CELEX: 51987PC0302
Language: da
Date: 1987-07-24
Title: FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS FORORDNING om fastlæggelse af et forsknings- og undervisningsprogram (1987-1991) inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion#FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS AFGØRELSE om godkendelse af ændringen af vedtægterne for "Joint European Torus (JET), Joint Undertaking"#RAPPORT om fusionsenergiens indvirkning på miljøet og de økonomiske udsigter for denne energiform#(forelagt af Kommissionen)

ARCHIVES HISTORIQUES
DE LA COMMISSION
COLLECTION RELIEE DES
DOCUMENTS "COM"
COM (87) 302
Vol. 1987/0181
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Verschlusssachen als herabgestuft angesehen.
 ---pagebreak--- KOMMISSIONEN FOR DE EUROPÆISKE FÆLLESSKABER
                                                    KOM(87 ) 302 endelig udg .
                                                    Bruxelles , den 24 . juli 1987
                       FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS FORORDNING
      om fastlæggelse af et forsknings - og undervisningsprogram
        ( 1987-1991 ) inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion
                       FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS AFGØRELSE
               om godkendelse af ændringen af vedtægterne
           for " Joint European Torus ( JET ), Joint Undertaking "
                                   RAPPORT
            om fusionsenergiens indvirkning pi miljøet og de
                                                 energiform
                 økonomiske udsigter for denne energiform
                                                                    /V
                                                                            ^
                                                       p          i     ^ N
                                  _                             ^           Ay
                                                                    / |
                         ( forelagt af Kommissionen )
 ---pagebreak--- KOMMISSIONEN FOR DE EUROPÆISKE FÆLLESSKABER
                                                    KOM(87 ) 302 endelig udg .
                                                    Bruxelles , den 24 . juli 1987
                        FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS FORORDNING
       om fastlæggelse af et forsknings - og undervisningsprogram
         ( 1987-1991 ) inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion
                        FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS AFGØRELSE
                om godkendelse af ændringen af vedtægterne
            for " Joint European Torus ( JET ), Joint Undertaking "
                                    RAPPORT
             om fusionsenergiens indvirkning pi miljøet og de
                  økonomiske udsigter for denne energiform
                          ( forelagt af Kommissionen )
    K0M(87 ) 302 endelig udg .
 ---pagebreak---                                          2
                                INDHOLDSFORTEGNELSE
FUSIONSPROGRAMMET FOR 1987-1991
                                                        Side
A)  BEGRUNDELSE                                          3
    Tillæg : Oversigt over det europæiske
              fusionsprograms videnskabelige
              og tekniske resultater 1984-1986          20
B)  FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS FORORDNING om fastlæggelse
    af et forsknings - og undervisningsprogram
    ( 1987-1991 ) inden for kontrolleret termonuklear
    fusion                                              41
C)  FINANSIERINGSOVERSIGT
B>  UDTALELSE FRA DET VIDENSKABELIGE OG TEKNISKE UDVALG
    UDTALELSE FRA DET RÅDGIVENDE UDVALG FOR FUSIONS ¬
    PROGRAMMET
 ---pagebreak---                                             3
                                     A)  BEGRUNDELSE
I.      BAGGRUND
        I artikel 3 i afgørelsen ( 1 ) af 12 . marts 1985 om fastlæggelse af et
        forsknings- og undervisningsprogram inden for kontrolleret termonuklear
        fusion ( 1985-1989 ) fastslog Ministerrådet :
        "Programmet tages op til fornyet vurdering i løbet af det andet år .       Po
        grundlag af denne gennemgang forelægger Kommissionen Rådet et forslag til
        revision , der tager sigte på i 1987 at lade det nuværende program afløses
        af et nyt femårsprogram ."
        Kommissionen forelægger hermed Rådet      et forslag til et nyt femårigt
        fusionsprogram for perioden 1987-1991 .    Den gennemgang af de igangværende
        aktiviteter , der danner grundlag for forslaget ,     er vedføjet som tillæg
        til begrundelsen .
        Sammen med dette programforslag forelægger Kommissionen Rådet et forslag
        om forlængelse af fællesforetagendet JET frem til udgangen af 1992 .     ( Se
        afsnit V ).
        De to forslag stemmer programmatisk og finansielt overens med den afgø¬
        relse om rammeprogrammet for Fællesskabets forskning og teknologiske
        udvikling 1987-1991 , Rådet traf den . ( 2 ).
 ( 1 ) EFT L 83 af 25.3.1985 .
 ( 2 ) EFT _ af .
 ---pagebreak---                                         A
II . FUSION SOM ET F ÆLLESSKABSPROGRAM
     Fællesskabets fusionsprogram er ,     som det hedder i   gentagne rådsaf ¬
     gørelser ,   " et samarbejde på lang sigt ,   som dækker al virksomhed i
     medlemsstaterne inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion .  Det skal til
     sin tid fore til fremstilling i fællesskab af prototyper med henblik på
     industriel produktion og markedsforing ."
     Muligheden for på lang sigt at udnytte fusionsenergien til en ny elfrem¬
     stillingsproces , der kun i beskedent omfang påvirker miljøet , og hvis
     brændselskilde er praktisk talt uudtømmelig ,      gør det berettiget at
     arbejde energisk videre på at udvikle denne energiform , uanset olie ¬
     prisens kortsigtede svingninger . I det kommende århundrede kunne fusions ¬
     energien yde et afgørende bidrag til at mindske Europas økonomiske , øko ¬
     logiske og politiske sårbarhed .
     Allerede i dag har fusionsenergien et stort indhold af højteknologi : JET ,
     de specialiserede anlæg under opførelse eller i drift ved de associerede
     laboratorier og komponentudviklingen med henblik på NET er i sig selv
     demonstrationer af højteknologi og har indirekte virkninger ( navnlig
     inden for teknologien for superledende magneter , robotteknikken og mikro ¬
     bølgesystemer med høj effekt ) til gavn for andre videnskabsgrene og
     europæiske industribrancher . Industriens rolle forventes at vokse betyde ¬
     ligt , når detailprojekteringsfasen sætter ind for NET .
     De væsentligste grunde til at gennemføre forskningen og udviklingen inden
     for dette område på fællesskabsplan er :
     - omfanget af de nødvendige menneskelige og finansielle ressourcer ,   som
       peger på ,     at en sådan udvikling næppe kan gennemføres på nationalt
       plan ;
 ---pagebreak---                                            5
      - varigheden af den indsats , der skal gøres ( den rækker ind i næste
        århundrede ), inden reaktoren kan opføres ;
      - tilstedeværelsen af et kollektivt behov ,       der er fælles for alle
        medlemsstaterne ;
      - virkeliggørelsen af et europisk marked for europæiske industrier inden
        for højteknologiske områder ;
      - hvis dette lykkes , åbning af et stort indre marked for den europæiske
        reaktor ;
      - tilvejebringelsen af en potentiel parter af sammenlignelig størrelse
        for de tre andre fusionsprogrammer i verden , for således at fremhjælpe
        det internationale samarbejde om fusionsenergi ;
      - sidst men ikke mindst kvaliteten af det europæiske fusionsprogram , hvis
        ledende stilling anerkendes på verdensplan , og hvori Sverige og Schweiz
        er fuldt associerede partnere .
      Fusionsenergi opfylder derfor de kriterier ,  der gælder for Fællesskabets
      F&U-programmer .
III . MÅLSÆTNINGER FOR FUSIONSPROGRAMMET 1987-1991
      Vejen mod fusionsreaktorer til energifremstilling kan skematisk og noget
      vilkårligt deles i tre faser : demonstration af videnskabelig gennem-
      førlighed , af teknologisk gennemførlighed og til sidst af økonomisk
      gennemførlighed . I øjeblikket befinder vi os med JET , de mellemstore
      tokamakker og de tilsvarende udenlandske maskiner stadig hovedsagelig i
      den videnskabelige fase . Næste europæiske Torus ( NET ), som nu er under
      forprojektering , ses i øjeblikket som en maskine , der i en første fase
      fuldt ud skulle bekræfte fusionsenergiens videnskabelige gennemførlighed
      og i en anden fase behandle problemet med den teknologiske gennem¬
      førlighed .
      De strategiske hovedmål for det europæiske fusionsprogram ( JET og de an¬
      dre tokamakker - NET - DEMOnstrat ionsreaktoren ) i perioden 1987-1991 ^r :
      - at etablere det krævede fysiske og teknologiske grundlag for detail ¬
        projektering af NET , hvilket på fysikkens og plasmateknikkens område
        indebærer fuld udnyttelse af JET og af flere mellemstore specialiserede
        tokamakker , der står til rådighed eller er under opførelse , samt på
        teknologiområdet styrkelse af teknologiprogrammet ;
 ---pagebreak---                                        6
     - at iværksætte detailprojekteringen af NET for programperiodens udlob ,
       hvis det nodvendige datagrundlag forelægger på det tidspunkt ;
     - at udforske visse alternative udviklingsgrenes reaktorpotentiel ( hoved ¬
       sagelig stellarator og pinch med omvendt felt ).
     Programforslaget er udarbejdet i samarbejde med hele fusionsforsknings-
     miljoet gennem det kollegiale evalueringssystem , som det rådgivende
     udvalg for fusionsprogrammet og - for JET' s vedkommende - JET-rådet
     arbejder med .
IV . NUVÆRENDE SITUATION
     I det europæiske fusionsprogram har man kunnet koncentrere sig om den
     mest lovende udviklingslinje , den toroidale magnetiske indeslutning , og
     herunder fastholde den nodvendige bredde . De videnskabelige og tekniske
     resultater   placerer  Europa  i  frontlinjen   af  den   verdensomspændende
     forskning i magnetisk indesluttet fusion :
     - JET er verdens forende fusionseksperiment .   Det nåede de forste mål for
       grundydelsesfasen inden for de fastlagte tids- og budgetrammer ,        og
       udvidelsen til fuld ydelse er godt undervejs .    I lobet af de forste år
       af driften ( som blev igangsat i 1983 ) kom man et stort skridt nærmere
       demonstrationen   af  fusionsenergiens   videnskabelige   gennemforlighed ,
       idet anlægget allerede frembringer en betydelig mængde fusionsreaktio ¬
       ner i deuterium .
     - De mellemstore europæiske tokamakker yder vigtige bidrag til fusions¬
       forskningens fremskridt og til JET's fremtidige succes ved at eksperi ¬
       mentere med forskellige konfigurationer , udforske nye opvarmningsmeto ¬
       der og udvikle ny diagnostik .
     - Desuden er Europa i spidsen for forskningen i stellaratorer og pinches
       med omvendt felt - konfigurationer , der udgor alternativer til tokamak -
       ken .
 ---pagebreak---                                    7
- Alle disse maskiner er bygget af europæisk industri ( f.eks . er over 98%
   af JET-kontrakterne målt i omkostninger placeret inden for Europa ), som
   også allerede har fået betroet en række langsigtede udviklingsarbejder .
   Når der træffes afgørelse om at påbegynde detailprojekter ingen af NET ,
   skulle der ske et kvalitativt og kvantitativt spring i inddragelsen af
   industrien .
 - NET befinder sig i forprojekteringsfasen . De vigtigste ydelses¬
    specifikationer er forsøgsvis udvalgt , hvorved der er opstået et sam¬
    menhængende sæt af parametre , som i øjeblikket anvendes til yderligere
    optimering og som rettesnor for teknologiprogrammet .
 - Teknologiprogrammets planmæssige gennemførelse er et af de senere års
    vigtige resultater . Størstedelen af arbejdet er rettet mod NET , men
    der arbejdes også med et længere sigte . Indsatsen koncentreres om
    superledende magneter , tritium , kappe , fjernhåndtering , materialer ,
    sikkerhed og miljø .
 Uden for området magnetisk indesluttet fusion arbejdes der på at holde
 kontakten med laserfusionsforskningen ved lige , ligesom der holdes øje
 med , hvad der foregår på området muon-katalyseret fusion .
 Fordi arbejdet gennemføres i fællesskab har det været muligt at oprette
 fællesforetagendet JET ( 1978 ) og NET-gruppen ( 1983 ) og desuden at
 gennemføre et intensivt samarbejde mellem fusionslaboratorierne .       De
 fleste associeringer udfører arbejde for andre associeringer , og alle
 arbejder de for JET og NET under forskellige former for kontrakter og
 aftaler . Det europæiske fusionsprogram har været et effektivt middel til
 at opbygge et sandt videnskabeligt og teknisk fællesskab af store og små
  laboratorier , der let kan tage imod nytilkomne , og som arbejder henimod
  et fælles mål . Denne situation gør Europa til en tiltrækkende partner
  for internationalt samarbejde både på bilateralt plan ( Canada , Japan og
  USA ) og inden for multinationale organisationer ( OECD og IAEA ).
 ---pagebreak---                                                 8
    Blandt de mange forholdsregler , der er truffet for at sikre fusionsprogram¬
    mets karakter af fællesskabsprogram , fortjener personalemobiliteten særlig
    omtale :   i kraft af "mobil itetskontrakter" udsendes der hvert år over 200
    videnskabelige medarbejdere ( ud af i alt omkring 1 200 videnskabelige
    medarbejdere ) for at arbejde uden for deres hjemlaboratorier i perioder ,
    der varierer mellem en måned og et år . JET er på dette punkt et ekstremt
    tilfælde :    dette målrettede projekt gennemføres af personale " på retur­
    billet ",   hvilket vil sige ,      at institutioner i de enkelte lande har
    forpligtet sig til at tage imod deres personale igen efter udstationering
    hos JET .    Siden projektets start er omkring halvdelen af projektgruppen
    vendt tilbage til associeringerne efter at have fuldført deres arbejde og
    er blevet erstattet af andet personale ,         der har de nøvendige kvali ¬
    fikationer til de nye opgaver , der skal løses .
    Tillægget indeholder en mere detaljeret gennemgang af den igangværende
    virksomhed .
V. TIDSPLAN
Tidsplanen     for   de  forskellige   maskiner   og deres   opvarmningssystemer     er
skematisk illustreret i figur 1 .
                            Signaturforklaring til figur 1
                   Proiektudbygningsplan for de vigtigste maskiner
 . De forskellige opvarmningsmetoder er vist med forskellige farver :
   Sort :          Ohmsk opvarmning ( OH )
   Gul :           Neutralstråjeinjektion ( NBI )
   Rod :           Ioncycklotronresonansopvarmning ( ICR )
   Grøn :          Lavhybrid resonansopvarmning ( LHR ) eller strømdrivning ( LHCD )
   Blå :           Elektroncyklotronresonansopvarmning ( ECR )
   Violet :        Alfvenbolgeopvarmning ( AU )
 . Farvebåndenes tykkelse er proportinal med opvarmningseffekten gennem portene
   (1 mm = 1 MW undtagen for JET , hvis samlede effekt er cirka 50 MU )
 . Opførelsesfasen er vist med en punkteret sort linje
 ---pagebreak---                    1986      1987       1988     1989            1990                       1991
                                 r-
                                       J
     JET            JET
Grenoble                     PETLJLA
Fontenay (+ FOM) _ TF: R                   ■-
                   TORF-SUPFU\             L                   .
Cadarache
                                       –
                 a- «–
Garching           ASDEX                           c·
                                                   i:
                                                                                             •   1  ·
                         AiSDEX- upgrad e
Frascati            FT                                                               -      .                       -
                                        FTU
                                                iwiia                                BHHÖKSBKä
                                      -1
                                   ΠΙΊ Έ
Culham
                   COMPASS
                   TFYTHR
Jülich (+ ERM)   ,_
                 '  .
                       x I ' « »   r
                                                                                          .V                       J
                                                          TCA
Lausanne
                                                _TCV_2                               –
                                                        i . ΙΫΙΛ  · i-1 '¿4ΛΛΙ Γ * ·
Garching           W7AS
                                 E                     - ..                ....
                                                                                                                   V
                                       –, . . .
Madrid                         TJII                                                  . ■ :: ¿LITJT :JTJÎSSJÏ I. . ζ
Culham                                          - HBTX f
Padova                                  RFX
Stockholm           EXTRAP
                            i-
                                                                                                      CR86.148
 ---pagebreak---                                         11
JET :   De senere års videnskabelige resultater viser ,   at hvis JET-projektets
potentiel skal udnyttes fuldt ud i forsøget på at nå dets godkendte mål
( f.eks . den størst mulige tilnærmelse til de forhold , der kræves i en reaktor )
ved at gøre bedst mulig brug af maskinens muligheder , bliver det nødvendigt at
supplere dens udstyr . Dette vil kræve mere tid og flere midler end hidtil
forudset . JET-rådet har derfor forslået , at fællesforetagendet JET' s vedtægts¬
mæssige levetid , som nu udløber den 31 . maj 1990 , forlænges til udgangen af
1992 . Dette ville sikre , at det eksisterende anlæg og det nye udstyr , der
endnu skal installeres , udnyttes optimalt , hvorved der ville blive lagt et
bedre grundlag for projekteringen af NET . Parallelt med nærværende program¬
forslag forelægger Kommissionen Rådet med henblik på vedtagelse ( Euratom-trak -
tatens artikel 50 ) og Europa-Parlamentet et ændringsforslag til vedtægterne
for JET vedrørende forlængelse af projektet . Den videnskabelige argumentation
for at forlænge JET-projektet fremføres i dette dokument .
NET :    I overensstemmelse med Rådets afgørelse fra marts 1985 er tempoet i
NET-arbejdet sat ned , således at der nu som arbejdshypotese sigtes mod , at
afgørelsen om detailprojektering af NET træffes i 199ø , og om opførelsen i
1993/ 94 . Disse tidspunkter passer med den nye tidsplan for JET og giver mulig ¬
hed for at samle mere materiale om plasmaydelsen fra de mellemstore maskiner .
Andre tokamakker : De fire specialiserede mellemstore tokamakker , der nu er
under opførelse i associeringerne ( Tore-Supra , Asdex-Upgrade , FTU og Compass ),
vil være driftsklare omkring 1988 og vil derfor kunne yde afgørende bidrag til
detailprojekteringen af NET . Der er for nylig truffet beslutning om at opføre
endnu en tokamak ( TCV i Schweiz ) med henblik på at udforske grænserne for
beta .    Yderligere er der planer om at projektere et højfeltsanlæg med kompakt
antændelse ( IGNITOR i Italien ). Tokamakker , der allerede er i drift , vil blive
udnyttet grundigt ( Textor , Asdex-Upgrade ) eller afviklet ( Dite , FT m.fl .)
afhængigt af deres potentiel og af ,    om der står forskergrupper af tilstræk ¬
kelig styrke til rådighed .
 ---pagebreak---                                           12
     Andre   maskiner :   Inden  for de   to alternativer   til  tokamakker   er der
     maskiner under opførelse <W 7 AS , RFX ) eller under planlægning ( TJ II ,
     W 7 X ), således at valget af , hvilken maskine der egner sig bedst til
     DEMO ,   når tiden er inde ,     kan træffes på grundlag af gennemprøvede
     forsøgsresultater . Eksisterende maskiner ( HBTX m.fl .) vil blive afviklet ,
     når deres muligheder er udtømt .    En mindre maskine ( Extrap ,   Sverige ) til
     udforskning af et andet princip er sat i drift .
     Teknologi :   Teknologiprogrammet er tilrettelagt ,   så det svarer til de nye
     NET-milepæle ,    og skal i første række fremskaffe det teknologiske data¬
     grundlag , der kræves til beslutninger om NET . Når der træffes beslutning
     om at iværksætte detailprojekter ingen af NET , må der lanceres et intensi ¬
     veret FU&D-program , der hovedsagelig sigter mod fremstilling i industrien
     og afprøvning af prototyper på NET-komponenter .
VI . STRUKTUR
     Kommissionen er ansvarlig for programmets gennemførelse .        Den rådgivende
     struktur udgøres af et enkelt organ ,     Det rådgivende udvalg for Fusions -
     programmet ( CCFP ),   der bistås af to underudvalg ,   nemlig Programudvalget
     ( PC ) i spørgsmål vedrørende fysik og plasmateknik og Styringsudvalget for
     Fusionsteknologi ( FTSC ) i spørgsmål vedrørende NET og teknologi . Ansvaret
     for fællesforetagendet JET ligger i JET-rådet og hos projektets direktør .
     JET-rådet bistås af JET-forretningsudvalget og kan indhente udtalelser fra
     Det videnskabelige JET-råd . Fusionsprogrammet vil endvidere blive evalue ¬
     ret af eksterne uafhængige eksperter : navnlig vil Kommissionen i det
     tredje år af programmet for 1987-1991 bede et panel af højt kvalificerede
     eksperter foretage en evaluering ,       der skal ligge til grund for en
     programrevision i overensstemmelse med princippet om rullende programmer .
     Programmet gennemføres dels gennem associeringskontrakter mellem Euratom
     og de nationale institutioner , der arbejder med fusionsenergi , dels af
     fællesforetagendet JET og     desuden gennem  en multilateral    aftale om NET .
 ---pagebreak---                                              13
      Endvidere indgår fusionsteknologi i programmet for Det fælles Forsknings¬
      center , hvis virksomhed på fusionsområdet samordnes med resten af tekno ¬
      logiprogrammet gennem FTSC . Der er tolv associeringer fordelt på ti lande
      ( inklusive Sverige og Schweiz ); endvidere foregår der indledende drøftel ¬
      ser med Grækenland og Portugal om muligheden af at oprette to nye asso¬
      cieringer . Industrien inddrages både gennem udviklingskontrakter og til
      fremstilling af udstyr .
      Denne opbygning menes også at ville egne sig i fremtiden , når den rolle ,
      der nu spilles af de fysikorienterede associeringer ( hvis forskningspro¬
      grammer giver den europæiske indsats den nødvendige bredde ), til sin tid
      overtages af teknologiorienterede nationale institutioner og senere af
      industrien .
VII . INTERNATIONALT SAMARBEJDE
      På fusionsenergiens område har der altid været et livligt internationalt
      samarbejde .    Tidligere foregik det mest i form af aftaler om enkelt ¬
      punkter . I øjeblikket gennemføres eller undersøges bredere og mere solide
      former for samarbejde .
      - Bilaterale rammeaftaler
         Canada :   Aftalememorandum ( Rådets afgørelse af 28.1.1986 ) undertegnet
         den 6 . marts 1986 .
         USA :  Samarbejdsaftale ( Rådets afgørelse af 15.9.1986 ) klar til under­
         tegnelse .
         Japan : Kommissionen har den 26 . februar 1987 forelagt Rådet et udkast
         til rådsafgørelse om bemyndigelse af Kommissionen til at føre forhand¬
         linger vedrørende en aftale .
        - Gennemførelsesaftaler inden for rammerne af IEA ( OECD )
          Tokamakker :          TEXTOR , underetegnet 5.10.1977 , løber over femten
                                år ;  ASDEX og ASDEX-UPGRADE ,     undertegnet den
                                31.7.1985 , løber over ti år ;
                                DE TRE STORE TOKAMAKKER    ( JET , JT-68 Og TFTR ) ,
                                undertegnet 15.1.1986 , løber over fem år .
 ---pagebreak---                                                14
         Alternativer :        STELLARATORER ,    undertegnet 31.7.1985 ,    løber over
                               fem år ;
                               PINCH MED OMVENDT FELT , under forberedelse .
         Fusionsteknologi :    STORE SPOLER , undertegnet 6.10.1977 , anlægget er i
                               drift .
                               FUSIONSMATERIALER , undertegnet 21.10.1981 , bilag I
                               ophævet , bilag II løber over ti år .
       - Samarbejde inden for rammerne af IAEA
         Sammen med de tre andre store fusionsprogrammer ( Japan ,         USA og USSR )
         har Euratom siden 1978 deltaget i en række INTOR-workshops .
       - Fusionsarbejdsgruppen ( teknologi -,      vækst - og beskæftigelsesgruppen -
         Versailles-topmodet )
         Konsultationer   om   fusionsprogrammerne      inden  for   rammerne   af  det
         verdensøkonomiske topmødes deltagerkreds , navnlig med hensyn til Næste
         Trin .
       - Initiativ til f irpartsamarbeide om en international termonuklear for ¬
         søgsreaktor ( ITER ) under IAEA
         På teknisk plan udforskes muligheden for at samordne bestræbelserne
         omkring verdens fire store fusionsprogrammer ( EF ,       Japan , USA og USSR )
         med et bestemt mål :    at udarbejde et skitseprojekt for en ITER inden
         1990 gennem et samarbejde mellem fire parter ,        som har lige status og
         yder lige bidrag ,   og at samordne forskningsaktiviteter til støtte for
         dette projekt . Der er nedsat en teknisk arbejdsgruppe , som i 1987 skal
         udarbejde konkrete forslag til præcise målsætninger for ITER og til ,
         hvordan skitseprojekteringsfasen 1988-1990 skal organiseres .             NET -
         arbejdet kunne udgøre et hovedelement i et sådant samarbejde , idet det
         vil blive videreført som planlagt , indtil der for Næste Trin findes en
         eventuel international løsning , der rummer overbevisende garantier .
VIII . FINANSIERINGENS OMFANG
       Dette programforslag omfatter kun JET og det generelle program . FFC's
       fusionsaktiviteter , som fra et videnskabeligt og teknisk synspunkt er
       fuldt integreret i det generelle fusionsprogram ,          henhører ikke desto
       mindre under en anden programafgørelse .
 ---pagebreak---                                              15
        I lobende priser ( fra den 1.1.1985 og fremefter er inflationen sat til
        4% om året ) skonnes det ,        at behovet for fællesskabsmidler til det
        foreslåede program for 1987-1991 ( eksklusive FFC , Sverige og Schweiz )
        vil belobe sig til :
        Generelt program                 533 mio ECU
        JET                             378 mio ECU ( 1 )
        I alt                           91 1 mio ECU
        I   tabel   1   vises     ressourcernes   fordeling   mellem de   forskellige
        aktiviteter .
        Skonnet bygger på den grundlæggende antagelse bag dette forslag , at den
        videnskabelige og teknologiske udvikling vil betyde , at detailprojekte ¬
        ringen af NET kan påbegyndes inden programperiodens udlob ( se afsnit III
        og V ). Beslutningen om at iværksætte detailprojekteringen af NET bliver
        betydningsfuld , og Kommissionen vil stille forslag herom til Rådet i god
        tid .
        Nedenstående tabel viser ,        hvordan de påtænkte "nye " bevillinger til
        fusion inden for rammerne af fusionsprogrammet 1987-1991 samt de belob ,
        der er fremført fra de igangværende programmer , fordeler sig mellem JET ,
        det generelle program og FFC .
Mio ECU                     Nye bevillinger       Beløb fremført     Samlede
                            svarende til          fra 1985-89        bevillinger
                            rammeprogrammet                           for perioden
                            1987-91                                   1987-91
Generelt program                362                  171                 533
JET                             169                  209                 378
I ALT - FUSIONSPROGR .          531                  380                 911
FFC                              60                   15                  75
I ALT                           591                  394                 986
( 1 ) Se fodnote ( 8 ) s . 18 .
 ---pagebreak---                                        16
     Med henvisning til artikel 4 i den foreslåede rådsforordning , ifølge
     hvilken Rådets afgørelse vedrørende programmet for 1985-1989 ophæves med
     virkning fra 1 . januar 1987 , skal Kommissionen påpege , at de beløb , som
     i henhold til afgørelse 85/ 201 /Euratom er bevilget på tilsvarende konti
     i budgetterne for 1985 og 1986 , men hvorover der pr . 1 . januar 1987
     endnu ikke er disponeret , og beløb , hvorover der pr . samme dato er
     disponeret ,   men som endnu ikke er opbrugt ,     vil blive anvendt til
     gennemførelsen af dette program .
XI . PERSONALE
     I henhold til den foregående rådsafgørelse består Euratoms personale af :
               165 midlertidigt ansatte ved JET og
               1ø5 ansatte ved det generelle program .
     For perioden 1987-1991 foreslås der ikke nu nogen ændringer for det
     generelle program ,  men det er absolut nødvendigt at styrke JET-persona -
     let ( 191  i stedet for 165 )   for at gøre det muligt at gennemføre de
     tekniske forbedringer og udnytte disse fuldt ud inden for projektets
     planlagte løbetid .  Når NET overgår fra skitse - til detailprojektering ,
     vil der blive stillet nye forslag til Rådet .
X.   KONKLUSION
     Fusionsprogrammet er på grund af dets vigtige målsætninger , dets frem¬
     ragende resultater ,    dets teknologiske betydning og dets absolutte
     fællesskabspræg stadig et af de vigtigste F&U-programmer , Kommissionen
     finansierer . Som meddelt ved programafgørelsen for 1985-89 , og bemærket
     af Rådet , har Kommissionen i årene 1985 og 1986 gennemført programmet
     inden for det finansieringsniveau , der blev anført i programforslaget
     for 1985-89 . Kommissionen mener , at det i dette forslag anførte finan ¬
     sieringsniveau er nødvendigt for at fastholde fremdriften i programmet ,
     som helt igennem er orienteret mod Næste Trin , og for at tage hensyn til
     både de nye medlemsstaters tiltrædelse i 1986 og den stigende inddra ¬
     gelse af industrien . I overensstemmelse med princippet om et rullende
     program vil Kommissionen i 1989 stille forslag om en programrevision med
     det formål at iværksætte et nyt femårsprogram den 1 . januar 1990 .
 ---pagebreak---                         Tabel  l      Fællesskabets bidrag ('D i perioden 1987-1991 , mio ECU til løbende priser ( 2)
  NET
        Løn , godtgørelser og tjenesterejser                 27
        Arbejde i associeringerne                           10
        Støtte til værtsorganisation                         15
        Konstruktionsarbejde i industrien                   28
                 I alt                                      80 _ 3<3> -      77
  TEKNOLOGI
        Grundlæggende arbejde i associeringerne                                                                       Ï
        Prioriteret arbejde i associeringerne
        FU&D i industrien      '                             *                        · i; :
                  I alt                                    137 - 13 (3) . 124            I                            I.
  FYSIK OG PLASHATEKNIK
        Løbende udgifter i associeringerne
        Normalt , prioriteret arbejde                       226(4)
        Store maskiner med opvarmning
        Støtte til JET ( Artikel 14 )                         10
        FU&D i industrien                                      9
                  I alt                                       369 - 6    -  302 .
  MOBILITET/ADMINISTRATION (6) ^^alueri^                                      30
  GENERELT PROGRAM       i alt
                                                                            5M 775
   JE T                                               425 419<3)- 28 = 378 >< 8) "
•
•  SAMLET BELOB                                                        -   '911
                 FFC ( ikke omfattet af narvarende forslag) ( 8)            :! 5
                 Fusionsarbejdet som helhed                                 986
 ---pagebreak---                                         18
Fodnoter til tabel 1
(1 ) Eksklusive Sverige og Schweiz ,    men inklusive aktiviteten i de nye med ¬
     lemsstater
(2)  Fra 1.1.1985 er inflationen sat til 4% om året .
(3)  Midler , som der i 1985-86 er disponeret over for 1987 .
(4)  Inklusive midler til en eventuel ny maskine i Madrid .
(5)  Inklusive midler til at starte bygningen af en eventuel ny stellarator
     W-VII.X i Garching .
(6)  Inklusive de midler , der skal til for at finansiere 42% af udgifterne ved
     Kommissionens personale i associeringerne .
(7)  Hertil bør lægges enhver positiv saldo fra Sveriges og Schweiz' bidrag
     til programmet eksklusive JET .
(8)  De samlede nødvendige medlemsbidrag til finansiering af JET's betalinger
     i programperioden 1987-1991 anslås til 531 mio ECU ( se " projektudvik ¬
     lingsplan og projektomkostningsoverslag", tabel 16 i bilaget , godkendt af
     JET-rådet den 26 .   marts 1987 ).  Af dette beløb finansieres 8ø% svarende
     til 425 mio ECU over EF-budgettet . Heraf har Kommissionen indgået for¬
     pligtelser for 19 mio ECU før 1987 . De tilbageværende 406 mio ECU vil
     blive finansieret på følgende måde :
      . 378 mio ECU fra det beløb , der i programmet er afsat til JET ;
      . 28 mio ECU som Sveriges og Schweiz' bidrag til JET , betalt via EF's
        budget .
 ---pagebreak---                                         19
( 9 ) Dækker FFC’s igangværende virksomhed vedrorende fusionsteknologi ,      dvs .
      reaktorundersøgelser og risikovurdering , sikkerhed i tritiumteknologi ,
      strukturelle materialers integritet samt formeringskappeundersøgelser .
 ---pagebreak---                                          20
TILLÆG
                   OVERSIGT OVER DET EUROPÆISKE FUSIONSPROGRAMS
                  VIDENSKABELIGE OG TEKNISKE RESULTATER 1984-1986
I.   INDLEDNING
Da det forrige programforslag for 1985-1989 blev forelagt ,               så den
videnskabelige situation således ud : udviklingen i de forskellige fusions¬
programmer verden over havde vist , at magnetisk indeslutning bød på bedre
udsigter end inert i indeslutning , og at tokamakprincippet spillede den ledende
rolle og skulle ligge til grund for maskiner på næste trin i udviklingen .
Europa havde stor andel i den øgede forståelse af de fysiske forhold ved
magnetisk indeslutning i torusmaskiner , og der var gjort store fremskridt med
plasmaopvarmning :
- Driften af JET ( Den fælleseuropæiske Torus ) var påbegyndt , og de første
   resultater ( med ohmsk opvarmning ) var særdeles lovende .
- Megawatt-mult isekundsystemer til opvarmning var ved at være til rådighed på
   mellemstore maskiner .
- Indeslutningstidens     aftagen  ved  stigende   opvarmningseffekt  gav   stadig
   anledning til bekymring , men opdagelsen af "H-området " i Garching havde gen¬
   skabt tilliden til , at sådanne ødelæggende virkninger af plasmaopvarmningen
   kunne undgås eller i det mindste reduceres .
På dette grundlag blev der opstillet følgende mål for perioden 1985-1989 :
- tilvejebringelse af det fysiske grundlag for NET ( Næste europæiske Torus )
   med særlig vægt på plasmaopvarmningen ,
- tilvejebringelse af det teknologiske grundlag for NET ,
- undersøgelse af visse alternative grenes reaktorpotentiel .
Efter Rådets afgørelse fra marts 1985 måtte tempoet i NET-arbejdet sættes ned ,
og teknologiprogrammet er derfor omarbejdet ,         så det svarer til de nye
NET-mi lepæle . Vurderingen af de videnskabelige og tekniske resultater , som
præsenteres i de følgende afsnit , er foretaget på baggrund af de målsætninger ,
der blev opstillet i programforslaget for 1985-1989 , men tager også hensyn til
de begrænsninger , der stammer fra den seneste rådsafgørelse .
 ---pagebreak---                                           21
II .     TOKAMAKKER
Europa lægger størstedelen af sin indsats i udviklingen af denne gren , som er
den , der er længst fremme på verdensplan . Tokamak-forskningens hovedproblemer
har i de senere år været ( og er i stor udstrækning stadig ):
- virkningen af supplerende opvarmning på tokamak-plasmaets adfærd , som f.eks .
  forringelsen af energi indeslutningst iden og plasmaets renhedsgrad ved sti ¬
  gende opvarmningseffekt ;
- plasmaets adfærd ved tilnærmelse til driftsgrænser ( for plasmadensiteten n ,
   " sikkerhedsfaktoren" q eller forholdet mellem plasmatryk og magnetisk tryk
  13 ) .
De resultater ,     der er opnået på JET og mellemstore tokamakker ,   medfører en
mere dybtgående forståelse af plasmafænomener og en vis indsigt i " finstruk ¬
turelle " virkninger ( f.eks . prof ilensartethed ) . Med disse resultater antydes
der nye muligheder for at afhjælpe de ødelæggende virkninger , tokamakker lider
under , når der anvendes kraftig supplerende opvarmning .
Herudover meldes der om fremskridt med opførelsen af fire nye specialiserede
mellemstore tokamakker , som skal sættes i drift i 1988 . Disse maskiners bidrag
vil være afgørende for udarbejdelsen af detailprojektet for NET . Endelig er
der overvejelser i gang vedrørende omfanget af endnu en specialiseret tokamak ,
som er til behandling med henblik på godkendelse .
II . 1 JET
JET er verdens        førende  fusionseksperiment .   Arbejdet på  at  demonstrere
fusionens videnskabelige gennemførlighed skrider godt frem , de første mål for
grundydelsesfasen er nået inden for de planlagte tids- og budgetmæssige
rammer , og udvidelsen til fuld ydelse er godt på vej til at være gennemført .
II . 1.1 Ohmsk opvarmning ( OH ). Den første driftsfase , frem til slutningen af
1984 , sigtede mod at opnå rene plasmaer , der egnede sig til undersøgelser
vedrørende supplerende opvarmning i senere faser :
- Det viste sig , at JET opførte sig på lignende måde som mindre tokamakker .
- Der blev opnået stabil kontrol med position , størrelse og form på plasma med
   D-formet tværsnit og elongationer på op til 1,7 .
~ Der blev opnået udladninger på op til 15 s uden afbrydelser , når blot en
                          -7        ΟΛ
   densitetsgrænse r^On ) = 1,10 B(T) /R(m)qcy^ ikke blev overskredet .
 ---pagebreak---                                           22
- Der blev opnået plasmastrømme på op til 3,7 MA i adskillige sekunder
   ( pulslængder på 15 s ) ved et magnetfelt på 3,45 T. Der blev opnået elektron-
   og iontemperaturer på op til henholdsvis 3 og 2,5 keV med densiteter på op
                 19   -3
   til /V/ 3,10     m     ved en rekordtid for energiindeslutning på         = 0,8s .
   Hvert af parametrene - temperatur , densitet og energi indeslutningst id - lå
   inden for en faktor to eller tre fra de værdier , der kræves i en fusions¬
   reaktor .
- Urenhedsniveauerne var et problem , fordi de reducerer det antal plasmaioner ,
   der står til rådighed for fusion , og forårsager strålingstab . Eksperimenter
   med fliser af carbon med lavt Z på de indre vægge og en carboniseret behol ¬
   der viste mindskede niveauer af metal - og oxygenurenheder .
II . 1.2 Undersøgelser vedrørende supplerende opvarmning . Anden driftsfase star¬
tede i begyndelsen af 1985 , efter at to højfrekvensantenner ( RF-antenner ) var
blevet installeret i torusen , hver drevet af en 3 MW generator . Der blev kob ¬
let effekt til plasmaet ved ioncyklotronresonansfrekvensen ( ICR-frekvensen )
for tilførte minoritetsisotoper ( H , He3 ). Tokamakken i JET blev taget i brug
igen i november 1985 efter endnu en nedlukning for at indsætte nye systemer ,
der omfattede den første neutralstråleinjektionsboks , yderligere karbonbeskyt -
telse i beholderen ,        en tredje ICRF-antenne og et udskydningsapparat for
enkelte deuteriumpiller . I 1986 skete der følgende :
- Det toroidale magnetfelt blev rutinemæssige anvendt ved dets højeste
   konstruktionsværdi på 3,45 T. Både plasmastrømmen og plasmaets position ,
   elongation og form blev styret ved hjælp af feed - back - kredsløb. Der blev
   rutinemæssigt opnået plasmastrømme på 5 MA med en flad top , der varede op
   til 4,5 s . Der blev opnået stabil styring med elongationer på op til 1,8 .
   Ikke desto mindre var plasmastrømmen stadig begrænset til et operations¬
   område , der afhang af denne elongation .
