Source: http://www.asmscience.org/content/book/10.1128/9781555815936.ch14
Timestamp: 2019-04-23 04:47:48+00:00

Document:
This chapter focuses primarily on those viruses for which food-borne transmission is well documented (hepatitis A virus (HAV) and noroviruses (NoV)), and therefore, control in food production, processing, and preparation is considered relevant. General information about structural, molecular, and environmental properties of those viruses specifically implicated in food-borne illness is detailed. Three types of food commodities are usually associated with viral disease outbreaks, those being (i) molluscan shellfish contaminated during production; (ii) fresh produce items contaminated during production, harvesting, or packing; and (iii) prepared foods contaminated during preparation. Poor personal hygiene practices of infected food handlers provide the source of contamination for prepared foods. This appears to be the most important factor influencing the food-borne transmission of enteric viruses, as U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) data indicate that 50 to 95% of viral food-borne disease outbreaks are attributable to poor personal hygiene of infected food handlers. In Europe, researchers compiled data from 10 surveillance systems in the European Foodborne Virus Network, finding NoV to be the cause of >85% of all acute nonbacterial outbreaks of gastroenteritis reported between 1995 and 2000. Intrinsic and extrinsic parameters commonly used by food processors include manipulation of temperature (cooking and heating, freezing, and refrigeration), water activity, pH, gaseous environment, natural and intentionally added inhibitors, and the presence of competitive microflora. Our understanding of the importance of enteric viruses in the overall burden of food-borne disease has increased dramatically over the past 20 years.
Transmission routes of food-borne viruses (reprinted with permission [ D’Souza et al., 2007 ]).
Representative methods for the extraction and concentration of human enteric viruses in produce (A) and oysters (B) based on protocols reported by Butot et al. (2007) and Jothikumar et al. (2005b), respectively.
1. Abad, F. X.,, R. M. Pinto,, and A. Bosch. 1994. Survival of enteric viruses on environmental fomites. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60: 3704– 3710.
2. Ansari, S. A.,, S. A. Sattar,, V. S. Springthorpe,, G. A. Wells,, and W. Tostowaryk. 1988. Rotavirus survival on human hands and transfer of infectious virus to animate and nonporous inanimate surfaces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26: 1513– 1518.
3. Atmar, R. L.,, and M. K. Estes. 2006. The epidemiologic and clinical importance of norovirus infection. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 35: 275– 290.
4. Bean, N. H.,, J. S. Goulding,, M. T. Daniels,, and F. J. Angulo. 1997. Surveillance for foodborne disease outbreaks—United States, 1988–1992. J. Food Prot. 60: 1265– 1286.
5. Bellini, Q. J.,, P. A. Rota,, and U. Parashar. 2002. Zoonotic paramyxoviruses, p. 845–855. In D. D. Richman,, R. J. Whitley, and, F. G. Hayden (ed.), Clinical Virology, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
6. Beuret, C.,, A. Baumgartner,, and J. Schluep. 2003. Virus-contaminated oysters: a three-month monitoring of oysters imported to Switzerland. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 2292– 2297.
7. Bidawid, S.,, N. Malik,, O. Adegbunrin,, S. A. Sattar,, and J. M. Farber. 2004. Norovirus cross-contamination during food handling and interruption of virus transfer by hand antisepsis: experiments with feline calicivirus as a surrogate. J. Food Prot. 67: 103– 109.
8. Bidawid, S.,, J. M. Farber,, and S. A. Sattar. 2000a. Contamination of foods by food handlers: experiments on hepatitis A virus transfer to food and its interruption. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 2759– 2763.
9. Bidawid, S.,, J. M. Farber,, and S. Sattar. 2000b. Inactivation of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in fruits and vegetables by gamma irradiation. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 57: 91– 97.
10. Bidawid, S.,, J. M. Farber,, S. A. Sattar,, and S. Hayward. 2000c. Heat inactivation of hepatitis A virus in dairy foods. J. Food Prot. 63: 522– 528.
11. Boxman, I. L. A.,, J. J. H. C. Tilburg,, N. A. J. M. te Loeke,, H. Vennema,, E. de Boer,, and M. Koopmans. 2007. An efficient and rapid method for recovery of norovirus from food associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis. J. Food Prot. 70: 504– 508.
