Source: http://mbvo.wwu.edu/refs/index.php
Timestamp: 2019-04-20 22:08:39+00:00

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Full thesis: http://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1442&context=wwuet Abstract excerpt- To better understand the role of slab melt in north Cascades magmas, this study focused on petrogenesis of high-Mg lavas from the two northernmost active volcanoes in Washington, Mount Baker and Glacier Peak... Results indicate that in addition to slab-derived fluids, slab-derived melts also have an important role in the production of high-Mg in the north Cascade arc.
Tucker, D., Scott, K., Grossman, E.E. and Linneman, S., 2014, Mount Baker lahars and debris flows, ancient, modern and future in Dashtgard, S. and Ward, B., eds., Trials and Tribulations of Lie on an Active Fault Zone: Field Trips in and around Vancouver, Canada: GSA Field Guide 38, p.33-52.
Description of Holocene lahar and debris flow history in the Middle Fork Nooksack drainage, including the Middle Fork Nooksack lahar, Ridley Creek lahar, 1927 Deming Glacier outburst flood, and the spring 2013 landslide-induced debris flows. 14C dates for older flows.
ABSTRACT: Dacitic magmas in volcanic arcs play a critical role in the growth and development of felsic continental crust through mixing to form andesite, or to a lesser extent, by directly adding new crustal material through fractionation of mantle derived basalts. Though dacitic erupted lavas are scarce on Mt. Baker, this study discusses their importance in subsurface processes such as mixing with more mafic magmas, and their potential to add directly to the volume of continental crust. A comprehensive data set (including major, trace, and rare earth element abundances, as well as petrography and mineral chemistry) reveals that the most Sirich, Mg-poor dacitic compositions analyzed in this study (dacite of Mazama Lake) can be modeled as liquids derived by crystal fractionation from Mt. Baker high-Mg andesites. These Si-rich compositions are in turn back-mixed with mafic magmas to produce more Sipoor dacites (dacite of Cougar Divide) and andesites (andesite of Mazama Lake). The origin of one enigmatic hornblende-bearing dacite unit (dacite of Nooksack Falls) is unconstrained. None of the dacitic units have geochemical signatures that suggest an origin by melting of a garnet-bearing source such as the subducting slab or the lower crust. The dacite of Mazama Lake (plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides) represents a near end-member fractionated composition with only minor contamination from xenocrystic material. Mineral populations commonly lack disequilibrium textures, and exhibit normal zoning. Plagioclase and pyroxene chemistry suggests the majority of the crystal population is original to the dacite of Mazama Lake. Sparse resorbed olivine grains (<1% total crystal population) and weak reverse zoning in some plagioclase and pyroxene grains indicates a minor addition of xenocrystic material. The majority of the Mazama Lake compositions can be reproduced after 44% fractionation (55% remaining liquid) of a high-Mg andesite (the andesite of Glacier Creek), with fractionating phases of 69% plagioclase, 16% orthopyroxene, 11% clinopyroxene, 3% ilmenite, and 1% apatite. Excellent fits of major elements, most trace elements are provided by this model. The dacite of Cougar Divide (plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides, olivine) and the andesite of Mazama Lake (plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides, olivine) are more Si-poor, and exhibit evidence for magma mixing. The Cougar Divide unit exhibits mingling textures in hand sample and both Si-poor units exhibit mixing textures in thin section, such as calcic normal and sodic reverse zoned plagioclase populations and pyroxene grains with abrupt Mg-rich rims. This suggests that their primary geochemical characteristics come from mixing between more mafic and more felsic magmas. The dacite of Mazama Lake can be used to reasonably reproduce compositions observed in the mixed magmas. Mixing between the high-Mg andesite of Glacier Creek and dacite of Mazama Lake can reproduce an average major and trace element composition from the Cougar Divide unit in mixing proportions of ~60% andesite and ~40% dacite. Major and trace element compositions from the andesite of Mazama Lake can be reproduced by mixing ~30% the high-Mg basaltic andesite Tarn Plateau (a less fractionated parent magma of the andesite of Glacier Creek) and ~70% Mazama Lake dacite. The dacite of Nooksack Falls (plagioclase, hornblende, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, Fe-Ti oxides) appears to represent a near-endmember composition, but cannot be reproduced by fractional crystallization of any known parental composition at Mt. Baker. A distinct set of minerals with compositions expected from a basaltic source (such as calcic plagioclase grains, and Mg-rich clinopyroxene grains with high Cr concentrations) suggests the dacite of Nooksack Falls acquired some xenocrystic material. However, removal of this contamination does not permit a fractionation origin from known mafic compositions. One possibility is that the dacite of Nooksack Falls was derived from more mafic magmas that are not currently observed or erupted. These dacites are unlikely to be crustal melts given their high H2O contents. Ultimately, these hypotheses cannot be reconciled without isotopic analysis. The role of dacitic magmas at Mt. Baker is clear; (1) they have the potential to directly contribute to the continental crust through fractionation, and (2) they have a role in mixing, in which andesitic compositions (a common composition at arcs worldwide) are formed.