- De tre RF-antenner er regelmæssigt blevet anvendt ved en kombineret effekt
   på op til 7,2 MW i impulser på 2 s . Der blev gennemført forsøg med impulser
   på 8 s , som tilførte plasmaet 40 MW . En neutralstråleinjektor til lange
    pulser (/'X/ 10 s ) med otte strålekilder har været i anvendelse siden begyn¬
   delsen af 1986 . Det lykkedes at injicere en samlet stråleeffekt på 5,5 MW
    med neutralt hydrogen ( H° ) eller 9 MW med neutralt deuterium ( D° ) i torusen .
    Der blev tilført plasmaet op til 40 MJ .
 - Foreløbige forsøg med injektion af deuteriumpiller er gennemført ved hjælp
    af en injektor , der udskyder en enkeltpille med en diameter på 3,6 eller 4,6
    mm med en hastighed på op til 1,2 km/s under forskellige magnetiske
    konfigurationer .    Dette gør det muligt at øge densitetsgrænsen i JET og at
    reducere plasmaets effektive ionladning Ze^.
 ---pagebreak---                                         23
Medens den samlede energi indeslutningst id kunne nå op på ø,9 s i ohmske
udladninger , bekræftedes forringelse af indeslutningstiden med RF , NBI og
kombineret opvarmning (       oCpt0t ~ 1 /2 ) ved dri^t * "L-området" med mate-
rialebegrænsermodul . Under denne driftsform faldt          ved de største plasma¬
strømme typisk fra 0,9 til ø,4 s , hvorunder P t = 10 MW .
Magnetisk separatrix er demonstreret på JET ( både i enkelt - og dobbelt-nul
X-punkter ). Der blev opnået drift i H-området med et enkelt-nul X-punkt , og
denne drift besad alle de samme karakteristika som de udladninger i H-områ¬
det , der opnås i andre tokamakker ( fladere T-profiler med stejle hældninger
ved kanten ,  effekttærskel for opnåelse af H-drift ,     forbedring af indeslut ¬
ningstiden med en faktor på omkring 2 i forhold til drift i L-området med
samme opvarmningseffekt osv .). Selv i denne H-drift ser det dog ud til , at
der optræder yderligere forringelse af indeslutningstiden med stigende
opvarmningseffekt .
Der er observeret en tydelig forbedring af plasmaindeslutningen med stigende
plasmastrøm både ved begrænserdrift og ved X-punkt -drift . De forandringer ,
der for tiden . indføres i det polodiale system , skulle gøre det muligt i 1987
at nå op på 7 MA ved begrænserdrift og 4 MA ved enkeltnulsdrift .
Ved kombineret    drift med  NBI   nåede   den maksimale   elektrondensitet  flere
                    20  -3
gange op over 1ø       m , og varede 0,5 s efter pilleinjektion , medens en
tilsvarende elektrontemperatur faldt til 1 keV . Ved en elektronmiddeltæthed
langs en linje ne Si 3,10      m    ligger den effektive ionladning Ze^ sædvan¬
ligvis mellem 2 og 3 , men den kan reduceres til næsten 1 (i ø,5 s ) efter
pilleinjektion . Den observerede forenelighed mellem pilleinjektion og ICRH
giver forhåbninger om et godt resultat af f lerpilleinjektion i 1987 .
"Kæmpe " savtænder kunne opnås med ICRH alene , almindeligvis ved effektdepo ¬
sition i centret . "Uhyre" savtænder kunne vare 1,2 s ( med Te = 7 keV ) og var
forbundet med flade q-profiler . Slangeformede svingninger (m = n = 1 ) udvik ¬
les efter pilleinjektion ( Ane/ne = 1øø% , & Te/Te = 20% ).
Med neutralstråleopvarmning blev der opnået maksimale ion-temperaturer
højere end 12 keV ved lav plasmadensitet ( 2 , 1 ø   m   ).
Fusionsproduktet *n^ "li       varierer kun lidt med effekten i L-området ( idet
den bedste værdi er 1.10*0 m 3 keV.s ved 5 MA under ohmsk opvarmning ).
 ---pagebreak---                                                 24
                                                                  20
   En sådan værdi er der mulighed for at fordoble ( 2,10 ) i H-området ( 10 MU
   yderligere opvarmning , drift med X-punkt ). For at opnå "balance" kræves der
   yderligere en faktor på 4-5 , hvilket nu forekommer at være et "rimeligt "
   mål .
II . 2      ANDRE IDRIFTV/CRENDE TOKAMAKKER
De mellemstore europæiske tokamakker medvirker til fusionsenergiens udvikling
og til JET's nuværende og fremtidige succes ved at eksperimentere med forskel ¬
lige konfigurationer ( som f.eks .         den magnetiske afbøjningsenhed ,     der giver
mulighed for at opnå det gunstige "H-område " for plasmaindeslutningen ), ved at
udforske nye metoder til opvarmning eller strømdrivning og ved at udvikle ny
diagnostik .
II . 2.1 PETULA ( Grenoble ).     Sidste år var driften koncentreret om forskellige
scenarier for strømdrivning ved lavhybride ( LH ) bølger :
                                      19    -3
- Ved lav plasmadensitet (~1ø             m    ) blev plasmastrømmen udelukkende frem¬
   bragt ved strømdrivning .
                                                                                   19  -3
- Ved høj plasmadensitet , men under en densitetsgrænse på n^ = 8,10                  m ,
   blev strømmen kun delvis frembragt ved strømdrivning ( 3,7 GHz ).
- Strømstyrken steg med 0,25 MA/s med Por,       RF
                                                    = 0,35 MW ( ved 1,3 GHz ).
Virkningen af plasmastrømmens radialprofil på MHD-aktiviteten blev også påvist
                                     19   -3
( savtakker dæmpet for ne ^ 6,10        m     med 0,25 MW ved 3,7 GHz ). Dette resultat
lover godt for anvendelse af strømprof ilstyring i store maskiner som JET og
TORE SUPRA .
11.2.2 TFR ( Fontenay ).        Elektrocyklotronresonansopvarmning ( ECR-opvarmning )
påbegyndtes som et fællesprogram for de nederlandske og franske associeringer
i begyndelsen af 1985 på TFR . Den fulde effekt på 0,6 MW forelå i september
1985 .        Der blev opnået elektrontemperaturer Te på op til 5 keV med
n = 1,5,1019 m"3 . Ved PDT, = ø,5 MW får man T- = 1 /2 T_ ( OH ). Efter 13 års
vellykket drift standsede udnyttelsen af TFR i juni 1986 ,              da forskergruppen
skulle overføres til TORE SUPRA          i Cadarache .
 11 . 2 . 3 FT ( Frascati ). Forsøgsprogrammet omhandlede undersøgelse af q - og
n-grænser i ohmske udladninger samt undersøgelse af LH-opvarmningens grund ¬
 læggende fysik :
 ---pagebreak---                                                25
- q- og n-grænser ( 1984 ): Der blev undersøgt adskillige fænomener , som sætter
   grænser for driften af tokamakker , herunder , for densitetsgrænsen , savtak-
   udbredelse ,      forløbere for afbrydelse , hydrogenstråling og tab ved ladnings ¬
   bytning ) .
- LH-opvarmning ( 1984-85 ): LH-opvarmning (f = 2,45 GHz ) blev undersøgt ved
   brug af to forskellige typer tilkoblingsenheder . De bedste opvarmnings¬
   resultater blev opnået med elektronmetoden ( P_„ = 0,45 MW svarende til en
                                                          "     2
   effektdensitet        ved   grilludmundingen     på   6 kW/cm ; AL > 0,5     keV   og
   A Te > 1 keV ) uden fald i energiindeslutningstiden .
                                    19   -3
   Ved PD_ RF
              = 0,2 MW ,   n = 4,10    m    , I = 0,35 MA og B = 6 I steg savtakrepeti -
   tionstiden med en faktor på omkring 3 , mens der blev iagttaget faldende
   udbredelsestempo for varmepulsen udad fra overfladen q = 1 , hvilket tydede
   på bedre transportforhold . Endvidere er det tanken at gennemføre LH-opvarm¬
   ning af plasmaer med høj densitet ved 8 GHz ( med henblik på anvendelse ved
   FTU ) .
II . 2 . 4 THOR   ( Milano ).    I  ECR-opvarmningsforsøget      (PD„
                                                                   Kr
                                                                       op  til   0,2 MW ,
f = 28 GHz ) absorberes en del af en ordinær bølge som injiceres fra lavfelt -
siden første gang den passerer resonansregionen .           Resten sendes tilbage af et
spejl ( ekstraordinær bølgeform ). Under RF-pulsen falder densiteten ( 60% ), tem ¬
peraturen holder sig konstant for hovedmassen af elektroner , men energiholdet
fordobles , fordi der dannes populationer af ikke-termiske elektroner .
II . 2 . 5 ASDEX ( Garching ):   Vellykket anvendelse af en magnetisk afbøjningsenhed
i forbindelse med stærk NBI - opvarmning førte til det gunstige "H-område" for
indeslutning . Dermed står der nu tre systemer til rådighed ( LH-bølger ,
ICR-opvarmning og NBI-opvarmning ) , som kan sammenlignes i samme maskine med
hensyn til opvarmningseffektivitet og synergetiske virkninger :
- Kombineret ICR- og NBI-opvarmning giver større opvarmningseffektivitet end
   NBI - eller ICR-opvarmning hver for sig ved samme effektniveau .
 - "H-området " , som hidtil kun har kunnet opnås med NBI , blev også opnået med
   en kombination af NBI - og ICR-opvarmning og endda med ICR-opvarmning alene .
- NBI med reduceret partikelenergi viste , at energideposition på plasmagrænsen
   fører til samme indeslutningstider som central deposition .
 ---pagebreak---                                             26
- LH-bølger gjorde det muligt at drive hele plasmastrømmen uden ohmsk ( OH )
  transformer og at demonstrere genopladning af OH - transformeren .
- Savtaksvingningerne blev stabiliseret med LH-bølger i lavdensitetsområdet
  for OH - og NBI-opvarmede plasmaer .
- Begrænsning af beta ( MHD plasmastabilitetsgrænse ) er bekræftet .
- Injektion af frosne hydrogenpiller gør det muligt at forhøje plasmadensi ¬
  tetsgrænserne væsentligt , således at der opnås samlede energi indeslutnings¬
  tider TE = 0,16 s ( usædvanligt længe for maskiner på størrelse med ASDEX ).
11 . 2 . 6 TORTUR ( Nieuwegein ) . Forsøget på dette anlæg , hvor det er meningen , at
der skal foretages undersøgelser af turbulent opvarmning , har vist energidepo¬
sition i en MHD-strømprof il med ustabil hinde , samt efterfølgende beroligelse
heraf . Maskinen vil blive forbedret med henblik på undersøgelse af fluktua ¬
tionsfænomener .
11 . 2 . 7 TEXTOR ( Julich ): Dette program behandler hovedsagelig vekselvirkninger
mellem plasma og væg .
                        1
- Begrænsermodulet med udpumpning ALT 1 ,       et projekt , der udføres i samarbejde
   med USA inden for rammerne af Det internationale Energiagentur ( IEA ),        blev
  driftsklart       i begyndelsen af 1984 og viste sig at være et effektivt redskab
   til at påvirke plasmaets grænselag ( mulighed for heliumfjernelse påvist ).
   Der arbejdes i øjeblikket (i et fællesforetagende for Japan , USA og Euratom )
   på en aksesymmetrisk toroidal pumpebegrænser ( ALT 2 ), som vil blive instal ¬
   leret ved udgangen af 1986 .
- In situ-carboniseringsteknikken blev anvendt i slutningen af 1984 og med ¬
   førte en kraftig nedbringelse af de urenhedskoncentrationer , der optrådte i
   plasmaet til at begynde med ( med en faktor 5 for oxygen og 25 for metaller ).
   Der blev opnået en udladningstid på omkring 4 s og energi indeslutningst id på
   0,1 s ( ohmsk opvarmning ). Denne metode , som i første omgang blev udviklet i
   Julich , viste sig så vellykket , at den nu anvendes i praktisk talt alle
   t ok amakker .
- Et ICR-opvarmningssystem - som er bygget og drives af en gruppe fra den
   belgiske associering - anvendes med held på TEXTOR på 2,3 MW-niveauet i mere
   end 1 sekund .       Ændringen af RF-systemet med henblik på realisering af
   begrænseren ALT 2 er under forberedelse sammen med den eventuelle forbedring
   af RF-systemet til 4-4,5 MU-området .
 ---pagebreak---                                               27
   - I samarbejde med laboratorier , der har erfaring på området , er projek¬
       teringen af to neutralstråleinjektorer ( baseret på JET- princippet ), der
       skal installeres på TEXTOR , nu færdiggjort .
11 . 2 . 8 DITE ( Culham ). På denne maskine er der gennemført en vellykket drifts¬
demonstration af knipped ivertoren , og der er gennemført de forsøg , der kræves
til vurdering af dette princip som et afkast - og urenhedskontrolsystem . Maski ¬
nen har leveret det første ( og eneste europæiske ) vidnesbyrd om plasmastrøm-
drivning ved neutralstråleopvarmning samt den første kodificering af tokamak -
driftsmåden ( Hugill-diagram ) .      Den viste endvidere ,    at overskridelse af den
øvre densitetsgrænse         med afbrydelse    som følge    almindeligvis hindres ved
udstrålingskø 1 ing .
11 . 2 . 9  CLEO ( Culham ). Denne maskine har demonstreret ECR-opvarmningens mulig ¬
hed for at forbedre plasmaindeslutningen ved at kontrolle plasmaets tempera¬
turprofil . Med en effekt på 2øØ kW ved en frekvens på 60 GHz nåede elektron¬
temperaturen op over 2 keV , en stigningsfaktor på 8 . Densitetsgrænsen blev
forhøjet med 70% .
11 . 2 . 10 DANTE ( Risø ).   Der er gennemført undersøgelser vedrørende ECR-opvarm-
ning i overtætte plasmaer ( dobbelt formomdannelse ) og pilleudskydning ( piller ,
der er velegnede til diagnostik ).
11 . 2 . 11 TCA ( Lausanne ).   Frembringelse af renere udladninger førte til større
leveret RF-effekt ( op til 0,57 MW ved anvendelse af den nylig ibrugtagne
Alfven-bølgegenerator ) . Betydningen af det anslåede spektrum ved bestemmelse
af RF-effektens virkninger blev påvist . Der blev påvist effektiv kerneopvarm¬
ning . Den kinetiske Alfvenbølges egenskaber viste sig at stemme overens med
forudsigelserne .
II . 3      MELLEMSTORE TOKAMAKKER UNDER OPFØRELSE ELLER PROJEKTGODKENDELSE
II . 3.1    TORE-SUPRA ( Cadarache ).   Det er tanken , at denne superledningsmaskine
skal yde bidrag inden for både fysikkens og teknologiens område . Den skal
navnlig gøre det muligt at undersøge vekselvirkningen mellem plasma og væg
samt opvarmning og strømdrivning i langpulsede udladninger .           Under overflyt ¬
ningen af personalet fra Fontenay og Grenoble til Cadarache er monteringen af
TORE-SUPRA påbegyndt .
 ---pagebreak---                                             28
Efter vellykkede afprøvninger er serieleverancen af superledende spoler
begyndt . De nedre dele af det magnetiske kredsløb er installeret , og samlingen
af moduler er ved at blive sat i gang . Der blev indledt et aktivt samarbejde
med flere amerikanske grupper om pilleinjektion , begrænsere med udpumpning og
ergodiske afbøjningsenheder , som man er
i færd med at bygge . Det forventes , at        TORA SUPRA sættes i drift i december
1987 .
Prototyper på de forskellige opvarmningssystemer er under afprøvning :
- Ionkilden fungerede ( 10 A , 6ø kV ) i 0,2 s . Ekstrapolation til nominelle
   værdier ( 40 A , 100 kV , 30 s ) medfører ingen større problemer .
- På PETULA blev der koblet en prototype på en k lystron ( 3,7 GHz , 0,5 MW ,
   0,03 s ) til et grillmodul ( cirkulationsenhed unødvendig ).
- Tilkoblingsenhederne for ICR-opvarmning ( to antennetyper ) er således ind ¬
   rettet , at der kan anvendes horisontale porte ved installationen af dem .
11 . 3 . 2  FTU ( Frascati ).  Denne nye belastningsenhed vil gøre det muligt at un ¬
dersøge      højdensitets-    og  højtemperaturplasmaers  ydelse .  Opførelsen   blev
påbegyndt i september 1984 ,       og alle de vigtigste ordrer er placeret . Der blev
opnået enighed om at vælge LH-elektronopvarmning til FTU , og foreløbige forsøg
med et 8 GHz grillmodul sættes i gang på FT i 1986 .           Dette forsøg har både
fysiske mål ( styring af densitetsgrænsen ) og teknologiske ( demonstration af
høj effekttæthed ) . Det forventes , at FTU-maskinen sættes i drift i begyndelsen
af 1988 .
11 . 3 . 3  ASDEX-UPGRADE ( Garching ).   Målet med denne maskine er at undersøge
plasmaydelsen og vekselvirkningen mellem plasma og væg , når der anvendes en
reaktor-relevant poloidal afbøjningsenhed . Opførelsen er godt på vej , og der
er afgivet ordre på alle komponenter til tokamaksystemet . Driften forventes
påbegyndt i anden halvdel af 1988 . Supplerende opvarmningssystemer bestående
af systemer til hydrogen-NBI på 6 MW og ICR-opvarmning på 6 MC er under
forberedelse ( driftstart i begyndelsen af 1989 ).
 11 . 3 . 4 COMPASS ( Culham ). Denne maskine skal hovedsagelig anvendes til under¬
søgelser af høj - beta og MHD-stabilitet . Anskaffelsen af større komponenter til
denne maskine ,      som blev aftalt i marts 1984 ,  skrider godt frem . Effektforsy-
 ---pagebreak---                                           29
ningssystemet til det toroidale felt er leveret og afprøvet med godt resultat .
Installationen af de tre gyrotroner til fase 1 ( 0,6 MW ECRH ) skrider godt frem
som forberedelse til forsøgsprogrammet på DITE , som går forud for driften af
COMPASS ( forventet start i 1988 ).
II . 3 . 5 TCV ( Lausanne ). Denne tokamak , som blev godkendt  i 1986 , har til for¬
mål at frembringe plasmaer med store elongat ionsforhold ,     hvilket forventes at
give mulighed for at nå kraftigere plasmastrømme og            dermed højere beta¬
værdier . Det er meningen , at maskinen skal tages i brug i    slutningen af 1989 .
III .      ALTERNATIVE GRENE
Som før nævnt er et af de tre hovedmål for fusionsprogrammet at udforske
reaktorpotentiellet i visse alternative udviklingsgrene ,      hovedsagelig stella-
ratorer og pinches med omvendt felt . Resultaterne af forsøg med idriftværende
maskiner af denne art præsenteres i det følgende , hvor der også gøres status
over maskiner under opførelse og planlagte maskiner .
II 1.1     STELLARATORER
111 . 1.1 WENDELSTEIN VII A ( Garching ).   Denne maskine blev for nylig demonteret
efter 10 års vellykket drift . ECR-opvarmning ( 28 GHz og senere 70 GHz , 0,2 MU )
gav følgende resultater ( samarbejde med Stuttgart Universitet ):
- frembringelse og opvarmning af plasma (Tgo op til 2,5 keV )
- neoklassisk indeslutning for hovedmassen af elektroner
- frembringelse af radiale elektriske felter i kombination med NBI
- drift som torsatron , hvilke viste , at der kan opnås større stabile inde ¬
   slutningsregioner ved positiv forskydning .
111 . 1.2 WENDELSTEIN VII-AS ( Garching ).      Industriens fremstilling af alle
hovedkomponenterne er for nylig afsluttet , og samlingen af modulerne skrider
godt frem . Spoleprototypen er afprøvet med godt resultat , og omkring to tred ¬
jedele af spolerne er færdige fra fabrikantens side . At dømme efter arbejdets
 ---pagebreak---                                               30
nuværende       stade   skulle    U VII-AS   være   driftsklar   i   maj    1987 .  Medens
ECR-opvarmning ( lang-pulset ) på ø,8 MW vil stå til rådighed fra starten , vil
systemer for NBI - ( 1,2 MW ) og I CR - opvarmning (3 MW ) være driftsklare et par
måneder senere .
111 . 1.3 WENDELSTEIN VII-X ( forundersøgelse i Garching ). Denne maskine påtænkes
opført som efterfølger for W VII-AS . Den skulle gøre det muligt at afklare , om
det avancerede stellaratorprincip er en realistisk mulighed for fusionsreak ¬
torer ( numeriske beregninger giver forventning om gennemsnitlige beta-værdier
på 5% ).       Derudover er der en undersøgelse i gang af de reaktoregenskaber ,
hvorved stellaratoren afviger fra tokamakken ( samarbejde med Karlsruhe ).
111 . 1.4 TJ-II ( under projektgodkendelse ,        Madrid ).  Med henblik på Spaniens
fuldgyldige deltagelse i det europæiske fusionsprogram ( fra den 1 . januar 1986
og fremefter ) har JEN-Madrid koncentreret sig om at tilrettelægge et
eksperiment med fleksibel heliko-indeslutning ( TJ-II ), hvilket vil være et
suppelement til stellaratorerne i Europa . Dette projekt er i øjeblikket til
behandling med henblik på godkendelse i Euratom .
III . 2      PINCHES MED OMVENDT FELT
111 . 2.1 ETA-BETA II ( Padova ). Forsøg gennemført på denne maskine tjener som
støtteundersøgelser for det næste RFX-projekt .                    Der blev gennemført
fluktuationsundersøgelser           med    henblik      på  at    opnå     forståelse   af
plasmaindeslutning og relaxat ionsfænomener , som fører til omvending af det
toroidale felt . Der blev opnået et rent plasma (Z                       ) med høj tæthed
 ( 10      m ) og med /3r~'lø% , T = ø,1 keV og T = 10 s .
 111 . 2 . 2 HBT-X ( Culham ): Forsøg på dette anlæg har vist , at positionsstyring
af plasmaligevægten og fejl i beregningen af det reducerede felt giver længere
 indeslutningstider .         Elektrontemperatur og indeslutningstid stiger med
strømstyrken :        i visse tilfælde er temperaturstigningen proportional med
 strømstyrken ved konstant beta-værdi (          10% ).
 ---pagebreak---                                             31
111 . 2 . 3 RFX ( Padova ).  Dette bliver verdens største RFP (R = 2 m ,  a = ø,5 m ,
plasmastrøm op til 2 MA ). Det vil gøre det muligt at undersøge indeslutning og
opvarmning af plasma under forhold , der ligger tættere på termonukleare
forhold end i nuværende RFP-maskiner .           Efter detailprojekteringsfasen er
opførelsen af bygningerne og installeringen af de vigtigste infrastruktur¬
elementer begyndt , og maskinens hovedkomponenter er sendt i licitation . Culham
yder et væsentligt bidrag til indsatsen . Maskinen forventes sat i drift i
1989 .
111 . 3     ANDRE MASKINER
Foruden de to vigtigste alternative udviklingsgrene ,           der arbejdes med i
Europa , findes der nogle få andre maskiner , hvis hovedformål er at udvide
datagrundlaget for den grundlæggende plasmafysik :
111 . 3.1 SPICA ( Nieuwgein ).    I denne skrue-pinch stabiliseres plasmaet ved høje
13-værdier ved hjælp af strømme uden feltstyrke ,      der omgiver plasmaet , og ved
hjælp af den ledende skal . Forsøg i SPICA I viste , at det er muligt at
frembringe sådanne høj - fi -plasmaer, og de foreløbige resultater fra SPICA II ,
som stod færdig i 1984 , ser lovende ud ( høj 13 med elongerede tværsnit ).
111 . 3 . 2 EXTRAP ( Stockholm ). EXTRAP er en opfølgning af lineære og toroidale
sektoreksperimenter , som har demonstreret en makroskopisk stabil plasmatil ¬
stand . Denne Z-pinch stabiliseres af et overlejret ottepolet magnetfelt , der
frembringes ved eksterne ledere .          For nylig er der iværksat havariunder¬
søgelser .
111 . 4     INERTI - INDESLUTNING
Omkring 1% af indsatsen under det europæiske fusionsprogram lægges i at holde
kontakten med forskning , der foregår andre steder , og opretholde en passende
evne til at vurdere udviklingen på dette felt . To laboratorier er inddraget i
dette arbejde , nemlig
 - Garching , hvor der udvikles en kortpulset gas-laser med høj effekt (2 kJ ),
   og
 - Frascati , hvor der udvikles en tostråle-glaslaser ( 2 X 70 J ).
 ---pagebreak--- IV .    STØTTEFORSKNING OG UDVIKLINGSARBEJDE
Foruden planlægning , opførelse og drift af de anlæg , der er nævnt i de fore ¬
gående afsnit , går en stor del af arbejdet i JET og de associerede labora¬
torier ud på
- at gennemføre undersøgelser og udviklingsarbejde til støtte for JET og NET
   samt
- at udvikle de delsystemer , der er nødvendige for at udvide vores viden          om
   plasmafænomener og forbedre plasmaydelsen .
IV . 1 STØTTE TIL JET ( Art . 1 4-kontrakter og opgaveaftaler )
- Arbejdet i henhold til de to hovedkontrakter om NBI ( indgået med Fontenay og
   Culham )    er  fuldført   med  godt    resultat ,   og den   første anvendelse af
   neutralstråleopvarmning på JET har ført til en fordobling af den centrale
   iontemperatur til 6,5 keV .
- I den her omhandlede periode blev der i associeringerne udviklet et stort
   antal diagnostik-systemer ,          som blev   installeret i   JET og  drevet med
   personale fra associeringerne :
    . enkeltpunkt Thomson - spredning ( Risø )
    . FIR interferometer og VUV rumskandering ( Fontenay )
    . neutralpartikelanalysator og røntgen-spectrometer ( Frascati )
    . kamerasystem for bløde røntgenstråler ( Garching )
    . elektroncyclotronemission ( Nieuwegein )
    . neutrondiagnostik ( Harwell ) og spektroskopid iagnostik ( Culham )
     . et 2,4 MeV spektrometer til måling af neutroners flugttid ( Studsvik )
     . plasmagrænsesonde ( JET , Culham og Garching )
     . " Bolometer array " ( Garching )
 - Der er indgået kontrakter om prototypeudvikling med henblik på pille ¬
   produktion ( Grenoble ), pilleacceleration ved hjælp af en lysbueopvarmet gas ¬
   kanon ( Risø ) og konstruktion af pilleinjektorer til JET ( Garching ).
 ---pagebreak---                                            33
- Endvidere har JET indgået kontrakter med associeringerne om at gennemfare
  forskellige analytiske og numeriske undersagelser af plasmaligevægt og
  - transport , energiafsættelse ved forskellige opvarmningssystemer og veksel ¬
  virkning mellem plasma og væg .
- Mange associerede laboratorier deltager direkte i driften af JET ved udsta¬
  tionering af personale i henhold til ordningen for associeret personale .
  Navnlig låner Culham- laboratoriet , der er nabo til JET , en betydelig del af
  sit akademiske personale til projektet .
IV . 2     ANDRE UDVIKLINGER I ASSOCIEREDE LABORATORIER
IV . 2.1 NBI . Der udfores udviklingsarbejde vedrørende de NBI-systemer ,         som
skal installeres i visse tokamakker under opførelse og i TEXTOR .
IV . 2 . 2   Gyrotroner . Der gennemføres gyrotronundersøgelser og - udvikling i et
par laboratorier og i industrien :
- Kommissionen har indgået en industriel kontrakt om udvikling af en gyrotron ,
  der i impulser på ø,1 s yder 0,2 MW ved 1 øø GHz .     Prototyper på rør er under
  afprøvning .
- En eksperimentel kvasi-optisk gyroklystron ved 120 GHz er under udvikling i
  den schweiziske associering i samarbejde med industrien . Alle komponenter er
  bygget , og systemet er i øjeblikket ved at blive samlet .
- Fysikundersøgelser af meget højfrekvente gyrotroner ( Karlsruhe ):             alle
  komponenter er bygget , og eksperimentelle undersøgelser vil blive sat i gang
   inden længe .
- Garching har indgået en industriel kontrakt om en gyrotron på 70 GHz .
   Foreløbige afprøvninger er gennemført med held .
IV . 2 . 3   Piller :  På Risø nåede deuteriumpiller ( 3,2 mm i diameter )     i   en
lysbueopvarmet gaskanon op på en hastighed af omkring 2 km/s . En multi -
pilleinjektor - med variabel pillestørrelse - baseret på centrifugen er
udviklet i Garching .
 ---pagebreak---                                              34
IV . 2 . 4   Diagnostik . Foruden de forskellige diagnostiksystemer , der er udviklet
for JET , er der i associeringerne udviklet og installeret mange diagnostik¬
systemer ( hvoraf nogle går nye veje ):
- ref lektrometri (i Fontenay ) til måling af elektrondensitet .
- polari-interferometer med HCN-laser (i Jiilich ) til måling af lokal
  strømdistribution .
- diagnostiksystemer        af   ny  type   til  plasmagrænseregionen ,     som  f.eks .
   laser - induceret resonansfluorescens og lithiumstråler (i Jiilich ).
IV . 2 . 5   Ionstråler . Udviklingen vedrører :
- H - bunter og ionacceleration ( Amsterdam ):       der blev frembragt 4 småstråler
   ( med en strømstyrke på 3 rnA ved en partikelenergi på 120 keV ).
- Negative ionstråler ( Culham ):       der blev opnået 3ø mA/cm2 med gode udsigter
   for ekstrapolation til et større område .
- Negative ionstråler ( Stockholm i samarbejde med Grenoble ):          forsøg resulte­
  rede i H - ionstrømme på 15ø mA accelereret ved 55 kV .
III . 2.6     ARBEJDE FOR NET
Fremskridtene med projekteringen af NET har gjort det muligt for NET-gruppen
at opstille detaljerede opgaver ,        der skal løses af de associerede institutio ¬
ner ,      inden for teknologiområdet . Indtil nu er der fordelt omkring 100 opgaver
på områderne magneter , kappe , materialer , tritium , fjernhåndtering og sikker¬
hed . Resultater fra disse opgaver er allerede ført tilbage til projekterings ¬
arbejdet , hvorved der er etableret et nært og meget frugtbart samspil mellem
laboratorierne og NET-gruppen . Endvidere har NET-gruppen indgået omkring 90
kontrakter med associeringerne vedrørende både fysikvidenskabelige og tekniske
undersøgelser . Endelig udstationerer associaringerne personale i NET-gruppen
inden for rammerne af NET-aftalen .
IV . 3     TEORETISKE UNDERSØGELSER
I de fleste laboratorier blev der gennemført analytiske og numeriske under¬
søgelser og udviklet beregningskoder :
 ---pagebreak---                                          35
- MHD-ligevægttilstande og - transport undersoges i de fleste laboratorier .
   Navnlig er dette det vigtigste arbejdsområde for forskningsgruppen på det
   frie universitet i Bruxelles .
- Ustabile makroskopiske og mikroskopiske tilstande med særlig vægt på beta¬
   grænser undersoges overvejende i laboratorier , der har de edb-anlæg , der
   kræves til gennemførelse af store numeriske beregninger .
- I hoved laboratorierne ( og Lausanne ) udvikles der edb-koder vedrorende lige¬
   vægt , transport m.v . ( 3 -D- kode i Garching til undersøgelse vedrørende den
   avancerede stellarator ) .
- Undersøgelser vedrørende opvarmning ( bølgeudbredelse og energiafsættelse ,
   strålesporing m.v .) og vedrørende strømdrivning gennemføres hovedsagelig i
   laboratorier , der beskæftiger sig med problemer af denne art på deres
   forsøgsanlæg .
V.      TEKNOLOGI
Den velordnede gennemførelse af fusionsteknologiprogrammet har været et af de
seneste års vigtigste resultater . Hovedparten af arbejdet er rettet mod NET ,
men derudover er en del rettet mod den praktiske anvendelse på længere sigt
( undersøgelser vedrørende lavaktiveringsmaterialer , sikkerhed og miljøpåvirk ¬
ning ) .
Programmet omfatter følgende områder : magneter , tritiumteknologi , kappe , mate¬
rialer , sikkerhed og miljø . Arbejdet udføres i associeringerne (i mange til ¬
fælde ved tilknytning af grupper fra fissionslaboratorier ), i FFC og i mindre
udstrækning i industrien .
V.1     SUPERLEDENDE MAGNETER
Udviklingsprogrammet var koncentreret om hovedkravene fra NET : superledende ,
toroidale og poloidale feltspoler . Det største forehavende var i samarbejde
med industrien at konstruere og fremstille Euratoms spole til Large Coil Test
Facility ( LCTF ) i Oak Ridge ( ORNL ), USA . Denne 38 t tunge NbTi-toroidalfelt -
spole , der køles med superkritisk helium , blev afprøvet i Karlsruhes eget
anlæg inden forsendelsen til LCTF , hvor den skulle installeres sammen med fem
andre ( en fra Japan , en fra Schweiz og tre fra USA ), som alle skal prøves i
henhold til en IEA-aftale . Prøveprogrammet på ORNL blev sat i gang i april
 1986 .
 ---pagebreak---                                          36
Til NET's toroidale felt vil der muligvis blive behov for superledere med en
kapacitet på op til 12 tesia og mere , hvilket stiller krav om udvikling af
avancerede materialer , som NbSn^ og NbAl^. Med henblik herpå har et konsortium
af tre associerede laboratorier bygget h®j feltstestanlægget SULTAN , som i
øjeblikket fungerer ved 8 T ( fuld ydelse på 12 T i 1987 ).
Tokamakken TORE-SUPRA har givet erfaringer , der er særdeles værdifulde for
forståelsen af det generelle princip for en eksperimentel superledende toka-
mak . Dette vil gøre det muligt at " in situ" prøve en model til en poloidal -
feltspole med NET-specif ikationer om få år . En sådan spole er ved at blive
udviklet .
V. 2  TRITIUMTEKNOLOGI
Der arbejdes her på at udvikle komponenterne til tritiumsystemet i NET og med
sikkerhedsaspekterne ved tritiumhåndtering .
Et af de vigtigste undersøgelsesemner er rensning af plasmaafkastet fra NET .
DT-afkastet , som vil være " forurenet " med helium og forskellige metalliske og
luftformige urenheder , må føres tilbage til meget ren tilstand . Den hertil
foretrukne metode , som for tiden er til undersøgelse i PALLAS-kredsløbet , er
permeation gennem Pd -Ag -mebraner. Som et alternativ undersøges getters , og
Ti-Zr har vist sig særligt effektivt .
De udskilte luftformige urenheder indeholder stadig en vis mængde tritium og
kræver derfor yderligere detritieringsprocesser . Eksperimentelle undersøgelser
af sådanne processer er nu i gang ( U-leje , andre varme metallejer ). Tilsva¬
rende foregår der undersøgelser af metoder til dekontaminering af atmosfærisk
luft og af tritieret affald i fast form . Til håndtering af stærkt tritieret
vand er to elektrolysatorprototyper under udvikling .         Endelig er der i
samarbejde med industrien indhentet detaljerede specifikationer på ( tritium-
kompatible ) turbomolekylarpumper med meget stor kapacitet og på hurtigt luk ¬
kende skyd event i ler , helt i metal (i øjeblikket er industrien ved at foretage
gennemførlighedsundersøgelser for disse komponenter ).
Mange af ovennævnte forsøg indebærer anvendelse af tritium og kræver derfor
særlige anlæg .     Sådanne anlæg står nu til rådighed for fusionsprogrammet i
 ---pagebreak---                                           37
Frankrig ( Bruyere- le - Chåtel, Saclay ), og andre er under opførelse ( KfK ) eller
befinder sig i en fremskreden projekteringsfase ( FFC , Ispra ), således at
forsøgsmulighederne udvides i overensstemmelse med programmets krav .
V. 3 KAPPE
Tekniske undersøgelser af trit iumformeringskappen har vist , at der er to
hovedmuligheder : ved den ene anvendes der et flydende lithium-bly- eutektikum
som formeringsmateriale og selvkølemiddel , ved den anden massive keramiske
lithiumforbindelser med helium som kølemiddel . Forsøgsarbejdets formål har
altså været at fremskaffe det nødvendige datagrundlag for sådanne materialer .
Med hensyn til det nævnte lithium- bly - eutektikum blev dataene vedrørende
hydrogenopløselighed og diffusion kompletteret med nye målinger .             Forsøg
vedrørende kompabilitet og skørhedsforøgelse i flydende metal viste ingen tegn
på revner eller umiddelbart forestående brud på beholdermaterialet .           Nogle
første erfaringer med genvinding af tritium fra det flydende metal blev
indhøstet dels ved anvendelse af getters af Ti og dels ved gennemledning af
inert gas .
Hvad angår de keramiske lithium-komponenter - et større projekt , som seks
europæiske laboratorier er fælles om ( og som indgår delvis i en IEA-aftale ) -
er der udarbejdet fremstillingsmetoder , der giver meget rene lithiumaluminater
samt ortho - og metasilicater . Indledende korte bestrålingsforsøg af typen med
ventilerede kapsler , der frembragte bitte små mængder tritium ( 300-350 Ci pr .
prøve ), gjorde det muligt at udvælge de prøver , der " opførte sig pænest ", og
som nu skal underkastes længerevarende bestråling i både termiske anlæg og
hurtigfissionsanlæg . Det endelige mål er at føre bevis for , at tritium kan
formeres .
V. 4 MATERIALER
Projekteringsundersøgelserne for NET har medført , at dette område nu er ud¬
videt til at omfatte materialer til de konstruktive dele , til beskyttelse af
den første væg og til afbøjningsenheder samt isolerende og optiske materialer .
Konstruktionsmaterialet til NET bliver enten austenitisk         ( 316 ) eller mar-
tensitisk   ( 1,4914 )   stål ,  og til   langtidsanvendelse står valget mellem
 ---pagebreak---                                             38
austenitiske Mn - Cr- stål,   vanadium - legeringer og grundstofberigede lavaktive ¬
ringsstål .
I et internationalt projekt ,     som blev påbegyndt i 1981 og omfatter tre fis¬
sionsreaktorer i Europa ( HFR/Petten , BR-2/Mol og R2/Studsvik ) og to i De
forenede Stater ( HFIR og ORR , begge Oak Ridge ), er der foruden referencestål ¬
prøver fra Europa ,       Japan og USA opnået en række betydelige resultater
vedrørende austenitiske 316-ståls adfærd under bestråling .
Størstedelen af den planlagte træk - og udmattelsesprøvning efter bestråling er
nu afsluttet ( der blev opnået strålingsdoser på 5 dpa og 10 dpa ). Materialet
til krybningsforsøg i reaktorkernen akkumulerer stadig dosis i reaktorerne , og
inden udgangen af 1986 vil materialet til et udmattelsesforsøg ( BR-2 , det
første i sin art ) blive anbragt i reaktorkernen .
For størstedelen af de ovennævnte konstruktionslegeringer er der også
gennemført en række mekaniske prøvninger under eller efter bestråling med
partikelstråler fra accel lerat orer som simulering af fusionsbestrålingsskade .
Som eksempler på de mange udførte prøvninger skal her nævnes følgende :
målinger af snoningskrybning på austenitisk 316 L-stål ; undersøgelser af lav-
cyklusudmattelse og vekselvirkning mellem krybning og udmattelse ; undersøgel ¬
ser af bestrål ingskrybning , der viste identisk krybning for træk - og tryk ¬
belastninger ; undersøgelse af belastningsvarighed indtil brud for 316-stål ,
der viste kraftigt fald ved en heliumkoncentration på omkring 1 øøø ppm .
