CELEX: 51992PC0023
Language: en
Date: 1992-03-27
Title: PROPOSAL for a RESOLUTION OF THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES on a Community programme of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable development

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
                                                COM ( 92 ) 23 final - VOL . I
ï
 !                                              Brussels , 27 March 1992
■
 •ίΊ
  .a
   i
■
   4
                                      PROPOSAL
   1
  -s                                    for a
  H
  •5
            RESOLUTION OF THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
                   on a Community programme of policy and
   H
            action in relation to the environment and sustainable
    ч
                                    development
                         ( presented by the Commission )
                                  VOLUME I
      !
                                               <Ь
                                           /■>        ù.
                                                                  O
                                                                 Ей
                                            о   0%
       <                                          So
 ---pagebreak---                                 PROPOSAI.
                                  for a
  RESOLUTION OF THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
            on a Community programme of pol icy and
  action in relation to the environment and sustainable
                              deve I opment
THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES ,
Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European
Coa I and Stee I Commun i ty ,
Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European
Econom i c Commun i ty ,
Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European
Atom i c Commun i ty ,
Having regard to the draft from the Commission ,
Hav i ng   ' regard    to     the     opinion of   the     European
Par I i ament ,
Having regard to the opinion of the Economic and Social
Comm i ttee ,
Whereas      the Treaty estab I i sh i ng the European Economic
Community , as amended by the Single European Act ,
explicitly        prov  i des
                  provides        for
                                  for     the
                                          the  development
                                               deve I opment    and
                                                                and
 implementation of a Community policy on the environment ,
and lays douun the objectives and principles iuh i ch should
govern such policy ;
 ---pagebreak---                                               - 2
Whereas            the Treaty lays down | that action by the
Community relating to the environment shall have the
following objectives :
        to preserve , protect and improve the quality of the
        env i ronment ,
        to contribute towards protecting human health ,
        to     ensure              a  prudent   and   rational    utilization    of
        natural resources ;
Whereas            the Treaty on European Union signed at
Maastricht on 7 February 1992 has as a principal
objective the promotion of sustainable growth respecting
the environment , includes among the activities of the
Union a policy in the sphere of the environment ,
specifies that this policy must aim at a high level of
protection ,               that environmental          protection requirements
must          be             integrated        into     the     definition      and
 implementation of other Community policies and that
Community policy on the environment must contribute to
promoting measures at international level to deal with
regional or worldwide environmental problems .
Whereas         the Declaration of the Council of the European
Communities                    and of        the Representatives          of    the
Governments of the Member States , meeting within the
Council ,.
Council               of
                      of          22
                                  22    November
                                        November    1973 ^)
                                                    1973' ' *  called
                                                               called    for
                                                                         for    the
                                                                                the
 implementation of a European Communities programme of
action on the environment ; whereas the action programme
was extended and supplemented for the period 1977 to
 1992       by        the           resolutions   of    the   Counci I   and    the
                                                                                the
Representatives of the Governments of the Member States ,
meeting within the Council , of 17 May 1977                          1977(2
                                                                          ^),), of
7 February 19B3 < 3 ) and of 19 October 19S7 < 4 );
  (1) OJ N" C 112 .  20 . 12 . 1973
  (2) OJ N* C 139 .  13.6.1977
  (3) OJ N* C 46 .  17.2 . 1983
  (4) OJ N' C 328 .  7.12.1987
 ---pagebreak---                               3
Whereas   the   Declaration  of   the Heads of   State and
Government , meeting in Council , of 26 June 1990 calls
for a further action programme for the environment to be
elaborated on the basis of the principles of sustainable
development , preventive and precautionary action ,    and
shared responsibility ;
Whereas the said Declaration also acknow I edges the wider
responsibilities of the Community and its Member States ,
as one of the foremost regional groupings in the world ,
to play a leading role in promoting concerted and
effective action at global level , working with other
industrialised countries ,      and assisting developing
countries to overcome their special difficulties ;
Whereas the Community’s credibility and effectiveness at
this wider level depends in large measure on the ability
to    adopt    progressive   environmental   measures  for
 implementation and enforcement by its Member States ; and
whereas , therefore , the internal and external dimensions
of Community environment policy are inextricably linked ;
Whereas ,    in   conformity    with   the  principle   of
subsidiarity , many aspects of the policy and specific
actions to which the Programme " Towards Sustainability”
will give rise fall to be carried out at levels other
than those involving the powers , duties and competences
of the European Communities .
Whereas the strategy advanced in the Programme relies on
satisfactory integration of environment and other
relevant policies and on the complementarity of measures
and - actions at different    levels so as optimise their
effectiveness ;
 ---pagebreak---                                  4
ACKNOWLEDGES that the Programme " Towards Sustainability "
presented by the Commission follows closely the
objectives and principles set out in the Declaration of
the Heads of State and Government of the Community
meeting in Council on 26 June 1S90 and in thB Treaty on
European Union signed at Maastricht on 7 February 1992 ;
ACKNOWLEDGES that many current forms of activity and
development are not environmentally sustainable ;
ENDORSES , accordingly , the Programme’s general objective
of    progressively      orientating     human    activity      and
development towards more sustainable forms ;
AGREES that the achievement of sustainable development
will require significant changes from current patterns
of development , consumption and behaviour ;
DECLARES that such changes cannot be ach i eved w i thout a
sharing     of  responsibi I ity at global ,            Community ,
national , regional , local and even personal levels ;
 Insofar   as  environment      and   development     w / thi n the
E uropean Commun 1 1 1 es are concer ned   :
NOTES the Report on the State of          the Environment which
the Commission has published in           conjunction with the
Programme ; notes the positive           impact that previous
action programmes have made on           certain environmental
problems ; notes that the end of         the time-frame of the
current action programme on the           environment coincides
with the completion of the Internal          MarKet ;
 ---pagebreak---                                     5
CONSIDERS ,      however ,  that the current measures         do  not
appear to be sufficient to meet the increased pressures
on the environment likely to arise in consequence of
current and anticipated trends in economic and social
activity within the Community and the political and
economic developments in Central and Eastern Europe and
at wider international        level ;
AGREES that a more progressive and better co-ordinated
policy and strategy for the environment and sustainable
development is        called for ;
ENDORSES the strategy of tackling key sectors in a co ¬
ordinated and comprehensive manner and agrees that,
because of their impact and importance throughout the
Community special attention should be directed towards
the industry , energy , transport , agriculture and tourism
sectors ;
AGREES
AGREES      that
            that   involvement
                   involvement   of
                                 of   all
                                      all    levels of society in a
spirit of shared responsibility will require a deepening
and broadening of the range of instruments to complement
normative legislation including , in particular ,
        market-based     instruments ,      including   economic  and
        fiscal   incentives ;
        information , éducation and training ;
        financial support mechanisms ;
NOTES the objectives , targets , actions and time-frames
 i nd i cated   i n the Programme ;       and cons i ders that they
offer a sound          basis   for    moving    towards   sustainable
development ;
 ---pagebreak---                                         B
  NOTES , that sustainability of activity and development
  will not be attained within the life-span of this
  Programme and , consequently , that further , still more
  progressive measures will probably be necessary beyond
  the year 2000 in order to hand on the environment to the
  next generation in a fit state to maintain public health
  and social and economic welfare at a high level ;
  NOTES , also , that while many of the measures and actions
  ars set within a time-frame which extends to 2000 ,               and
  even beyond , it is intended to undertake a review of the
  Programme before the end of 1995 ;
  CONSIDERS that in order to ensure that Community
  measures on the environment are more effectively
   implemented
. impi emented ,        cooperation
                        coopérât   i on   procedures     between    the
  Commission
  Comm i ss i on   and    the    Member   States  should   be   further
   improved .
  Insofar       as .  environment       and   development    at   wider
  International       level    are concerned ,
  ASSERTS that the Communities will contribute actively
  and positively to the successful negotiation and
   implementation of global strategies to deal with such
  problems and issues as climate change , deforestation ,
  biodiversity and energy and to programmes of sustainable
  development particularly in the developing countries and
   in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the
  framework        of     their      co-operation    and   association
  agreements ;
  NOTES that many of the i nterna I Commun i ty measures in
  the - Programme          are     designed    to    reduce wasteful
  consumption of resources and , thereby , will contribute
  to greater efficiency in resource management at wider
   international       level ;
 ---pagebreak---                                 7
LOOKS to the forthcoming United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development to provide a framework for
the promotion of policies and programmes designed to
improve the quality of human life worldwide through more
equitable distribution of natural resources , alleviation
of poverty , food security and improved health standards
and I i f e expectancy ;
and ,  In the llght of the foregolng
SUBSCRIBES to the necessity for a programme of policy
and action in relation to the environment designed to
achieve a sustainable development path ;
APPROVES the general approach and strategy            of  the
Programme " Towards Sustainability” presented         by  the
Comm i ss i on ;
 INVITES the Commission to come forward with appropriate
proposals to give effect to the Programme insofar as it
pertains to action at Community level ;
UNDERTAKES to decide on proposals submitted by the
Commission as expeditiously as possible so as to respect
the relevant objectives , targets and t ime-f rames . set out
 in the Programme ;
CALLS     on all    Community  Institutions , Member States ,
enterprise and citizens to accept their relative
responsibilities to protect the environment for this and
 future     generations  and  to play   their  full  part   in
 implementing this Programme .
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      ISSN 0254-1475
                                                             COM(92) 23/1 final
                                                      DOCUMENTS
EN                                                                          01 14
                                Catalogue number : CB-CO-92-148-EN-C
                                                             ISBN 92-77-42765-5
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
L-2985 Luxembourg
 ---pagebreak--- COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN CQMVTUNITIES
                               COM ( 92 )  23  final   VOL . II
                               Brasse I s , 27 March 1992
              TOWARDS
         SUSTAINABILITY
        A European Community Programme
         of Policy and Action in relation to
   the Environment and Sustainable Development
                   VOLUME II
 ---pagebreak---                               EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
       Introduction                                              protection requirements must be integrated into
                                                                 the definition and implementation of other
                                                                 Community policies (Art. 1 30r.2). ThenewTreaty
1.    Over the past two decades four Community                   also attaches special value to the principle of
      action programmes on the environment have                  subsidiarity (Art. 3b), and states that decisions
      given rise to about 200 pieces of legislation              should be taken as closely as possible to the
      covering pollution of the atmosphere, water and            citizens (Art. A). Furthermore, the Community
      soil , waste management, safeguards in relation to         policy on the envi ronment is requi red to contribute
      chemicals and biotechnology, product standards,            to promoting measures at international level to
      envi ronmental impact assessments and protection           deal with regional or worldwide environmental
      ofnature. The Community's 4th Action Programme             problems (Art.130r.l ). In this latter context the
      on the Environment has not been completed - it             Community will endeavour to find solutions in
      runs up to the end of 1 992 - and its impact will not      the field of development and environment at the
      be known for some years to come. While a great             United Nations Conference on Environment and
      deal has been achieved under these programmes              Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in June
      and measures, a combination of factors calls for a         1992 .
      more far-reaching policy and more effective
      strategy at this juncture :                             3. All human activity has an impact on the biophysical
                                                                 world and is, in turn , affected by it. The capacity
                                                                 to control this interrelationship conditions the
(i)   a new Report on the State of the Environment               continuity, overtime, of different forms of activity
      published in conjunction with this Programme               and the potential for economic and social
      indicates a slow but relentless deterioration of the       development. Within the Community, the long¬
      general state of the environment ofthe Community           term success of the more important initiatives
      notwithstanding the measures taken over the past           such as the Internal Market and economic and
      two decades, particularly as respects the issues           monetary union will be dependent upon the
      referred to in para 16 below; the Report also              sustainability of the policies pursued in the fields
      shows up significant deficiencies in the quantity,         of industry, energy, transport, agriculture and
      quality and comparabi lity of data which are crucial       regional development; but each of these policies,
      for environment-related policies and decisions. In         whether viewed separately or as it interfaces with
      this context it is of the utmost importance that the       others, is dependent on the carrying capacity of
      European Environment Agency become                         the environment
      operational .
                                                              4. The achievement of the desired balance between
(ii) the present approach and existing measures are              human activity and development and protection
      not geared to deal with the expected growth in             of the environment requires a sharing of
      international competition and the upward trends            responsibilities which isboth equitable and clearly
      in Community activity and development which                defined by reference to consumption of and
      will impose even greater burdens on natural                behaviour towards the environment and natural
      resources, the environment and, ultimately, the            resources. This implies integration of environment
      quality of life;                                           considerations       in   the   formulation      and
                                                                 implementation ofeconomic and sectoral policies,
(iii) global concerns about the climate change /                 in the decisions of public authorities, in theconduct
      deforestation / energy crisis, the seriousness and         and development of production processes and in
      persistence of problems of underdevelopment                individual behaviour and choice. It also implies
      and the progressof political and economic change           effective dialogue and concerted action among
      in Central and Eastern Europe add to the                   partners who may have differing short-term
      responsibility of the European Community in the            priorities; such dialogue must be supported by
      international field .                                      objective and reliable information.
2. The newTreatyon European Union, signed by all              5. As usedinthe Programme, the word "sustainable"
      Member States on 7 February 1 992 has introduced           is intended to reflect a policy and strategy for
      as a principal objective the promotion of                  continued economic and social development
      sustainable growth respecting the environment              without detriment to the environment and the
      (Art 2). It includes among the activities of the           natural resources on thequalityofwhich continued
       Union a policy in the sphere of the environment            human activity and further development depend.
       (Art. 3 (k)), specifies that this policy must aim at a    The Report of the World Commission on
       high level of protection and that environmental            Environment and Development ( Brundtland)            B
 ---pagebreak---      defined sustainabledevelopment as "development             biodiversity, etc. - are seriously threatening the
     which meets the needs of the present without               ecological balance of our planet as a whole.
     compromising the ability of future generations to
     meet their own needs*. It entails preserving the       9.  These issues are to be addressed at the highest
     overall balance and value of the natural capital           level at the United Nations Conference on
     stock, redefinition of short, medium and long¬             Environment and Development(UNCED). Just as
     term cost/benefit evaluation criteria and                  the 1 972 UN Conference in Stockholm created a
     instruments to reflect the real socio-economic             new awareness and concern about the
     effects and values of consumption and                      environment at broad international level , so too
     conservation, and the equitable distribution and           can UNCED bring global political will and
     use of resources between nations and regions               commitment to effective action into a new
     over the world as a whole . In the latter context, the     dimension . Apart from the expected adoption of
     Brundtland Report pointed out thatthe developed            framework conventions on climate change and
     countries, with only 26 % of the world population,         biodiversity and of principles on conservation
     are responsible for about 80 % of world                    and development of forests, UNCED should pave
     consumption of energy, steel and other metals,             the way forward by adopting :
     and paper and about 40 % of the food .
                                                                * An “ Earth Charter* or Declaration of basic rights
  6. Following are some of the practical requirements              and obligations with respect to environment
     for achieving sustainable development :                       and development;
     since the reservoir of raw materials is finite, the        * An agenda for action , “Agenda 21” , which will
     flow of substances through the various stages of              constitute an agreed work programme of the
     processing, consumption and use should be so                  international community for the period beyond
     managed as to facilitate or encourage optimum                 1 992 and into the 21 st century.
     reuse and recycling, thereby avoiding wastage
     and preventing depletion of the natural resource
     stock;                                                 10  In the declaration on the environment made in
                                                                Dublin in June 1 990the European Council stressed
     production and consumption of energy should be             the special responsibility of the Community and
     rationalized ; and                                         its constituent Member States in the wider
                                                                international arena when it stated that “ the
     consumption and behaviour patterns of society              Community must use more effectively its position
      itself should be altered .                                of moral, economic and political authority to
                                                                advance international efforts to solve global
                                                                problems andtopromote sustainable development
  7.  It is clear that sustainable development is not           andrespect (or theglobal commons". In conformity
     something which will be achieved over a period             with the said declaration, the Community and the
     as short as that covered by this Programme.                Member States must increase their        efforts to
      'Towards Sustainability" should be seen ,                 promote international action to protect the
     accordingly, as an important step only in a                environment and to meet the specific needs and
      longer-term campaign to safeguard the                     requirements of its partners in the developing
     environment and the quality of life of the                 world and in Central and Eastern Europe.
     Community and, ultimately, our planet.
                                                                The credibility of the industrialised world ,
                                                                including the Community, from the viewpoint of
     The Community's Role in the Wider                          developing countries will be commensurate with
                                                                the extent to which it puts its own house in order.
      International Arena
                                                                 In adopting and implementing this Programme,
                                                                the Community will be in a position to offer the
  8.  In the early stages, Community policy and action           leadership foreseen in the Dublin Declaration.
      on the environment were mainly focussed on the
      solution of particularly acute problems within the
      Community. Later there was a clearer recognition          The New Strategy for Environment
      that pollution did not stop at its frontiers and that     and Development
      it was necessary, therefore, to intensify co¬
      operation with third countries. In recent years, the
      evolution has gone a step further and it is now       1 1 The approach adopted in drawing up this new
      generally accepted that issues of a global nature -        policy programme differs from that which applied
      climate change, ozone depletion, diminution of             in previous environmental action programmes :
□
 ---pagebreak--- *     It focuses on the agents and activities which          14  The success of this approach will rely heavily on
      deplete natural resources and otherwise damage             the flow and quality of information both in relation
      the environment, rather than wait for problems to          to the environment and as between the various
      emerge;                                                    actors, including the general public. The rdle of
                                                                 the European Environment Agency is seen as
•     It endeavours to initiate changes in current trends        crucial in relation to the evaluation and
      and practices which are detrimental to the                 dissemination ofinformation, distinction between
      environment, so as to provide optimal conditions           real and perceived risks and provision of a scientific
      for socio-economic well -being and growth for the          and rational basis for decisions and actions
      present and future generations;                            affecting the environment and natural resources .
•     It aims to achieve such changes i n society's patterns 15  In relation to the motivation of the general public,
      of behaviour through the optimum involvement               the main tasks will fall to levels other than the
      of all sectors of society in a spirit of shared            Community level . The Commission , for its part,
      responsibility, including public administration,           will commit its information services to a campaign
      public and private enterprise, and the general             of environmental information and awareness¬
      public (as both individual citizens and consumers);        building.
*     Responsibility will be shared through a significant        The importance of education in the development
      broadening of the range of instruments to be               of environmental awareness cannot be overstated
      applied contemporaneously to the resolution of             and should be an integral element in school
      particular issues or problems;                             curricula from primary level onwards.
1 2 For each of the main issues, iong-term objectives             Environmental Challenges                       and
      are given as an indication of the sense of direction        Priorities
      or thrust to be applied in the pursuit of sustainable
      development, certain performance targets are
       indicated for the period up to the year 2000 and      16  The Programme addresses a number of
      a representative selection of actions is prescribed        environmental issues : climate change ,
      with a view to achieving the said targets. These           acidification and air pollution , depletion of natural
      objectives and targets do not constitute legal              resources and biodiversity, depletion and pollution
       commitments but, rather, performance levels or            of water resources, deterioration of the urban
       achievements to be aimed at now in the interests          environment, deterioration of coastal zones, and
       of attaining a sustainable development path .             waste . This list is not an exhaustive one but,
       Neither should all the actions indicated require           pursuant to the principle of subsidiarity, it
       legislation at Community or national level . (Note:        comprises matters of particular seriousness which
       Because of substantial disparities and short¬              have a Community-wide dimension , either
       comings in both the quantity and quality of data           because of Internal Market, cross-boundary, shared
       available, it has not been possible to have                resource or cohesion implications and because
        homogenous levels of precision in the objectives          they have a crucial bearing on environmental
        and targets included in the Programme).                   quality and conditions in almost all regionsof the
                                                                  Community.
  1 3 The Programme takes account of the diversity of         17  These issues are addressed not so much as
        situations in various regions of the Community            problems, but as symptoms of mismanagement
        and, in particular, of the need for the economic          and abuse. The real "problems", which cause
        and social development ofthe less wealthy regions         environmental loss and damage, are the current
        of the Community. It aims to protect and enhance           patterns of human consumption and behaviour.
        the inherent advantages ofthese latter regions and        Withthisdistinction in mind and with due respect
        to afford protection to their more valuable natural       to the principle of subsidiarity, priority will be
        assets as a resource-base for economic                    given to the following fields of action with a view
        development and social improvement and                    to achieving tangible improvements or changes
        prosperity. In the case of the more developed             during the period covered by the Programme :
        regions of the Community, the aim is to restore or
        maintain the quality of their environment and              * Sustainable Management ofNatural Resources:
         natural resource base for thei r continued economic         soil , water, natural areas and coastal zones
         activity and quality of life.
                                                                                                                        Ш
 ---pagebreak---         * Integrated Pollution Control and Prevention of          the Internal Market.
           Waste
        * Reduction in the Consumption of Non-               20. The three pillars on which the environment/
           Renewable Energy                                       industry relationship will be based will be :
        * ImprovedMobilityManagemenfincludingmore                 * Improved resource management with a view to
           efficient and environmentally rational location          both rational use of resources and improvement
           decisions and transport modes                            of competitive position ;
        * Coherent packages of measures to achieve                * Use of information for promotion of better
           improvements in environmental quality in urban            consumer choice and for i mprovement of public
           areas;                                                    confidence in industrial activity and controls
                                                                     and in the quality of products;
        * Improvement ofPublic Health and Safety, with
           special emphasis on industrial risk assessment         * Community standards for production processes
           and management, nuclear safety and radiation             and products;
           protection.
                                                                  In developing measures toensure the sustainability
                                                                  of the industrial sector, special consideration will
        Selected Target Sectors                                   be given to the position of small and medium
                                                                  enterprises and to the matter of international
                                                                  competitiveness.
  18. Five target sectors have been selected for special
        attention under this Programme : INDUSTRY,                In mid-1992 the Commission will publish a
        ENERGY , TRANSPORT, AGRICULTURE and                       comprehensive Communication on international
        TOURISM . These are sectors where the                     competitiveness and protection of the
        Community as such has a unique role to play and           environment .
        where a Community approach is the most efficient
        level at which to tackle the problems these sectors
        cause or face. They are a Iso chosen because of the       Energy :
        particularly significant impacts that they have or   21 . Energy policy is a key factor in the achievement of
        could have on the environment as a whole and              sustainable development. While the Community's
        because, by their nature, they have crucial roles to      energy sector is making steady progress in deal ing
        play in the attempt to achieve sustainable                with local and regional environmental problems
        development. The approach to the target sectors           such as acidification, global issues are daily
        is designed not only for the protection of public         growing in importance. The challenge of the
        health and the environment as such, but for the           future will be to ensure that economic growth,
        benefit and sustainability ofthe sectorsthemselves.       efficient and secure energy supplies and a clean
                                                                  environment are compatible objectives.
        Industry :
  1 9 . Whereas previousenvironmental measures tended        22. The achievement of this balance requires a
        to be proscriptive in character with an emphasis          strategic perspective well beyond the period
        on the "thou shalt not* approach, the new strategy        covered by this Programme. The key elements of
        leans more towards a "let's work together*                the strategy up to 2000 will be improvement in
        approach . This reflects the growing realization in       energy efficiency and the development ofstrategic
        industry and in the business world that not only is       technology programmes moving towards a less
        industry a significant part of the (environmental )       carbon-intensive energy structure including, in
        problem but it must also be part of the solution.         particular, renewable energy options.
        The new approach implies, in particular, a
        reinforcement of the dialogue with industry and
        the encouragement, in appropriate circumstances,          Transport :
        of voluntary agreements and other forms of self¬     23 . Transport is vital to the distribution of goods and
        regulation .                                              services, to trade and to regional development.
                                                                  Present trends in theCommunity'stransport sector
        Nevertheless, Community action is and will                are all leading towards greater inefficiency,
        continue to be an important element in the                congestion , pollution , wastage of time and value,
        avoidance of distortions in conditions of                 damage to health, danger to life and general
        competition and preservation of the integrity of          economic loss. Transport demand and traffic are
□
 ---pagebreak---      expected to increase even more rapidly with the             (both as regards agricultural products and wider
     completion ofthe Internal Market and the political          trade agreements). It is not only environmentally
     and economic developments in Central and Eastern            desirable, therefore, but also makes sound
     Europe.                                                     agricultural , social and economic sense to seek to
                                                                 strike a more sustainable balance between
                                                                 agricultural activity, other forms of rural
24 . A strategy for sustainable mobility will require a          development and the natural resources of the
     combination of measures which includes :                    environment.
     * improved land-use/economic development
        planning at local , regional , national and trans¬  27. The Programme builds on the Commission's
        national levels;                                         proposals for reform of the CAP and for
                                                                 development of the Community's forests so as to
     * improved planning, management and use of                  work towards a balanced and dynamic
        transport infrastructures and facilities ;               development of the rural areas of the Community
        incorporation of the real costs of both                  which will meet the sector's productive, social
        infrastructure and environment in investment             and environmental functions.
        policies and decisions and also in user costs;
     * development of public transport and                        Tourism :
        improvement of its competitive position;            28. Tourism is an important element in the social and
                                                                 economic life of the Community. It refleas the
     * continued technical improvement of vehicles                legitimate aspirations of the individual to enjoy
        and fuels; encouraged use of less polluting               new places and absorb different cultures as well
        fuels;                                                    as to benefit from activities or relaxation away
                                                                  from the normal home or work setting. It is also an
     * promotion of a more environmentally rational               important economic asset to many regions and
         use of the private car, including changes in             cities of the Community and has a special
        driving rules and habits.                                 contribution to make to the economic and social
                                                                  cohesion of the peripheral regions. Tourism
                                                                  represents a good example of the fundamental
     In conjunction with this Programme , the                     link which exists between economic development
     Commission has published a more comprehensive                and environment, with all the attendant benefits,
     Communication dealing with transport and the                 tensions and potential conflias. If well planned
     environment and the need to aim for sustainable              and managed, tourism, regional development and
      mobility.                                                   environment proteaion can go hand in hand.
                                                                  Respect for nature and the environment ,
                                                                  particularly in coastal zones and mountain areas,
      Agriculture :                                               can maketourism both profitable and long-lasting.
 25. The farmer is the guardian of the soil and of the
      countryside. Improvements in farming efficiency,
      increased mechanisation levels, improved              29 . The World Tourism Organisation predias a
      transport and marketing arrangements, increased             significant increase in tourism aaivity to and
      international trade in food produas and feedstuffs          within Europe during this decade. Most of this
      have all contributed tothe fulfillment ofthe original        increase is I i kely to take pi ace i n the Mediterranean
      Treaty objeaives of assuring the availability of             Region, and in particular types of locations such
      food supplies at reasonable prices, the stabilization        as historic towns and cities, mountain areas and
      of markets and a fair standard of living for the             coastal zones . UNEP 's Blue Plan on the
      agricultural community. At the same time,                    Mediterranean predicts a doubling, at least, of
      however, changes in farming praaices in many                 solid wastes and waste waters resulting from
       regions of the Community have led to                        tourism by the year 2000, and a potential doubl ing
      overexploitation and degradation of the natural              in the land occupied by tourist lodgings.
       resources on which agriculture itself ultimately
      depends : soil , water and air.
                                                             30. The European Community supports tourism
                                                                   through its i nvestments i n necessa ry i nfrastruaures;
 26. In addition to environmental degradation , serious             it can also serve as a "facilitator' in relation to
       problems have emerged in the case of commodity               other interests. But, in a praaical refleaion ofthe
       overproduction and storage, rural depopulation,              principle of subsidiarity and the spirit of shared
       the Community budget and international trade                 responsibility, it is mainly at levels other than that
                                                                                                                             □
 ---pagebreak---         ofthe Community that the real work of reconciling             and education and professional and vocational
        tourism activity and development and the                      education and training.
        guardianship of natural and cultural assets must
        be brought into a sustainable balance, i.e. by          ( iv) Financial support mechanisms : besides the
        Member States, regional and local authorities, the            budgetary lines which have direct environmental
        tourism industry itself and individual tourists.              objectives, such as LIFE, the Structural Funds,
                                                                      notably ENVIREG, contribute significant amounts
        The three main lines of action indicated in the               to the financing of actions for the improvement of
        Programme deal with                                           the environment. Moreover, the new Cohesion
                                                                      Fund decided upon at the Maastricht Summit
        • diversification of tourism activities, including            aims at cofinancing projects which are intended
           better management ofthe phenomenon of mass                 to improve the environment in Spain , Greece,
           tourism, and encouragement of different types              Portugal and Ireland . Article 1 30r.2 of the new
           of tourism;                                                Treaty provides that environment policy must aim
        • qualityoftourist services, including information            at a high level of protection based on the
           and awareness- building, and visitor                       precautionary principle and preventive action,
           management and facilities;                                 taking into account the diversity of situations in
        • tourist behaviour, including media campaigns,               the various regions of the Community, and that
           codes of behaviour and choice of transport.                environment policy must be integrated into the
                                                                      definition and implementation ofother Community
                                                                      policies. In this context, it will be necessary to
        Broadening the Range of Instru¬                               ensure that all Community funding operations,
                                                                      and in particular, these involving the Structural
        ments
                                                                      Funds, will be as sensitive as possible to
                                                                      environmental considerations and in conformity
  31 . Previous action programmes have relied almost                  with environmental legislation . By way of
        exclusively on legislative measures. In order to              qualification it must be recalled here that the new
        bring about substantial changes in current trends             Treaty provides, in Art 130s.4, that without
        and practices and to involve all sectors of society           prejudice to certain measures of a Community
        in a full sharing of responsibility, a broader mix of         nature, the Member States are responsible for
        instruments is needed. The mix proposed can be                financing and implementing environment policy.
        categorised under four headings :
  (i)    Legislative instrumentsdesigped to set fundamental           The Principle of Subsidiarity
         levels of protection for public health and the
        environment, .particularly in cases of high risk, to
         implement wider international commitments and           32. The principleofsubsidiarity will pi ay an important
        to provide Community-wide rules and standards                  part in ensuring that the objectives, targets and
         necessary to preserve the integrity of the Internal          actions are given full effect by appropriate national ,
        Market;                                                        regional and local efforts and initiatives. In practice
                                                                       it should serve to take full account of the traditions
  (ii) Market-based instruments, designed to sensitize                 and sensitivities of different regions of the
         both producers and consumers towards                          Community and the cost-effectiveness of various
         responsible use of natural resources, avoidance of            actions and to improve the choice of actions and
         pollution and waste by internalising of external              appropriate mixes of instruments at Community
                                                                       and/or other levels .
         environmental costs (through the application of
         economic and fiscal incentives and disincentives,
         civil liability, etc) and geared towards "getting             The objectives and targets put forward in the
         the prices right" so that environmentally-friendly            Programme and the ultimate goal of sustainable
         goods and services are not at a ma rket d i sadvantage        development can only be achieved by concerted
         vis-^-vis polluting or wasteful competitors.                  action on the part of all the relevant actors working
                                                                       together in partnership. On the basis ofthe Treaty
  (iii) Horizontal, supporting instruments including                   on the European Union (Art. 3b), the Community
         improved base-line and statistical data, scientific           will take action, in accordance with the principle
         research and technological development, (as                   of subsidiarity, only if and insofar as the objectives
         respects both new less-pollutingtechnologiesand               of the proposed action cannot be sufficiently
         technologies and techniques for solving current               achieved by the Member States and can therefore,
         environmental problems) improved sectoral and                 by reason of the scale or effects of proposed
         spatial planning, public/consumer information                 action, be better achieved by the Community.
