CELEX: 62002CC0182
Language: en
Date: 2003-05-06
Title: Opinion of Mr Advocate General Ruiz-Jarabo Colomer delivered on 6 May 2003. # Ligue pour la protection des oiseaux and Others v Premier ministre and Ministre de l'Aménagement du territoire et de l'Environnement. # Reference for a preliminary ruling: Conseil d'Etat - France. # Directive 79/409/EEC - Conservation of wild birds - Opening and closing dates for hunting - Derogations. # Case C-182/02.

OPINION OF ADVOCATE GENERALRUIZ-JARABO COLOMER delivered on 6 May 2003  (1)
         Case C-182/02 Ligue pour la protection des oiseaux and OthersvPremier Ministre and Ministre de l'Aménagement du Territoire et de l'Environnement(Reference for a preliminary ruling from the Conseil d'État, France)
            ((Directive 79/409/EEC – Conservation of wild birds – Hunting periods – Derogations))
            
      
         
        I ─ Introduction
      
      1.  This reference for a preliminary ruling from the French Conseil d'État, in its capacity as supreme court for contentious administrative
      proceedings, seeks to dispel any doubts as to the interpretation of certain provisions of the Wild Birds Directive.  
      
         			(2)
         		The questions referred call specifically for an examination of the role which the Directive attributes to the cultural and
      recreational activity that is hunting, and for guidance on whether, under Article 9 of the Directive, that activity may be
      carried out even during periods when birds are entitled to increased protection, namely, during rearing, reproduction or return
      migration, within the meaning of the terms used in Article 7(4) of the Directive.
       II ─ Facts and procedure
      
      2.  The Ligue pour la protection des oiseaux sauvages (League for the Protection of Wild Birds;  
      the League), together with other organisations for the protection of birds,  
      
         			(3)
         		 applied to the Conseil d'État for the annulment of Decree No 2000-754 of 1 August 2000 relating to the dates for the hunting
      of migratory birds and waterfowl and amending the Rural Code (Code Rural) (
      the Decree).  
      
         			(4)
         		  Two hunting associations  
      
         			(5)
         		 have intervened in the proceedings to support the validity of the Decree.
      
      3.  The Conseil d'État granted the application to annul Article 1 of the contested legislation which fixed the opening and closing
      dates for hunting certain species (ducks, rails and coots, some limicolae, snipe, woodcock, water rail and scoter, and turdidae
      (
      canards, rallidés et foulques, certains limicoles, les bécassines, les bécasses des bois, les râles d'eau et les macreuses,
      et les turdides)) outside the periods which would have resulted from the application of Article 7(4) of the Directive, but held that it was
      lawful to authorise both the hunting of limicolae from 10 August and the postponement, until 10 February, of the closing date
      for pigeons and doves.
      
      4.  However, the Conseil d'État did not rule on the lawfulness of Article 2 of the Decree which inserts the following wording
      into the Rural Code: The derogations mentioned in the fifth paragraph of Article L 224-2 may be granted by prefects (departmental heads of government)
      to permit the capture, keeping or other judicious use of geese, wood pigeons and thrushes in small numbers, until 20 February.An order of the Minister responsible for hunting ... shall specify the conditions in which those activities may be authorised
      and the procedures for the checks to be implemented. The Minister shall also determine, by species, ... the maximum number
      of birds which may be taken in each department.Prefects shall establish ... the maximum number of birds which may be taken by the beneficiaries of the derogation.
       III ─ Directive 79/409
      
      5.  The Directive is based on a disturbing premiss: the decline in the population of a number of wild birds naturally occurring
      in the European territory of the Member States.  This situation represents  
      a serious threat to the conservation of the natural environment, particularly because of the biological balances threatened
      thereby.  
      
         			(6)
         		  Effective bird protection is seen as  
      typically a trans-frontier environment problem entailing common responsibilities, particularly in the case of migratory species which  
      constitute a common heritage.  
      