Som materialer til beskyttelse af den første væg har man efter sortering af et
stort antal foreslåede materialer i sidste ende udvalgt finkornede grafit ¬
materialer , en bestemt kategori af SiC og kompositmaterialer af grafit og SiC .
Tilsvarende har søgningen efter egnede keramiske ,             elektrisk isolerende
materialer vist , at aluminiumoxid , spinel og magnesia er de mest lovende .
Endvidere er der udviklet metoder til under og efter bestråling at måle
tangenten for det bielektriske tab fra optiske materialer , der skal anvendes i
forskellige frekvensspektre ved højfrekvensopvarmning af plasma .
V. 5 SIKKERHED OG MILJØ
Her koncentreres arbejdet væsentligst om de mulige årsager til og følger af
udslip af luftformig tritium samt om bortskaffelse af tritieret ( fast ) affald .
 ---pagebreak---                                         39
Der er udviklet edb-modeller af radioaktive kildeled og af den globale
spredning    af tritiumgas   og  tritiummærket vand   ( forste val ideringsprøve
undervejs ).
Forskellige fejlmåder blev analyseret , og der blev udført en risikovurdering
for forskellige NET-komponenter . Der blev foretaget undersøgelse vedrørende
dekontaminering af tritieret metalaffald , og det mest effektive viste sig at
være vakuumsmeltning og udgasning .
En vurdering af fusionsenergiens påvirkning af miljøet er under udarbejdelse
og vil blive forelagt for Parlamentet og Rådet . Dette dokument indeholder også
en gennemgang af fusionsenergiens økonomiske udsigter .
VI . NET
I slutningen af 1983 tog NET-gruppen fat på arbejdet med at definere NET . Dens
kommissiorium var at definere målene , fastlægge konstruktionen i hovedtræk ,
opstille valgmuligheder og arbejdsprogram for NET samt - hovedsagelig på det
teknologiske område - at indkredse ,         hvilken forskning og udvikling
projekteringen af NET forudsætter .
Arbejdet i denne fase havde i slutningen af 1985 nået et detaljeringsniveau ,
der gjorde det muligt at tage hul på skitseprojekteringsfasen .              Det
teknologiske F&U-program er lanceret på de fleste af de områder , der har
betydning for NET .
Formålet med NET er at frembringe et plasma med reaktorrelevante parametre og
ydeevne samt at behandle de vigtigste spørgsmål vedrørende den tekniske
gennemførlighed af en fusionsreaktor . NET-arbejdet bør således sigte mod
kontrolleret antændelse og langvarig forbrænding samt påvise , at systemet er
pålideligt , at det kan drives kontinuerligt og sikkert og kun i ringe grad
påvirker miljøet . Endelig bør NET kunne kvalificere konstruktionsprincipper og
afprøve materialer samt tritium- og energiekstraktionssystemer med henblik på
DEMO ( demonstrationsreaktor ). Med dette formål blev der udviklet en trindelt
og smidig driftsplan ( tretten år ). Efter omfattende optimeringsundersøgelser
er maskinens principper og parametre valgt i overensstemmelse hermed .
Udviklingen i den plasmaydelse ,    der er lagt til grund for parametervalget ,
stemmer overens med de nuværende forsøgsresultater fra tokamakker . For at tage
 ---pagebreak---                                          40
hensyn til muligheden af en mindsket ydelse er der imidlertid afsat en
betragtelig margen , således at antændelse og lang brændtid kan opnås . Som
helhed bliver anlægget væsentligt større end JET . Plasmastrømmen kan nå op på
15 MA , og storradius bliver 5 m sammenlignet med 3 m i JET , hvilket også
skyldes , at der skal indsættes kappe og skjold mellem plasmakammeret og de
superledende spoler for det toroidale magnetfelt .        I en D - T - brændpuls ( på
omkring 500 sek .) vil der blive frembragt en effekt på op til 600 MW ved
fusionsreaktioner .
Der er udarbejdet konstruktionsprincipper for grundmaskinens hovedkomponenter
for at    udstikke retningslinjer    for associeringernes udvikling af sådanne
komponenter og for at lade industrien udføre gennemførlighedsundersøgelser .
For de komponenter ,    der grænser op til plasmaet ,   og som skal fungere under
særdeles belastende og i øjeblikket usikre forhold ,       arbejdes der med flere
forskellige    konstruktionsprincipper ,   og udvælgelsen   af  referenceløsninger
kræver yderligere arbejde og et bredere datagrundlag .      På dette område er er
opstillet og iværksat opgaver til associeringerne og industrien .
VI .  KONKLUSION
Med JET ,   verdens største eksperiment , der fra starten var tænkt som en fælles
indsats fra alle associeringerne , med de associerede laboratoriers mellemstore
tokamakker og alternative anlægstyper har Europa i de senere år opnået en
ubestridt førerstilling i verden . Det europæiske fusionsprogram er inddraget i
alle de planer om fusionssamarbejde , der for tiden er til drøftelse på
verdensplan . Det er godt rustet til at fastholde sin førende position i de
kommende år , hvis der bevilges finansiel støtte i tilstrækkeligt omfang .
 ---pagebreak---                                             41
                            B ) FORSLAG TIL RÅDETS FORORDNING
             om fastlæggelse af et forsknings- og undervisningsprogram
               ( 1987-1991 ) inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion
RADET FOR DE EUROPÆISKE FÆLLESSKABER HAR -
under henvisning til traktaten om oprettelse af Det europæiske Atomenergi ¬
fællesskab , særlig artikel 7 ,
under henvisning til forslag fra Kommissionen ( 1 ),        forelagt efter høring af
Det videnskabelige og tekniske Udvalg ,
under henvisning til udtalelse fra Europa-Parlamentet ( 2 ),
under henvisning til udtalelse fra Det økonomiske og sociale Udvalg ( 3 ), og
ud fra følgende betragtninger :
Energiproblemet er fælles for alle medlemsstater ; det er sandsynligt , at
fælles bestræbelser på at løse dette problem kan føre til bedre resultater ;
termonuklear fusion er en af de mulige løsninger på energiproblemet på længere
sigt ; rationel anvendelse af alle de forskellige energikilder må koordineres ;
derfor må Fællesskabet fortsat sikre størst mulig overensstemmelse mellem dets
bestræbelser på de forskellige områder inden for energi og energiforskning ;
Rådet vedtog den . ( 4 ) rammeprogrammet for Fællesskabets forskning og
teknologiske udvikling ( 1987-1991 ), hvori der tages hensyn til ovenstående
betragtninger ;
1 ) EFT nr .
2 ) EFT nr .
3 ) EFT nr .
4 ) EFT nr .
 ---pagebreak---                                           42
termonuklear fusion er en potentiel ny energikilde på basis af et brændsel ,
der foreligger i praktisk talt uudtømmelige mængder , og som er tilgængeligt
overalt ; reaktorer til magnetisk indesluttet fusion vil være kendetegnet ved
iboende sikkerhedsegenskaber og rummer lofte om kun svag påvirkning af
miljoet ; termonuklear fusion er derfor et vigtigt emne i rammeprogrammet ;
Rådet vedtog ved afgorelse 85/201 /Euratom ( 4 ) et forsknings- og undervisnings¬
program ( 1985-1989 ) inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion ; ved artikel 3
i denne afgorelse er det fastsat , at Kommissionen på grundlag af en fornyet
vurdering , der skal gennemfores i lobet af programmets andet år ,                skal
forelægge Rådet et forslag til revision , der tager sigte på i 1987 at lade
programmet for 1985-1989 aflose af et nyt femårsprogram , idet årene 1987 , 1988
og 1989 er omfattet af begge programmer ; afgorelse 85/ 201 /Euratom bor derfor
af loses af en anden afgorelse ;
som folge af ,   at afgorelse 85/ 201 /Euratom af loses , vil ca . 171 mio ECU af det
belob ,   der var skonnet nodvendigt for det foregående program ,          JET ( Joint
European Torus ) ikke medregnet , og ca . 209 mio ECU af det belob , der var skon ¬
net nodvendigt for det foregående program for så vidt angår JET-projektet ,
ikke være brugt ;    disse belob kan overfores til det nye program ;        ved fast ¬
læggelsen af de belob ,    der skonnes nodvendige for gennemforeisen af det nye
program ,   bor der tages hensyn til en sådan overforsel samt til , at programmet
omfatter alt det arbejde , der i medlemsstaterne udfores på dette område ;
som folge af omfanget af de bestræbelser ,          der er nodvendige for at gore
kontrolleret termonuklear fusion praktisk anvendelig , hvilket ville være til
gavn for Fællesskabet , må det arbejde , der hidtil er udfort på dette område ,
fortsætte i fællesskab gennem de enkelte udviklingsfaser ;
4 ) EFT nr . L 83 af 28.3.1985 , s . 25 .
 ---pagebreak---                                          A3
den   af Kommissionen     foreslåede forskning   er et  passende middel   til at
fortsætte denne virksomhed , og det er derfor af fælles interesse at vedtage et
flerårigt program inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion ,            hvilket
herudover også er nødvendigt for , at Fællesskabet kan deltage i internationalt
samarbejde på dette område ;
det strategiske grundlag       for programmets videreførelse bør uændret være
følgende :
- fortsat gennemførelse af et omfattende program med sigte på en demonstra¬
   tionsreaktor og for indeværende baseret på tokamakprincippet ; fuldendelse af
   programmets første trin i form af JET-projektet med dettes udvidelser og
   under fuld udnyttelse af de anlæg , der forefindes eller er under opførelse i
   associeringerne ,
- fortsat skitseprojektering af tokamakprogrammets andet trin .     Næste europæ ¬
   iske Torus ( NET ) og gennemførelse af det teknologiske udviklingsarbejde , der
   er nødvendigt for projektering og opførelse af NET , og som kræves på længere
   sigt til fusionsreaktoren ,
- undersøgelse ,    med de midler der er til rådighed ,  af alternative indeslut ¬
   ningssystemer , koncentreret om pinches med omvendt felt og stellaratorer ,
   betinget af periodiske vurderinger af disse systemers reaktorpotentiel
   sammenholdt med tokamakkens ;
denne strategi bør tages op til fornyet overvejelse i forbindelse med den
næste programrevision med henblik på at lade dette program afløse af et nyt
femårsprogram den 1 . januar 199ø ; samtidig med denne revision ville det være
hensigtsmæssigtsmæssigt at træffe afgørelse om , hvornår der skal iværksættes
D-T-drift i JET , og hvornår detailprojekteringen af NET skal sættes i gang ;
 i forskningsprogrammet for Det fælles Forskningscenter er det fastsat ,   at FFC
skal deltage i arbejdet på områderne NET og teknologi ;
 ---pagebreak--- Sverige og Schweiz er associeret fællesskabsaktiviteterne inden for kontrol ¬
leret termonuklear fusion ;
Fællesskabet bor fortsat ved anvendelse af en præferencesats for bidrag til
udgifterne i forbindelse med aktioner ,  der betragtes som fortrinsberettigede ,
fremme dels fremstillingen af visse former for udstyr , der vedrører sådanne
aktioner ,   dels støtte til JET og NET fra associeringerne og dels visse
udviklinger inden for fusionsteknologien ;
industriens direkte medvirken i gennemførelsen af programmet og navnlig i
arbejdet med NET og fusionsteknologi bør øges ;
det er endvidere hensigtsmæssigt at fremme personalets bevægelighed mellem de
organisationer , som samarbejder om gennemførelse af programmet -
UDSTEDT FØLGENDE FORORDNING :
                                    Artikel 1
Der  vedtages    et forsknings - og  undervisningsprogram    for  Det  europæiske
Atomenergifællesskab inden for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion , som beskrevet
i bilaget , for en periode på 5 år fra den 1 . januar 1987 .
                                    Artikel 2
De midler , der skønnes nødvendige til gennemførelse af programmet , beløber sig
uden medregning af JET til 533 mio ECU , heri indbefattet udgifterne til et
personale på 105 ansatte .
De midler , der skønnes nødvendige for JET i programmets løbetid , beløber sig
til 378 mio ECU , heri indbefattet udgifterne til et personale på 191 midler¬
tidigt ansatte , som defineret i artikel 2 , stk . a , i ansættelsesvilkårene for
øvrige ansatte i De europæiske Fællesskaber .
 ---pagebreak---                                         45
                                    Artikel 3
Kommissionen evaluerer programmet i dettes tredje år med udgangspunkt i de
målsætninger , der er opstillet i bilaget . Efter denne evaluering forelægger
Kommissionen i 1989 Rådet et revisionsforslag , der tager sigte på at lade det
nuværende program afløse af et nyt femårsprogram med virkning fra 1 . januar
199ø .
                                    Artikel 4
Afgørelse 85/201 /Euratom ophæves herved med virkning fra 1 . januar 1987 .
                                    Artikel 5
Denne forordning træder i kraft den 1 . januar 1987 .
Denne forordning er bindende i alle enkeltheder og gælder umiddelbart i hver
medlemsstat .
Udfærdiget i Bruxelles ,
                                                 På Rådets vegne
                                                      Formand
 ---pagebreak---                                     46
                                BILAG
                    KONTROLLERET TERMONUKLEAR FUSION
Det program , der skal gennemfores , omfatter følgende :
a)  plasmafysik i forbindelse med det pågældende område ,     navnlig grund ¬
    studier vedrørende indeslutning ved hjælp af passende anordninger og
    vedrørende metoder til fremstilling og opvarmning af plasma ;
b)  undersøgelse af indeslutningen i lukkede konfigurationer af plasma med
    stærkt varierende tæthed og temperatur ;
c)  undersøgelse af vekselvirkningerne mellem lys og stof og af transport ¬
    fænomener samt udvikling af lasere med høj effekt ;
d)  udvikling af tilstrækkelig kraftige metoder til plasmaopvarmning og
    deres anvendelse på indeslutningsanordningerne ;
e)  forbedring af diagnostiske metoder ;
f)  skitseprojektering   og   muligvis   påbegyndelse    af den  detaljerede
    konstruktionsprojektering af NET ( Næste europæiske Torus ) samt tekno ¬
    logisk udvikling , der er nødvendig for projektering og opførelse af
    anlægget , og teknologisk udvikling , der på længere sigt er påkrævet
    for fusionsreaktoren ;
g)  udvidelse af JET til fuldt udbygget præstation ; drift og udnyttelse af
    JET
Arbejdet under litra a ), b ), c ), d ), e ) og f ) skal udføres i kraft af
associeringer eller tidsbegrænsede kontrakter , der er udformet med sigte
på de resultater , der er nødvendige for programmets gennemførelse , og som
tager hensyn til det arbejde , der udføres ved Det fælles Forskningscenter ,
navnlig i forbindelse med NET og teknologi , som omhandlet i litra f ).
 ---pagebreak---                                             47
      Gennemførelsen af JET-projektet , som omhandlet under litra g ), er blevet
      overdraget fællesforetagendet " Joint European Torus ( JET ),            Joint
      Undertaking", oprettet ved afgørelse 78/ 471 /Euratom ( 1 ).
2.    Det i nr .     1 anførte program udgør en del af et samarbejde på langt sigt ,
      som dækker al virksomhed i medlemsstaterne inden for kontrolleret termo ¬
      nuklear fusion . Det skal til sin tid føre til fremstilling i fællesskab af
      prototyper med henblik på industriel produktion og markedsføring .
3.    Det beløb på 533 mio ECU ,       der skønnes nødvendigt til gennemførelse af
      programmet , JET ikke medregnet , er bestemt til finansiering af
      < a ) prioriterede projekter med en enhedssats på ca .    45% , som fastlagt i
            nr . 4 ;
      ( b ) associeringernes løbende udgifter med en enhedssats på ca . 25% ;
      ( c ) visse industrielle kontrakter på områderne "NET/ fusionsteknologi " og
            udvikling af avancerede plasmaopvarmningsmetoder med en sats på 100% ,
            som fastlagt i nr . 4 ;
      ( d ) administrationsomkostninger samt sådanne udgifter , som skal sikre per¬
            sonalets bevægelighed ,     så det får mulighed for at arbejde i de
            organisationer , der medvirker ved gennemførelsen af programmet , og i
            NET - gruppen ;
      ( e ) NET-gruppens driftsomkostninger med en sats på ca . 75% ;
( 1 ) EFT nr . L 151 af 7.6.1978 , s . 10 .
 ---pagebreak---                                          48
   En eventuel positiv saldo fra associerede tredjelandes ( Sverige og
   Schweiz ) bidrag til programmet , JET ikke medregnet , afsættes til Fælles ¬
   skabets deltagelse i de udgifter , der er omhandlet i nr . 3 .
A. Efter udtalelse       fra Det   rådgivende udvalg    for Fusionsprogrammet kan
   Kommissionen med en enhedssats på ca .     45% som fastlagt i nr . 3 , litra a ),
   finansiere projekter , der falder ind under et af følgende områder :
   ( a ) Tokamak - systemer og støtte til JET
   ( b ) andre toro idal e maskiner
   ( c ) opvarmning og injektion
   ( d ) NET og fusionsteknologi
   Projekter ,     der falder ind under område ( c ) og ( d ), og som gennemføres af
   industrien , kan Kommissionen finansiere med en sats på 100% som fastlagt i
   nr . 3 , litra ( c ).
   Til gengæld har samtlige associeringer ret til at deltage i de forsøg , der
   gennemføres ved hjælp af det således frembragte udstyr .
5. Det skønnes , at der til finansiering af JET' s betalinger i programperioden
   1987-1991 er behov for i alt 531 mio ECU som bidrag fra medlemmerne af
   fællesforetagendet JET .     Dette beløb skal dække udvidelsen af JET-anlægget
   til fuld ydelse samt drift og udnyttelse af det . I henhold til JET's
   vedtægter finansieres 80% af dette beløb svarende til 425 mio ECU over
   Fællesskabets budget . Heraf har Kommissionen før 1987 indgået forplig ¬
   telser for 19 mio ECU . De resterende 406 mio ECU vil blive finansieret på
   følgende måde :
    .   378 mio ECU fra programbevillingen til JET
         28 mio ECU som bidrag til JET fra Sverige og Schweiz ,           betalt via
        Fællesskabets budget .
 ---pagebreak---                                            49
                               C ) FINANSIERINGSOVERSIGT
                             I. FUSIONSPROGRAM ( uden JET )
1 .    BUDGETPOST : 7310
2.     BUDGETPOSTENS TEKST : Termonuklear fusion - Det generelle program
3.     RETSGRUNDLAG :     Euratom-traktatens artikel 7
                          Rådets afgørelse 85/ 201 /Euratom ( 1 )
                          og forordning , der forventes udstedt i 1987 .
4.     BESKRIVELSE AF , FORMÅL MED OG BEGRUNDELSE FOR AKTIONEN :
4.1 Beskrivelse
       Programmet går ud på at fortsætte forskningen og udviklingen inden for
       kontrolleret termonuklear fusion og dækker medlemsstaternes samlede akti ¬
       viteter inden for dette område . Sverige og Schweiz er associerede parter i
       dette program . Det vedrører navnlig undersøgelse af magnetisk indeslutning
       af plasma og fusionsteknologi .
 ( 1 ) EFT nr . L 83 af 25.3.1985 .
 ---pagebreak---                                              50
4.2 Formål
    ( a ) Programmets kortsigtede mål er :
           -  at etablere det fysikvidenskabelige og teknologiske grundlag for
              detailprojekteringen af NET ( Næste europæiske Torus ),        det store
              anlæg , der skal udgøre næste trin efter JET
           -  at    iværksætte detailprojekter ingen af NET      for programperiodens
              udløb , hvis det nødvendige datagrundlag foreligger på det tidspunkt
           -  at vurdere , i hvilket omfang andre magnetiske indeslutningssystemer
              end Tokamak-systemer ( stellaratorer ,    pinches med omvendt felt ) kan
              betragtes som reelle alternativer til tokamakker
           -  at udføre et minimalt program vedrørende inertiindeslutning .
    ( b ) Det endelige formål for dette program er at afgøre ,        om det er muligt
           at fremstille energi til konkurrencedygtige priser på basis af nu ¬
           kleare fusionsreaktioner mellem lette atomkerner ,        og i bekræftende
           fald i fællesskab at opføre prototyper med henblik på produktion og
           salg i industriel skala .
4.3 Begrundelse
    Problemet med på lang sigt at have energikilder til rådighed på verdens¬
    plan er langt fra løst .        Termonuklear fusion er en af de ganske få kilder ,
    der måske kunne løse dette problem eller i det mindste bidrage væsentligt
    til at løse det på en måde , der er særlig gunstig for Europa . I en reaktor
    til magnetisk indesluttet fusion vil der blive anvendt et brændsel , der
    foreligger i praktisk talt uudtømmelige mængder ,          og som er tilgængeligt
    overalt . En sådan reaktor vil være kendetegnet ved iboende sikkerhedsegen ¬
    skaber og rummer løfte om kun svag påvirkning af miljøet .         De væsentligste
    grunde       til  at   foretage   forskning  og  udvikling   på  dette  område  på
     fællesskabsplan er :
     -    omfanget af de nødvendige menneskelige og finansielle ressourcer ,       som
          peger på ,     at en sådan udvikling næppe kan gennemføres på nationalt
          plan ;
 ---pagebreak---                                                51
       - varigheden af den indsats , der skal gøres ( den rækker ind i næste
          århundrede ), inden reaktoren kan opføres ;
       - tilstedeværelsen af et kollektivt behov ,         der er fælles for alle
          medlemsstaterne ;
       - virkeliggørelsen af et europisk marked for europæiske industrier inden
          for højteknologiske områder ;
       - hvis dette lykkes , åbning af et stort indre marked for den europæiske
          reaktor ;
       - tilvejebringelsen af en potentiel parter af sammenlignelig størrelse for
          de tre andre fusionsprogrammer i verden , for således at fremhjælpe det
          internationale samarbejde om fusionsenergi ;
       - sidst men ikke mindst kvaliteten af det europæiske fusionsprogram , hvis
          ledende stilling anerkendes på verdensplan , og hvori Sverige og Schweiz
          er fuldt associerede partnere .
       Fusionsenergi opfylder derfor de kriterier ,     der gælder for Fællesskabets
       F&U-programmer .
5.     DE SAMLEDE   FINANSIELLE VIRKNINGER AF DET GENERELLE     PROGRAM FOR PERIODEN
       1987-1991
5.1 Virkningerne for udgifterne
5.1.1 Omkostninger , som afholdes
          -  over EF-budgettet :                  616 mio ECU ( 1 )
          -  af de nationale myndigheder
             og andre nationale sektorer :      1 117 mio ECU
                                   lait   :     1 733 mio ECU
5.1.2 Trancher og flerårig tidsplan
          I 1976 vedtog Rådet på forslag af Kommissionen princippet om "rullende
          programmer" sammen med programmet for 1976-1980 . Rådet fastsætter i hver
 ( 1 ) De 616,0 mio ECU indbefatter 83 mio ECU , for hvilke der inden 1987 er ind ¬
       gået forpligtelser under programmet 1985-1989 med henblik på arbejde til
       udførelse efter 1986 . Derfor beløber den EF-bevilling for 1987-1991 , der
        er anført i forslaget til rådsforordning , sig til 616 - 83 = 533 mio ECU .
 ---pagebreak---                                               52
      programafgørelse , hvor store forpligtelsesbevillinger , der skal afsættes
      til programmet , samt hvilke forpligtelsesbevillinger , der skal overføres
      fra det foregående program . Den tranche , der åbnes for hvert program
      svarer til de tildelte bevillinger minus de uudnyttede bevillinger . De
      samlede trancher , der er åbnet for en bestemt periode , udgør de samlede
      midler , som Kommissionen har til rådighed til gennemførelse af programmet
      i denne periode . Medregnet den foreslåede bevilling til det generelle pro¬
      gram for 1987-1991 udgør disse midler i alt 1 180 mio ECU for perioden
      1976-1991 . De er beregnet på følgende måde :
                                                      Tranche
      Program 1976-80 :                                     124,0 mio ECU
      Program 1979-83 : 190,5 - 44,0
      ( uudnyttede bevillinger fra programmet 1976-80 )     146,5 mio ECU
      Program 1982-86 : 301 - 67 ( uudnyttede
      bevillinger fra programmet 1979-83 ):                 234,0 mio ECU
      Program 1985-89 : 360 ( 1 ) - 46,9 ( uudnyttede
      bevillinger fra programmet 1982-86 ):                 314.5 mio ECU
          Samlede trancher åbnet for 1976-89 :              819,0 mio ECU
      Forslået program 1987-91 : 533,0 - 171,0
       ( forventede uudnyttede bevillinger fra
      programmet 1985-89 ):                                 362.0 mio ECU
                                    I alt :               1 181 ,0 mio ECU
      Nedenstående tidsplaner vedrører perioden 1986-1991 , som omfatter de
      foregående programmer , det nuværende program 1985-89 og det foreslåede
      program 1987-91 .
( 1 ) Se meddelelse til Rådet        fra Kommissionen om fusionsprogrammet , dok .
       KOM ( 85 ) 789 endelig udg .
 ---pagebreak---                                                        Tabel : Det generelle program ,
                                                 Fjrpligtelsesbevillinger i lio ECU uden bidrag fra tredjelande ( Sverige og Schweiz )
                                                                                                                                               I alt        1 all
                                                         1986        1986       . 1987       1988   .       1989       1990   .     1991      1976-89     1987-1991
                                       1976-85     .
                                      Resultat          Resultat   Fremf ørsel              Ansile      t      re s u 1 t a t                                 (2 )
                                                                      (D . .
                                                                        2.0                                  -          -             -          459.0           -
 Programmer 1976-86                       ( 49.0            8.0                                 -
                                                                                  100.3       60.7        10.0          -             -          360.0        171.0
 Nuvarende pcograa 1985-89                  90.8           94.1         4.1
                                              -              -            -
                                                                                     -        56.0       100.0       113 . θ'     .J3.0          36 2.0       362.0
 Foreslået progra « 1987-91
                                                                                  100.3      116.7       110.0       113.0         93.0         1181.0        533.0
  I alt                                   539.8           102.1         6.1
                                                                                                                                            1
  ( 1 ) Inklusive bevillinger overfirt fra 1985 .
                                                     Betalingsbevillinger i lio ECU uden bidrag fra tredjelande ( Sverige og Schweiz )
                                                                                                                                                 I alt       1 alt
                                       1974-85     .    1986     .   2986          1987   .   1968    -     1989   .     1990   .     1991      1976-89 . 1987-1991
Udgifternes art                                                                         1                                         og senere                og senere
                                       Resultat       Resultat     Fremf ørsel              Ansile        t     res ulta t
                                                                                                                                                              (2 )
                                                                       ( 1 ).
 Prograaaer 1976-86                      389.2            33.2         1.6          14.4       20.6            -            -           -
                                                                                                                                                   459.0          35.0
 Nuvirende program 1985-89                  10.1           75.6        0.7          78.8       66.0          81.7       21.4         .25.1          360.0       273.6
 Foreslået program 1987-91                    -              -           -    .       -        10.2          40.0      115.0        196.8          362.0        362.0
                                          399.3          108.8          2.3         93.2       96.8         121.7      136.4        222.5         1181.0        670.6
   I alt
                                                                                                                                                           L«     ■ --
   ( 1 ) Fremførte bevillinger fra 1986 indgår i prograaaet 1985-89 .
 ( 2 ) Tallene i denne kolonne omfatter ikke beløb fremført fra 1986 med henblik pi udgifter i 1987 .
 ---pagebreak---                                               54
5.2 Beregning
      ( a ) Personaleudgifter
            Det personale ,     der foreslås til dette program ,     omfatter følgende
            ansatte :
                  Ar          A            B           C      ■
                                                                    I alt
                1987-91  .    73           29          3     •
                                                                      105
            Beregningen af personaleudgifter er baseret på de faktiske udgifter i
            1987 forøget med 4% om året for årene 1989-91 .     I personaleudgifterne
            som opført på budgettet er der ikke taget hensyn til , at JET refun¬
            derer Kommissionen udgifterne til personale , som er overført til JET
            fra det generelle program .
            Fællesskabets udgifter til personale er medregnet under punkt ( b ) og
            ( c ) i det følgende .
      ( b ) Administrative og tekniske driftsudgifter samt styring
            Herunder hører omkostninger vedrørende befordring ,         tjenesterejser ,
            eksperter og tilrettelæggelse af møder såvel som anvendelse af admini ¬
            strativ og teknisk støtte .     Inklusive finansiering af evalueringspro ¬
            grammet , for så vidt som det vedrører fusiond ), og omkostningerne til
            den del af Kommissionens personale , der arbejder i fusionsdirektoratet
            i Bruxelles ,   anslås disse udgifter til 14_mio_E_CU ,     som skal finan¬
            sieres med 100% over EF-budgettet .    Dette er 1,4% af EF-bevi 11 ingen og
            0,6% af de samlede udgifter til F&U vedrørende fusion i Fællesskabet ,
            inkl . JET .
( 1 ) Udgiften til det evalueringspanel , der omtales i begrundelsens afsnit VI ,
      anslås i øjeblikket til omkring / en halv million ECU/.
 ---pagebreak---                                             55
     ( c ) Kontraktudeifter
           i)    Associeringskontrakter . For perioden 1987-91 anslås omkostningerne
                 i forbindelse med fusionsprogrammets gennemførelse ved de labora¬
                 torier , der er associeret med Fællesskabet , til 1 611 mio ECU ,
                 inkl . disse laboratoriers støtte til JET og NET , deres aktivitet
                 på det fusionsteknologiske område og kommissionspersonale , der er
                 udstationeret ved de associerede laboratorier . Fællesskabet delta¬
                 ger i finansieringen af disse udgifter med følgende satser :
                 -  generel støtte til løbende udgifter og grundlæggende arbejde
                    inden for teknologi : ca . 25% ,
                 -  præferencestøtte til prioriterede aktioner inden for fysik og
                    teknologi samt arbejde for JET og NET : ca . 45% ,
                 -  NET-gruppens administrative og tekniske driftsudgifter :        ca .
                    75% .
                 Fællesskabets udgifter til medfinansiering af associeringernes
                 udgifter anslås til 42?_mio_ECU < 1 ).
           ii )  Industielle kontrakter .  Der forventes et stigende antal industri ¬
                 elle udviklingskontrakter i forbindelse med NET ,     fusionsteknologi
                 og udvikling af avancerede plasmaopvarmningsmetoder .     Når NET-pro -
                 jektet i 1990 og 1991 føres ind i detailprojekteringsfasen , bliver
                 det nødvendigt at afgive ordrer til industrien på prototyper til
                 NET-komponenter . Fællesskabet vil finansiere sådanne kontrakter
                 med 100% , og der er afsat ca . 74_mio_ECU til dette formål .
           iii ) Mobilitetsomkostninger i forbindelse med andet personale end Kom¬
                 missionens anslås til 6_mio_ECU ,    som skal finansieres med 100%
( 1 ) Til beløbet på 429 mio ECU skal føjes 83 mio ECU ,      som der er indgået for¬
       pligtelse om inden 1987 for årene 1987 til 1989 .
 ---pagebreak---                                         56
            over Fællesskabets budget .    Der er behov for 8_jnip__ECU til at
            finansiere udstationering af kommissionspersonale i associeringer
            med en sats på ca . 42% .
       iv ) Der er afsat 2_mio_ECU til stipendier .
5.3 Uudnyttede forpligtelsesbevillinger fra programmet for 1985-89
    -  Programbevilling for 1985-89 :
                                                             360,0 mio ECU
    -  Minus : bevillinger , forpligtede i 1985
       og 1986 , bevillinger fremfort fra 1986             - 189.0 mio ECU
    -  Uudnyttede bevillinger til rådighed for 1988-89 :   _ 171iØ_tDiQ_|CU
5.4 Virkninger for indtægterne
    -  Fællesskabsskat af kommissionsansattes lonninger .
    -  Dette personales bidrag til pensionsordning .
6.  FINANSIERING AF PROGRAMMET
    -  Bevillinger opfort i budgetterne for De europæiske Fællesskaber 1976
       til 1987 .
    -  Bevillinger , som skal opfores på fremtidige budgetter ( 1988 til 1991 og
       senere ) .
 ---pagebreak---                                     57
7. KONTROLORDNING
   Videnskabelig kontrol : - Forvaltningsudvalg   oprettet   gennem associe-
                             ringskontrakter ,  der er indgået med nationale
                             laboratorier
                           - Det rådgivende udvalg for Fusionsprogrammet op-
                             rettet ved Rådets afgerelse af den 16.12.1980 .
   Administrativ og
   finansiel kontrol :     - Forvaltningsudvalg .
                           - GD for finanskontrol ,  for så vidt angår over-
                             holdeisen af budgettet og udgifternes regel-
                             mæssighed og overensstemmelse med bestemmel-
                             seme , samt afdelingen for forvaltningen af
                             kontrakter med bistand fra revisionsselskaber
                             udvalgt af Kommissionen ( GD XII ).
 ---pagebreak---                                           58
                                II )  JET-PROJEKTET
1 . BUDGETPOST : 7311 .
2.  BUDGETPOSTENS TEKST : Deltagelse i fællesforetagendet JET .
3.  RETSGRUNDLAG : Artikel 45-51     i Euratom-traktaten og artikel 9 i vedtægt­
                   erne for JET , Rådets afgørelser 78/ 470 /Euratom af 30.5.1978
                    < EFT nr . L 151 af 7 .    juni 1978 , s . 8 ), 30 / 31 8 /Euratom af
                   13.3.1980 ,    81 /380 /Euratom af 19.5.1981 ,      82 /350 /Euratom ,
                   85/ 201 /Euratom samt rådsforordning , der forventes udstedt i
                   1987 .
4.  BESKRIVELSE AF , FORMÅLET MED OG BEGRUNDELSE FOR AKTIONEN :
4.1 Beskrivelse
    Opførelse , drift og udnyttelse , som en del af Fællesskabets fusionspro ¬
    gram og til fordel for dettes deltagere , af en stor torusmaskine af
    tokamaktypen og de dertil hørende hjælpefaciliteter ( Joint European Torus
    - JET ) for at udvide det parameterområde , der gælder for kontrollerede ,
    termonukleare fusionsforsøg , til forhold , som ligger nær dem , der er på ¬
    krævet i en termonuklear reaktor .
 ---pagebreak---                                       59
4.2 Formâl
    At gennemføre og undersøge et plasma af dimensioner og under forhold , der
    nærmer sig dem , der gælder for en termonuklear reaktor . For at nå dette
    mål må der arbejdes på fire hovedområder :
    i)    udviklingen i plasmaets opførsel ,   når parametrene nærmer sig reak¬
          torområdet
    ii )  vekselvirkningen mellem plasma og væg under disse betingelser ,
    iii ) undersøgelse af plasmaopvarmning og
    iv )  undersøgelse af produktion og indeslutning af alfapartikler og af
          den deraf følgende plasmaopvarmning .
4.3 Begrundelse
    Gennemførelse af JET-projektet er en væsentlig etape i udviklingen af
    Fællesskabets fusionsprogram .  Med hensyn til det endelige mål for dette
    program og dets begrundelse henvises der til del I ,      punkt 4.3 i denne
    f inans i er ingsovers igt .
5.  DE SAMLEDE FINANSIELLE VIRKNINGER AF JET FOR PERIODEN 1987-1991
5.1 Virkninger for rammeprogrammet 1 987-1 991
     I programperioden 1987-1991 er finansieringsbehovet for JET :
    Programbevilling 1987-1991                                378,2 mio ECU
     Tilbageværende midler fra
     fusionsprogrammet 1985-1989                              209.2 mio ECU
     Behov for nye bevillinger 1987-1991                      169,0 mio ECU
     Disse tal omfatter ikke bidrag fra Sverige og Schweiz .
 ---pagebreak---                                       60
5.2 Beregning
    Ved mødet i marts     1987 vedtog JET-rådet en projektudviklingsplan og
    projektomkostningsoverslag for resten af den foreslåede projektperiode
    frem til 1992 . For perioden 1987-1991 blev JET's finansieringsbehov i
    denne forbindelse anslået til :
    Forpligtelser                                           490,6 mio ECU
    Betalinger                                              542,5 mio ECU
    Medlemsbidrag                                           531 ,3 mio ECU
    På grundlag af de gennemsnitlige inflationsindekser for JET i 1986 er der
    i disse tal regnet med en fortsat inflation på 4% om året . 80% af de
    anslåede medlemsbidrag ( 425,0 mio ECU ) skal finansieres via Fællesskabet .
    Eftersom der forud for 1987 er indgået forpligtelser på 19,2 mio ECU for
    perioden 1987-1991 , beløber de anslåede forpligtelser for denne periode
    sig til 405,8 mio ECU .
    Disse 405,8 mio ECU vil blive finansieret på følgende måde : 27,6 mio ECU
    som de forventede bidrag til JET fra Sverige og Schweiz , betalt via
    Fælleskabets budget , således at 378,2 mio ECU skal finansieres direkte af
    Fællesskabet som dettes programbevilling for 1987-1991 . Beregningen af
    bidragene fra Sverige og Schweiz er beskrevet i afsnit III i denne finan ¬
    sieringsoversigt .
 ---pagebreak---                                        61
   Beregningen er vist i medfølgende tabel og resumeres i det følgende :
   Programbevilling 1987-91                                378,2 mio ECU
   Bidrag fra Sverige og Schweiz                            27,6 mio ECU
   Forpligtelser for perioden 1987-91 ,
   indgået før 1987                                         19.2 mio ECU
   80% af JET' s medlemsbidrag for perioden 1987-91        425 , ø mio ECU
   Bidrag fra værtsorganisationen ( 10% )
   og fra medlemmer af JET , der har indgået
   associeringsaftaler med EURATOM ( 1ø% )                 106.3 mio ECU
   Medlemsbidrag til JET for perioden 1987-91              §il i 3_mio_ECU
   5.3   Virkninger for indtægterne
   Fællesskabsskat fra lønningerne til de midlertidigt ansatte .
6. FINANSIERING :
   Bevillinger opført i budgetterne for De europæiske Fællesskaber for
   1976-1984 .
   Bevillinger , der skal opføres i kommende budgetter ( 1987-1991 ).
7. KONTROLORDNING :
   A ) Videnskabelig kontrol : JET-rådet
                               Det rådgivende udvalg for Fusionsprogrammet
   B ) Administrativ og
       finansiel kontrol :     JET-rådet
                               Revisionsretten .
 ---pagebreak---                                           62
Noter til tabellen
1 ) Alle tal i denne øverste del af tabellen svarer til den projektudviklings¬
    plan og de omkostningsoverslag , der blev godkendt af JET-rådet i marts
    1987 .
2 ) Medlemsbidragene for perioden 1987-1991 er beregnet som den anslåede
    betalingsprofil med fradrag af anslåede diverse indtægter , hovedsagelig
    bankrente .
3 ) JET-bevillingen i    fusionsprogrammet 1985-1989 ,    inklusive bidragene fra
    Sverige og Schweiz ,    beløb sig til 330,0 mio ECU i alt .      De svenske og
    schweiziske bidrag er anslået til 23,9 mio ECU ,     hvilket giver et direkte
    bidrag fra Fællesskabet på 306,1 mio ECU .
4 ) De fremførte bevillinger fra      1986 vedrører programmet 1985-1989 .       De
    bevillinger ,    JET  har  fremført ,    er allerede   blevet  finansieret   af
    medlemsbidrag i 1986 .
5 ) Frem til udgangen af 1986 beløb medlemsbidragene til JET sig til 633,8 mio
    ECU i alt ,   hvoraf 80% eller 507,1 mio ECU er finansieret via Fællesskabet .
    Eftersom der på det tidspunkt var indgået forpligtelser for 526,3 mio ECU ,
    er der allerede indgået forpligtelser for perioden efter 1986 på 19,2 mio
    ECU .