0
 ---pagebreak--- 33 . The Programme combines the principle of                          and experience and at the development of common
      subsidiarity with the wider concept of shared                   approaches at practical level , under the supervision
      responsibility; this concept involves not so much               of the Commission .
      a choice of action at one level to the exclusion of
      others but, rather, a mixing of actors and               ( iii) an Environmental Policy Review Croup,
      instruments at the appropriate levels, without any              comprising representatives of the Commission
      ca 1 1 ing into question ofthe division of competences          and the Member States at Director-General level
      between the Community, the Member States,                       to develop mutual understanding and exchange
      regional and local authorities.                                 of views on environment policy and measures.
      Table 1 8 ofthe document and the "actors" column         37 . These three dialogue groups will serve, in a
      oftheothertablesindicaterespectivelythemanner                   special way, to promote greater sense of
       inwhichthevariousactorsareintendedtocombine                    responsibility among the principal actors in the
       and the different actors considered most relevant              partenariat, and toensure effective and transparent
      for the implementation of specific measures.                    application of measures. They are not intended to
                                                                      duplicate the work of committees established by
                                                                      Community legislation for the purposes of follow¬
       Making the Programme Work                                      up in respect of specific measures,nor by the
                                                                      Commission in relation to specific fields of interest
                                                                      such as consumer protection , tourism
34 . Uptothe present, environmental protection in the                 development etc . nor by Member States for
       Community has mainly been based on a legislative                implementation and enforcement of policy at
       approach ("top-down "). The new strategy                        national level . Finally, they will not substitute the
       advanced in this Programme implies the                         existing dialogue between industry and the
       involvement of all economic and social partners                 Commission, which it is intended to strengthen in
       (" bottom-up"). The complementarity and                         any event.
       effectiveness of the two approaches together will
       depend, in great measure, on the level and quality
       of dialogue which will take place in pursuance of               Review of Programme
        partnership.
35 . Inevitably, it will take some considerable time for        38. While the Programme is essentially targeted
        the current patterns of consumption and behaviour              towards the year 2000, it will be reviewed and
        to turn inthedirection of sustainability. In practical         " rolled-over" at the end of 1995 in the light of
        terms, the effectiveness ofthe strategy wil I depend ,         improvements in relevant data, results of current
        for the foreseeable future, on the inherent quality            research , and forthcoming reviews of other
        of the measures adopted and the practical                      Community policies e.g. industry, energy,
        arrangements for their enforcement. This will                  transport, agriculture, and the structural funds.
        require better preparation of measures, more
        effective co-ordination with and integration into
        other policies, more systematic follow-up and
         stricter compliance-checking and enforcement.                  Conclusion
 36. For these reasons - but without prejudice to the
         Commission 's right of initiative and its               39 . This Programme itself constitutes a turning point
         responsibility          to ensure satisfactory                 for the Community. Just as the challenge of the
         implementation of Community rules - the                        1 980s was completion of the Internal Market, the
         followingad hoc dialogue groups wil I be convened              reconciliation of environment and development
         by the Commission :                                            is one of the principal challenges facing the
                                                                        Community and the world at large in the 1 990s.
 (i)     a General Consultative Forum comprising                        "Towards Sustainability" is not a programme for
         representatives of enterprise, consumers, unions               the Commission alone, nor one geared towards
         and professional organisations, non-governmental               environmentalists alone. It provides a framework
         organisations and local and regional authorities;              for a new approach to the environment and to
                                                                        economic and social activity and development,
 (ii ) an Implementation Network comprising                             and requires positive will at all levels of the
          representatives of relevant national authorities               political and corporate spectrums, and the
          and of the Commission in the field of practical                involvement of all members of the public active
                                                                         as citizens and consumers in order to make it
          implementation with Community measures; it
                                                                         work.
          will beaimed primarilyat exchange of information
                                                                                                                              0
 ---pagebreak---    40. The Programme does not purport to "get everything       These tables are struaured so as to indicate :
        right". It will take a long time to change patterns
        of behaviour and consumption and to attain a                * the long-term objeaives in the various fields;
        sustainable development path . The Programme,               * the qualitative or quantitative targets to be
        accordingly, is intended primarily to break the               attained by the year 2000;
        current trends. The bottom line is that the present         * the specific aaions required to be taken;
        generation must pass the environment on to the              * the time-frame proposed for such aaions;
        next generation in a fit state to maintain public           * the aaors or seaors of aaivity which will be
        health and social and economic welfare at a high              called upon to play a part.
        level . As an intermediate goal , the state of the
        environment, the level and quality of natural               Pursuant to the principle of subsidiarity, the lead
        resources and the potential for further development         r6le is indicated by the use of an italic type-face
        at the end of this decade should reflea a marked            e.g. MS. .
        improvement on the situation which obtainstoday.
        The road to sustainability may be long and
        difficult... but the first steps must be taken NOW!    45 . Finally , Part I attempts to indicate how
                                                                    responsibility can in praaice be shared (Ch. 8)
                                                                    and the measures proposed to ensure satisfaaory
        Structure of the Document                                   implementation and enforcement (Ch . 9).
                                                               46 . Part II summarises the environmental threats and
   41 . The document is divided into three parts, the two           issues in the wider international sphere (Ch. 10)
        main parts being related to internal and external           and what will or can be done by the Community
        aaions . This distinaion is made so as to reflea            and its constituent Member States in the context of
        what can politically and legally be done within             both general international and bilateral co¬
        the Community itself in accordance with the                 operation (Ch. 11 and 12, resp.) in relation to
        powers and procedures incorporated in the                   global and regional issues and to environment
        Treaties, and what the Community and its                    and development issues in developing countries
        constituent Member States can contribute or                 and Central and Eastern Europe. Chapter 1 3 deals
        achieve in partnership with other developed and             with the United Nations Conference on
        developing countries in relation to global or               Environment and Development which will take
        regional issues and problems.                               place in June 1 992 . It also refers to the correlation
                                                                    between the internal and external dimensions of
   42 . Part I summarises the state of the environment in           the Community's policy on the environment.
        the Community and growing threats to its future
        health (Ch . 1 ) and sets out a new strategy designed
        to break the current trends and to set a new course    47 . Partlll is quite short and very general , dealing with
        for sustainable development (Ch . 2). The strategy          the seleaion of priorities (Ch. 1 4), the question of
        entails aaive involvement of all the main aaors in          costs (Ch. 1 5) and the intention to carry out a mid¬
        society (Ch . 3) using a broader range of instruments,      term review of the Programme in 1995 (Ch . 16).
        including market-related instruments and                    While in a document which puts forward a policy
        improved information, education and training                and strategy aimed at breaking trends there is less
        (Ch . 7) so as to achieve identifiable orquantiflable       a question ofseleaing priority aaions than defining
        improvements in the environment or changes in               a "critical path ", nevertheless, the Programme does
        consumption and behaviour (Ch. 5).                          include a listing of horizontal measures and fields
                                                                    of aaion which require to be accorded priority.
   43 . A special, concentrated, effort will be made in the         On the question of costs the document points to
        case of five target seaors of Community-wide                thedifficultiesof undertaking such exercise (partly
        significance (Ch. 4) and in relation to the avoidance       because of the traditional praaice of treating the
        and management of risks and accidents (Ch. 6).              environment as an infinite source of free raw
                                                                    materials and waste sinks, and partly because not
   44 . In an effort to be both concise and as clear as             enough has been done to determine the real costs
        possible, the measures which together constitute            of "non-action *) and puts forward a 5-point plan
        the aaion programme are set out in a series of              to devise appropriate costing mechanims for the
        tables which are predominantly, though not                  future .
        entirely, homogenous.
10
 ---pagebreak---                                          CONTENTS
                                                                   Page
Executive Summary                                                      3
Introduction: The Challenge of the "90s"                             15
PART I : A Policy and Strategy for the Environment and Sustainable
          Development within the European Community                  21
1.   The State of the Environment : Progress and Prospects           23
2.   The Fifth Programme: A New Strategy for the Environment and
     Sustainable Development                                         25
3.   The Actors :                                                    26
         3.1 Public Authorities                                       26
         3.2 Public and Private Enterprise                            27
         3.3 The General Public                                       27
4.   Selected Target Sectors :                                       28
         4.1 Industry                                                 28
         4.2 Energy                                                   31
         4.3 Transport                                                33
         4.4 Agriculture                                              35
         4.5 Tourism                                                  38
5.   Thèmes and Targets of the Programme                             41
         5.1 Climate Change                                           41
         5.2 Acidification and Air Quality                            43
         5.3 Protection of Nature and Bio-diversity                   47
         5.4 Management of Water Resources                            49
         5.5 The Urban Environment                                    51
         5.6 Coastal Zones                                            53
         5.7 Waste Management                                         54
6.   Management of Risks and Accidents :                             57
         6.1 Industry-Related Risks                                   57
         6.2 Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection                  60
         6.3 Civil Protection and Environmental Emergencies           63
7.   Broadening the Range of Instruments :                           64
         7.1 Improvement of Environmental Data                        64
          7.2 Scientific Research and Technological Development       65
          7.3 Sectoral and spatial planning                           66
          7.4 The economic approach : getting the prices right        67
          7.5 Public information and éducation                        68
          7.6 Professional éducation and training                     69
          7.7 Financial support mechanisms                            70
8.   Subsidiarity and Shared Responsibility                          73
                                                                         0
9.   Implementation and Enforcement of the Programme within the
     Community                                                       75
 ---pagebreak--- PART II : The Communities' Role in the Wider International Arena          79
     Introduction                                                         81
10. Environmental Threats and Issues                                      82
          10.1 Global Issues                                               82
          1 0.2 Problems of Regional or Local Concern                      82
11 . International Co-operation                                           84
          11.1 The Community's Position on the Major Issues                84
           1 1 .2 Other Priority Issues of Major International Importance  85
          1 1.3 Global Partnership                                         85
          1 1 .4 Régional Co-operation                                     86
           1 1 .5 Institutional Issues                                     86
12. Bilateral Co-operation                                                87
           12.1 Developing Countries                                       87
           12.2 Central and Eastem Europe                                  89
13. UNCED: The United Nations' Conference on Environment and
     Development                                                          92
PART III : Priorities, Costs, Review                                      93
14. Sélection of Priorities                                               95
15. The Question of Costs                                                 96
1 6. Review of the Programme                                              97
Conclusion                                                                98
 ---pagebreak--- Tables                                                                                Page
1   Energy consumption projections for 201 0 and their implications                     32
2   Energy (Measures required up to 2000)                                               33
3   Transport (Objectives, measures and instruments)                                    35
4   Agriculture and Forestry (Objectives, measures and instruments)                     37
5   Tourism (Objectives, measures and instruments)                                      39
6   Programme framework for selected target sectors                                     40
7   Climate change (Objectives, targets and measures up to 2000)                        42
8   Acidification (idem)                                                                46
9 Air quality (idem)                                                                    46
1 0 Nature and biodiversity (idem)                                                      48
1 1 Water quantity and water quality (idem)                                             50
12  Noise ( idem)                                                                       51
13  Coastal areas (idem)                                                                53
1 4 Waste management (idem)                                                             56
1 5 Kisk management (idem)                                                              59
16 Nuclear safety (idem)                                                                62
17  Horizontal measures ( idem)                                                         72
1 8 Examples of Shared Responsibility                                                   74
1 9 International environmental issues (Objectives, targets measures up to 2000)        91
Figures                                                                               Page
11  Sustainable development                                                             24
2a. A Regulatory Process to promote environmentally friendly and competitive industry   30
2b. The potential of Consumer Power to influence manufacturing processes and products   30
 3  Acidification in the European Community 1 990                                       42
4   Acidification in the European Community 2010: Conventional Wisdom scenario          44
 5  Acidification in the European Community 2010: High Prices scenario                  44
 6  Nature Conservation ( Diagram)                                                      47
 7  Urban Environment (Diagram)                                                         52
 8  Waste Management ( Diagram)                                                         55
 9  Existing Chemicals ( Diagram)                                                       58
 10 Acidification in Europe 1990                                                        88
 11 Acidification in Europe 2000                                                        88
                                                                                           13
 ---pagebreak---                                        List of Abbreviations Used
   Organisations, Associations etc.                            OECD   Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
                                                                      Development
   ACP       African , Caribbean and Pacific countries         PHARE  A programme of Assistance for the
                                                                      restructuring of the Economies of Poland
   ALA       Asian and Latin American countries                       and Hungary, initially, and now extended to
                                                                      other Central and Eastern European countries
   BAT       Best available technology
                                                               R&D    Research and Development
   CAP       European           Community 's       Common
             Agricultural Policy                               RIVM   (Maps) Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en
                                                                      Milieuhygiene (National Instituteof Public Health
   CEE       Central and Eastern European countries                   and Environmental Protection, The Netherlands)
   CITES     Convention on International Trade in              SME
                                                               SME    Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
             Endangered SpeciesofWild Fauna and Flora
                                                               toe
                                                               toe    tons of oil équivalent
   EAGGF     European Agricultura ! Guidance and
             Guarantee Fund                                    UN
                                                               UN     United Nations Organisation
   EC        (Tables) refers to action at Community level      UNCED United Nations Conférence on Environment
                                                                      and Development ( Riode Janeiro, June 1992)
   ECU       European Currency Unit
                                                               UNDP   United Nations Development Programme
   EEA       (Tables) European Environment Agency
                                                               UNDRO United Nations Disaster and Relief
   EFTA      European Free Trade Association                          Organisation
   EIA       Environmental Impact Assessment                   UN-ECE United Nations Economie Commission for Europe
   EIB       European Investment Bank                          UNEP   United Nations Environment Programme
   ERDF      European Regional Development Fund                WHO    World Health Organisation
   ESF       European Social Fund
                                                               Chemical Formulae and References
   FAO       Food and Agricultural Organisation
                                                               CO     Carbon Monoxide
   GATT      General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
                                                               co2    Carbon Dioxide
   GDP       Gross Domestic Product
                                                               CFC    Chlorofluorocarbon
   GEF       Global Environment Facility
                                                               сн4    Methane
   IIASA     International Institute for Applied Systems
             Analysis (Austria)                                GMO    Genetically Modified Organism
   IMO       International Maritime Organisation               НС     Hydrocarbon
   IPC       Integrated Pollution Control                      Ν2Ο    Nitrous Oxide
   IPCC      Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change         NOj    Nitrogen Dioxide
   LA
   LA        (Tables) refers to actions at Local and Regional  NOx    Nitrogen Oxides
             Authority Level
                                                               NH 3   Ammonia
   leq dB(A) Mean Sound level related to man
                                                               O,     Ozone
   MS        (Tables ) refers to actions at Member State level
                                                               so2    Sulphur Dioxide
   NGO       Non Governmental Organisation
                                                               voc    Volatile Organic Compound
14
 ---pagebreak--- INTRODUCTION
             15
 ---pagebreak---                                  The Challenge of the 1990s
As far back as 1972 , when the Communities first             havetofaceuptothechallengesoffurtherenlargement.
became involved in environmental protection , the            It will have to take account of political and economic
Heads of State and Government of the Member States           changes which are occurring in Central and Eastern
declared that :                                              Europe and of the need to develop the European
                                                             Economic Area . The Community is also committed to
"Economic expansion is not an end in itself... it should     reviewing its approach to the Structural Funds, the
result in an improvement in the quality of life as well      Common Agricultural Policy, Transport Policy and
as the standard of living"                                   Energy Policy.
Just as in the 1 980s the principal challenge faced by
the European Communities was the completion of the           Developments at Global level
Internal Market, so now in the 1 990s the challenge is
to graduate to a development path which will be              There is growing worldwide concern at the continuing
sustainable.                                                 deterioration of the state of the environment and the
                                                             serious degradation of global life-support systems. A
Community HeadsofStateandGovernmentrecognised                crucial element of the Community's strategy for the
this challenge during their Summit in Dublin in June         1 990s, developed in more detail in this document, is
 1990 where they stated :                                    to promote policies and programmes that will improve
                                                             the quality of human life worldwide through a more
 "We recognise our special responsibility for the            equitable distribution of natural resources.
 environment both to our own citizens and to the wider
 world. We undertake to intensify our efforts to protect     The drive to raise iivmg standards, alleviate poverty,
 andenhance the naturalenvironmentofthe Community             increase life expectancy and improve food security
 itself and the world of which it is part. We intend that     places a considerable burden on the world 's natural
 action by the Community and its Member States will be        resource base. The Community is conscious of the faa
 developedona coordinated basis and on the principles        that, along with other industrialised countries, its own
 of sustainable development and preventive and                340 million inhabitants currently consume a
 precautionary action... The objective of such action        disproportionate share of the world's resources. Per
 must be to guarantee citizens the right to a clean and       capita consumption of energy in the Community for
 healthy environment... The full achievement of this          example, although half that of the USA and Canada, is
 objective must be a shared responsibility. "                 over 1 0 times greater than that of many developing
                                                              countries. Achild born in the Community will consume
 Tho
 The Heads nf    ‘ttato anH
              of State  and c~/wpmmpnt
                            Government wpnt
                                       went nnon tr> act thp
                                                 to ask  the  over 20 times as much of natural resources over its
 Commission to take account of this approach in its           lifetime
                                                              ntetime asas aa child
                                                                               cnna born
                                                                                      Dorn in
                                                                                           in the
                                                                                              tne majority
                                                                                                  majority ofor developing
                                                                                                                developing
 preparation of the Fifth Action Programme on the             countriesfalthough still halfthatofan American child).
  Environment. This document is the response to that
  request and is designed to spell out a strategy and         Many of the measures foreseen in this Programme are
  programme for environmental action to the end of the        designed to reduce wasteful consumption of resources
  present century and beyond.                                 and to increase productivity within the Community. It
                                                              will nevertheless require great ingenuity and creativity
                                                              to service the additional needs of both the developed
  Developments
  Developments within              the Community
                           within the   Community -"K''                                                   “wS
  Withinthetime-frameofthisProgrammegreat changes              resource base. This will imply in some instances
  are envisaged. Development of the Internal Market in         profound changes in consumption patterns and
  Europe and the need to achieve economic and social           lifestyles,
  cohesion have major implications in relation to
  environment policy as indeed was recognised in
  the Single European Act : the increased economic Towards Sustainable Development
  growth expected will be unsustainable unless
  environmental considerations are taken into account,         All                                   socio-cultural,, either
                                                               Al I human activity, economic and socio-cultural
  not so much as a potential limiting factor, but rather as    prospers or
                                                               prospers    or founders
                                                                              founders on
                                                                                        on the
                                                                                            the quality
                                                                                                quality of
                                                                                                        of the
                                                                                                           the relationship
                                                                                                                relationship
  an incentive to greater efficiency and competitivity,        between
                                                               between society
                                                                           society and
                                                                                    and the
                                                                                        the natural
                                                                                             natural world
                                                                                                     world.. Development
                                                                                                              Development
  with particular reference to the wider international         'S "real" only if it improves the quality of life. The 1 987
   market-place                                                Report of the World Commission on Environment and
                                                               Development - generally referred to as the Brundtland
   At the same time, the Community is moving towards            Report-urgedthathumanactivityshouldfollowapath
   closer economic and monetary union and will probably        which sustains human activity progress for the entire         0
 ---pagebreak---    planet into the distant future. In this context sustainable a result of completion of the Internal Market and
   development was defined as "development which               political and economic developments in Central and
   meets the needs of the present without compromising         Eastern Europe and further afield call for even more
   the ability of future generations to meet their own         effective measures.
   needs". It entails preserving the overall balance and
   value of the natural capital stock, redefinition of short,  Institutional Developments
   medium and long-term cost/benefit evaluation criteria
   and instruments to reflect the real socio-economic
   effects and values of consumption and conservation ,        At institutional level , the extraordinary growth in publ ic
   and the equitable distribution and use of resources         awareness, scientific perception and political
   between nations and regions over the world as a             importance of environment issues was reflected in the
   whole. In the latter context, the Brundtland Report         Treaties by the insertion through the Single European
   pointed out that the developed countries, with only         Act, of a separate Chapter on the environment and the
   26 % of the world population, are responsible for           inclusion of a significant environment element in the
   about 80 % of world consumption of energy, steel and        key article relating to the completion of the internal
   other metals, and paper and about 40 % of the food .        market. These modifications provided, for the first
                                                               time, a statutory mandate, objectives and criteria for
   The following characteristics of sustainable                Community policy and action in the field of the
   development were identified :                               environment .
          - it maintains the overall quality of life;
          - it maintains continuing access to natural
            resources;                                         The new Treaty on European Union, which was signed
          - it avoids lasting environmental damage.            by al I the Member States on 7 February 1 992, contai ns
                                                               a number of provisions which will bring care for the
   In more prosaic terms it has been defined by the            environment into a new dimension :
   admonition : "Don't eat the seed corn which is needed
   to sow next year's crop". Such a definition is useful in          among the Principles, Article 2 refers to the
   injecting an important dose of realism into the debate            promotion of "a harmonious and balanced
   on sustainability. In practical terms, therefore, the             development of economic activities, sustainable
   concept of sustainability is ultimately linked very closely       and non-inflationary growth respecting the
   to a society's or region's prospects of continued                 environment
   development and success and, in the case of individual
   enterprises, even their profit and loss accounts.                 Article 3(k) provides that the activities of the
                                                                     Community shall include a policy in the sphere of
                                                                     theenvironment; Article 7 30r.2provides, inter alia ,
   Building on Solid Foundations                                     thatthispolicyshallaimat a high level of protection
                                                                     and that it shall be based on the precautionary
   It is important to bear in mind that in moving towards            principle;
   sustainable development the Community is not starting
   from zero. The strategy and programme set out in this             Article 130r,2 goes on to stipulate that
   document have been built on what has already been                 environmental protection requirements must be
   achieved both at the Community level and in the                   integrated into the definition and implementation
   Member States. The Community has had an                           of other Community policies;
   environment policy for almost twenty years, despite
   the fact that the environment was not mentioned in the            Article 3b attaches special value to the principle
   original Treaties. In that time, significant advances             of subsidiarity while Article A states the objective
   have been made in terms of both elaboration of an                 of having decisions taken as closely as possi ble to
   extensive legislative framework in the Member States              the citizens.
   and actual improvements in environmental protection
   and quality.                                                 Moreover Article 1 30s.5 addressesthe case of measures
                                                                involving disproportionate costs for the
   Since 1972 there have been four Community action             public authorities of a Member State. This article
    programmes01 on the environment which have given            reflects the need to take into account economic and
    rise toabout 200 piecesof legislation covering pollution    social cohesion in the formulation of environmental
   of the atmosphere, water and soi I , waste management,       policy. This need is also recalled in Article 130r.3
    safeguards in relation tochemicals and biotechnology,       according to which, in preparing its policy on the
    product standards, environmental impact assessments         environment, the Community shal I take account of the
    and protection of nature. Much has been achieved            economic and social development of the Community
   over this period but the current pace of change and the      as a whole and the balanced development of its
    additional pressures which are being or will be imposed     regions.
18
   on the environment and the natural resource stocks as
    01    OJ N°C 112 , 20.12.1973 - N° C 139, 13.6.1977 - N° C 46, 1 7.2.1983 - N° C 328, 7.12.1987
 ---pagebreak--- In addition, the agreed changes in the Community's          participation of all the main actors in society
decision-making procedures providing for majority           (administrations, enterprises, general public) through
voting by the Council of Ministers on most environment      a broadening and deepening of the instruments for
issues and the strengthening of the role of the European    control and behavioural change including, in particular,
Parliament in this sector through the co-decision           greater use of market forces.
procedure should improve the efficiency and the quality
of the legislative process in the future.
                                                            The Challenge of the 1990s
What is NEW about this Programme?                           The attainment of sustainable development calls for a
                                                            far-sighted, cohesive and effective approach. It will
In facing up to the environmental challenges in this        demand considerable political and practical
final decade of the millenium and in endeavouring to        commitment over an extended time-frame . The
move towards a sustainable development path it is           Community, as the largest economic/trading partner in
necessary to focus on the agents and activities which       a world where it is increasingly seen that growth has to
damage the environment and deplete the natural              be environmentally sustainable, must exercise its
resource stock rather than wait, as has been the tendency   responsibility to both present and future generations .
in the past, for problems to emerge. As previously          To this end it must put its own house in order and
stated, this will require significant changes in current    provide an example to developed and developing
patterns of human consumption and behaviour. These          countries alike in relation to the protection of public
objectives cannot be met by action at Community level       health and the environment and the sustainable use of
alone, but ratheron the basisofasharing ofresponsibility    natural resources .
at all levels of society including governments, regional
and local authorities, non-governmental organisations,      The Dublin Declaration states that "the environment is
financial institutions, production, distribution and retail dependent on our collective actions; tomorrow's
enterprises and individual citizens.                        environment depends on how we act today". There is
                                                            now a perceptible feeling throughout the Community
While it is appropriate that the strategy and programme     and further afield that many of the great environmental
should be prepared at Community level , since it is the     struggles will be won or lost during this decade; and
sole point at which all the required measures and           that by the next century it could be too late.
actions can be brought together, the practical
implementation thereof wi 1 1 fall to be carried out at the
appropriate levels in a complementary manner and in
accordance with the ability to act. The basic strategy      WE CANNOT AFFORD TO WAIT                           • •••
therefore is to achieve full integration ofenvironmental    AND BE WRONG !
and other relevant policies through the active
                                                                                                                     19
 ---pagebreak---          PART I
A Policy and Strategy for the
Environment and Sustainable
    Development within
 the European Community
                              21
 ---pagebreak---                                                    Chapter 1 :
      The State of the Environment: Progress and Prospects
A strategy for the future cannot be constructed without           Mediterranean Region, with severe outbreaks now
analysing what the present situation is and what has             occurring annually . Further pressure from
occurred in the past. In conjunction with the publication         recreational and associated second-home
of the 5th Programme, and underpinning its essential              development is giving rise to deterioration in
strategy, an up-dated Report on the State of the                  upland and mountain regions.
Environment is being published . Among the main
conclusions which can be drawn from that Report are               The Urban Environment : The difficulties in
the following:                                                    reconciling the need to meet the demands of
                                                                  modern commerce and transport with the desire
     Atmospheric Pollution : Some progress has been               to provide a good quality living environment are
     made in reducing emissions of sulphur dioxide                steadily growing with resulting congestion ,
     and suspended particulates, lead and CFCs, but               pollution, noise, deterioration of streets, public
     serious problems continue toexist or are emerging            places and architectural heritage and general loss
     as respects on one hand , a numberof "greenhouse*            of amenity.
     gases such as, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides,
     ozone and methane, and on the other hand, air                Waste Management : Despite Directives going
      quality problems, especially in urban areas.                back to 1 975 on waste in general , on toxic and
                                                                  hazardous wastes and on transfrontier shipment
      Aquatic Pollution : Some progress has been                  of wastes, management of the Community's
      achieved with point sources of inland water                 enormous waste stream is far from being under
      pollution , but this is being more than offset by           control . Recycling and reuse options have not
      increased pollution from non-point sources,                 been developed beyond the infancy stage in most
      notably agriculture. The quality of waters is under         areas. Deficiencies in waste handling arrangements
      threat and there is growing eutrophication of both           pose a threat not only to the environment but
      fresh waters and marine waters . The Directive on           cou Id have undesi rable i mpl i cations in the context
      groundwater is not achieving its objectives and                                               Market.
