonable trier of fact could find defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.
3. [9a] The trial court erroneously admitted hearsay evidence, but that error did not prejudice defendant.
At defendant's trial, a police officer testified that Ms. Washington, the victim of the robbery charged in count II, told him that the robbers took a bracelet from her. Ms. Washington was subpoenaed as a witness, but did not appear at trial.
Defendant's counsel did not object to the officer's testimony, but counsel for codefendant Sumlin objected that the statement was hearsay. The trial court overruled the objection, saying that "The statement is not being offered for the truth of the content, but merely to establish that a statement was made."
We find, however, no prejudice from the admission of the testimony. Ms. Watley testified that she saw one of the robbers take a bracelet from another woman, and defendant Johnson's testimony corroborated her. Thus the hearsay statement was merely cumulative of undisputed evidence demonstrating that Ms. Washington was robbed of her bracelet.
We find that the trial court erred in failing to grant defendant a hearing on his motion to dismiss charges under section 1382, and so denied defendant his right to a speedy trial. As we have explained, the state is in no position to deny a defendant his right to a speedy trial because the state is unable to provide counsel who can bring the case to trial within the statutory limits. If the state wants to incarcerate a citizen it cannot do so in violation of the state's own obligations and in violation of its own self-imposed conditions of confinement. The state must be a model of compliance with its own precepts.
The court below also erred in admitting certain hearsay testimony. We conclude, however that neither error prejudiced defendant's trial and conviction, and since substantial evidence supports that conviction, we find no ground for reversal.
[8c] , [9b] I concur in the judgment insofar as it affirms defendant's conviction. I respectfully dissent, however, from the majority's holdings regarding the right to speedy trial.
Thus, the majority today not only reverses our own very recent Townsend holding but departs abruptly, as well, from substantial California precedent. Furthermore, it chooses to do so in a case in which the People were ready to proceed to trial at all times. Three of the four continuances in question were requested by defense counsel, the fourth by the court itself. In my view, a defective record thereby produces a bad rule causing an erroneous result.
The majority, of course, is unable to require the provision of funds for the procurement of additional defense attorneys. It lacks the power to direct the construction of more courtrooms. It may not reorder the priorities of local government, for these are matters entirely within the province of state, county, and municipal entities in evaluating local needs. Rather, the present majority imposes a cruder solution to the problem. By main force it directs the dismissal of all those criminal proceedings involving incarcerated defendants, which because of "calendar congestion" cannot be brought to trial within the 60-day period. The majority thereby assures the discharge of a significant number of criminal cases which, through no fault of the People or the prosecution, cannot be brought to trial within 60 days. The majority apparently hopes that this spectre of wholesale dismissal of criminal cases will somehow cause a shock effect, thereby serving as a whiplash to force obstinate state and local governments to restructure the criminal justice system.
By stripping from appointed trial counsel the authority to determine whether or not to request continuance of the trial date, the majority further heightens the direct "confrontation between two of the defendant's rights, the right to a speedy trial constitutionally guaranteed and statutorily implemented and amplified within the time framework of Penal Code section 1382 on the one hand, and his Sixth Amendment right to competent and adequately prepared counsel on the other. In such a situation, in the words of the appellate court in People v. Powell (1974) 40 Cal. App. 3d 107, 148 [115 Cal. Rptr. 109], the trial court must carefully navigate procedurally between 'the Scylla of delay and the Charybdis of ineffective and inadequate representation.'" (Townsend v. Superior Court, supra, 15 Cal.3d at p. 782, italics added.) It may fairly be predicted that following the effective date of today's pronouncement, [26 Cal. 3d 584] unless tempered by a speedy legislative response, burdened trial courts will find themselves faced ever more frequently with the inevitable decision either to force unprepared counsel to proceed to trial or to risk a forced dismissal because the defendant personally refuses to waive time.
The majority further overlooks a fact of life in our criminal courts today. The pendency of trial plays a part in the recognized and judicially approved process of plea bargaining, which leads to the disposition of many criminal cases. If the probability of defendant's facing trial is decreased by use of the majority's dismissal procedure, defendants in substantial numbers may be less likely to enter plea negotiations preferring instead to wait for a possible outright dismissal. The cases which are not settled by plea bargain will result in additional trials, thus adding further to the congested calendars.