6 ) Af de samlede medlemsbidrag for perioden 1987-1991 på 531,3 mio ECU ,      skal
    80% eller 425 , ø mio ECU finansieres via Fællesskabet . Eftersom der før 1987
    er indgået forpligtelser vedrørende denne periode på 19,2 mio ECU ,     anslås
    forpligtelserne for denne periode til 405,8 mio ECU .
7 ) Tallene i denne kolonne omfatter ikke beløb fremført fra 1986 med henblik
    på udgifter i 1987 .
 ---pagebreak---                              Finansiel profil for bide fællesforetagendet        JET og for Fællesskabets bidrag til JET
  Mio ECU under forudsætning         af en   1976-85       1986      1986(4 )       1987   1988     1989    1990     1991  I alt      I alt
  fortsat årlig inflation på         4%
                                                                                               Anslåede udgifter
                                                                                                                            1976-91   1987-91
                                             Resultat     Resultat  Fremførsel                                                         (7 )
  JET FINANSER ( 1 )
     Forpligtelser                          600,5         100,2          30,4        88,7  125,1    106,8    89,9     80,1   1221,7      490,6
     Betalinger                             542,3          95,3          12,3       104,4  108,5    118,1   115,4     96,1   1192,4      542.5
     Medlemsbidrag ( 2 )                     548 , 5 * 5>  85,3 i5i        -
                                                                                     99,8  106,4    116,6   113,9     94,6   1165,1      531,3 (6J
  FÆLLESSKABETS BIDRAG
     Forpligtelser ( ekskl . CH+S )
     . Programmer 1976-1986                 393,3                                                                             393,3
     . Program 1985-1989                      23,9         73,0              -
                                                                                     75,1     78,7    55,4      -       -
                                                                                                                              306,1  ^ 209,2
     . Program 1987-1991                        -            -               -         -       -
                                                                                                      12,9 . 85,3     70,8     169,0     169,0
     I alt   ( ekskl . CH+S )               417,2          73,0              -
                                                                                     75,1     7.8,7   68,3   85*3     70,8    868,4      378,2
     Sverige og Schweiz                      '31,1          5,0              -
                                                                                      5,4    • 5,7     5,8     5,8 .   4,9      63 J      27,6
     I alt   ( inkl . CH+S )                448,3 ^        78,0 O )          -
                                                                                     80,5     84,4    74,1   91,1     75,7    932,1
     Betalinger ( ekskl . CH+S )
     . Programmer 1976-1986                  393,3            -              -         -         -       -      -       -
                                                                                                                              393,3         -
      . Program 1985-1989                     14,3         63,2            2,8 ■     75,1     78,7    72,0      -       -
                                                                                                                              306,1      225,8
      . Program 1987-1991                        -            -              -         -         -
                                                                                                      12,9   85,3     70,8    169,0     .169,0
  I alt   ( ekskl .  CH+S )                  407,6         63,2            2,8       75.1     78,7    84,9   85,3     70,8    868,4      394,8
  Sverige og Schweiz                        ‘ 31,1          5 J)             -
                                                                                      5.4      5,7     5,8     5,8     4,9    . 63,7      27,6
                                             438^7         68,2            2.8       80,5     84,4    90,7   91,1     75.7    932,1      422,4
!  I alt ( inkl . CH+S )
 ---pagebreak---                                              64
    III . Bidrag fra tredjelande , som er associeret med fusionsprogrammet
    1 .     Det generelle program
    1 .1    Perioden 1976-1986
        Modtagne bidrag anslås til :                                 42 mio ECU
        minus : Fællesskabets udgifter til gennemførelse
                af samarbejdsaftalerne :                           - 25 mio ECU
        Positiv saldo , der kan anvendes til det
        generelle fusionsprogram , anslås til :                      17 mio ECU
        Beløbet på 17 mio ECU er anvendet til ydelse af generel støtte til
        EF-associeringerne med en sats på 25% .
1.2     Perioden 1987-1991
        Sveriges og Schweiz's finansielle bidrag til det generelle program bereg ¬
        nes som før ud fra Fællesskabets betalinger til det generelle program ,
        idet   det  indbyrdes   forhold   mellem  bidragenes   størrelse  svarer  til
        forholdet mellem bidragydernes bruttonationalprodukter .
        Da de nuværende associeringskontrakter med Sverige og Schweiz udløber den
        31 . december 1986 ,  er det ikke muligt at anslå udgifterne i disse lande
        frem til udgangen af 1991 .    Det forudses ,  at begge disse lande vil være
        kraftigt inddraget i det voksende fusionsteknologiprogram .      Den positive
        saldo forventes derfor at blive mindre eller endog forsvinde helt .      Hvis
        der bliver en positiv saldo ,    foreslår Kommissionen ,  at den anvendes til
        finansiering af udgifter i EF-associeringerne .
        Med Spaniens tiltrædelse af Det europæiske Fællesskab den 1 . januar 1986
        er dette lands bidrag til fusionsprogrammet som associeret tredjeland
        ophørt fra denne dato .
 ---pagebreak---                                           65
2.    JET
2.1 . Perioden 1976-1986
      Bidragene til JET fra Sverige og Schweiz i denne periode anslås til 36,1
      mio ECU .
2.2 . Perioden 1987-1991
      Forudsat
      - at de betalingsbevillinger , der fremgår af den flerårige tidsplan ( se
        afsnit I , 5.1.2 ) for 1987-91 , opføres på budgetterne for disse år ,
      - at bruttonationalproduktet for Sverige og Schweiz tilsammen gennemsnit ¬
        ligt udgør 7% af Fællesskabets bruttonationalprodukt , og
      - at Sverige og Schweiz forbliver fuldt associerede medlemmer af fusions ¬
        programmet i perioden 1987-1991 ,
      kan bidragene fra Sverige og Schweiz anslås til 27,6 mio ECU .
 ---pagebreak---                                               66
             D)      UDTALELSE FRA DET VIDENSKABELIGE OG TEKNISKE UDVALG
På mødet den 12 . maj 1986 gennemgik CST udkastet til retningslinjer for et nyt
rammeprogram for Fællesskabets forskning og teknologiske udvikling 1987-1991 .
Udvalget behandlede navnlig forslagene vedrorende kontrolleret termonuklear
fusion og lod i denne forbindelse en lille arbejdsgruppe formulere en forelø -
big udtalelse af generel karakter , men afventede i øvrigt den mere detaljerede
drøftelse , der var fastsat til den 4 . juli 1986 , hvor CST skulle gennemgå :
- udkastet     til      forslag  til   et  femårigt   forskningsprogram   ( 1987-1991 ) på
  området kontrolleret termonuklear fusion ( dok . XII / 475 ) og
- udkastet      til      forslag   vedrørende    ændring  af   fællesforetagendet    JET's
  vedtægter med henblik på at forlænge dets levetid frem til 31 . december 1992
  ( dok . XII / 498 ) .
CST' s udtalelse om disse to udkast ,             afgivet den 4 . juli ,  gengives i det
følgende .
Kontrolleret termonuklear fusion kan på lang sigt blive en værdifuld energi ¬
kilde for Fællesskabet . Trods de betydelige fremskridt , der allerede er gjort ,
vil det dog vare mindst 30 år endnu at nå demonstrationsreaktorstadiet .                En
bekostelig indsats af så lang varighed kan kun accepteres ,            hvis fusionsforsk ¬
ningen i Fællesskabet forbliver fuldt integreret i et velkoordineret program .
Hvis et sådant program gennemføres med en omhyggelig økonomisk styring og uden
unødvendig overlapning ,         er der håb om ,   at fusionsenergien kan føres frem til
det præindustrielle stadium for en udgift , der trods en meget længere forsk ¬
ningsperiode ikke overstiger den finansielle indsats ,               der blev gjort for
fissionsenergien .
 ---pagebreak---                                         67
Fusionsforskningen er stadig domineret af fysikvidenskabelige emner - inklu¬
sive den hertil knyttede teknologi . På dette område er JET det mest ydedygtige
anlæg ,    hvis succes har bidraget kraftigt til at g®re Fællesskabet (*)
ubestridt farende på verdensplan . Anlægget blev opfort inden for de fastlagte
tids- og budgetmæssige rammer , og den første driftsfase , hvorunder der udeluk ¬
kende blev anvendt ohmsk opvarmning , har givet bedre resultater end forventet .
I den derpå følgende fase , som begyndte i 1985 , har indsættelsen af supple ¬
rende opvarmningssystemer ganske vist gjort det muligt at øge plasmatemperatu¬
ren , men det har ikke været muligt at undgå det fald i indeslutningstiden , som
tidligere er sket med andre maskiner . For at rette op på dette forhold og for
at give plasmaet egenskaber , der berettiger tritiumdrift , stilles der forslag
om indsættelse af supplerende udstyr og om , at indstillingen af driften af JET
udsættes fra 31 . maj 199ø til 31 . december 1992 , idet den årlige udgift fast ¬
holdes på 1 986-niveauet . CST vil kraftigt understrege , at afgørelsen om at
forlænge fællesforetagendets levetid haster , idet JET-programmets videre for¬
løb allerede nu er afhængigt af , at denne afgørelse træffes .
CST afgiver positiv udtalelse om forslagene vedrørende JET ,    både for forlæn¬
gelse af fællesforetagendets levetid og for budgetbeløbet . Rigtignok er effek ¬
tiviteten af de forskellige supplerende udstyrselementer , der er stillet for¬
slag om , ikke fuldstændigt sikker , men forsinkes deres ibrugtagning , kan dette
efter CST's vurdering vise sig særdeles skadeligt for programmet som helhed og
medføre en kraftig stigning i udgifterne set på baggrund af de høje grund ¬
læggende driftsudgifter for JET .
<*) Sverige og Schweiz tilsluttede sig Fællesskabets program i henholdsvis
      1976 og 1978 .
 ---pagebreak---                                         68
Den levetid på 12 år , der oprindeligt blev tildelt fællesforetagendet JET ,
betød , at der måtte lægges en meget stram tidsplan . Den foreslåede forlængelse
med to år og syv måneder giver igen meget stramme betingelser . Men det er
efter CST' s opfattelse værd at understrege det eksemplariske ved en streng
tidsgrænse for fællesforetagendet sammenlignet med alle de andre store inter¬
nationale anlæg for grund - eller målforskning .
De fysikprogrammer , der gennemføres i associeringerne , er uundværlige som
støtte for JET med hensyn til visse undersøgelser , der ikke kan gennemføres på
JET , og med hensyn til udforskning af andre udviklingsgrene end TOKAMAKKEN .
Der er flere mellemstore anlæg under opførelse , hvoraf en del er enestående på
verdensplan . CST mener , at den foreslåede finansiering af denne post er særde¬
les fornuftig og svarer til de allerede iværksatte programmer . Det bør fremhæ¬
ves , at det er på dette område , fristelsen til at sprede sig og til at udføre
overlappende arbejde er størst , og det er vigtigt ikke at give efter for denne
fristelse . Driften af de mellemstore anlæg må altså underkastes en lige så
streng programmering som driften af JET .
Først i 1982 blev der opstillet et metodisk fællesskabsprogram for fusionstek ¬
nologi . Målet hermed er på andre områder end det fysikvidenskabelige at ind ¬
hente den viden , der er nødvendig for at vurdere gennemførligheden af forskel ¬
lige principper for udformningen af fusionsreaktorer . Dette program har kunnet
sættes i gang med forholdsvis begrænsede midler , idet man har kunnet støtte
sig på den kompetence og de forsøgsmidler , der blev opbygget under udviklingen
af fissionsenergien .   Umiddelbart er den mest hastende opgave at indhente den
tekniske viden ,  der er nødvendig for NET-projektet , idet NET er defineret som
den eneste mellemfase mellem JET og en demonstrationsreaktor . Man håber i
1990 , når programmet ( 1987-1991 ) skal revideres , at råde over fysiske og
tekniske data i tilstrækkeligt omfang til at kunne træffe afgørelse om at gå
om bord i detailprojekteringen af NET og den hertil knyttede udvikling af
komponentprototyper . CST mener ikke , at det på nuværende tidspunkt vil være
passende at foregribe en sådan afgørelse , som , når tiden er inde , skal gøres
 til genstand for et forslag fra Kommissionen til Rådet .
 ---pagebreak---                                        69
CST foreslår derfor , at der under posterne NET og Teknologi afsættes et samlet
beløb på 91 + 156 mio ECU ,     hvormed afgørelsen om i 1990 at iværksætte
detailprojekteringen af NET ikke foregribes , og hvormed NET-gruppen er sikret
finansiering for hele programmet ( jf . bilag I , tabel 1 , venstre kolonne ).
Dette svarer til et samlet fusionsbudget på 1 059 mio ECU i overensstemmelse
med Kommissionens forslag for programmet 1987-1991 . CST stiller sig positivt
til dette beløb .
Hertil kommer FFC's fusionsaktiviteter .    CST beklager , at detaljerne i disse
aktiviteter af formelle grunde gøres til genstand for særskilt drøftelse og
udtalelse fra CST . Udvalget fastholder , at FFC's aktiviteter på fusionsområdet
skal vurderes efter samme kriterier som de tilsvarende omkostningsdelte
aktiviteter .
 ---pagebreak---                                         70
        UDTALELSE FRA DET RÅDGIVENDE UDVALG FOR FUSIONSPROGRAMMET ( CCPF )
Efter at have drøftet udkastet til programforslag på tre møder i træk tilslut ¬
ter CCPF sig forslagets videnskabelige og tekniske indhold , som udvalget fin¬
der er helt i overensstemmelse med fusionsprogrammets langsigtede målsætninger
og gennemførelsesformer , således som disse tidligere er fastlagt af Minister¬
rådet .
Programmet består af tre hovedelementer : JET , det fysikvidenskabelige og plas ¬
matekniske arbejde i associeringerne samt NET/ teknologi . CCPF støtter henstil ¬
lingen   om   at  forlænge   fællesforetagendet    JET's   levetid   frem  til  den
31 . december 1992 for at udnytte projektets gode resultater .
På baggrund af den detaljerede omkostningsanalyse ,     Kommissionen og dens asso ¬
cierede partnere har foretaget ,    er det CCPF' s opfattelse ,   at den foreslåede
finansielle ramme står i et rimeligt forhold til det foreslåede programs vid ¬
enskabelige og tekniske indhold .
CCPF støtter den grundlæggende antagelse bag programforslaget ,      hvis hovedfor ¬
mål er at etablere det fysikvidenskabelige og teknologiske grundlag for Næste
Trin .  Dette indebærer ,  at der muligvis ved næste programrevision kan stilles
forslag om at gå ombord i detailprojekteringen af NET . CCPF anbefaler Kommis ¬
sionen at indhente en udtalelse fra et uafhængigt panel på et passende tids ¬
punkt , inden en så stor beslutning træffes .
På linje med udtalelsen fra december 1985 anerkender CCPF den succes ,          det
 fuldt integrerede europæiske fusionsprogram bevisligt har haft ,        og som gør
Europa til en fremtrædende partner i enhver plan for udvidet internationalt
 samarbejde på fusionsområdet .   Udvalget ønsker endnu en gang     at udtrykke sin
 ---pagebreak---                                        71
frygt for ,   at fusionsprogrammets mål ikke kan opfyldes ,   hvis finansierings¬
niveauet skulle blive sænket mærkbart i forhold til det foreslåede .    I så fald
måtte programmet tages op til en gennemgribende nyvurdering .
På baggrund af fusionsforskningens allerede store indhold af "højteknologi " og
dens " indirekte virkninger" til gavn for andre videnskabsgrene og europæiske
industribrancher , støtter CCPF Kommissionens forslag om at inddrage industrien
i højere grad .     Industriens rolle må nødvendigvis blive betydeligt mere
fremtrædende , når detailprojekteringsfasen  sætter ind for NET .
Udvekslingen af videnskabeligt personale mellem de forskellige fusionslabora ¬
torier har nået et betydeligt niveau og er særlig værdifuldt for de lande , der
ikke har deres egne fusionsprogrammer . CCPF støtter derfor både det mobili ¬
tetssystem og det stipendieprogram , der indgår i forslaget .
 ---pagebreak---                           72
     Forslag til Rådets afgørelse om godkendelse af ændringen
af vedtægterne for " Joint European Torus ( JET ), Joint Undertaking "
 ---pagebreak---                                      73
                                 A ) BEGRUNDELSE
1. Rådet etablerede fællesforetagendet JET for en periode på 12 år fra den 1 .
   juni 1978 til den 31 .   maj 1990 . Fællesforetagendet formål blev i vedtægt ¬
   erne beskrevet på følgende måde :
   "... at opføre , drive og udnytte et stort torusanlæg af Tokamak-typen ...
   for at udvide det parameterområde , der gælder for kontrollerede termo -
   nukleare fusionsforsøg , til forhold , som ligger nær dem , der er påkrævet i
   en termonuklear reaktor ."
2. Et vellykket JET-projekt er afgørende for projektering og opførelse af et
   anlæg på næste trin , NET ( Næste europæiske Torus ), og dermed for det euro ¬
   pæiske fusionsprogram som helhed .
3. JET har et sæt på fire videnskabelige målsætninger , som blev opstillet i
   rapporten EUR- JET-R5 " JET-projektet - designforslag" fra 1976 , og som der
   udtrykkeligt henvises til i vedtægterne for JET fra 1978 . Disse målsæt ¬
   ninger er stadig uændrede :
   a)  At undersøge , hvordan indeslutningens og plasmaets egenskaber udvikler
       sig , efterhånden som dimensionerne og parametrene nærmer sig de for¬
       hold , der kræves til en reaktor .
   b)  At undersøge og styre vekselvirkningen mellem plasma og væg samt
       tilstrømningen af urenheder under disse forhold .
   c)  At demonstrere effektive opvarmningsmetoder ,     som er i stand til at
       frembringe høje temperaturer .
   d)  At undersøge frembringelse og indeslutning af alfapartikler og efter¬
        følgende plasmaopvarmning .
 ---pagebreak---                                    74
4. Med henblik på at nå disse mål gennemfares projektet i en rakke på hinan¬
   den følgende faser :
   - Fase 0 : Bygning af maskinen
     Maskinen blev bygget planmæssigt i løbet af fem år , fra 1978 til 1983 .
   - Fase 1 : Ohmsk opvarmning
     Hovedmålene for denne fase , som nu er gennemført , var at sætte maskinen
     og dens hovedsystemer i drift og at frembringe et rent hydrogenplasma ,
     der egner sig til undersøgelser vedrørende supplerende opvarmning i
     senere faser .
   - Fase 2 : Undersøgelser af supplerende opvarmning oa af fuld effektooti -
     merina
     1 denne fase , som begyndte planmæssigt i 1985 , vil der gradvis blive
     installeret større mængder supplerende opvarmning i maskinen .        Denne
     fases hovedmål er at nå frem til maskinens maksimale ydelse og at opnå
     de plasmaparametre , der er forudsætningen for programmets sidste fase .
   - Fase 3 : Trit iumfasen
     Hvis fase 2 lykkes , kan tritiumfasen begynde . I denne fase , hvis gennem¬
     førelse kræver op til     to år ,  vil produktionen af alfapartikler      i
     deuterium - og tritiumplasmaer blive undersøgt . Det endelige mål er at nå
     frem til et signifikant niveau for alfapart ikelopvarmning .
5. JET-proiektets hidtidige udvikling
   Både udgifts- og tidsplanen for anlæggets opførelse blev i høj grad over¬
   holdt . Fasen for ohmsk opvarmning , som startede med det første plasma i
   juni 1983 , blev planmæssigt og med godt resultat afsluttet i andet halvår
   af 1984 . Alle de idrifttagne systemer har fungeret i overensstemmelse med
   specifikationerne , og resultaterne på det fysiske område har mere end
   opfyldt forventningerne . Der er faktisk opnået et kontrolleret plasmastrøm
   på 5 mio ampere ( MA ), hvilket skal sammenlignes med det projekterede
   niveau på 4,8 MA . Med ohmsk opvarmning alene har JET opnået plasmatempe ¬
   raturer på næsten 40 mio °C og en indeslutningstid på omkring 0,9 sek .
 ---pagebreak---                                     - 75 -
   I 1985 påbegyndtes programmet for supplerende opvarmning med den vellyk¬
   kede anvendelse af høj frekvensopvarmning , som i 1986 blev fulgt op med
   indførelsen af neutralstråleopvarmning . I november 1986 var man nået op på
   en samlet effekttilkobling til plasmaet på 18 MU ved anvendelse af begge
   supplerende opvarmningsmetoder , og der blev opnået maksimale iontempera¬
   turer på omkring 145 mio °C . Med supplerende opvarmning i den sædvanlige
   materielle begrænserkonfiguration falder indeslutningstiderne betydeligt
   sammenlignet med ohmsk opvarmning . Mod slutningen af 1986 gav indledende
   forsøg med en magnetisk begrænserkonfiguration ( X-punkter ) imidlertid
   opmuntrende resultater , der pegede på én måde , hvorpå dette "fald i inde¬
   slutningstiden" kunne overvindes ( H-område ).
6. Planer for fremtiden
   Da hensigten er at hæve den samlede opvarmningseffekt til mellem 40 og 45
   MW , bliver det af afgørende betydning , at det lykkes at finde et middel
   til at undgå det "fald i indeslutningstiden", som hidtil har vist sig , når
   der anvendes supplerende opvarmning . Teoretiske undersøgelser har i nogen
   tid tydet på - og dette støttes nu af forsøg ved JET og andre steder - at
   det er muligt at udvikle midler til at imødegå faldet i indeslutningstid .
   Der er netop ved at fremkomme en række forsøgsforanstaltninger , som skulle
   gøre det muligt for JET at udnytte hele maskinens ydeevne . Der er her tale
   om følgende fire forhold :
      i)  Forøgelse af den centrale plasmadensitet ved pilleinjektion
     ii ) Plasmaafkast og styring af randdensiteten
   iii )  Bedre styring af vekselvirkningen mellem plasma og væg ved ændringen
          af den magnetiske konfiguration ( X-punkter )
     iv ) Styring af strømprofilen i plasmaet .
   Sigtet med disse foranstaltninger er at frembringe en stabil plasmakon¬
   figuration med højere densiteter og temperaturer ved en tilstrækkeligt
    lang indeslutningstid . Hertil må der installeres supplerende udstyr , hvis
   kapitalomkostninger er anslået til maksimalt 70 mio ECU i 1986-priser .
    Tages der hensyn til en nedskæring på omkring 25 mio ECU af omkostningerne
 ---pagebreak---                               76 -
ved udvidelse til fuld ydelse , er nettostign ingen i kapitalomkostningerne
omkring 45 mio ECU , hvilket svarer til en stigning på under 10% i pro-
jektets samlede kapitalomkostninger . Disse foranstaltninger kan iværksæt ¬
tes uden at forøge JET's nuværende udgiftstakt på mellem 100 og 105 mio
ECU årligt i 1986 -priser .
Dette supplerende udstyr skal være driftsklart , inden JET kan gå videre
til programmets slutfase , tritiumfasen . Projekteringen , fremstillingen og
installationen af dette udstyr kræver tid og vil derfor sinke tritium-
fasens start i forhold til den oprindelige tidsplan . For at forlænge
JET-programmet mindst muligt og fastholde tempoet i det bør gennemførelsen
af disse foranstaltninger ikke sinkes . Det giver kun mening af iværksætte
denne udvikling på et tidligt tidspunkt , hvis fællesforetagendets levetid
samtidig forlænges , således at det supplerende udstyr kan udnyttes i fuldt
omfang . Dette er grunden til , at JET-rådet , da det mødtes i oktober 1985 ,
konkluderede , at driften af JET bør få lov at fortsætte frem til udgangen
af 1992 , således at NET og fusionsprogrammet som helhed fuldt ud kan drage
fordel af JET's potentiel . Kommissionen orienterede Ministerrådet herom i
sin meddelelse om fusionsprogrammet ( K0M(85 ) 789 endelig udg . , 23 . decem¬
ber 1985 ) i december 1985 . Ved mødet i marts 1986 tog JET-rådet i enstem¬
mighed de nødvendige formelle skridt for at forlænge fællesforetagendet
med 2 år og 7 måneder fra den 31 . maj 1990 til den 31 . december 1992 og
for at ændre artikel 19 i vedtægterne for JET i overensstemmelse hermed .
Kommissionen foreslår , at Ministerrådet i medfør af Euratom-traktatens
artikel 50 vedtager denne ændring af JET's vedtægter .
 ---pagebreak---                                            - 77 -
                                      B)    FORSLAG
                                            til
                                   RÅDETS AFGØRELSE
   om godkendelse af ændringen af vedtægterne for "Joint European Torus ( JET ),
                                  Joint Undertaking"
RADET FOR DE EUROPÆISKE FÆLLESSKABER HAR-
under henvisning til traktaten om oprettelse af Det europæiske Atomenergi ¬
fællesskab , særlig artik ^ 1 ea
under henvisning til forslag fra Kommissionen , og
ud fra følgende betragtninger :
Til gennemførelse af JET-projektet har Rådet ved afgørelse 78/471 /Euratom ( 1 )
oprettet fællesforetagendet "Joint European Torus ( JET ), Joint Undertaking" og
vedtaget dette fællesforetagendes vedtægter ,          som senere er ændret ved
afgørelse 79/720/Euratom ( 2 ) og 83/31 Ø/Euratom ( 3 );
hvis JET-projektets mål som defineret i afgørelse 78/471 /Euratom skal nås , er
der behov for supplerende udstyr , som ikke kan fremstilles , drives og udnyttes
inden for fællesforetagendets levetid som fastlagt i de nuværende vedtægter
for JET ;
JET-rådet har godkendt en forlængelse af fællesforetagendets levetid indtil
den 31 . december 1992 og den hert i Isvarende ændring af vedtægterne for JET -
 1 ) EFT nr . L 151 af 7.6.1978 , s . 10 .
2 ) EFT nr . L 213 af 21.8.1979 , s . 9 .
3 ) EFT nr . L 164 af 23.6.1983 , s . 35 .
 ---pagebreak---                                  - 78 -
TRUFFET FØLGENDE AFGØRELSE :
                                   Artikel 1
Den ændring af vedtægterne for " Joint European Torus ( JET ),            Joint
Undertaking", der fremgår af bilaget til denne afgørelse , godkendes herved .
                                   Artikel 2
Denne afgørelse træder i kraft dagen efter offentliggørelsen i De Europæiske
Fællesskabers Tidende .
Udfærdiget i
                                                       På Rådets vegne
                                                            Formand
 ---pagebreak---                                       79
                                     BILAG
Artikel 19.1 i vedtægterne for " Joint European Torus ( JET ), Joint Undertaking"
affattes således :
    " 19.1 . Fællesforetagendet oprettes for en periode frem til
             den 31 . december 1992 "
 ---pagebreak---                                     - 80 -
                            C)  FINANSIERINGSOVERSIGT
De samlede omkostninger ved JET og de finansielle bidrag til JET fra Fælles ¬
skabets budget i hele fællesforetagendets foreslåede levetid er fremstillet i
den finansieringsoversigt , der er vedlagt forslaget til Rådets forordning om
fastlæggelse af et forsknings - og undervisningsprogram fra 1987 til 1991 inden
for kontrolleret termonuklear fusion . Denne oversigt omfatter kun de tillægs¬
omkostninger , der hidrører fra den foreslåede indførelse af supplerende udstyr
og forlængelsen af fællesforetagendet . Disse tillægsomkostninger er beregnet
således i 1986-priser :
. Kapitalomkostninger ved det
    supplerende udstyr                                         70 mio ECU
. 2 år og 7 måneders forlængelse
    af JET' s drift :                                         190 mio ECU
. Minus : Nedskæring af omkostningerne
    ved udvidelse til fuld ydelse :                          - 25 mio ECU
. Tillagsomkostninger netto :                                 235 mio ECU
Størstedelen af kapitalomkostningerne ved det supplerende udstyr vil falde i
årene 1987-1990 sammen med de resterende omkostninger ved udvidelsen til fuld
ydelse og driftsudgifterne for JET . Udgifterne til forlængelsen af JET's drift
vil falde i årene 1990-1992 . I medfør af JET-vedtægternes artikel 9 skulle 80%
af tillægsomkostningerne ( 188 mio ECU ) finansieres via Fællesskabets budget
 ( budgetpost 7311 ). Fordelingen på årsbudgetter er vist i finansieringsover¬
sigten for forslaget til fusionsprogram for 1987-1991 .
 ---pagebreak---                                   - 81
           KOMMISSIONEN FOR DE EUROPÆISKE FÆLLESSKABER
Rapport om fusionsenergiens indvirkning på miljøet og de økonomiske udsigter
                         for denne energiform
          Udarbejdet af Kommissionens tjenestegrene og godkendt af
                  Det rådgivende Udvalg for Fusionsprogrammet
 ---pagebreak---       Environmental Impact and Economic Prospects of Nuclear Fusion
Following a request from both Parliament and Council , the Commission has
asked a group of European experts to establish a technical report on the
" Environmental Impact and Economic Prospects of Nuclear Fusion".
The Commission is pleased to forward this technical report , together
with a less technical summary on the state of the art in this matter
that has been endorsed by the Consultative Committee for the Fusion
Programme .
The Commission is conscious that the results of this work and the views
expressed represent the present stage of knowledge in an evolving field .
Indeed ,   as  the   development   of   nuclear   fusion  moves   from   the
demonstration of the scientific principles to the demonstration of the
technological    feasability ,  research   on   safety , environmental   and
economic aspects of fusion will grow in the future . This will permit to
refine in due course the views expressed at this stage .
The Commission is also aware that decisions of major importance will
have to be taken in a few years time in the field of fusion , such as :
launching the engineering design of NET and initiating the           tritium
operation of JET . Before presenting such proposals , possibly in the
frame of the next programme revision , the Commission will undertake an
in depth evaluation of the fusion programme , including the environmental
and economic aspects .
 ---pagebreak---                                - 83 -
                     FUSIONSENERGIENS INDVIRKNING PÅ MILJØET OG
                    DE ØKONOMISKE UDSIGTER FOR DENNE ENERGIFORM
               Erklæring udarbejdet af Kommissionens tjenestegrene
            og godkendt af Det rådgivende Udvalg for Fusionsprogrammet
1 . INDLEDNING
    Målet for den europæiske fusionsforskning og -udvikling er at konstruere
    et kraftanlæg , der imødekommer en række kriterier for samfundets accept
    heraf , såsom :
    - fusionsbrændslet findes i rigelige mængder , som er tilgængelige for
      Det europæiske Fællesskab
    - fusionsenergien er kemisk ren, for så vidt som der ikke frembringes
      kuldioxid og giftige stoffer
    - den strålingsmæssige belastning af miljøet er beskeden sammenlignet
      med den naturlige baggrundsstråling
    - det sandsynlige uheldspotentiel ved denne energiform udelukker ulykker ,
      som vil kunne medføre alvorlige afbrydelser i den normale Levevis i
      Fællesskabet , uden for selve reaktoranlæggets område
    - fusionsenergi er teknisk pålidelig
    - og økonomisk acceptabel .
    Fusionsenergi kan blive en af de vigtigste nye energikilder . Den vil ikke
    automatisk opfylde samtlige ovennævnte kriterier , men det er muligt at
    konstruere fusionsanlæg med magnetisk indeslutning , som kan imødekomme
    hvert enkelt kriterium for sig . At opfylde alle disse kriterier med én
    enkelt konstruktion , er stadig en fjern mulighed , men der er sket be¬
    tydelige fremskridt , og der gøres en ihærdig indsats for at integrere
    alle de ønskelige miljømæssige , sikkerhedsmæssige og økonomiske egenska ¬
    ber i én sammenhængende konstruktion .
    I det europæiske fusionsprogram , som er koncentreret om systemer med
    magnetisk indeslutning , forudses der tre forskellige stadier inden op¬
    førelse af kommercielle fusionskraftværker : demonstration af videnskabelig
    gennemførlighed , af teknisk    gennemførlighed og senere af økonomisk gennem¬
    førlighed . På nuværende tidspunkt er vi med JET , de mellemstore tokamakker
 ---pagebreak---                                   - 84 -
    og deres udenlandske sidestykker stort set stadig på det rent videnskabelige
    stadium . Med Next European Torus ( NET), som nu er pi skitseprojekterings¬
    stadiet . forventer man , at fusionsenergiens videnskabelige gennemførlighed
    vil kunne bekræftes fuldt ud i den første fase , og at problemet med tek¬
    nologisk gennemførlighed kan tages op i anden fase . Lykkes NET-projektet ,
    skal der opføres en demonstrationsreaktor ( DEMO), inden kommerciel fu¬
    sionsenergi kan virkeliggøres , hvilket derfor ikke ventes at ville ske før
    et godt stykke inde i det næste århundrede .
    Derfor ml udsagn om den kommercielle fusionsenergis indvirkning pi miljøet
    stadig baseres pi principperne for magnetisk fusion og pi skitseprojekter
    snarere end på de tekniske detaljer ved de foreslåede reaktorkonstruktioner .
    Det er ligeledes , men i endnu højere grad , for tidligt at udføre nærmere
    beregninger af omkostningerne ved fusionsenergi i det næste århundrede .
    På anmodning af Kommissionen har europæiske eksperter i løbet af 1986 ud¬
    arbejdet en teknisk rapport om de miljømæssige og økonomiske aspekter af
    fusionsenergien ( Ref . nr . 1 ). Af denne rapport og andre kilder , som for
    tiden udgør vor mest avancerede viden om dette emne , har vi udledt en række
    argumenter , som fremlægges nedenfor .
    Yderligere detaljerede vurderinger kan findes i listen over udvalgt teknisk
    litteratur , som vil bringe den interesserede læser å jour med de seneste
    specialiserede undersøgelser på området .
2 . SKITSEPROJEKTERING AF EN FUSIONSREAKTOR
    Der er i de seneste 10 år udført en række skitseprojekteringer af fusions¬
    reaktorer . De er baseret på den nuværende viden om fysikken i højtemperatur¬
    plasmaer og pi den nuværende teknologi samt på den udvikling , der med rime¬
    lighed kan forventes i den nærmeste fremtid .
    I en fusionsreaktor frembringes der energi ved , at deuterium og tri.tium
    omdannes til helium . Til forskel fra deuterium tilføres tritium ikke ude¬
    fra , men frembringes i selve reaktoren ud fra lithium , der findes i kap¬
    pen . Det er derfor Lithium , der skal tilføres ; de vigtigste brændsler til
    deuterium-tritium-fusionen er således deuterium og lithium .
 ---pagebreak---                                 - 85 -
    Størstedelen af den frembragte fusionsenergi vil fremstå som hurtige neu¬
    troner , der bremses af en omgivende kappe fremstillet af en lithiumfor-
    bindelse ; herved varmes kappen op til temperaturer , der er høje nok tit
    fremstilling af damp . Neutronerne er ikke blot den varmekilde , der frem¬
    stiller elektricitet pi traditionel vis , men de omdanner ligeledes noget
    af lithiummet til tritium . Neutronerne bevirker endvidere , at reaktorens
    indre struktur bliver radioaktiv . Radioaktivitetens niveau og halve¬
    ringstid vil afhænge af de valgte konstruktionsmaterialer; både radioak¬
    tivitetens niveau og halveringstid vil i princippet kunne bringes ned på
    et lavt plan .
3 . FUSIONSBRÆNDSEL FINDES I RIGELIGE MÆNGDER
    Den mængde primærbrændsel , der forbruges til frembringelse af en mio
    kilowatt / t elektricitet i et fusionsanlæg , er omkring 35 gram lithium,
    omdannet til tritium og 10 gram deuterium , hvilket f.eks . kan sammenlignes
    med 240 tons olie eller 360 tons kul i et anlæg fyret med fossilt brændsel .
    Belønningen for beherskelsen af den langt mere komplekse nukleare fusions¬
    proces er et forsvindende lille direkte brændselsforbrug .
    Både lithium og deuterium findes i rigelige mængder i overfladevand, og
    lithium findes tillige i store mængder i landbaserede mineraler . Skønt der
    ikke findes nogen nøjagtige oplysninger i Fællesskabet , synes vurderinger
    af landbaseret lithium i nogle EF-lande at vise , at der vil være rigelige
    forsyninger , af at forsyningsproblemer ikke på nogen måde vil begrænse ud¬
    nyttelsen af fusionsenergi i Europa .
4 . INGEN KEMISKE FORURENENDE STOFFER
    Reaktionsproduktet af fusionen mellem deuterium og tritium er helium , en
    kemisk inaktiv ædelgas . Af de kendte eller påregnede processer i fusions
    brændselskredsløbet medfører ingen kemisk giftige eller forurenende emi -
    sioner . Navnlig frembringes der hverken carbondioxid eller nitrogen- og
    svovloxider .
5 . LAV STRÅLINGSRISIKO
    Tritium er det eneste radioaktive stof i brændselskredsløbet i fusionsreakto
    rerne på det nuværende projekteringstrin . De primære brændsler , deuterium
 ---pagebreak---                                - 86 -
og lithium , er ikke radioaktive , og produktet af fusionsreaktionen er
i kke-radioakti vt helium .
Tritium er en radioaktiv hydrogenisotop . Det har en radioaktiv halve ¬
 ringstid pi 12,3 Ir og henfalder under udsendelse af beta-striling
 ( elektroner ). Tritium findes til stadighed i meget sml mængder fra
 naturlige kilder i den øvre atmosfære . Gasformigt tritium      oxideres
 i luften og i jorden til tritieret vand ( HTO ), og i denne     form
 absorberes det lettere i menneskeligt væv . Tritieret vand      ophobes
 imidlertid ikke i legemet , men udskilles med en biologisk      halverings ¬
 tid pi omkring 10 dage . Tritieret vand i miljøet spredes og for¬
 tyndes heldigvis langt hurtigere i økosystemerne end fisionsproduk ¬
 ter og aktinider . Halveringstiden for tritieret vand fra de øvre
  lag af jorden miles slledes i dage, medens fi sionsprodukter og aktinider
 kan kontaminere jord og bygninger i meget lange tidsrum . Der er
 ingen viden om eller kendte mekanismer for koncentratiorfen af tri ¬
 tium i fødekæden .
 Under normal drift i et fusionskraftværk er tritium indesluttet i
 et indre kredsløb , som omfatter brændselstilførsel , udledning og
 rensning samt genvinding pi stedet af tritium fra formeringskappen .
 Driftserfaringer fra canadiske CANDU-f i sionsreaktorer med tilsvarende
 tritiumkoncentrationer i kølesystemet antyder , at udslip til atmos ¬
 færen med den nuværende teknologi kan holdes pi et langt lavere
 niveau end den naturlige radioaktivitet . Tritiums korte halveringstid
 udelukker kumulativ opbygning af tritium-radioaktivitet over lang tid .
 Radioaktiviteten tilføjes reaktorstrukturen med neutroner fra fu ¬
 sionsreaktionerne , men omfanget og arten af denne radioaktivitet
 afhænger af de valgte konstruktionsmaterialer*. Den neutroninducerede
 *   Det er derfor muligt , at udvikling af nye lavt aktiverbare materialer
     vil kunne medføre en væsentlig reduktion i reaktorstrukturernes
     radioaktivitet , sammenlignet med f.eks . handelsstll .
 ---pagebreak---                                    - 87 -
    radioaktivitet er i vid udstrækning immobi Li seret i reaktor ¬
    strukturen . Den lille del , som via korrosionsprocesser vil blive
    tilført den primære kølevæske , er begrænset til et internt lukket
    kredsløb .