                                                                  of completion of the Internal Market,
      these resources are under growing threat from
      both overexploitation and pollution . In the case of
      marine waters, there have been reductions in Some Disquieting Trends
      pollution from certain organic wastes, heavy metals
      and radioactive discharges, but severe pressures       The Report on the State ofthe Environment also clearly
      persist, particularly in the Mediterranean Region,     indicates some trends which, if not satisfactorily
      the North Sea and the Baltic Sea .                     contained , could have significant negative
                                                             consequences for the quality of the environment as a
       Soil Degradation : The Directives on waste            whole. For example,
       management, on the use of sewage sludge in
       agriculture and on use of nitrates on land and        •     Energy: a 25% increase by 2010 if there is no
       certain aspectsofthe "Seveso* Directiveon major             change
                                                                   change inin current
                                                                                curre energy demand growth rates,
       accident hazards of certain industrial activities           resulting, in turn,
                                                                                 turn in a 20 % increase in EC carbon
       have made or will make relatively good                      emissions (reference year 1 987)
       contributions to the protection of soils. However,
       over-intensified use of land and excessive                  Transport : a 25% increase in car ownership and
       application of chemical fertilizers , pesticides and        a 17 % increase in mileage by 2000 (reference
       herbicides, and ground drainage and clearance               year 1 990);
       activities are causing deterioration of soils,
        including contamination , acidification ,                  Agriculture: a 63% increase in fertilizer use
        desertification and erosion, in many areas.                between 1970 and 1988 ;
        Nature Conservation : Despite the Directive on             Waste: a 13% increase in municipal waste over
       Wild Birds and the Conventions of Bonn and                  the last 5 years, despite increased recycling of
        Berne, the pressures on unique or endangered               paper, glass, plastics;
        biota and their habitats are increasing. Intensified
        agriculture is one of the most important causes of         Water, a 3 5% i ncrease in the Community's average
        reductions in biological diversity. Economic               water withdrawal rate between 1 970 and 1 985;
        developments and erosion are causing a steady
        deterioration of the coastal environment. Forest            Tourism : a 60% increase in Mediterranean tourism     23
        fires have devastated many parts of the                     projected by 2000 (reference year 1 990).
 ---pagebreak---   Need for a new impetus                                             not being fully implemented throughout the
                                                                     Community, many of the existing instruments are not
  The previous four Community action programmes and                  satisfactorily coping with current levels of
  the measures taken to implement them have had                      environmental degradation . Moreover, most of them
  considerable merit in formal or legal terms and have               have not been designed to meet the additional burden
  achieved certain environmental improvements in                     expected to emanate from the upsurge of economic
  objective terms. Furthermore, many of the actions                  activity followingon completion of the Internal Market
  decided upon to date still have some time to run before             and concomitant energy, transport and other demands,
  they show thei r fu 1 1 effects on the general state of the         and the changes which are occurring in Central and
  environment.                                                        Eastern Europe.
  Nevertheless, whether because they have not had                     The time has come for Community environmental
  sufficient time to show full results or because they are            policy to move into a new gear!
                                      FIGURE 1 : SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
                                                 Air quality management
                                                 Water resources management
                                                 Soil quality maintenance
                                                 Nature , landscape , conservation
                                                 Energy security and efficiency
                                                 Demographic management
                                                 ( incl . urban env., public health and safety)
                                                 Waste management
                                                          MANAGEMENT
                                                                                                  O*
                                                                  OF
             VALUATION
                    &                                      RESOURCES
                PRICING
                                                                I
                                            SUSTAINABLE
                                           DEVELOPMENT
                                                                                        \
             PRODUCTION                                                                            MOBILITY
            AND SERVICES                                                                        MANAGEMENT
                SECTORS
        Location (ind . EIA)                                                              Physical planning incl. EIA
                                                             INFORMATIOI'
       Operation licences (BAT)                                                           Infrastructure planning
                                                              EDUCATION
        Pollution controls ( IPC , info , audit)                                          incl. modal choice and EIA
                                                               TRAIN ING
        Environmental accounting                                                          Traffic management
        Technological development                                                         Vehicle pollution control
        Product policy
0       IndustriaJ waste management
 ---pagebreak---                              Chapter 2 : The Fifth Programme:
                     A New Strategy for the Environment and
                                      Sustainable Development
The overal I objective ofthe Community is the improved           themselves. The interdependence of the various policy
and continued welfare of all its citizens. Together with         areas, resources and sectors is depicted in Figure 1 over.
political , economic and monetary union the Internal
Market is designed to hold constituent Member States             In accordance with the European Council 's Declaration
and thei r peoples together and to motivate and provide          “The Environmental Imperative" the guiding principles
the framework for their socio-economic growth. The               for policy decisions under this Programme derive from
long-term success of the Internal Market will be                 the PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH and the concept
dependent upon the relative contributions of the                 of SHARED RESPONSIBILITY, including effective
industrial , energy, regional development and                    implementation of the "Polluter Pays Principle".
agricultural policies and the ability of the transport
policy literally to deliver the goods. All ofthese policies
are interdependent; the ultimate limiting factor for
continued efficiency and growth as they interface with           This Programme continues to address major
one another is the tolerance level of the natural                 environmental issues such as climate change,
environment.                                                      acidification, water pollution , soil degradation and
                                                                  erosion, waste management, etc. However, rather
 Behind the strategy set out in this Programme is the             than be directed solely at these issues, the strategy of
 ultimate aim of transforming the patterns of growth in           the Programme is to create a new interplay between
 the Community in such a way as to reach a sustainable            the main groups of ACTORS (government, enterprise,
 development path. Among other things this implies                public) and the principal ECONOMIC SECTORS
 that                                                             (industry, energy, transport, agriculture and tourism)
        it be recognized that continued human activity            through the use of an extended, and integrated, range
        and further economic and social development               of INSTRUMENTS . This can best be done efficiently
        depend on the quality of the environment and its          within the Community framework. Without an overall
        natural resources and on their satisfactory                Community framework within which all these activities
        guardianship;                                              can be integrated and coordinated there is a danger
        since the reservoir of raw materials is finite, the       that the actions carried out by individual Member
        flow of substances through the various stages of           States or regions, or by other actors will not have their
         processing, consumption and use should be so              full impact, or that the integrity of Community
         managed as to facilitate or encourage optimum             achievements or actions in other policy areas, notably
         reuse and recycling, thereby avoiding wastage             the Internal Market, could be called into question.
         and preventing depletion of the natural resource
         stock;                                                    For each of the main issues, long-term objectives are
         the behavioural trends of citizens within the             given as an indication of the sense of direaion orthrust
         Community should reflea an appreciation that              to be applied in the pursuit of sustainable development,
         natural resources are finite and that one individual 's   certain performance targets are indicated for the period
         consumption or use ofthese resources must not be           up to the year 2000 and a representative seleaion of
          at the expense of another's; and that neither             actions is prescribed with a view to achieving the said
          should one generation's consumption be at the            targets. These objeaives and targets do not constitute
          expense of those following.                               legal commitments but, rather, performance levels or
                                                                    achievements to be aimed at now in the interests of
  The implementation of such a strategy of sustainable              attaining a sustainable development path . Neither
  development will require a considerable change in                 should all the aaions indicated require legislation at
   almost all major policy areas in which the Community             Community or national level .
   is involved . It requires that environmental proteaion
   requirements be integrated into the definition and               Sustainable development is a goal which will not be
   implementation of other Community policies, not just             achieved over this Programme alone, but if effeaively
   for the sake of the environment , but also for the sake           implemented, the Programme should mark a significant
   of the continued efficiency of the other policy areas            step on the way towards it
                                                                                                                             25
 ---pagebreak---                                           Chapter 3 : The Actors
   Up to now, Community action programmes on the environment have largely been based on legislation and
   controls involving government and manufacturing industry. The concept of shared responsibi lity requires a much
   more broadly-based and active involvement of all economic players including public authorities, public and
   private enterprise in all its forms, and, above all , the general public, both as citizens and consumers. The ultimate
   objective in the involvement of and interplay between these economic players (and in the employment of a
   broader range of instruments which will include, in particular, market-related incentives) is to strike a new
   balance between the short-term benefit of individual persons, companies and administrations and the longer-
   term benefits of society as a whole. The principle of subsidiarity and the concept of shared responsibility, which
   will be applied in the endeavour to strike this new balance, are discussed in Chapter 8 below.
                                               3.1 Public Authorities
   The r6le of government is a determinant not only in                  accordingly, are particularly well placed to
   relation to legislation. It is equally important in                  influence the location, type and impact of physical
   economic planning and in setting conditions for                      development;
   economic development, land use management,
   accessibility of information, education and training,                Control of Industrial pollution : through
   market influence through taxation pol icies on products              responsible use of planning permissions, emission,
   (e.g. tobacco and fuels), etc Further, while there are               discharge and operating licenses , clean
   substantial differencies in the system of public                     technologies, right of access to environmental
   administrations in the Community, in most member                     information etc;
   states the public authorities also act as operators of
   public enterprises, such as road networks, railways,                 Waste management : strict application of the
   airports, and the electricity production sector. In the              recognised ranking order in waste management -
   general endeavour to achieve sustainable development,                prevention , re-use and recycling, combustion as
   Governments have parti cu larly onerous responsi bi I ities          fuel , disposal by incineration and landfill - would
   both in respect of state owned and controlled activities             serve both to reduce waste disposal problems and
   and also in creating the necessary framework and                     to save energy and raw materials.
   conditions, in providing incentives and in removing
   obstacles so as to enable the individual and private                 Transport: transport and traffic plans should be
   enterprise to play their respective roles.                           fully integrated into the overall planning process;
   Local and regional authorities have a particularly                   Public information, education and training : local
   important part to play in ensuring the sustainability of             and regional authorities, on the basis of existing
   development through the exercise of their statutory                  Community legislation on public access to
   functions as "competent authorities" for many of the                 environmental information , can facilitate greater
   existing Directives and Regulations and in the context               public involvement in environmental protection
   of practical application of the principle of subsidiarity.           and in the improvement of public confidence;
   Some fields where local and regional authorities can                 those which have direct responsibilities in the
   play a decisive role are :                                           field of education have particular opportunities
                                                                        and responsibilities in respect of public awareness
         Spatial planning: application of sound planning                and behaviour;
         principles so as to safeguard areas of value,
         including nature reserves and landscapes, to                   Internal auditing: administrations need tocritically
         improve urban fabric and circulation, and to                   analyse their own operations, e.g. pubiicservic.es,
         optimise energy and transport efficiency;                      siting of offices, purchasing policies, choice of
                                                                        vehicles and equipment, energy conservation ,
         Economic development: most authorities have                    environmental auditing and communication of
         some function in stimulating economic                          information to the public.
         development in their areas. An appropriate degree
         of prudence can ensure sustainable use of the             Where applicable, Central Government should appiy
         resources necessary for that economic                     the above principles and measu res to their own
         development to take place and to prosper;                 administrations and decisions 'e.g . planning ,
                                                                   information, education , training, internal auditing).
         Infrastructural development: local and regional           Finally, it will be imperative to commit the necessary
         authorities are primarily responsible for the             resources at central , regional and local levels to ensure
         planning, provision and management of roads ,             practical implementation .
26       water supplies, waste water treatment etc. and,
 ---pagebreak---                                     3.2 Public and Private Enterprise
Dependingon their nature, virtually all enterprises use      expected to participate in the effort to move towards
natural resources for their processes and products,          sustainability. The instruments to be developed and
create various types and quantities of waste, and            put in place will be designed to generate the broadest
contribute to the pollution of air, water and soil . In      possible response.
limited cases only have the long term costs of these
resources and of the pol I ution so far been i nterna I ized A comprehensive policy relating to consumer products
in the costs of operating a plant or in the price of the     will be important if market mechanisms are to help
final product or service. It is clear that the perpetuation  change human behaviour towards the environment. In
of this situation is not viable on either economic or        particular, it is essential that enterprises become more
environmental grounds. There is a growing awareness          conscious of the extent to which their products and
that industry's own interest is at stake : increasing        packaging become waste, and that they accept
demand for clean technologies and products will              responsibility for such waste . The proposed
create new market opportunities, with particular             Community-wide eco-label should encourage industry
advantages for innovational companies; industry also         to design and manufacture products which have
sees the advantages in terms of savings on resources         reduced environmental impacts. Policies should be
and energy, where environmental considerations are           developed in a way which will also serve to facilitate
integrated into management policy. Nevertheless it           consumers in making informed choices on the basisof
remains for the Community and the Member States to           safety, quality, durability and general environmental
determine the framework and conditionsfor sustainable        implications. In this context the retail sector will have
development.                                                 to take up its part of the responsibility.
 In this Programme five areas of activity are singled out    Financial institutions       which assume the risk of
as target sectors. These sectors represent a large share     companies and plants can exercise considerable
of the overall economic activity; their co-operation         influence - in some cases, control - over investment
and attitude is vital to paving the way towards              and management decisions which could be brought
sustainability. Notwithstanding the choice of certain        into play to the benefit of the environment.
 key sectors, it should be clear that all enterprise will be
                                             3.3 The General Public
 Each member of the general public has a number of           With respect to the choice of products and services,
 crucial roles to play :                                     certain practical obstacles will have to be overcome :
                                                             the more ecological friendly product may not be
       as an individual who may be concerned about the       available where one normally does the shopping, or,
       qualityofthegeneral environment, personal health      if available, the price may be higher than the more
       and the quality of life of succeeding generations,     polluting ones. (It is clear from the example on the
       and as a responsible citizen having the possibility   differential pricing of unleaded and leaded fuel that, if
       of influencing policies and decisions;                the price is attractive, the consumer has incentive to
                                                              make a choice in favour of the environment). And, in
       as a direct producer of pollution and waste within    order to gain and retain the confidence of consumers,
       the home, as an employer or employee, as a             environmental claims must be well founded and be
       commuter and in the pursuit of leisure interests;      accompanied by neutral information regarding the
                                                              characteristics of products.
       as a consumer of goods and services, since the
       causesof and sol utions to envi ronmenta ! problems    The active involvement and participation of non¬
        are often a function of consumer choice .             governmental organisations ( NCOs), both environment
                                                              and consumer oriented, as well as trades unions and
  Before the individual can playhis/her full potential role   professional associations will be crucial to the general
  in practice, a number of conditions have to be met :        process of awareness-bui Idi ng, to the representation of
  good knowledge and information is essential to relate       public interest and concern, and to the motivation and
  an individual 's activitiesto environmental pollution or    engagement of the members of the general public
  protection as the case may be; awareness campaigns          themselves.
  will be needed to remedy this situation. Good intentions
  will not produce the desired results unless alternatives
  exist, forexample, separate col lections ofwaste, reliable
  public transport systems, etc.
                                                                                                                        27
 ---pagebreak---                              Chapter 4 : Selected Target Sectors
  As indicated in the Chapter on ACTORS above (see Public and Private Enterprise) five targe: sectors are selected
  for special attention under this Programme. These sectors have been chosen because they are sectors where the
  Community as such has a unique role to play and where a Community approach is the most efficient way to tackle
  in an overall way the problems these sectors face. They are also chosen because of the particularly significant
  impacts that they have or could have on the environment as a whole and because , by their nature, they have
  crucial rbles to play in the attempt to achieve sustainable development. These factors are more fully dealt with
  in Chapter 5 and in the material which follows immediately below on the target sectors themselves.
                                         4.1 Manufacturing Industry
  The industrial sector accounts for approximately 25%       competitive it isessential to view environmental quality
  of the Community's wealth and industrialization is a       and economic growth as mutually dependent. For
  key element of development strategy both within the        industry, a soundly based, comprehensive environment
  Community and at wider international level . But in its    policy can contribute to optimisation of resource
  exploitation of natural resources, consumption of          management , public confidence building and
  energy, production processes and generation of both        development of market opportunities. Many of the
  pollution and wastes, the industrial sector is among the   new clean and low-waste technologies not only reduce
  principal causesofenvironmental deterioration . Insofar    pollution substantially, but economize on the
  as the environmental consequencesofindustrial activity     consumption of raw materials and energy to such
  may exceed the tolerance level of the natural resource     extent that cost savings can more than offset initial ,
  base it can limit or block further industrial development  higher, investment costs and thereby reduce unit
  in a locality or region .                                  production costs. A case in point is represented in the
                                                             development and use of new techniques in the field of
  One of the primary goalsof the Community's industrial      genetic engineering and biotechnology : these offer
  policy is to create the framework and conditions for a     considerable potential for useful applications in
  strong, innovative and competitive industrial sector       agriculture , food processing , chemicals and
  thereby ensuring the competitivity and sustainability      pharmaceuticals, environmental clean-up and the
  of Europe's industries in the global market-place. It is   development of new material and energy sources. In
  not in the overal I interest of the Community to sacrifice recognition of the importance of this particular sector,
  long-term economic and social rewards for the sake of      the Commission published a Communication in 1 991
  short-term financial gains.                                promoting a competitive environment for industrial
                                                             activities based on biotechnology within the
  Previous environment measures have tended to be            Community01 .
  proscriptive in character, with an emphasis on the
  "thou shall not* rather than the "let's work together"     The combination of an advanced technological society
  approach. As a consequence, there has been a tendency      with a vigorous, creative and adaptive manufacturing
  to view industrialization or economic development          base which lies at the coreofthe European Community's
  and environmental concern as being mutually hostile.       economic well-being and underpins its political
  Against the background of deepening concern for the        stability, can bring about better distribution, better
  environment and natural resources, and realisation of      communications, greater personal choices and should
  the negative economic effects of environmental             ultimately guarantee better health and an improved
  degradation, it is now clear that envi ronmental ly sound  quality of life.
  industry is no longer a matter of luxury but rather a
  matter of necessity. It isequally clear that many sectors  Under this Programme the dual approach of high
  of industry are themselves becoming more appreciative      environmental standards combined with positive
  of their relationship with and responsibility for the      incentives to even better performance should be
  environment and the natural resource base. One of the      applied in a coordinated manner to the different points
  key messages of this Programme is that in the field of     in the research-process-production-marketing-use-
  environment, industry must not only be part of the         disposal chain where industry, and industrial products,
  problem but also part of the solution.                     may impact upon the Community's environmental
                                                             resource base. For successful translation of this sequence
   In order to ensure that optimum conditions exist for      into a sustainable one, the environment has to be part
  continued economic growth within the Community             of education and vocational training for all the actors
  and that Community industry can identify the necessary     involved in the chain, with special emphasis on
   long-term strategies to remain economically               researchers and production engineers.
Θ
  n»    (SEC(91)629),1 9.4.1 991
 ---pagebreak--- A new sense of direction and thrust will be given to the     Figures 2a anc/2boverleaf indicate how manufacturing
environment/industrial policy interface by the institution   industrywill berequiredorencouragedbytwodifferent,
ofa comprehensive, integrated "package" of measures,         but complementary forces to move towards
including existing provisions, comprising the following      environmentally-responsible production processes and
elements :                                                   products.
                                                             Figure 2a shows how various legislatively-based rules,
*    a strengthening of the dialogue with industry;          standardsand procedures will be applied to thedifferent
                                                             stages of the authorisation - production - appraisal
*    improvement of physical and strategic planning          chain so as to create a self-perpetuating inducement to
     including assessment of environmental                   progressively apply ever-improving standards,
     implications of plans and programmes;                   Figure 2b has consumer awareness and choice as its
                                                             central strength . The cycle is market-driven , self-
*    improved management and control of production           regulatory and self-perpetuating. As indicated it would
     processes including a system of licensing linked        serve not only the private consumer but also other
     to integrated pollution prevention and control ,        companies wishing to gain or enhance their own eco-
     environmenta ! auditing, effective environment           rating. Thepotentialeffectivenessofthismodeldepends
     valuation and accounting, useof best available          ontheavailabilityofchoiceandofobjectiveappraisal
     technology, and introduction of market-based             and information,
     pricing systems for consumption and use of
     natural resources. In setting standards and              In consideringthis package to ensure the sustainability
     conditions, due accountwill be taken of the lead-        of the industrial sector and to provide for continued
     time needed to facilitate investment decisions;          industrial and economicgrowth, special consideration
                                                              will be given to the position of small and medium
 *    higher, more reliable product standards designed        enterprises and the matter of international
     to ensure that the environmental impact of products      competitiveness.
      during their whole life cycle is minimised using,
      interalia,aCommunity-wideecological labelling           Small and Medium Enterprises
      system.;.;
      System                                                  In relation to small and medium enterprises
                                                              discrimination in respect of the measures outlined may
 *    encouragement ofvoluntary agreements and other          not be either desirable or necessary on the grounds,
      forms of self-regulation;                               inter alia, that
 *    effective waste management ideally should                     pollution isnotthe prerogative of large installations;
      commence with the control of production                       in aggregate, small plants also cause their share of
      processes; in this respect it is to be expected that          pollution and waste;
      the package of measures indicated for the
      production aspects will have a significant impact             many survive on the demand created by large
      on both quantities and types of waste generated;              firms which will be obliged to tighten up their
      other elements in the strategy will include                   processes and meet the overall criteria of the
       reclamation of waste products by original                    ecological labelling system;
       producers or importers (which would also improve
       waste handling), continued research intorecycling             in competition for investment finances, small and
       and reuse technology, with pilot projects in these            medium enterprises cannot afford to be at a
       areas; and norms for industrial waste incinerators           disadvantage vis-S-vis their larger rivals.
       and iandfill sites todeal with threats posed by final
       disposal
       disposal ofwastes;
                  of wastes;                                   Neverthelessasfaraspossibleaspecialeffortwillneed
                                                               to be made to avoid disproportionately burdensome
   *   finally, it is essential that the general public and administrative, financial or legal constraints which
       the
       the social
           social Dartners
                    partners are
                              are enabled
                                  enabled to
                                           to become
                                              become more
                                                       more    might
                                                               might impede    the creationor
                                                                       impedetne   creationor development
                                                                                               development of or SMEs.
                                                                                                                 oMts. As
                                                                                                                        AS
       actively involved in the development and practical far as ongoing control measures are concerned, for
       implementation of policy : this means that example, it may be possible in appropriate instancesto
       individuals be given all the relevant information       provide for some variations in the timeframes for
       necessary to enable them to exercise informed           adaptation or implementation (subjectto normal Treaty
       choices as consumers; they must also have access        requirements). In other cases, it may be possible to
       toenvironmental ly relevant data (e.g. inventory of      provide direct practical assistance, including provision
        émissions, environmental audits, disclosure of ofexpert services, training programmes, etc. However,
        environmental issues in the accounts ofenterprises) it should be borne in mind that their very size generally
        to enable them to monitor the performance of givesSMEsagreaterlevelofflexibilityandadaptability;
        industryand regulations alike.                          adherence to the state ofthe art would, in many cases,
                                                                give them an edge in highly competitive markets or,        29
                                                                indeed, open new markets.
 ---pagebreak---   FIGURE 2a : Regulatory Process to Promote Environmentally - friendly and Competitive Industry
                                                       Operating Conditions
                                                                (ind. BAT)
                                                             Emissions Limits
                                                                                                        Public Authorities
                                                         Tradeable Permits
                                                                                                       General Public
             Public Authorities
               General Public
                                                                                                       (consultations)/
            ^ <EIA>            í   LOCATION
                                                               RENEWABLE
                                                               OPERATING
               Structural Planning
                                                                   LICENCE
                Physical Planning
                                                                                                  PRODUCTION
                          PERFORMANCE
                                                                                                   PROCESSES
                            APPRAISAL
                                                                                                     Integrated Pollution Control
               Env. Audit
                                                                                                     Inventory of emissions ,
               Inventory of emissions                                                                discharges and wastes
                                                               PRODUCTS
               discharges and wastes
               Tradeable Permits                          Product Standards
                                                         Ecological Labelling
                                                                 Packaging
                  Managemem
              Investors                                                                                 Management
                                                                                                        Public Authorities
        Financiers , Insurers L
       |>^ Public Authorities «
                   General /
                    Public /                                     Standards-
                                                                 Institutes
                                                                 Consumers
                                                   J * vv* , n    /•'VKT-T
   FIGURE 2b:The Potential of Consumer Power to Promote Ecologically-Sound Manufacturing
                   Processes and Products
                         Production                                                       Environmental
                         Process                                                          Audit
                         Product                                                          Ecological
                                                                                          Label
          c
          O
      c 4 3
      OT E                                  Consumer Awareness
     •§ 2                                        and Cholce
      ©   ©
     tr ce
                         Company Image                                           Inventory of emissions ,
                         Market Share                                           discharges
                                                                                 and wastes
                         Liability Rating      Tu»
                                                                              i :Public Listing of
                                                                                "Clean" / " Dirty"
                                                                                 Companies
                                                                              L
Θ
 ---pagebreak--- International Competitiveness                                Turning environmental concern into competitive
On the question of international competitiveness, the        advantage is one of the objectives of 'Towards
perceived conflict between environmental protection          Sustainability". By aiming at reduction and elimination
and economic competitiveness stems from a narrow             of pollution and at prevention, recycling and reuse of
view of the sources of prosperity and a static view of       waste rather than just abatement or clean-up and by
competition . Rather than reduce competitive                 creating a broader mixof instruments, including market
advantage, stringent environmental requirements can          incentives, thereby avoiding constraints on the
actually enhance it by triggering upgrading and              technologies used to achieve higher standards,
innovation . Those countries which have the most             environment policy can stimulate investment,
rigorous requirements mostly lead in exports of the          innovation and competitiveness rather than stifle them.
affected products and technologies . With particular
reference to the issue of global competitiveness, the        In mid-1992 the Commission will submit a
decision by Japan 's Ministry of International Trade and     comprehensive Communication to the Council of
Industry (MITI ) to launch an action programme for the       Ministers on industrial competitiveness and protection
21st Century entitled 'The new Earth 21 " requires a         of the environment which will further develop this
firm response from the Community if our competitive          theme and propose areas for action in the industrial
position in the global market-place is to be maintained.     field .
                                             4.2 The Energy Sector
The Community's energy sector continues to be                there is a breakthrough in the development and
 confronted with local and regional environmental             penetration of alternative energy technologies such as
 problems such as acidification . In addition , concerns      renewables (biomass, solar, wind etc.). The high
 about the global aspects of energy policy and their         efficiency scenario will require a dramatic change in
 effects on the environment are growing in importance.        attitudes to energy use and would force industrialized
 A long-term strategy must be devised which ensures           countries to achieve even higher efficiency gains than
 that solutions for one problem do not exacerbate             during the period 1 975-85.
 another. The global challenge of the future will be to
 ensure that economic growth, efficient and secure            Global energy and environmental improvements can
 energy suppl ies and a clean environment are compatible      only be realized if major improvements are also
 objectives. Energy policy, therefore, will be a key          achieved in the developing countries and in Central
 factor in the achievement of sustainable development.        and Eastern Europe . A critical issue in this context isthe
                                                              need to transfer finance, technology and know-how to
  Recent UN projections relating to the world population      those countries to hel p them to control the evol ution i n
 are that it will rise from 5 billion people in 1990          their energy demand whilst safeguarding their right to
 towards 10 billion in 2050. Consequential energy             sustainable development . The Community has
  projections indicate that energy demand will increase       already indicated its commitment in these areas in
  from around 9 billion tons of oil equivalent (toe) in       the conclusions of the Council of               Ministers
  1990 towards 20 billion toe in 2050 under a                 ( Environment) of 12 December 1991 relating to the
  conventional wisdom scenario or towards 13 billion           United Nations' Conference on Environment and
  toe under a high energy efficiency scenario.                 Development The European Energy Charter which
                                                              expresses interdependence in the energy field and
  Even though there will be regional adjustments of the        awareness of the shared responsibility for supply and
  energy shares'1 ’, these developments will still have a      for the environment, can also make an important
  quite drastic impact on the environment at large. In         contribution. The countries of Central and Eastern
   both energy scenarios the projected use of coal will        Europe would obtain the assistance they need for
   result in considerably increased emissions of               economic recovery and for obtaining energy supplies
   greenhouse gases, in particular C02. The lower level        under conditions allowing a cleaner environment, a
   (1 3 billion toe) would result in a 60% increase of C02     better balance between different energy sources, and
   emissions on global level .                                 a more efficient use of energy.
   The projected future energy growth based on the             On the EC level , the Commission in 1990 presented
   conventional wisdom scenario would create                   four scenarios identifying the range of influences at
   considerable stresses for security of energy supply.        work which could affect thedirectionofenergy demand
   These would be particularly severe in those developing      and supply over the longer term®. Of these four
   countries which do not have indigenous energy               scenarios, the two most contrasting paths along which
    resourcesand the aim would probably be unachievable        our energy future may develop are of immediate
    uniess there is a different approach to nuclear power,      importance for strategy formulation: a conventional
    to greater use of waste related energy sources or unless    wisdom scenario and a high prices scenario. These
                                                                                                                          31
    m The developing countries will account for 46%, the currently developed world 1 6% (41 .6% in 1 990) and
         the Central ancl Eastern European countries 1 1 % (24% in 1 990).
    ® Energy in Europe, Energy for a new century: the European perspective, July 1990
 ---pagebreak---    scenarios do not yet take account of the unification of     Themes and the Targets of this Programme. Therefore
   Germany. For a number of reasons induding this, the         even greater efforts are required to reduce emissions to
   scenarios are at present being updated . The results of     sustainable levels. In the casefo NOx, some additional
   this revision will be available by mid-1992 .               reductions can be realized in the power generating
                                                               sector and manufacturing industry; considerably greater
                                                               reductions could be achieved in the transport sector,
      Explanation of Scenarios and their implications          mainly through structural and behavioural changes.
      Scenario 1 , otherwise referred to as the "business      For S02 the greatest scope for reductions on present
      as usual * scenario with low economic growth and         levels lies in the power generating sector (where
      no new major environmental and energy policy             certain regulatory measures are already in force, but
      initiatives.                                             not yet fully implemented) and in the manufacturing
                                                               industry sector.
