Source: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/351/
Timestamp: 2019-04-23 16:36:09+00:00

Document:
Section 2805(a) of the California Labor Code, which prohibits an employer from knowingly employing an alien who is not entitled to lawful residence in the United States if such employment would have an adverse effect on lawful resident workers, held not to be unconstitutional as a regulation of immigration or as being preempted under the Supremacy Clause by the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). Pp. 424 U. S. 354-365.
(a) Standing alone, the fact that aliens are the subject of a state statute does not render it a regulation of immigration. Even if such local regulation has some purely speculative and indirect impact on immigration, it does not thereby become a constitutionally proscribed regulation of immigration that Congress itself would be powerless to authorize or approve. Pp. 424 U. S. 354-356.
in matters affecting employment of illegal aliens, and therefore barring state legislation such as § 2805(a). Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U. S. 52; Pennsylvania v. Nelson, 350 U. S. 497, distinguished. Pp. 424 U. S. 356-363.
(c) It is for the California courts to construe § 2805(a), and then to decide in the first instance whether and to what extent § 2805(a), as construed, is unconstitutional as conflicting with the INA or other federal laws or regulations. Pp. 424 U. S. 363-365.
40 Cal.App.3d 976, 115 Cal.Rptr. 444, reversed and remanded.
BRENNAN, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which all Members joined except STEVENS, J., who took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
"[n]o employer shall knowingly employ an alien who is not entitled to lawful residence in the United States if such employment would have an adverse effect on lawful resident workers. [Footnote 1]"
is an attempt to regulate immigration and naturalization or because it is preempted under the Supremacy Clause, Art. VI, cl. 2, of the Constitution, by the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), 66 Stat. 163, as amended, 8 U.S.C. § 1101 et seq., the comprehensive federal statutory scheme for regulation of immigration and naturalization.
"that Labor Code 2805 is unconstitutional . . . [because] [i]t encroaches upon, and interferes with, a comprehensive regulatory scheme enacted by Congress in the exercise of its exclusive power over immigration. . . ."
App. 17a. The California Court of Appeal, Second Appellate District, affirmed, 40 Cal.App.3d 976, 115 Cal.Rptr. 444 (1974). The Court of Appeal held that § 2805(a) is an attempt to regulate the conditions for admission of foreign nationals, and therefore unconstitutional because, "in the area of immigration and naturalization, congressional power is exclusive."
Id. at 979, 115 Cal.Rptr. at 446. [Footnote 3] The Court of Appeal further indicated that state regulatory power over this subject matter was foreclosed when Congress, "as an incident of national sovereignty," enacted the INA as a comprehensive scheme governing all aspects of immigration and naturalization, including the employment of aliens, and "specifically and intentionally declined to add sanctions on employers to its control mechanism." Ibid. [Footnote 4] The Supreme Court of California denied review. We granted certiorari 422 U.S. 1040 (1975). We reverse.
Power to regulate immigration is unquestionably exclusively a federal power. See, e.g., 48 U. S. 7 How. 283 (1849); Henderson v. Mayor of New York, 92 U. S. 259 (1876); Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 U.S.
a constitutionally proscribed regulation of immigration that Congress itself would be powerless to authorize or approve. Thus, absent congressional action, § 2805 would not be an invalid state incursion on federal power.
"[F]ederal regulation . . . should not be deemed preemptive of state regulatory power in the absence of persuasive reasons either that the nature of the regulated subject matter permits no other conclusion, or that the Congress has unmistakably so ordained."
In this case, we cannot conclude that preemption is required either because "the nature of the . . . subject matter [regulation of employment of illegal aliens] permits no other conclusion," or because "Congress has unmistakably so ordained" that result.
by illegal aliens of jobs on substandard terms as to wages and working conditions can seriously depress wage scales and working conditions of citizens and legally admitted aliens; and employment of illegal aliens under such conditions can diminish the effectiveness of labor unions. These local problems are particularly acute in California in light of the significant influx into that State of illegal aliens from neighboring Mexico. In attempting to protect California's fiscal interests and lawfully resident labor force from the deleterious effects on its economy resulting from the employment of illegal aliens, § 2805(a) focuses directly upon these essentially local problems, and is tailored to combat effectively the perceived evils.
by Congress . . . , a detailed statutory scheme was both likely and appropriate, completely apart from any questions of preemptive intent."
embracing federal system, including the principle of diffusion of power not as a matter of doctrinaire localism, but as a promoter of democracy, has required us at to find withdrawal from the States of power to regulate where the activity regulated was a merely peripheral concern of the [federal regulation]. . . ."
"[t]his chapter and the provisions contained herein are intended to supplement State action, and compliance with this chapter shall not excuse anyone from compliance with appropriate State law and regulation."
occupied the field and is not protecting the entire country from seditious conduct."