    Der vil blive frembragt radioaktivt       affald af forskellige kate¬
    gorier ( lavaktivt , mellemaktivt og højaktivt ). Affaldet med den
    højeste radioaktivitet er hovedsageligt et resultat af den nødven¬
    dige udskiftning af slidte dele af reaktoren . Dette affald vil
  . bestå af dele af den aktiverede reaktorstruktur , og det vil derfor
    være en stor fordel at anvende lavt aktiverbare materialer , som
    miske endog kan genanvendes . Der vil endvidere være en vis mæng¬
    de tritieret affald , som , i henhold til nylige undersøgelser
    ( ref . 3 ), kan bortskaffes uden mærkbare virkninger på miljøet .
    Der er i forbindelse med fusion ikke noget alfa-affald i lighed
    med de langlivede aktinider , der frembringes ved fission .
    Der er foretaget skøn over mængden af radioaktive materialer ,
    både tritium og aktiverede konstruktionsmaterialer , som vil blive
    frembragt og udledt i miljøet i forbindelse med uheld , hvor der
    ligeledes sker et brud på indeslutningen . Selv i det tilfælde ,
    hvor alt det udledte tritium ville bestå af tritieret vand ,
    synes det i forbindelse med fusionsudviklingen at være muligt at
    begrænse virkningerne uden for reaktoranlæggets område til et
    sådant niveau , at der ikke vil blive behov for evakueringsforan¬
    staltninger . Dette indebærer , at der selv ved det værst tænkelige
    uheld ikke ville indtræde nogen alvorlig afbrydelse i det normale
    liv i beboelsesområder omkring kraftværket .
6 . POTENTIEL PASSIV SIKKERHED
    Fusion med magnetisk indeslutning har vigtige iboende sikkerheds ¬
    egenskaber , som , hvis de udnyttes hensigtsmæssigt i konstruktionen ,
    kan resultere i betydelig , omend ikke fuldstændig , passiv reaktor ¬
    sikkerhed . Den vigtigste af disse sikkerhedsegenskaber er , at
    uanset hvad der svigter eller går galt i en fusionsreaktor , kan
    det ikke under nogen omstændigheder føre til en løbsk nuklear
    kædereaktion . Endvidere er brændselsmængden i reaktoren til stadighed
    kun tilstrækkelig til nogle få tiendedele sekunders drift , og afbrydelse
    af brændselstilførslen eller en ændring i det magnetiske indeslutnings ¬
    system som følge af en fejl i anlægget vil hurtigt føre til standsning
    af fusionsreaktionen .
 ---pagebreak---                               - 88 -
   Meget vigtige træk , der bidrager til reaktorens passive sikker ¬
   hed , er :
   - den relativt lave eftervarme ( mindre end 2% af driftseffekten ,
       afhængigt af reaktorens konstruktionsmaterialer ), hvilket be¬
       tyder , at strukturen , selv i det usandsynlige tilfælde , hvor
       samtlige kølesystemer svigter totalt , først ville smelte efter
       flere timers forløb - eller slet ikke smelte som følge af en
       hensigtsmæssig konstruktion ;
   -   de fleste af de tilstedeværende radioaktive stoffer er ube ¬
       vægelige , eftersom de findes i ikke-f lygtige strukturmaterialer ;
   - de tilstedeværende radioisotopers lave biologiske risikopoten ¬
       tiel ( radiotoksisitet ), som for stils vedkommende er ca . 100
       gange mindre end for fissionsprodukter og aktinider , og som
       sandsynligvis kan reduceres endnu mere ved valg af egnede
       struktur mat er i aler ;
   - oparbejdning pi stedet af tritium-brændslet, hvilket udelukker
       risikoen ved transport af tritium ( naturligvis bortset fra
       for den tritium-mængde , der behøves til at igangsætte en ny
       reaktor for første gang ).
7. DE ØKONOMISKE UDSIGTER FOR FUSIONSENERGI
   Udviklingen af kommerciel fusionsenergi er et mil pi lang sigt . Den
   nøjagtige tidsplan for og omfanget af fusionsenergiens kommercielle
   udnyttelse vil afhænge af omkostningerne ved en sidan energikilde .
   Pi nuværende stadium er alle forsøg pi nøjagtigt at vurdere omkost ¬
   ningerne ved fusionsenergi , om miske to generationer , nødvendigvis
   omtrentlige . De fremtidige omkostninger ved andre metoder til
   kraftproduktion er ligeledes usikre . Derfor er det umuligt sikkert
   at sige , hvorvidt fusion vil blive en økonomisk konkurrencedygtig
   energikilde i første halvdel af næste irhundrede .
   Der er naturligvis foretaget undersøgelser af de økonomiske udsigter
   for fusionsenergi ( jf . f.eks . ref . 1 ). Ifølge disse undersøgelser
   ligger omkostningsniveauet for elfremstilling pi grundlag af fusion
   nogenlunde pi linje med omkostningerne ved de nuværende energi ¬
   teknologier . Disse omkostningsniveauer synes at ligge inden for
   mulighedernes grænse , forudsat at bestræbelserne pi at forbedre og
   forenkle fusionsteknologien krones med held .
 ---pagebreak---                                  - 89 -
      Derudover kan der forventes betydningsfulde " spin-off "- resultater
      i forbindelse med den fortsatte fusionsudvikling , siledes som det
      i dag ses pi andre højteknologiske omrider .
      Endvidere bør udsigterne for fusionsenergi og de økonomiske sammen ¬
      ligninger med andre energifremstillingsmetoder betragtes i en større
      sammenhæng , idet omkostningerne i tilknytning til sikkerhed , spørgs-
      mllet vedrørende forsyningssikkerhed og de miljømæssige virkninger
      ligeledes bør medtages . Fusion har mange miljømæssige og sikkerheds ¬
      mæssige fordele , og disse fordele vil kunne vise sig at veje tungt
      til fordel for indførelsen af fusion som en betydelig ny energi ¬
      kilde for verden som helhed .
8.    LITTERATUREN
       1.   The Environmental Impact and Economic Prospects of Nuclear
            Fusion ( EUR FU BRU / XII 828 / 86 )
       Anden litteratur
   2.     Environmental Aspects of Fusion Reactors
          CASINI , G. , PONTI , C. , ROCCO , P.              (EUR- 10728-EN, 1986 )
   3.     The Implications for Health and the Environment of the
          Disposal of Tritiated Wastes                       ( EUR 10617 EN , 1986)
   4.     Fusion Reactors - Safety and Environmental Impact
          HANCOX , R. , REDPATH , W.           (Nucl . Energy 24 ( 1985 ), p - 263)
   5.     Preliminary Findings of a U.S. National Committee on
           Environmental , Safety and Economic Aspects of Magnetic Fusion
           Energy
           HOLDREN , J.P.
           (Paper presented at the IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on
           Fusion Reactor Safety , Culham , 3-7 November 1986 ).
    6.     Fusion Safety Status Report              ( IAEA - Tec . Doc . 388 , 1986)
 ---pagebreak---                                                               90 .
                  COMPETITIVENESS AND EMPLOYMENT IMPACT STATEMENT
I. Subject matter
   - The programme proposed is designed to continue research and develop ¬
     ment in the field of controlled thermonuclear fusion and covers all
     activities in the Member States in this field .   The final aim of this
     programme is to determine whether energy can be produced at
     competitive prices from nuclear fusion reactions between light atomic
     nuclei and , if so , jointly to construct prototypes with a view to
     industrial-scale production and marketing .
   - The main reasons for conducting research and development in this
     field on a Community basis are among others :
      . the scale of the human and financial resources required , which
        suggest that such a development could hardly be carried out on a
        national basis ;
     . the long time-scale of the effort ( extending well into the next
        century) needed to arrive at the construction of the reactor ;
     . the realisation of a European market for European industries in
        domains of high-technologies and , in the event of success , the
        opening up of a wide Community market for the European reactor .
   - If the programme proposal were not introduced , there would result
     irreversible damages , the most severe one concerning JET . Indeed , in
     parallel   with   this  programme  proposal ,  a  proposal    for  the
     prolongation of the JET project until the end of 1992 is being
     submitted . Such a prolongation is coherent with the installation and
     the exploitation of supplementary equipment on JET in order to ensure
     the further success of this device . A lack of decision on the fusion
     programme would put into question the date of implementation of such
     equipment and accordingly would made not viable the date proposed for
     the end of the project : such termination should then be delayed
     until after 1992 and would cause considerable overcosts .
 ---pagebreak--- II . Features of business in question
     - The proposal has implications for European industry in the domains
       of high-technologies , with spin-offs ( in particular in the fields of
       superconducting magnet technology , robotics , and high-power micro-
       wave systems ) to the benefit of other branches of science and of
       industry .
     - The proposal has also implications for SME 's . The role of industry
       is expected to grow when the European Next Step (NET ) will enter the
       phase of engineering design . JET experience , in particular , has
       shown that new SME 's , working mostly in the fusion field , were
       created or have considerably developed in order * to satisfy the needs
       of the fusion laboratories .
III . Implications of programme on business
     - For the implementation of the programme , JET and the institutions
       associated to the Community fusion programme launch European calls
       for tender for equipment and services , particularly in the domains
       of high technologies . Technically competent SME 's are invited to
       participate to each call for tender , when appropriate .
IV . Obligations likely to be imposed on business : NONE
V.   Special nrovisions in respect of SME 's
     There are no such provisions .      The present proposal is likely to
     stimulate SME 's , as was indicated before .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      92 .
VI . Effects to be expected
     - The expected effects are ,    as indicated before ,  a stimulation in
       domains of high technologies of the competitiveness of European
       industry as compared to other industry in the world .
     - The proposal has no deleterious effect on the job situation in the
       Community :  on the contrary ,  it helps in increasing the know-how
       necessary to develop this new potential energy source .   In the long
       term ,  the opening-up of a wide European market for the European
       reactor would have a positive effect on employment .
VII . Consultation of relevant representative organisations
       Member States are consulted through the Consultative Committee for
       the Fusion Programme , whose opinion ( 1986 proposal ) and "views "
       ( revised 1987 proposal ) are favourable , and through the Scientific
       and Technical Committee , whose opinion was also positive . The
       European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee will also
       be asked to give their opinion .
 ---pagebreak---                                                EURFU BRU/XI 1-828/86
// тсопирШ »
I
  ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
                   and
     ECONOMIC PROSPECTS
                      of
              NUCLEAR FUSION
                   ANNEXE
                   Commission of the European Communities
                   Directorate General XII - Fusion Programme
BRUSSELS ,
NOVEMBER 1986      Brussels
 ---pagebreak---                      CONTENTS
                                          Page
Explanation                            ( i)-(ii )
Executive Summary                          1
Environmental Impact of Nuclear Fusion     15
Economic Prospects of Nuclear Fusion -     52
A 1986 Viewpoint
 ---pagebreak---                                                                        (i)
Explanation :
1)   By a Resolution adopted on 17 January 1985 , the Council embodied
     the Opinion of the European Parliament on a Proposal ( COM(84 ) 271
     final ) from the Commission of the European Communities to the
     Council :
            "For a Council Decision adopting a research and training
            programme ( 1985-1989 ) in the field of thermonuclear Fusion"
     The European Parliament , in its aforesaid Opinion :
     (Art . 4 )  Calls again on the Commission to launch , in the next few
                 years , a public discussion on nuclear fusion and on the
                 indispensability and impact thereof ;
     (Art . 5 )  Instructs its f the E.P 's ) Committee on Energy , Research
                 and Technology , as the committee responsible , to hold a
                 wide-ranging hearing , at the time of the next programme
                 review , on the prospects for and hazards of controlled
                 nuclear fusion ;
2)   In response to the requests of the E.P. mentioned above and in view
     of the impending programme revision in 1987 the Consultative
     Committee for the Fusion Programme advised the Commission :
     " to start , without delay , the necessary actions to prepare on a
     strictly European basis , a response to the European Parliament
     concerning questions raised on the Environmental , Safety and
     Economic Aspects of Fusion" ( Extract from Minutes of CCFP 23 of 30
     Sept . 1985 ).
     Subsequently the Commission asked two groups of experts to carry
     out , during 1986 , a study on the present state of knowledge
     concerning the subjects in question .
     One group studied the Environmental aspects the other the Economic
     prospects .
3)   The work of the two Expert Groups was supervised by a Working Group
     composed of leading fusion scientists coming from the European
     fusion laboratories , from JET , from NET and from the Joint Research
     Centre .
 ---pagebreak--- The members of a Working Group were as follows :
                Messrs : BRAAMS    ( FOM , Rijhuizen )
                         BRUNELLI  ( ENEA , Frascati )
                         CASINI    ( JRC , Ispra )
                         GIBSON    ( JET )
                         GRIEGER   ( IPP , Garching )
                         HENNIES   (KfK , Karlsruhe )
                         PEASE     ( UKAEA , Culham)
                         PREVOT    ( CEA , Cadarache )
                         TOSCHI    ( NET , Garching )
The Group met four times during the year in order to advise the
experts on the issues raised in their reports .
The final outcome is the Report which follows and which consists of
three parts , an Executive Summary prepared by the Services of the
Commission and two Technical sections prepared by the Expert Groups
concerned .
 ---pagebreak---    ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND ECONOMIC PROSPECTS OF FUSION
                    AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CONTENTS
1.   Introduction                                    2
2.   The Route Towards a Fusion Reactor              3
3.   A Conceptual Fusion Reactor                     4
4.   Environmental Impact During Norma ] Operation   7
5.   Environmental Impact due to Accidents           9
6.   Safety Aspects                                  9
7.   The Economie Prospects                          11
8.   Conclusions                                     13
 ---pagebreak---                                                                   2.
      ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND ECONOMIC PROSPECTS OF FUSION ;
                       AN EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
The aim of European fusion research and development is to produce a
design of a power plant that satisfies a number of social
acceptance criteria such as :
     it is economically acceptable
     it is technically reliable
     it is chemically clean , in that it produces no carbon
     dioxide or toxic emissions
-    its radiological burden to the environment , either from the
     plant or from waste products , in normal conditions is small
     compared to the natural background
     its credible accident potential excludes calamities disrupting
     normal life in the community outside the reactor site boundary
     it relies on fuels and construction materials that are
     abundant and accessible to all countries of Europe .
Fusion energy , when available , will not automatically fulfil all
the above criteria . It is , in fact , possible to conceive of
applications that violate one or more of these . However , this
report will show that design options for magnetic confinement
fusion are being put forward to meet each one of them . This is not
to say that a consistent design along these lines is in hand .
Although great progress has been achieved that brings us close to
fusion conditions , it remains a formidable challenge to the science
and technology of our time to integrate all desirable
environmental , safety and economic features into a coherent design .
All this applies to the deuterium-tritium fusion system . There is a
long-term prospective that this may eventually be superseded by
so-called advanced fuels , but the case is made that deuterLum-
tritium fusion is a worthy goal to pursue on its own merits .
Clearly , our acceptance criteria must be further refined and
quantified before they reach the level of precision that will
ultimately be required when decisions to enter the commercial stage
of fusion power are to be made . In this context , a report such as
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      3.
   this can serve a multiple purpose . First , to remind workers in the
   field of the stringent standards society is likely to apply to the
   outcome of their work and to focus their attention on all questions
   raised in this context .
   Secondly , to reassure both the responsible authorities and the
   general public that the efforts devoted to the subject are striving
   for the highest standards , and that encouraging progress is being
   made towards providing society with a supply capable of filling a
   sizeable , indeed the major , portion of its long-term energy needs
   in the best possible way . Finally , the report is likely to provoke
   reactions that contribute to a better understanding of the promise
   held by fusion and of the constraints to be imposed on this
   emerging technology if and when it comes to widespread application .
   This report summarises , with a minimum of technical detail , two
   technical reports by teams of specialists drawn from several
   European research institues : " Environmental Impact of Nuclear
   Fusion" and "The Economic Prospects of Nuclear Fusion : A 1986
   Viewpoint".
2. THE ROUTE TOWARDS A EUROPEAN FUSION REACTOR
   The European fusion programme , which concentrates on magnetic
   confinement systems , envisages three distinct steps to be taken
   before commercial fusion power stations can be built .
   The first is to establish the scientific feasibility of the process
   and this is the main thrust of the present programme with the JET
   Joint Undertaking at Culham , UK , as the principal experimental
   apparatus and with complementary studies in the national
   laboratories . The next step , NET (Next European Torus ), will be to
   establish the technological and engineering feasibility . The NET
   design team has already been established at Garching , Federal
   Republic of Germany , and is currently in the pre-design phase of
   the Project . The construction of NET will depend on the main
   experimental results of JET (Joint European Torus) and other fusion
   experiments . After the successful operation of NET , a demonstration
   reactor - DEMO - will be required to establish the design features
   that will determine the economic feasibility of a fusion reactor .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      4.
   The timescale for such a programme is long but if all stages
   proceed to plan a commercial fusion power station could be in
   operation in the first half of the next century , a time when ,
   according to current predictions , new sources of pollution-free
   energy will be required to supplement nuclear fission and other
   energy sources . In addition , the dwindling supplies of the fossil
   fuels , coal , gas and oil will be needed increasingly for other
   industrial purposes .
   JET , one of the world 's leading fusion experiments of the tokamak
   class , aims at achieving conditions approaching those required in a
   reactor . To do this , the fuel , which is a mixture of deuterium and
   tritium ( the heavy isotopes of hydrogen ) gas , must be heated to
   temperatures in excess of 100 million degrees Celsius and held in
   isolation from container walls by magnetic fields . These fields
   provide the necessary thermal insulation to prevent excessive
   cooling of the hot ionised gas known as plasma . The plasma in JET
   is contained in a large ring-shaped vacuum vessel called a torus .
   If the plasma physics revealed in the JET experiments is favourable
   then the power which would be released from fusion reactions
   occurring in the JET plasma could be several tens of megawatts for
   a few seconds . NET , an experimental test reactor producing a
   thermal   fusion power of     about  600 MW ,  is being  designed  to
   demonstrate sustained reactions , (which themselves should continue
   to keep the plasma hot ) , and to provide the necessary technological
   data for designing a demonstration reactor (DEMO ) with a net
   electrical output of several hundred megawatts .
3. A CONCEPTUAL FUSION REACTOR
   A number of conceptual fusion reactor designs have been made over
   the last decade . They are based on the present knowledge of the
   physics of high temperature plasmas together with the technology
   currently available or of developments that can reasonably be
   expected in the near future . Based on plausible extrapolations to
   the reactor level , a reactor of net electric power of 1200 MW has
   been defined for the purpose of the attached technical reports and
   been used in the environmental and economic comparisons .
   The simplest view of a fusion reactor is a unit into which the
   basic fuels - deuterium and lithium - are fed and the output is
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      5.
    electricity with helium as the principal waste product .
    Lithium is required to produce tritium (a radioactive form of
    hydrogen) which will be subsequently "burnt " with deuterium to
    produce power from fusion reactions . Deuterium from water and the
    light metal lithium from the earth 's crust are both plentiful and
    geographically well distributed . Less than one tonne of these fuels
    would be consumed in a 1200 MW fusion power station per year . Most
    of the fusion power generated will appear as high speed particles
    called neutrons , which will be slowed down in a surrounding blanket
    made of a compound of lithium causing the blanket to heat up to
    temperatures suitable for raising steam . The neutrons not only
    provide the heat source for generating electricity in the
    conventional way , but also convert some of the lithium into
    tritium . The neutrons also cause the reactor internal structure to
    become radioactive . The level of radioactivity and the decay rate
    (half-life ) will depend on the structural materials chosen ; both
    could in principle be made low .
3.1 Radioactivity in a Fusion Reactor
    The only radioactive substance inherent to the fuel cycle of the
    currently-envisaged fusion reactor is tritium . In addition ,
    radioactivity is induced in the structure of the reactor by the
    neutrons arising from the fusion reactions . These two sources of
    radioactivity have been considered in assessing the safety and
    environmental aspects of fusion reactors in the following sections .
3.2 Tritium
    Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen . It has a radioactive
    half-life of 12.3 years and decays by emitting beta-radiation
     ( electrons ) . Tritium is present in very small quantities at all
    times from natural sources in the upper atmosphere . Man-made
    tritium , mainly from thermonuclear weapons testing programmes , far
    exceeds the natural background levels of tritium . Gaseous tritium
     oxidises in air and in the soil to form tritiated water (HTO) and
     in this form it is more readily absorbed by human tissue . However ,
     tritiated water does not concentrate in the body but is excreted
    with a biological half-life of about ten days . Fortunately ,
 ---pagebreak---                                                                        6.
      tritiated water in the environment disperses and dilutes in the
      ecosystem much faster than fission products and actinides . For
      example , the half life of the loss of tritiated water from the
      upper layers of the soil is measured in days , whereas fission
      products and actinides can contaminate land and buildings for very
      long periods . There is no evidence or known mechanism for the
      concentration of tritium in the food chain .
3.3 . Tritium Inventories
      The amount of tritium in the plasma of the reactor at any given
      time is very small - less than 1 g . The total tritium inventory for
      a 1200 MW plant will be about 3 kg of which about one third will be
      kept in a number of separated bunkered store rooms until required .
      The stored tritium need not be in the gaseous form but may be kept
      in a solid stable form such as a metallic tritide . There will also
      be tritium trapped in the lithium blanket surrounding the reactor
      and in the processing plant ; the quantity of tritium therein will
      depend upon the reactor design ranging from a few hundred grams to
      about 2 kg . The bulk of the tritium in a reactor - in store and in
      the blanket - is effectively immobilised and has a very low chance
      of  escaping   into  the  environment . Present  knowledge , however ,
      indicates that the quantity of tritium that could be released in
      any conceivable accident could be reduced to about 200 g and this
      value   has  therefore   been  assumed  in   the  assessment  of  the
      environmental consequences of the worst conceivable accident .
3.4   Radioactivity of the Internal Structure of the Reactor
      The neutrons resulting from the fusion reactions will make the
      structural materials of the reactor radioactive , but the level and
      longevity of the radioactivity depends essentially on the chemical
      composition of the elements used in the manufacture . The components
      closest to the plasma - particularly the torus wall and the blanket
      structure - will be subject to the most intense neutron bombardment
      and if made , for example , from conventional stainless steel will
      become the major fraction ( over 90% ) of the radioactive inventory
      of the plant . Although the total radioactive inventory of a fusion
      reactor at the time of shut down using conventional stainless
      steels for the torus wall and other internal structures will be
 ---pagebreak---                                                                             7.
      almost comparable to that of a fission plant of similar power the
      biological    hazards     ( radiotoxicity )   associated   with    steel
      activation products are significantly lower ( about one hundred
      times lower ) than those of fission products and actinides .
      Furthermore , the bulk of the activation products are trapped in the
      solid structural material of the reactor and cannot as such be
      dispersed into the atmosphere .
      In making any     safety and     environmental assessments   of   fusion
      reactors , it is necessary to consider potential hazards specific to
      fusion that could arise especially from the radioactive tritium and
      from the activated reactor structure . Studies have therefore been
      made on the environmental impact during normal operation , the
      radioactive waste generated during the life of the reactor , and the
      environmental impact due to the worst possible accidents . These are
      reported in depth in the accompanying reports together with the
      assessement of the economics of a fusion reactor . A summary of each
      of these aspects is given in the following sections .
A.    ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT DURING NORMAL OPERATION
4.1   Routine Emissions
      The only gaseous part of the radioactive inventory of the
      currently-envisaged     fusion     reactor will      be  the    tritium .
      Multiple-containment systems will be used with the steel-lined ,
      air-tight reactor building being the final barrier against the
      release of tritium into the environment . The largest internal loss
      of tritium during normal operation may occur via the coolant lines .
      This is because tritium can permeate into the cooling channels of
      the blanket . Operating experience gained from Canadian CANDU
      fission reactors , with comparable tritium concentrations in the
      coolant , indicates that , with existing technology , losses to the
      atmosphere can be kept to very low levels . On the basis of this
      experience , the total tritium released daily from a 1200 MW reactor
                                                         *
      is expected to be less than 1 / 100 g (3.7 TBq) which would result
      in maximum dose to the most exposed individual of the public local
                                       *
      to the plant of about 10 Sv (1 mrem) per year . This is well
  Bq = Becquerel ; TBq = 1,000,000,000,000 Bq ;
  Sv = Sievert ; mSv * Milli-Sievert ;     Sv = Micro Sievert
 ---pagebreak---                                                                       8.
    below the limit Imposed by current regulations for fission reactors
    ( 50-300    Sv or 5-30 mrem per year ) and would , for this most
    exposed person , Increase the dose burden above that due to average
    natural background radiation by about 1% - much less than the
    variations in background radiation from place to place .
    The most likely release of activation products during normal
    operation is from the leakage of corrosion products from the
    primary cooling circuits or from a loss of cooling water during
    maintenance . Based on fission reactor experience , at most this
    would amount to a relatively small amount per year and the
    consequences to any member of the public would be negligible .
4.2 Radioactive Wastes
    The principal radioactive components of a fusion reactor will be
    the torus wall and the blanket structure , both of which will have
    become activated by the fusion neutrons . If conventional steels are
    employed , it is likely that these components will be replaced about
    four times during the life of the reactor . Low level wastes will
    also arise from various processing systems around the reactor .
    Experimental facilities , such as JET , use conventional types of
    stainless steel for the construction of the torus ; these steels are
    not ideal materials for a fusion reactor . The fusion technology
    programme is therefore investigating new materials , in which the
    alloying elements that become radioactive with long half-lives are
    replaced by elements with only short-lived radioactivity . These
    materials could reduce the radioactive inventory of the structure
    by a factor between 10 and 100 , the decay rates would be faster and
    recycling of many of these selected materials could be considered
    after about 100 years . The storage problems for such wastes would
    not only be for much shorter duration than waste from fission
    reactors (where the long-lived actinides are inherent to the
    process ) but would also be much easier to handle . The fusion waste
    would be in solid form and , having a large surface area , active
    cooling would not be necessary and furthermore deep geological
    disposal would not be required .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      9.
   In general , it is concluded that the radioactive wastes from the
   fusion process will be considerably easier to store and dispose of
   than the wastes from fission reactors .
5. ENV IRONMENTAL IMPACT DUE TO ACCIDENTS
   Studies are being made of accident scenarios resulting from major
   technical failures of the reactor or plant .        If such a severe
   accident caused the reactor building to be breached (although this
   seems impossible ) then the radioactive release into the environment
   would be mainly tritium and some activated structural materials .
   No mechanism has been identified that could mobilise more than a
   few grams of radioactive particles from the reactor structural
   materials .
   The maximum quantity of tritium contained inside several different
   buildings of the fusion plant is considered to be about 3 kg . No
   sequence of events leading to the release of all this tritium could
   be found and the most severe accident identified would lead to the
   release into the environment of not more than 200 g of tritium . If
   this 200 g of tritium in the most hazardous form ( HTO ) were
   released from the building roof ( rather than from a high chimney
   stack ) under adverse weather conditions it would cause a maximum
   dose of 60-80 mSv (6 to 8 rems ) at a distance of 1 km from the
   plant . In such an incident , the levels of radiation would not cause
   direct harm to any member of the public or lead to the evacuation
   of the public outside the power station boundary fence .
   It is concluded , therefore , that releases of tritium - the most
   hazardous material in a fusion reactor - and radioactive internal
   structural materials will cause no immediate harm to an individual
   or cause disruption to the normal life of the community outside the
   power station boundary fence during normal operation , during
   maintenance operations or even following a major accident or plant
   failure .
6. SAFETY ASPECTS
   Fusion    reactors  will   be   complex  nuclear   installations  but
   nevertheless appear to have a number of intrinsic safety features .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                  10 .
The most important safety aspect is that whatever fails or goes
wrong with a fusion reactor , it cannot in any circumstance lead to
an uncontrolled , self-started and self-sustained nuclear runaway .
Moreover , the amount of fuel in the reactor core at any given time
is only sufficient for a few tens of seconds of operation and the
interruption of the flow of fuel , or a variation in the magnetic
confinement system because of a failure of the plant , will lead to
the instantaneous quenching of the plasma and the fusion reaction
will cease .
In the event of the shut-down of the reactor , cooling systems must
continue to operate to cope with the afterheat in the torus wall
and the blanket structure . In a fusion reactor , the afterheat will
be relatively low (up to 2% of the operating power depending on the
structural materials of the reactor) . Even in the unlikely
situation of the total failure of all the cooling systems , the low
level of afterheat and the large volume and surface area of the
structures are such that melting of the structures would not occur
for several hours or even may be avoided altogether by appropriate
design .
Safety for any nuclear reactor is of the utmost importance . A
fusion reactor will have a number of specific safety features built
in . The tritium plant will be built with multiple-containment
systems and the bulk of the tritium will be stored in a solid
immobile form and in separate bunkers away from the reactor to
minimise leakage to the environment . The tritium reprocessing will ,
in general , be carried out on site as an integral part of the
plant . There may be some transportation of tritium in immobilised
form outside the plant to start up new reactors . The reactor
building itself will be designed such that under all conceivable
internal accident conditions the building would not be breached .
Virtually all the radioactive inventory of a fusion reactor is
non-volatile structural materials and there are prospects that
long-lived radioactive materials can be avoided . The biological
hazard potential of the radio-isotopes from fusion reactors is low .
Even in the worst conceivable accident scenario ,    there seems no
circumstance resulting in immediate harm to an individual beyond
the site boundary or the evacuation of the public .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                       11 .
   It is concluded therefore that fusion reactors will provide a safe ,
   environmentally-acceptable future source of energy .
7. THE ECONOMIC PROSPECTS
   For fusion power to be established as a commercial source of
   energy , it is necessary for it to be economically competitive , to
   satisfy existing safety requirements and to be acceptable to the
   public . Just as it is not easy to predict the price of oil next
   year , to predict some fifty years ahead whether an as-yet unproven
   system will be competitive is difficult and uncertain , and by
   necessity , will be based on a number of assumptions . The emphasis
   of the current research programme has been directed to making the
   fusion process work in large-scale experimental apparatus . In
   parallel with these studies of the physics of plasma , several
   conceptual design studies of fusion reactors have been carried out
   to identify the general trends for future technological
   developments . The majority of these studies have concentrated on
   tokamak reactors (reflecting the emphasis of the fusion research
   programme ) although some alternative systems have been included .
   These studies have produced preliminary estimates of both the
   construction cost of a fusion plant and the cost of generating
   electricity . As part of the NET study , for example , cost methods
   suitable   for a f irst-of-a-kind  tokamak fusion reactor have been
   evolved . From these , it appears that if a prototype commercial
   reactor of 1200 MW electrical output ( sent out ) were built solely
   based on the present knowledge of plasma physics and technology ,
   the generating cost of electricity would be 2-3 times that
   generated by today’s thermal fission and coal stations . This is , of
   course , taking a very pessimistic case for fusion and comparing it
   with   a well-established    reactor  design . Series production    is
   expected to reduce this gap significantly or even close it . It
   should be noted that the present generating cost of electricity
   from a fast breeder reactor ( also first of its kind ) is twice that
   from conventional thermal fission reactors . As the development of
   fusion power proceeds , it is reasonable to expect considerable
   improvement and simplifications in both the technology and the
   physics of plasmas which will lead to a reduction in the generating
   costs . For example , the cost of the superconducting magnets
   required for a fusion reactor are very high due principally to the
   present very limited market for superconducting materials but their
 ---pagebreak---                                                                   12 .
cost is expected to drop as their applications increase . Also , the
costs of the blanket and cooling systems , and the reactor building
Itself , are likely to fall in series production as operational
experience leads to simpler designs . A dramatic cost reduction
could also be made with improved plasma operations . If the beta
value - a measure of the efficiency of the magnetic field in
confining plasma - were increased by a factor of 3 from its
presently achieved values , then the generating cost of electricity
would be reduced by about 30% without taking account of increasing
power advantage so gained .
There are many examples where the economics of high technology
systems have been drastically improved from the first-of-a-kind
version . Therefore , the demonstration of scientific and technical
feasibility must be followed by physics and engineering
improvements together with simplifications of the overall system to
arrive at an economically-competitive power plant .
In contrast to the extensive literature containing fusion reactor
design   studies with   detailed  cost  estimates , there have been
several    publications  which  argue  that  fusion  will  never  be
economic .  The main criticisms are that fusion devices have a low
power density , a long payback time and are too complex . It can be
seen that the use of power-density -based comparisons is not
reasonable by examining fission reactors themselves where typical
                                                    -3
power densities are between 15 and 0.4 MW(th) /m , whereas the
construction and generation cost differences are within a factor of
two . The energy payback time is made by comparing the total energy
expended in all processes involved in the manufacture , construction
and operation of the plant compared with the total energy generated
during the working life of the reactor . For a fusion reactor , the
energy expended on the construction of the reactor is about twice
that for an equivalent fission plant , but when the energy of
manufacturing and processing of the fuel is taken into acount , then
the energy expended on fusion is significantly less than that for
the equivalent fission system . With regard to complexity , this
cannot yet be quantified , but by an analogy with aircraft , for
example , the increased complexity has not lead to a decrease in
reliability .
In summary , therefore , the information presented by the critics of
 ---pagebreak---                                                                       13 .
   fusion is often highly selective , and the conclusions are not
   supported by the detailed studies . It is true that the low power
   density of many present designs leads to high capital costs , but
   the estimated cost of electricity from fusion power stations is not
   much greater than forecast costs from existing or other alternative
   energy sources .
   Several studies have attempted to calculate the generating cost of
   electricity from fusion in the mid twenty-first century and to
   compare this with the expected cost of electricity generated by
   coal , thermal fission , and solar photovoltaic cells . Despite fusion
   power having a high capital cost , the overall generating cost of
   electricity from a fusion power station is within the wide range of
   costs expected from existing or other alternative energy sources .
   Fusion can therefore not be dismissed purely on economic grounds .
   Indeed , it is reasonable to expect that nuclear fusion will emerge
   as one of the competing systems for the large-scale production of
   electricity in the middle of the twenty-first century .
8. CONCLUSIONS
   The two appended reports have evaluated the environmental , economic
   and safety aspects of fusion in considerable detail . They show that
   if the scientific feasibility can be demonstrated , then even
   without significant development , fusion would provide a safe power
   source with a very small environmental impact on the public during
   normal operation or even following a major reactor accident . There
   are also good prospects that the cost of fusion power , assuming
   reasonable technical developments and some improvements in the
   confinement of high temperature plasma , will be within the range
   expected from other large-scale energy sources in the middle of the
   next century . In addition , there are other potentially beneficial
   aspects of fusion power . These include the security of fuel
   availability - deuterium and lithium are spread widely - and the
    low price of fuel . As the tritium cycle is integral with the power
    plant , the fuel supply will not depend on external reprocessing
    systems . The handling and storage of the radioactive structure of a
    fusion reactor will create no new problems but the possibility of
    avoiding the need for long-term storage of radioactive waste by
 ---pagebreak---                                                                    14 .
developing suitable low activation materials is likely to be a
major advantage from a public acceptance viewpoint in many
countries . In addition , there would be no significant atmosphere
pollution from a fusion reactor , as is also the case with fission .
There is a range of possible long-term developments which would
result in an even more attractive reactor system . The reports
concentrated on the deuterium-tritium fusion system , but in the
longer term , other reactions involving deuterium alone , or
deuterium and helium-3 , could be considered . The benefit for such
reactions would be a considerably smaller radioactive inventory and
a very substantial simplification of the reactor , since the need
for breeding tritium would be eliminated . These reactions , however ,
require more    sringent  plasma  conditions  than those yet   to be
established for the deuterium-tritium reaction .
The first concern must therefore be to build on the very good
progress made on demonstrating the scientific feasibility of
deuterium-tritium fusion and to establish the foundation required
to enable the NET programme to proceed .      If NET and later DEMO
proceed satisfactorily and at the envisaged timescale , then a first
commercial fusion power station could be in operation towards the
middle of the next century . The high standard of living enjoyed by
industrialised countries owes much to the availability of cheap
energy for both domestic and industrial purposes . New sources of
energy will be needed      as  reserves  of  some  fossil  fuels  are
diminished . The vast and well-distributed reserves of fuel and the
inherent safety of fusion reactors , together with the envisaged
environmental advantages and economic competitiveness make fusion a
desirable objective as a major source of safe energy for future
generations .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                               15
                            ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF NUCLEAR FUSION
W    Gulden         The NET Team . Max-Planck Institut für Plasmaphysik ,
                    D-8046 Garching bei München , FRG .
H. Klippel          Energy Research Foundation , NL-1755 ZG Petten ,
                   The Netherlands
P.   Rocco          Joint Research Centre , I 21027 Ispra ( Varese ), Italy .
J . L . Rouyer      IPSN / DPT / STEP , CEN de Saclay , B P. No . 2 ,
                    F - 91 190 Gi f - sur-Yvette , France
G.   Kessler        Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe , INR , D-7500 Karlsruhe 1   FRG .
                                              CONTENTS
                                                                      Page
0 . SUMMARY                                                            17
1 .   INTRODUCTION                                                    21
2.   FEATURES OF   A TYPICAL FUSION POWER PLANT                       22
3 . ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF A FUSION POWER PLANT                      29
4 . DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL                                             46
5 . CONCLUSIONS                                                       47
6 . REFERENCES                                                        48
7 . GLOSSARY                                                          50
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   16 .
ACKNOWLKDGEMKNTS
       The authors are very grateful for the comments and suggestions of
Drs . C.M. Braams ( FOM ), B. Brunelli ( ENEA ), G. Casini ( JRC , Ispra ), J. Darvas
( CEC ), A. Gibson ( JET ), G. Grieger ( I P P ) , R. Haneox ( UKAEA ), H.H. Hennies
( KfK ), A. Maiein ( CEC ), D. Palumbo ( CEC ), R.S. Pease ( UKAEA ), F. Prevot ( CEA ),
J. Raeder ( NET ) and R. Toschi ( NET ).
 ---pagebreak---                                                                               17 .
0.    SUMMARY
0.1    I nherent safety Jeat_ures
           A fusion power plant can be designed for inherent safety such that
effects of all credible accidental circumstances on the environment will be
kept small by generic safety features : neither the externally supplied fuels
( deuterium and lithium ) nor the ultimate fusion reaction products ( helium ) are
radioactive or toxic , there is a small fuel inventory in the plasma , an
uncontrolled , self-started and self sustained nuclear runaway is impossible ,
the power density in the first wall and blanket structure is relatively low ,
afterheat at shutdown is moderate ,         the bulk of radioactive material is non ¬
volatile      structural   material ,  and   the radio - isotopes have low biological
hazard potential .
0.2    Basis for assessment of environmental impact
         Based on plausible extrapolation from todays physics and technology to
reactor level ,       a FCTR ( First Commercial-sized Tokamak Reactor ) was defined .
This     FCTR   ( 1200  MWe )   is used   as   a basis    for  the assessment  of  the
environmental impact of Tokamak reactors .
0.3    Environmental impact during normal operation
         The levels of radioactive effluents in normal operation will match the
regulations in Europe and elsewhere and hence these effluents will not be a
hazard to the public .        It is worth noting that the technical potential exists
for further reducing the emission to virtually insignificant levels .
Re 1 ease of radioactivity during no: mal ope r a tion
           The principal sources of airborne radioactive effluents will be the
release of tritium from buildings , the corroded activation products that leak
through coolant loops ( forming aerosols ), the activation of the cover gas or
air inside the reactor building and gases released in auxiliary buildings
during radioactive waste management operations . Assuming adequate containment
measures , the annual atmospheric releases from normal operation and
maintenance procedures could be limited to about 2 g (= 7^0 TBq = 20000 Ci ) of
tritium and 18.5 GBq ( 0.5 Ci ) of activation products .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                18 .
           Aquatic radioactive releases will be mainly due to losses during
maintenance of water cooling systems and from processing of operational waste .