      Scenario 4, otherwise referred to as the "high
      prices" scenario with same growth as under               The achievement of practical results in the field of
      scenario 1 , but with rapid increase of energy           energy requires a strategic perspective wel I beyond the
      efficiency, a significant increase in nuclear power,     year 2000. The key elements of any strategy for the
      gas-fired plants replacing coal-fired units plus an      short-to-medium term would be an improvement in
       increased energy price to consumers through for         energy efficiency and the development of strategic
      example, an energy/carbon tax.                           technology programmes, including R & D, moving
                                                               towards a less carbon-intensive energy structure
      On the basis of these scenarios, the estimates for       including, in particular, renewable energy options.
      total EC-12 energy consumption ( in million toe)         These elements have already been the subject of a
       and emissions into the air ( in million tons) in 201 0  Communication from the Commission to the Council
      would be;                                                in November 1 989 "Environment and Energy"01. The
                                                               Commission in another Communication "A Community
                                                               Strategy to limit Carbon Dioxide emission and to
                              TABLE 1                          improve energy efficiency"® has made a number of
                                                               proposals which have received the general support of
                      Consumption      CO,       SO,    NOx
                                                               the Council . Among the measures envisaged within an
       1990              1148.33     2738       1223    10.38  overall strategy are the introduction of economic
                                                               instruments, which would require that the real costs of
       2010
       Scenario 1
                         1376.59     314325      6.56   7.85
                                                               consuming energy are passed on to the user
       (conv.wisd .)                                           ( for example through a CO/energy tax); better
                                                               information, education and training for end-users;
       2010
       Scenario 4
                         975.59      2098.37     4.32   4.35
                                                               agreements with industry relating to codes of conduct
       (high prices)                                           (at EC level, codes of conduct have already been
                                                               concluded in the electricity, coal , oil and natural gas
       On the bases of the predictions offered, only           sectors) and improvement of efficiency ; energy
       Scenario 4 or a simi lar one would meet the agreed      efficiency standards for all kind of products and
       COj stabilization target for 2000 by reference to       appliances, energy saving programmes and building
        1 990 levels and could achieve further reductions       insulation standards (in conformity with the already
       of the order of 25% by the year 201 0 on the basis      adopted SAVE and PACE Programmes); further study
       of present day knowledge and anticipated                on the environmental aspects of nuclear energy;new
       technology, and considerable structural and             energy technologies and the promotion thereof (on the
       behavioural changes.                                     basis of the THERMIE and JOULE Programmes) and
                                                                further promotion of use of renewable energy (as has
    SO, emissions have been i n ded ine sinee the beginni ng    been proposed in the ALTENER Programme).
    of the eighties and will continue to fall substantially in
    the future as a consequence ofCommunity and national        The task for the future is to vigorously implement the
    environmental legislation , energy efficiency               programmes mentioned and, where necessary, to
    improvements and the use of cleaner fuels. NOx              review, intensify and enlarge them.
    emissions will also be reduced up to the year 2010,
    though, less drastically than S02 emissions. However,        Table 2 sets out the measures necessary up to the year
    even these reduced SO., and NOx emissions are               2000, the instruments needed to be developed as from
    expected to cause environmental problems in many            1 993 , and the actors involved, in order to make the first
    areas of the Community on national , regional and           important steps to the achievement of a sustainable
    urban levels by exceeding critical acidification loads      energy policy.
    as shown under paragraph 5.2 of the Chapter on the
32
    01     COM (89) 369 of 8 February 1 990
    ®      SEC (91 ) 1 744 final of 1 4 October 1991 .
 ---pagebreak---                                                     Table 2 : ENERGY
    MEASURES UP TO 2000                                INSTRUMENTS                            TIME-FRAME            ACTORS
  awareness building and incen¬   * information to , education and training of end-users      1993 onwards    MS + EC + public +
  tives aimed at sustainable en ¬                                                                                 Energy sector
  ergy use and behavioural        * agreements with industry on efficiency                       ongoing         MS + Ind + EC
  changes                         ' codes of conduct to be adopted by the actors concerned       ongoing     Energy sector + MS +
                                                                                                                    Ind + EC
                                  * économie and fiscal instruments                              ongoing            EC + MS
                                  * removal of restrictive rules                               1993 onwards         MS + EC
  energy efficiency programmes    Implementation of PACE , SAVE and national efficiency          ongoing         EC + MS + Ind +
                                  Programmes , including :                                                        Energy sector
                                  * least cost planning                                                        Ind + Energy sector
                                  * energy efficiency standards for appliances , products                        EC + MS -rind +
                                     and vehicles                                                                Transport sector
                                  * efficiency standards for energy technology                                       EC + Ind
                                  ' buildings insulation standards                                                MS + Ind + EC
                                  * minimization of methane leakages from natural gas                          MS + Energy sector
                                     distnbution systems
  technology programmes           Implementation of THERMIE and JOULE Programmes ,               ongoing         EC + MS + Ind +
                                  including :                                                                     Energy sector
                                  * RAD of new energy technologies and promotion and                                    Kj
                                     use thereof
                                  * RSD on renewables (i.e. biomass )                                                   id
  promoticnal programme           ALTENER : promotion of renewable energy                      1993 onwards             id
                                  * Pilot projects and standardisation
  nuclear safety programmes       Study on safety and waste aspects of nuclear energy            ongoing        EC + MS + Energy
                                                                                                                      sector
                                              4.3 The Transport Sector
Transport is vital to both our economic and social well ¬            symptomatic for the transport market and has already
being. It is essential to the production and distribution            led in many areas to a form of rationing by congestion.
of goods and services, as well as to trade and regional
development. Transport has made a major contribution                 Present trends in road and air transport are all leading
to economic growth in the Community. It has enabled                  towards even greater inefficiency , congestion,
the achievement of important economies of scale in                   pollution, wastage of time and value, damage to health,
production and led to increased competition . In the                 danger to life and general economic loss. Physical
Community, the transport sector accounts for                         constraints - mainly environmental constraints- are
approximately 10% of the Cross Domestic Product                      such that it will not be possible in the future as it was
and represents 9% ofemployment (these figures include                in the past, to base transport policy on the demand side
transport for own account of both goods and persons                  of the equation.
as well as the production of transport means and
creation and maintenance of infrastructure).               Since     Transport is never environmentally neutral , since all
 1 970 the overall annual growth in inland transport has             modes of transport have varying degrees of impact on
 averaged 3,1% for passengers and 2,3% for goods.                    the environment. Emissions of transport - primarily
 Both in absolute and relative terms the increase in road            road and air traffic - represent a very high share of the
transport has been much higher than for the other                    overall emissions : about 90% of all lead emissions,
 inland transport modes. Since 1 980 the increase in air             about 50% of all NOx emissions and about 30% of all
 passenger transport has averaged 6,2% per annum.                    VOC emissions. In urban areas, traffic causes almost
                                                                      100 % of the CO emissions, 60% of HC and NOx
 Despite the crucial importanceof the sector, asituation             emissions, 50% of particulate emissions, and about
 has been allowed to evolve in many parts of the                      1 0% of S02 emissions. Transport emits 22% of all C03
 Community, especially in the largerurban and industrial             emissions. Of this, 80% emissions arise from road
 areas and along many of the principal traffic arteries,             transport and more than 55% for the private car alone.
 wherein imbalances in terms of disproportionate                      Furthermore, the transport sector - in particular, road
 mobility by road, excessive traffic and congestion ,                 and air traffic - is reckoned to be the biggest contributer
 uncoordinated infrastructure planning as well as                    to the problem of noise.
                                                                                                                                   33
 inefficient use of existing transport capacity are
 ---pagebreak---   Recent EC legislation on exhaust emissions of cars and                        improvement of competitive position of
  trucks will result in a substantial reduction of pollution                    environment- friendly modes, such as railways,
  by individual vehicles. However because of the                                inland and sea navigation and combined transport;
  projected increases in the volume of cars used, the
  mileages driven and increases of road freight traffic,                        development of urban transport, which gives
  the transport sector's share in overall emissions will                        priority to collective transport and to adequate
  increase from 22 to 24% of C02, from 4 to 1 2% of S02                         link-up between the different stages of journeys;
  and from 58 to 59% of NOx and thereby will offset any
  potential reductions attributable to the introduction of                      continued technical improvement of vehicles and
  the new emission standards.                                                   fuels;
  Transport demand and traffic are expected to increase                   *     promotion of more environmentally rational use
  significantlywith the completion ofthe Internal Market,                       of the private car, and changes in driving rules and
  the political and economic developments in Central                            habits, including speed limits.
  and Eastern Europe and the development of the
  European Economic Area . The efficacity and                             Implementation will be a matter for all levels of
  sustainability of transport policy itself in the future will            admi nistration and society, right down to the individual
  be in direct proportion to the quality ofthe relationship               car owner - a true sharing of responsibilities. But
  between transport and the environment. It will be                       effective results will ultimately depend on the
  essential to pursue a strategy aimed at reducing - or at                complementarity of measures and efforts. For instance,
  very least containing - the overall impact of transport                 private driving habits are largely a function of effective
  on the environment .                                                    choice which is dependent upon the availability of
                                                                          alternative modes of transport, the quality of
  In particular it wil I be necessary to reduce operational               infrastructure, the cost of parking etc. Information and
  pollution , limit the impact of infrastructural                         education programmes alone will achieve relatively
  development on land use" 1 , reduce traffic and                         little if the effective choice is restricted. Likewise,
  congestion (especially in urban areas) and prevent or                   professional road hauliers will have little option but to
  reduce risks inherent in the transport of dangerous                     continue to use the road system so long as the location,
  goods and wastes. The Commission has recently                           delivery times and condition of cargoes cannot be
  published a Communication on transport and the                          guaranteed by other modes of transport. In this
  environment® _                            , which, inter alia,          connection, the rai Iway system will only play afull rC>le
  proposes a strategy for "sustainable mobi lity" involving               in the servicing of the Internal Market, if a satisfactorily
  a combination of :                                                      coherent Community-wide network can be created
                                                                          between the various national or semi-state railway
  *    improved land-use/economic development                             companies and if there is some form of integrated
       planning at local , regional , national and trans¬                 logging and tracking system where goods, materials
       national levels, to reduce the need for mobility                   and waste cargoes are concerned . Optimisation of
       and allow for the development of alternatives to                   transport modes and infrastructure facilities, networks
       road transport;                                                    and investments can serve private, corporate, national
                                                                          economic, Internal Market and environmental
  *     improved coordination in the planning of and                      protection interests side-by-side.
       investment in transport infrastructure networks
       and facilities; incorporation of the real costs of
       both i nfrastructure and envi ronment in i nvestment                Table 3 givesan indication of measures and instruments
       policies and decisions and in user costs and                       needed, the actors involved on different levels but
       charges;                                                           acting in partnership, and the time-frame envisaged .
0
        Excluding the surface area of intersections, junctions and carparks, the road network takes up about 3,1 % of the Community's total
        area; excluding land used for railway stations and marshalling yards, the railway network takes up 0,1 % of land.
  ®     COM (92) 46 final of 20 February 1992 : Green paper on the impact of Tranport on the Environment, a Community strategy for
        •Sustainable mobility-
 ---pagebreak---                                                         Table 3 : TRANSPORT
                          MEASURES UP TO 2000                              INSTRUMENTS              TIME-FRAME        ACTORS
  (a ) Infra ¬ - Land-use planning                                  EIA                                2000            MS/LAs
  structures   - Infrastructure investments urban transport ,      Structural Funds                     1995          MS/ LAs +
                 trans-shipment facilities , rail enhancement ,                                                           EC
                 goods handling , inland water ways /sea traffic
               - Infrastructure charging                            Road taxes and cSfferent forms      1993          MS + EC
                                                                   of Fload pricing                      ю                id
  b) Fuels &   Progressive technical improvement of vehicles :     - R4D                             before “95     Industry* EC
  vehicles     - exhaust     and      noise   emissions ,   fuel   - régulation                        2000           EC + MS
                 consumption , performance , final disposal        - vehicle testing (contr.techn)   before 08        MS * EC
                                                                   - Recyding of parts                 2000            Industry
                                                                   - Fiscal incentives                 2000           MS * EC
               Composition 4 consumption of fuels :                - R4D                             before 05      Industry* EC
               - alternative fuels , cleaner fuels                 - Fiscal incentives                 2000           MS * EC
               - complete move to unleaded petrol by 2000          - régulation                         1995          EC * MS
  (c)   User   - driver information 4 education on a more          - campaigns in me<Sa , speed       ongoing      LAs/MS + EC +
  Behaviour      rational use of the car                               limits and other physical                        NGOs
                                                                      constraints
               - improved public/collective transport              - investments ,      land-use       2000         LAs'MS + EC
                                                                       plans                                           Transp .
                                                                                                                     authorities
               - discouragement of road traffic in cities          - charges , high parking fees ,   before *95       LAs* MS
               - development of économie and fiscal                - car pooling e.g. positive           id             Public
                 incentives                                           discrimination (lower tolls)                  Toll operating
                                                                      of car poolers                                 Companies,
                                                                                                                        Public
               - development of inter active communication         - logging and tracking             ongoing        EC + MS +
                 infrastructures                                       systems, electronic home ,                     Industry
                                                                      video conferences
                                             4.4 The Agriculture Sector
Agriculture, together with forestry, occupies more than               of living for the agricultural Community. However,
80% of the territory of the Community. Traditionally,                 while the achievement of these objectives has been
the farmer is the guardian ofthe soi I and the countryside.           greatly promoted by the CAP'S price support
By careful husbandry, including integrated crop and                   mechanisms, the same instruments are now seen to be
livestock farming and waste management, farmlands                     having some less positive side-effects.
are passed in sound condition from one generation to
the next Agriculture has shaped and indeed continues                  One of these effects has been an over-emphasis in
to shape the European countryside and has set much of                 some areas on production levels with consequential
the foundation of European culture.                                   over-intensification. This, in turn , is leading to
                                                                      overexploitation and degradation of the natural
Just as in the case of manufacturing industry and                     resources on which agriculture itself ultimately depends:
transport, however, the agricultural sector and farming               soil , water and air. In crop production, systematic use
practices have undergone significant modernisation                    of plant protection products has led to a relative
and change during this century, and more particularly                 resistance in parasites increasing the frequency and
over the last forty years. Among the factors which have               the cost ofsubsequenttreatments and causing additional
brought change are the drift of rural populations to                  soil and water pollution problems. In certain areas of
cities and towns, increased mechanisation , improved                  the Community, large quantities of fertile top soil are
transport, improvements in seed qual ity, crop protection             lost every year because of erosion due to inappropriate
and animal strains , international trade and competition              management of the land . In livestock farming, animal
 in food products and feed-stuffs.                                    diseases have become more difficult to deal with, as
                                                                      genetic uniformity and concentration in space of
Against this background, the Community's Common                       holdings have increased. Animal wastes create more
 Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been developed and                     and more problemsofwater and soil pollution. Ground
 adapted so as to fulfill the objectives of the Treaty of             clearance and drainage are causing depletion of
 assuring the availability of food supplies at reasonable             wetlands and reducing biodiversity. Excessive use of
 prices, the stabilisation of markets and a fair standard             nitrogenous and phosphate fertilisers causes                 35
 ---pagebreak---    eutrophication in surface waters in many regionsof the                    Forestry
   Community; the resulting algal blooms disturb the                         In many regions of the Community, forests are not only
   oxygen levels ofthe water with dramatic consequences                      a determinant faaor for the envi ronment, with different
   for fish , feeding matter and the ecosystem in general as                 ecological and social funaions, but are also a matter
   well as the use of the water for drinking and recreation                  ofconsiderable economic importance. The Community
   purposes. Even in cases where specific regional or                        as a whole is the second greatest consumer of timber
   horizontal measures are introduced for soil protection                    in the world. Of a total annual consumption of some
   their success is often compromised under the pressure                     200 million m J, Community production yields
   of other market or structural measures. For example,                      approximately 100 million mJ i.e. it is only 50% self-
   efforts to protea heatherland and combat erosion in                       sufficient at present
   northern countries can fail because of overgrazing as
   a result of the headage payment schemes, particularly                     Notwithstanding this situation , the Community forests
   in the sheep seaor.                                                       have long been negleaed. Today, nearly 40% of the
                                                                             total is suffering various degrees of ill-health caused
   Apart from the environmental degradation incurred ,                       mainly by acidification; IIASA studies'31 indicate EC
   the present system generates surplusses at high costs to                  (excluding Spain) harvest-loss attributable to air
   the Community budget without improvingthe income                          poi lution of the order of 30 mil I ion m3 per annum, with
   situation of the European farmers. Given all of these                     an estimated value of some 1 0 billion ECU . In addition,
   circumstances, it is not only environmentally desirable,                  about 1 % of total forest area is destroyed each year by
   but it also makes sound agricultural and economic                         forest fires, the vast bulk of this being in the
   sense to seek to strike a more sustainable balance                        Mediterranean Region.
   between agricultural aaivity and the natural resources
   of the environment.                                                       Against this background the Community, in 1989,
                                                                             adopted a forestry policy*41 designed to :
   This appreciation is clearly reflected in recent                                 protea the forest heritage against threat from
   deliberations on the reform ofthe Common Agricultural                            acidification and fire;
   Policy which, interalia, have indicated that "producing                          improve the produaivity of forests;
   more" cannot be any longer considered as the central                            develop forest and forest-related activities,
   point of Community policy. The Commission's 1 991                               especially in rural areas;
    Refleaion Paper on the development and future of the                            promote afforestation on agricultural land.
   CAP*11 recognised the need to encourage extensifi cation
   with the objea of not only reducing surplus produaion                      However, over the period covered by this Programme,
   but also of contributing to an environmentally                             it will be necessary to look beyond the concerns and
   sustainable form of agricultural produaion and food                        aaions referred to above and to draw a closer link
   quality and formalising the dual role offarmersasfood                      between the Community's internal timber produaion
   producers and guardians of the countryside. The                            and consumption patterns and its moral and political
   Commission's subsequent proposals'21 include an agri -                    obligations to work towards the solution of global
   environmenta! aaion programme which encompasses                            concerns about deforestation .
   several types of financial assistance designed to
   encourage farms to operate their land holding in an                        Long term objeaives, medium term targets and
   environmentaly-friendly way.                                               measures needed in relation to agriculture and forestry
                                                                              are given in Table 4.
          COM (91 ) 1 00 final oM February 1991
36  “     COM (91 ) 258 final of 11 July 1991
    ,31   IIASA : International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Austria: Executive Report 17, February 1991 .
    141   COM (88) 255; C. |. N° LI 65 , 1 5.6.1 989
 ---pagebreak---                                                       T»Ne 4 : AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
        OBJECTIVES                      TARGETS UP TO 2000                                ACTIONS                       TIME-FRAME   ACTORS
Maintenance of the basic            Standstill or reduction of nitrate     Strict application of the nitrates directive    1994 =>   MS + AGR
natural processes indispen¬         levels in groundwaters.
sable for a sustainable             Reduced incidence of surface           Setting of regional emission standards for     Ongoing     MS + LAs
agricultural sectornotably by       waters with a nitrate content          new lifeslock anils (NHj) and silos (silage)
conservation of water, soil,        exceeding 50 mg/1 , or giving rise
and genetic resources               to eutrophication oflakes and seas.    Réduction programme for phosphate use.            1995     EC + MS
                                    Stabilisation orincrease oforganic     Allocation of premiums and other                1995 =»       EC
                                    material levels in the soil            compensating payments to be subject to                    MS + LAs +
                                                                           full compliance with environmental                           AGR
                                                                           legislation
Decrease in the input of            Significant reduction of pesticide     - Registration of sales and use of              Ongoing  EC+A/S+AGR
chemicals to the point that         use per unit of land under                 pesticides
none of these processes be          production and conversion of           - Comrol on sale and use of pesticides            1995   EC+A/S+AGR
affected.                           farmers to methods of integrated       - Promotion of “Integrated Control" (in         1992 =»  EC+MS+AGR
                                    pest control, at least in all areas of     particular training activities ) and
 Equilibrium between input           importance         for       nature       promotion of bio-agriculture
of nutrients and the absorp¬         conservation.
tion capacity of soils and
 plants.
Rural environment ma ¬               15% of agricultural area under         Programmes for agriculture/snvironrnem           1992      A/S+EC
nagement permitting the              management contracts                   zones with premiums co- financed by
maintenance of biodiversity                                                 FEOGA
and natural habitats and
minimising natural risks (e-g.                                              Protection of all endangered domestic          Ongoing       MS
terosion.avalanches)and fires                                               animal races
                                     Management plans for all rural         Re-evaluauon of license conditions for           1995     MS + EC
                                     areas in danger                        irrigation and of slate aids for drainage
                                                                            schemes
                                                                            Training of farmers , promotion of              1992 =»  EC+MS+LAs
                                                                            exchange visits between regions with
                                                                            comparable environment management
                                                                            situations
                                      Increase of forest plantation ,       New afforestation and regeneration of          Ongoing  EC+MS+LAs +
  Optimisation of forest area
  as to fulfill all their functions   including on agricultural land;       existing forest , favouring the most                    foresl-owmrs
                                                                            adequate means for the environment (slow
                                                                            growing trees, mixed afforestation);
                                                                             Further action against forest-fires               id          id
                                      Improved protection (health and
                                      forest-fixes)
                                                                                                                                                 37
 ---pagebreak---                                            4.5 The Tourism Sector
   Tourism is an important element in the social and         These developments will have major implications for
   economic lifeoftheCommunity. It reflects the legitimate   the environment, imposing tremendous pressures on
   aspirations of the individual to enjoy new places and     habitats, transport facilities, coastal and mountain
   absorb different cultures as well as to benefit from      land, energy and water resources, and waste water
   activities or relaxation away from the normal home or     treatment facilities, particularly at periods of peak
   work setting. It is also an important economic asset to   demand. The coastal zones especially will face severe
   many regions and cities of the Community and has a        problems.
   special contribution to make to the economic and
   social cohesion of the peripheral regions. Tourism        Overall environmental targets and longer term
   represents a good example of the fundamental link         objectives directly related to tourism (other than
   which exists between economic development and             otherwise required noise, water and air quality
   environment, with all the attendant benefits, tensions    standards) are difficult to define since tourism can
   and potential conflicts. If well planned and managed,     have both positive and negative effects on the
   tourism, regional development and environment             environment and is very dependent on the individual
   protection can go hand in hand. Respect for nature and    consumer choice. The i mpact of tourism depends very
   the environment, particularly in coastal zones and        much on the type of tourism, the behaviour of tourists
   mountain areas, can make tourism both profitable and      and the quality of the tourist services. Most of the
   long-lasting.                                             pressures on the environment stem from the mass
                                                             tourism in coastal and mountain areas, which is likely
   Within the EC, tourism represents 5.5% of GDP,            to increase considerably over the next decades. It will
   around 5% of export earnings and 6% of total jobs,        be necessary therefore todevelop national and regional
   including more than 7 million full-time jobs. The         integrated management plans for coastal and mountain
   development of the tourist sector is ratherdiverse in the areas .
   Community. Over the last decade tourist activity has
   gone up by an average of 1 4% of total nights spent. The   Elements in these strategies which directly relate to the
   increase is much more than average in the southern        interaction of tourism and environment would be
   part of the EC. In the Alpine regions tourism has risen   controls on land use, the setting of strict rules on new
   sharply to about 50 million people every year. As         constructions, and fight against illegal housing,
   income levels and leisure time increase over the next     management of private traffic flows to and in the
   decade, substantial growth is anticipated. This will      tourist areas, diversification of tourism , strict
   have its effect over the whole of Europe with an          implementation and enforcement of environmental
   emphasis on coastal and mountain zones, with the          standards on noise, drinking water, bathing water,
   Mediterranean region taking a large share. Income         waste water and air emissions (including emissions in
   increases are expected to trigger more second hoi idays,  the hinterland of the tourist areas), creation of buffer
   which may be short but are expected to take place in      zones around sensitive areas such as wetlands and
   environmentally high quality surroundings.                dunes, better dispersion of summer holidays, awareness
                                                             building and education of local people and tourists,
   The Mediterranean basin accounts for 35% of the           and education and professional training of people
   international tourist trade and is the world's leading     involved in the management of the areas involved.
   tourist area . According to the UNEP Blue Plan"1, the
   number of tourists in the Mediterranean region could      The realisation of such strategies will rely principally
   grow to as many as 380-760 million per year in 2025,      on measures to be taken by regional and local
   depending on the economic growth rates. This              authorities, and the tourism industry. A Community
   development would be in addition to predicted             Action Plan to Assist Tourism published by the
   demographic changes in the area . 1 60 million ofthese     Commission® includes a number of specific measures
   tourists in the year 2000 and 260 million in the year     designed to link environmental protection and tourist
   2025 would visit Mediterranean coastal areas, as          development e.g.
   compared to 55 million in 1984 and around 100
    million in 1990 . Estimates of the World Tourism               inventories of tourism resources in the Member
   Organisation confirm the projections of the Blue Plan.          States;
    Both indicate that up to 90% of any increase could             improved staggering of holiday^seasonal spread
   accrue to Community Member States in the region .               of tourism;
   Such increases would require double the occupation              practical guides for the tourist industry and pilot
   of space by the year 2000 alone; the solid waste and            projects in environmental tourism;
   waste water generated could more than triple by the             development of a code of conduct for tourists;
    year 2025 .
38
    n>   UNEP'S Mediterranean Action Plan
    ®    COM (91 ) 97 final of 24 April 1991
 ---pagebreak---        exchangesof information and experience in visitor                   economic resource, requiring to be well maintained
       management;                                                         and protected . Sustainable tourism, based on respect
       environmental awards and prizes.                                    for nature and the environment can make a positive
                                                                           contribution to the prosperity not only of the tourist
It is essential to place future growth of tourism within                   industry as such, but also of the surrounding regions
the framework of sustainability. If well planned and                       and towards the economic and social cohesion of
controlled , tourism , regional development and                            peripheral areas.
environment protection can go hand in hand . Recent
examples such as the algal plague in the Adriatic Sea,                      Table 5 gives an overview of the elements of a strategy
which cost an estimated 1,5 billion ECUs in lost                           on tourism, indicating which instruments need to be
revenue from tourism and fishing in 1990, indicate                         developed within what time-frame and by which
clearly that the environment constitutesa very important                   combination of actors and target groups.
                                                              Table 5 : TOURISM
       OBJECTIVES         MEASURES UP TO 2000                               INSTRUMENTS                        TIME-FRAME       ACTORS
   Type of tourism       * Better management of            - improved control on land use                      1993 onwards        LAs
                            mass tourism                   - strict rules for new constructions                      id            LAs
                         * National and regional           - management of traffic flows to in and from              id        MS + LAs
                            integrated management              tourist areas
                            plans for coastal and          - visitor management ; exchange of expertise          1992-1993          id
                            mountain areas                 - pilot models of sustainable tourism                     id             id
                                                           - strict implementation and enforcement of             ongoing    MS + LAs + HC
                                                               environmental standards on noise, drinking
                                                               water, bathing water, waste water treatment and
                                                               air emissions
                                                           - creation of buffer zones around sensitive areas   1993 onwards    MS + LAs
                                                           - development and promotion of code of conduct        1993 - 1995   MS + LAs +
   Behaviour of tourists • building environmental
                                                            - mulü-media campaigns + conférences                      id     Tourist /nd. + EC
                             awareness
                          • liberalisation of air and       - EC transport policy + national transport polides 1993 onwards     EC ♦ MS
                             coach transport - TGV -
                             network
                                                            - economic incentives such as COj/energy tax            1993        EC + MS
                          • increase of marginal costs
                                                                and road pricing and encouraged use of public  1993 onwards     MS + EC
                             of use of private car and
                             promotion of alternative           transport
                             transport modes
                                                            - co-operation and exchange of information           before 1998   MS + EC +
                          • better dispersion of
                                                                                                                               Tourist Ind .
                             holidays
                          • diversification of tourism      • national plan + régional plans                     before 1995 LAs  + MS + EC
                                                            - EC -Regional Development Fund                           id     LAs  + MS + EC
                             (including rural and cultural
                                                             - EC tourism action plan                                 id     LAs  + MS + £C
                             tourism)
                                                             - EC tourism Advisory Committee                          id     LAs  + MS + EC
                                                             - brochures                                        1993 onwards   Ind. + LAs
    Quality of tourist    * promotion new forms of                                                                    id             id
    services                 tourism which care for the      - professional training
                                                                                                                      id             id
                             environment                     - pilot projects
                                                                                                                      id      MS + LAs + EC
                          * careful       sélection     of   . professional training and education exchange of
                                                                                                                                   + Ind
                              accommodation                     best practice
                           • building of environmental
                              awareness of people
                              involved in management of
                              tourist areas
                           * building environmental
                              awareness of local people
                              and tourist services                                                                                             39
 ---pagebreak---                                                                     Summary
   It is appropriate to reiterate, at this point, that the                      The strategic approach to the m3in target sectors is
   designation of certain key target sectors is not intended                    summarised in Table b.The succeeding chapters of this
   to indicate an exoneration of other actors or sectors -                      document set out detailed objectives, targets and time -
   ALL public and private enterprise is called upon to take                     frames in respect of reductions of environmental impact
   up a due share of the responsibility forgetting the new                      and an expanded range of instruments designed to
   strategy under way and putting the overall programme                         bring about the necessary changes in behaviour and
   into effect.                                                                 trends.
