Source: https://law.justia.com/cases/california/court-of-appeal/3d/222/1176.html
Timestamp: 2019-04-23 23:52:59+00:00

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CONNIE BARRETT et al., Petitioners, v. THE SUPERIOR COURT OF RIVERSIDE COUNTY, Respondent; PAUL HUBBS CONSTRUCTION COMPANY et al., Real Parties in Interest.
Sanford M. Gage and Jonathan T. Zackey for Petitioners.
Plaintiffs Connie Barrett, the widow of Harlan Barrett (decedent), and Harlan John Barrett, the minor child of decedent (collectively referred to as plaintiffs), have petitioned us for a writ directing the superior court to vacate its order granting defendants Paul Hubbs Construction Company's and Caterpillar Corporation's (collectively referred to as defendants) motion for summary judgment or summary adjudication of issues, which order deleted from plaintiffs' wrongful death suit one of their theories for recovery, namely that based on strict products liability.
We conclude that plaintiffs in a wrongful death suit may use strict products liability as a theory for recovery.
As best as can be gleaned from the record accompanying the petition, decedent was employed by the Standon Company, Inc.
While so employed, he was transporting a Caterpillar 988A earthmover which was loaded on a "low-boy" trailer towed by an International Transtar 4300 tractor. The Caterpillar 988A earthmover was owned by defendant Paul Hubbs Construction Company and leased to the Standon Company.
Because of the load he was towing, decedent was unable to pass across a small dirt mound on an unpaved portion of the street upon which he was travelling. Decedent therefore released the restraints which held the earthmover on the trailer, and began to drive it off the trailer. The trailer drifted backwards, and the earth mover rolled off and over, crushing decedent and causing his instantaneous death.
Defendant Paul Hubbs Construction Company (defendant Hubbs) made a motion for judgment on the pleadings on the ground that plaintiffs' second and third counts failed to state facts sufficient to constitute causes of action for strict liability and for breach of implied warranty. Defendant Hubbs asserted, contrary to what will apply as a result of our holding here, "strict liability in tort will not support a cause of action for wrongful death." Defendant's motion was granted as to the breach-of-implied-warranty count, with leave to plaintiffs to amend that cause of action, but denied as to the strict liability count.
(3) a distributor of secondhand or used machinery may not be held liable on a theory of strict liability in tort.
Defendant Caterpillar Corporation (defendant Caterpillar) joined in this motion for summary judgment.
Defendants' motion as to plaintiffs' count for strict liability was granted. Although no formal order appears in the record, despite the direction in the minute order that defendants were to prepare a formal order within 15 [222 Cal. App. 3d 1183] days, the minute order indicates that the motion was granted because "[plaintiffs] have failed to plead and prove a 'wrongful act or neglect' of moving party."
Plaintiffs then petitioned this court for a writ of mandate directing the superior court to vacate its order just noted and to enter a new order denying the motion. If their petition were granted, it would enable their action to proceed to trial on the basis of all their theories of defendants' wrongful acts, including strict liability.
The first two of these policy considerations are clearly manifested in the language of the statute. As to the compensatory consideration, the statute provides the means by which survivors may be compensated by establishing a cause of action for damages in the decedent's heirs, and reflects a public policy that survivors, most of whom will have depended upon the decedent for some form of support, should be compensated for the loss of such support by the wrongdoer.
As to the deterrent consideration, the statute provides that such a cause of action for damages may be maintained against those whose "wrongful act or neglect" caused the decedent's death, and reflects a public policy that all members of society must keep their conduct within certain norms or else risk paying for the damage caused by their failure to do so.  Section 377 was designed to inhibit only certain kinds of conduct, however: by allowing an action for damages only to be brought against one whose conduct was "wrongful" or "negligent," the Legislature clearly recognized that potential liability for damages will only influence the kind of conduct which is subject to conscious control or improvement.
The last of these three policy considerations, the limitation or lack of limitation on damages, is not affirmatively manifested in the language of the statute, which neither states that there are no limits on the damages recoverable nor that the damages are limited. Although some states and countries, for example Oregon and Mexico, statutorily have prescribed limitations on the measure of damages which may be recovered in an action for wrongful death, other states, including California, have not. (See Hurtado v. Superior Court, supra, 11 Cal. 3d 574, 578-579, 584-585.) By choosing to allow plaintiffs in a wrongful death action to recover damages without any limitation on the measure of damages, California has chosen to "strengthen the deterrent aspect of the civil sanction: 'the sting of unlimited recovery ... more effectively penalize[s] the culpable defendant and deter[s] it and others similarly situated from such future conduct' " (id., at p. 584, quoting Seidelson, The Wrongful Death Action (1972) 10 Duq. L.Rev. 525, 528, fn. 12), rather than to protect defendants from excessive financial burdens.