12. Boxman, I. L. A.,, J. J. H. C. Tilburg,, N. A. J. M. te Loeke,, H. Vennema,, K. Jonker,, E. de Boer,, and M. Koopmans. 2006. Detection of noroviruses in shellfish in the Netherlands. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 108: 391– 396.
13. Bull, R. A.,, E. T. V. Tu,, C. J. McIver,, W. D. Rawlinson,, and P. A. Shite. 2006. Emergence of a new norovirus genotype II.4 variant associated with global outbreaks of gastroenteritis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 327– 333.
14. Butot, S.,, T. Putallaz,, and G. Sanchez. 2007. Procedure for rapid concentration and detection of enteric viruses from berries and vegetables. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73: 186– 192.
15. Calci, K. R.,, G. K. Meade,, R. C. Tezloff,, and D. H. Kingsley. 2005. High-pressure inactivation of hepatitis A virus within oysters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71: 339– 343.
16. Cannon, J. L.,, E. Papafragkou,, G. Park,, J. Osborne,, L. Jaykus,, and J. Vinje. 2006. Surrogates for the study of norovirus stability and inactivation in the environment: a comparison of murine norovirus and feline calicivirus. J. Food Prot. 69: 2761– 2765.
17. Caul, E. O. 1994. Small round structured viruses: airborne transmission and hospital control. Lancet 343: 1240– 1241.
18. CDC. 2007. Norovirus activity—United States, 2006–2007. MMWR Mor. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 56: 842– 846.
19. Chancellor, D. D.,, S. Tyagi,, M. C. Bazaco,, S. Bacvinskas,, M. B. Chancellor,, V. M. Dato,, and F. DeMiguel. 2006. Green onions: potential mechanism for hepatitis A contamination. J. Food Prot. 69: 1468– 1472.
20. Chen, H.,, D. G. Hoover,, and D. H. Kingsley. 2005. Temperature and treatment time influence high hydrostatic pressure inactivation of feline calicivirus, a norovirus surrogate. J. Food Prot. 68: 2389– 2394.
21. Costafreda, M. I.,, A. Bosch,, and R. M. Pinto. 2006. Development, evaluation, and standardization of a real-time Taqman reverse transcription-PCR assay for quantification of hepatitis A in clinical and shellfish samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72: 3846– 3855.
22. Costani, V.,, F. Loisy,, L. Joens,, F. S. LeGuyader,, and L. J. Saif. 2006. Human and animal enteric caliciviruses in oysters from different coastal areas of the United States. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72: 1800– 1809.
23. Cunliffe, N. A.,, J. S. Bresee,, and C. A. Hart. 2002. Rotavirus vaccines: development, current issues and future prospects. J. Infect. 45: 1– 9.
24. Cuthbert, J. A. 2001. Hepatitis A: old and new. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14: 38– 58.
25. Dolin, R.,, N. R. Blacklow,, H. DuPont,, R. F. Buscho,, R. G. Wyatt,, J. A. Kasel,, R. Hornick,, and R. M. Chanock. 1972. Biological properties of Norwalk agent of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 140: 578– 583.
26. Doultree, J. C.,, J. D. Druce,, C. J. Birch,, D. S. Bowden,, and J. A. Marshall. 1999. Inactivation of feline calicivirus, a Norwalk virus surrogate. J. Hosp. Infect. 41: 51– 57.
27. Dreier, J.,, M. Stormer,, D. Made,, S. Burkhardt,, and K. Kleesiak. 2006. Enhanced reverse transcription PCR assay for detection of norovirus genogroup I. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 2714– 2720.
28. D’Souza, D. H.,, C. L. Moe,, and L. Jaykus. 2007. Foodborne viral pathogens, p. 581–607. In M. P. Doyle and, L. R. Beuchat (ed.), Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
29. D’Souza, D. H.,, J. Jean,, and L. Jaykus. 2006. Methods for the detection of viral and parasitic protozoan pathogens in foods, p. 1–23. In Y. H. Hui (ed.), Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering, vol. 4. CRC-Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL.
30. Emerson, S. U.,, V. A. Arankalle,, and R. H. Purcell. 2005. Thermal stability of hepatitis E virus. J. Infect. Dis. 192: 930– 933.