                                 T»ble 6 : PROGRAMME FRAMEWORK FOR SELECTED TARGET SECTORS
              INDUSTRY                     ENERGY                     TRANSPORT                      AGRICULTURE                      TOURISM
     Integrated        Pollution   Réduction In Pollution        Cleaner Cnrs & Fuels         Ecologically sustainable        SusLTourtan , Land - use,    S
                                                                                                                                                           £ I
     Control                                                                                  farming                         Infrastructure
                                                                                                                                                           C M
      • operating licenses         - specifictargets forCOj,     - emission limit values        - extensificaüon               - diinking water            T P
      - emission inventory           SOr NOx                     - économie          fiscal     - réduction of cheinicai       - baihing waier             O A
                                                                                                                                                           R C
      - env . audits               - econ & fiscal incentives      incentives                     inputs                       - waste management
                                                                                                                                                           A T
      - env. charges               - safe disposai of nuclear    - vehicle testing              - organic farming              - sustainable mobility      L S
      - Clean and low waste          waste                       - réduction ofévaporation      - consumer information
        technology'                                                                             - econ & fiscal incentives
     Reduced Waste/ Better        Development              of   Rationalisation          of     Forest Development            Protection of Coastal        R
                                                                                                                                                           K
     Waste Management             Renewable Sources             Infrastructure                                                Zones & Natural, Man ¬       S
                                                                                                                              made or Built Amenities      O
      - inventory of wastes        R&D and promotion of :        - network planning             - systematic planting          - désertification           u
                                                                                                                                                           R
      - econ & fiscal incentives   - biomass, wind , wave ,      - inter-modal choice           - fire protection              - cultural heniage          C
      - deposit/retum system         solar, hydro, geothermal    - bottlenecks                  - sustainable harvesting       - forest fi res             E
      - high standards for                                       - communications                                              - nature tr?ils             S
        disposai
      - cavil liability
     Ecologlcally - frlendly      Réduction in Energy           Improved           Driver       Rural Development             Broader          Consumer
                                                                                                                                                            E
     Products                     Consumptlon                   Behaviour                       - land      management        Choice
                                                                                                                                                            H
      - eco-label                  - econ & fiscal incentives    - info & éducation               control                      - broader       choice  of  Λ
      - product standards          - cons . info & educ.         - econ & fiscal incentives     * rural tourism                  options                    V
                                                                                                                                                            I
      - consumer information       - SAVE, THERMIE, JOULE        - choice of modes              - inland fishing               - betler information
                                                                                                                                                           O
      - ux differentials           - regulatory instruments      - traffic management                                          - betlerseasonal spreadof    U
                                   • volunL agreements                                                                           tourism                    R
   N3 .: The instruments indicated above are not exclusive to the sectors in which they appear, they have been inserted in the sectors in respect of which
           they have the most obvious potential*
40
 ---pagebreak---                                                   Chapter 5 :
                  The Thèmes and Targets of the Programme
!n this Chapter a number of themes are addressed . These are not intended as an exhaustive list of issues to be
tackled within the Community over the period covered by the Programme. Rather, they represent matters of
particular seriousness which have a Community-wide dimension, either because of Internal Market, cross¬
boundary, shared resource or cohesion implications and because they have a crucial bearing on environmental
quality and conditions in about all regions of the Community.
Under each of the themes, long term objectives are given as an indication of the sense of direction or thrust to
be applied in the pursuit of sustainable development. Given the present state of knowledge and particularly the
absence of parameters for sustainability, these objectives are generally expressed in qualitative as distinct from
quantitative terms .
As intermediate goals, certain targets are indicated, to be achieved within specified time-frames up to the year
2000 . These do not constitute legal commitments but, as the term "target* implies, performance levels or
achievements to be aimed at now in the interests of attaining a sustainable development path.
The actions indicated for each theme represent a non-exhaustive list of measures to be taken in order to realize
targets set for the period up to 2000.
 Finally, the tables indicated which sectors/actors are seen to be most directly responsible for the actions
described . In most cases an effort on different levels will be necessary to execute the set of actions needed to tackle
a problem . This aspect is dealt with in greater depth in Chapter 8.
                                              5.1 Climate change
While global in character , the climate change predicted       important first step towards dealing with the problem,
 as a consequence of increasing atmospheric                    an approach followed by most developed countries.
 concentrations of greenhouses gases will also pose             Recently the Commission presented to the Council of
 serious problems for the Community itself (frequency          Ministers a Communication on a strategy on the
 of extreme meteorological events, sea level rise, heat        reduction of COa emissions and on the improvement of
 and drought spells, etc .). Carbon dioxide (C03),             energy efficiency, including Community-wide carbon-
 chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs) nitrous oxide (NjO) and             cum-energy taxes designed to achieve these ends®.
 methane (CH4) are the main agents of the greenhouse
 effect.                                                       The Community has already set targets for the phasing
                                                               out of CFCs and halons even ahead of those set out in
 The level ofC02 has risen mainly because ofthe burning        the Montreal protocol.
 of fossil fuels (energy sector, industry and transport)
 and deforestation . The rises in the amounts of CFCs are       In order to devise correct counteracting or adaptive
 due entirely to industrial production since there are no       measures, more has to be known about the possible
 natural sources. Methane gases mainly come from                impacts of climate change on various sectors of the
 agriculture (cattle and certain crops), energy (natural        European environment, and also about the socio¬
 gas leakages) and waste sites.                                 economic consequences of any measures that may be
                                                                taken. The problem is particularly important since it is
 In 1990 a comprehensive report assessing the nature            closely linked to some of the other themes which
 and the consequences ofglobal warming was publ ished           follow and to various Community policies (research,
 by the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change              agriculture, energy, transport).
 (IPCC)m. In it, Commissions are identified as being the
  main contributory factor to the green-house effect In         Against this background Table 7 indicates overall
 this respect, the Community's decision to stabilize            objectives, targets for the year 2000, types of action
  COj emissions at 1 990 levels by the year 2000 is an          required and the main sectors involved.
                                                                                                                         41
  n> IPCO Reports of Working Groups, 1 990; Supplementary Report, 1 992, WMO/UNEP
  05   SEC (91 ) 1744 final of 14 October 1991
 ---pagebreak---                                                                      T»ble 7 : CLIMATE CHANGE
                         OBJECTIVES                  EC TARGETS UP TO 2000                                        ACTIONS                          TIME FRAME           SECTORS
     CO,                no exceedence of      • stabilization on 1990 levels #)                • Energy conservation measures e.g.                    continuous          Energy
                        natural absorbing        (progressive reductions »t the                    - env. benign energy use                                              Transport
                        capacity ofplanet        horizon 2005 and 2010 (")                         - bchavioural changes                                                 Industry
                        earth                                                                      - économie and fiscal mcasures                                          Public
                                                                                               • Improvemeniofenergyefficiencye.g.                           id            Energy
                                                                                                   - RAD                                                                   Waste
                                                                                                   - infrestructurai changes                                             Transport
                                                                                                   - change in transport modes                                            Industry
                                                                                                   - économie and fiscal measurea                                        Consumer
                                                                                               * Fuel substitution low&rds less or no
                                                                                                   CO, émittin g sources (renewables,                        id            Energy
                                                                                                   natural gas etc.) e.g.
                                                                                                   -R AD
                                                                                                   - infrestructurai changes
                                                                                                   - économie and fiscal measurea
      Methane                                  * measurestobeidentifiednodater                 • Inventory of data                                   before 1994           Energy
       (CH.)                                      than 1 994 and applied (possibly                                                                                       Agriculture
      N il r ou s                                 reduction targets)                                                                                                       Waste
      oxide (N,0)
      CFCs        +     no emissions           * phase oui before 1.1.1996                                                                                                Industry
      carbon -          of ozone                  (except for some essential uses)
      te&adiloride      layer depleting
       + Halons +        substances
       Ш
      ukhloKthane
       HCFCs etc                               * limitation of use to maximum
                                                  5% of 1990 CFC use levels
   #)       targets already set by the EC
   N.B.     The EC commits itselftohelp and support countries which seek for it, in their aim for stabilization and reduction measures inrelation to green house gases. The following
            measures could be used : debt trading, technology transfer, general trade arrangements, participation in global financial mechanisms.
   (1)      Conclusions of the Joint Energy / Environment Council of 29 October 1 990.
    FIGURE 3 : DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EC-12 SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 1990
                                                                                                                                        RIVM / CCE
                                                                                                                                       D;tl;t :
                                        il                                                                                             ex Cril.Loads
                                                                                                                                        I990
                                                                                                                                       Reuion :
                                                                                                    y
                                                                                                      !                                EUROPE
                                                                                               J
                                                                                                                                                 NOEXCEEOANCE
                                    V                                                                                                            <
                                                                                                                                                 s          200 00
                                                                                             I
                                                                                             )                                           CD *               500 oo
                                                                                                                                         CD *              1000 00
                                                                                                           e
                                                                                                                                                 s         2000 00
                                                                                                                                                 i         7000 00
                                                                                            'W
    t                                                                                                                                    Unit : eq/ha.yr
                       UJ
                                          T­
                                                             u
                                                                                                          A
                                                      %
                                                c
                                                                 J
                                                      /
42                                                                                                                                    DhjM^iK' *( iirulunt-d *
                                                                                                                                      | Vj |,- 4.6. | 99 |
                                                                                                                                      Kt-nurk rxcr* Crrt.Ws
                                                                                                                                       1990
 ---pagebreak---                                    5.2 Acidification and Air Quality
Acidification is due in considerable measure to the       ie. even beyond the 65% reduction in S02 emissions
combustion of fossil fuels and agricultural practices     and the 60% reduction in NOx emissions, which
and has damaging effects on forest ecosystems, lakes,     would result from development on the basis of
other surface and ground waters and soils. The main       scenario 4 (As has been indicated inthe chapter on the
acidifying substances are sulphurdioxides (SO^),          energy sector, the Commission has presented four
nitrogenoxides ( NOx), volatile organic compounds         scenarios on the future energy demand in the EC. An
(VOCs), including hydrocarbons (HCs) and ammonia          update of these scenarios is in progress; the results are
(NH}). NOx, HCs and VOCs create products such as          expected by mid-1 992).
ozone (O,) through photo-oxidation; these in turn
contribute considerably to damage of crops and            However, in the case of the less developed regions of
vegetation, and human health (smog-periods).              the Community and certain regions which are in the
                                                          course of economic restructuring - the so-called
Recent studies in the framework of the UN Economic        Objectives 1 and 2 regions for the purposes of
Commission for Europe have shown that it is possible      disbursement of the Community 's Regional
to indicate for certain typesof ecosystems (and through   Development Fund - the levels of acidification (by
that, certain areas in Europe) the levels and loads of    reference to their current emission and deposition
deposition which they can sustain without detrimental     levels, and relatively small impact on deposition levels
effects (critical loads, see explanatory box on page 45). in the rest of Europe) would allow for considerable
                                                          extra development in these regions on the basis of the
Figure 3 gives an indication of the exceedances of the    EC legislation already adopted. However, in areas
critical loads in 1990 in Europe as a whole resulting     within these regions where critical loads are already
from deposition of S02 and NOx from Community             being exceeded or are likely to be exceeded, the same
sources alone .                                           stria measures as elsewhere should be applied.
Figure 4 indicates that the S02 and NOx emissions         From the point of view of facilitating optimal
resulting from scenario 1 (conventional wisdom) will      development in these regions and greater economic
exceed the critical loads in large parts of the EC. This  cohesion,     introduaion of striaer measures would
piaure does not take into account the extra load of       allow even greater scope for development in terms of
acidifiying substances resulting from ammonia             both scale and continuity. Secondly, the lower energy
emissions. It is clear, that under scenario 1 , the EC    demand and higher energy efficiency envisaged under
would not be heading in the direaion of sustainable       scenario 4 , would also serve to improve the
energy use .                                              competitivity of these regions both within the EC and
                                                          internationally.
The computer calculations on the basis of the IIASA-
 RAINS model (see explanatory box) for scenario 4 are      Table Sgi ves an i ndi cat ion of the overal I EC targets and
 more promising but scenario 4 would still not result in  instruments which should be aimed for by the year
 a sustainable situation by 2010 in all regions of the    2000 on the way towards a sustainable situation .
 Community (see Figure 5). Here again, effeas resulting
 from ammonia emissions are not taken into account         Table 9 indicates the measures needed to guarantee
 The message to be derived from this is that emissions     levelsof air quality which are not detrimental to health
 and depositions in many regions of the Community         and environment.
 require that the striaest possible measures be applied ,
                                                                                                                         43
 ---pagebreak---   FIGURE 4: DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EC-12 SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 2010 ON BASIS OF
            THE "CONVENTIONAL WISDOM" SCENARIO (see explanatory box on page 32)
                                                                                                    RIVM / CCE
                                    »
                                                                                                   exce.ss CL
                           . J ■
                                                                                                   Conv.w is 2010
                                                                >■'                                Région :
                       fl                                                                          EUROPE
             #1
             т                                                                       ИШ             pTTyj NO EXCEEOANCE
                                                                                                             S
                                                                                                             í       200 00
                                                  ИЙ»^§1                                            rO     I 4       50000
                       jS.
                                                           iV'i                                      CD 4
                                                                                                     ЩЬ             tooo oo
                                                                                               /■
                                                                                                     ÊSá) 1         200000
                                                                                                             S      2500 00
                                                                                                     Unit : eq/ha. yr
                                                                             \
                                                                                        'N.,
                                                                               Λ
                                                        «3                       /
                                                                                 s-J/-
                                                                    ./
                                                           /
                                                       /
                                                         j                                        nKisclìlc: \ X \\ KXM»
                                                                                                  l>.iU : 27 . 1 1.IWI
                             tr .                     /                                           lUnurk : CI . vxerv* fcuro »
                                                                                                  et MISS, or l \\ in 2010
  FIGURE 5: DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EC-12 SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 2010 ON THE
            BASIS OF THE "HIGH PRICES" SCENARIO ( see explanatory box on page 32)
                                                                                          )        RIVM/ CCE
                                                                                        /
                                                                                                    D;ii;r.
                                                                                                    ex CL HP 2010
                                                                                                    Reiiion :
                                                                                                    EUROPE
   K
          »
                                  j-yî»,
                                                           LtH
                                                                                             /              ] NO FXCEEDANCE
                                                                                                            I s       20000
                                                                                                      CD) ^i          500 00
                                                                                                      CH] *s         1000 00
                                                                                                            1 s      200000
                                                                                                            I 5      250000
                                                                    ''М-ч.     -              v       Unit :     eq/Ha.y'
                                                                           f^\
                                                         3                         1
                                                                         /
                                         >7i,' :T -\_
                                                                      /
                                                                /
                    Si
                                                                                                    UiWik- A:HPK\m
                                                                                                    I hiK*: 27.il.IWI
                                                                                                    Uvimirk : CI . exccv» Kim » >
                                                                                                    cm INS. HP in 2010
Θ
 ---pagebreak--- Explanatory Notes
 Critical Loads
 Critical loads have been defined as quantitative estimates of an exposure to one or more pollutants below which, according to
 present knowledge, significant harmful effects on specified elements of the environment do not occur. Significant harmful effects
 are assumed to occur when critical values of chemical compounds in forest soils and freshwaters are exceeded.
 A European map of critical loads has been developed at the Coordinadon Center for Effects (CCE) at the Insdtme for Public Health
 and Environmental Protecdon (RIVM) in the Netherlands on the basis of the EMEP grid system ( 150kmxl50kms) and the co­
 operative mapping exercise undertaken by nadonal administradons in 1990 in the framework of an UN-ECE programme.
 "Mapping Critical Loads in Europe” , J-P. Hettelingh, R. Downing, PAM. de Smet, 1991 , CCEIR1VM.
 The RAINS model
 This is a simulation model specially developed, using GEOMAN software, at the International Institute for Applied Systems
 Analysis in Laxenburg, Austria (HASA). RAINS stands for "Regional Acidification Information and Simulation”.
 As used for this Programme, the RAINS model combines information on long-range transboundary air pollution provided by
 EMEP (the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme of UN-ECE) with
 - information about cunem and projected energy use, agricultural activity and emissions of S02, NO, and NH3 on a country-by-
    country basis;
 - emission control technologies and abatement costs;
 - current plans for reductions of S02 and NOi by the year 2000.
 Alcamo.J., Shaw, R., and llordijk, L„ eds. (1990). The RAINS Model ofAcidification: Science and Strategies in Europe, Kluwer,
 Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
  The Maps used in the Programme
  The maps found in this document indicate the extent to which actual and projected depositions of S02 and NO, exceed determined
  critical loads .
  These exceedances reflect the difference between the CCE/RIVM critical loads maps for Europe and maps of acidifying
  depositions of S02 and NO, developed for EC-12 and whole of Europe using the RAINS model referred to above. The two energy
  scenarios used are taken from the Commission’s Communication “Energy in Europe: Energy for a New Century” (July 1990).
  While the aforementioned energy scenarios, when jxiblished, did not take account of the re-unification of Germany, the maps
  provided in this Programme relating to the pan-European situation do take account of the current plans for reductions of S02 and
  NO, up to the year 2000 in the former GDR.
  Acknowledgement
  The European Commission wishes to acknowledge the facilities and assistance afforded by the Coordination Center for Effects
  at RIVM in the preparation of the maps used in this programme.
                                                                                                                                   45
 ---pagebreak---                                                               Table 8 : ACIDIFICATION
                           OBJECTIVE                 EC TARGETS UP TO 2000                                ACTIONS + TIME-FRAME                         SECTORS/ACTORS
    NOxl )               no                      • stabilization atEC level émissions in           * actions listed in Table 7 on global scale                  Energy
                                                    1994 ( 1990 level) #)                             also apply for NOx and SOx                              Transport
                         exceedance              * 30% réduction in 2000                                                                                     Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                               Industry
                         ever
                                                                                                                                                               Tourism
    SOx 1 )                                      * 35% at EC level réduction of                    * proposals forproductsiandardsforcoal,              EC + MS + Energy
                                                    émissions in 2000 ( 1985 level)                   fuel oils and residuals before 1995                    and Industry
                         of
    NH, (ammonia)                                • variable targets in accordance with             • Inventory of NH^ emissions + trends                  MS + LAs + EC
                                                    problems identified in regions                    before 1994 ; standards on new farm                   EEA + AGRI
                          criticai                                                                    buildings before 1996
    General                                      * 10% reduction of man made                       * reductions in transport sector - idem in                EC + MS +
     VOCi                loads and                  emissions in 1996                                 industry solvents and paints , and                       Industry
                                                 * 30% réduction ( 1990 level) in 1999                chemical industry
     Dioxins              levels                 * 90% reduction of dioxins emissions              * Directive (revision) on standards for                    EC + MS
                                                    of identified sources by 2005 ( 1985              municipal waste incineration plants
                                                    levels)                                           before 1994
                                                                                                   * proposal for Directive on incineration                   EC + MS
                                                                                                      of hazardous waste: 1992
     Heavy metals                                * at least 70% reduction from all                 * Integrate*! pollution control and rcvised           EC + MS + LAs +
                                                    pathways ofCd , Hg and Hr emissions               BAT                                                      Industry
                                                    in 1995
  I)     Target already set by EC
  1)     b 1990 the Commission has presented a set of scenarios on energy demand and supply and their consequences for NOi. SO, and CO, emissions. On the basis
         of computer calculations with the RAINS model, regions listed under objectives 1 and 2 of the Structural Funds would still have room for considerable
         development from the point ofview of acidification. However, where areas within these regions would reach or exceed the critical loads, further reductions over
         and above those provided for in the existing EC legislation will require to be introduced, b all other EC- regions the reduction targets as listed should apply without
         any exceptions requiring a substantial decrease in energy demand through higher efficiency and increased energy savings.
                                                                         Table 9: AIR QUALITY
         OBJECTIVES                              TARGETS UP TO 2000                                        ACTIONS                         TIME-FRAME              ACTORS
   * All people should be                  * implementation and enforcement               * identification of existing or potential          before 1995          EC + MS +
      effectively protected against            of existing legislation on SO,,               problems                                                                 EEA
      recognized health risks from             NO,, Lead, Particulates and Black          • proposais for amendmentsofexisting                     id              EC + MS
      Air Pollution                            Smoke                                         legisUUen
   * Permitted concentration levels        * WHO values become mandatory                  * Air quality monitoring and control of           not later than         MS + LAs
      of air pollutants should take            at EC level                                   concentration levels with regard to                  1998               + EEA
      into account the protection of                                                         norms on all substances covered by
      the environment                                                                        legislation
   * Extension of the list of              For Ozone (O,):                                * Directive                                           in 1992            £C + MS
      regulated substances which           • for health protection: current
      cause pollution and danger to            levels if not exceeding the mean
      public health         and    the         value over 1-hour of 175 pg/m 5
      environment                              and the mean value over 8-hour
                                               of 110 j!g/m*
                                            • for protection of vegetation : a
                                               200 pgjm’ mean value over 1 -
                                               hour and a 65 pg/m’ mean value
                                               over 24 hours should not be
                                               exceeded
                                            For Carbonmonoxide (CO) and                   * identification of potential or existing          before 1997          EC + MS +
                                            Cadmium (Cd):                                    problems                                                                 EEA
                                            • knowledge of existing levels and
                                               setting of norms
                                            • compliance with norms for
                                               concentrations
                                            For other substances, such as heavy           * identification of potential or existing          before 1999               id
                                            metals, organic compounds and                    problems
                                            deposition of Sulphur and Nitrogen:
                                            * knowledge of existing levels
0                                           * different targets according to
                                               different existing situations
 ---pagebreak---                            5.3 Protection of Nature and Bio-diversity
Since the Industrial revolution
                           ilution and more particularly               with consequential extinction in the case of some
over the past half-century,f, mankind has been whittling               species,
away steadily attheecological
                           igical baseofthe living world.
In many instances the damage
                           Jamage being carried out to                 The Community strategy will be aimed at the
complex living systems is irreversible.                                maintenanceofEuropeanbiodiversityprimarilythrough
                                                                       sustainable land management in and around habitats
In spite of measures taken -n by international agencies,               of Community and wider importance. An interrelated
the Community and individual
                           dividual member states, the                 network of habitats, based on the concept for Natura
major threats to nature conservation
                           Dnservation and maintenance                 2000 , should be created through the restoration and
of biodiversity persist andJin
                             in some areas are increasing.
                                                    increasing,        maintenance of habitats themselves and of corridors
Habitats are converted to) human uses and the species                  between them. The creation and maintenance of this
that occupy them are made  tade homeless. Much of the                  networkwillbeverymuchdependentonhowcarefully
development which has occurred and is continuing to                    transport, agricultural and tourist policies are shaped
take place is in contradiction
                            ion to mankind's fundamental               and pursued in the future.
desire to live in harmony with nature and to enjoy and
derive pleasure from it.                                               Figure 6 outlines the strategic approach to protection
                                                                       of nature and biodiversity.
The case for preserving nature and biodiversity goes
beyond this: in the first place, it is a necessary element              Table 1 0 sets out the targets for 2000 and the instruments
in the overall maintenance of the ecological balance;                  necessary in the short run to have the Network and the
furthermore, nature provides an invaluable genetic                     surveillance of the European biodiversity partly
bank which is essential to medical , biological ,                      operational in the year 2000 .
agricultural and other scientific progress.
                                                                       Apart from protecting nature and bio-diversity in the
For most wild species of flora and fauna the splitting up              large-scale dimension which is inferred in the
and isolation of habitats, mainly because of                           preceeding paragraphs, it behoves national , regional
infrastructural worksfincluding high-tension electricity               and local authorities, enterprises, landowners and
cables), pose the greatest threat. If habitats become too              householders to maintain and enhance the natural
small and if connecting zones between them are                         beauty, parks and gardens in their own jurisdiction or
blocked or lost, essential migration may be precluded,                 neighbourhood .
                                       FIGURE 6 : DIAGRAM ON NATURE CONSERVATION
                                    NATURE CONSERVATION
                                          INFORMATION              - Public awareness programme
                                                                   - Environmenlal Education
                                                  I
              I                                                                          1
    LAND USE MANAGEMENT                                                       BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
       SUSTAINABLE           - ELA for programmes etc.                        SUSTAINABLE USE          - Trade régulation
       DEVELOPMENT           - Reform of Structural Funds                     OF SPECIES               - Sustainable fishing
                             - Reform of CAP                                                           - Sustainable breeding and use
                             - New sustainable policy for - Tcairism                                     of exploitable species
                                                          - Transport
                                                          - Energy
                                                          - Extractive industries
                                                          - Forestry
    CONSERVATION OF          - European Network based on Habitat              PROTECTION OF                      - Habitat Directive
    NATURAL HABITATS           directive (Natura 2000)                        ENDANGERED SPECIES                 - LIFE (ACNAT)
                             - LIFE (ACNAT-MEDSPA-NORSPA)                                                        - Birds Directive
                                                                                                                 - CITES
                              MONITORING AND JNVENTORY                        ENVIRONMENT AGENCY
                                                                                                                                      47
 ---pagebreak---                                                    Table 10: NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY
                                   TARGETS UP TO 2000                   INSTRUMENTS                 TIME ER AME     SECTORS/ ACTORS
  Maintenance of biodiver¬                                                                                          Agriculture Forestry,
  sity through sustainable                                                                                           Fisheries Transport
  development and manage¬                                                                                        Tounsm Energy Industry
  ment in and around natural
  habitats of European and    1 . Maintenance or restoration of • Habitat directive                    1992 =>      EC.M5.LAf.NGOs .
  global value: and through       natural habitats and spedes                                                              Farmers
  control of use and trade of     ofwild fauna and flora at a   • Updating of Directive 79/409/        ongoing        EC + MS + LAs
  wild species                    favorable conservation status    EEC on wild birds
                              2. Creation     of a   coherent   * setting     of criteria       for  1992-1993     Id + N'GOs + Farmers
                                  European network           of    identification of habitats ,
                                  protected sites                  buffer zones and migratory
                                                                   corridors
                                  - Natura 2000 : flagship
                                  programmes of carefully       • action programmes for the          1991-1993                Id
                                  selected and managed natural     efficient conservation and
                                  areas within the EC              monitoring of the sites
                                                                   designed for Natura 2000
                              3 . Strict control of abuse and
                                  trade of wild species         • Inventory .        monitoring       1991-1992               Id
                                                                   systems , and recovery plans
                                                                   for      endangered         and
                                                                   overexploited species
                                                                * regulations         concerning       1992 =>      Id + UNEP (OTES)
                                                                   Internal and International trade
                                                                   of endangered species
                                                                * International Conventions            1992 =>        MS + EC + UNEP
                                                                   (Biodiversity, Alpes , Regional                    (CITES + BONN
                                                                    agreements under Bonn                             CONVENTION)
                                                                   Convention)
                                                                * Reform of CAP (notably zonal         ongoing          EC, MS , LAi
                                                                   programme* for support of
                                                                    environmentally friendly
                                                                    agricultural practices)
                                                                * Environmental assessment oi          1995 ==>         MS. LAs , EC
                                                                   plans and programmes
                                                                 • Programmes for promorion of         1992 =>           Id + NG0s
                                                                    public awareness
                                                                 * Measures to maintain and          progressive  EC, MS + forest-owners
                                                                   protect forests
H
 ---pagebreak---                               5.4 Management of Water Resources
Water is one of the elementary sources of life. Water           restoration of natural ground and surface waters
quality is also an indicator of the general quality of the      to an ecological ly sound condition, thus ensuring
natural environment. Without water, a harmonious                ( inter alia) a suitable source for extraction of
and sustainable maintenance or development of socio¬            drinking water;
economic activities is not possible. Good quality               ensuri ng that water demand and water supply are
water is available only in limited quantities at a given        brought into equilibrium on the basis of more
time and place. According to recent Eurostat/OECD               rational use and management of water resources;
statistics, the mean annual withdrawal per capita
(including water for irrigation purposes) for EC-12 has    Manufacturing industry (processing), the energy sector
risen from 590 mJ in 1 970 to 650 m* in 1 975, 750 mJ      (cooling), the agricultural sector (irrigation) and the
in 1980 and 790 mJ in 1985 - an overall increase of        tourism sector (dri nking and bath ing) are very dependent
about 35% over a period of 1 5 years. Withi n the EC, the  on the availability of good quality and sufficient
annual withdrawal rate per capita varied from 200-         quantities of water, but are at the same time the main
300 mJ in Luxembourg to 1000-1200 mJ in Italy,             contributors to the pollution of water.
Portugal and Spain in the late 1980s. For the purposes
of improving the quality of life and as a condition for     Table 1 1 indicates the overall objectives on water
achieving sustainable development, it is essential to      quantity and water quality to be realized in the long
secure sufficient water of adequate quality throughout     term, the targets to be reached i n the year 2000 and the
the Community without upsetting the natural                actions needed in the shortterm. They are in line with
equilibrium of the environment                             the programme of action outlined in the The Hague
                                                            Declaration on the future Community Groundwater
 Community policies, accordingly, must aim at               Policy as agreed at the EC Ministerial Meeting on 26
      prevention of pollution offresh and marine surface    and 27 November 1 991 l,).
      waters and groundwater, with parti cular emphasis
      on prevention at source;
                                                                                                                      49
  *** as confirmed by a Council Resolution on 12.12.1991 , OJ N C 59, 6.3.1992
 ---pagebreak---                                           Table 11 : WATER QUANTITY AND WATER QUALITY
                        OBJECTIVES              EC TARGETS UP TO 2000                        ACTIONS                     TIMEFRAME      ACTORS
   Quantitative        Sustainable use of      - Preveni           permanent      - Collection and updating of data          1992/3    MS+LAs
   Aspects             fresh water resources       ovcrdraft                          on groundwater
                       : demand for water      • Intégration of resource          - Monitoring          and    control      by 1995         id.