         			(7)
         		  The object of such conservation is identified as  
      the long-term protection and management of natural resources as an integral part of the heritage of the peoples of Europe, and  
      the maintenance and adjustment of the natural balances between species as far as is reasonably possible.  
      
         			(8)
         		
      6.  The Directive lays down a number of general obligations regarding the maintenance of the population levels of all species
      of protected birds and the preservation, maintenance and re-establishment of their habitats (Articles 2 and 3). Later provisions
      contain more specific obligations on the protection of endangered and migratory species (Article 4) and wild birds, and prohibit
      the marketing of, and limit the hunting of, protected species (Articles 5 to 8).
      
      7.  Articles 5 to 7 allow the Member States to authorise the hunting of the birds listed in Annex II to the Directive, provided
      that the conservation of such birds is not jeopardised as a result.  
      Owing to their population level, geographical distribution and reproductive rate throughout the Community (Article 7(1)), hunting is prohibited during the rearing season and during the various stages of reproduction, or, in the
      case of migratory species, during the period of reproduction and during their return to their rearing grounds (Article 7(4)).
      
      8.  Article 9(1) of the Directive provides: 
      1.  Member States may derogate from the provisions of Articles 5, 6, 7 and 8, where there is no other satisfactory solution, for
      the following reasons:
      (a) 
      
      
      
            ─
               in the interests of public health and safety, 
             
      
      
      
      
            ─
               in the interests of air safety, 
             
      
      
      
      
            ─
               to prevent serious damage to crops, livestock, forests, fisheries and water, 
             
      
      
      
      
            ─
               for the protection of flora and fauna; 
             
      
      
      (b) for the purposes of research and teaching, of re-population, of re-introduction and for the breeding necessary for these purposes;
      
      
      (c) to permit, under strictly supervised conditions and on a selective basis, the capture, keeping or other judicious use of certain
      birds in small numbers.
      
      
      
      9.  Article 9(2) stipulates: 
      2.  The derogations must specify:
      
      
      ─
      the species which are subject to the derogations,  
      
      
      
      ─
      the means, arrangements or methods authorised for capture or killing,  
      
      
      
      ─
      the conditions of risk and the circumstances of time and place under which such derogations may be granted,  
      
      
      
      ─
      the authority empowered to declare that the required conditions obtain and to decide what means, arrangements or methods may
      be used, within what limits and by whom,  
      
      
      
      ─
      the controls which will be carried out. 
      
      
      
      10.  Pursuant to Article 9(3), Member States must send a report to the Commission each year on the implementation of that article.
      The Commission  
      shall at all times ensure that the consequences of these derogations are not incompatible with this Directive and, to that end,  
      it shall take appropriate steps (Article 9(4)).
       IV ─ The observations submitted to the Court
      
      11.  In the opinion of the League, the applicant in the main proceedings, and of the parties which support its claims, Article
      9(1) of the Directive must be construed so as to exclude hunting during the period of special protection. The League contends
      that such an activity can never constitute  
      judicious use because other satisfactory solutions exist. However, if the activity is permitted, it must be subject to very strict conditions,
      a requirement which the French legislation does not fulfil.
      
      12.  The Hunting Union argues that Article 9(1) provides wide scope for derogating from the basic system of protection laid down
      in the Directive and, in particular, from the provisions of Article 7.  Such derogations, however, must be subject to the
      criteria set out in the Directive.  In view of the fact that the hunting of wild birds and waterfowl is subject to more stringent
      monitoring than the hunting of other birds, it is only a derogation that could permit the hunting of such birds, within strict
      limits, outside the opening and closing dates for hunting set in accordance with Article 7(4).  Accordingly, the only alternative
      would be to prohibit hunting.
      
      13.  The French Government is of the view that, owing to the requirement that there must be no other satisfactory solution, Article
      9(1) may apply only to the hunting of birds which are present in a particular territory during the period of special protection
      referred to in Article 7(4). In addition, compliance with the conditions laid down in Article 9(2) must be specific and precise,
      having regard, in each particular situation, to economic and recreational needs, as well as to ecological, cultural and scientific
      requirements.
      