The chemical and petrologic characteristics of the five most mafic lava units from the Mount Baker volcanic field in the reveal a diversity of near-primitive compositions requiring distinct mantle sources and varying subducting slab influence to explain their petrogenesis. Three distinct endmember magma types are represented that cannot be related by fractional crystallization or other crustal processes. These include LKOT-like, calcalkaline, and high-Mg basaltic andesite.
Uses three lavas to model the generation of andesites at Mount Baker.
The authors infer that the 'failed eruption' of 1975 resulted from magmatic activity beneath the volcano: either the emplacement of magma at mid-crustal levels, or opening of a conduit to a deep existing source of magmatic volatiles.
Chemical and petrologic characteristics of five mafic lavas require distinct mantle sources and varying subducting slab influence to explain their petrogenesis.
31 out of 60 long-period earthquakes recorded beneath Cascade volcanoes were at Baker. These events are inferred to represent the movement of magma and/or magmatic fluids within the mid-to-lower crust (10–50 km)... characterized by mostly low-frequency energy emergent arrivals and long-duration codas. Event locations extend from directly below the summit to ~10 km to the south and southeast of the edifice, with depths ranging from 15 to 30 km (one DLP is located at 42 km depth).
Park, M., 2011, Glacial and geothermal dynamics in Sherman Crater, Mount Baker, Washington: Western Washington University, Bellingham. 90 pages, color maps and illustrations.
Campaign GPS study demonstrates edifice deflation since 1981, and a hypothesis of a cooling magmatic intrusion. Publication based on Hodge's Masters thesis at WWU.
Gives discharge data for the entire range. Discusses discharge at Baker (Sherman Crater, Baker Hot springs), but not very specific. Abstract online, search paper title.
Hill, K., 2007, Assessing microgravity changes at Mt. Baker, Washington, 1975-2006 (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 127 p.
Juday, J., 2007, A contemporary view of 1975-1976 elevated activity levels at the Mount Baker complex, Washington, and current community awareness of volcano hazards (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 219 p.
Lewis, D., Scott, K. and Tucker, D., 2007, Debris Avalanches in Rainbow Creek at Mount Baker, Washington- dating and matrix analysis: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, n. 4, p. 66.
Tucker, D., Scott, K. and Lewis, D., 2007, Field guide to Mount Baker volcanic deposits in the Baker River valley: Nineteenth century lahars, tephras, debris avalanches, and early Holocene subaqueous lava, in Stelling, P., and Tucker, D.S., eds., Floods, Faults, and Fire: Geological Field Trips in Washington State and Southwest British Columbia: Geological Society of America Field Guide 9, p. 83-98, doi: 10.1130/2007.fl d009(04).
Tucker, D., Hildreth, W., Ullrich, T. and Friedman, R., 2007, Geology and complex collapse mechanisms of the 3.72 Ma Hannegan caldera, North Cascades, Washington, USA: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 119 p. 329-342.
Tucker, D., Scott, K., Foit, Jr., F. and Mierendorf, R., 2007, Age, distribution, and composition of Holocene tephras from Mount Baker, Cascade arc, Washington, USA: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, n. 4, p. 66.
Werner, C., Evans, W., McGee, K., Doukas, M., Tucker, D., Bergfeld, D., Poland, M. and Crider, J., 2007, Quiescent degassing of Mount Baker volcano, Washington, USA: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, n. 4, p. 65.