   Groundwater &       should be in balance        conservation             and       measures on groundwater
   Surface   fresh     with its availability       sustainable use criteria into  - Integrated water management             mid 1993   EC+MS+
   water                                           othcrpolicics , including , in     and protection , including                           LAs
                                                   particular, agriculture and        legislation
                                                   land use planning, but also    • Measures to protect and                    id          MS
                                                   industry (development,             rehabilitate aquifers
                                                   location and production        • Measures to promote more                   id       M5+EC+
                                                   procedures)                        effective water use                             sectorsv LAs
                                               - Mariced reduction ofpollu ¬      • Economic and fiscal measures            ongoing   MS + LA» +
                                                   tion of both groundwater                                                                 EC
                                                   and fresh surface water
   Qualitative     - To      maintain     the   - Groundwater : to prevent        - Groundwater and surface fresh          continuous   MS+LAs
   Aspects             quality ofuncontami-        all pollution from point           water - strict implementation
                       nated groundwater           sources and to reduce              of the existing directives on
   Groundwater     - To prevent further            pollution from diffuse             urban waste water and nitrate
                       contamination of            sources according to best          pollution to reduce the input of
                       contaminated                environmental practices            nutrients to the soil, water and
                       groundwater                 and      best     available         sediments .
                   - To restore contami ¬          technology                         With regard to fresh water              1995          EC
                       nated groundwaterto                                            examination of the need for a
                       a quality required foi                                         directive      on    phosphate
                       drinking water pro¬                                             reduction.
                       duction purposes                                            - Elaboration of further specific         1992 =»    EC+MS+
                                                                                      emission standards encourag¬                     Industry +
                                                                                      ing the development of                           standardi¬
                                                                                       production processes and                           zation
                                                                                       performance standards for                         bodies
                                                                                       products to prevent foreseeable                 (e.g.CEN)
                                                                                       negative effects on water (use
                                                                                       of best available technology
                                                                                       combined with target standards
                                                                                       to be achieved later)
                                                                                   • Influence standardization                  id           id
                                                                                       bodies byparticipation ofwater
                                                                                       industry where concerned
                                                                                   - Proposals for progressive                1993      £C+MS
                                                                                       replacement of harmful
                                                                                       pesticides and progressive use
                                                                                       limitations
                                                                                   - Economic and fiscal measures            ongoing   MS + LAs
                                                                                                                                           ♦ EC
   Surface water   To maintain a high            - Surface water: quality          - Surface fresh water : proposal           1992      BC+MS
   - Fresh water    standard of ecological          improvement towards a              for a directive to be presented.
                    quality with a biodivers¬       better ecological quality          Member Slates programmes               1997          MS
                    ity corresponding as            and safeguard of high              for all waters taking into
                   much as possible to the          quality where it exists            account their specific situation;
                    unperturbed state of a                                             practical measures, partly
                    given water                                                        financed through national
                                                                                       environment protection funds
   - Marine water   Reduction ofdischarges       - Marine water : objectives        - Marine water : further to the
                    of all substances , which       and actions similar to the         measures to achieve a high
                    due     to  their   toxic       North Sea conference to            ecological quality and to
                    persistence or accumu¬          other sensitive sea areas of       reduce surface waterpoUurion:
                    lating impact could             the EC                          * Proposals an maritime trans¬           1993 =>     EC+MS
                    negatively affect the                                              port preventing environmental
                    environment, to levels                                             damage from shipping
                    which are not harmful                                              activities (oil spills, loss of
                    to a high standard of                                              cargo, reduction ofoperational
                    ecological quality of all                                          pollution) to be developed
                    surface waters                                                  * Surveillance erf geographic            ongomg         MS
                                                                                        zones with appropriate
                                                                                        monitoring techniques
                                                                                    * Proposal for a directive on the        1993 =>     EC+MS
                                                                                        reduction of operational and
50                                                                                      accidental pollution from small
                                                                                        tonnage boats
                                                                                    * Economic and fiscal measures           ongoing    MS + EC
 ---pagebreak---                                                  5.5 The Urban Environment
In the Community, about 80% of the population lives                                town and country land-use planning
in cities and towns. The urban areas are thus the places                           optimal management of industrial and economic
where the problems of the environment touch most the                               growth, energy consumption, and waste
qualityof lifeofcitizens. Demographic trends, including                            rationalization of urban traffic including the
population, household sizes and space occupancy                                    improvement of public transport facilities
point towardsever-increasingpressuresin urban areas.                               protection and enhancement of the historical
Pursuant to the principle of subsidiarity, responsibility                          heritage of cities and towns and provision ofgreen
for the quality of the urban environment and for                                   spaces.
undertaking necessary remedial or improvement
measures wil I be a matter for the competent a uthorities,                   In Figure 7an overall diagram is given which indicates
primarily the local authorities. As far as the Community                    clearly the complexity of the urban environment
is concerned, some of the environmental legislation                         situation and the actors on the scene. As far as the
(e.g. Directives on municipal waste incinerationni and                      concept ofshared responsibi I ity is concerned, much of
waste water treatment®) and many of activities it                           the effort wi II fa 1 1 to the industri al, busi ness and transport
undertakes through the Structura I Funds lead inevitably                    sectors and to individual citizens/consumers.
to its playing an important role in the development of
cities. The purpose of the Community policy must                            With regard to the matter of objectives, targets and
therefore be to encourage local authorities to rise to the                  actions, it is clear that the quality of the environment
challenge that the environmental problems of many                           in urban areas will benefit from the goals and measures
cities and towns pose today, and to assist them to find                     outlined in the tables on the principal target sectors
the best way of doing this.                                                 and those on air, water and waste. Table 12, hereunder
                                                                            deals with one of the most pressing problems in urban
Transport, energy, industry and in some cases tourism                       areas and which is not directly covered in the other
are the key sectoral activities which impact on the                         tables referred to - noise. More than 16 % of the
quality of the urban environment, and which also                            population suffers at night time from noise levels,
stand to gain significantly from more rational planning                     mainly resulting from road and air traffic, over leq 65
and sustainable management of urban areas. In 1 990,                        dB(A)w. This causes serious health risks. The primary
the Commission published a Green Paper on the                               objective should be to remedy this situation, before
Urban Environment® which suggested a possible range                         tackling other levels.
of actions in relation to, inter alia,
                                                                 Table 12 : NOISE
   OBJECTIVE                EC TARGETS UP TO 2000                                 ACTIONS                     TIME-FRAME SECTORS/ACTORS
  * no      person     Night-time exposure levels in Leq                                                                          Transport +
     should be ex ¬    dB(A):                                                                                                      Industry
     posed to noise
     levels which      * exposure of the population to noise      * inventory of exposure levels in the EC     before 1994     EEA + MS + LAs
     endanger            levels in excess of 65 should be phased
     health     and      out; at no point in time a level of 85   • noise abatanenl programme lo be set up     before 1995         MS + LAs
     quality of life     should be exceeded
                                                                  • further reductions of noise emissions      before 1995        EC * MS *
                       • proportion of population al present        (cars,lrucka,aircraft,cranet,mowers ,                          Industry
                         exposed to levels between 55-65            etc .) Directives to be presented
                         should not suffer any increase             progressively , aiming at imple ¬
                                                                    mentation not later than 2000
                       * proportion of population at present
                                                                  * standardization of noise measurement        continuons     EEA + EC + MS
                         exposed to levels less than 55 should
                         not suffer any increase above that         and ratings
                         level
                                                                  • measures to influence behaviour, such           id          MS * LAs * EC
                                                                    as driving cars, flight procedures ,
                                                                    industrial processes operating at night
                                                                    time
                                                                  • measures related to infrastructure and          id             MS + LAs
                                                                    physical planning, suchas betterzoning
                                                                    around airports, industrial areas, main
                                                                    roads and railways                                                          51
  ™     O) N° L 1 63 , 89/369/EEC and OJ N° L 203 , 89/429/EEC
  ®     O) N°L 135, 30.5.1991 , 91/271/EEC
  '.    COM (90) 218 of 27 June 1990                                          „rrn D •, toon
  m     Source: ECMT report on Transport policy and the environment, OECD, Paris, 1990
 ---pagebreak---                                      FIGURE 7 : URBAN ENVIRONMENT ( DIAGRAM)
                                             REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
                                        T                               T
     TOURISM                          TRANSPORT                      INDUSTRY                         URBANISATION
   Cultural héritage                Physical planning                 ENERGY                        Démographie aspect
        Mobility                     Public transport              Physical planning                Built-up environment
                                        Mobility                                                           Poverty
           •r i r
                                           I                          T
                                                                                               « JT.
                                                                                          'k
                                                                                        V/,
                                                                                               ih
                                                          Soil contamination                   ï     Waste
                  \
                                                                                                     water
       '            \ m                                                                \                      /
       Congestion ^ VI       Noise                                                         \ ■             /
                                                                                             \
                                                                                                                 Water
                                                                                     waste vr *;
                      ь                                                          (management)                   quality
                                                                                            /             \
                        Air quality                                                       /                 \
                    /                                                                  / Degradation of \
                  /                                                                              nature
                                                      URBAN
                                                 ENVIRONMENT
52
 ---pagebreak---                                                        5.6       Coastal Zones
The Community's coastal zones constitute a unique                              environment constitute a key aspect of their
environmental heritage, with irreplaceable ecological ,                        development potential ; but that, at the same time,
cultural and economic resources. The whole of the                              these natural assets are severely threatened by
Community's marine resources depends on its                                    urbanisation, and the tourism, transport, industry,
environmental quality, and moreover this natural                               energy, agriculture and fisheries sectors, although in
interface between land and sea is characterized by                             the case of the latter sector, a conservation strategy is
extreme fragility. As an indication of scale , the                             embodied in the Community's Common Fisheries
Community has about 58.000 kilometers of coastline                             Policy.
excluding small islands and inland seas.
                                                                               The Council ofMinisters(Environment), in a Resolution
The pressures exerted on our coasts are increasing :                           adopted on 25 February 1 992l2), has requested the
                                                                               Commission to propose an overal I Community strategy
      coastal regions are striving to make good their                          for the integrated management of coastal zones, with
      lagging development;                                                     a view to providing a coherent environmental
      they are subject to incessant net démographie                            framework for integrated and sustainable forms of
      gains;                                                                   development. The proposed strategy will cover the
      coastal tourism is increasingly popular, and can                         entire ambit of the coastal zones, including fore-shore,
      be subject to significant seasonal fluctuations.                         coastal waters and estuaries, together with coastal land
                                                                               up to the limit of the marine or coastal influence.
These and other pressures result in the reduction of                           Certain R & D activities, such as those under the
open spaces and natural sites and substantial                                  Community's Environmental Research, MAST and
modifications to the landscape; they can also give rise                        FAR/AIR programmes will provide a scientific basis for
to conflicts in land and sea use, and competition                              sound ecological management of these zones. In
between local and regional authorities.                                        appropriate cases, the Community could give financial
                                                                               support from the Structural Funds, for example in the
The Commission 's Communication " Europe 2000"1”                    "( 1 )
                                                                               context of the proposed Objective 6, to the effective
deals at some length with the environmental i mportance                        implementation of the strategy.
and development potential ofcoastal zones and islands.
It points out that in many coastal regions, particularly                        Table 13 indicates the main elements which will be
the less developed ones, the natural assets of the                             incorporated in the strategy.
                                                          Table 13 : COASTAL ZONES
     OBJECTIVE              EC TARGETS UP TO 2000                                   INSTRUMENTS                  TIME-FRAME SECTORS/ACTORS
  * sustainable de ¬   • higher priority to the environmental        * framework             of      integrated   before 1998  MS + LAr + EC
    velopment       of   needs of coastal zones, through inter             management plans on appropriate
    coastal zones and    alia, better coordination between                 levels
    their resources in   relevant EC policies and between
    accordance with      policies at the EC, national and regional
    the carrying capa¬   levels
    city of coastal
    environments       * operational framework for integrated        • better know-how and exchange of             continuous  MS + LAs + EC
                         planning and management                           experience
                                                                      • creation and improvement of data           before 1995 MS + LAs + EC
                                                                           bases and relevant indicators
                       • development of criteria for a better         * pilot projects on integrated                1993-1994  MS + LAs + EC
                         balance of land use and conservation              management of coastal zones
                         and use of natural resources
                       * awareness raising of the public,             * - information campaigns                      1992 =»   MS + LAs + EC
                                                                           - éducation                                          Tourist sector
                         competent authorities and economic
                         sectors                                           - professional training                                Transpon
                                                                           - Financial support for demonstration                 Enterprises
                                                                             projects and innovative approaches                  Agricultura
                                                                             (LIFE)                                            General public
                                                                      * Improvement of criteria to ensure            1993 =»      MS + EC
                                                                           sustainability of projects and
                                                                           programmes (incLEIA)
                                                                                                                                               53
 01    COM (91 ) 452 final, 7 November 1 991
 a
 ®     OJN°C 59, 6.3.1992
 ---pagebreak---                                               5.7 Waste management
   The problems to which waste gives rise are both              to the prevention of waste and solving the waste
   specific and relatively complex : waste is not only a        problems at source, the encouragement of re-use and
   potential source of pollution it can also constitute         recycling of waste by, inter alia, separation at source,
   secondary raw materials. The choice of priorities in         prioritisation of waste streams and the encouragement
   this sector has direct economic and environmental            of a rational network of disposal facilities. Further,
   consequences and is of direct relevance not only to          application of lifecycle analysis will be promoted so as
   environment policies but to technology, economic             to encourage the intervention of all people concerned
   and consumer policies.                                       in order to attain targets to be achieved within a limited
                                                                period. Hazardous waste requires particular attention
   Management ofwaste generated within the Community            in relation both to preventing waste and encouraging
   will be a key task of the 1 990s. Current upward trends      maximum recycling and the development of an EC-
   in waste generation must be halted and reversed in           wide infrastructure for safe disposal .
   terms of both volumes and environmental hazard and
   damage. A Community strategy for waste management            Economic and fiscal instruments such as charges and
   to the year 2000 has already been published"1 and            levies will be applied, whereever appropriate. The
   endorsed by the Council®. The strategy includes a            legislative package of measures on waste management
   hierarchy of waste management options in which               also requires to be rounded off by the adoption of
   primary emphasisis laid on waste prevention, followed        specific directives on packaging, the incineration of
   by promotion of recycling and reuse, and then by             industrial    and toxic wastes, on the control and
   optimisation of final disposal methods for waste which       recuperation of landfill sites, and a more general
   is not reused. Figure 8 i ndicates the strategi c flow-chart directive on civil liability for damage.
   for waste management
                                                                 Table 14 indicates overall objectives, targets for the
   This strategy will be pursued and reinforced under this      year 2000 and the actions required in the short term.
   Programme. In particular more attention will be given
54
   01    SEC (89) 934 final , September 89
   ®     Council Resolution of 7 May 1 990 OJ N° C1 22
 ---pagebreak--- FIGURE 8:        STRATEGIC CHART FOR A COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT POLICY ON HAZARDOUS AND OTHER
                 WASTES
                       I THE PRINCIPLES                                      V      EVALUATION OF THE WASTE MANAGEMENT
                                                                                    POLICY WTTH RESPECT TO THE PRINCIPLES
 PREVENTION of              RECOVERY of            Safe DISPOSAL
                                                                                                      Feedback
  the production of       the waste produced                                                - Improvement of régulations ,
         waste
                                                                                                instruments and action
By Technologies :        Segregation       and    Réduction of dis ¬
Qean Technologies        sorting                  posai
By Products :            Separate collection
Ecolabel & Product       Material recycling
criteria
By Avoidance :           Energy recovery          Stricter standards
Re-use
By       Behavioural
changes :
Producer and Con ¬
sumer
                             I
             II THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK                                    III THE OBJECTIVES               IV THE ACTIONS
  GENERAL APPLICATION                   SPECIFIC APPLICATION            Strict implementation of Com ¬       Development of data basis on:
Framework Directive on Waste         A. On specific types of wastes :   munity legislation through :            Waste production & character¬
                                                                                                             istics
                                     Directives on :                    Reiiable Data on :                   - Waste treatment facilities
Directive on Hazardous Waste          Waste ofls                        - Waste production & character¬
                                      - PCBs and PCTs                      istics                            Establishment of Integrated
                                      • Sewage sludge                   - Waste treatment facilities         waste management systems :
                                      - Packaging                                                            plans , network, facilities
                                      • Batteries                       Waste management
                                                                                                             Development of ecological bal ¬
Regulation on the Control on         Priority waste streams:                                                 ances for evaluation of waste
shipments of waste                    - Used tyre*                                                           management alternatives
                                      - Haloganated Solvents
                                      - Used cars                                                            Development & application of
 Proposal of Directive on Civil       - Démolition waste                                                     economic instruments
 Liability for damages to the en¬     - Hospital waste                                                       specifically designed towards
 vironment                            - Municipal waste                                                      waste management
                                                                                                             Development and promotion of :
                                     B. On spécifie types of waste :                                          - Clean Technologies
                                                                                                              - Ecoproducts
                                     management operations               Minimization of movements of         - Segregation <fe sorting systems
                                                                         waste                                - Rccycling circuits
                                     Directives and technical standard:                                       - Safe disposal processes
                                     for :                               Establishment of recycling cir¬
                                     Waste Incineration (Municipal anc   cuits and opening of market op¬      Implementation of self-suffi ¬
                                     Industrial Waste)                   tions for recycled materials         ciency and proximity principles
                                     Landfill disposai
                                                                                                              Development of product specifi¬
                                                                                                              cations to provide the use of re¬
                                                                                                              cycled materials
                                                                                                              Development & application of
                                                                                                              community instruments for fi¬
                                                                                                              nancial support :
                                                                                                               - LIFE ( ACE , NORSPA ,
                                                                                                                 MEDSPA)
                                                                                                               - Regional funds
                                                                                                               - Research & development funds
                                                                                                                                                55
 ---pagebreak---                                                              Table 14 : WASTE
                    OBJECTIVES             EC TARGETS UP TO 2000                       ACTIONS                     ИМЕ-        SECTORS/
                                                                                                                  FRAME         ACTORS
               * overall target: rational                                                                                      Industry
                 and sustainable use of                                                                                       Agriculture
                 resources                                                                                                     Transport
                                                                                                                                 Energy
                                                                                                                               Tourism
   Municipal   9 prevention of waste      • waste management plans in         • landfill Directive opera¬       bcforc 1995 EC+MS+LAs
   waste         (closing of cycles)        Member States                        tional                                         Industry
               • maximal recycling and    • stabilization of quantities of    • directive on packaging              1995    EC+MS+LAs
                 reuse of material          waste generated at EC average        opérational                                    Industry
               • safe disposal of any       300kg/capita ( 1985 level™);      * cleaner technologies +          progressive Ind + Public+
                 waste which cannot be      on a country by country basis        product design                             EC+MS+LAs
                 recycled or reused in      no exceedance of 300 Itg/         * policy on priority waste          ongoing   EC+MS+LAs
                 following ranking order.   capita                               streams, stop on landfill                   Ind+NGOs +
                 • combustion as fuel     • recycling/ reuse of paper, glass     for specific wastes (leg ¬                      Public
                 • incinération             and plastics of at least 50%         islation + voluntary
                 - landfill                 (EC average)                         agreements)
                                          • Community-wide , infrastruc¬      * reliable EC-data on waste           1995    EC+MS+LAs
                                            ture, for safe collection , sepa¬    generated, collected and                        + EEA
                                            ration and disposal                  disposed
                                          • no export ouiside EC for final    * system of liability in             2000        EC * MS
                                            dispôsal                             place
                                          * recycling/reuse of consumer       * économie incentives and in¬       ongoing     MS + EC +
                                            products                             struments (tnci. deporit retum                   Ind.
                                          • market for recycled materials        Systems + vol. agreemmts)
                                          * considérable réduction of         * standards for dioxin            before 1994 £C+MS+LAi
                                            dioxin émissions (90% ré¬            emissions from munici ¬
                                            duction on 1985 levels by            pal waste incineration
                                            2005)
   Hazardous   * prevention of waste      • no export outsideEC for final     • landfill Directive opera¬       before 1995  EC+MS+LAs
   waste         (closing of cycles)        disposal                             donal                                          Indusuy
               * maximal reuse/recy¬      * waste management plans iet        • Directive on incineration           1995    EC+MS+LAs
                 cling of material          up in Member States                  of hazardous waste op¬                         Industry
               * safe disposal of any     • EC-wide^nfrastructure for            erational
                 waste which cannot be      safe collection, séparation and   • policy on priority waste          ongoing    EC+MS+lnd
                 recycled or reused fol¬    disposai                              streams, stop on landfill                 +LAs+NGOs+
                 lowing ranking order     • market for recycled materials         for specific waste                             Public
                 - combustion as fuel                                         * cleaner technologies              ongoing   Ind. + EC+MS
                 - incinération                                               * reliable EC-data on waste           1995    £EA+MS+LAi
                  - landfill                                                      generated, collected and                       EC+Ind
                                                                                 disposed
                                                                               * setting up of bourse de        before 1995  EC+MS+lnd
                                                                                 déchets
                                                                               * system of liability in             2000       EC + MS
                                                                                 place
                                                                               * inventory of rislcs                1995     EC+MS+Ini
                                                                               * économie inceatives md b-        ongoing     MS + EC +
                                                                                  «ramena, bd.vol igreemani                       Ind.
   m Based on EUROSTAT and OECD statistics
56
 ---pagebreak---                                                   Chapter 6:
                            Management of Risk and Accidents
Without prejudice to the overall objective of sustainable development, it is essential that over the remainder of
this decade, the assessment and management of risks and the response to accidents and catastrophies should be
improved considerably. Set out below is a summary of the main risk areas to which priority will be given under
this Programme.
                                       6.1 Industry - Related Risks
Protection of the environment and human health             continue as polluting agents long after their original
requires that industry-related risks be tackled on a       purpose is served . The most important industrial uses
number offronts - general industrial activities, chemicals of chemicals are in the processing of paper products,
controls, biotechnology and product-labelling. A           primary metals and food products, petroleum refining
considerable amount of progress has been made as           and the manufacture of textiles, transport machinery,
respects both legislation and controls in pursuance of     electrical machinery and equipment, rubber and
the previous Community action programmes on the            plastics.
environment, notably
                                                           Some of the more beneficial aspects of the new
      Directive 82/501 /EECm on industrial accident        techniques of genetic engineering and biotechnology
      hazards, more general ly referred to as the "Seveso" have been referred to in Chapter 4.1 . However, there
      Directive ;                                          are concerns that this new technology might entail
                                                           potential risks not only related to human health, but
 *    Directive 67/548/EEOa and subséquent amending        also for the total environment . There could be a risk
      Directives on the classification and labelling of    that the widespread use and release of novel , genetically
      dangerous substances;                                modified organisms could upset the delicate balance
                                                           existing in nature or even have evolutionary impacts.
 *    Directives on noxious emissions to air, discharges   Consequently, sound management of biotechnology
      to water and management of toxic and dangerous       both within the European Community and beyond is a
      wastes;                                              must .
 *    Directive 90/21 9/EEC(J> regulating the use of        Regulation ofbiotechnology cal Is for a delicate balance
      genetically modified micro-organisms in research      between public health/environmental concerns and
      laboratories and industrial production plants, and    research/industrial interests. TheCommunity has taken
       Direaive 90/220/EEC4' to ensure appropriate risk     a clear, preventive approach in adopting legislation to
      assessment and management when genetically            establish a common set of environmental risk
      modified organisms are released into the              assessment requirements and safety measures. This is
      environment;                                          intended to protea the health of citizens and the
                                                            environment, as well as ensuring a single unified
  Nevertheless, much remains to be done, especially in      market for biotechnology.
  respect of chemicals and biotechnology.
                                                            The Community has also taken steps to mobilize the
  Chemicals have become a virtually indispensable part      considerable technical potential available in the
  of modem life. Almost all produas contain some            European standardisation bodies in pursuit of effeaive
  chemicals or are processed or wrapped by means of         application of biotechnology and in support of
  chemicals. More than 7 million chemicals are now           legislation; the standardisation programme will be
  identified; about 100,000 are in current use to           extended to include methods for identification of
  manufacture produas. Apart from the increasing             GMOs, standard testing methods for evaluating
  number of chemicals, there has been a phenomenal          environmental impaa and risk and common evaluation
  growth in the quantities produced. For example, global     protocols.
  produaion of organic chemicals alone has jumped
  from 7 million tonnes in 1950 to 63 million tonnes in      Figure 9 overleaf provides a flow diagram showing the
   1970 and to over 250 million tonnes at present. Most      process for dealing with existing chemicals. Priority
  chemical agents are potentially hazardous if incorrealy    aaions to be taken over the remainder of this decade
   applied or if released in large quantities either by      in respect of industrial risks, chemicals and
  design or accident. Moreover, many chemicals tend to       biotechnology are set out in Table 15, below.
                                                                                                                      57
   0)
        O) N° I 230, 5.8.1982
   а
        O) N° L 1 96, 16.8.1967
   a
        OJN°L 117,83.1990
   a
        OJN-L117, 8.5.1990
 ---pagebreak---   FIGURE 9 : FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SELECTION PROCESS FOR DEALING WITH EXISTING CHEMICALS
             2000 High Production Chemicals
                                 - Data collection (up to 1993)
                                   - preliminary assessment
                        200 Priority Chemicals
                                     - detailed assessment,
                                    (25 per year for 8 years)
                                   50 Chemicals
                                             Subject to
                                          comprehensive
                                           risk réduction
                                            programmes
                                              before the
                                                 year
                                                2000
0
 ---pagebreak---                                                            Table 15 : RISK MANAGEMENT
 OBJECTIVES                 TARGETS UP TO 2000                                  MEASURES                          TIME-FRAME    ACTORS
(a ) Industrial
   Activité
- Management          Improved safety standards                  Comprehensive appraisal ofexperience within          1993/4         EC
   of Industrial                                                 the framework of D.82/501
   Risks
                      Development of safety management           Report to Council and Parliament, including           1995          EC
                      standards                                  any necessary programme of action
                      Improvement in , and harmonisation         Development of standards for risk assessment        ongoing    Standards
                      of, implementation measures                and management                                                  Institut es
                      100% coverage of dangerous                 Compréhensive review of implémentation             1994 , 1998      EC
                      establishments
- General             Improved management and procedural         Development of Standard for envirenmental           ongoing    Standards
    Environment       standards                                  management systems                                              Insliiutes
   Controls
                                                                 Eco-audit (progressive)                             1994 =>    Enterprise
(b) Chemicals
    Control
     Data             Effective notification procedure for       Notification of all new chemicals                   ongoing      EC, MS.
    Collection        all chemicals                                                                                               Industry
                                                                  Data collection of all existing chemicals.         1992 =»      EC, MS.
                                                                  Council regulation on existing chemicals                        Industry
     Hazard           Maintenance/improvemeni of existing         Continual update in the light of scientific and    ongoing      EC MS.
     Identification   classification cn Lena                      technical progress
                                                                                                                                Mamjactwas
                                                                  Extension of list of classified substances         ongoing    + importers
     Risk             Common principles for assessments           Amendment of Directive 67/548/EEC                   1992/3         EC
     Assessment
                       Assessment of 2000 high production         Council regulation on existing chemicals            1993 =»     EC, MS.
                       volume chemicals                                                                                           Industry
                       Assessment of 500 active substances        Council Directive on non-agricultural               1994 =»     EC, MS.
                       in non-agricultural pesticides             pesticides                                                      Industry
     Risk              Strengthen links between classification    Establish the Advisory Committee on                  1992         EC +
     Management        and control measures                       chemicals risk reduction                                        Indusuy
     Risk              Risk reduction programmes for 50           Legislation + voluntary agreements                  1994 =»     EC, MS,
     Réduction         priority chemicals                                                                                         Industry
 (с ) Що-
 technotoev
 - Risk manage¬         1 00% coverage of all installations and   Comprehensive review of implémentation             ongoing         EC
    ment         for   activities
    Contained Use
    ofGMOs              Effective safety measures for use of       Development of more detailed criteria              1992 =»     EC + MS
                        GMOs in research 4 industry
 • Risk manage¬         Effective approval procedure for all       Comprehensive review ofimplementation and          ongoing         id
    ment         for    releases in the Community, both for        technical adaptation
    release       of    research and industry
    GMOs to the
    environment                                                    Proposai for rtgulaiory instrument                   1992         EC
                        Oversight of export of GMOs to third
                        countries
  • Risk                                                                                                              1993 =»   EC + MS +
                        Common approaches and principles           Development        of     risk    assessment
     assessment                                                                                                                   Standards
                        for environmental risk assessment          methodologies
                                                                                                                                  Institutes
                                                                   Assessment and common acceptance of                1993 =>    (e-g.CEN)
                        Common          testing        methods ,
                        identification methods , etc .             methods
                                                                    EC législation                                      1992      EC + MS
                         Safe transport of GMO’s
  (d) Protection of
  mimais nsrd
  for ctDerimen-
   tal Dtmxw^i
                                                                    Directive 86/609/EEC                              ongoing      EC, MS,   59
   Réduction       in    50% reduction in the number of
                         vertebrate animals used for                (see also Maastricht Declaration on the                        Industry
   animal experi-
   mentuion              experimental purposes                      protection ai animais)
 ---pagebreak---                                 6.2 Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
   The Euratom Treaty lays down the Community's                            workers throughout the Community in different sectors
   objectives and tasks in relation to the peaceful use of                 using ionising radiation , such as the nuclear power
   nuclear energy. Nuclear safety has received special                     industry and medical , industrial and research
   attention in recent times both inside and outside the                   applications.