      14.  In the opinion of the Greek Government, recreational needs alone are not a sufficient justification for derogating from the
      system of protection for birds.
      
      15.  The Commission claims that the expression  
      other judicious use includes hunting. As concerns the conditions under which hunting may be carried out, by way of derogation, the Commission
      cites the requirements set out in Article 9 of the Directive.
       V ─ The questions referred for a preliminary ruling
      
      16.  The Conseil d'État taking the view that the question whether Article 2 of Decree No 2000-754 is valid depends on the interpretation
      of Article 9(1) of the Directive, decided to stay the proceedings and to refer the following questions for a preliminary ruling: 
      1.  Does Article 9(1)(c) of Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of wild birds permit a Member State
      to derogate from the opening and closing dates for hunting set in the light of the objectives specified in Article 7(4) thereof?
      
      
      2.  If so, what are the criteria which make it possible to establish the limits of that derogation?
      
       VI ─ Analysis of the questions referred for a preliminary ruling
       On the first question
      
      17.  By the first question, the Conseil d'État seeks to ascertain whether the exceptional arrangements set out in Article 9 of
      the Directive may be relied upon to authorise certain hunting activities. As the French Government points out, in order to
      establish whether Article 9(1)(c) of the Directive permits derogations from the opening and closing dates for hunting, fixed
      in accordance with the aims of Article 7(4), it is necessary to determine whether the derogations from the principle of total
      protection can be applied to hunting itself.In the light of the Directive's purpose, scheme and spirit of conservation, and in view of the terms used in Article 7(4)
      and Article 9(1) and (2), I do not believe that to be the case.Two separate approaches lead me to that conclusion.  The first is that hunting is not one of the reasons set out in Article
      9(1); the second is that hunting for sport is not capable of fulfilling the requirements laid down in paragraphs 1 and 2 of
      Article 9.
      
      18.  Article 7(4) prohibits hunting during the rearing season, during reproduction and dependency, and during the return of migratory
      birds to their rearing grounds (expression of the  
      principle of total protection).For the purposes of the case before the Court, Article 9(1) permits derogations from the principle of total protection, provided
      that there is no other satisfactory solution,  
      to permit, under strictly supervised conditions and on a selective basis, the capture, keeping or other judicious use of certain
      birds in small numbers (subparagraph (c)).
      
      19.  It is clear, as the Commission points out, that nothing in the disputed legislation necessarily leads to the exclusion of
      hunting as a merely recreational activity from the criteria for the application of Article 9(1)(c). Furthermore, some approaches
      could lead to the contrary conclusion.
      
      20.  From a teleological point of view, the purpose of the Directive is not to establish a general prohibition on hunting, but
      rather to control its practice. The eighth recital in the preamble to the Directive refers to the  
       use of resources as far as is reasonably possible , while the eleventh recital classifies hunting as  
      acceptable exploitation[,] where certain limits are established and respected.  Such terminology is close in meaning to the concept of  
      judicious use in Article 9(1)(c).
      
      21.  Moreover, the Court appears to have upheld that analysis on a number of occasions.
      22.  
      
      In
         
        Commission  v  
       Italy ,  
      
         			(9)
         		 Associazione Italiana per il WWF and Others ,  
      
         			(10)
         		 and  
       Ligue royale pour la protection des oiseaux and Others ,  
      
         			(11)
         		 the Court analysed whether national hunting provisions were compatible with Article 9(1)(c), from which it is clear that
      the Court considered hunting to be one of the objectives capable of justifying an authorised derogation.
      
      
      
      
      
      23.  To my mind, an alternative interpretation is preferable. Article 9(1)(c) permits, on the conditions set out therein, the hunting
      of a limited number of birds during the period of particular vulnerability, but it does not permit hunting as a recreational
      activity.
      