Hill, K., Crider, J. and Williams-Jones, G., 2006, Assessing gravity changes at Mt. Baker, Washington, 1975-2006, Eos Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, v. 87(52), fall meeting supplement, abstract V44A-03.
More information on gravity changes.
Lewis, D., Scott, K. and Tucker, D., 2006, Long-Runout Debris Avalanche in Rainbow Creek at Mount Baker, Washington: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 38, no. 5, p. 75.
Scott, K. and Tucker, D., 2006, Eruptive Chronology of Mount Baker Revealed by Lacustrine Facies of Glacial Lake Baker: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 38, no. 5, p. 75.
Tucker, D. and Scott, K., 2006, A Magmatic Component in 19th Century Mount Baker Eruptions?: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 38, no. 5, p. 75.
Warren, S., Watters, R. and Tucker, D., 2006, Future Edifice Collapse as a Result of Active Hydrothermal Alteration and Geologic Structure at Mt. Baker, Washington: Eos Trans. AGU, 87(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract V53A-1746.
Mullen, E. and McCallum, I.S., 2005, Coexisting pseudobrookite—ilmenite—magnetite solid solutions in highly oxidized hornblende andesite of the Coleman Pinnacle flow, Mt. Baker, WA. EOS Transactions AGU, 86(52), Fall Meeting Suppl., Abstract V13B-0544.
Hildreth, W., Lanphere, M., Champion, D.E. and Fierstein, J., 2004, Rhyodacites of Kulshan caldera, North Cascades of Washington: postcaldera lavas that span the Jaramillo: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 130, p. 227-264.
Scott, K. and Tucker, D., 2004, Natural dams and floods of legend at Mount Baker Volcano, North Cascades???evidence from volcanic stratigraphy of the Sherman Crater eruptive period (AD 1843 to present): Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 36, n. 5, p. 377.
Tucker, D., 2004, Geology and eruptive history of Hannegan caldera, North Cascades, Washington (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 125 p.
Tucker, D. and Scott, K., 2004, Boulder Creek assemblage, Mount Baker, Washington: a record of the latest cone building eruptions: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 36, no. 4, p. 85.
Stratigraphy of clastic flank deposits of the Carmelo Crater eruptive period.
Hildreth, W., Fierstein, J. and Lanphere, M., 2003, Eruptive history and geochronology of the Mount Baker volcanic field, Washington: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 115, p. 729-764.
Scott, K. and Tucker, D., 2003, The Sherman Crater eruptive period at Mount Baker, North Cascades???A.D. 1843 to present???implications for reservoirs at the base of the volcano: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 35, no. 6, p. 132-16.
Scott, K., Tucker, D. and McGeehin, J., 2003, Holocene History of Mount Baker volcano, North Cascades: XVI INQUA Congress Program with Abstracts, vol. 9, p. 51.
Scott, K., Tucker, D. and McGeehin, J., 2003, Island of Fire in a Sea of Ice???The Growth of Mount Baker volcano and the Fraser Glaciation in the North Cascades: XVI INQUA Congress Program with Abstracts, p. 51.
Symonds, R.B., Janik, C.J., Evans, W., Ritchie, B.E., Counce, D., Poreda, R.J. and Iven, M., 2003, Scrubbing masks magmatic degassing during repose at Cascade Range and Aleutian Arc volcanoes: U.S. Geological Survey, Open-file report 03-435, 22 p.
Symonds, R.B., Poreda, R.J., Evans, W., Janik, C.J. and Ritchie, B.E., 2003, Mantle and crustal sources of carbon, nitrogen, and noble gases in Cascade Range and Aleutian Arc volcanic gases: U.S. Geological Survey, Open-file report 03-426, 26 p.
Tabor, R., Haugerud, R., Hildreth, W. and Brown, E.H., 2003, Geologic map of the Mount Baker 30 X 60 minute quadrangle, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Map I-2660, scale 1:100,000, 2 sheets.
Kovanen, D., Easterbrook, D. and Thomas, P., 2001, Holocene eruptive history of Mount Baker, Washington: Canadian Journal of Earth Science, v. 38, p. 1355-1366.
McGee, K., Doukas, M. and Gerlach, T.M., 2001, Quiescent hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide degassing from Mount Baker, Washington: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 28, p. 4479-4482.