Extending the use of strict products liability as a theory of recovery to bystanders thus "is to put ... strict liability on the same footing as negligence [by providing a cause of action] as to all foreseeable injuries." (Prosser & Keeton, Torts (5th ed. 1984) § 100, at p. 704.) [2d] Extending the right to use such a theory of recovery to a decedent's heirs pursuant to section 377 does the same thing; allowing such heirs to recover for foreseeable injury under this theory fulfills a number of the policies behind both section 377 and the doctrine of tort liability: to deter foreseeable wrongful conduct and to allocate the cost of injury caused by defective products among the industry (and ultimately consumers as a whole), rather than to force innocent survivors to bear such burden alone. Furthermore, failure so to extend the use of a strict products liability theory to a decedent's heirs would have the anomalous effect of "rewarding" the manufacturer of a defective product which kills its user, rather than merely maiming him or her, by making it more difficult for the deceased user's heirs, who would no longer be able to use the "short cut" theory of strict products liability rather than negligence, to prove liability.
Torts are described as "wrongs" for which society provides a remedy. The term "wrong" implies some "fault" on the part of the wrongdoer. The fact that placing into the stream of commerce a defective product which causes injury or death makes the manufacturer and distributor of the product liable in tort is therefore some indication that society ascribes some fault to this conduct. [2e] Defendants, however, urge upon us the proposition that strict products liability is imposed regardless of fault, and further contend that an act to which no fault attaches therefore cannot be considered to be a "wrongful act," i.e., the kind of act to which liability attaches under section 377.
Although it is true that some cases state that strict products liability is imposed regardless of "fault" (see, e.g., Elmore v. American Motors Corp., supra, 70 Cal. 2d 578, 586: "[a]n injury to a bystander [caused by a defective product] 'is often a perfectly foreseeable risk of the maker's enterprise, and the considerations for imposing such risks on the maker without regard to his fault do not stop with those who undertake to use the chattel ....' " (italics added)), we believe that the implication defendant attempts to draw from such statements, that defendants held liable under such a theory are "fault-free," does not necessarily follow.
Furthermore, foreseeability necessarily involves the possibility of taking action to change the foreseeable occurrence.  In actions premised on strict products liability, just as in actions premised on negligence, an element of foreseeability is involved; liability may not be imposed unless the injury results from a use of the product which is reasonably foreseeable. (Daly v. General Motors Corp., supra, 20 Cal. 3d 725, 733.) As discussed above in connection with the public policy of deterrence which underlies the creation of a cause of action for wrongful death as well as the creation of the theory of liability of strict products liability, only conduct which is subject to conscious control or improvement is deterrable via the risk of financial liability. Thus, the fact that there can be no recovery under the theory of strict products liability without some evidence of foreseeability necessarily demonstrates that allowing a plaintiff in a wrongful death action to proceed under such a theory of liability furthers not only the policy of compensating survivors, but also furthers the policy of deterring conduct which is susceptible to conscious control.
[2f] As discussed above, the policies behind the creation of the wrongful death act, as well as the mandate of Code of Civil Procedure section 4, have led us to the conclusion that the term "wrongful act," as used in section 377, means any tortious act. Further support for this interpretation results from the juxtaposition of the term "wrongful act" with the term "neglect" in the section.
 "Where general words follow specific words in a statutory enumeration, the general words are construed to embrace only objects similar in nature to those objects enumerated by the preceding specific words. Where the opposite sequence is found, i.e., specific words following general ones, the doctrine is equally applicable, and restricts application of the general terms to things that are similar to those enumerated.
[2g] Section 377 refers to the "death of a person caused by the wrongful act or neglect of another." Applying the doctrine of ejusdem generis to the phrase "wrongful act or neglect," we first conclude that "neglect" is a specific word, an example of one kind of "wrongful act." Thus, the term "wrongful act" must define a class of behavior, of which "neglect" is a member. Defendant urges that the class defined by "wrongful act" consists of willful or intentional torts; yet negligence is not a willful or intentional tort. On the other hand, "wrongful act" has been defined in other cases as meaning simply any tortious conduct, i.e., any act for which the defendant may be liable in tort.fn. 5 This definition of "wrongful act" would include not only intentional and willful torts, but strict products liability as well. Such a definition would serve the public policies behind both the wrongful death statute and strict products liability, and, as noted above, makes sense, given the rationale behind the use of the doctrine of ejusdem generis in the interpretation of statutory language.
Defendants point out, historically, that the doctrine of strict products liability was developed after the adoption of the wrongful death statute, and that this fact in and of itself requires us to interpret section 377 so as to exclude such a theory of recovery.
In Ault, the plaintiff brought an action alleging that he had been injured in an accident caused by a defect in the design of a motor vehicle manufactured by International Harvester, and further alleging that he was entitled to recover damages under theories of strict liability, breach of warranty, and negligence.