      24.  It is clear simply from reading Article 9(1) that, firstly, the derogations it provides for pursue objectives which are deemed
      to be more important in relation to the general principle of total protection of certain species. Those derogations are intended
      to protect public health and safety, and air safety, to prevent serious damage to crops, livestock, forests, fisheries and
      water, and to safeguard flora and fauna (subparagraph (a)).  In those cases, strict compliance with the principles of conservation
      set out in Articles 5 to 8 of the Directive would disproportionately jeopardise other legally protected interests, equally
      worthy of protection. It is also possible to derogate for the purposes of research, teaching, repopulation, and reintroduction
      and breeding (subparagraph (b)). In such cases, the principle of total protection gives way to the interests of activities
      which are designed to guarantee the better longer-term conservation of a species.
      
      25.  In addition, it follows from the wording of Article 9(1) that all the activities referred to are quite specific. The thirteenth
      recital in the preamble states that,  
      because of the importance which may be attached to certain specific situations, provision should be made for the possibility
      of derogations on certain conditions and subject to monitoring by the Commission. Article 9(1) stipulates that derogations may be established provided that  
       there is no other satisfactory solution , and, in relation to subparagraph (c), that capture, keeping or other judicious use must be effected  
       in small numbers under strictly supervised conditions and on a selective basis .  Article 9(2) attaches a series of requirements regarding the criteria which the derogations must meet and limits them to
       
      what is strictly necessary, under the supervision of the Commission.  
      
         			(12)
         		
      26.  Now, the sole purpose of hunting as a sporting activity is recreation for those who participate in it, a purpose which it
      would be difficult to regard as taking precedence over the principle of protection enshrined in Article 7(4). Moreover, as
      such, it displays none of the attributes of a clearly defined action.It would, therefore, be astounding if recreational hunting were included among the cases set out in Article 9(1). Its inclusion
      would be inconsistent with the terminology of the Directive, which refers frequently to hunting, notably in Articles 5, 7
      and 8, where the main points of the substantive provisions from which it is possible to derogate under Article 9 are set out.
       It seems unusual that the activity which probably constitutes the principal risk factor in the conservation of certain species
      should be described ambiguously, and alongside other more suitable activities, as  
      judicious use.Article 9(1)(c) of the Directive covers a number of exceptional cases which the Community legislature was unwilling or unable
      to provide for explicitly. Had the legislature wished to include hunting for recreational purposes, it would have mentioned
      it expressly.That strict interpretation must also prevail in view of the exceptional nature of Article 9, construed in the light of the
      purpose of the Directive, which is to protect birds and not to regulate hunting. In other words, any uncertainties arising
      from ambiguous wording in that regard must be resolved in the manner which best promotes the aim of protection.
      
      27.  Accordingly, it is my view that the terms used in, and the scheme of, the Directive are aimed at excluding hunting as a recreational
      activity from the case of  
      judicious use in Article 9(1)(c). Naturally, that does not constitute a value judgment about hunting but is rather the result of applying
      a literal, systematic interpretation.
      
      28.  There remain the arguments which can be inferred from the three judgments cited above.In my opinion, some qualification of the weight of those arguments is required.First, in none of those cases was any attempt made to establish whether hunting, as a merely recreational pursuit, is covered
      by any of the cases in Article 9(1)(c). Furthermore, the facts which gave rise to those proceedings had some noteworthy specific
      features. 
      
      In
         
        Commission  v  
       Italy , the Court only accepted that the capture and sale of birds, with a view to keeping them for use as live decoys or for recreational
      purposes in fairs and markets, may constitute judicious use authorised by Article 9(1)(c) outside the hunting season.  
      
         			(13)
         		  That such activity is of a different nature and lesser magnitude than hunting as a recreational activity is clear.
      
      In keeping with the question referred, in  
       WWF Italiana , the Court confined itself to providing guidance on the conditions in which Article 9 of the Directive authorises the Member
      States to derogate from the general prohibition on hunting protected species laid down by Articles 5 and 7 thereof.Finally, in  
       Ligue royale , the Court held that the capture of certain protected species in order to enable fanciers to stock their aviaries or to obviate
      the problems of consanguinity in recreational bird breeding could amount to judicious use for the purposes of Article 9(1)(c)
      of the Directive. Again, that case concerned an activity whose aim and magnitude differ from those of hunting.
      