350 U.S. at 350 U. S. 500. Moreover, in neither Hines nor Nelson was there affirmative evidence, as here, that Congress sanctioned concurrent state legislation on the subject covered by the challenged state law. Furthermore, to the extent those cases were based on the predominance of federal interest in the fields of immigration and foreign affairs, there would not appear to be a similar federal interest in a situation in which the state law is fashioned to remedy local problems, and operates only on local employers, and only with respect to individuals whom the Federal Government has already declared cannot work in this country. Finally, the Pennsylvania statutes in Hines and Nelson imposed burdens on aliens lawfully within the country that created conflicts with various federal laws.
There remains the question whether, although the INA contemplates some room for state legislation, § 2805(a) is nevertheless unconstitutional because it "stands as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress" in enacting the INA. Hines v. Davidowitz, supra at 312 U. S. 67; Florida Lime & Avocado Growers v. Paul, 373 U.S. at 373 U. S. 141. We do not think that we can address that inquiry upon the record before us. The Court of Appeal did not reach the question in light of its decision, today reversed, that Congress had completely barred state action in the field of employment of illegal aliens. Accordingly, there are questions of construction of § 2805(a) to be settled by the California courts before a determination is appropriate whether, as construed, § 2805(a) "can be enforced without impairing the federal superintendence of the field" covered by the INA. 373 U.S. at 373 U. S. 142.
"An alien entitled to lawful residence shall mean any non-citizen of the United States who is in possession of a Form I-151, Alien Registration Receipt Card, or any other document issued by the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service which authorizes him to work."
it is for the California courts to decide the effect of these administrative regulations in construing § 2805(a), and thus to decide in the first instance whether and to what extent, see n 5, supra, § 2805 as construed would conflict with the INA or other federal laws or regulations. It suffices that this Court decide at this time that the Court of Appeal erred in holding that Congress, in the INA, precluded any state authority to regulate the employment of illegal aliens.
The judgment of the Court of Appeal is reversed, and the case is remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
"(a) No employer shall knowingly employ an alien who is not entitled to lawful residence in the United States if such employment would have an adverse effect on lawful resident workers."
"(b) A person found guilty of violation of subdivision (a) is punishable by a fine of not less than two hundred dollars ($200) nor more than five hundred dollars ($500) for each offense."
"(c) The foregoing provisions shall not be a bar to civil action against the employer based upon a violation of subdivision (a)."
We assume, arguendo, in this opinion, in referring to "illegal aliens," that the prohibition of § 2805(a) only applies to aliens who would not be permitted to work in the United States under pertinent federal laws and regulations. Whether that is the correct construction of the statute is an issue that will remain open for determination by the state courts on remand. See 424 U. S. infra.
Insofar as the determination of § 2805's objective is a matter of state law, the Court of Appeal's view that § 2805(a) is an attempt to regulate the conditions for admission of foreign nationals may be questioned. Another division of the Court of Appeal has said that "the section is not aimed at immigration control or regulation, but seeks to aid California residents in obtaining jobs. . . ." Dolores Canning Co. v. Howard, 40 Cal.App.3d 673, 686, 115 Cal.Rptr. 435, 442 (1974). Dolores Canning also invalidated § 2805(a), however, relying, inter alia, on Guss v. Utah Labor Board, 353 U. S. 1 (1957), and San Diego Unions v. Garmon, 359 U. S. 236 (1959), and stating that the statute "does or could affect immigration in several ways." 40 Cal.App.3d at 686, 115 Cal.Rptr. at 442-443.
It is also uncertain that the Court of Appeal viewed § 2805 as a constitutionally proscribed state regulation of immigration that would be invalid even absent federal legislation; the court's discussion of the INA seems to imply that the court assumed that Congress could clearly authorize state legislation such as § 2805, even if it had not yet done so.
H.R. 8713, now pending in Congress, would amend 8 U.S.C. § 1324 to provide a penalty for knowingly employing an alien not lawfully admitted to the United States.
See also, e.g., New York Dept. of Social Services v. Dublino, 413 U. S. 405, 413 U. S. 413-414 (1973); Schwartz v. Texas, 344 U. S. 199, 344 U. S. 202-203 (1952); California v. Zook, 336 U. S. 725, 336 U. S. 732-733 (1949).
"conflicting law, absent repealing or exclusivity provisions, should be preempted . . . 'only to the extent necessary to protect the achievement of the aims of'"
"the proper approach is to reconcile 'the operation of both statutory schemes with one another, rather than holding [the state scheme] completely ousted.'"
Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith v. Ware, 414 U. S. 117, 414 U. S. 127 (1973), quoting Silver v. New York Stock Exchange, 373 U. S. 341, 373 U. S. 361, 373 U. S. 357 (1963).