Annual effluents consist of about 0.15 g (= 55.5 TBq = 1500 Ci ) of tritium and
185 GBq (5 Ci ) of activation products .
        The release values given have been obtained with moderate extrapolation
of present technological capabilities and can be considered as reasonably
conservative .
R adiation doses due to the release o f radioactivity during normal operation
       The above described radioactive release of tritium amounts to a total of
a few TBq / d ( about 800 TBq / a ) from the fusion plant . This release will result
in a maximum dose of the order of 0.015 mSv / a ( 1.5 mrem / a ) to the most exposed
individual of the public ( stationed permanently downwind at the boundary of
the plant , eating food and drinking water gained at this place ). This is well
below the limit imposed by regulations ( 0.05 to 0.3 mSv / a = 5 to 30 mrem/ a )
and is about 1$ of the average dose burden by natural background irradiation .
Environmental impact o f non-radioactive e ffluent s
         Fusion plants do not emit C02 > nitrous oxide , or any other biotoxic
chemicals .    The generation of waste heat is the same as in any other type of
steam raising plant .
0.4   Environmental impact due to accidents
         The analysis of accident scenarios following major technical failures
leads to the conclusion that the radioactive effluents ( mainly tritium ) in
such cases would have a very low impact on the lives and the health of the
surrounding population .
Release of radioactivity under accidental conditions
      The most severe hypothetical accident would lead only to a release to the
environment of about 200 g of tritium .
           Essentially no mechanism was found that could mobilize significant
fractions of structural materials .            The  worst   hypothetical release    of
radioactive particles is a few grams .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                               19 .
Radiation doses due to release of radioactivity under accidental conditions
        The hypothetical release of 200 g tritium in the most hazardous form of
HTO from the building roof , although building breaching appears not to be
possible , would cause a maximum dose of 0.06 to 0.08 Sv (6 to 8 rem ) at 1 km
distance , under worst weather conditions and dry deposition .       These values are
within the limit of 0.05 to 0.15 Sv (5 to 15 rem )         accepted by the licensing
authorities for abnormal events of low probability .
0.5    Waste
           The    radioactive  waste generated   by  fusion   power   plants will     be
quantitatively comparable to fission reactors , but qualitatively it will be
much less of a potential hazard .
       It is likely that the high level wa ste from FCTR , mainly first wall ( AISI
316 )   disposals , can be handled like spent fission fuel elements .       The amount
of   first   wall   waste is  of the same  order  but  the   hazards  are  much    lower
compared to spent fission fuel .        Structural materials from spent breeder
blanket segments will have a high volume for disposal if the segments are
replaced frequently ,     but there is a good potential for material re-use or
easier management when alternative structural materials have been developed .
      The quantity and disposal strategy of low level wast e generated annually
from normal operation of FCTR are comparable to that of fission reactors ,
providing that care is bestowed on detritiation and tritium immobilisation .
0.6   Low activation materials
        The presently used austenitic and martensitic steels do not meet fusion
wastes long term requirements .       Low activation materials under development
could avoid the needs of long term isolation and deep geological disposal .
Even recycling and re-use might be possible after some decades .
0.7    Direct radiation , magnetic fields , radiofrequency radiation
         No difficulties are expected in conforming to existing guidelines for
long term exposure to magnetic fields , radiofrequency radiation and direct
radiation ( e.g . by neutrons ).
 ---pagebreak---                                                                            20 .
0.8  Impact on the public , short and l ong t erm a spects
          All environmental aspects of fusion are presently good ;      the main
advantages to be emphasized are the low risks induced by severe accidents and
the non existence of important long term (> 100 a ) potential hazards .
0.9  Development potent ial
       The good situation for fusion can even be improved by developing the
potentials for further limiting the wastes and the tritium inventory .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              21 .
1 .  INTRODUCTION
        The final goal of developing fusion power plants is the production of
electric energy in a safe and economic manner and with little short and long
term impact on the environment .
       Present designs which can only be based on todays physics and technology
have to be considered as a first step only . This holds for both the type of
reactor and the materials used .      However , even based on todays technology ,
fusion power plant designs indicate         compared to e.g. coal , oil , fission
power plants - advantages with respect to environmental impact :
    Once    the  ignition  conditions  are   reached ,   the   fuel is continuously
    introduced    in  the plasma  chamber  at   the    rate  needed to sustain the
    reaction .  When the fuel flow is interrrupted , the reaction stops .
    An uncontrolled , self started and self-sustained nuclear power runaway is
    impossible as a change of operating conditions will lead to instability of
    the plasma and subsequently end the burn process .
    The fuel content in the plasma is small ( about 1 gram ).
    In general all operations on fuel cycle are within the plant itself .
    No emission of CO^, SO^ or N0x -
    Development potentials still exist for fusion in the near future , e.g. by
    the use of low activation materials .
        The material presented in the following chapters pertains to tokamak
reactors based on todays technology .       It mainly emerged from the European
Fusion Programme whose focus is the design and construction of NET ( Next
European Torus ). This fusion device will be an experimental reactor with a
thermal power of about 600 MW and has to provide the major part of the
knowledge necessary for designing a demonstration reactor ( DEMO ).
      A " First Commercial-sized Tokamak Reactor " ( FCTR ) has been defined as the
basis for the results and comparisons contained in the following chapters .
This has been done by using plausible extrapolations from todays conceptual
designs to the reactor level ( about 1200 MWg ).
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                    22 .
2.  FEATURES OF A TYPICAL FUSION POWER PLANT
2.1   Definition of a tokamak power plant
       Extrapolation from present conceptual experimental tokamak devices such
as  INTOR   / 1 / and NET    /2/  to fusion power plants can be performed with
different degrees of conservatism .        Table 1 displays some typical parameters .
      The INTOR and NET parameters reflect a prudent interpretation of present
day physics and technology .      FCTR / 3 / ( First Commercial-sized Tokamak Reactor )
is  a   reasonable    extrapolation   of    todays   conceptual  design parameters  to
reactor level .    STARFIRE / H / - a US conceptual reactor design - contains many
advanced assumptions and design characteristics .
TABLE 1 : Typical fusion device parameters
                                          INTOR       NET-DN    FCTR      STARFIRE
Fusion power ( MW )                      585          600        3590     3510
Electrical power ( net , MW )                0        0          1200     1200
Toroidal field on plasma axis ( T )      5.5          5.0         5.7      5.8
Plasma current ( MA )                    8.0         10.8        18.0     10.1
                              2
Neutron wall loading ( MW/m )             1.3         1 .0        1 .8     3.6
                     2
First wall area (m )                      352         1180       1600      780
The following assessment of the radioactive inventory and environmental impact
of Tokamak reactor designs - as will be discussed in the subsequent sections -
will make reference mainly to FCTR because it is considered to be the most
representative reactor concept        in Europe      in terms of todays physics and
technological capabilities .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                23 .
2.2 Inhérent Safety
         A FCTR will have some generic safety features which suggest that the
effects on the environment will be small .    These are :
    - an uncontrolled , self-started and self-sustained nuclear power runaway
        is impossible ,
    - low fuel inventory in the plasma chamber ,
    - relatively low power density in first wall and blanket structure ,
    - moderate afterheat at shut-down ( up to 2% of operating power in the
       first wall and blanket structure ) diluted on a large surface .
    - the bulk of the radioactive material is non-volatile structural
      material ,
    - relatively low biological hazard potential of the radio-isotopes .
       In addition it seems to be possible to design a containment such that it
will not lose integrity under all conceivable internal and external accident
conditions .
2.3   Multiple containment concept
       The most volatile part of the radioactive inventory of FCTR is tritium .
Therefore the safe containment of tritium inside the fusion plant for both
normal    operation   and accidental  conditions  will    become mandatory .    This
requires a multiple-containment concept ( In general triple ), to minimize the
release of tritium to the environment .
2.4   Radioactive inventories
2.4.1 Tritium inventory
General remarks
        For the first application ( D-T cycle ) fusion reactors , tritium will be
used as fuel , the D-T reaction products being stable He4 nuclei and high
energy neutrons . The tritium inventory in the plasma chamber will be very
small (1 gram ).    The total tritium inventory in a plant , however , will be some
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                 24 .
kilograms , distributed in the storage , the process systems and the reactor
.structures .    The bulk of the tritium will be stored in a solid immobile form
and in separate bunkers away from the reactor .
       Tritium is of moderate radiotoxicity , with a half life of 12.3 years .        It
emits (3-radiation with a maximum energy of 18 keV .            The radiotoxicity of
tritium strongly depends on its chemical form : gaseous tritium ( T2 , HT ) is
about 25000 times less dangerous compared to the oxide ( HTO ). Gaseous tritium
partly combines with oxygen in the air to HTO or is being oxidized to HTO by
bacteria in the soil .         In HTO form it is more readily absorbed by human
tissue .    However , tritiated water does not concentrate in the body but is
excreted    with   a   half  life  of  about  ten   days .   Tritiated water    in   the
environment disperses through the ecosystem much faster than fission products
and actinides .     For example , the half life of the loss of tritiated water from
the upper layers of the soil is measured in days / 5 /, whereas fission products
and actinides can contaminate land and buildings for very long periods .          There
is no evidence or known mechanism for its concentration in the food chain .
        Tritium was at all times present in the world atmosphere , the natural
inventory of today ( equilibrium concentration ) is in the range of 7 to 14 kg ,
primarily produced by the interaction of cosmic rays and nitrogen nuclei .
         Man made tritium reaching the atmosphere by far exceeds this natural
inventory .    Data on tritium production and release are scarce .      As an example
up to 1974 the maximum annual release from the Savannah river plant was
evaluated to be about 70 g / 6 /. Thermonuclear weapon testing in the atmosphere
is responsible for about 90$ of the present worlds atmospheric inventory of
tritium .     For example the integrated releases over all years of weapons
testing up to 1978 summed up to about 700 kg , leading to a maximum inventory
in the atmosphere of about 310-450 kg in 1963 , declining to 120-170 kg in 1980
/ 6/ .
Tritium systems inventories
         The evaluation of the tritium inventory in fusion reactors is strongly
dependent on design choices and on details of reactor systems design .         Lack of
information on      tritium behaviour    in material :;  is an  additional  source    of
uncertainty .     The main uncertainty arises from design alternatives in plasma
feed    and   exhaust ,   isotopic  separation ,  breeding   blanket , fuel   storage .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   25 .
However progress has been achieved in recent years during the definition of
experimental reactors like NET and INTOR , and the tritium inventory figures
have tended to decrease . It can also be stated that the design data of the
tritium cycle in an experimental reactor can be transferred to Tokamak power
reactors .    In fact , since fusion physics does not allow small dimensions and
zero power in a representative experimental device , there will be no
significant uprating in design data from experimental to power reactors . The
present data applicable to FCTR are about 3 kg .
Mobilizable tritium inventories
       The definition of mobilizable inventory is somewhat arbitrary without a
thorough accident analysis .       It can be stated ,        however ,   that tritium in
process systems such as plasma chamber evacuation , plasma exhaust impurity
processing , solid breeder tritium recovery , plasma fuel delivery , coolant
loops , has higher probabilites of releases to the environment than tritium
periheated in structural materials or stored in stable form .
       Tritium mobilizable inventories quoted for INTOR / 8 / are 500 - 1600 g ,
with   maximum    localized  inventories   of    150    -  900   g,  the   higher   values
pertaining to solid ,     the lower values to liquid breeder options .              Design
guidelines proposed for NET / 9 / would seek to maintain localised tritium
inventories    which   could  be released    under    accidental    conditions   into   the
surrounding     containment  to  below   150    g.   It   is   expected   that  the    main
mobilizable inventories of FCTR will be not much larger than those of NET ; a
careful    estimate   for  FCTR  leads  to    a   value   of   about   200g .   Operating
experience with an engineering test reactor will permit the tritium handling
of FCTR to be optimized with respect to mobilizable inventories ( if this turns
out to be an important design objective ).
2.4.2   Neutron induced radioactivity
General remarks
       In fusion reactors neutrons formed in the fusion process will activate
the surrounding structures . The plasma facing components such as the first
wall will be subjected to extreme conditions of the fusion environment . At
the same time , they will build up the major fraction of the neutron induced
radioactivity in the plant .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              26 .
           It is very likely that the austenitic stainless steel AISI 316 or a
comparably well established martensitic steel will have to be the selected
material for experimental reactors such as NET .       These steels , however , being
optimized to meet requirements for use in fission power plants are not an
optimal choice for fusion ( due to their relatively high activation
potentials ). To meet fusion requirements further developments could lead to
the use of austenitic and martensitic steels with constituents chosen in order
to have improved strength and a lower level' of induced activation .           In the
long term the use of low activation alloys can be seen as an important R+D
( research and development ) objective .
Activation inventories
       The total radioactive inventory of FCTR at shut-down , with the parameters
indicated in Table 1 , and AISI 316 as structural material can be evaluated to
be 333,000,000 TBq (9 GCi ) of activated products after about 5 years of full
                               2
power operation ( 10 MWa / m ) /7 / .        About 43$ of this radioactivity is
                                                                               3
concentrated in the first wall , with a maximum value of 9.6 TBq / cm ( 260
       3
Ci / cm ), 47$ in the blanket structures , 8$ in the breeder material , and 2$ in
the inner shield .      The specific radioactivity of the breeder material is of
                           3        .  3
the order of 148 GBq/ cm     (4 Ci / cm ) in the case of the 17Li83Pb eutectic , and
is mainly due to neutron interaction on lead .
         The neutron induced radioactivity of FCTR decreases after shut-down of
the plant to about 30$ within one year .            The residual radioactivity of
structural materials after 10 years and 100 years is 2.5% and 0.02$ ,
respectively . The contribution of the 17Li83Pb breeder becomes relevant ( more
                                                                           4
than 1 0% of the total ) only after very long decay times ( more than 10 years ).
        However , as mentioned previously , it is more realistic to assume that in
the future improved structural materials other than AISI 316 will be used for
fusion power reactors .        The following structural materials with a low
potential for neutron activation are already under development :
- Austenitic stainless steels modified to replace Ni with Mn and Mo with W
    and / or V. The steel AMCR-33 is an example of this family , since it does
    not contain Co and Mo , and Ni is reduced to 0.1$ .         With this material
    instead of AISI 316 significant reduction in radioactivity inventory can be
    expected for long decay times ( better than a factor of 10 after 100 years ,
    see fig . 3 ).
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              27 .
- Ferritic-martensitic steel in which Mo and Nb are replaced by W , V and Ta .
    The advantages will be comparable to those of AMCR-33 .
- V15Cr5Ti : The radioactive inventory will be about one order of magnitude
    lower compared to AMCR-33 and also the radioactive decay rate will be
    faster ( see Fig . 3 ) •
2.5    Indices of radiological hazards
        Various indices of radiological hazards exist to quantify the danger to
the    public    posed   by  unanticipated    releases  of  radionuclides   into  the
environment .
2.5.1    Activity
       The most widely available but also the least informative measure for the
hazard is the activity defined in Becquerels (= desintegrations per second ) or
in Curies . Using this measure , a fusion plant employing steel ( AISI 316 ) as
structural material will be comparable to a fission plant of similar power
because the radioactive       inventory   is about the same . The use of vanadium
alloys ( e.g. V15Cr5Ti ) reduces the activity by about one order of magnitude .
2.5.2     Biological hazard potential
         The potential biological consequences of steel activation products is
considerably lower than that of fission products and actinides .          To quantify
this effect , a more meaningful index , the biological hazard potential ( BHP ) is
used .      It takes   into  account  the   differences  in such  hazard-determining
properties as half-life , decay mode and energy , radioactive progeny of the
radionuclides , and lifetime in the body tissues .
       The BHP is defined as the activity ( A ) divided by the maximum permissible
concentration ( MPC ) of a radionuclide , summed for all radionuclides present :
                    BHP = KA. /MPC .)
 ( The MPC is the concentration of a radionuclide in air or water that would
produce the maximum permissible dose if a person were breathing continuously
the contaminated air or drinking the contaminated water.).
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      28 .
       Using the such defined BHP for comparison , results in hazards about 2
orders of magnitute smaller in the fusion case ( AISI 316 ), than in fission .
This  difference  increases  with decay time and   the scenario is  even more
favourable to fusion if vanadium alloys or other low activation materials are
used as structural materials .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                               29 .
3.    ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF A FUSION POWER PLANT
3.1 Radioactive releases
3-1.1 General remarks
         In the following sections the potential environmental impact of FCTR is
outlined , for both normal operation and accidental situations . The background
information on which this report is based is given in references / 7 / and / 10 /
to / 1 3 / and the literature quoted therein . It represents the state of present
day knowledge .      As FCTR is still in the preconceptual stage this assessment
can only be very general .
          Tritium is the most volatile part of the radioactive inventory .          To
minimise its release to the environment , a multiple-containment concept is
used .     The  inner   primary containment consists of the tritium containing
equipment .    This all-metal equipment is installed in a secondary containment
( e.g. glove boxes , jacketed tubing ) which is as small as possible in volume to
allow     continuous    extraction   of  tritium   from   the   enclosed   containment
atmosphere .    The tertiary containment acting as a last barrier against tritium
release into the environment constitutes the reactor building ( with steel
liner inside ), the tritium facility building or other air-tight buildings , see
fig.1 . The atmosphere of these buildings may also have to be detritiated by
an emergency clean-up system in abnormal and accident situations .
        The availability and performance of atmospheric clean-up systems are of
vital     importance   for  the   effectiveness  of   both   secondary   and  tertiary
containments .    In addition , the reactor building is slightly underpressurized
to prevent outward leakage from the containments .
3.1.2 Radioactive releases during normal operation and maintenance
       Most routine releases of radioactive products will originate from liquid
waste processing systems and from ventilation systems of various buildings
where radioactivity may become airborne . The liquid and gaseous effluents
( consisting of tritium and . gaseous corrosion products ) are continuously
monitored and are released into the environment under controlled conditions .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                - concrète containment
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           turbine building         reactor building                                           system building
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Fig . 1 : Schematic view of the multiple containment concept of a fusion power plant
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                         31 .
Tritium
           The major sources of tritium release during normal operation and
maintenance are :
   - leakage and permeation from the plasma chamber and fuel handling system ;
   - leakage from first wall and blanket coolant lines , leakage from steam
     generators ;
   - leakage and permeation from tritium processing system .
      To quantify tritium releases it is common to use both mass units ( g ) and
activity units ( Bq or Ci ), the correlation being the specific activity of
about 370 TBq / g or 10000 Ci / g .
       All critical tritium-containing components are located in the tritium
facility building or the reactor building .           Estimates of the atmospheric and
aquatic releases of tritium from the FCTR are given in tables 2 and 3 , taken
from fl / .
TABLE 2 - Annual atmospheric emissions of a fusion reactor ( FCTR )
                           Operation            Maintenance            Totals
                          TBq          ( Ci )     TBq     ( Ci )
Tritium
Coolant system            185       ( 5000 )     56      ( 1500 )     about
Torus                       0.4         ( 10 )  185      ( 5000 )     450 TBq ( 12000 Ci ) as HT0
Diagnostics                                      37      ( 1000 )   + 330 TBq ( 9000 Ci ) as HT
Process system              4         ( 100 )
(+ waste preparation )                          117      ( 3000 )  =780 TBq ( 21000 Ci )
Tritium recovery           11         ( 300 )
Reactor hall                                     185      ( 5000 )
                          200          ( 5410 )  580    ( 15500 )
Activation products^                                                   18 GBq   ( 0.5 Ci )
Cover gas                negligible ( with hold-up tank )
+) Data for AISI 316
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                      32 .
TABLE 3 - Annual aquatic emissions of a fusion reactor ( FCTR )
                                   Operation and Maintenance
                                     TBq             ( Ci )
Tritium+)                           55.5           ( 1500 )
Activation products**^               0.185              (5)
+)
       Mainly due to losses during maintenance of coolant systems ,
       but also including streams from waste processing .
++ )
       Assuming resuspension of corrosion products m the coolant .
         The largest internal loss of tritium during normal operation is expected
to occur from the water coolant lines .         It originates from tritium permeation
into the primary coolant system ( few g/ d ) and by permeation and leakage
through the heat exchangers into the secondary coolant circuit .
          The operating experience of existing CANDU HWR ( heavy water reactor )
plants      with  comparable    tritium   concentrations    in the   coolant including
improved tritium containment measures , provides a good basis for the estimate
of tritium leakage from the coolant circuit of FCTR .            Tritium concentration
in the coolant can be maintained at a very low level of order of 37 GBq/ 1 (1
Ci / 1 ) by employing permeation barriers and present technology of detritiation
systems .       Taking  into   account   present   developments   for  CANDU reactors ,
unrecovered water leakage from the primary coolant into the reactor hall are
expected to be less than 10 1 / d , / 1 ^/ , resulting in a tritium loss of about
185 TBq / a ( 5000 Ci / a ).   The atmospheric tritium release from the secondary
coolant loop can be maintained at a small fraction of that from the primary
coolant circuit .
          There exist many more uncertainties on tritium inventory and tritium
recovery from solid breeder materials than for liquid breeder materials .           It
was estimated that the tritium loss from the tritium recovery system is less
than 11.7 TBq / a ( 300 Ci / a ), for both concepts .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                33 .
       The routine tritium loss from the fuel handling system and other tritium
processing systems in the tritium facility building is expected to be in the
order of 3.7 TBq/ a ( 100 Ci / a ) if efficient multi-containment and detritiation
systems are provided .
       The dominant contribution of the tritium loss to the reactor building of
about 555 TBq/ a ( 15000 Ci / a ) comes from maintenance operations on plasma
chamber , from blanket replacements , and from coolant system maintenance .         If
necessary much of the tritium released during maintenance could be removed by
the emergency clean up system or by temporary secondary enclosures around
critical areas with detritiation of the enclosed atmosphere .
        As shown in table 2 the total annual atmospheric tritium emission will
be about 777 TBq ( 21000 Ci ), of which about 60$ is in the form of HT0 and ^ 0$
as HT .
        The aquatic emissions will be about 55.5 TBq ( 1500 Ci ), mainly due to
losses during maintenance of coolant systems , but also including streams from
waste processing .
        These tritium releases from the FCTR of a few TBq / d ( about 800 TBq / a )
might be acceptable . This implies a leak tightness of the tritium system of
1 ppm/ d of the gaseous as well as the liquid circuits .             The required
containment appears to be within reach and large scale demonstration of these
capabilities is in progress / 1 5 / .
Activation products
         Assuming water cooling the dominant sources of activation products as
discharged during normal operation are the corrosion products leaking from
the primary coolant circuits .
        Much of the corrosion products are deposited on the inner surfaces of
the primary coolant pipes and the primary side of the steam generator . The
water treatment system controls the concentration level of dissolved material
in the coolant , being in the range of 1 to *1 GBq/ nr ( 0.03 to 0.11 Ci /m ).
           Approximately 18.5 GBq/a ( 0.5 Ci /a ) of activated products will be
released from the coolant circuit at a leak rate of 10 1 / d .            The main
 ---pagebreak---                                                                             34 .
radionuclides are Fe55 , Fe59 , Mn54 , Mn56 , Cr51 , Co58 , C06O .  The discharge is
assumed to be into the reactor building atmosphere by all-vapour leakage ,
although some of the losses to the aquatic system should also be considered .
The    atmospheric    release   could  be  significantly     reduced   by  efficient
filtering .
         The deposition of the corrosion products on internal surfaces causes
radiation     levels   which  are  of particular   concern   during  inspection   and
maintenance operations .
        Coolant water lost during maintenance will have an enhanced level of
activation products due to resuspension of the crud normally adhering to the
pipe walls (a factor of 100 has been reported ).           This leads to estimated
aqueous releases of 0.185 TBq/ a (5 Ci / a ) of           corrosion products from
maintenance operations .
Building cover gas
      The activation of the air atmosphere in the reactor building , mainly due
to neutrons leaking from the shielding ,        results  in the build-up of some
radionuclides such as Ar4l and C14 which is formed mainly by the reaction
14         14
   N(n,p ) C. The use of C0? as cover gas would reduce the production of this
nuclide by a factor of 10°6 . 2
3.1.3    Potential releases of radioactivity in accidental conditions
General
       Because fusion reactor designs are still at their conceptual stage , any
attempt to quantify non-routine releases of radioactivity is difficult at the
moment .
          For some    identified cases maximum possible consequences have been
estimated .      As  fusion  safety studies  and reactor     designs develop ,   more
credible accidents will       be able  to be   identified ,   not just the maximum
consequences of accidents .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              35 .
       The definition of potential sequences of accidental events does not
necessarily mean that such accidents will occur frequently or even at all .
Many design features are likely to be envisaged to minimise the probability
of accidents and to reduce or even exclude the consequences to the
environment . Moreover fusion reactors are expected to have a low potential
for accidents which may affect the general public , due mainly to the generic
safety features .
          Two  major  mechanisms  are   required  for  an  accidental  release  of
radioactivity to the environment :     both the volatilizing and mobilizing of
potentially hazardous material     and   the rupture of the containment .      The
building containment is designed to prevent most materials from reaching the
environment , therefore non-routine losses from components normally do not
result in releases which endanger the public .
Possible accidentai tritium releases
      Estimates have been made for INTOR and for other conceptual designs of
the upper limit and the area of tritium loss which can arise from a number of
identified potential accidents / 7 /. These figures are also applicable to a
power  reactor   like  FCTR since a significant     increase  in the mobilizable
inventory is not expected .   They allow the evaluation of the possible tritium
release to the environment and their dose rate to the public .
      In the most severe cases ( rupture of coolant pipes , failure of part of
the tritium processing system , failure of cryopump ) up to 200 g of tritium
can be released into the reactor building . Tritium may also be lost from
rupture of components inside the tritium recovery and isotopic separation
system ( order of 100 g ), but this loss is within the secondary containment .
Taking into account tritium removal by the detritiating system of the
secondary containment a subsequent tritium release of 0.1           g/h into the
process hall might be expected .
      Quick detection and effective performance of the emergency atmospheric
clean-up system in the reactor building or process building should be capable
of reducing the personal exposure and the release outside the building to
about 100 GBq/ d (a few Ci / d ).     However , for the worst case analysis of
environmental impact no retention mechanism will be accounted for . As a
reference case for this report a maximum accidental release of 200 g tritium
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                     36 .
to  the   environment   was   defined .    This  source   term  is the  basis  for the
determination of the radiation exposures of individuals in the surrounding of
the plant .
Potential release of activation products
       The accidental release of activation products is the most difficult to
assess .    The most mobilizable parts of the plant 's radioactive inventory are
the  fluids    e.g.  the  primary    coolant   system .   The radioactive   structural
material for which melting and vaporization is required for mobilization and
release to the environment has the lowest level of mobilizability .           There is
even hope that , due to inherently safe design , melting of structural material
may be effectively excluded .
      The following most relevant potential mechanisms to mobilize activation
products have been identified :
   - plasma disturbances ;
   - coolant system failures ;
   - magnet failure ;
   - cryogénie depressurization ;
   - hydrogen explosion ;
   - fire ;
   - auxiliary system failure and external hazards .
       The most probable release of activation products in case of accidents
are those related to structural heat-up of first wall and blanket , namely
plasma disruptions and blanket coolant failures .
        The most pessimistic assumption resulting from a plasma disruption is
the release of some grams of ablated first wall material through a broken
vacuum vessel into the reactor hall .          However , most of the eroded material
from   the    first wall    may   be   redeposited   inside   the  plasma  chamber  or
elsewhere .
         The main concern in a cooling failure is related to the decay heat
following shut down of the reactor . It has to be expected that in case the
cooling failure     is not     detected ,  the plasma burn will automatically be
terminated due to the        ingress of volatilized material subsequent to the
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                37 .
temperature rise of the first wall . Depending on the design of the blanket
and cooling system different scenarios of coolant system accidents can
follow .     In   the  most  pessimistic   case  of  cooling  loss   the  afterheat
production causes melting and degradation of the structure and consequently
release of activation products only after some hours .          This would appear
sufficient time for intervention .        Moreover , with passive cooling design
solutions and proper material selection , melting of the structure appears to
be inherently avoidable .
        Coolant tube breaks would lead to the release of radioactive corrosion
products ( and tritium ) present in the coolant , and possibly to the generation
of  mobile    material  subsequent  to   the  temperature  rise or   break of    the
structure or by chemical reactions .
       The only important accident initiators which could lead to damage of the
magnet and / or other reactor components are arcing across current leads or the
rupture of a single conductor .    Simultaneous rupture of a complete winding at
two different locations has been postulated for the severest event .            The
probability of this event however is extremely low because the prerequisite
leading to such an accident is scarcely imaginable from the physics point of
view .   If such a hypothetical accident is assumed , the broken section could
be accelerated leading to some damage on reactor components such as coolant
lines or tritium processing lines .        The building containment however will
withstand this hypothetical accident as it is designed to withstand even
worse events like airplane crashes and explosions .                 Therefore the
consequences of arcing would be mainly in terms of economics due to reactor
downtime and costly repair .
       The same holds for an accidental release of He being used as coolant for
the superconducting magnets . First calculations indicate that the building
containment can be designed to withstand the pressure loads resulting from
evaporation of the total He inventory .
       It is difficult to exclude , as in all complex systems , a fire accident .
However , care is already being taken to choose materials , wherever possible ,
so that this event will be minimized .        This is the case for the breeders
where materials such as liquid LiPb and Li-ceramics are now preferred to
lithium metal because of their low chemical reactivity with air and water .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                    38 .
       In case of external events ( earthquakes , missiles , aircraft , sabotage )
the tritium which may be involved will at most be that which is contained in
one of the tertiary containments ,           i.e. the reactor building or the tritium
process building ( containing about 100 g of tritium divided between separate
isolated rooms ).         It is a likely assumption that in case of accidental
release    of  activated       material    in   the  reactor  building    deposition    and
adsorption effects will strongly reduce the emissions to the environment .
3.2   Radiological effects to the environment
       The dose to an individual ( measured in rem or Sv = Sievert ) at defined
distance from the plant , obtained during a defined time of exposure is the
most meaningful hazard index .            However , to perform dose calculations many
assumptions must be made , leading to greatly varying results .
3.2.1   Dose criteria for normal operation and abnormal events
       Dose criteria are given in the CEC directive 80 / 836 which is in close
agreement with ICRP recommendations / 1 6 / .           The basic recommended maximum
allowable annual dose limits for whole body radiation are :
- 50 mSv / a (5 rem / a )    for the most exposed working group , and
- 5 mSv/ a ( 0.5 rem/ a ) for the Most Exposed Individual ( MEI ) of the public .
   These limits are intended for conditions where the source of radiation is
   subject to control and therefore do not apply to doses from accidental
   releases .
Exposure limits used as design guidelines follow the As Low As Reasonably
Achievable ( ALARA ) principle and are more restrictive .            The following values
are frequently used :
- for normal operation        1 to 2 mSv / a ( 0.1 to 0.2 rem / a ) as average dose and 5
   to 10 mSv/ a ( 0.5 to     1 rem / a ) as maximum dose for the most exposed working
   group ; 0.1 mSv/ a ( 10   mrem/ a ) as average ( with range of 0.05 to 0.3 mSv/ a (5
   to 30 mrem )) for the     MEI
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              39
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        Public / 17 /.
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                       40 .
- for abnormal events doses in excess of the regulatory limits are accepted .
   These values are 50 to 150 mSv (5 to 15 rem ) for events with a probability
                      -7
   of less than 10        per year (= hypothetical accidents ); 0.3 to 5 mSv ( 30 to
                                                     -4 .    ..-2
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                                                                                 -2 .      -1
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   per year ). The values refer to the MEI , values for workers are a factor of
    10 higher .
           As   an example    fig . 2 shows the CEGB design safety criteria for
accidental releases and exposures to the public / 1 7 / .               It correlates the
total    permissible     frequency   per  reactoryear     with     the   whole   body   dose
equivalent .      A value of 100 mSv ( 10 rem ) is considered as lower limit at
which consideration should be given to the countermeasure of evacuation .
        As tritiated water ( HT0 ) is more readily absorbed by human tissue and
therefore more hazardous than gaseous HT , the permissible concentration of
HT0 in air is much smaller ( factor 25000 ) than that of HT . If tritiated gas
is released into the environment it will subsequently convert to HT0 ( order
of \% per day ). In making estimates for the radiation dose it is therefore
common use      but  conservative ,   to assume that all        the atmospheric tritium
release to the environment is in the form of tritiated water . Tritium in the
aqueous effluent is already in the form of HT0 .                  The whole life ( 50 a )
committed dose equivalent from intake of tritiated water ( inhalation or
ingestion ) is taken according to ICRP 30 / 1 8 / to be 17 Sv/TBq ( 64 rem/ Ci ).
3.2.2    Radiation doses from routine émissions
         The annual routine atmospheric emission of treated gaseous effluents
from a FCTR is likely to contain about 777 TBq ( 21000 Ci ) of HTO , 18.5 GBq
( 0.5 Ci ) of activation products ( namely Fe , Mn , Co ) and negligible quantities
of C14 and Ar4l . This discharge is expected to be through a 100 m stack to
achieve a high degree of dilution in the atmosphere .                The routine aqueous
emission of radioactive products of 55.5 TBq / a              ( 1500 Ci / a ) as HTO , and
0.185 TBq/a (5 Ci / a ) as activation products occurs via the cooling tower
blowdown flow and to an offsite river with a high degree of dilution .
        External doses to exposed individuals result from gamma radiation from
plumes , exposure to contaminated ground surfaces , immersion in contaminated
air    and   submersion    in  contaminated  water .      Internal     doses   result   from
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                    41 .
inhalation of air , ingestion of contaminated food and water .              It is assumed
in the dose calculations that individuals are exposed 100J of the time to the
contaminated air and ground surface , and that all food consumed is from the
locality . Maximum conservative annual doses calculated for the MEI living at
about 1 km from the stack , is about 0.015 mSv / a ( 1.5 mrem / a ). ( 0.0065 mSv/ a
( 0.65 mrem/a ) from atmospheric HTO , 0.004 mSv/ a ( 0.4 mrem/ a ) from atmospheric
activation products , and 0.004 mSv/ a ( 0.4 mrem/ a ) from aqueous release ).
This is about \% of the average dose burden by natural background
irradiation , being 1 to 2 mSv / a ( 100 to 200 mrem/ a ).
      The collective dose of the local population living in the area within 50
                                     6                                               2
km radius from the plant ( 2.4x10       persons at a density of 300 persons / krn ) is
calculated to be about 0.3 man Sv/ a ( 30 man rem/ a ) , about equally from HTO
and activation products .      The average whole body dose for the general local
                   -4
public is then 10     mSv / a ( 0.01 mrem/ a ).
       For a fusion powered world economy with 2000 fusion reactors all over
the world , each routinely releasing the above activity of tritium , the global
average dose to man would be below 10           mSv/ a ( 0.1 mrem / a ).
3.2.3   Radiation doses from accidental releases
Tritium
       The possible accidental releases from a FCTR to the surroundings are
still uncertain but are hypothesized with moderate conservative assumptions .
As the reference source term for a hypothetical accident a release of 200 g
tritium as HTO in a 30 min discharge from a stack of 100 m is assumed . The
dose pathways are skin absorption and inhalation .                   The outcome is much
dependent on wind velocity distribution and distinction between dry and wet
deposition ( rain reduces the skin and inhalation dose rate ).                  For worst
weather conditions ( Pasquill type B ) the maximum dose as calculated for MEI
is 2.4 mSv ( 0.24 rem ), at 700 m from the stack . For other weather conditions
the maximum dose will be 0.5 to 0.7 mSv ( 0.05 to 0.07 rem ) at distances of 5
to 15 km .
       A hypothetical release of 200 g tritium as HTO from the building roof
( release height 20 m ) would cause ( at 1 km distance , under worst weather
 ---pagebreak---                                                                         42 .
conditions and dry deposition ), a maximum dose of 60 to 80 mSv (6 to 8 rem ),
which would not disrupt society in the immediate surrounding .     These values
are within the limits of 50 to 150 mSv (5 to 15 rem ) accepted by the
licensing authorities for abnormal events of low probability .
       Similar results were recently obtained from worst-case analyses for the
US conceptual design MARS ( Mirror Advanced Reactor Study ) / 1 9 / -  Assuming
ground level release of 50 g tritium ( HTO ), which is defined to be the total
vulnerable inventory in MARS , results in a maximum off-site dose of less than
0.04 Sv (4 rem ).      Even if an additional 200 g of HTO were released , the
maximum off-site dose would still be less than 0.25 Sv ( 25 rem ), the present
NRC limit for emergency releases .
          The above mentioned values assuming worst case conditions could be
compared with measured and evaluated doses of a real accidental release of
about 50 g of tritium gas from a Savannah River Plant exhaust stack ( 60 m ) to
the atmosphere over a period of about four minutes / 20 /.     Measurements of
tritium offplant indicated that less than 1$ of the tritium was in oxide
form , and the remaining 99$ in the much less radiotoxic gaseous form .       A
maximum potential dose to a person ( from inhalation and skin absorption ) at
the puff centerline on the plant boundary was calculated to be 0.0014 mSv
( 0.14 mrem ), less than 1$ of the annual dose received from natural
radioactivity .
Activated structural material
          The evaluation of the quantity of accidentally " mobilised " erosion
products leads to a few cubic centimeters of activated first wall material
which may be released to the environment .   The corresponding dose rate , even
in the case of the less suitable material AISI 316 , will be much less than
the dose rate due to the release of 200g tritium which may occur in the same
sequence of accident events .
3.3 .   Waste
        Two categories of radioactive waste will be produced in a fusion power
plant :
     low and medium level waste arising from the processing systems ( i.e. fuel
    cycle and coolant purification systems )    and  from decontamination and
    maintenance operations ;
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                          43 .
                                                         3                  . 3
-- high    level  waste    ( more    than   3 ■ '! TBq/m     =  100     Ci /m )   derived     from
    disassembly   and   periodic     replacement       of    parts    of   the   inner  nuclear
    structure ( mainly first wall and blanket segments ).
         The wet and dry low and medium level wastes ( containing tritium and
activation products ) are of the same nature and have a somewhat higher volume
( 900m with an activity of 44.4 TBq = 1200 Ci ) than the waste streams from a
fission     power  plant ,    but   the   contaminants     have    shorter      half-lives     and
therefore become inactive much sooner .              The waste management and disposal
strategies as developed for fission reactor plants may be applied , providing
that    sufficient    tritium     recovery / removal     and   tritium       immobilization     is
applied to these wastes .          After waste treatment and packaging near-surface
burial is permitted .
        Handling and treatment of dismantled blanket segments may involve more
complex procedures because of their volume , weight and activation level .                      If
AISI-316 is used as structural material , in the short term the management is
comparable with that for - spent fuel elements of a LWR ( light water reactor ).
After an initial cool down period tritium ., breeder material and some other
valuable elements with         low specific activity may be separated for later
reprocessing and re-use .          The remaining highly active structures will be
compacted , fragmented , detritiated and conditioned for intermediate storage
/ 21 /.    After   the   decay heat       becomes negligible        ( and depending on the
composition of the materials           involved it takes from a few years to many
decades ) the waste can be classified , recovered for recycling or transported
to final repository .
         Assuming AISI-316 as structural material ( large experience exists on
this material due to its use in fission reactor plants ) the first wall and
parts of the blanket structural wastes will need a deep geological deposit .
AISI-316 however is not well suited for fusion uses .                    Therefore for fusion
power plants other structural materials will be developed .                      As an example
fig . 3 shows the neutron induced activity for these advanced materials , as
compared to AISI-316 , as a function of time . According to present rules for
waste disposal , the AMCR type of steels ( austenite , without Co and Mo ,
reduced Ni content ) could be deposited at the surface ( Surface Land Burial )
after a time of 30 to 100 years . For V-Cr refractory materials ( e.g.