Sherman crater vents 5.5 tons H2S and 187tons CO2 /day; gas scrubbing masks magmatic SO2?
Scott, K., Macias, J., Naranjo, J.A., Rodriguez, S. and McGeehin, J., 2001, Catastrophic debris flows transformed from landslides in volcanic terrains: mobility, hazard assessment, and mitigation strategies: US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1630.
Mierendorf, R., 1999, Precontact use of tundra zones of the Northern Cascades Range of Washington and British Columbia: Archaeology in Washington, v. 7, p. 3-23.
The 5740 BP BA tephra as archaeological dating tool.
Stinton, A., 1999, Sedimentology of the Middle Fork Mudflow, Western Washington, USA: Unpublished undergraduate thesis, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom, 53 p.
A short portion of this field trip visits pre-Baker andesite lava of Table Mountain at Heather Meadows.
Thomas, P., 1997, Late Quaternary glaciation and volcanism on the south flank of Mount Baker, Washington: (M.S. thesis); Bellingham, Western Washington University, 98 p.
Hildreth, W., 1996, Kulshan Caldera: a Quaternary subglacial caldera in the North Cascades, Washington: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 108, p. 786-793.
Green, N. and Pearce, T.H., 1994, Plagioclase resorption textures associated with basalt-basaltic andesite mixing, Sulphur Creek Lava, Mount Baker Volcano, Washington: Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America, v.26, n.7, pp.292.
Cary, C.M., Thompson, J.M. and Pringle, P., 1992, Holocene lahar deposits from Mount Baker volcano in Glacier Creek, North Cascades, Washington: Abstracts with Programs, Geological Society of America, vol.24, no.5, pp.13.
Cameron, V., 1989, The late Quaternary geomorphic history of the Sumas valley: (M.A. thesis): Simon Fraser University, 154 p.
Green, N., 1988, Basalt-basaltic andesite mixing at Mount Baker volcano, Washington: I. Estimation of mixing conditions: Journal of volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 34, p. 251-265.
Westgate, J., Easterbrook, D., Naeser, N.D. and Carson, R., 1987, Lake Tapps tephra: An early Pleistocene stratigraphic marker in the Puget Lowland, Washington: Quaternary Research, v. 28, p. 340-355.
Ziegler, C.B., 1986, Structure and petrology of the Swift Creek area, western North Cascades, Washington (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 191 p.
Heiken, G. and Wohletz, K., 1985, Volcanic Ash. University of California Press. 246 p.
Frank, D., 1983, Origin, distribution, and rapid removal of hydrothermally formed clay at Mount Baker, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1022-E, 31 p.
Easterbrook, D., Briggs, N.D., Westgate, J. and Gorton, M.P., 1981, Age of the Salmon Springs glaciation in Washington: Geology, v. 9, p. 87-93.
A comparison of 1970-73 and 1975 thermal activity using aerial infrared surveys, ground temps, and a 2-point differential geothermal-flux model based on heat balance of the ground surface.
James, E.W., 1980, Geology and petrology of the Lake Ann stock and associated rocks (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 57 p.
Krimmel, R.M. and Frank, D., 1980, Aerial observations of Mount Baker, Washington; 1976-1979 update: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.61, no.6, pp.69, 05 Feb 1980.
Aerial and infrared photographic analysis of recent thermal activity at Sherman Crater.
Swan, V.L., 1980, The petrogenesis of the Mount Baker volcanics, Washington (Ph.D. thesis): Pullman, Washington State University, 630 p.
First description of the tephra that would later be linked to eruption at the Kulshan caldera (Hildreth, 1996).
James, E.W., 1979, Emplacement of the Lake Ann Stock, North Cascades Range, Washington: Abstracts with Programs, Geological Society of America, vol.11, no.3, p. 86.
Shafer, D.C., 1979, Evaluation and implications of the thermal activity of Mt. Baker, Washington from aerial photographs and infrared images. Senior Thesis, Oregon State University. 26 pages plus photocopied older documents.
An OSU senior thesis that measured westward movement of thermal areas in Sherman Crater. PDF available here. Includes scanned copy of Coombs GSABulletin 1939, the earliest Baker scientific paper.
Frank, D. and Krimmel, R.M., 1978, Volcanic effects on snow and ice on Mount Baker, Washington: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, Report: P 1100, pp.213.