I must also emphasize that while the majority limits its holding to those instances in which the defendant is incarcerated pretrial, the practical implications of the majority's interpretation for the day-to-day processing of California's criminal cases are unpredictable and could well prove devastating. The 1979 Report of the Judicial Council to the Governor and the Legislature dramatically underscores the serious consequences of the majority's action. I quote from the report: "Commencing about 1970 the superior courts were able each year to reduce both the number and proportion of cases where the commencement of trial exceeded the 60-day limit. However, since 1974-75 the metropolitan courts have reported increases in the number and proportion of cases with juries sworn more than 60 days from filing. In 1977-78, 11 of the 20 courts reported overall increases in the percentage of cases with juries sworn more than 60 days from the filing of the indictment or information. Of the 4,268 criminal juries sworn in these courts last year, 2,639 or 61.8 percent were sworn more than 60 days from filing, ranging from lows of 21.8 percent in San Francisco to highs of 91.4 and 89.9 percent in the San Diego and Santa Clara courts, respectively." (Judicial Council of Cal., Annual Rep. (1979) pp. 85-86, italics added.) The question may legitimately be asked: What will be the effect of the majority's new interpretation upon a system in which more than 60 percent of jury cases statewide are now commenced beyond the 60-day period? The majority blithely ignores these realities. In fairness, it would be calumny to suggest that the courts in counties with large metropolitan courts are indifferent to the problems of delay or that the affected public defenders are sluggards. Yet I fear it is the [26 Cal. 3d 585] public that may become the victims of a judicial interpretation of such unnecessary rigidity.
It is noteworthy that the terms of the recently amended Penal Code section 1048 impose additional statutory requirements regarding the scheduling of criminal cases. Under section 1048 courts are now directed, although not mandated, to commence within 30 days all criminal actions wherein a minor is detained as a material witness or is the victim, or wherein any person is the victim of a sexual offense committed by the use of force, violence, or the threat thereof. The demands of this section combined with the new obligations which the majority now impose judicially will surely make the scheduling of cases even more difficult and substantially increase the possibility of dismissal, at further risk to the public safety.
In the case before us there is no suggestion whatever that the court and all counsel did other than their best to provide defendant with adequate representation and a prompt hearing, given the available resources. Furthermore, and this is of crucial importance, the majority concedes that defendant was not prejudiced by the delay in his trial, which fact the majority relies upon for the very affirmance of his conviction.
We observed in Townsend, supra, 15 Cal.3d 774: "We are cognizant of the heavy caseloads resting upon the criminal trial courts of this state and upon the affected prosecutors' and public defenders' offices as well, and for the sheer necessity of the 'trailing' practice here indulged. We have concluded that the trial court adopted the proper course in the matter before us. However, our holding herein is carefully circumscribed. We do not suggest that counsel possesses carte blanche under any and all conditions to postpone his client's trial indefinitely. Counsel's power in this regard is not unlimited. '[A] criminal defendant may not be deprived of a speedy trial because the prosecution -- or the defense -- is lazy or indifferent, or because the prosecution seeks to harass the defendant rather than bring him fairly to justice ....' (People v. Floyd, supra, 1 Cal. 3d 694, 707.) No such circumstances are herein presented." (15 Cal.3d at pp. 783-784.) I would reaffirm the foregoing cautionary limitations and regret the new majority's abrupt and unwise departure from our recent Townsend conclusion.
Unless a record clearly reflects circumstances of judicial or prosecutional indifference, or harassment or prejudice to the defendant, and it [26 Cal. 3d 586] most certainly does not in the instant case, we should defer to trial counsel's decisions regarding the management of the trial for it is his responsibility to conduct it, and do so in a manner and according to standards which we have carefully prescribed very recently in People v. Pope (1979) 23 Cal. 3d 412, 425 [152 Cal. Rptr. 732, 590 P.2d 859]. Trial courts can be trusted to monitor the cases carefully, constantly sensitive and alert to any instances of abuse or overreaching.
The problem of overcrowded courtrooms is a major concern to all who are involved in the judicial process. However, any necessary fiscal solution does not lie within the traditional province of the appellate courts. Rather, it is for state and local governments to decide on the means of ameliorating the problem. We may, on a case-by-case basis and when appropriate, afford relief by dismissal to those individual defendants who have been denied their right to a speedy trial. We should not, however, by judicial improvisation, and in the absence of prejudice to a defendant, particularly in matters so closely affecting the public safety and welfare, impose our own theories of management on local court systems, thereby reaching arbitrary results which are neither constitutionally compelled nor in the public interest.