31. Fankhauser, R. L.,, S. S. Monroe,, J. S. Noel,, C. D. Humphrey,, J. S. Bresee,, U. D. Parashar,, T. Ando,, and R. I. Glass. 2002. Epidemiologic and molecular trends of the “Norwalk-like viruses” associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the United States. J. Infect. Dis. 186: 1– 7.
32. Farkas, T.,, S. Nakajima,, M. Sugieda,, X. Deng,, W. Zhong,, and X. Jiang. 2005. Seroprevalence of noroviruses in swine. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 657– 661.
33. Fauquet, C. M.,, M. A. Mayo,, J. Maniloff,, U. Desselberger,, and L. A. Ball. 2005. Virus Taxonomy, Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
34. Feagins, A. R.,, T. Opriessnig,, D. K. Guenete,, P. G. Halbur,, and X.-J. Meng. 2007. Detection and characterization of infectious hepatitis E virus from commercial pig livers sold in local grocery stores in the USA. J. Gen. Virol. 88: 912– 917.
35. Fiore, A. E. 2004. Hepatitis A transmitted by food. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38: 705– 715.
36. Fleet, G. H.,, P. Heiskanen,, I. Reid,, and K. A. Buckle. 2000. Foodborne viral illness—status in Australia. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 59: 127– 136.
37. Formiga-Cruz, M.,, G. Tofino-Quesada,, S. Bofill-Mas,, D. N. Lees,, K. Henshilwood,, A. K. Allard,, A.-C. Conden-Hansson,, B. E. Hernroth,, A. Vantarakis,, A. Tsibouxi,, A. Vantarakis,, and R. Girones. 2002. Distribution of human virus in contamination in shellfish from different growing areas in Greece, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 5990– 5998.
38. Franco, M. A.,, and H. B. Greenberg. 2002. Rotaviruses, p. 743–762. In D. D. Richman,, R. J. Whitley, and, F. G. Hayden (ed.), Clinical Virology, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
39. Gallimore, C. I.,, D. Cubitt,, N. du Plessis,, and J. J. Gray. 2004. Asymptomatic and symptomatic excretion of noroviruses during a hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 2271– 2274.
40. Gia, T.,, K. Kaneshi,, Y. Ueda,, S. Nakaya,, S. Nishimura,, A. Yamamoto,, K. Sugita,, S. Takanashi,, S. Okitsu,, and H. Ushijuma. 2007. Genetic heterogeneity, evolution, and recombination in noroviruses. J. Med. Virol. 76: 1388– 1400.
41. Girard, M. P.,, D. Steele,, C.-L. Chaignat,, and M. P. Kieny. 2006. A review of vaccine research and development: human enteric infections. Vaccine 24: 2732– 2750.
42. Green, K. Y.,, R. M. Chanock,, and A. Z. Kapikian. 2001. Human caliciviruses, p. 841–874. In D. M. Knipe,, P. M. Howley,, D. E. Griffin,, R. A. Lamb,, M. A. Martin,, B. Roizman, and, S. E. Straus, (ed.), Fields Virology, 4th ed. Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
43. Grove, S. F.,, A. Lee,, T. Lewis,, C. M. Stewart,, H. Chen,, and D. G. Hoover. 2006. Inactivation of foodborne viruses of significance by high pressure and other processes. J. Food Prot. 69: 957– 968.
44. Guix, S.,, A. Bosch,, and R. M. Pinto. 2005. Human astrovirus diagnosis and typing: current and future prospects. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 41: 103– 105.
45. Heeney, J. L. 2006. Zoonotic viral diseases and the frontier of early diagnosis, control and prevention. J. Intern. Med. 260: 399– 408.
46. Hewitt, J.,, and G. E. Greening. 2004. Survival and persistence of norovirus, hepatitis A virus, and feline calicivirus in marinated mussels. J. Food Prot. 67: 1743– 1750.