      29.  In those three judgments, the Court drew attention to the exceptional nature of the arrangements which may be implemented
      under Article 9 of the Directive. In that regard, it is significant that the Court did not find, in any of the cases, that
      the national legislation fulfilled the stringent requirements of the Community provision.
      
      30.  The Court has held that, although Article 9(1) authorises wide derogations from the general system of protection, it must
      be applied appropriately in order to deal with precise requirements and specific situations.  
      
         			(14)
         		  Therefore, the Directive must be transposed in such a way as to guarantee that the capture of certain species of birds will
      be limited to the strict minimum and that the period of capture will not coincide unnecessarily with periods in which the
      Directive aims to provide particular protection.  
      
         			(15)
         		
      31.  Furthermore, even if accepting, just for the sake of argument, that hunting for recreational purposes may be regarded as 
      
      judicious use within the meaning of Article 9(1)(c), it does not in itself appear capable of fulfilling another condition governing the
      exceptional arrangements which may be instituted under Article 9, namely that there must be an overriding need for it owing
      to the lack of another satisfactory solution.
      
      32.  At first sight, it is difficult to imagine, even in the abstract, the circumstances in which one recreational activity may
      not be replaced by another sufficiently satisfactory one. The fact that certain birds may not be hunted during the period
      of special vulnerability can be compensated for by hunting during the rest of the year, or by another recreational pursuit.
      
      33.  The Hunting Union and the French Government have each put forward explanations.In the view of the Hunting Union, since the hunting of wild birds and waterfowl is subject to particularly stringent monitoring,
      only a derogation could permit such hunting, within strict limits, outside the opening and closing dates for hunting fixed
      in accordance with Article 7(4). The only alternative would be to prohibit hunting. At the hearing, the Hunting Union also
      claimed that authorising hunting during the period of special protection might be the only satisfactory solution capable of
      compensating for the unreliability of the scientific studies which are used as a basis for establishing the opening and closing
      dates for hunting.For its part, the French Government claims that Article 9(1)(c) does not apply to hunting except in cases where certain species
      are present in a particular territory only during their reproductive phase and not at any other time of the year. In such
      circumstances, the only satisfactory solution would be to hunt those species during that period.
      
      34.  Those arguments, besides finding no support at all in the wording of the legislation, seem to me most unconvincing.Neither legislative rigour nor an apparent lack of scientific certainty can render it necessary to hunt certain species during
      the period of maximum protection in a field where the law gives precedence to the conservation of those species. On the contrary,
      current practice favours the application of the precautionary principle (or the precautionary principle and the principle
      that preventive action should be taken, to use the terminology of Article 174(2) EC) in cases where available scientific data
      do allow of a full evaluation of the risk with a view to achieving a high level of protection of the environment and of human,
      animal and plant health.  
      
         			(16)
         		Likewise, to regard the hunting of certain species during their reproductive cycle as necessary in so far as they are present
      in the territory only during that period is tantamount to subverting the priorities of the Directive.
      
      35.  The obscure or contrived nature of the arguments that have been put forward to justify the need for hunting during the period
      of vulnerability confirms my initial impression that Article 9(1) is not designed to permit derogations from the general prohibition
      in the interests of hunting as a recreational pursuit.
      
      36.  Accordingly, the reply to the first question referred by the Conseil d'État must be that Article 9(1)(c) of the Directive
      does not permit a Member State, in the interests of hunting as a recreational pursuit, to derogate from the opening and closing
      dates for hunting fixed in the light of the objectives specified in Article 7(4) of the directive.
       On the second question
      
      37.  By its second question, and in the event of an affirmative reply to the first question, the referring court seeks guidance
      on the criteria to be used to establish the limits of the derogations that may be authorised.
      
      38.  If the Court should give a reply to the first question which differs from the one that I have proposed, I should like to make
      the following observations.
      