I am compelled to write separately to voice strong disagreement with that portion of the majority opinion which relies on the case of People v. Wilson (1963) 60 Cal. 2d 139 [32 Cal. Rptr. 44, 383 P.2d 452]. [2b] , [3c] , [6b] It is indeed unfortunate that this fine opinion is marred by a finding that appellant must prove prejudice even though he was denied his right to a speedy trial.
As Justice Peters pointed out in his dissent in People v. Wilson, supra, 60 Cal.2d at page 158, "the trial court, without defendant's consent and against his will, denied him, erroneously, his constitutional and statutory rights, because the trial court rode roughshod over these fundamental rights, because the trial court, illegally, forced him to a trial over which it had no jurisdiction, ... that in some unexplained and inexplicable manner the trial court regained 'jurisdiction' to try him, and that this error, this fundamental invasion of an important constitutional and statutory right, became immaterial and must be disregarded. Thus, this invasion of fundamental rights, this error that was admittedly prejudicial when committed, becomes, in some magic way purged. The [26 Cal. 3d 587] provisions of article VI, section 4 1/2 [now art. VI, § 13], in some way not explained, make the error, prejudicial when committed, non-prejudicial now. This is illogical and unsound, and a wrongful denial of fundamental rights. It amounts to a judicial repeal of a constitutional and statutory right. The right to a speedy trial cannot and should not be treated so cavalierly."
The majority's error is compounded by its determination that appellant failed to prove prejudice under the Wilson test. Even if the holding in Wilson is adopted and applied to the facts of this case, I cannot understand how appellant can be held responsible for the failure of his lawyer to bring a pretrial writ when that same counsel refused to follow appellant's wishes that he receive a speedy trial. The majority overlook the fact that appellant's failure to bring a pretrial writ asserting his right to a speedy trial was part of his counsel's underlying failure to properly represent appellant's interest. Also, this court is requiring a person, who is not schooled in legal procedure, to be aware of the fact that he must file a pretrial writ, and his failure to do so will require him to prove prejudice on appeal. I cannot indorse such a rule or such an unfair result.
FN 1. Unless otherwise indicated, all statutory references are to sections of the Penal Code.
FN 2. On March 23 the following exchange occurred: "The Court: Number four on the calendar, Raymond Johnson and J. P. Sumlin .... [¶] The matter is on the court's calendar for trial.
"Mr. Cohen: I am presently engaged in People versus Mashell in trial in this department. I also have the case of People versus Phillip, which is number five on this calendar, and which is an older case than Johnson. I also have the Hughes matter set for the 28th which is a custody kidnapping-robbery case and also older than Mr. Johnson's case and some unfortunate bailout over a year old out of Department 122 and 123.
"Therefore the realistic earliest date I could be available for Mr. Johnson is May 6th. Mr. Johnson has informed me, being in custody, he will not waive any time.
"The Court: All right ... Mr. Johnson, do you waive your right to trial within the statutory period and personally consent to this matter set for trial on the date requested by your counsel, May 6th?
"The Court: Very well. There being good cause shown, the matter is continued to May 6th."
FN 3. On May 6, the court again called the matter for trial: "The Court: Number 6 on the calendar, Raymond Johnson and J. D. Sumlin ... [¶] The matter is on the court's calendar for trial.
"Mr. Cohen: For the following reason, I cannot announce ready this morning. The Perez matter which is on its 10th day is assigned for trial to Department 128. The court has thereafter ordered me to try the Stevens matter which is presently set for the 11th. I am hopeful I will be finished with the Perez matter then.
"The Court: All right, Mr. Johnson, I must inquire for my record: Do you waive your right to trial within the statutory period and personally consent to this matter being set for trial on the date requested by counsel, June 14 which it appears to the court is the earliest opportunity counsel has to try your matter.
"The Defendant: No, I don't.
"The Court: There being good cause shown, the matter is continued to that day, June 14."
"Mr. Cohen: I would expect -- Your Honor, perhaps an adjustment. I would suggest maybe a comeback date of Thursday, the 23rd, which would be the nineteenth day.
"The Court: All right. Rather than have each of you gentlemen brought into court or to attend court every day until this matter is likely to go out -- it probably wouldn't go out until the 23rd -- so we'll excuse you all until that time."
FN 5. During the trial the public defender requested and was granted two one-day continuances "due to previous engagements."