47. Hollinger, F. B.,, and S. U. Emerson. 2001. Hepatitis A virus, p. 799–840. In D. M. Knipe,, P. M. Howley,, D. E. Griffin,, R. A. Lamb,, M. A. Martin,, B. Roizman, and, S. E. Straus (ed.), Fields Virology, 4th ed. Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
48. Hutin, Y. J.,, V. Pool,, E. H. Cramer,, O. V. Nainan,, J. Weth,, I. T. Williams,, S. T. Goldstein,, K. F. Gensheimer,, B. P. Bell,, C. N. Shapiro,, M. J. Alter,, and H. S. Margolis. 1999. A multistate foodborne outbreak of hepatitis A. N. Engl. J. Med. 340: 595– 601.
49. Jaykus, L. 2007. Detection of the presence of bacteria, viruses, and parasitic protozoa in shellfish, p. 311–324. In C. J. Hurst (ed.), Manual of Environmental Microbiology, 3rd ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
50. Jean, J.,, J.-F. Vachon,, O. Moroni,, A. Darveau,, I. Kukavica-Ibrulj, and I. Fliss. 2003. Effectiveness of commercial disinfectants for inactivating hepatitis A virus on agri-food surfaces. J. Food Prot. 66: 115– 119.
51. Jothikumar, N.,, T. L. Cromeans,, M. D. Sobsey,, and B. H. Robertson. 2005a. Development and evaluation of a broadly reactive TaqMan assay for rapid detection of hepatitis A virus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71: 3359– 3363.
52. Jothikumar, N.,, J. A. Lowther,, K. Henshilwood,, D. N. Lees,, V. R. Hill,, and J. Vinje. 2005b. Rapid and sensitive detection of noroviruses by using TaqMan-based one-step reverse transcription-PCR assays and application to naturally contaminated shellfish samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71: 1870– 1875.
53. Kageyama, T.,, S. Kojima,, M. Shinohara,, K. Uchida,, S. Fukushi,, F. B. Hoshino,, N. Takeda,, and K. Katayama. 2003. Broadly reactive and highly sensitive assay for Norwalk-like viruses on real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 1548– 1557.
54. Khetsuriani, N.,, A. LaMonte-Fowlkes,, M. S. Oberste,, and M. A. Pallansch. 2006. Enterovirus surveillance—United States, 1970–2005. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 55(SS–08): 1– 20.
55. Kingsley, D. H.,, D. R. Holliman,, K. R. Calci,, H. Chen,, and G. J. Flick. 2007. Inactivation of a norovirus by high pressure processing. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73: 581– 585.
56. Kingsley, D. H.,, D. Guan,, D. G. Hoover,, and H. Chen. 2006. Inactivation of hepatitis A virus by high-pressure processing: the role of temperature and pressure oscillation. J. Food Prot. 69: 2454– 2459.
57. Kingsley, D. H.,, D. Guan,, and D. G. Hoover. 2005. Pressure inactivation of hepatitis A virus in strawberry puree and sliced green onions. J. Food Prot. 68: 1748– 1751.
58. Kingsley, D. H.,, H. Chen,, and D. G. Hoover. 2004. Inactivation of selected picornaviruses by high hydrostatic pressure. Virus Res. 102: 221– 224.
59. Kingsley, D. H.,, and G. P. Richards. 2003. Persistence of hepatitis A virus in oysters. J. Food Prot. 66: 331– 334.
60. Kingsley, D. H.,, D. G. Hoover,, E. Papafragkou,, and G. P. Richards. 2002. Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and a calicivirus by high hydrostatic pressure. J. Food Prot. 65: 1605– 1609.
61. Klein, E. J.,, D. R. Boster,, J. R. Strapp,, J. G. Wells,, X. Qin,, C. R. Clausen,, D. L. Swerdlow,, C. R. Braden,, and P. I. Tarr. 2006. Diarrhea etiology in a children’s hospital emergency department: a prospective cohort study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43: 807– 813.
62. Koopmans, M.,, and E. Duizer. 2004. Foodborne viruses: an emerging problem. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 90: 23– 41.
63. Lees, D. 2000. Viruses and bivalve shellfish. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 59: 81– 116.
64. Lindesmith, L.,, C. Moe,, S. Marionneau,, N. Ruvoen,, X. Jiang,, J. Lindblad,, P. Stewart,, J. LePendu,, and R. Baric. 2003. Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection. Nat. Med. 9: 548– 553.