Kiver, E.P., 1978, Geothermal ice caves and fumaroles, Mount Baker Volcano, 1974-77: Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America, vol.10, no.3, pp.112.
Likarish, D.M., 1978, A magnetic profile of a Cascade volcano, Mount Baker, Washington (Masters thesis): Seattle, University of Washington, 59 p.
Non-magmatic ejecta from Sherman Crater fumaroles.
Bortleson, G.C., Wilson, R.T. and Foxworthy, B.L., 1977, Water-quality effects on Baker Lake of recent volcanic activity at Mount Baker, Washington: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, Report: P 1022-B, 30 pp.
Frank, D., Meier, M.F. and Swanson, D., 1977, Assessment of increased thermal activity at Mount Baker, Washington, March 1975- March 1976: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1022-A, 31 p.
McKeever, D., 1977, Volcanology and geochemistry of the south flank of Mount Baker, Cascade Range, Washington (Masters thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 126 p.
Rohay, A.C. and Malone, S., 1977, Seismic velocity anomalies in the vicinity of Mount Baker, Washington: Abstracts with Programs, Geological Society of America, vol.9, no.4, pp.490.
Bortleson, G.C. and Wilson, R.T., 1976, Table of data on water quality of Baker Lake near Mount Baker, Washington: Open-File Report - U. S. Geological Survey, Report: OF 76-0195, 11 pp.
Easterbrook, D., 1976, Pleistocene and Recent volcanic activity of Mount Baker, Washington: Abstracts with Programs, Geological Society of America, vol.8, no.6, pp.849.
Eichelberger, J., Heiken, G., Widdicombe, R., Keady, C.J. and Wright, D., 1976, Baker fumarole activity: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, pp.87.
Eichelberger, J., Heiken, G., Widdicombe, R., Wright, D., Keady, C.J. and Cobb, D.D., 1976, New fumarolic activity on Mount. Baker; observations during April through July, 1975: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, vol.1, no.1, pp.35-53.
Frank, D. and Post, A., 1976, Documentation of thermal changes by photographs of snow and ice features at Mount Baker, Washington: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, pp.87.
Fretwell, M.O., 1976, Water quality sampling and analysis activities related to Mount Baker's recent volcanic activity: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, pp.89.
Malone, S., 1976, Seismic and gravity observations on Mount Baker Volcano: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, p. 88.
Malone, S., 1976, Deformation of Mount Baker volcano by hydrothermal heating: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.12, p.1016, Dec 1976.
McLane, J.E., Finkelman, R.B. and Larson, R.R., 1976, Mineralogical examination of particulate matter from the fumaroles of Sherman Crater, Mount Baker, Washington (State): Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, pp.89.
Nolf, B., 1976, Tilt-bar stations on Mount Baker, Washington: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, pp.88.
Radke, L.F., Hobbs, P.V. and Stith, J.L., 1976, Airborne measurements of gases and aerosols from volcanic vents on Mount Baker: Geophysical Research Letters, vol.3, no.2, pp.93-96.
Rosenfeld, C.L., 1976, Operational aerial surveillance of the Sherman Crater area, Mount Baker, Washington: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, pp.87-88.
??	Infrared survey of melting during 1975 activity at Sherman Crater.
Rosenfeld, C.L. and Schliker, H.G., 1976, The significance of increased fumarolic activity at Mount Baker, Washington: The Ore Bin, vol.38, no.2, pp.23-35.
Sato, M., Malone, S., Moxham, R.M. and McLane, J.E., 1976, Monitoring of fumarolic gas at Sherman Crater, Mount Baker, Washington: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.57, no.2, pp.88-89.
Sato, M., McLane, J.E., Moxham, R.M. and Malone, S., 1976, Remote monitoring of fumarolic gases, Mount Baker, Washington: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, Report: P 1000, pp.171.
Bockheim, J.G. and Ballard, T.M., 1975, Hydrothermal soils of the crater of Mount Baker, Washington: Proceedings - Soil Science Society of America, vol.39, no.5, pp.997-1001.
Eichelberger, J., Keady, C.J. and Wright, D., 1975, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, N.M., United States; Report number EGG1183-5058, 33p.
Friedman, J.D. and Frank, D., 1974, Thermal activity at Mount Baker Volcano, Washington: Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.55, no.4, pp.488.