At trial, plaintiff produced evidence that after the injury, the defendant changed its design by ceasing to use aluminum for the material of the vehicle's gear box and instead to use iron. Judgment was entered in plaintiff's favor, and defendant appealed, alleging that the admission of this evidence of remedial action violated the prohibition contained in section 1151 of the Evidence Code. That code section provided, "When, after the occurrence of an event, remedial or precautionary measures are taken, which, if taken previously would have tended to make the event less likely to occur, evidence of such subsequent measures is inadmissible to prove negligence or culpable conduct in connection with the event."
The California Supreme Court held that the evidence was properly admitted because the provisions of Evidence Code section 1151 do not apply in an action in which the defendant is alleged to be liable under the theory of "strict liability."
Finally, the court noted that interpreting Evidence Code section 1151 so as to exclude evidence of subsequent repairs in connection with actions premised on strict products liability actually might preclude recovery under such theory of liability, thus undercutting the public policy behind the theory, which was itself designed to ensure and encourage safety in marketed products.fn. 7 (13 Cal.3d at pp. 120-121, fn. 4.) In other words, the court looked at the public policy behind the enactment of Evidence Code section 1151 and behind the creation of the doctrine of strict products liability, and then interpreted the language of Evidence Code section 1151 so as to further both public policies.
[2h] First, the court's conclusion that negligence or culpability is not a necessary ingredient in an action based upon strict products liability against a manufacturer, and that a plaintiff need not show that the defendants breached a duty of due care to prevail in such an action, does not mean that placing a defective product on the market is not a "wrongful act" within the meaning of section 377. It simply means that a plaintiff need not prove negligence or culpability to recover damages, nothing more.
 Defendant's motion for summary judgment was based not only on its arguments as to the meaning of the term "wrongful act," but also on its argument that a distributor of used or secondhand machinery could not be held liable on a theory of strict products liability.
Plaintiffs took the position, supported by evidence in connection with the motion for summary judgment, that defendant Hubbs had owned the Caterpillar 988A since 1973, that a shade canopy was in place on it at the time of the injury, that no roll cage was in place at that time, that the earthmover had been originally manufactured and sold without a roll cage, that defendant Hubbs had maintained and repaired the earthmover during the course of its ownership, that defendant Hubbs had negligently installed the shade canopy, that defendant Hubbs had negligently repaired the earthmover, and that the seat belts installed in the earthmover and maintained by defendant Hubbs were defective.
Defendant Hubbs, in its motion for summary judgment, failed to produce any evidence that it was simply a dealer in used machinery, and that it was not responsible for any modification, dilapidation or misuse which would have rendered the Caterpillar 988A unreasonably unsafe for its intended use. It therefore was not entitled to summary judgment on this alternative ground.
Hollenhorst, Acting P. J., and Dabney, J., concurred.
FN . Retired Associate Justice of the Court of Appeal sitting under assignment by the Chairperson of the Judicial Council.
FN *. Retired Associate Justice of the Court of Appeal sitting under assignment by the Chairperson of the Judicial Council.
FN 1. Thus, plaintiffs' "cause of action" for "wrongful death," which is stated in a separate "count," is not a proper count, because it does not amount to a different legal theory of the nature of defendants' wrongful act.
FN 3. Code of Civil Procedure section 377, California's "wrongful death act" provides, in relevant part: "(a) When the death of a person is caused by the wrongful act or neglect of another, his or her heirs or personal representatives on their behalf may maintain an action for damages against the person causing the death, or in the case of the death of such wrongdoer, against the personal representative of such wrongdoer, whether the wrongdoer dies before or after the death of the person injured. If any other person is responsible for any such wrongful act or neglect, the action may also be maintained against such other person, or in case of his or her death, his or her personal representatives. In every action under this section, such damages may be given as under all the circumstances of the case, may be just, but shall not include damages recoverable under Section 573 of the Probate Code ...."
FN 4. The terms "strict liability," "strict product liability," and "product liability" are often used interchangeably. The parties here refer to the relevant theory as "strict liability." We, however, refer to it as "strict products liability," because plaintiffs' action is based on allegations that the Caterpillar 988 earthmover and Transtar 4300 tractor unit which were involved in the accident in which the decedent was killed were defective and unsafe for their intended use, and were unreasonably dangerous when used in a reasonably foreseeable manner. See the discussion of the distinction between the terms "strict liability," "strict products liability," and "products liability" by Justice Weiner in Montez v. Ford Motor Co. (1980) 101 Cal. App. 3d 315, 318-319 [161 Cal. Rptr. 578], quoted at page 1188 of this opinion, infra..
FN 7. As noted earlier in this opinion, allowing plaintiffs to use a strict product liability theory as a basis for recovery encourages product safety by allowing plaintiffs to show that a particular product was defective, i.e., unreasonably dangerous when used in the intended fashion, without having to prove that the defect was the result of negligence in the design or manufacturing process. One way of demonstrating that a product was "unreasonably" dangerous, of course, is to show that there was another and more reasonable way in which the product could have been designed. In turn, evidence of subsequent changes in the product's design or manufacture, if close enough in time to plaintiff's injury, would be relevant to show that there was, in fact, a more commercially reasonable design or method of manufacture.

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