65. Liu, B.,, P. Maywood,, L. Gupta,, and B. Campbell. 2003. An outbreak of Norwalk-like virus gastroenteritis in an aged-care residential hostel. N. S. W. Public. Health Bull. 14: 105– 109.
66. Lopman, B.,, H. Vennema,, E. Kohli,, P. Pothier,, A. Sanchez,, A. Negredo,, J. Buesa,, E, Schreier,, M. Reacher,, D. Brown,, J. Gray,, M. Iturriza,, C. Gallimore,, B. Bottiger,, K.-O. Hedlund,, M. Torvén,, C.-H. von Bonsdorff,, L. Maunula,, M. Poljsak-Prijatelj,, J. Zimsek,, G. Reuter,, G. Szücs,, B. Melegh,, L. Svennson,, Y. van Duijnhoven,, and M. Koopmans. 2004. Increase in viral gastroenteritis outbreaks in Europe and epidemic spread of new norovirus variant. Lancet 363: 671– 672.
67. Lopman, B. A.,, G. K. Adak,, M. H. Reader,, and D. W. Brown. 2003a. Two epidemiologic patterns of norovirus outbreaks: surveillance in England and Wales, 1992–2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9: 71– 77.
68. Lopman, B. A.,, M. H. Reacher,, Y. van Duijnhoven,, F. X. Hanon,, D. Brown,, and M. Koopmans. 2003b. Viral gastroenteritis outbreaks in Europe, 1995–2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9: 90– 96.
69. Mallet, J. C.,, L. E. Beghian,, T. G. Metcalf,, and J. D. Kaylor. 1991. Potential of irradiation technology for improving shellfish sanitation. J. Food Saf. 11: 231– 245.
70. Mbithi, J. N.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, J. R. Boulet,, and S. A. Sattar. 1992. Survival of hepatitis A virus on human hands and its transfer on contact with animate and inanimate surfaces. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 757– 763.
71. Mbithi, J. N.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, and S. A. Sattar. 1991. Effect of relative humidity and air temperature on survival of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 1394– 1399.
72. Mbithi, J. N.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, and S. A. Sattar. 1990. Chemical disinfection of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 3601– 3604.
73. McDonnell, S.,, K. B. Kirkland,, W. G. Hlady,, C. Aristeguieta,, R. S. Hopcins,, S. S. Monroe,, and R. I. Glass. 1997. Failure of cooking to prevent shellfish-associated viral gastroenteritis. Arch. Intern. Med. 157: 111– 116.
74. Mead, P. S.,, L. Slutsker,, V. Dietz,, L. F. McCaig,, J. S. Bresee,, C. Shapiro,, P. M. Griffin,, and R. V. Tauxe. 1999. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5: 607– 625.
75. Muniain-Mujika, I.,, R. Girones,, G. Tofino-Quesada,, M. Calvo,, and F. Lucena. 2002. Depuration dynamics of viruses in shellfish. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 77: 125– 133.
76. NACMCF. 2008. Response to the questions posed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and National Marine Fisheries Service regarding determination of cooking parameters for safe seafood for consumers. J. Food Prot. 71: 1287– 1308.
77. Oh, D. Y.,, P. A. Silva,, B. Hauroeder,, S. Diedrich,, D. D. Cardosos,, and E. Schreier. 2006. Molecular characterization of the first Aichi viruses isolated in Europe and in South America. Arch. Virol. 151: 1199– 1206.
78. Okamoto, H. 2007. Genetic variability and evolution of hepatitis E virus. Virus Res. 127: 216– 228.
79. Pallansch, M. A.,, and R. P. Roos. 2001. Enteroviruses: polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses, p. 723–775. In D. M. Knipe and, P. M. Howley (ed). Fields Virology, 4th ed. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
80. Papafragkou, E.,, D. H. D’Souza,, and L. Jaykus. 2006. Foodborne viruses: prevention and control, p. 289–330. In S. M. Goyal (ed.), Viruses in Foods. Springer Science + Business Media, LLC, New York, NY.
81. Phan, T. G.,, K. Kaneshi,, Y. Ueda,, S. Nakaya,, S. Nishimura,, A. Yamamotot,, K. Sugita,, S. Takanashi,, S. Okitsu,, and H. Ushijuma. 2007. Genetic heterogeneity, evolution, and recombination of noroviruses. J. Med. Virol. 79: 1388– 1400.