   Community. The increasing credibility of Community
   actions in the aftermath of the Chernobyl accident, the                 Because nuclear research and nuclear technology are
   Transnuclear affair and , more recently, the financial                  areas of rapid change and since there are still many
   and technical assistance provided towards                               developments to come in radiobiology and radio
   improvement of safety measures in the nuclear reactors                  pathology, it has always been considered important
   of the countries of the former Soviet Union and Central                 that the safety standards be kept up to date. They have
   and Eastern Europe have increased the pressure on the                   been updated several times since 1 959, the last occasion
   Community to provide leadership in the field of nuclear                 being in 1984 . The Commission has submitted a
   safety.                                                                 proposal to the Council of Ministers for a Directive to
                                                                           update the basic safety standards and to provide a
   Within the Community itself, nuclear electricity                        rigorous system of prior authorisation and control of
   generation at present accounts for about 34% of the                     movements of radioactive wastes from origin to final
   total electricity supply produced by about 1 32 power                   destination point121.
   stations throughout six Members States of the
   Community. This share is larger in Europe than in any                   Following the accident at Chernobyl in April 1 986 the
   other part of the world and reaches proportions of 60                   Community adopted common food controls131 in order
   and 70% respectively in Belgium and France. For the                     both to protea the health of the Community's citizens
   foreseeable future nuclear installations will continue                  and to avoid internal trade conflias. A Council
   to be an important source of energy in the European                     Regulation of March 1990“’ provided for the
   Community, especially in view of its potential to                       continuation of these controls and established a
   guarantee independance from third countries for our                     mechanism to govern the progressive return to normality
   energy supply and to avoid the environmental impacts                    thereafter. Regulations have also been made in regard
   of more traditional energy sources, notably coal and                    to intervention levels for all potentially important
   oil . Accordingly, a continued effort in nuclear safety                 radionuclides in foodstuffs, including baby-foods, dairy
   and radiation protection , as well as appropriately safe                procedure and liquid foodstuffs, to be applied in the
   arrangements for management of nuclear waste and                        event of any future accidents. The set of rules now in
   decommissioning of obsolete plants, will be necessary.                  force are reckoned to constitute a complete proteaive
                                                                           system as far as food stuffs are concerned .
   In recent times there also has been increasi ng evidence
   of a radiological significance of exposure of the                       The Chernobyl accident also demonstrated that the
   populationto indoor radon concentrations. In February                   provision of information at international , national and
    1990, the Commission issued a Recommendation                            local level had to be improved. Two major measures
   following the principles laid down by the International                 taken by the Community in this respea since then are
   Commission on Radiation Proteaion ( ICRP) taking
   account of the most recent data on radon111.                            (i)    A rapid information system, ECURIE, established
                                                                                  in December 1987(S); this system is compatible
    In order to deal in a global way with all these types of                      with an analogous system set up by IAEA in the
   exposures, the Euratom Treaty calls on the Community                           frame of the Convention on early notification of
   to establish uniform safety standards to protea the                            nuclear accidents.
    health of workers and of the general public and ensure                 (ii) A Direaive, adopted in November 198914*, on
   that they are applied. This task includes regulatory,                          informing the general public about health
   technical and informative aspeas.                                              proteaion measures in the event of a radiological
                                                                                  emergency; this Direaive and a subsequent
    Basic safety standards were first issued in the form of                       Communication define the content of the
    Direaives in 1959. These provide the basis for a                              information to be provided to the population
    comprehensive Community policy on radiation                                   under normal circumstances and in case of an
    proteaion, especially as the basic safety standards                           emergency.
    apply to praaically any aaivity which might involve a
    risk to the population , to workers and to the                          The Community has also undertaken a series of
    environment, caused by irradiation or contamination.                    measures in the area of public information that include
    These standards apply at present to about 900,000                       the publication and distribution of handbooks,
    0)
60
    m     OJN°L 80, 273.1990
    ®     Council Directive 92/3/EURATOM of 3 February 1992
    a     OJ N° L 371 , 30.12.1987 - OJ N° L 21 1 , 22.7.1989 - OJ IM° l 101 , 13.4.1989
    *•    OJN°L 82, 293.1990
    "     OJN°L 371 , 30.12.1989
    "     OJN°L 357, 7.1 2.1989
 ---pagebreak--- brochures and videos aimed at media professionals           A special effort will be made in the field of information
and the public at large.                                    and education of the public on radioactivity and
                                                            radiation protection aspects. In particular, in primary
It is particularly important to the nuciear energy sector   and secondary education, pedagogical support material
that public confidence in it be maintained or even          will be made available for teachers in an extended
enhanced . For this purpose it is essential not only that   project. Suitable training of young scientists, medical
the industry operates to acceptably high safety standards   personnel and other workers dealing with ionizing
but also that it is seen to do so. This will require        radiation will continue to play an important role in
widespread public information from credible sources.        radiation protection . Several support actions are at
The national authorities and the utilities themselves       present under consideration, including a training
have the primary role in this regard . However, the         brochure for transport workers who transport
Euratom Treaty entitles the Commission to verify the        radioactive material or waste, a videotape for general
operation and efficiency of environmental monitoring        practitioners and graduating medical students on
facilities installed in Member States. This right was       radiation protection in radiodiagnosis, informative
exercised occasional ly in the early sixties. In December,  brochures for dentists, etc.
 1989 the Commission decided to resume its activities
 in this field.To date , visits have been made at the       Finally, in the field of management of radioactive
 Philippsburg nuclear power station (Germany) and at        wastes a number of signals indicate that the time has
the facilities for controlling the environmental            come to initiate work on a Community-wide strategy
 radioactivity of the Luxembourg Ministry of Health;        that embraces all types of radioactive waste including
 this programme will be stepped up considerably in the      industrial and sanitary waste generated outside the
 period up to 2000. Inspections of equipment for            nuclear fuel cycle. Such strategy should have as an
 measuring discharges of radioactive effluents and for      overriding goal of assuring the protection of the
 environmental monitoring will be carried out at the        environment, workers and population includingfuture
 request of a Member State or on the initiative of the      generations. The preparatory work will take into
 Commission . Particular importance will be attached to     consideration the existing Community instruments as
 the inspection of facilities associated with sites of      well as the implication of the Internal Market for the
 major public concern .                                      management of radioactive waste.
  Nuclear installations of the first generation are at this  A key element ofthe strategi c plan wi 1 1 be a Community
  stage becoming obsolete or are programmed to be            Directive that will modify the basic safety standards for
 decommissioned in the near future. Since this process       radiation protection to cover transfers of radioactive
  will continue as long as nuclear power plants are used     wastes. The Directive is already in an advanced state
  for energy production, it is imperative that satisfactory  of preparation and will extend to radioactive waste the
  radiation protection criteria for dismantling nuclear      existing Community provisions on shipments of
  installations, including the recycling of the materials    hazardous waste. According to the proposal under
  and for restoration of nuclear sites be adopted and        discussion all movements of radioactive waste will be
  implemented as a matter of considerable urgency.           submitted to a rigorous system of authorisation and
                                                             control from their origin to their final destination.
  Among the various actions aimed at improving
  preparedness in the event of a nuclear accident, a          Table / 6 indicates the objectives, targets and measures
  number of Community initiatives on mutual assistance       toapplyovertheremainderofthisdecade. In summary,
   in the case of a nuclear accident or radiological         the Community will continue to improve standards of
  emergency are already under way. They include regular      nuclear safety and radiation protection in order to
   meetings of experts to work towards better utilization    maintain its excellent record ; and as an essential
   ofavailable resources in the event of a nuclear accident  complement, the Community will continue to
   or radiological emergency. A first draft of an inventory  contribute to mitigation of the consequences of the
   of the resources available to counteract the effects of   Chernobyl accident and to upgrading the safety of
   occurrences of this type has already been prepared.        nuclear installations in the countries of the former
   Apart from performing specific tasks, the meetings are     Soviet Union and in Central and Eastern Europe. This
    in themselves creating a ready network of                 latter aspect is dealt more fully with in the chapter
   correspondents from the competent authorities of the       dealing with international co-operation.
   Member States to provide for optimum mutual
    assistance within the Community should the need
    arise.
                                                                                                                       61
 ---pagebreak---                                                             Table 16 : NUCLEAR SAFETY
    OBJECTIVES                 TARGETS UP TO 2000                                 MEASURES                      TIME - FRAME  ACTORS
  (a ) Upgrading of      Update existing Community Basic         Amemiment of Directive 80/83 6ÆURA TOM            1992 =>     EC, MS
  safety measures        Safety Standards according to the
                         1990 ICRP recommendations
                         Keep BSS up to date with scientific     As above                                          ongoing      ECMS
                         developments and latest ICRP
                         recommendations
                         Harmonise Community nuclear             Develop and implement CouncO decision of          ongoing      £CMS
                         safety requirements                     25.07.1975
                         Extend Community safety culture to the  - Technical Assistance Programmes                 1991 =>   EC, MS, Ind.
                         countries of the former Soviet Union    - Extend G-24 coordination to include the         1991 =>    EC. G-24
                         and Central and Easton Europe              countries of the former Soviet Union
                         International Framework Conven-         Active supportto the IAEA in the preparatory      1992 =»    EC, IAEA
                         don                                     work
  (b) Vérification of    Réactivation of a Treaty provision       -Define vérification objectives and goals        1991 =»       EC
  monltoring Ins ¬
  talla lions article 35                                          -Implemenlation                                  ongoing     EC + MS
  - EURATOM
  (c) Strategy on        Complete BSS to include transfers       Supplément Amendment of Directive                 1992 =>     EC, MS
  waste      manage ¬    of radioactive waste                     80/836/EURATOM
  ment
                         Strategic management plan for all       Establish, adopt and implement strategic plan     1992 =»     EC, MS.
                         radioactive waste                                                                                     Indusuy
  (d) Enhancement        Radiation protection education in       - Handbook for teachers                             1992      EC, MS
  of public Informa¬     primary and secondary school
  tion and education                                              ■Brochures, videos                               ongoing        id
                         Improve quality         of    public
                         information                             Standing conference on health and safety in       ongoing       EC
                                                                 the nuclear age
                                                                  Preparation and publication of a journalist's      1992        EC
                                                                 guide to nuclear power
                                                                 Recommendation for a harmonised approach            1993        EC
                                                                 to public information on indoor radon
                                                                 exposure !
  (e) Adequate train¬    Improve quality of ionising of          Courses in different fields of radiation          1992 =»       EC
  ing In radiation       different professional groups           protection and nuclear safety
  protection
0
 ---pagebreak---                     6.3 Civil Protection and Environmental Emergencies
During the period of this Programme, this aspect of the   respect of both natura I a nd technologica I catastroph ies,
Community's activity will be stepped up both as a         including accidental pollution ; optimisation of
practical contribution to the creation of a People's      interventions in the case of emergencies and
Europe and, more importantly, to reflect political and    catastrophies in third countries will require improved
economic developments within and outside the              coordination of the efforts of the Member States within
Community .                                               the Community and increased co-operation with
                                                          pertinent international organisations ( IMO, UNEP,
Two particular aspects will determine the choice of       UNDRO, etc). More satisfactory mobilization of both
priorities in this area :                                 personnel and material resources could be achieved
                                                          by
     firstly, the need to improve the general state of    * the establishment of Task Forces to respond to
     readiness and the operational capacity of civil            different types of emergency;
     protection services for the purposes of securing     * increasingthe range and quality oftraining courses
     human safety in the event of natural and                   and simulation exercises;
     technological disasters;                             *     improving information and communication
                                                                systems for more rapid and efficient transmission
     secondly, the need to improve emergency response           of information, instructions and decisions between
     in the face of growing risks arising from large            the key players in emergency situations.
     industrial concentrations, and the production,
     storage and transportation of toxic or hazardous     The Community - with the Commission acting as
     substances and wastes; in addition, there is a       facilitator - will continue to develop and improve the
     special need to intensify international co-operation  present information network and operational
     to improve response mechanisms in the case of         procedures. Furthermore, a renewed effort will be
     grave environmental catastrophies such as forest      made in the matter of public awareness and education.
     fires and oil spills which, because of scale, often   The designation of the 1 2-month period from June
     exceed the capacity of a single state to respond      1993 as European Year of Civil Protection will offer an
     effectively.                                          important and timely boost in this regard. Activities
                                                           launched in anticipation of and during that year will be
Inoperational terms, itwill be necessary to pressahead     continued systematically at least up to the year 2000
with further improvement and refinement of the             when the UNs international decade on prevention of
mutual assistance procedures and arrangements in           natural catastrophies closes.
                                                                                                                       63
 ---pagebreak---                Chapter 7: Broadening the Range of Instruments
  One of the principal strengths of the European Community, as distinct from other international institutions such
  as the United Nations agencies and OECD, is that it is a legislative body; when it acts in a legislative capacity
  its measures are binding on its constituent Member States. Under the first four action programmes, Community
  activity has predominantly been in the form of Council Directives and Regulations. A great majority of the
  measures adopted have been designed to respond to clearly identified problems or to apply controls to certain
  processes or activities, though there are notable exceptions, such as the measures on environmental impact
  assessments, protection of wild fauna and flora and access to environmental information . Many of the Directives
  serve the dual purpose of protecting the environment and eliminating distortions of competition within the
  Internal Market
  As a consequence of this legislative activity, the Community and its constituent Member States have achieved
  a significant degree of success in containing threats to public health and the environment, which cannot be
  ignored and should not be understated , and now have a body of law which, though relatively young and far from
  complete, provides a very solid foundation forthe further steps which require to be undertaken in theyears ahead.
  There will be a continuing need for legislative measures at Community level , particularly in respect of
        the establishment of fundamental levels of environmental care and protection;
        Community commitments to wider international agreements; and
        common standards and/or controls which may be deemed necessary or expedient to preserve the integrity
        of the Internal Market.
   But it is not feasible to adopt a Directive or Regulation which says :"Thou shalt act in a sustainabie manner". Also,
   because ofthe broad scope of many of the present-day environment issues and the threats to our biosphere posed
   by current trends in political , economic and social life, it is imperative to focus on the causes of environment-
   based problems in a different manner. It is essential to go to the root of these problems - human activity, human
  values in relation to the environment and natural resources and human behaviour and consumption patterns.
   In order to bring about substantial changes in current trends and practices and to involve all sectors of society,
   in a spirit of shared responsibility, a broader mix of "instruments' needs to be developed and applied .
   Environmental policy will rest on four main sets of instruments: regulatory instruments, market-based instruments
   (including economic and fiscal instruments and voluntary agreements), horizontal supporting instruments
   (research, information, education etc.) and financial support mechanisms. The following elements are important
   to the creation of an extended package : a fuller list of objectives, targets, time-frame and relevant actors is set
   out at the end of this Chapter - see Table 17 .
                                 7.1 Improvement of Environmental Data
  Satisfactory guardianship of the environment, from            (a) in most Member States there is a number of
  conception of policies to the adoption and application             different institutions or organisations involved in
  of de facto measures, can ultimately be assured only if            data collection and analysis; differences in
  thequantityandqualityofrelevantinformationisgood                   nomenclatures, criteria, methodologies and
  enough . Better knowledge and understanding of the                 interpretation militate against both compatibility
  fundamental laws which govern the performance and                  and comparability, whether at national , regional
  evolutionary processes of nature under the influence               or Community levels;
  of natural phenomena and human interventions are
   indispensable. Knowledge of nature and natural               (b) there is a serious lack of base-line data, statistics,
   processes is still limited; the ongoing scientific debate         indicators and other quantitative and qualitative
   about the greenhouse effect and its possible                      material required to assess environmental
   consequences offers a striking example of this.                   conditions and trends, to determine and adjust
                                                                     public policies and to underpin financial
   Work on the preparation of the Report of the State of             investments;
   the Environment published concurrently with this
   Programme has hightlighted the lacunae and                    (d there is an almost complete absence of the more
   deficienciesintheavailableenvironmental information               precise, quantitative data on human interventions
   in the Community and the Member States :                          and influences
                                                                     and   influences onon the
                                                                                           the environment
                                                                                                environment which
                                                                                                              which are
                                                                                                                      are
                                                                     needed for meaningful modelling exercises and
0                                                                    the optimisation of policy and large-scale
                                                                      investment decisions;
 ---pagebreak--- (d) information which is available is often not                   *    increasingthe frequency and improvingthe quality
          processed or presented in a suitable form for                ofstate ofthe environment reports at local, regional ,
          potential end-users - administrations, enterprises           national and Community levels.
          and general public - and does not take account of
          the different levels of sophistication or              The European Environment Agency : an essential tool
          simplification required, nor ofthe fact that different
          types of decision require different types or levels    Improvement of environmental information will
          of information .                                       demand a combined effort on the part of all relevant
                                                                 bodies and levels of administration working in an
In the light of the foregoing, and bearing in mind the           effective partnership. Against this background it was
relationship between good decisions and good                     decided to establish a European Agency for the
information, it is imperative that under this Programme          Environment and the European Environment
a high level of priority be assigned to                          Information and Observation Network ( 1 ). The task
 • filling the current gaps in base-line data on the             assigned to the Agency is to supply those concerned
          environment and improving their compatibility,         with the Community Environment policy, in the
          comparability and transparency;                        Community Institutions or in the Member States, with
 • standardisation of scientific and technical aspects           reliable information, comparable across the European
          of information retrieval , collation and               territory. This information will describe the quality and
          interpretation to opti mise the val ue and usefulness  sensitivity of the environment, as well as the pressures
          of data obtained at and between different              bearing upon it The Agency will operate in conjunction
           administrative and business levels and between        with EUROSTAT and the R & D arms of the Commission .
          different geographical regions and levels;             The r6le of the European Environment Agency is seen
 •         exploiting and strengthening the experiences and      as crucial in relation to the evaluation and dissemination
           capacities of the European statistical system to      of information, distinction between real and perceived
           deliver environmentally relevant statistics on a      risks and provision of a scientific and rational basis for
           regular basis, which will be comparable to and        decisions and actions affecting the environment and
           linked to the traditional official statistics in the   natural resources. It is imperative, accordingly, that the
           economic and social fields;                           Agency become fully operational as a matter of
                                                                  considerable urgency.
                       7.2 Scientific research and technological development
  Whilegovemment,enterpriseandconsumersrepresent                  matters of bio-ethics, formulation and promotion of
  the essential economic players whose decisions can              priority research programmes, exchanges of data and
  benefit or impact upon the environment, the range of            results and technology transfer,
  options which can be brought into play will rely
  heavily on the success in identifying cause and effect The Community already has a significant involvement
  relationships and in finding appropriate scientific and in research and development related to environmental
  technological solutions. In Chapter 2 it is recognised problems and issues. Programmes such as Environment
  that the ultimate limiting factor for economic and and Marine S&T include basic and strategic studies of
   social development is the tolerance level ofthe natural global change, its possible impacts, ecosystem
  environment. Concepts such as environmental dynamics, natural and technological risks as well as
   tolerance and resilience, risk, impact, etc, which are environmental improvement through cleaner
   essential in the formulation of policy, can only be technologies, waste management and mitigation of
   defined and utilized by understanding fundamental industrial accident risks. Other R & D programmes,
   environmental processes operating at the key spatial such asthose on biotechnology, agro-industry, energy,
   and temporal scales, and how these are altered by industrial materials and information technologies, all
   human activity. In each ofthe sectors addressed in this contain workontheirrespectiveenvironmental aspects.
    Programme, particular attention needs to be paid to
   opportunities for improving the environment and the However, it is clear that a substantially increased and
    management of the natural capital stock through the more coherent R & D effort is required in order to
    better use ofexistingtechnologies and the development address the more far-sighted, cohesive and effective
    and use of new or improved ones.                               strategycontainedinthisPolicyandAction Programme.
                                                                   In essence, EC-level R & D must provide direct support
    Considerable achievements have already been made for the following objectives, inter alia,
    in the development of clean technologies and genetic                                                             .
    engineering, forexample, but a wealth ofopportunities -              Provision
                                                                         Provision of
                                                                                   ofaa scientific
                                                                                        scientific basis
                                                                                                   basis for
                                                                                                         for evaluating
                                                                                                             evaluating state
                                                                                                                         state of
                                                                                                                               o
    and potential new industries awaits exploitation. For                the
                                                                         the environment
                                                                             environment and and improved
                                                                                                  improved early
                                                                                                              early warning
                                                                                                                    warning of of
    the most part, this field will need to be tackled at                 environmental   problems.  This  implies development
                                                                         environmental problems.Thisimpliesdevelopment
     company, regional and national levels. The Community                of
                                                                         of environmental
                                                                             environmental baselines,
                                                                                               baselines, indices,
                                                                                                            indices, advanced
                                                                                                                       advanced   65
     for its part, can make important contributions in the               monitoring and assessment systems, etc.
                                                                         monitoring   and  assessment    systems,  etc.
     (1 )      Council Régulation EC/1210/90; OJ L120of 11.05.1990
 ---pagebreak---        Improved understanding of basic environmental              materials, new and cleaner processes, improved
       processes and the impacts of human activities.             waste management and prevention of industrial
       Here, long-term strategic research is required to          accidents. Work in this area will be directed
       elucidate global change, its possible impacts and          primarily towards the target sectors identified in
       to define the conditions for environmentally               Chapter 4.
       sustainable development.
                                                           Finally, the relationships and linkages between
       Development of a sound basis for regulatory and     environmental policy and supporting R & D must be
       market related instruments. This would comprise     substantial ly strengthened . In order to ensure maximum
       essentially pre-normative R & D concerning public   gain from R & D activities, improved information flow
       health and safety, environmental risks and impact   and feedback between R & D and policy formulation
       assessments, environmental audits, chemicals        wi II be required, as well as a more adaptable approach
       control, etc.                                       to R & D so as to enable it to respond more directly and
                                                           flexibly to changing policy requirements. Reciprocally,
       Development and application of techniques for       it will be important to devise mechanisms whereby
       prevention , reduction and mitigation of            policy formulation and implementation can respond
       environmental impact. This would include            to changes in scientific knowledge and technological
       advances in environmental biotechnology, new        capability.
                                     7.3 Sectoral and Spatial Planning
  Sound land-use and structural planning can provide               at local level for issues which have limited
  the framework and the ground-rules for the socio¬               geographical impact.
  economic development and ecological health of a
  country, region or locality. In the endeavour to achieve Within the Community, land-use and structural
  sustainability, the planning functions and the public    planning generally follows an identifiable sequence
  authorities in whom responsibility is vested must ensure starting with national or regional economic plans and
  an optimisation of the "mix* of industry, energy,        ending with local physical development and
  transport, human habitation, leisure and tourism,        environmental protection plans. The sequence has
  ancillary services and supporting infrastructure which   two principal components - the upstream policies or
  is consistent with the carrying capacity of the          plans including control principles and statements of
  environment.                                             intent, and the downstream programmes and projects
                                                           which form the basis of action . Given the goal of
  Integrated planning of this kind will be a particularly  achieving sustainable development it seems only
  important element in the drive for economic and social    logical, if not essential , to apply an assessment of the
  cohesion in the Community. The achievement of the        environmental implications of all relevant policies,
  various mixes required in different areas and            plans and programmes.
  circumstances and at different population levels
  demand an advanced level of planning and co¬             The integration of environmental assessment within
  ordination within the Member States .                    the macro-planning process would not only enhance
                                                           the protection of the environment and encourage
  The establishment of an appropriately comprehensive      optimisation of resource management but would also
  planning/development/environmental protection             help to reduce those disparities in the international
  framework calls for the application of the principle of  and inter-regional competition for new development
  subsidiarity through decision-making at the most          projects which at present arise from disparities in
  appropriate level, for example:                           assessment practices in the Member States.
        at Member State or Community level where
        national and regional economic development          Fi na I ly, i n pursua nee ofthei r commitment to i ntegration
        plans or global issues are in question;            of policies, the Commission and the Members States
        at the level of natural geographical or regional    have already undertaken - at the Maastricht Summit -
        units where regional development, pollution or     to taken full account of environmental impact and the
        river-basins are involved and for inter-urban       pri nciple of sustainable development in the formulation
        transport;                                          and implementation of measures.
0
 ---pagebreak---                     7.4 The Economic Approach: Getting the Prices Right
Although the value of many environmental assets is           *     makeprovisionintheiraccountsforenvironmental
difficult to measure in monetary terms and , in the case           risks and future environmental expenses,
of particularly important or rare elements should not
be priced in any event, valuations, pricing and              Use of
                                                             Use   of economic
                                                                      economic andand fiscal
                                                                                      fiscal incentives
                                                                                             incentives
accounting mechanisms have a pivotal role to play in         In order to get the prices right and to create market
theachievementofsustainabledevelopment. Economic                     incentivesforenvironmentallyfriendlyeconomic
                                                             based incentives   forenvironmentally friendly economic
valuations can help economic agents to take                  behaviour, the use of economic and fiscal instruments
environmental impacts into account when they take            will have to constitute an increasingly important part
investment or consumption decisions. Where market            of the overall approach. The fundamental aim of these
forces are relevant, prices should reflea the full cost to   instruments will be to internalize all external
society of produaion and consumption, including the          environmental costs incurred during the whole life-
environmental costs.                                                                                      produaion,
                                                             cycle of products from source through produaion.
                                                             distribution , use and final disposal , so that
Among the measures required to be taken in order to          environmentally-friendly products will not be at a
determine environmental costs with a view to more            competitive disadvantage in the market place vis-^-vis
environmentally effeaive pricing mechanisms are:             produas which cause pollution and waste. In this
      evaluation of the natural and environmental            respea, two options are possible : a pricing approach
      resource stocks ofthe Member States in economic        and one related toquantity. While the Community and
      terms;                                                 the Member States are currently engaged in the former,
      development of renewable resource indicators           it will be important to study also the extent to which
      for Member States (and, in appropriate cases,          possible options such as tradeable permits could be
      regions) to show the rates at which natural            utilized to control or reduce quantities. It will be of
      resources are used and renewed including               increasing importance to ensure that the range of
      availability and use of water resources, soil          instruments will be applied in a cost effeaive way so
      formation and erosion , growth and harvesting of       as to avoid unnecessary adjustment costs to the
      forests, regional fish populations and catches, etc;   economy of the Community to minimise adverse
      extension and adaptation of the traditional tools      distributional consequences and to achieve optimum
      of economic statistics on the basis of research at     environmental benefit In developing such instruments,
      national and European level , including                it will also be important to consider not only the
      modification of key economic indicators, such as       potential impaa on the local and wider environment
      GNP, so as to reflea the value of natural and          butalsotheireconomicefficiency and regional impact
      environmental resources in generating current
      and future incomes and to account for                  A first important category of economic instruments
      environmental losses and damage on the basis of        consistofchargesand levies. They are well understood
      assigned monetary values;                              and used, for instance in the field of water pollution.
      development of meaningful cost/benefit analysis        They have been developed in the past primarily to
       methodologies and guidelines in respea of policy      create the necessary funds for clean-up operations and
       measures and aaions which impinge on the               infrastructures such as water treatment installations,
      environment and the natural resource stock;            and will remain important for these and other similar
       redefinition of accounting concepts, rules,            purposes such as waste disposal. However, in line with
       conventions and methodology so as ensure that         the polluter-pays principle, such charges should be
      the consumption and use of environmental                progressively reorientated towards discouraging
       resources are accounted for as part of the full costs  pol lution at source and encouragi ng clean produaion
       of produaion and refleaed in market prices. Such       processes, through market signals.
       measures must include appropriate checks and
       controls so as to ensure market transparency and       Responsibility for charges and levies on emissions
       fair competition.                                      from stationary sources traditionally has been a task for
                                                              national and local authorities. According as such
 To maintain or improve enterprise awareness of               charges     become more widespread and have real
 environmental issues, to ensure that all environmental       environmental impaa and, in consequence, generate
 expenses and risks are taken into account, and to            greater financial income, some intervention at
 facilitate a stewardship funaion of accounts on              Community level may be necessary to ensure that
 environmental topics, enterprises should:                    charging systems are designed in a transparent and
 * disclose in their annual reports details on their          comparable way, and to ensure that distortions of
       environmental policyandaaivities, and the effects       competition within the Community are avoided (e.g.
       thereof;                                                in the cases of water and air pollution), especially
 *      disclose in their accounts the expenses on             where emissions or discharges from mobile sources
        environmental programmes (this requires a clear        are concerned.
                                                                                                                        67
        definition of such expenses);
 ---pagebreak---    As a second category, fiscal incentives can exert            processes constitute a particular category of state aids
   considerable influence on patterns of consumption            which is coming into increasing use. Such fiscal
   and behaviour. Environmental considerations are              incentives can be very effect:ve in speeding up the
   already being taken into account in the fiscal area          introduction of clean capital equipment, and should
   within the Community : ready examples include the            be encouraged to facilitate the critical transition
   differentiated duties being applied by the Member            towards sustainability.