"The Federal Government has broad constitutional powers in determining what aliens shall be admitted to the United States, the period they may remain, regulation of their conduct before naturalization, and the terms and conditions of their naturalization. See Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U. S. 52, 312 U. S. 66. Under the Constitution, the states are granted no such powers; they can neither add to nor take from the conditions lawfully imposed by Congress upon admission, naturalization and residence of aliens in the United States or the several states. State laws which impose discriminatory burdens upon the entrance or residence of aliens lawfully within the United States conflict with this constitutionally derived federal power to regulate immigration, and have accordingly been held invalid."
Takahashi v. Fish & Game Comm'n, 334 U. S. 410, 334 U. S. 419 (1948) (emphasis supplied). See also, e.g., Graham v. Richardson, 403 U. S. 365, 403 U. S. 376-380 (1971); Truax v. Raich, 239 U. S. 33, 239 U. S. 41-42 (1915); cf. also Sugarman v. Dougall, 413 U. S. 634, 413 U. S. 641-646 (1973); In re Griffiths, 413 U. S. 717 (1973). But California Code § 2805 appears to be designed to protect the opportunities of lawfully admitted aliens for obtaining and holding jobs, rather than to add to their burdens. The question whether § 2805(a) nevertheless, in fact, imposes burdens bringing it into conflict with the INA is open for inquiry on remand. See 424 U. S. infra.
"[t]o leave the States free to regulate conduct so plainly within the central aim of federal regulation involves too great a danger of conflict between power asserted by Congress and requirements imposed by state law."
San Diego Unions v. Garmon, 359 U.S. at 359 U. S. 244. Guss and Garmon recognize, therefore, that, in areas that Congress decides require national uniformity of regulation, Congress may exercise power to exclude any state regulation, even if harmonious. But nothing remotely resembling the NLRA scheme is to be found in the INA.
"Little aid can be derived from the vague and illusory but often repeated formula that Congress, 'by occupying the field,' has excluded from it all state legislation. Every Act of Congress occupies some field, but we must know the boundaries of that field before we can say that it has precluded a state from the exercise of any power reserved to it by the Constitution. To discover the boundaries, we look to the federal statute itself, read in the light of its constitutional setting and its legislative history."
Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U. S. 52, 312 U. S. 78-79 (1941) (Stone, J., dissenting).
A construction of the proviso as not immunizing an employer who knowingly employs illegal aliens may be possible, and we imply no view upon the question. As will appear infra, other federal law that criminalizes knowing employment of illegal aliens in the agricultural field sanctions "appropriate" state laws criminalizing the same conduct. Accordingly, neither the proviso to 8 U.S.C. § 1324(a) nor Congress' failure to enact general laws criminalizing knowing employment of illegal aliens justifies an inference of congressional intent to preempt all state regulation in the employment area. Indeed, Congress' failure to enact such general sanctions reinforces the inference that may be drawn from other congressional action that Congress believes this problem does not yet require uniform national rules, and is appropriately addressed by the States as a local matter. The cited statutory provisions would, in any event, be relevant on remand in the analysis of actual or potential conflicts between § 2805 and federal law. See also 8 U.S.C. §§ 1101(a)(15)(H), 1182(a)(14), 1321-1330.
"Upon notice and hearing in accordance with regulations prescribed by him, the Secretary may refuse to issue, and may suspend, revoke, or refuse to renew a certificate of registration to any farm labor contractor if he finds that such contractor --"
"(6) has recruited, employed, or utilized with knowledge, the services of any person, who is an alien not lawfully admitted for permanent residence, or who has not been authorized by the Attorney General to accept employment. . . ."
"Every farm labor contractor shall --"
"(f) refrain from recruiting, employing, or utilizing, with knowledge, the services of any person, who is an alien not lawfully admitted for permanent residence or who has not been authorized by the Attorney General to accept employment. . . ."
Violations of the Act are made criminal, and aggrieved persons are accorded the right to civil relief.
The Solicitor General, in his Memorandum for the United States as Amicus Curiae 4 n. 4, concedes that the "Act contemplates some limited room for state law," but argues that § 2805 is not "appropriate" in light of various alleged conflicts with federal regulation.
"[T]he statute forbids hiring of an 'alien who is not entitled to lawful residence in the United States,' and, under the U.S. Immigration laws, there are many such aliens who may work in the United States, under certain classifications, and Labor Code 2805 is in direct conflict with Federal Law."
Dolores Canning Co. v. Howard quotes the definition in a footnote, 40 Cal.App.3d at 677 n. 3, 115 Cal.Rptr. at 436 n. 3, but the opinion states nothing respecting its significance in construing § 2805(a).

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