Bockheim, J.G. and Ballard, T.M., 1973, Hydrothermal soils of the crater of Mount Baker, Washington: Northwest Science, no.46, pp.4.
Stavert, L.W., 1971, A geochemical reconnaissance investigation of Mount Baker andesite (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 60 p.
Stearns, H. and Coombs, H., 1958, Report on lava bed area, Baker River project, upper Baker River Plant: Puget Sound Energy Company, Seattle, Washington. Stone and Webster Engineering Corporation.
Smith, G.O. and Calkins, F.C., 1904, A geological reconaissance across the Cascade Range near the 49th parallel: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 235, 103 p.
Whitney, J.D., 1889, In Easton, C.F., 1911, Whatcom County Museum of Natural History, Bellingham.
Davidson, G., 1885, Recent volcanic activity in the United States: Eruptions of Mount Baker: Science, first series, v. 6, no. 138, p. 262.
Gibbs, G., 1874, Physical geography of the north-western boundary of the United States (Part 2): Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York, v. 4 (for 1872), p.298-392.
Early accounts of 1843 eruptions, and lahar deposits in Boulder Creek.
ABSTRACT: Glacial forelands are harsh environments where incipient pedogenesis provides the basis for vegetation establishment and succession. The Easton Glacier foreland on Mount Baker, Washington, has till deposited during five time intervals over the last 100 years as determined from historic ground and air photos. A soil chronosequence was established on the different age surfaces to assess rates of pedogenesis. As hypothesized, all soil variables, except pH, showed increasing values on progressively older surfaces, with several orders of magnitude increase between the active till and the 100-year surface. Till on ice showed no vegetation cover, low organic matter (0.4 percent), little to no nitrogen content (maximum 0.001 percent), minimal carbon (maximum 0.0083 percent), and a carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio of 5.9. The 100-year-old surface has continuous vegetation cover, high organic matter (12.6 percent), 0.67 percent nitrogen, and 9.47 percent carbon, and the C/N ratio was at its highest (22.6). Organic matter content started higher than expected in fresh till and gradually increased before vegetation became established, suggesting aeolian deposition of detritus built soil fertility. We estimate that after about sixty years of exposure, till surfaces became fully covered with vegetation and soil organic matter increased by almost 2,800 percent (0.4–12.6 percent). This rapid rate of soil development, given a short growing season, is hypothesized to be related to several edaphic conditions (topographic setting relative to established vegetation, aspect, and andesitic parent material), rather than a normal condition for the Cascades Range as a whole, demonstrating that ongoing climate change is affecting many environmental processes. Key Words: climate change impacts, glacial geomorphology, mountain geography, Pacific Northwest, soil development.
Whelan, P., 2013, Incipient soil development in the recently deglaciated Easton Foreland, Mt. Baker, Washington: Western Washington University, Masters thesis, Bellingham. 134 pages, color maps and illustrations.
Thesis- http://content.wwu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/hcc/id/5831 ASTRACT:Glacial forelands are harsh environments where incipient pedogenesis provides the basis for vegetation establishment and succession. Myriad local factors make discerning major influences on this process difficult. The Easton foreland on Mt. Baker, Washington, was investigated, where till has been deposited over the last one- hundred years. Easton foreland soils were sampled for in situ characteristics and laboratory measures, creating a multi-variable dataset of quantitative and qualitative data. It was hypothesized that soil development, including organic matter content, carbon, nitrogen, the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N),and pH, would show a trend when compared to indicators of development: time, elevation, and successional stage. Furthermore, it was posited that pedogenesis would be categorical, roughly defined by vegetation zones as opposed to incremental, continuous development through the valley. Sites were selected on glacial till, intentionally avoiding confounding fluvial and colluvial influences. To determine the approximate surface age of each sample site, historic and air photos were used as well as existing literature on the recent glacial history of Mt. Baker. It was found that the Easton sequence was best indicated by stages of vegetation succession (Vegetation Zones), with strong correlation to nearly all dependent variables. An intertwined toposequence was also informative as a more continuous and quantitative independent variable to complement Deglaciation Age. The Easton’s glacial history is complicated by the 1950s-80s re-advance, creating a nonlinear spatial timeline and limiting its usefulness as in indicator of development; correlation results were low for the chronosequence. These results reinforce a geoecological viewpoint of categorical landscape development, with the Easton showing facilitative and patchy succession best represented by four Vegetation Zones. This discontinuous facilitation is likely due to seed rain and detritus input from the mature forests atop adjacent Holocene moraines (Railroad Grade and Metcalfe). This Cascadian system was found to be similar to other studied foreland, however there are some differences worth noting and are discussed in Chapters 4 and5. This sequence of soil development showed trends in nearly all dependent variables, with organic matter, carbon, nitrogen, and carbon/nitrogen ratio all increasing with surface age, successional stage, and decreasing with elevation. My study sought to understand a Cascadian foreland and to assess it in the context of other studied glacial forefields in order to better understand the pedogenic processes that shape these unique environments.