      39.  It appears from the wording of Article 9 of the Directive that the exceptional arrangements set out therein may be applied
      only when three conditions are met:
      (a) there is no other satisfactory solution; 
      
      
      
      (b) the hunting (defined as  
      judicious use, in accordance with the reply to the first question) of certain birds in small numbers is carried out in strictly supervised
      conditions and on a selective basis (Article 9(1)(c)); and 
      
      (c) details are given of: 
      
      
      ─
      the species covered by the derogations, the means or methods authorised for capture or killing, the conditions of risk and
      the circumstances of time and place in which such derogations may be granted;  
      
      
      
      ─
      the authority empowered to declare that the required conditions obtain and to decide on the means, arrangements or methods
      that may be used, on what limits are to apply, and on who the authorised persons shall be; and  
      
      
      
      ─
      the controls which must be carried out.  
      
      
      40.  
      
      In
         
        Commission  v  
       Belgium  and  
       Commission  v  
       Italy , the Court followed a similar line of reasoning and declared that the possibility of establishing derogations under Article
      9 of the Directive is subject to three conditions. First, the Member State must restrict the derogation to cases in which
      there is no other satisfactory solution; secondly, the derogation must be based on at least one of the reasons listed in Article
      9(1)(a), (b) and (c); thirdly, the derogation must comply with the precise formal conditions set out in Article 9(2), which
      are intended to limit derogations to what is strictly necessary and to enable the Commission to supervise them. The Court
      indicated that, although Article 9 authorises wide derogations from the general system of protection, it must be applied appropriately
      in order to deal with precise requirements and specific situations.  
      
         			(17)
         		  The Court considered it useful to point out that Article 2 of the Directive requires the Member States to take the requisite
      measures to maintain the population of all bird species at a level, or to adapt it to a level, which corresponds in particular
      to ecological, scientific and cultural requirements, while taking account of economic and recreational requirements. Therefore,
      although Article 2 does not constitute an autonomous derogation from the general system of protection, it none the less shows
      that the Directive takes into consideration, on the one hand, the necessity for effective protection of birds  
      
         			(18)
         		 and, on the other hand, the requirements of public health and safety, the economy, ecology, science, farming and recreation.
       
      
         			(19)
         		
      
      
      
      
      41.  In another line of thought, the Court also noted that where a general legal context ensures the full application of the Directive
      in a clear and precise manner, the transposition of the Directive into national law does not require the Community provisions
      to be incorporated in precisely the same words in a specific express provision, such general legal context being sufficient.
      
      42.  Finally, before I draw this discussion of case-law to a close, I should like to point out that a faithful transposition of
      the letter and spirit of a directive into national law becomes particularly important where it concerns the protection the
      common heritage which is entrusted to the Member States in their respective territories.  
      
         			(20)
         		
      43.  In addition to the question referred in clear terms by the Conseil d'État, there is the question whether a rule of national
      law, like the one implemented in France, conforms to the Directive.
      
      44.  While refraining from responding to a query which differs from the one posed by the referring court, it is, nevertheless,
      worth noting that, with regard to the conservation of wild birds, the criteria which the Member States must meet in order
      to derogate from the prohibitions laid down in the Directive must be reproduced in specific national provisions.  
      
         			(21)
         		  To that end, the measures adopted must refer in detail to the factors mentioned in Article 9(1) and (2).  
      
         			(22)
         		It suffices to conclude that the French legislation, which is the subject of the main proceedings, does not explain why there
      is no other satisfactory solution to the hunting which it authorises during the period of maximum protection.
      
      45.  If the reply to the first question is in the affirmative, it would be appropriate to state, in answer to the second question,
      that the exceptional arrangements under Article 9(1) of the Directive apply to hunting where:
      (a) there is no other satisfactory solution; 
      
      
      
      (b) it involves certain birds in small numbers in strictly supervised conditions and on a selective basis; and 
      
      (c) details are given of: 
      
      
      ─
      the species which are covered by the derogations, the means or methods authorised for capture or killing, the conditions of
      risk and the circumstances of time and place in which such derogations may be granted;  
      
      
      
      ─
      the authority empowered to declare that the required conditions obtain and to decide on the means, arrangements or methods
      that may be used, on what limits are to apply, and on who the authorised persons shall be; and  
      
      
      
      ─
      the controls which must be carried out.  
      