FN 6. The federal constitutional right to a speedy trial, as explained in Barker v. Wingo (1972) 407 U.S. 514 [33 L. Ed. 2d 101, 92 S. Ct. 2182], is a fundamental right, which can be waived only through a voluntary, knowing, and intelligent decision by the defendant himself. (See 407 U.S. at pp. 525-526 [33 L.Ed.2d at p. 114].) Defendant Johnson, however, does not contend that the 144-day delay in the present case infringed his right to a speedy trial under the federal Constitution, and a comparison of the present case with Barker v. Wingo, supra, and the cases there cited indicates that the delay in the case at bar was not sufficient to abridge defendant's rights under the federal Constitution.
FN 8. One may question whether the facts as recited in the Townsend decision support the court's conclusion that defense counsel, in waiving his client's rights under section 1382, was engaged in "pursuing his client's best interests in a competent manner." (15 Cal.3d at p. 784.) That question is now moot. We do not accept any construction of Townsend which might lead to the conclusion that counsel who, over his client's objection, subordinates his client's right to a speedy trial to the needs of other clients is somehow nonetheless affording the disfavored client "competent" representation and acting in the best interest of that client.
FN 9. In analyzing the record in Townsend we stated at one point that "[w]hile the record discloses that on November 12 defense counsel responded that he was 'ready' for trial, in truth and in fact he was not 'ready' to proceed because of legitimate commitments in another case ...." (15 Cal. 3d 774, 783.) We agree with the suggestion of the Los Angeles County Public Defender that this language should not be construed to prevent defense counsel from informing the court of every case in which he is presently prepared for trial, even if trial dates may conflict, so that the court can determine the order in which the cases should be tried.
FN 10. We do not in any way question the integrity or competence of defendant's counsel below. We have no doubt that under the circumstances he exerted his best efforts to accommodate the needs and rights of his various clients. Our point is that defense counsel should not be placed in a situation in which he must subordinate the right of one client to a speedy trial to the rights of another client; once counsel must confront that dilemma, his best efforts may be insufficient to protect the individual rights of each of his clients.
We note that Penal Code section 1048, as amended in 1979, gives priority in trial setting to cases in which the defendant is in custody.
FN 14. See Marcotte v. Municipal Court (1976) 64 Cal. App. 3d 235, 242-243 [134 Cal. Rptr. 314]; People v. Rutkowsky (1975) 53 Cal. App. 3d 1069, 1072 [126 Cal. Rptr. 104]; Hankla v. Municipal Court, supra, 26 Cal. App. 3d 342, 361; People v. Tahtinen (1958) 50 Cal. 2d 127, 131 [323 P.2d 442].
FN 16. Batey v. Superior Court, supra, 71 Cal. App. 3d 952, 957-958; People v. Molinari (1937) 23 Cal. App. 2d Supp. 761, 766-767 [67 P.2d 767].
FN 17. Because appointed counsel are furnished by the state, fault or neglect by such counsel may under the reasoning of this opinion result in the dismissal of charges. We observe, however, "that both the people and the defendant have the right to an expeditious disposition, and to that end it [is] the duty of all courts and judicial officers and of all counsel, both the prosecution and the defense, to expedite such proceedings to the greatest degree that is consistent with the ends of justice ...." (§ 1050.) It would therefore be improper for appointed counsel deliberately to overbook his calendar or otherwise conduct himself so as to delay trial and thereby secure a dismissal of the charges against his client; such deliberate delay, because undertaken for the benefit of the defendant, would constitute good cause to deny a motion to dismiss.
FN 18. We have consistently held that a defendant's preferred remedy for pretrial review of a denial of his right to speedy trial is a petition for mandate or prohibition. (See People v. Wilson (1963) 60 Cal. 2d 139, 149-150 [32 Cal. Rptr. 44, 383 P.2d 452].) We have also recognized, however, that relief may be available by writ of habeas corpus in exceptional cases. (Id. at p. 150.) In the present case, defense counsel's failure to assert defendant's speedy trial right justified defendant's assertion of that right by writ of habeas corpus in the trial court.
FN 19. We do not here decide under what circumstances calendar conflict on the part of defense counsel or the court will justify denial of a motion to dismiss by a defendant who was not incarcerated awaiting trial. The plight of the incarcerated defendant presents the most compelling case for relief; by limiting our opinion to this class of defendants, we minimize the impact of our decision upon counties in which, owing to a lack of defenders and facilities, criminal cases frequently do not come to trial within the 60-day period of section 1382.

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