V15Cr5Ti ) the picture is even more optimistic . In these cases , however , the
 question of impurities arises ,          which could make a significant contribution
 to long-term activity .
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     Fig 3 : Neutron induced activity of FCTR first wall
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                45 .
      In conclusion , with a suitable research and development effort , one can
expect   that the wastes from fusion should not require deep geological
disposal but simpler near-surface land burial would be sufficient .             Non-
structural materials such as solid breeder materials ( e.g. lithium oxide ) may
be recycled after a few days .    LiPb , however , will not satisfy the recycling
conditions due to the high residual activity of the Pb impurities .
3.4  Other sources of hazard
       Potential additional hazards for the workers inside the plant and the
men  near   the site  are  of  various   kinds .   However , no   difficulties   are
expected in conforming to existing guidelines .
        Sources of direct radiation originate from holes in the shield ( e.g
penetrations for diagnostics ), leakage of neutrons through the shield and
permeated tritium ,   from the activation of the building atmosphere and from
maintenance , repair and replacement operations .     No detailed estimates exist
of such occupational doses , but designs can be realized to keep them below
permissible levels .   The external radiation at the site boundary can be made
as low as desired by appropriate shielding design .
       Exposure to high magnetic fields will not be of concern .        There is no
evidence that long exposure to the expected fields of 0.05 Tesla in the
reactor hall constitute an occupational hazard .         It is   not likely to be
difficult to make the design guidelines of FCTR conform to      presently existing
laboratory rules concerning long term exposure to magnetic       fields . The same
can be said for the exposure to radio frequency radiation        from the proposed
RF heating systems and from the plasma .
       Although the fuel cycle is an integral part of the plant , transport of
some tritium quantities outside the plant are foreseen ( e.g. to start-up new
reactors ). The present regulations concerning tritium transport and shipping
are so stringent that tritium release from the transport flasks to the
ambient is practically nil in both normal and abnormal conditions .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                46 .
4.   DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL
        Work is under way to further reduce the already small environmental
impact   of   fusion   as   derived    from  todays   technologies .    Considerable
development potentials exist in the following areas :
- limitation of waste quantities by improving life time of first wall and
   blanket components ,
- reduction of activation by choice of modified steels containing less nickel
   and molybdenum ,
- reduction of activation         by  choice   of new   structural   materials      ( low
   activation materials ),
- decrease of tritium       inventory   in  the plant   by appropriate choices of
   materials and processes ,
- reprocessing of blanket materials .
       In the long term other fusion reactions than D-T like D-D or D-He3 are
much more attractive      from   the  radioactivity hazard    point  of view .        The
reactor would also be substantially simplified beoause there would be no need
for a breeding blanket .     Even if the feasibility of these cycles is far from
being proved , these features represent a stimulating challenge for the long
term issue of fusion .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                            47 .
5.   CONCLUSIONS
        Fusion as an energy source is based on nuclear reactions and therefore
the main hazard to the public is due to the presence of radioactivity .         The
sources of radioactivity are tritium and the neutron-induced transmutations
of the plasma surrounding structure .
       Magnetic fusion reactors appear to have very important intrinsic safety
features , such as :
- the    impossibility   of  an  uncontrolled ,   self-started  and self-sustained
   nuclear power runaway ,
- the absence of long-lived volatile radioactive materials ,
- the relatively low power density in the first wall and blanket structure
   during operation ,
- the moderate afterheat at shutdown ,
- the closing of the tritium cycle on reactor site .
       The levels of radioactive effluents in normal operation will match the
regulations in Europe and elsewhere and hence these effluents will not be a
hazard to the public .    It is worth noting that the technical potential exists
for further reducing the emission to virtually insignificant levels .           The
radioactive    waste   generated  by   fusion   reactors   will  be quantitatively
comparable to fission reactors , but qualitatively it will be much less of a
potential hazard .
         The analysis of volatile inventories released after major technical
failures leads to the conclusion that the radioactive effluents ( mainly
tritium ) in such cases would have a very low impact on the lives and the
health of the surrounding population .        Therefore , in no case would fusion
cause a major disruption of normal life in the community outside the reactor
site .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                       48 .
6 . REFERENCES
/1/     INTOR Phase Two A , Part II - Panel Proceedings Series , IAEA , Vienna ,
        1986 .
/ 2/    NET Status Report .        NET report 51 , EU - FU/XII - 80/81 / 51 , December 1985 .
/ 3/    W.R. Spears ; DEMO and FCTR Parameters , NET Report Nr . 41 ,
        EUR -EU/XII - 361/85/41 , August 1985 .
/ 4/    STARFIRE - A Commercial Tokamak Fusion Power Plant Study .                Argonne
        National Laboratory Report , ANL/FPP - 80 - 1 , September 1980 .
/ 5/    I.R. Brearley ; The Hazard to Man of Accidental Releases of Tritium .                 SRD
        R 331 , March 1985 , SRD-UKAEA .
/ 6/    F.    Luykx , G.      Fraser ; The Environmental Tritium Inventory .           European
        Seminar on the risks from tritium exposure , MOL , 22-24 November , 1982 ,
        EUR 9065 EN .
/ 7/    G. Casini , C. Ponti , P. Rocco ; Environmental Aspects of Fusion Reactors ,
        1985 . Technical Note I . 04 . B1 . 85 . 156 . JRC , Ispra , December 1985 .
/8/     INTOR Phase Two A , Part II .           Criticai Issues , Voi . II , EURFUBRU / XII -
        1 33 / 85 / EDV1 0 , Aprii 1985 , Brussels .
/9/     P. Dinner , M. Chazalon , M. Iseli ; Tritium Handling on NET : Requirements',
        Design Approaches and Development Issues . 14th SOFT , Avignon 1986 . ;
                                                                                           i
/1 0 / J.B. Cannon ;         Background Information and Technical Basis for Assessment
        of Environmental Implications of Magnetic Fusion Energy .
        Department of Energy Report , D0E / ER-0170 , August 1983 .
/ 1 1 / R . Hancox , W. Redpath , Fusion Reactors - Safety and Environmental
        Impact . CLM-P750 , May 1985 , Culham Laboratory .
/1 2 / Proceedings IAEA Technical Committee Meeting on Environmental and Safety
        Aspects of Fusion . Held 17-21 October , 1983 , Ispra , to be published .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                  49 .
/ 1 3 / M.S. Kazimi ; Safety Aspects of Fusion , Review paper .
         Nuclear Fusion 24 ( 1984 ) 11 , p. 1461-1483 .
/ 14 / T.S. Drolet , K.Y. Wong , P.J. Dinner ; Canadian Experience with Tritium -
         the Basis of a new Fusion Project . Nuclear Technology/ Fusion Vol . 5 ,
        January 1984 .
/ 1 5/ J.L. Anderson ; The Status of Tritium Technology Development for Magnetic
        Fusion Energy . Nuclear Technology / Fusion _4 ( 1983 ) 2 , 75-82 .
/ 1 6 / Recommendation of the International Commission                 on   Radiological
        Protection , CRP Publication 26 , Pergamon Press , 1977 .
/ 1 7 / Safety Assessment Principles for Nuclear Power Reactors . Nil .
        April 1979 .
/ 1 8 / International Commission on Radiological Protection ( ICRP ) Publication
        30 , Supplement to Part 1 , Annals of the ICRP 3 ( 1-4 ), Pergamon , Oxford .
/ 1 9 / S.A.     Fetter ;    Radiological Hazards   of  Fusion   Reactors :  Models   and
        Comparison .      University of California , Berkley , PH.D. 1985 .
/ 20 / W.L. Marter ; Environmental Effects of a Tritium Gas Release from the
        Savannah River Plant on May 2 , 1974 .         DP-1369 , UC-11 , Savannah River
        Laboratory , November 1974 .
/ 2 1 / K. Broden , A. Hultgren , G. Olsson , H. Djerassi , P. Giroux , P. Guetat ,
        J-L Rouyer ; Fusion Waste Management - Safety and Environment Studies
        1 983“ 84 - European Fusion Technology Programme , NET Report EUR-FU /XII -
        361 / 85 / 35 , 1985 .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      50 .
T.   GLÔSSARY
Uni ts
Sv     sievert            ( équivalent dose )
rem                             "             (1 rem = 0.01 Sv )
Bq     becquerel         ( activity )
Ci     curie             "                (1 Ci = 3.7x10 10 Bq )
W      watt               ( power )
eV     electronvolt      ( energy )           (1 eV = 1.6x10 1 ^ J )
A      ampere             ( electric current )
T      tesla             ( magnetic field strength )
s      second
min    minute
h      hour
d      day
a      year
g      gram
1      1 iter
m      meter
ppm    parts per million
multiplication factors :
                         m      10
                                    -3
                                    3
                         k      10
                                    6
                         M      10
                                    9
                         G      10
                                    12
                         T      10
 ---pagebreak---                                                           51 .
Abbreviations
ALARA         as low as reasonably achieveable
ALI           allowable limit of intake
ΒΗΡ           biological hazard potential
CEC           Commission of the European Communities
CEGB          Central Electricity Generating Board ( UK )
D             deuterium
DEMO          demonstration reactor
D-D           deuterium deuterium
D -T          deuterium - tritium
FCTR          First Commercial-sized Tokamak Reactor
HWR           heavy water reactor
ICRP          International Commission on Radiological Protection
INTOR         International Tokamak Reactor
LWR           Light Water Reactor
MARS          Mirror Advanced Reactor Study
MEI           most exposed individual
MPC           maximum permissible concentration
NET           Next European Torus
NII           Nuclear Installations Inspectorate ( UK )
NRC           Nuclear Regulatory Commission ( USA )
R+D           research and development
T             tritium
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                     52 .
           THE ECONOMIC PROSPECTS OF NUCLEAR FUSION - A 1986 VIEWPOINT
W.R. Spears            The NET Team , c / o Max Planck Institut fur Plasmaphysik ,
                       Boltzmannstraße 2 , 0-8046 Garching bei München .
R. Bünde               The NET Team , c / o Max Planck Institut fur Plasmaphysik ,.
                       BoltzmannstrafJe 2 , D-8046 Garching bei Miinchen .
G   Grieger            Max-Planck Institut fiir Plasmaphysik , BoltzmannstraBe 2 ,
                       D-8046 Garching bei München .
P.E. Grohnheit         Riso National Laboratory , DK-4000 Roskilde
J. Pericart            EDF - Centre des Renardières , BP No.1 ,
                       77250 Moret sur Loing , France .
                                       CONTENTS
0.          SUMMARY                                                            54
1 .         INTRODUCTION                                                       57
2.          REVIEW OF PUBLISHED REACTOR COSTS AND COSTING STUDIES              58
3.          GENERATION COST SENSITIVITY                                        69
4.          DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL FOR FUSION                                   78
5.          COMPARISON WITH OTHER POWER SYSTEMS                                82
6.          CONCLUSIONS                                                        91
7.          REFERENCES                                                         92
8.          GLOSSARY OF TERMS & DEFINITIONS                                    98
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                      53 .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
         The authors would particularly like to thank Dr R           Hancox ( UKAEA ) for
carrying out the research and contributing the basic text of section 2 .
        The authors are also very grateful for the comments and suggestions of
Drs C.M. Braams ( FOM ), B Brunei li ( ENEA ), G. Casini ( JRC Ispra ), J. Darvas
( CEC ), A. Gibson ( JET ), H.H. Hennies ( KfK ) , G. Kessler ( KfK ) , A. Malein ( CEC ),
D   Palumbo ( CEC ), R S. Pease ( UKAEA ), F. Prevot ( CEA ), J. Raeder ( NET ) and R.
Toschi ( NET ).
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   54
0.   SUMMARY
          This report summarises todays best estimates of the cost of power
generation from nuclear fusion       These estimates can only be rough since the
earliest commercialisation date is well into the 21st century and since
development up to now has concentrated on making fusion work , not in making it
cheap . An understanding of the technical and economic feasibility of fusion
will not exist until at least the next generation of experiments , like NET in
Europe , have been operated .
       Despite these qualifications      in the last ten years several conceptual
design studies of power producing fusion reactors have been undertaken .        Such
studies are necessary since they show where fusion development is heading
thus guiding both plasma physics and reactor technology development programmes
along   reasonable   paths .  These  studies   produce  estimates of  the   cost  of
constructing the reactors or of generating electricity , which indicate that
the economic viability of fusion       is a possible ,  but by no means certain ,
outcome of the present research programme .
       For tokamaks ( the most advanced confinement method ), the direct capital
cost   in   these studies varies over     a factor  of  nearly  3 while   for other
confinement schemes the range      is a factor of 5 .     This indicates the wide
variety of possible methods for tackling the technological problems of fusion
and the uncertainty over the most desirable design solutions .          These costs
apply to fully commercialised designs ,       not the first device of a series .
Usually the tenth device of      its kind is costed to take advantage of the
economic benefit of the gain with experience of manufacturing and construction
know-how .
         As an alternative to cost    in these studies     it is also possible to
estimate the energy expended in al l the processes involved in manufacturing ,
constructing and operating the power station .        Such studies show an energy
expenditure in constructing a fusion station twice that for a fission plant .
However for fission , considerable energy must be expended in producing fuel
for the plant during its lifetime whereas for fusion this item is minuscule .
The apparent fusion disadvantage is more than outweighed by this advantage .
      As part of the design definition of NET , cost methods suitable for first -
of-a kind devices have also recently been evolved . These indicate the levels *j
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   55 .
of cost to be expected early in the deployment of commercial-scale fusion
reactors when the manufacturing and construction design base is still growing .
Such costing methods rely heavily on design solutions proposed for NET . These
may not be the ones chosen , for technical and economic reasons , when
commercial reactors are finally designed .         For a prototype commercial-sized
reactor of 1200 MW        ( sent out ) typical of present-day plant sizes , with
plasma physics only relying on a plausible extrapolation of the results from
present-day experiments , the estimated generation cost is about 2-3 times that
for   thermal fission    stations    beginning operation   in  1995 .   Under   series
production of fully commercialised designs ( e.g. the tenth device after the
prototype ), this gap can be significantly reduced or even closed . In addition ,
a  considerable   reduction    in   the cost could be achieved by a significant
increase in the ability to confine plasma and reduction in the unit cost of
design solutions , with only a modest increase in levels of power sent out .
         The present fusion programmes worldwide are geared towards solving
problems of scientific principle .       In the past , they have almost exclusively
been directed at     increasing the understanding of plasma physics but , as a
consequence   of   physics    progress ,  are  now   increasingly   concentrating   on
technological feasibility .       The target of these programmes is to produce a
working demonstration power reactor .           Such a device would need to be
technically improved and simplified to arrive at a desirable and economically
competitive end product .        The combination of several of the innovations
proposed up to now might result in substantial economic benefits .           Most are
aimed at increasing plasma power density using theoretically feasible plasma
physics and advanced superconductors . In this respect device compactness has
a part to play , but only to the extent that technological design margins are
not eroded and the good safety characteristics of the fusion power plant
compromised . Many proposals , whose benefits are impossible even to estimate
today     are not just applicable to tokamaks but to toroidal magnetic
confinement generally .
      By the time fusion power is commercially available , coal ,, fission breeder
and solar photovoltaic power stations will be the likely competitors . Solar
photovoltaic power costs are predicted to be a factor of 2.5-4 higher than
thermal fission . Coal , whose present electricity generation cost in baseload
is up to 60$ higher than thermal fission plants , is expected to maintain , or
even increase , this cost disadvantage . Fast breeders , which at present are
 linked by their fuel cycle to thermal fission stations and are only just
 ---pagebreak---                                                                            56 .
beginning their evolution from the prototype commercial - sized device , although
initially ( in the first-of its kind device ) expected to have power costs up to
1 00 JS higher than that from thermal, fission , are predicted to attain a much
more competitive generation cost compared with thermal fission , when they are
introduced on a full commercial scale .    Predictions for thermal fission depend
on the economic conditions prevailing in the middle of the next century and
extend over a factor of 2 ( Even for systems starting operation in 1995 the
cost for thermal fission can only be predicted within a factor of 1.5 ).
Fusion power thus fits alongside these estimates and from this point of view
should be able      to penetrate   the market  in the   future as a large scale
generating technology .
        There are also a number of somewhat intangible but potentially beneficial
effects of electricity generation with fusion ,      in addition to those items
considered in present costings . These include security of fuel availability
( deuterium and lithium are spread widely and plentifully on earth ), low fuel
price dependence , an internal fuel cycle ( extensive off-site reprocessing
systems and their associated logistics are .      in principle , unnecessary and ,
even if needed for economic reasons , are much less than in fission ), the
potential for reduced waste hazard ( through materials optimised for fusion ),
and reduced scale of possible accidents .    To what extent these items will have
an economic impact and add to the desirability of fusion power is impossible
to estimate until more progress is made .
          The development cost for fusion power is a tiny fraction of todays
expenditure for energy supply which , given the virtually inexhaustable nature
of the fuels and their worldwide distribution ,      and the potential for high
environmental acceptability , should produce a highly desirable payoff .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              57 .
1 . INTRODUCTION
       The aim of this report is to describe todays view of the cost of the end
result from the fusion development programme , in so far as it can presently be
quantified .    This is a difficult task since its earliest commercialisation
date   is well   into the next century ,        after a considerable development and
proving programme .    In todays position we are still far from the commercial
end product .     Any predictions made here must therefore be understood as
representing a considerable range around the quoted values . Furthermore , the
programme of development up to now has concentrated on making fusion work , not
making it cheap , and there is likely to be considerable improvement in the
cost predictions once there is a greater understanding of what needs to be
done technologically .      This will not come about until the next generation of
experiments , like NET in Europe , have been operated .
        The report reviews what has been said in the past about fusion costs
( section 2 ) and describes the sensitivity of generation cost to assumptions in
section 3 .   for f irst - of - a - kind tokamaks .  The potential for  improving on
present conceptions of what makes a viable reactor is discussed in section 4
and fusion is compared with its competitors in section 5 . A full glossary of
terms and definitions is given in section 8 .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                58 .
2.  REVIEW OF PUBLISHED REACTOR COSTS AND COSTING STUDIES
          In the last ten years several conceptual design studies of power
producing fusion reactors or fusion based power stations have been published .
Many of these studies have included estimates of the cost of constructing the
reactors or of generating electricity ,       and  these published estimates are
reviewed in the following section .
2.1 Capital costs
         Direct capital costs per unit output for most published commercial
reactor designs are shown in table 2.1 .        The direct capital costs are the
major contributor to the total cost and therefore form a convenient basis for
comparing different designs .    Table 2.1 also shows the relative direct capital
cost of each design normalized to Starfire and adjusted for inflation .             ( In
the case of the Culham Mk II reactor , the standardized exchange rate defined
by Ashby / 22 / was used to convert the cost to dollars .)
      A number of conclusions may be drawn from the information in the table :
2.1.1   Historical variations
        Early studies such as the Princeton tokamak reactor of 197 1* and the
University of Wisconsin tokamak reactors ( UWMAK I and II ) of 1975 , gave lower
direct capital costs than the more recent NUWMAK and Starfire tokamak studies
completed in the period 1979-80 , this being due to the more realistic physics
and engineering bases of the recent studies .
2.1.2   Design uncertainties
      Costs based on recent studies still show considerable variations .      Whilst
the turbine and electrical plant can be costed accurately on the basis of
manufacturing experience , the cost of the fusion reactor itself is uncertain
both because of unresolved physics issues and because of novel manufacturing
requirements .    This is illustrated in table 2.2 which compares the costs of
the reactor plant with the total station cost for some of the power stations
listed in table 2.1 .     The ratio of reactor plant cost to total direct cost
varies from 37$ to 76$ .     Further causes of variation include the effects of
scale ,  and   whether  the reactor   is costed as the f irst - of - a- kind or the
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                  59 .
benefits       of  previous production   expert on on are assumed .    For   the  above
reasons , comparisons with existing power systems such ns fission reactors can
1)0 misleading .
2. t . 3   II ternatives to the BT-tokajaak
          Table 2.1 also shows estimated direct capital costs for several power
stations based on plasma confinement systems other than the DT-tokamak .              In
general the plasma physics basis for these reactor designs               is less well
developed than for the tokamak .         Within the present accuracy , ail the costs
are of the same order as for Starfire .
2.1.4      Alternative fuels
         Only one study , Wildcat , has been based on a fuel cycle other than D-T .
This design , based on a D-D fuel cycle , is conceptually similar to Starfire
but requires substantially better plasma confinement in view of the lower
reaction cross-section .      As a result the capital cost and cost of electricity
are nearly twice those of Starfire .
2.2 . Cost sensitivity
            Several studies / 23~29 / have investigated how the cost of a fusion
reactor varies with one or more parameters , both to assess               the relative
importance of that parameter or to establish its optimum value .         These studies
have utilized both simplified analytical models / 23 , 24 , 25 /        which provide
insight into the inter-relationship between parameters , and            more detailed
computer models / 26 , 27 /.    The main results are as follows :-
2.2.1      Physics parameters
         The major physics parameters affecting the cost of a tokamak reactor are
the ratio ( fj ) of the plasma pressure confined to the magnetic pressure
applied , and the plasma current for a given magentic field ( i.e. the inverse
rotational transform of the field lines , q - see glossary ).       A plasma pressure
of approaching 10? relative to the toroidal magnetic field pressure is
desirable , but recent predictions of the physical limit are somewhat below
this level .         A high current for a given field is essential , leading to
!*equi resents for plasma shaping .         By contrast , plasma confinement times
 predicted in devices of the scale of a commercial reactor appear adequate .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   60 .
2.2.2    Engineering parameters
       For unit sizes above 600 MW e , the unit cost of a fusion reactor follows
the two-thirds power law common in engineering production .             Larger units are
therefore more economic , but if too large there may be limits of acceptance .
The first wall power loading has a strong influence on unit costs and there is
an optimum value which is a compromise between the desire to reduce general
reactor material quantities as far as possible , without making the design too
complex or incurring penalties from too frequent maintenance periods .                 This
optimum is usually in the range 3 to 6 MW/ m , depending on the predicted life
of the wall before radiation damaged material must be replaced .               In smaller
unit sizes , the total thickness of the blanket and shield on the inboard side
of  toroidal    reactors    significantly     affects   costs   because   it  limits    the
achievable     wall    loading .     The    peak   magnetic     field   achievable     with
superconducting coils ,     or   supportable with     practical structures ,    is not a
major constraint in a tokamak unless the plasma pressure ratio , 6 is low .
2.2.3    Compact reactors
      One simple way of comparing the economics of alternative power sources is
through the power produced per unit mass of the system .               The cost of many
power   sources   is   roughly   related   to  their   mass ,  since  variations   due   to
special materials of complex design do not predominate , and for this reason
compact systems are economically attractive .             For fusion reactors a rough
target for the mass power density of 100 kWg/ tonne has been suggested / 30/,
and several designs of compact reactors exist approaching            this value as shown
in figure 2.1 / 31 / .   In this respect the Reversed Field Pinch has an advantage
because of its high plasma pressure ratio (6 - 25$ ), whereas for tokamaks only
designs with non-superconducting magnets to allow high-field operation can
approach    this mass    power   density .    This  question    is considered again      in
section 3-
        As already indicated in table 2.2 the ratio of reactor plant cost to
total direct cost is significantly higher for a fusion reactor than for a PWR .
Figure 2.2 shows a correlation between this ratio and the unit capital cost ,
which suggests that the estimated capital cost of a fusion reactor should be
reduced by a factor 2 to compete with a present day PWR . This reduction
corresponds to a factor 4 in mass utilization .             These conclusions , however ,
take no account of the low fuel costs of fusion which may considerably reduce
thes^ factors .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                61 .
2.3   Electricity generating costs
       >Ih several studies the direct capital costs have been used as the basis
of generating cost estimates , as quoted in table 2.3 .     These are dealt with
more fully in section 5 .
2.4   Energy accounting
         An alternative to considering the electricity generating costs is to
calculate the energy expended in all the processes which are involved in the
manufacture , construction and operation of the system .              This energy
expenditure includes mining and refining the raw materials - including the
fuels - as well as the production , transport , and erection of the plant and
buildings .      One advantage of energy accounting is that    it should not be
influenced by relative wage       and price changes .    Another   very   important
advantage in relation to energy accounting for power stations is that the
ratio Of energy expended to the energy generated during the life of the
station is an easily understood and convenient measure of the value of the
project .    Th'e major difficulty in the assessment is the calculation of the
energy expenditure in each activity , which is often poorly defined and is in a
Variety Of different forms . Conversely the payback time , in spite of being
widely    used ,   is a misleading measure because    it is highly sensitive      to
arbitrary assumptions in its definition .
       Some results of a recent detailed study by BUnde / 32 , 33 , 3 1*/, in which
two fusion power plants were compared with two LWR fission reactor power
plants , are given in table 2.M. The energy expenditure on construction of a
fusion power station is a factor of two greater than that for a PWR station ,
whieh is consistent with capital cost estimates . The overall energy input for
the fission station , however , is significantly increased by the energy
required to provide fuel both for the start of operation and for life-time
refuelling . The figures quoted in table 2 . 4 are the most optimistic for
fission and the most pessimistic for fusion of the cases considered . An
ear lien study by Tdoulfanidis / 35 / gave similar results , shown in table 2.5 ,
but it may be noted that the fusion energy inputs were calculated on the basis
of the tftfMftK-IlI which is seen in table 2.1 to be the most expensive of the
American tokamak reactor designs .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                     62 .
2.5   Discussion
      In discussing the existing literature of fusion economics it must firstly
be stated that all cost estimates are based on outline designs which assume
favourable solutions to outstanding physics questions . Whilst the cost of
individual components can be estimated from other engineering applications ,
not all details of the components are known , and so the costs quoted here are
only the best possible indications at the present state of fusion development .
By comparison ,     other   energy   systems   such as     fission reactor    based     power
stations are well defined and can be much more accurately costed , although
still dependent on financial assumptions and resource availabilities .
      Sensitivity studies have allowed present reactor designs to be optimised ,
within the constraints of present understanding .            The extent to which changes
in parameters could lead to lower capital costs is well understood .               In terms
of physical limitations , the plasma pressure ratio & is most important .                  In
terms of engineering constraints ,         any factor which permits a higher power
density will be important .          Present designs are therefore tending to more
compact reactors , with increased emphasis on materials properties and high
magnetic fields .
      There have been very few new commercial tokamak reactor design studies in
the   past   five   years ,  not   only   because    of  the   present  emphasis on next
generation devices      such as    NET or    INTOR ,   but  because   there  have been no
significant changes in physics understanding since the Starfire study which
would    change   the  engineering     concept  and hence      the  estimated   cost .     In
contrast to the tokamak situation , there have been several recent studies of
reactors based on other confinement geometries .             Of these , the tandem mirror
( MARS )  study suggests that       there   is no obvious economic advantage .            The
Reversed Field Pinch , however , has the potential to be the basis of a more
compact , and hence cheaper ,       reactor but has a weaker physics basis .              The
stellarator has been the basis of several studies , which indicate costs in the
same range as for the tokamak .
      This viewpoint has not covered inertially based reactor systems / e.g. 20 ,
21 /, for which much of the target physics is classified information and for
which the cost of the driver systems is very uncertain .               Nor has it covered
fission-fusion hybrid systems / e.g. 36 / for which reactor designs are less
well developed , and costs depend to a large extent on the value of the fissile
fuel produced and on the cost of safety for this complicated system .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                           63
                 TABLE 2.1 : SUMMARY OF REACTOR STUDIES
                                                          Spécifie             Relative
       Year of MW       Name                              Direct              capital
                  e
       costing net                                        Capital             cost
                                                          cost                 ( corrected
                                                          ( $ / kW )             f or
                                                                  e
                                                          ( in year            inflation )
                                                          of costing )
                 DT-Tokamaks :
197*1  1974    2030     PPLP / 1 /                                    433     0.47
19 / Ь 1974    1474     UWMAK I / 2 /                                 723     0.78
1975   1975    1709     UWMAK-II /V                                   706     0.69
1976   1975    1985     UWMAK-III / 4 /                              1154     1.14
1976   1976    2500     Culham I / 5 /                                750     0.70
1979   1978      660    NUWMAK / b /                                 1279     1 . 05
1980   1977    1200     Culham II B / 7,8,9 /                        1442     1 . 28
1980   1980    1200     Starfire 710 /                               1439     1
                 Others :
1978   1976      492    Standard mirror / 11 /                       4510    4.22
1979   1979      750    RFPR ( Reversed field pinch ) / 1 2 /        1104    0.84
1980   1980    1530     WITAMIR ( Tandem mirror ) / 1 3 /            1348    0.94
1981   1980      812    Wildcat ( D-D tokamak ) / 1 4 /              2725    1.89
1981   1981    121 4    EBTR ( Bumpy torus ) /1 5 /                  1737    1.14
1982   1982    1882     UWTOR-M ( Stel larator ) / 1 6 /             1422    0.88
1983   1980    1 660    MRS-IIA ( Stel larator ) /1 7 /              1482    1 . 03
1983   1980    1302     MRS-IIB ( Stel Larator ) / 1 7 /             1265    0.88
1984   1980    1200     MARS ( Tandem mirror ) / 1 8 /              1970     1.37
1985   1980    1000     CRFPR 20 ( Compact RFP ) / 1 9 /            1111     0.77
1985   1984    3784     Hiball II ( Heavy-ion beam ) 720,21 / 1347           0.74
 ---pagebreak---                                                                 64 .
              TABLE 2.2 : REACTOR PLANT COSTS
           Reactor         Direct    Total    Ratio       Ratio
            ( $M )         capital   capital  Reactor /   Dir . cap ./
                              ( $M )  ( $M )  Dir . cap . Total cap .
PPPL        606               880     1215     0.69        0.72
UWMAK-I     574             1 066     1433     0.54        0.74
UWMAK-II    775             1207      1615     0.64        0.75
UWMAK-III   812             2290               0.35
NUWMAK      534               844     1140     0.63        0.74
Starf ire   969             1727      2400     0.56        0.72
Culham IIB  656               911     1824     0.72        0.50
RFPR        397               828              0.48
WITAMIR    1565             2063      2785     0.76        0.74
Wildcat    1497             2213      3076     0.68        0.72
MRS-IIA    1687             2460      3695     0.69        0.67
MRS-IIB     968             1647      2473     0.59        0.67
EBTR       1426             2109      2872     0.68        0.73
UWTOR-M    1765             261 1     3758     0.68        0.69
MARS       1517             2365      3266     0.64        0.72
CRFPR.20 .  415             1112      1515     0.37        0.73
PWR                                           0.25-0.32
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                  65 .
                  TABLE 2.3 : COST OF ELECTRICITY - ( mills-1 980 / kWh )
                               Starf ire   CRFPR.20        Mars
Annual capital charge           30.44       22.79          42.56
Operation and maintenance        2.46        4.11            2.63
Component replacement            2.20        1 . 00         0.69
Fuel                             0.04        0.03           0.36
Total                           35.15       27.93          46.24
The annual capital charge is set at 10$ of the total capital cost , in constant ( zero
inflation ) money over a 30 year operating life .   Plant availability is different in
each study ( between 75-80$ ).
 ---pagebreak---       TABLE 2.4 : ENERGY INPUT AND OUTPUT OVER 30 YEAR LIFE ( from ref 3 1*)
                                                            Fusion    Fission
Construction of power plant           ( MWh th
                                            .. /MW e ) +     4082      2160
Construction of fuel installations    (MWhth/MWe )4             16      789
                                                                            #
Fuel for first operation              (MWIVth./MWe ) +           3      399
                                                                            *
Fuel for lifetime operation           (MWh th /MW e ) +         87     5554
Total energy input                    ( MWh tn
                                            . . /MW Θ ) +    1*188     8902
Energy generated                      (MWh th /MW e ) +     6.3x105    6.3x10
Energy gain                                                   150        70
#
   Assuming centrifuge enrichment of ore with a 0.2% uranium content .
   MWh in always means thermal energy and / or primary energy equivalent of
   electrical energy , and MWg refers to electrical power sent out .
 ---pagebreak---              TABLE 2.5 : ENERGY GAINS FOR POWER PLANTS ( from Ref 35 )
                                            EG 1      EG2       EG3
Coal Plant                                  5-7       6-9       53-93
PWR ( diffusion enrichment )                3-5       7-5       15
PWR ( centrifuge enrichment )               10        13        80
Fusion plant                                 5         7        64
EG1 = Electrical energy out / equivalent thermal energy in .
EG^ = Electrical energy out / total energy in .
EG^ = Electrical energy out/electr ical energy in .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                               68 .
                O   3000
               ?
               JC
                                        1000 MWe
                               MET
               V)
                                                                               Ε0ΤΠ
               O
               O    2000                                              usn      _ -A "
               Ι-                                                         A          T.
               Ο                                                                      1
                                                 5ΤΛΠΓΙΠΕ                            A
               ιυ
               OC                                        Au-               WITAMin-1
                Z
                                              nFPn
                                                          \  Ο = βΟΟΜΟΟΙΜ / Γ         1
                    1000                                      ρ                  ΤΗ
                =>
                         AA CRFPR
                                                                 ( ~ 30.0 S / kfl )
                         L WR
                                                                     J_
                                  2            4          8          8
                                              FUSION POWER CORE
                           MASS UTILIZATION , M / P                  ( lonno / MWl )
FIGURE 2.1 Specific direct capital cost as a function of mass utilisation in
            the fusion power core ( from reference 31 ).
                         -1-1-1-1-1 -1-1-r
                                                                                    I
                                                                                    K
               "3 3000
                    3000 -   PNET == 1000
                                        1000 UWt UWt                              tf
                %             NET                                               I       A
                *                                                           Msn//       p
               “                                                             Z/
               ° 2000 -                                              g /'jy         /
               F-                   (( 1-ПРЕ
                                       1-nPE // Т0С
                                                 TDC ))            .r /V *        /
               o                 -                      Lwn                      /
                “             000 “I-                                           /
                JJ!                   ( 1-RPE / TDCI
                                      ( 1 - RPE / TDCI            V*           *
                5                            \ FUSIOM^ppn                   WITAUIR-1
                                                                            WITAUIR-1
                t                                 \ -
                X   _                              _ ^ ^
                5 1000 -
                    1000
                                            Д _.-^^ СПЕРП
                                    " LWR
                            A-       EFFECT OF DOUOLINO
                                                      DOUDLINO COST OF
                                      REACTOR PLANT EQUIPMENT
                       J_ I_I_I_I_I -1-1-1-1
                       °     0.1    0.2       0.3 0.4        0.5   0.0     0.7    0.8     0.0
                             REACTOR PLANT EQ UI PMENT ( RPE )
                                 TOTAL DIRECT COST ( T D C )
FIGURE  2.2   Specific direct capital cost as a function of the cost ratio
              between reactor plant equipment and total direct cost ( from
              reference 31 •
 ---pagebreak---                                                                               69 .
3.   GENERATION COST SENSITIVITY
        As pointed out in the previous section there have been very few recent
assessments of commercial reactor’s because of the present emphasis on the next
step in the programme of development .       As part of this work in Europe , an
extensive model of the cost scaling of reactor systems is under development as
a design aid in the choice of NET parameters .        This model has been built up
using the expertise gained in the studies reported in section 2 and has now
been extensively reviewed by Motor Columbus Engineers Inc .           who have wide
experience of power plant construction worldwide .       Modifications suggested by
them have been incorporated in the model as it stands today / 37 /, and it has
been    extended  to  analyse   electricity   generation   costs   along   the     lines
recommended in the UNIPEDE study / 38 /.
       This model is used here as the basis for describing the cost sensitivity
of reactor parameters , since it represents the latest , and therefore hopefully
the most accurate , assessment within Europe of reactor costs for first - of - a-
kind , DT-based tokamaks .    As such , the results reported below should not be
taken to be indicative of reactor costs in a mature industry .           In any case ,
extrapolation of currently perceived NET design solutions into the commercial
reactor regime has low credibility since NET itself will be the test bed for
developing such reactor relevant design solutions .       Inevitably , in all areas ,
both learning in manufacture and improvement in design will also drive costs
down in future devices from levels predicted today .        Furthermore , within the
present modelling ,   no attempt has    been made   to minimise    non-direct      costs
( operation and maintenance especially ) to increase commercial acceptability ,
and this results in a further overestimation of fusion costs .
3.1   Generation Cost Usage
       One of the advantages claimed by fusion is that it has low fuel costs to
offset against probably high capital costs .        When comparing the merits of
fusion with its competitors it is therefore essential to consider all costs
incurred from the start of construction to ultimate decommissioning when making
a judgement . This can only be done by the use of generation costs ( G ), also
known as cost of electricity , which properly account for the influence of
capital , operating and maintenance , fuel , decommissioning and interest charges .
The assumptions implicit in the costs reported here are listed in table 3.1 •
Only direct , operation and maintenance , and fuel costs are calculated in
detail , with other non-direct costs amounting to 58 ^ of D.
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                 70 .
3.2    Generation Cost vs. Beta Level and Mass Expenditure
        The plasma pressure ratio , B , can be related to basic Tokamak parameters
by the equation B(iO = gI(MA) / a(m)B(T ) where I , a and B are plasma current ,
minor radius and toroidal field respectively and g is a constant known as the
" beta level ".     To minimise the amount of plasma needed for a given output
power ,   B and hence g must be maximised ,        particularly since  its square is
proportional to the plasma power density .        One of the major efforts in fusion
is therefore to maximise the beta level subject to any other constraints that
might apply .
          For a device of fixed power sent out and beta level there exist an
infinite number of possible designs with different dimensions .        A minimum cost
device can be chosen from this infinite set .        The variation in generation cost
of such minimum cost devices can then be shown as a function of the power sent
out and beta level .      This is done here using parameters predicted by SUPERCOIL
/ 39 / over a wide range of values of power sent out and beta level .             This
analysis / 40 / extends an earlier analysis based on the capital cost only / 41 /.
Figure 3*1     shows the results , relative to the cost of one particular design
point ( the reference point , PCSR-E ( prototype commercial-sized reactor ), is a
1200 MW so device with a value of g ( 3.5 ) consistent with present day
experiments ), indicating a decreasing cost benefit as both beta level and power
sent out are raised but that certain minimum levels of these parameters are
worthwhile attaining .      Also shown is the wall loading that should be achieved
to gain access to the cost minima at each value of power sent out and beta
level .    ( In reality , since cost minima are fairly flat as a function of wall
loading ,    small  reductions   in  wall   loading  from  the  values  shown may    be
tolerated without much cost increase ).
         Under the stimulus of studies recently carried out in the USA / 30 / the
same results are replotted in figure 3-2 as a function of " mass expenditure "
( ME ) on the fusion power core ( FPC ), i.e. the mass of material required for the
torus ( first wall / blanket / shield ), magnets ( toroidal and poloidal field ) and
their    respective support    structures ,  divided  by the power sent out .    This
variable is equal to the " mass utilization " multiplied by the overall plant
efficiency ( typically 30J ), and is inversely proportional to the mass power
density ( 100 kWg/ tonne = 10 tonnes /MWe ), both these terms having been mentioned
in section 2 .     Figure 3.2 also shows absolute generation cost values for these ,
first -of- a- kind stations in 1984 ECU (1 ECU-1984 = 0.822$-1 984 ) .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              71 .
           _ 10 p
       % * 8"                          ^–' 2000
       | - 4-
       || 2 -                         --              60ÔMWSO
                                                      600 MW
           “*      0L
                 2.0 - \
           i–
                 1.5 -      \\
           oo                 \
           :            l V
           ^             \                         P.n == 600
                                                          600 MW
                                                               MW
           iÈ ^ ^        \ N.