Finn, C.M., Deszcz-Pan, M. and Bedrosian, P.A., 2012, Helicopter electromagnetic data map ice thickness at Mount Adams and Mount Baker, Washington, USA: Journal of Glaciology, v.58, no. 212, p. 1133-43.
This paper provides estimates of ice volumes and thicknesses on Mounts Baker and Adams, obtained by making electromagnetic measurements from a heliocopter. ABSTRACT: Ice-thickness measurements critical for flood and mudflow hazard studies are very sparse on Cascade Range (North America) volcanoes. Helicopter electromagnetic (HEM) data collected to detect hydrothermal alteration are used to determine ice thickness over portions of Mount Baker and Mount Adams volcanoes. A laterally continuous inversion method provides good estimates of ice <100m thick over water-saturated and altered regions where the resistivity of the basement is <200 m. For areas with ice overlying fresh, resistive rocks with small resistivity contrasts between ice and rock, ice thickness is not well resolved. The ice thicknesses derived from HEM data are consistent with the previous drillhole data from Mount Adams and radar data from both volcanoes, with mean thicknesses of 57m for Mount Adams and 68m for Mount Baker. The thickest ice on Mount Baker rests on the gentle lower slopes whereas the thickest ice at Mount Adams lies on the flat summit. Ice volume calculations suggest that Mount Baker contains 710,106m^3 of ice in the HEM survey area, with a crude estimate of 1,800,106m^3 for the entire volcano. Ice volume on Mount Adams is 65,106m^3 in parts of the HEM survey area and 20,0106m^3 overall.
Terminus observations on nine principal Mount Baker glaciers, 1984–2009, indicate retreat ranging from 240 to 520m,with a mean of 370m or 14m/year.
Ryane, C., 2009, Holocene glacier fluctuations on Mount Baker, Washington, USA. M.Sc. thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, 121 pp.
MSc Thesis. Use of SC tephra (Schreibers Meadow cinder cone) to constrain the age of glacial moraines. Includes SC tephra glass chemistry (microprobe).
Caplan-Auerbach, J. and Huggel, C., 2007, Seismicity associated with recurrent ice avalanches at Iliamna volcano, Alaska and Mt. Baker, Washington: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, n. 4, p. 21.
Fountain, A., Jackson, K., Basagic, H.J. and Sitts, D., 2007, A century of glacier change on Mount Baker, Washington: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, n. 4, p. 67.
Ryane, C., Osborn, G., Scott, K., Menounos, B., Davis, P.T., Reidel, J., Clague, J. and Koch, J., 2007, The use of tephra to reinterpret early Holocene glacial history at Mount Baker: GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, n. 4.
Kovanen, D., 2003, Decadal variability in climate and glacier fluctuations on Mt. Baker, Washington, U.S.A. Geografiska Annaler: Series A 85: 43–55.
ABSTRACT: Climate variability in the Pacific basin has been attributed to large-scale oceanic-atmospheric modulations (e.g. the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)) that dominate the weather of adjacent land areas. The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and north Pacific index are thought to be indicators of modulations and events in the northeast Pacific. In this study we find that variations in the PDO are reflected in the terminus position of glaciers on Mt Baker, in the northern Cascade Range, Washington. The initiation of retreat and advance phases of six glaciers persisted for 20-30 years, which relate to PDO regime shifts. The result of this study agrees with previous studies that link glacier mass balance changes to local precipitation anomalies and processes in the Pacific. However, the use of mass balance changes and glacier terminus variation for identification of regime shifts in climate indices is complicated by the lack of standardized measuring techniques, differing response times of individual glaciers to changes in climate, geographic and morphometric factors, and the use of assorted climate indices with different domains and time-scales in the Pacific for comparison.