82. Phan, T. G.,, T. Kuroiwa,, K. Kaneshi,, Y. Ueda,, S. Nakaya,, S. Nishimura,, A. Yamamoto,, K. Sugita,, T. Nishimura,, F. Yagyu,, S. Okitsu,, W. E. Muller,, N. Maneekarn,, and H. Ushijuma. 2006. Changing distribution of norovirus genotypes and genetic analysis or recombinant GIIb among infants and children with diarrhea in Japan. J. Med. Virol. 78: 971– 978.
83. Pina, S.,, M. Puig,, F. Lucena,, J. Jofre,, and R. Girones. 1998. Viral pollution in the environment and in shellfish: human adenovirus detection by PCR as an index of human viruses. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 3376– 3382.
84. Pirtle, E. C.,, and G. W. Beran. 1991. Virus survival in the environment. Rev. Sci. Technol. 10: 733– 748.
85. Rockx, B.,, M. deWit,, H. Vennema,, J. Vinje,, E. de Bruin,, Y. van Duynhoven,, and M. Koopmans. 2002. Natural history of human calicivirus infection: a prospective cohort study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35: 246– 253.
86. Rutjes, S. A.,, F. Lodder-Verschoor,, W. H. M. van der Poel,, Y. T. H. P. van Duijnhoven,, and A. M. de Roda Husman. 2006. Detection of noroviruses in foods: a study on virus extraction procedures in foods implicated in outbreaks of human gastroenteritis. J. Food Prot. 69: 1949– 1956.
87. Sattar, S. A.,, V. S. Springthorpe,, J. Tetro,, R. Vashon,, and B. Keswick. 2002. Hygienic hand antiseptics: should they not have activity and label claims against viruses? Am. J. Infect. Control 30: 355– 372.
88. Seymour, I. J.,, and H. Appleton. 2001. Foodborne viruses and fresh produce. J. Appl. Microbiol. 91: 759– 773.
89. Smith, J. L. 2001. A review of hepatitis E virus. J. Food Prot. 64: 572– 586.
90. Thomas, C.,, and D. E. Swayne. 2007. Thermal inactivation of H5N1 high pathogenicity avian influenza virus in naturally infected chicken meat. J. Food Prot. 70: 674– 680.
91. USFDA. 2005. 2005 Food Code. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, College Park, MD. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fc05-toc.html.
92. Wasley, A.,, A. Fiore,, and B. P. Bell. 2006. Hepatitis A in the era of vaccination. Epidemiol. Rev. 28: 101– 111.
93. Wheeler, C.,, T. M. Vogt,, G. L. Armstrong,, G. Vaughan,, A. Weltman,, O. V. Nainan,, V. Dato,, G. Xia,, K. Waller,, J. Amon,, T. M. Lee,, A. Highbaugh-Battle,, C. Hembree,, S. Evenson,, M. A. Ruta,, I. T. Williams,, A. E. Fiore,, and B. P. Bell. 2005. An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with green onions. N. Engl. J. Med. 353: 890– 897.
94. Widdowson, M.-A.,, A. Sulka,, S. N. Bulens,, R. S. Beard,, S. S. Chaves,, R. Hammond,, E. D. P. Salehi,, E. Swanson,, J. Totaro,, R. Woron,, P. S. Mead,, J. S. Bresee,, S. S. Monroe,, and R. I. Glass. 2005. Norovirus and foodborne disease, United States, 1991–2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11: 95– 102.
95. Yamashita, T.,, M. Sugiyama,, H. Tsuzuki,, K. Sakae,, Y. Suzuki,, and Y. Miyazaki. 2000. Application of a reverse transcription-PCR for identification and differentiation of Aichi virus, a new member of the Picornavirus family associated with gastroenteritis in humans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38: 2955– 2961.
96. Yamashita, T.,, K. Sakae,, Y. Ishihara,, S. Isomura,, and E. Utagawa. 1993. Prevalence of a newly isolated, cytopathic small round virus (Aichi strain) in Japan. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 2938– 2943.

References: V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V. 
 V.