      
        VII ─ Conclusion
      
      46.  In the light of the foregoing considerations, I propose the following reply to the questions referred by the Conseil d'État:Article 9(1)(c) of Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of wild birds does not permit a Member
      State, in the interests of hunting as a recreational pursuit, to derogate from the opening and closing dates for hunting fixed
      in the light of the objectives specified in Article 7(4) thereof.
      
       1 –
         
           Original language: Spanish.
      
      2 –
         
         Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of wild birds (
            the Directive) (OJ 1979 L 103, p. 1).
         
      
      3 –
         
         The Association pour la protection des animaux sauvages (Association for the Protection of Wild Animals) and the Rassemblement
            des opposants à la chasse (Assembly of Opponents of Hunting).
         
      
      4 –
         
         . Journal officiel de la République française  2000 No 12178 of 5 August 2000.
         
      
      5 –
         
         The Union nationale des fédérations départementales de chasseurs (National Union of Departmental Hunting Federations;  
            the Hunting Union) and the Association nationale des chasseurs de gibiers d'eau (National Association of Waterfowl Hunters).
         
      
      6 –
         
         Second recital in the preamble to the Directive.
      
      7 –
         
         Third recital in the preamble.
      
      8 –
         
         Eighth recital in the preamble.
      
      9 –
         
         Case 262/85 [1987] ECR 3073 (
             Commission  v  
             Italy ).
         
      
      10 –
         
         Case C-118/94 [1996] ECR I-1223 (
             WWF Italiana ).
         
      
      11 –
         
         Case C-10/96 [1996] ECR I-6775 (
             Ligue royale ).
         
      
      12 –
         
         See the judgments in Case 247/85  
             Commission  v  
             Belgium  [1987] ECR 3029, paragraph 7, and Case 412/85  
             Commission  v  
             Germany  [1987] ECR 3503, paragraph 18.
         
      
      13 –
         
         . Commission  v  
             Italy , paragraph 38.
         
      
      14 –
         
         Judgments in  
             Commission  v  
             Italy , paragraph 7, and  
             WWF Italiana , paragraph 21.
         
      
      15 –
         
         Judgment in  
             Commission  v  
             Italy , paragraph 39 in fine.
         
      
      16 –
         
         See the Communication from the Commission on the precautionary principle (COM/2001/1 final).
      
      17 –
         
         See paragraph 7 of the judgment in each case.
      
      18 –
         
         W.G. Sebald, in his novel  
             Austerlitz  (Anagrama, Barcelona, 2002, pp. 84 and 85), describes the skill with which certain birds,  
            holding on with their beaks, would climb up the bars and sometimes perform all manner of acrobatic turns on their way down,
            would fly in and out through the open windows or jump and run along the ground, always active and, one had the impression,
            always busy doing something. Most of them resembled humans in many respects. One could hear them breathe, laugh, sneeze and
            yawn. They would clear their throats before starting to talk their language. (Translated into English from the Spanish translation)
         
      
      19 –
         
         See paragraph 8 of the judgment in each case.
      
      20 –
         
         Judgments in  
             Commission  v  
             Italy , paragraph 9;  
             Commission  v  
             Belgium , paragraph 9;  
             Commission  v  
             Netherlands  [1987] ECR 3989, paragraph 5; and [
             Commission  v  
             France , paragraph 5].
         
      
      21 –
         
         Judgments in Case C-339/87  
             Commission  v  
             Netherlands  [1990] ECR I-851, paragraph 28, and  
             WWF Italiana , paragraph 22.
         
      
      22 –
         
         Judgment in  
             WWF Italiana , paragraph 26.