Bach, A., 2002, Snowshed contributions to the Nooksack River watershed, North Cascades Range, Washington. Geographical Review, 92 (2):192-213.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2002.tb00004.x/abstract ABSTRACT. Meltwater contributes to watershed hydrology by increasing summer discharge, delaying the peak spring runoff, and decreasing variability in runoff. High-elevation snowshed meltwater, including glacier-derived input, provides an estimated 26.9 percent of summer streamflow (ranging annually from 16 to 40 percent) in the Nooksack River Basin above the town of Deming, Washington, in the North Cascades Range. The Nooksack is a major spawning river for salmon and once was important for commercial, recreational, and tribal fishing, and in the past its flow met the demands of both human and aquatic ecosystems. But the river is already legally overallocated, and demand is rising in response to the rapidly growing human population. Variability in snowshed contributions to the watershed is considerable but has increased from an average of 25.2 percent in the 1940s to an average of 30.8 percent in the 1990s. Overall stream discharge shows no significant increase, suggesting that the glaciers are melting, and/or precipitation levels (or other hydrologic factors) are decreasing at about the same rate. If glaciers continue to recede, they may disappear permanently from the Cascades. If that occurs, their summer contribution to surface-water supplies will cease, and water-management policies will need drastic revision.
Thomas, P., Easterbrook, D. and Clark, P.U., 2000, Thomas, P. A, Easterbrook, D. J., Clark, P. U., 2000, Early Holocene glaciation on Mount Baker, Washington State, USA: Quaternary Science Reviews, vol.19, no.11, pp.1043-1046.
Kovanen, D., 1996, Extensive late-Pleistocene alpine glaciation in the Nooksack River Valley, North Cascades, Washington: (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 186 p.
Pelto, M., 1996, Net Balance of North Cascade Glaciers, 1984-94. Journal of Glaciology, 140, 3-9.
Harper, J., 1993, Glacier terminus fluctuations on Mount Baker, Washington, U.S.A., 1940-1990, and climatic variations: Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 25, n. 4, p. 332-340.
Pelto, M.S., 1988, The annual balance of North Cascade, Washington Glaciers measured and predicted using an activity index method. Journal of Glaciology 34: 194–200.
Fuller, S.R., 1980, Neoglaciation of Avalanche Gorge and the Middle Fork Nooksack River valley, Mt. Baker, Washington (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 68 p.
Frank, D., 1976, Debris avalanches at Mount Baker Volcano, Washington: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, Report: P 929, ERTS-1, a new window on our planet, pp.120-122.
Kiver, E.P., 1974, The summit firn caves of Mount Baker: International Glaciospeleological Survey Bulletin, no.3, pp. 5-85.
Description of ice caves at the base of the Sherman Crater glacier.
Burke, R., 1972, Neoglaciation of Boulder Valley, Mt Baker, Washington (M.S. thesis): Bellingham, Western Washington University, 47 p.
Hubley, R.C., 1957, Glaciers of Washington’s Cascades and Olympic Mountains: Their present activity and its relation to local climatic trends. Journal of Glaciology, 2(19):669-674.
ABSTRACT: Between 1953 and 1955, 73 glaciers in the Olympic and Cascade Mountains of Washington State have been investigated to determine their present activity. 50 of these glaciers are now advancing at rates from 3 to 100 m. or more per annum. Of the remaining 23, 22 glaciers either demonstrate clear evidence of increasing thickness, or have remained so heavily snow-covered at the end of the ablation season that it has not been possible to locate their limits. The present glacier growth, which appears to have started about 12 years ago. represents a radical change from conditions during the previous 20 years when glaciers of the Olympics and Cascades without exception were shrinking rapidly. An analysis of local climatic data demonstrates a present trend toward a cooler, wetter climate in western Washington. The ten year running mean annual temperature at Tatoosh Island off the Washington coast has decreased approximately 0'8° C. from the period 1934–1943 to the period 1945–1954. In the same interval of time the ten year running mean annual precipitation at Tatoosh has increased about 38 cm., and during the last decade has reached its highest value since the period 1898–1907.

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