           >              \     N.
           i                V            --___J_200 ^
                 0.5 -             ^                     2000
                   0 -1-1-1-1-1–
                    0         5      10       15       20       25
                                   BETA LEVEL 'g'
FIGURE 3.1   : Generation cost of minimum-cost devices as a function of beta
               level at different values of power sent out , and the corresponding
               wall loading levels required .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                      72 .
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                                                              CONSTRUCTION      CD
              0 5 2000.^1 1            ...cí ^                COST
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                                                                                CO
                    g _ 24 2 ' ^ £                            CONTRIBUTION
                                                              CONTRIBUTION      «<
                          / ,                 2000 ^-*
                                                         1200^-^^00\
                                                            FUSION POWER
                                                       C0RE CONTRIBUTION
                 0 -3-1-1-1-'-1- 0
                  0       10      20       30         K0     50      60    70
                          MASS EXPENDITURE ( tonnes / MW,       MW. J
FIGURE 3.2 : Correlation between generating cost , neutron wall loading and
                mass expenditure for minimum-cost devices at given values of g
                and power sent out
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                 73 .
        The most striking features of figure 3.2 are the direct proportionality
between generating cost and mass expenditure and the wide range of cost that
can    occur   with   different    assumptions   about  g  and  P SO .    ( The    direct
proportionality would have been distorted somewhat if availability had been
related to wall loading but this was not thought reasonable to do here since a
utility will prescribe a desirable availability , like that shown in table 3.1 ,
and all design solutions must . satisfy it ).
           The   results  of   figure  3.2  show   that FPC cost   curves    are   almost
superimposed     indicating the    strong dependence of its costing on mass .           A
typical unit cost is around 50 ECU / kg and this is independent of P so and g .
However , the accessible range of values of ME varies considerably with g and
P so . Although it only --   directly contributes about 1 5–35% to the direct costs
( 30$ for PSCR-E ), the FPC has an indirect effect on the rest of the plant .
This can be seen by the direct cost contribution curves which have now become
separated , since costs depending on power sent out , and fixed costs , have been
added in .     However , the change in slope of the curve indicates a " knock-on "
effect of FPC mass , which occurs mainly via the building costs since , under
present assumptions , building size is strongly related to FPC dimensions .           The
FPC thus influences 50-80$ of the direct costs ( 71$ for PCSR-E ).        Furthermore ,
at least 60$ of non-direct costs depend on direct costs and this produces the
further amplifying effect on the slopes of the lines shown in the generating
cost curves .     The FPC then influences between ^ 0-75$ of the generating cost
( 65$ for PCSR-E ) although it only directly contributes 8-18$ ( or 13-20$ if
first wall and blanket replacements are included ).
        These results show the strong influence of the FPC on costs . However ,
this is partly a figment of the cost models used at present and is strongly
affected by items not usually considered in the fusion programme ( e.g. building
design for fusion plants ). This , combined with the strong variation in costs
that can be achieved with improved physics attainment , represented here by 'g' ,
makes costing of fusion reactors at this stage , highly speculative .
3.3   Directions for Improvement
       The above results do not indicate any hard target for the competitiveness
of fusion , such as the 100 klWtonne mentioned in section 2 , although any
improvement which lowers mass expenditure may result in a reduction in
generation cost .    At present all that can be said is that there is considerable
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                  74 .
uncertainty in costs of DT tokamak fusion caused by the lack of knowledge of
thi ! physics and technology particularly of the Fl’f. in n reactor . Despite this ,
current estimates of the absolute coots , shown in figure 3-2 , indicate that the
PCSR-E design point would be rather expensive as an end point of the tokamak
development programme .      It is therefore worthwhile to speculate how the cost of
the end point device would be affected by future developments .
3.3*1      Direct cost réduction
         To accomplish this , inherently cheaper technological solutions than those
proposed for the engineering design problems of NET would have to be found .          In
the present PCSR-E design , the major direct cost items / 42 / are the fusion
power core ( 30$ ), buildings ( 19$ ) and the cooling/ generating system ( 12$ ). The
latter two items have not yet been optimised even for NET , so it is reasonable
to expect considerable improvements by the time commercial reactors are being
designed .      For the fusion power core , magnet costs , which are strongly driven
by specific conductor costs , make up more than half the total .        A significant
reduction of these specific costs under the mass-production of superconducting
cable needed for fusion reactors is therefore to be expected , irrespective of
any cheaper       design solutions  that  may be  implemented .   As a guideline ,     a
generation cost reduction of 15$ ( without change in mass expenditure ) can be
achieved by reducing specific costs of all items in only the FPC by 50$ .
3-3-2      Improved plasma physics at constant power sent out
         This is represented here by the factor g .    A 15$ reduction in generating
costs is achievable with a 60$ increase in g .        A consequent 20$ reduction in
mass expenditure occurs due to this Increase in compactness .       This approach has
its limitations , however , as g has to be doubled again to reduce costs by a
further 15$ . However , these calculations have been carried out using a fixed
plasma configuration , and innovations in this area ( see section 4 ) which
improve the plasma beta at constant g and which have the advantage of making
the device more compact , may , despite possible extra costs due to the use of
more exotic configurations , have a beneficial effect overall on cost .
3 - 3 - 3 Raised Pgo without g increase
             Increasing compactness   is not  the only method of decreasing mass
expenditure .       A 15$ reduction in generating cost would be achieved by a 40$
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              75 .
increase in power sent out without increasing g , as shown in figure 3.1 . The
corresponding mass expenditure decrease would be 16% . However , this increased
power sent out would have to be acceptable to the utilities . Here there are
differences , with , for instance , 1500 MWgo becoming the new European standard ,
whereas in the USA , 300-600 MWgQ units are thought to be more desirable for
their future energy needs .
3.4    Sensitivity to Assumptions
        In producing the results quoted here , certain basic assumptions have been
made .    The sensitivity of the cost of PCSR-E to changes in these assumptions is
shown in table 3-2 for the most sensitive parameters .          The sensitivity     is
defined as the relative change in the costs , divided by a given relative change
in the parameter ,     all other parameters in the table remaining fixed .        The
sensitivity is quoted relative to that for variations         in g .  Three plasma
physics parameters head        the  list and they are not really independent      ( as
assumed in the sensitivity analysis )        since g and q depend on the radial
profiles     of  plasma   density  and  temperature  in a way   which can  only     be
determined after extensive experimentation on reactor-level plasmas .         These
profiles are      implicitly included    in f which is also a function of plasma
operating temperature .
       Stress levels in the toroidal field coils are less important .    The use of
better quality materials        in superconducting coil manufacture may ease this
limit towards higher values ,       but many superconducting materials are strain
limited and this may provide a nearby limit . Also blanket thickness is not a
major cost driver .       This is fortunate since adequate space must always be
allowed for tritium breeding .
3.5    Discussion
        The results given above indicate that generating cost must be used with
extreme caution as a measure of the future worth of fusion power from DT-driven
tokamaks as it strongly depends on the FPC cost , which is poorly known at this
stage . It is therefore too early to draw hard and fast conclusions from this
analysis and such conclusions must wait until more is known about reactor
design solutions and their technology , that is , at the end of operation of NET .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                            76 .
       Even though generating coat values are uncertain , it is apparent that
factors of 2 can result from future research and development activities . There
appears to be a benefit in systems which either reduce mass expenditure , by
possessing higher g and / or operating at increased levels of power sent out , or
reduce fusion power core costs by the use of cheaper design solutions .         This
clearly points the direction for future development but the strength of the
incentive cannot yet be clearly quantified .   It must also be remembered that in
a mature fusion economy , learning will significantly reduce costs / 10 / over the
absolute values shown here .
        However , before fusion can be   introduced on a large scale ,    the cost
difference between fusion and its competitors must be small or even negative .
That fusion has the development potential to accomplish this is demonstrated in
the following section .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                            77 .
            TABLE 3.1   : LEVELISED GENERATION COST ASSUMPTIONS
    Plant lifetime                                   25 years
    Availability - Year 1                            4000 hours / yr
                    Year 2                           5000 hours / yr
                    Year 3 " 25                      6600 hours / yr
    Discount rate                                    5%
    Indirect costs                                   29 % of D
    Interest during construction                     23 % of D
    Decommissioning costs                            20% of D , discounted
             TABLE 3.2 : SUMMARY OF MOST SENSITIVE PARAMETERS
                                                                Relative
    Parameter                            Value                  Sensitivity
    Beta level , g                        3.5                        - 1.0
    Inverse rotational transform q        2.2                          0.8
    Fusion power density ratio , f        1.5                        - 0.5
    Blanket thickness                     0.55 / 0.85 m                0.3
    Toroidal field stress level           160 MN /m2                 - 0.2
(6)
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                      78 .
4.    DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL FOR FUSION
           The present    fusion programmes world-wide are scientific programmes
orientated towards solving problems of principle .         In the past , the programmes
concentrated on physics questions because the largest hurdle to be overcome was
seen there but , as a consequence of the progress made in physics , a gradual
transition has been taking place for some years now to increasingly include
questions of technology as well .
        The target of the programmes is a demonstration reactor to prove by its
successful operation that working solutions have been found for all problem
areas .    However , these solutions , if applied without any further improvement ,
would result     in a commercial     reactor more costly      than perhaps necessary .
Therefore the demonstration of basic feasibility has to be followed by a period
of technical improvement ( i.e. innovation and simplification of the design ) to
arrive at a desirable and economically competitive end product .              Such a step ¬
wise .procedure is advisable , especially since many of the expected improvements
at the reactor level would have no or only negligible impact on present-day
experiments .
         In order to substantiate this argument , an activity on reactor concept
innovations was started within       the  INTOR   frame and the first results will be
reported here .
4.1    Reactor concept innovations
       At the request of the IFRC ( International Fusion Research Council ) an IAEA
Specialists' Meeting was held on 1 3 “ 1 7 January 1986 at Agency headquarters in
Vienna / 43 /.    The purpose of this meeting was to identify innovations that
would significantly improve the prospects that fusion reactor development would
lead to an attractive end product          - a viable and economically competitive
fusion reactor , and to limit the initial activity to the Tokamak concept .               A
worldwide call for innovative proposals was made prior to the meeting via the
INTOR Workshop .     About 120 proposals on innovations were received and underwent
a first analysis .     They were nearly equally distributed among nine categories :
( i ) impurity control , ( ii ) beta and confinement enhancement , ( iii ) heating and
current drive , ( iv ) advanced magnets , ( v ) plasma engineering , ( vi ) configuration
and maintenance , ( vii ) advanced blankets / first walls / shields , ( viii ) advanced
materials , and ( ix ) innovative concepts .       Categories ( i ) to ( iii ) are in the
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                    79 .
physics field , and ( iv)-(viii ) in the field of engineering .           As expected from
the early concentration of the fusion programme on physics questions , the
physics innovations mainly consisted of anticipated results of present
activities promising plasma conditions suitable for reactor application ,
whereas     many    of    the  engineering      innovations    were    orientated   towards
improvements     of   the   end product with no essential          impact on the present
generation of experiments .       This will become apparent from the results of the
Workshop summarized in the next section .
4.2   Results of the Workshop on Reactor Concept Innovations
4.2.1    General
       By combination of a large number of the proposed innovations , substantial
improvements seem to be possible ,         even if the single ones alone might only
produce moderate effects .      This conclusion holds even if some of the proposals
in the     end would    turn out   not  to   be   feasible .    Furthermore ,  many of the
proposals are not restricted to Tokamaks but applicable to toroidal magnetic
confinement in general .
4.2.2    Increase in plasma power density
        There were a considerable number of proposals aiming at increasing the
plasma    power   density .    They range     from using     indentation and    the   second
stability regime ,     to increasing the magnetic field by using advanced super ¬
conductors allowing both higher field and higher current density , and they also
include sophisticated feedback circuits to improve plasma stability .                   Here
combination looks promising .         If all of them work it is expected that the
limitation in power density will then be set by the acceptable wall load .
4.2.3    Plasma heating
          Compared to the presently used systems , high energy ( about 0.5 MeV )
neutral beam injection should allow the beam power density to be increased by
an order of magnitude above that of today 's systems and , simultaneously , the
distance between beam sources and plasma to be increased to 30 m or so ( high
beam collimation ) .       This should not only allow the blanket coverage to be
increased but also the beam sources to be put into regions with nearly no
neutron irradiation .       In addition , these beams could perhaps also be used for
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                       80 .
active impurity control and current drive .           Present plasmas are too small in
cross-section for such beams to be applicable .
4.2.4   Trends
        After having discussed the proposals on advanced Tokamak concepts , the
Workshop   recommend    to  put  emphasis on     improving upon     the   present  line of
moderate elongation , moderate aspect ratio configurations rather than switching
over to very elongated or very low aspect ratio configurations .
4.2.5   System Aspects
         There was one proposal of potentially high influence on the reactor
concept . It exploits the extremely high plasma temperature ( above 100 million
degrees ) unique to fusion power by replacing the usual balance of plant by in-
situ MHD power conversion .       MHD circuits are introduced directly behind the
blanket such that the toroidal magnetic field existing anyway can be used for
the MHD process . The plasma electron temperature will be raised to above 30 keV
so that half the alpha power will be converted into synchrotron radiation which
will be used to create the necessary non-equilibrium ionization within the MHD
medium at acceptable operating temperature .         By this method the neutron energy
could be absorbed by high ( but still manageable ) temperature pebble beds and
then exploited by the MHD process .        This proposal claims considerable savings
in the balance of the plant .           The concept is also applicable to magnetic
confinement in general and not restricted to Tokamaks .
4.2.6 Summary on reactor concept innovations
          The   Workshop   has  clearly    shown   that   there   are   enough   ideas    for
significantly improving the end product above previous perceptions .            Nearly one
half of    the  proposals received were selected for deeper studies on their
prospects    of   final   feasibility .     This    provides    a  large    potential     for
substantial improvements .
4.3   Stellarators and Reversed Field Pinches
       In Europe it was concluded at a very early stage that toroidal magnetic
confinement offered the best chance of leading to a viable fusion reactor , and
practically all the European fusion effort was concentrated on this class of
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                81 .
systems with      the Tokamak being the main approach .        Therefore , the above
sections dealt with the prospects of the Tokamak as the ultimate fusion reactor
concept .    There are , however , substantial possibilities of improving on the
Tokamak where it encounters difficulties in its physics and engineering .
Stellarators and Reversed Field Pinches are being developed in Europe with
these prospects in mind .        According to European plans the concept selection
will be made after NET operation .
          The Stellarator line of magnetic confinement uses external electric
currents to produce the magnetic field in which a ring of plasma is passively
contained .    The successful operation of the Wendelstein Stellarators and of a
few other machines in other countries have made the Stellarator line a very
serious contender with       the Tokamak as the basis for a future fusion reactor .
The transfer of the Tokamak plasma current into external coil currents for
producing the necessary poloidal field components allows the Stellarator to
work with only one single coil system ,        to dispense with any transformer or
current    drive   system ,  to be free of disruptions ,   and to use steady-state
operation as an inherent property .        Once ignited it works by re-fuelling and
exhaust alone .      Present work aims at establishing beta values predicted by
theory and solving the impurity problem .
     Reversed Field Pinches , on the other hand , use plasma currents higher than
those of a Tokamak .       The magnetic field configuration produced in this way is
expected to relax into a minimum-energy state promising very high values of the
plasma pressure stably confined by the RFP fields .          Experiments in Culham ,
Padua , and elsewhere in the world have shown that the basic processes work .
This concept offers the advantage of arriving at the burning state by ohmic
heating alone .      Present work aims at establishing the RFP configuration at
higher plasma parameters and at reducing the transport losses to acceptable
values .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                         82 .
5.  COMPARISON WITH OTHER POWER SYSTEMS
          If fusion     power   is   to be   introduced on a large        scale  it must be
competitive with baseload generating technologies .               Today these technologies
are the conventional coal-fired and nuclear thermal power stations . By the
mid-21st Century when nuclear fusion can be expected to be commercially
available ,    fast breeder nuclear power and solar photovoltaic conversion are
also likely to have reached commercial maturity .
5.1  Comparison validity
          It   could be argued       that  coal-fired   plants and nuclear       plants will
undoubtedly change in many ways during the next 50 years or so , making any
reference     to   their   present     state   irrelevant .     However ,   some   long   term
tendencies of these changes can be inferred :
         - For coal-fired plants ,        increasingly difficult exploitation of fuel
resources and the strengthening of anti-pollution standards will lead to higher
prices .     In addition , worries about the increase in atmospheric CC^ could
curtail the use of fossil-fuels in power generation .
         - For thermal fission reactors , a number of technological changes are
still possible .     Higher fuel utilisation would be particularly stimulated by an
increase of the uranium ore price .
       In the long term , the uranium price will undoubtedly increase , although
neither    the   time  scale nor      the  slope of this      increase  is   known and    they
obviously depend on the worldwide development of nuclear energy .                   With the
present state of the art , multiplying the price of fuel by a factor of 10
induces a factor of about 2 in the generating cost of thermal fission reactors .
     Other types of reactors , like the HTR with a thorium cycle , or molten salt
reactors ,   could also appear        in the meantime .     In the case of fast breeder
reactors , the investment cost of the French Superphenix plant is about twice
the price of a French PWR .        This is expected to reduce significantly for future
commercial fast breeder reactor plants / HH , H5 / .
          The above uncertainties         indicate the difficulty in telling in what
direction and to what extent the present price of nuclear energy will change
half a century ahead .        Therefore comparisons of fusion with present costs of
these systems can only give guidance , since it must be remembered that the
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                     83 .
price of    present day    systems may    increase   considerably over     the timescale
envisaged for the introduction of fusion .
5.2  Non-quantif ied économie characteristics
         There are a number of somewhat intangible but potentially beneficial
effects    of   an   electricity  generation     network    with   fusion   as   a   major
constituent .    These include :
        - Security of fuel availability .          Deuterium and     lithium are spread
widely and plentifully , a guarantee against a geopolitical crisis .
        - Low fuel price dependence allows even low fuel-content resources to be
exploited and ,    in the very long term ,    keeps at a low level the influence on
generation costs of fuel price escalation .
        - The fuel cycle is internal to the power plant , so the fuel supply does
not depend in principle on extensive off-site reprocessing systems and their
associated logistics . Even if recycling of lithium proves to be desirable from
an economic standpoint , this is much less expensive and hazardous than with
fission .
            Without    the  need  for    fuel   reprocessing    there   is   considerable
difficulty    in   the  diversion of   materials    for  the   construction   of   nuclear
weapons without detection .
        - Opportunity for reduced waste hazard by developing low activation
materials ( materials presently proposed are optimised for use in fission ),
leading to a lower impact on society .
        - The reduced scale of possible accidents .
5.3  Qu antitative cost comparison
        Generation cost has been used in several studies by the OECD /Nuclear
Energy Agency / 46 , 47 /, UNIPEDE / 38 /, and in national comparisons of coal-fired
and nuclear generation of electricity . These results are shown in table 5.1 ,
and transferred to 1984 US $ for comparison with the other technologies .
      The generation costs of nuclear fission and coal-fired power stations are
illustrated by appropriate high and low estimates for the different generating
cost components taken from the OECD /NEA reports .            The fuel costs , however ,
include price escalations within the time horizon ( 2020 ).                 The cost of
electricity from fast breeder reactors must be within the cost range for coal
and thermal fission , if this technology is to penetrate the market on a large
scale , so this is not included in the table .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   84 .
         Solar energy appears to be a possible challenger of fusion in the middle
of the next century , at least in Southern Europe . Two processes are currently
under development : thermodynamic cycles ( with mirrors and boilers ) and direct
conversion ( photovoltaic cells ).       The probability that thermodynamic cycles can
be a valuable long term solution is limited , considering its vulnerability to
weathering .       The prospects are better for direct conversion .        The price of
direct conversion is sensitive to cost and efficiency of photovoltaic cells ,
for which significant improvements are possible .        However , even if zero cost is
assumed       for   photovoltaic   cells   and   several  values      taken   for   their
efficiencies , the minimum generation cost is still about 20 mills / kWh / 48 /.
Two solar photovoltaic generation studies with realistic prices for the cells
/ 50 ,   51 / are quoted    in table 5.1    and they quantify expected reductions of
investment costs .       No estimates are made for operation and maintenance cost ,
these being considered negligible .
          The basic conclusion that can be drawn from table 5.1         is that all the
estimates are of the same order of magnitude , and that the numerical values of
the cost ranges of these technologies are overlapping .
        The most recent estimate of fusion power costs , PCSR-E , which is a first -
of - a- kind study and does not assume improvements beyond the present physics
base , shows costs that are three times higher than those of the Starfire study
from 1980 , which was a tenth- of- a- kind study .         Under learning assumptions
typically assumed for Starfire , cost reductions of between 30 and 50% over
first-off costs are readily obtainable .          Fission costs that are estimated on
uniform assumptions show a range from 19 to 53 mills 1984 per kWh , which has a
significant overlap with the 29 to 86 mills per kWh range for fusion . Since
any cost       calculation so   far ahead    in the future  is bound to be extremely
uncertain ,     this should not necessarily lead to the conclusion at this stage
that the one will be eventually more expensive than the other .
       Within the calculated cost range of these technologies that already exist ,
namely coal and thermal fission , ranging from 20 to 80 mills-1984 per kWh , it
seems likely that both nuclear fusion and solar photovoltaic will be able to
penetrate in the future as large-scale generating technologies .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                  85 .
TABLE 5.1 : ESTIMATES OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION COSTS IN MILLS-1 984 / kWh
                  BY MID 21st CENTURY FOR LARGE SCALE BASE LOAD TECHNOLOGIES
         Discount rate 5%                         Invest    O&M      Fuel        Total
Fusion
   Starfire ( tenth of a kind )                    25.9      3.3      0.0          29.2
   CRFPR.20 ( not first of a kind )                19.4      6.1      0.0          24.5
   MARS ( tenth of a kind ) ¿                      36.2      4.0      0.5          40.7
   PCSR-E ( first of a kind ) 3                    70.6     15.0      0.7          86.4
Thermal Fission
.. -              -                         ¿4
   0ECD /NEA low estimates ( France )              10        4        5            19
   0ECD / NEA high estimates ( USAr                32        5       16            53
Coal                                      ,
   0ECD / NEA low estimates ( Italy !               6.9      2.8     24.6          34.4
   0ECD/NEA high estimates ( USA)'                 14.0      4.8     63.2          82.0
                           g
Solar photovoltaic
   USD0E Price Goal 1990
   ( 1 . 1 0$-1 980 /W ) Northern Europe           89                              89
                         Southern Europe           54                              54
   EC Study
   (2 ECU - 1 980 /W ) Northern Europe            164                             164
                         Southern Europe           98                              98
Notes
1.       $ 1 984 = 0.833 $ 1980 = 1.21 ECU 1984
2        As in section 2 but assuming annual capital charge 7.1% ( interest 5% / year ,
         lifetime 25 years ) instead of 10% .
3        As in section 3
4.       French investment and O&M costs plus parameters of once-through nuclear
         fuel cycle giving lowest fuel costs ; no escalation in uranium price
         ($ 32/ lb U o0  Q ) / 46 , 47 /.
                       3 o
5.       Central US .       investment and O&M costs plus parameters of once-through
         nuclear fuel cycle giving highest fuel costs ; uranium price escalation 4%
         p.a . from 1995 to 2020 ($ 85/lb U^g ) / 46 , 47/.
6.       Italian investment & 0&M costs plus coal price after 2020 2.4 $ / GJ / 46 ,
         47 /.
7.       Central U.S investment and O&M costs plus German indigenous coal , coal -
         price after 2020 4.7 $ /GJ / 46 , 47 /.
8.       Annual capital charge 7.1% ( interest rate 5%/ year , lifetime 25 years ).
         Load factor for Denmark 0.12 , for southern Italy 0.2 / 49 , 50 , 51 /.
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                       86 .
5. 4   Critioism of the economic potential of fusion
       In parallel with the extensive literature containing fusion reactor design
studies with detailed cost estimates , there have been several publications / 52-
58 / which have sought to demonstrate through general arguments that fusion
power will be uneconomic .        These publications argue that fusion devices can
achieve only a low power density , need a long energy payback time , require
highly     complex  but  reliable    design     solutions ,   have  an   end-product   with
undesirable     features  and    therefore    that    the   present   strategy  of   fusion
development is incorrect .
5.4.1     Power density
        With regard to power density , it is certainly very likely that the power
density in the fusion power core ( see glossary ) will be considerably lower
( typically 30-40 times ) than inside a fission reactor pressure vessel . Even if
it were sensible to use the same cost per unit volume for both systems , and
even if the fission reactor pressure vessel were to amount to the high figure
of 7$ of the construction cost of a fission plant , this power density factor
would only lead to an increased construction cost of fusion over fission of 3-4
times .    That solely power - density- based comparisons are not very reasonable can
be seen by examining fission itself , where typical power densities in a PWR ,
                                                                    3
AGR and Magnox reactors are around 15 , 3 and 0.4 MW^/m                  respectively / 59/
whereas the construction and generation cost differences are within a factor of
2 / 60 /.
          In fact , topologically a fusion reactor most resembles a coal or oil
plant , in that it has a single combustion chamber surrounded by a heat sink .
Of course , in the case of fusion , this heat sink must be much thicker than with
a coal plant to absorb neutrons ,         and the combustion chamber must be under
vacuum and filled with magnetic field , and this leads leads to greater expense
for the fusion " furnace ".       However , the power density averaged over a coal
                                                3
combustion chamber is about 0.1 MW„ cri   ., /m   / 61 / compared to the typical fusion
power core value / 59 / of 0.5 MW^/m expected in a reactor .
        In addition , the construction cost difference between coal and fission is
in contradiction to the difference in their power densities , again showing the
weakness of power density in comparing different power generation systems .
Power density is only a useful indication of cost trends when changes are made
 ---pagebreak---                                                                              87 .
to a single design concept of one particular power generation system , as in
section 3 . and it is not realistic to use it as the only yardstick for
comparisons of different types of systems . It should also be realised that the
low power density of fusion may turn out to be a considerable advantage due to
its tendency to produce safety benefits .
5.4.2 Energy payback ( Net Energy Gain )
        As far as energy payback time is concerned , it is important to consider
lifetime energy requirements for construction ,     fuelling and operating power
plants and their output as a function of time in order to see the full picture
/ 32 , 33 /.  When this is done , energy payback time ( i.e. the time after the
commissioning date to recover the energy expended up to that point ) turns out
to be a rather misleading term to use , and should be replaced by the net energy
gain over the lifetime of the plant . As was demonstrated in section 2 ( Table
2.4 ) fission has considerable energy expenditure on replacement fuel after
commissioning and this is not present with fusion .      In fact , the net energy
gain over the lifetime can turn out to be higher for fusion than fission .
5.4.3    Masses
       That fusion can hope to be eventually competitive in price with fission is
shown clearly by comparisons of the material masses involved in both plant
types / 62 /. The ratio of masses between the presently conceived fusion power
core ( including lithium-containing breeder ) and a PWR reactor pressure vessel
( including fuel ) is around a factor of 30 . However , when the full plant is
considered , the mass of metals in the plant ( which are the highest cost and
energy-using components of the plant ) is around 30)6 higher for fusion .
5.4.4    Complexity
        It has also been argued that fusion involves much greater complexity than
fission , and that this will both push up component costs and reduce system
availability , both having an effect on generation costs . This argument cannot
yet be conclusively refuted , but because of the lower power densities in fusion
plants compared to fission plants , fewer safety systems , whose failure would
 interfere with plant availability , will be required . For comparison , todays
aircraft have many more systems and are much more complex , yet they are now
much more reliable than in earlier times . By analogy , fusion ought similarly
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                       88 .
to be able to cope with the complexity of its systems without an excessive cost
penalty .
5.4.5      Undeslrable Characteristlcs
         Fusion has also been criticized for having undesirable qualities in the
end-product reactor .          These centre around the use of lithium and tritium , the
presence of high energy neutrons , and pulsed operation .
        As far as lithium is concerned , the European strategy excludes its use in
the metallic form          in which it presents a fire hazard .          From the resource
viewpoint lithium is not a serious restraint on the expansion of fusion , since
a typical 1200 megawatt reactor lithium lifetime requirement ( of which 1 / 1 0th
is consumed ) is around 100t of enriched lithium / 10 / compared with world
reserves ( on land ) estimated in 1970 at 1 80 Mt / 63 /.               Taking account of
enrichment ,     but     without    considering    the  possibility  of   recycling  unused
lithium , 500 fusion plants would take around 500 years to consume 5% of the
world land-based resources .           This is less than but comparable to the predicted
timescale for consumption of energy reserves in the most well-endowed European
countries , so it might be argued that the development of fusion is therefore
unnecessary .         However ,   the  purpose   of the present programme    is to develop
fusion , so as to be able to choose the best system at any given time , bearing
in mind the problems that may arise with alternative power generation methods
( e.g. C02 with fossil fuels ).
          Furthermore , sea-borne lithium resources are nearly 20000 times larger
than land-borne and in energy terms 40 times larger than sea-borne uranium
/ 57 /). Lithium also occurs at 500-1000 times the concentration of uranium / 64 ,
65 / making extraction more economically viable .               In addition , recycling of
unused lithium might be contemplated as a means of stretching resources by a
further order of magnitude .           Also , within the above half-millenniumm a greater
understanding        of  the    fusion  process and a desire      to optimise  the process
further is likely to lead to an evolution away from dependence on tritium ( and
hence on lithium ), to use possibly pure deuterium as a fuel or even an isotope
                  ■3
of helium ( He ) found throughout the solar system / 66 /. For the relatively
near term ,     however ,    it should be noted that even now there is considerable
knowledge of how to handle tritium at the concentrations required for fusion ,
under a commercial reactor operating environment , it being a by-product of the
irradiation of heavy water in CANDU reactors .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                     89 .
       With regard to high energy neutrons in the fusion process , this is the
price paid for having clean reaction products , and gives an advantage ,
especially when comparison is made with the long term disposal of fission
products .     ( This point is considered further in . the companion report on
Environmental Aspects of Fusion ). It is worth noting however that no practical
fusion   fuel    for   a   man-made  power   source   is   completely   neutron-free   and
therefore    there     is   always   some   residual   radioactivity     associated  with
structural materials surrounding the reactor .            It is by developing the most
suitable    surrounding      materials ,   having   very    low  levels    of  long-lived
radioactivity ,      that fusion will reach its full potential , and the costs of
developing or manufacturing these materials is not thought at this stage to be
prohibitive / 67 /.
      Steady state operation of a fusion device might be desirable both from an
operational viewpoint and to reduce the fatigue experienced by the reactor
subsystems .      The    principle  has   already   been   demonstrated   experimentally ,
although at this early stage of its development there are doubts about its
economic viability on a commercial scale .        In the end , its implementation will
depend on the relative effects on generation cost of the efficiency of the
method used for maintaining steady state operation and of the increased quality
of fatigue-resistant materials and components .         In any case , living with cyclic
fatigue is not a unique problem for fusion ,             it being commonplace in many
complex structures today .
5.4.6  Strategy
         The strategy and justification for developing fusion has also been
questioned / 56 / implying that the likely return from fusion is small compared
to the investment on its development . Although it is impossible to say today
with absolute certainty that the present development programme will result in
the successful implementation of fusion power ( it being the purpose of the
programme to find out whether this is possible ), the potential long-term return
if fusion were implemented would be enormous because of the long time over
which this return would be made .           As a proportion of generation costs for
fusion reactors over this long timescale , development costs can only be a
minuscule proportion .
          The critisism has also been made / 54 / that , by concentrating on DT
Tokamak fusion , prospects are weakened for ever developing better alternative
 ---pagebreak---                                                                               90 .
fusion concepts .     Even proponents of DT fusion realise that their present
reactor concepts will have to be improved upon to make them as highly desirable
as fusion was initially claimed to be , but realise that the best way to find
out how to make such improvements is to pursue at least one line of research
vigorously towards the commercialization phase .      DT Tokamak fusion looks from
the present viewpoint to be able to achieve the earliest commercialisation date
but other confinement methods are not being neglected .        In fact about 10$ of
the  worldwide   and   European fusion   budget  is being spent on research and
development of alternatives to the tokamak / 68 /.       Whether DT or more exotic
fuels can economically be used in such confinement schemes will depend on the
confinement physics attained .    In any case the status of such alternatives to
the  Tokamak   is   continually  being   re-examined   and  a   check-point  on    the
development status of such schemes is already planned in the European programme
before proceeding to a demonstration fusion reactor .       Concentrating on the DT
Tokamak line at this stage is intended to produce information which would be
valid for whatever confinement concept is pursued further at that time .
     In summary , therefore , the information presented by the critics of fusion
is  often  highly   selective , and  the   conclusions  are   not  supported by    the
detailed studies .     It  is true that the low power density of many present
designs leads to high capital costs , but the estimated cost of electricity from
fusion power stations is not so much greater than forecast costs from existing
or other alternative energy sources that fusion can be dismissed on economic
grounds .
 ---pagebreak--- 6.  CONCLUSIONS
      Since the earliest commercialisation date for fusion power looks from the
present perspective to be around the middle of the next century , any prediction
today of its economic prospects is rather uncertain .    However , this has not led
to the development of fusion without consideration of its ultimate economic
potential as is witnessed by the considerable number of power reactor studies
whose results are recorded in this report .     By the very nature of our present
understanding of fusion and its technology , these studies give rather a wide
range of results .     They do prove extremely useful , however , in identifying
general trends for future development .    It is clear of course that if a fusion
reactor had to be constructed today ,      using the presently available plasma
parameters  with   their established scalings and using presently established
technologies , that reactor would have an electricity cost in the upper range of
the  projections   for   other  systems .   However , fusion  physics   and  fusion
technology have developed by orders of magnitude over the last 20 years .      This
history and the present experience in fusion research lead to the belief that
the development potential for fusion will , over the comming decades , result in
considerable improvements in the relationship between the generation cost for
fusion and that of other systems .
      Not only is it impossible to forecast the economic conditions , it is also
difficult to fully appreciate now the improvements which will undoubtedly occur
during the further development of the fusion reactor system .     Examples given in
the previous sections show that such improvements can also be expected from
innovations which are not necessary on present-generation systems .           Their
impact will only become significant if integrated into full-scale reactors .
The programmes on Stellarators and Reversed Field Pinches could also have an
important influence .     In any case , the development cost for fusion power is
only a small fraction of todays expenditure for energy supply . Finally , the
use of fossil fuel will eventually have to be restricted to those applications
where there is no alternative , such as transport .          The increasing CO
accumulation may otherwise lead to difficulties . It is therefore essential to
have more than one high-potential energy source available working without any
     production , and thus in all respects environmentally acceptable , and the
ultimate goal for fusion reactor development is to satisfy this need .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   92
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 ---pagebreak---                                                                                 93 .
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 ---pagebreak---                                                                                       94 .
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 ---pagebreak---                                                                                       95 .
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 ---pagebreak---                                                                                 96 .
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/ 58 / Kernfusion , Rudolf Wienecke , Bild der Wissenschaft 3 / 81 .
/ 59 / Small fusion reactors : problems , promise and pathways , Krakowski , R.A. ,
       Hagenson ,   R.L. , Miller ,  R.L. ,  Fusion  Technology  1984 ,  Proc .   13th
       Symposium pp 45-58 .
/ 60 / Fission , Fusion and the Energy Crisis ( 2nd Edition ) Hunt , S.E. , Pergamom
       Press 1980 , Chapter 8 .
/ 61 / Didcot Power Station , Techieal Publications Department , CEGB Midlands
       Region .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                   97 .
/ 62 / The potential net energy gain from DT fusion power plants , Biinde , R . ,
       Nuclear Engineering and Deslgn / Fuslon , 3 U98!5 ) 1 36 .
/ 63 / Fusion Research , Dolan , T.J. , Pergamom Press 1982 .
/ 6k / Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion , J. Raeder et al . Wiley & Sons ( 1986 )
/ 65 / Encyclopaedia Britannica .
                             3
/ 66 / Lunar Source of He       for  Commercial       Fusion Power , Willenburg ,  L.J. ,
       Santarius , J.F. , Kulcinski , G.L.       Fusion Technology 10 ( 1986 ) pp.167 -
       178 .
/ 67 / Private communication G.J. Butterwort.h , ( 1986 ).
/ 68 / Long term planning towards a Demonstrat ion Fusion Reactor G. Grieger
       ( Chairman ) et al.  EUR FU XII / 708 / 77 / LTP50 ( 1977 ).
/ 69 / Fusion reactor design studies - standard unit costs and cost scaling
       rules , S.C. Schulte et al , PNL-2987 , September 1979 .
/ 70 / The costs of Generating Electricity             in Nuclear   & Coal Fired Power
       Stations .   Report by Expert Group of NEA /OECD , 1983-
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                98 .
8.    GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND D EI-'INIT ION : >
Direct Capital Cost
       The direct capital cost of a fusion power station includes the purchase of
the site , structures and site facilities , the reactor plant , and the turbine
and electrical plant ( Items 20-26 in the standard US-DOE accounting system
/ 69 /).
Spécifie Direct Capital Cost (= Unit Direct Cost )
       Direct capital cost per unit electrical power sent out (P           )
Indirect Capital Cost
         Project management , design , services , licensing and all personnel costs
during construction .
Generation Cost
       According to OECD / NEA / 70 /:
          " the   ideal  calculation will   take account of the    time flows
          of    money   expended   on  constructing    the  station ,  on  its
          operation ,     on  its   fuel  and   on  subsequent    spent   fuel
         management and station decommissioning ...
          These costs will be discounted back to a selected base date
          and added together to arrive at a total cost             in present
          worth terms .
          If the total present worth cost is divided by the sum of the
          discounted     annual   electricity   output   over  the   station’s
          life , a levelised generation cost is obtained in constant
         monetary units .      If each kWh sent out from the station over
          its   lifetime was sold for this " levelised cost "      the  income
          in present worth terms would exactly equal the total present
          worth costs of construction and operation ."
 ---pagebreak---                                                                                        99 .
      Tin ; Luv • I i y.cil i'unor . it i on cost      I;I tliorororu oxpronnud by
                      Di    I  + Z    +   M +   F+R
                      N                              n n .
                      Iu P so A n 8 . 76 / ( 1 + d ) n   °
                    n=1
where N is the plant lifetime in years , P so is the rated power sent out by the
plant ( MW ) and An is the plant average availability in year n . The cost items
in the numerator are direct ( D ) and indirect ( I ) capital costs , interest during
construction ( Z ), operation and maintenance costs ( M ), fuel costs ( F ) and
decommissioning ( R ), all discounted to the date of commissioning using the
discount rate d .
Fusion Power Core ( FPC )
        Torus ( first wall / blanket / shield ), Magnets ( toroidal and poloidal field )
and their respective support structure .
Mass Expenditure ( ME )
       The mass of material needed for the FPC divided by the power sent out .
       Ratio of plasma kinetic pressure to the presssure of the toroidal magnetic
field confining it .
Q
        A measure of the twist of the field line - the number of times the field
lines pass round the major circumf erence before returning to the starting point
in the minor circumference . To resist gross instabilities this must be greater
than 2 at the plasma edge and above unity on axis .
g
       The   beta       level ,     i.e.       the     coefficient    in  the  scaling
 B (?) = g I ( MA) / a(m)B(T ) where I is the plasma current , a the minor plasma
 radius and B the toroidal field on the plasma axis .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      2„4
      The ratio of mean plasma fusion power density and the product 6 B (B is
toroidal field at the plasma centre ).    It measures the extent to which the
fusion reaction rate at the average plasma temperature is modified by spatial
variations in plasma temperature and density .