   States in the case of unleaded and leaded petrol , the
   proposal for a Council Directive on excise duties on         A fourth category of market-based instruments to be
   motor fuels from agricultural sources1’ 1 and the energy/    developed inthe Community isenvironmental auditing.
   carbon tax envisaged in the Commission                       In the first instance this has to be seen as an internal
   Communication "A Community Strategy to limit carbon          management tool which should indicate performance
   dioxide emissions and to improve energy efficiency"®.        on resource management including use of raw materials,
                                                                energy consumption, productivity levels and waste. It
   This evolution will be encouraged over the period            should highlight areasof risk, indicate performance on
   covered by this Programme with a view to an overall          risk prevention and management and audit levels of
   modernisation and rationalization of fiscal systems to       safety and hea'th in the work place. For shareholders,
   render them more responsive to the need to protect the       investors, financial and insurance institutions such
   natural resource base and the environment. In this           resource-based audits would provide a performance
   regard, it is now widely accepted as economically            indicator as important as traditional financial accounts.
   more efficient to tax those activities which damage the      For public authorities and the public at large,
   economic resource structure, including the                   environmental audits will provide both a compliance
   environment, and to reduce the burden of those taxes         and performance indicator which can provide a boost
   which can have a negative effect on employment and           to overall public confidence.
   investment. Every care should be taken, however, to
   avoid increases in the overall burden of taxation .          Lastly, an integrated Community approach to
                                                                environmental liability will be established. The concept
   State aids, involving direct and indirect subvention         of "shared responsibility" has an important dual aspect.
   systems, form a third category ofeconomic instruments.       On the one hand, it is important to share responsibility
   The Commission has already adopted a framework for           for preventing further damage to the environment. On
   environmental state aids in order to guarantee an            the other hand, there is also the need to protect the
   orderly system in the Community which is compatible          common interest in the environment by making sure
   with the "polluter pays principle". This framework will      that, if damage to the environment does occur, it is
   be updated to take into consideration not only the           properly remedied through restoration. Liability will
   growing importance of subsidies for particular typesof       be an essential tool of last resort to punish despoilation
   environmental expenditure, but also to ensure the            of the environment In addition - and in line with the
   integrity of the Internal Market                             objective of prevention at source - it wi 1 1 provide a very
                                                                clear economic incentive for management and control
   Fiscal déductions to encourage investments in                of risk, pollution and waste.
   environmental equipment and clean production
                                     7.5 Public Information and Education
   The success of the drive towards sustainability will         As regards general information, a comprehensive
   depend to a very considerable extent on the decisions,       strategy will be required to inform the public at large,
   actions and influence of the general public. But, while      the social and economic partners, regional and local
   surveys show a high , and increasing, level of               authorities and non-governmental organisations of the
   environmental awareness among the general public,            objectives and targets of Community environment
   the public is considerably lacking in essential              policy and of their respective responsibilities and
   information. In addition to having access to available       potential contributions. This strategy will provide for
   environmental information under Council Directive            the creation of structures facilitating the participation
   90/31 3/EEO,) (due to come into force 31 December            of citizens and actors in the Commission's actions in
   1 992) and a right to involvement in the assessment of       this field. These structures could be set up on regional
   environmental effects of major projects, it is essential     and/or local level , taking into account the experiences
   thatthe citizen be enabled to participate in the process     of existing networks (the centres for rural information
   of setting conditions for operating licenses and             and the local urban initiative centres).
   integrated poll ution control, and be facilitated in judging
   the actual performance of public and private enterprises     The individual, as a consumer, can make a fully
   through access to inventories of emissions, discharges       informed and rational choice only if the product
   and wastes and to environmental audits.                      information with which he/she is provided covers all
68
   σ>
         COM (92) 36 final, 28.2.1992
   Ш
         SEC (91)1744 final, 14.10.1991
   0)
         OJN°L 158/56, 23.6.90
 ---pagebreak--- relevant aspects such as performance, reliability,             "the objective ofenvironmental education is to increase
energy-efficiency, durability, running costs, etc, and if      the public awareness of the problems in this field, as
this information is given in a neutral form, supported         well as possible solutions, and to lay the foundations
by effective and dependable guarantees . The                   for a fully informed and active participation of the
Community-wide eco-label will make a contribution              individual in the protection ofthe environment and the
in this respect, but it, too, will require to be developed     prudent and rational use of natural resources ".
within the short-to- medium term and combined with a
more global approach to consumer safety and                    This Programme calls for a speeding up of substantive
environmental protection .                                     implementation of the Resolution. Without prejudice
                                                               to the Member States' prerogatives in the field of
The importance of education in the development of              education, environmental studies - whether separate
environmental awareness cannot be overstated and               or integrated into natural and social science studies or
should be an integral element in school curricula from         amalgamated with other studies in preparation for
primary level onwards.                                         everyday life (such ascivics, politics, industrial relations,
                                                               hygiene and health care) - should be included in all
The starting point for joint action by the European            primary and secondary school curricula by the year
Community and the Member States in the field of                2000 at the latest and be listed as a formal examination
environmental education is the Resolution on                   option as soon as possible after that date. In order to
 Environmental Education of the Council and the                work towards those goals it will be necessary to
 Ministers of Education meeting within the Council of          initiate, without delay, the establishment of university
 24 May 1 98801. The Resolution states - inter alia - that:    courses and summer-schools, teacher training
                                                                programmes and the publication and development of
                                                               environmental literature and teaching aids.
                                 7.6 Professional Education and Training
 Current and projected trends in structural and                       operation of sewage plants and waste water
 technological change, in market supply and demand,                   treatment facilities;
 and in market competition can be attributed to a                     environmental impact assessment.
 significant degree to a user-driven market which
 increasingly is demanding quality in all aspects of both       In the private sector, additional skills and training
 products and services. The response to this demand is          required at all levels, managerial and operational ,
 dictated by the level of skills and "know-how" within          include
 the manufacturing and service sectors. Furthermore,                  in manufacturing industry : research and
 empirical data in respect of Europe and the U.S.A.                   development, process management, energy
  indicate that there is a close correlation between the              efficiency, exploitation of biotechnologies,
  proportion of population who undergo a high standard                prevention, reuse, recycling and safe disposal of
  of professional and vocational education and training               wastes, containment and rehabilitation of
  and regional prosperity; that in such regions there                  contaminated sites, transport operations, vehicle
  tends to be a demand for higher quality; and that                    maintenance and fuel conservation ;
  producers of goods and services in those regions are                 in agriculture, horticulture and forestry : nature
  competitive in wider, even global , markets.                         conservation and management, ecologically
                                                                       sustainable farming practices, agricultural and
  These factors, among others, are indicative ofthe need               horticultural advisers, waste management ,
  for new or additional ski Its or training in administrations         integrated pest control, erosion control and
   and in manufacturing and service industries if both the             prevention and control of fire,
   Community's environmental and Internal Market                       in the services sector : environment consultancy
   objectives are to be met. Specific skills and training              (legal and technical), provision and dissemination
   requirements emerging from studies (e.g. the FAST                   of information and knowledge (especial to SMEs),
   programme) made across the Community include ;                      environmental impact assessments, environmental
                                                                        accounting and auditing, cleaner and more
   In the public sector,                                               efficient transport and better qual ity tourist services
                                                                        and information.
        policy, structural and project decision-making
        and management;
        management of water resources;                           In terms of occupations, the needs include biologists
        energy conservation and waste disposal in pub ic         and chemists, geologists and land surveyors, architects
         institutions (hospitals, power stations, public         and land-use planners, civil, mechanical, electrical
        offices, plant and machinery);                           and production engineers, and environmental
         monitoring ofstandards ofadherence to legislation technicians, operatives and training specialists.                    69
         arid operating conditionsand of ievelsof pollution;
          OJN°C 177,6.7.88
 ---pagebreak---                                         7.7 Financial Support Mechanisms
   Within the overall context of sustainable development,     the contracts between the Member States and the
   conservation of natural resources and prevention of        Commission (as fund managers) require conformity
   pollution and waste and effective application of the       with environmental legislation and assessment of the
   'polluter pays principle' the policies and actions set     environmental impact of projects. However where
   out in this Programme should pay for themselves.           models of regional development overemphasi ze short¬
   Tenaciously pursued, they should increase industrial ,     term economic growth there can be environmental
   economic and social efficiency and prosperity at no        side effects which are not consistent with the goal of
   greater cost than more wasteful current practices.         sustainable development. Yet more emphasis will be
                                                              given, accordingly, to assessment of the wider
   As a matter of principle, financial interventions from     implications of plans, programmes and projects for
   Community or public funds must not have the effect of      the environment and the sustai nability ofdevelopment.
   diminishing the fundamental responsibility of the
   relevant economic 'actors' and must not provide an         Forthcoming Review of the Structural Policies
   alibi for failure to integrate the environmental dimension In the further reform of the Structural Funds, the
   into production processes, into choices of individual      Community will aim to promote development which
   behaviour and into relevant economic and sectoral          will be sustainable in pursuance of Article 2 of the new
   policies and programmes. Further, the fact that there      Treaty. In th is context Fund-assisted development shou Id
   are financial interventions must not create any            be based on the intrinsic strengths and natural resources
   misunderstanding that sustainable development is more      of the designated regions and be geared towards high
   expensive or less cost efficient than a laissez-faire      quality processes and products. This implies both a
   approach.                                                  greater level of integration of the environmental
                                                              dimension into the Fund processes themselves - with
   Nevertheless, certain current and prospective financial    the environment beingtreated as a mainstream concern
   mechanisms have, and will continue to have, a              of the development process - as well as improved
   significant input into the achievement of objectives of    coordination and synergy between the different funds.
   the Programme.                                             Such an approach will be fundamental for the longer-
                                                              term economic and social cohesion of the Community.
   The Structural Policies
   The Community's Structural Funds - that is to say the       In the case of the ERDF, Fund-assisted development
   European Regional Development Fund ( ERDF), the            will take account of the environmental implications.
   European Social Fund ( ESF) and the guidance element       Member States wi 1 1 be encouraged to take an integrated
   of the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee        approach, taking full account of the environmental
   Fund ( EAGGF) - are applied in the Community to             impact at an early stage in the formulation of plans and
   strenghten economic and social cohesion and benefit         programmes and avoidi ng environmental degradation
   the poorer regions of the Community. A major reform        that could be irreversible or would require costly
   of their operation was agreed in 1988; the financial       corrective action in future .
   resources available for assisting the weaker regions
   have been both increased and concentrated on specific      As regards the ESF, this Programme stresses the
   objectives. The budget is being doubled in real terms       importance which attaches to education and training
   between 1987 and 1993; in 1992 it represents about         aspects, including indications of professional and
   27 % of the overall Community budget.                      vocational expertise which will be needed for its
                                                              effective implementation. In the context of the review,
   Of these Funds, the ERDF at present makes the most         and in conjunction with the Task Force on Human
   important contri bution towards economic development        Resources, Education, Training and Youth, the ESF will
   through its direct intervention in the financing of        give increased support to job-creation and training
   productive investments and infrastructures. Many of its     related to environmental activities that facilitate
    interventions have consequences for the environment        sustainable regional development
   Within the ERDF, funds devoted to 'environmental
    projects' have risen considerably from around 100         The opportunities and incentives to promote responsible
   MECU per year in 1985-87 to some 700 MECU per               management of land, forest and eco-systems through
   year under the present programme (in 1991 prices),          both the EAGGF and ESF will increase according as the
    partly as a consequence of ENVIREG and other               Common Agricultural Policy is reoriented towards a
    Community initiatives. The ESF, in its support oftraining  better balanced and more dynamic management of
    and job-creation, and the EAGGF in its interventions       rural areas ofthe Community. As a general principle to
   on rural development and eco-farming also contribute        be applied in the long-term re-structuring of the CAP,
   tothe protection and improvement ofthe environment          entitlement to Community support will progressively
                                                               become conditional on exploitation of agricultural
    In addition to the 'environmental' expenditure referred    and other rural resources in an environmentally
70
    to, the Community Support Frameworks which form            acceptable way, and eventually in a way which
 ---pagebreak--- enhances and improves the quality of the rural                    projects in the field of environment this means
environment and the countryside in general .                      that they must result from a Community decision
                                                                  which implies disproportionate costs for the public
Finally, as respects the Structural Funds in general ,            authorities of the Member State in question . In this
there is a need for more integrated planning and                  way the Cohesion Fund will help the poorer
networking, especially where the integration and                  Member States to effectively apply Community
cohesion of peripheral regions are concerned - this is            environmental legislation .
a theme which will is pursued further in the framework
of the " Europe 2000" exercise” 1.                                The second condition is prior adoption by the
                                                                  Council of an economic convergence programme.
Community Financial Instrument forthe Environment                 Implementation of this programme will be
( LIFE)                                                           monitored by the Community in the context of
While the philosophical concepts of environmental                 multilateral surveillance provided for in Article
responsibility and sustainable development are quite              104c of the Treaty.
widely accepted, they still remain rather abstract for
the vast majority of economic actors. Whether as
administrators, entrepreneurs or consumers, they may        The Commission will be presenting a proposal in the
not understand how they are expected to translate           course of 1992 for a Regulation on the establishment
concepts into everyday actions. In this context, the        and operation of the Fund .
principle tasks of LIFE will lie in
        defining and promoting models of production and     The European Investment Bank
        behaviour which are in line with the principles of  Environmental protection has constituted an important
        sustainable development;                            criterion for EIB project selection and appraisal for
        practical demonstration of the technical viability  most of the last twenty years. In 1983 , a formal
        and economic efficiency of chosen models and        declaration of intent on environmental policy was
        actions;                                            made by the EIB of a " Declaration of Environmental
        supporting specific demonstrations, pilot projects  Policies and Procedures relating to Economic
        and horizontal information, education and training  Development", together with the World Bank, regional
        designed to infl uence the economic actors through  development banks, UNEP, UNDPand the Commission
        the use of practical examples; and,                 of the European Communities; the EIB became a
        strengthening administrative structures.            member of the Environmental Committee of the
                                                            International Development Institutions (CIDIE).
 Up to now, these types of actions have been pursued
 in a rather disparate fashion through a collection of      In 1984 , the Board of Governors          laid down the
 small-scale financial instruments-MEDSPA, NORSPA,          foundations of Bank policy enabling it to intervene in
 ACE and ACNAT. LIFE is designed to achieve an              favour of environmental ly-related projects throughout
 effective integration and increased efficiency of the      the entire Community. Since 1988 the Bank has
 foregoing instruments through better co-ordination of      maintained cooperation with the World Bank within
 procedures and better all-round management                 the framework of the Environmental Programme for
                                                            the Mediterranean (EPM). One result ofthis co-operation
                                                            is the Mediterranean technical assistance programme,
 Institution of a Cohésion Fund                             METAP, whose objective is to function as a catalyst for
 Article 130d ofthe Treaty on European Union provides       environmental investment in the region . Further
 for the establishment, before 31 December 1 993 , of a     opportunities for increased cooperation are envisaged
 Cohesion Fund forthe making of financial contributions     - for instance, cofinancing investment within ENVIREG.
 to projects in the fields of environment and trans-
  European networks in the area oftransport infrastructure.  For its operating purposes the Bank has adopted an
 The potential beneficiaries are Greece, Ireland, Portugal  environmental definition which covers water-related
  and Spain . The very nature of the Fund presupposes a      projects, solid waste disposal, air pollution control,
  high level of Community intervention (85 to 90 %). The     heritage conservation and certain urban pollution-
  Cohesion Fund will add a new dimension to the              reducing projects. Notwithstandingthis rather restrictive
  economic and social cohesion effort. The new Fund         definition there has been both a sharp increase in Bank
  will be to these States what the Structural policies are   lending in Member Countries in recent years (rising to
  to the regions.                                            1 5% of total lending in 1 989) and a widening of types
                                                             of environmental investment covered . The
  It is envisaged that Cohesion Fund financing will be       environmental content of the Bank's lending varies
  subject to two conditions :                                among the Member States (from 2% - 3% in Portugal
                                                             and France to 44% in Germany), reflecting, among
         Firstly, the projects to be considered must derive  other factors, the Bank's range of lending possibilities
         their origins from Community legislation. For       in these countries.
                                                                                                                        0
   ni    COM (91 ) 452 final , 7.1 1.1991
 ---pagebreak---                                                      Table 17 : HORIZONTAL MEASURES
 OBJECTIVES                 TARGETS UP TO 2000                                   ACTIONS                          TIME-FRAME ACTORS
UMTCOVEMENT        - Improvemenl of Base line data                 • Community           programme           for    1992 =»    EEA + fiC
OF DATA                                                              environmental slansuci
                                                                   * National statistics on environment              1995          MS
                                                                   * Regional and Community statistics                1995         EC
                   - Development of Environmental Indicators       * Indicators ofgeneral progress and trends         1995         EC
                                                                                                                      1997         EC
                   - Regular assessment ofquality and progress     * National and Community reports on                1995         MS
                                                                     the state of the environment                    2000          EC
                   • Inventory of polluting emissions and          • Published inventories (progressive)            1994 =»        EC,
                      discharges , and waste                                                                                    Enterprise
2- SCIENTIFIC      - Considérable reinforcementof investmenu       • New R A D programme                            1992/96    Enterprise
RESEARCH              in general environment + energy R+D                                                                       + MS+EC
AND TECHNO-        - Specific programmes as low carbon                                                                1993          id
LOGICAL DE-           technology, biomass, and other renewable
VELQPMENT             energies
                   - Extended programmes on biotechnology,                                                            1995          id
                      including its use in integrated pest control
                      in agriculture
                   - Expanded programme on clean                                                                      1993          id
                      technologies, recycling technologies ,
                       recyclable and reusable materials
3 . SECTORAL       Integrated socio-economie development           • Integrated Regional Development Plans          1992 =»   MS, LAs, EC
AND SPATIAL        plans                                           • Integrated Transport Management Plans            1994    MS, LAs, EC
PLANNING                                                              up to 2000
                                                                   * Integrated Coastal Management Plans              1998    MS , LAs, EC
                                                                   * Integrated Transport Plans for 2010              1997    MS, LAs. EC
                                                                   * Environmental Impact Assessment at             1995 =»   MS, LAs, EC
                                                                      planning and at project level                 ongoing
                                                                   * EIA applied to ERDF - aimed                    1993 =»   MS, LAs, EC
                                                                      programmes + projects
4 . GETTING        Evaluation of environmental resource stock      • Preliminary guidelines                           1993         EC
                                                                      linked to “Improvement of Data”                 1995   EJEAM.C, MS
RIGHT
a) Evaluation and   Development of renewable resource              * “Shadow” GNP tables showing natural            1995 =»  MS + EC
    accounting      indicators                                       resource values
                    Modification of key economic indicators        • Formai GNP tables                              1999 =*         id
                   CostArenefu analysis                            * Development + implémentation of a              1992 =»     MS * /nd.
                                                                      cohérent programme intemalizing
                                                                      extemal costs
                    Institutions of environmental                  * Consultations with professional                  1992         EC
                    accounting mechanism                              organisations
                                                                    • Community guidelines                            1993
                                                                                                                              Accountants
                                                                                                                                *Profess.
                                                                    * Parallel accounts in companies                2000 =»    Bodies* EC
                    Disclosure of environmental issues in the       * Consultation with MS, Industry and             1992/3  ECJvCJndustry
                    accounts of enterprises                           professional organisations                             AProf.Bodies
                    Instruments                                     • EC Directive                                    1994       EC+MS
b)Fiscal            Intégration of environment protection           * Promotion of fiscal incentives for              1993      MS * EC
    incentives      requirentents irtto fiscal polides                 environment
c)Charges           Improved transparency of charging systems       * Review ofmuons! md local levies and charges     1993      MS + LAs
                                                                    - collation of data                                            EC
d)Sta!e aids        Application of polluter pays principle          * Comprehensive review of State Aids             1992/3     EC + MS
                                                                      in environment field
e)Other              - Environmental Audit of all major public      * Directive on Eco-audits                         1992    EC + MS +
    economic and        and private enterprises                        Ecoaudits                                      1994    Accounlants
    market related                                                  * Consultations with MS, Industry and            1992/3  EC + MS, LAs
    mstramenu                                                          insurance institutions                                 + Enterprise
                                                                    * Initiation of scheme of performance             1995    A/5+LAS +
                                                                       Bonds in respect of covenants and                       Insurance
                                                                       license conditions                                     companies
 ---pagebreak---                                                    Table 17 : HORIZONTAL MEASURES
 OBJECTIVES             TARGUES UP TO 2000                                          ACTIONS                       TIME-ERAME     ACTORS
              - Integrated li Ability and joint responsibility      • Directive on civil liability for damage        1993 =»   I   £C + MS
                                                                       caused by waste
                                                                    • Discussion document on civil liability           1992            EC
                                                                       and joint responsibility systems
                                                                                                                               I
                                                                    • Adoption of EC regulation                        1995    i   EC + MS
              - Deposit/Refund systems                              • Progressive unplementaijoo                     ongoing      MSJ-nterpr
                                                                       Reports on progrès s and effecliveness         1995/8       EC + MS
S. PUBLIC     - Improved level of general information               • Public access to environminfo                    1993       LArMSMC
INFORMATION                                                         • Regular slate -of-environment reports          1995           LAs.MS
AND
EDUCATION     - Specific information campaigns on                   • Waste.energy consumption , transport           1992 =>        EC, MS.
                selected themes                                        etc. (to be decided by Environment                             public
                                                                       Policy Review Group)                                          utilities
              - Improved Consumer information                       • Ecological labelling                           1993           EC. MS
                                                                    • Integrated EnvironmcntaUConsumcr                 1998         ECMS.
                                                                       Safety label                                               Standards
                                                                                                                                  Institutes
              - Integrated environment into all primary             * Report on current situation and proposal         1992            EC
                and secondary school curricula                         on developments
                                                                    * Programme of pédagogie research                 1992/3      MSEdJnsJBC
                                                                    • Adoption of general guidelines                   1993            MS
                                                                    * Préparation of books/leaching aids             ongoing       Enterprise
                                                                    • Training of teachers                           1993 =>      Edite. Insis .
                                                                    • Integration into school curricula                2000            MS
                                                                    • Programme of seminars , summer                 1993 =>       MSXduc.
                                                                       schools , colloques                                           In sis .
                                                                    • Annual update of progress                      1993 =>           EC
6. PROFES ¬   - Integration of environmental studies in a           • Report on current situation for all sectors      1992             EC
SIONAL          representative proportion of third level            • Incorporation of environment studies           1993 =>         National
EDUCATION       institutions                                                                                                       EducJnsts.
AND                                                                 • Idem of environment faculties                     id               id
              - Vocational training programmes for                  • Pedagogic research , preparation         of    1992 =»      Educ . Insis .
                technicians, machine operators , agrono¬               books and leaching aids                                     Enterprise
                mists. foresters and other appropriate
                 workers and trainers
              • Professional training courses , seminars            * Co-ordination among professional               1992 =>       EC ♦ Prof.
                 and workshop for planners , accountants ,             institutes , development of guidelines                        Bodies
                 auditors                                              and procedures
              - Ongoing programme of courses and                    • Idem                                               id              id
                 seminars for policy planners, transport
                 managers , agricultural advisers , tourism
                 operators
7 . FINANCIAL  Full integration of environmental dimension in        • Take account of environmental impact          1993 =»       MS. LA ».
              disbursement ofstructural funds (with effect from tbe                                                                     EC
 MECHANISMS   ratification of tbe new Treaty)
               FEOGA aid to be orientated to favour                  • Progressive re-oncntation pnee lo             1992 =»           EC
               sustainable, integrated farming and nira1                income supports
               development                                           * Land management contracts                     1992 =»        MS + EC
                                                                     • Rural Development Programme                 Progressive           id
                                                                     • Forest Development Programme                     id       Forest Enter-
                                                                                                                                 prises. MS+EC
               LIFE to be developed as a “booster                    • initiation of LIFE                              1992        EC + MS
               mechanism’* for                                       • Comprehensive review and extension              1995              id
               effective implémentation of environment                  as appropriate
               policy
               New Cohésion Fund                                     • Special boost for air, waste water, waste    1993-1998     EC * MS +
                                                                        treatment etc .                                                LAs
               New financial support mechanisms to                   * Compréhensive survey of difficultés           199203           ECjVfS,
               assist SME’t                                             and needs                                                     bdustry
                                                                                                                                  Organisations
                                                                     • Comprehensive review of State Aids in           1993             EC
                                                                        environment field
 ---pagebreak---           Chapter 8: Subsidiarity and Shared Responsibility
The principle of subsidiarityhas been given a place of    but, rather, a mixing of actors and instruments at the
prominence and general application in the new Treaty      appropriate levels, without any calling into question of
on European Union . Article A refers to the process of    the division of competences between the Community,
creating an ever closer union among the peoples of        the Member States, regional and local authorities. For
Europe, * in which decisions are taken as closely as      any one target or problem, the emphasis (actors and
possible to the citizen On the basis Article 3b of the    instruments) could lie with the Community/national/
new Treaty, the Community will take action, in            regional government level and for another with the
accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, only if    regional/local/sectoral level or atthe level ofenterprise^
and insofar as the objectives of the proposed action      general public/consumers.
cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member States
and can therefore, by reason of the scale or effects of   The practical application of the principle of subsidiarity
proposed action, be better achieved by the Community.     and shared responsibility will also involve respect for
In drawing up this Programme, an attempt has been         the current (Art. 130r.4) and proposed (Art 130s.4)
made to translate the principle of subsidiarity into      stipulation that without prejudice to certain measures
operational terms.                                        of a Community nature, the Member States must
                                                          finance and implement environment policy.
Since the objectives and targets put forward in the
Programme and the ultimate goal of sustainable             Table 18 represents an attempt to indicate the
development can only be achieved by concertedaction       complementarity of actions at different levels within
on the part of all the relevant actors working together   an overall framework of subsidiarity and shared
in partnership, the Programme combines the principle       responsibility. In other tables of the Programme the
of subsidiarity with the wider concept of shared           "actors " column indicates the different actors
responsibility. This latter concept involves not so much  considered as most relevant to the implementation of
a choice of action at one level to the excusion of others specific measures.
                                                                                                                     73
 ---pagebreak---                                       Table 18 : EXAMPLES OF SHARED                           RESPONSIBILITY
                                          EC            (*)Mexnber State and         Local + Régional                Enterprises               General Public /
                                                       Régional Govemmenls               Authorities                                               Consumer
    Planning
    - Economic and                                                                                              Demand > infraslruc-         NGO
      social development                                                                                        turc
    - Physical planning          Directive 85/337/ ;                                                                                         EIA - public par-
                                 EEC (EIA)                                                                                                   ticipation
    - Networks                   EUTJ          of KWI , nol .    coramufuca- \                                  Demand - distribution
    RAJ2
    • Media                      R ÄD pogr<ffnroc*, ForalpomtsTrrxoon- Emission coctroU En?.' R                                  &     0
                              i:                                                 / trcstnfeBf/l;:ßm%* :*: BSotechrKtlogy . f !             :
    - Processes                                         Integrated pollution controls
                                                                                                                    h •     •;■■:■: T - . -ï
    - Products                                          Fiscal incentives Na ¬     Waste prevention                                          Consumer demand
                                                        tional waste mgt plan s    policie.                 BSSWfflSSSi                      ECO-labels
     Communicative
    - Information                B iss em ht » t i on                                                                                        NGOs        concemed
                                 Co^ordin ation j Admitri structures; • ;                   chiatton»: ài-' I ' ^cu!nEf>‘ InsUmtft/          cidzens , consumera
                                 ^EXEunbnat statisti 1 Natìoswl ; statistica!      stasmenL; disserrisi |. 'mvestment
                             iSj&bwgtïtomifcs®
    - Education                                                                                                  Остапс/ог^гаДмпс* 3
                                                                                                                 «-:* ея-Лггжтегйа! ;
    - Training                                                                                                                               Trades Unions
    Market-based
    - Codes of conduct
      (vol . agreements)
    - Resource Mgt (env.                reçu            Sectoral agreements ;      Own activity audit ;                                      Investors , public ,
      audit)                     P&JûêÛ                 Own Service Audit          operating licenses                                        consumerinfonnalian
                                                                                                             mm
                                                                                                             S-iLÜd
    - Ecological labels
    - Financial supports -                                  <d.
                                                                             ί«
                                                                            ■ννι
      (incL state aids)          «id of EC tausncsftl
                                                          tr&i
     Normative                   Habitats directive,                               Spsnaï pîim* Local                                        NGOs/publicdemand
    - Env. protection            ACNAT, NATURA                                                                                               for facilities & qual ¬
                                 2000, Rural Dcvelopt                                                                                        ity of life
    - Internai Mkt                                                                                               Demand for avoid ¬          Demand for consumer
                                                                                                                 ance of trade barriers      choice
    - Implémentation of
       Internat, agrs
                  *«"                                   *-«_
                  • Leid Rôle,      WÊÊ      * Complemcnury Rôle ,                 - Position of influence
  (•)     It is appreciated that, because of differences in the constitutional and instutional arrangements in the Member States, competences are
          not shared in a common manner. Accordingly, as the title indicates, this table is intended to provide theoritical examples of shared
          responsibility which are not intended to inferfere with existing divisions of competences. The reference to Regional Governments is
          used to cover sub-national governments such as the Lander in Germany and the regional administrations in Begium , Italy and Spain
          which have certain exclusive competences in the fields of policy dealt with in this Programme.
Ξ
 ---pagebreak---                    Chapter 9: Implémentation and Enforcement
Satisfactory implementation and enforcement of the                    environmental and consumer organisations and
policy, strategy and measures set out in this Programme               relevant Directorates-Generalofthe Commission;
atall levelsof society will be imperative ifthe objectives            it is envisaged that this Forum will act as an
of environmental protection , sustainability of socio¬                umbrella organisation, with specialist subgroups
economic activity and development and the integrity                   set up as necessary to deal with specific topics or
of the Internal Market are to be achieved . Ultimately,               issues. The common interest in moving towards
measures designed to faci I itate sustainable development             sustainability and the need to increase levels of
and involving all economic actors through the                         awareness and consensus in the application of
application of a broad range of instruments should be                 shared responsibility underline the importance of
self-enforcing. For the foreseeable future, however,                  this Forum .
the likelihood isthattheeffectivenessof implementation
will be closely related to the quality of the measures          ii .  AN IMPLEMENTATION NETWORK comprising
themselves and of the arrangements for their                          representatives of relevant national authorities
enforcement.                                                          and of the Commission in the field of practical
                                                                      implementation of Community measures; it will
In the past, a number of factors has contributed to                   be aimed primarily at exchange of information
problems of implementation, including                                 and experience and at the development of common
        a lack of overall policy coherence, partly due to             approachesat practical level , under the supervision
        an evolving, sometimes shifting, agenda as the                of the Commission . Without prejudice to the
        scope of environmental policy grew, and partly                specific responsibilities and prerogatives of the
        because much of the environmental legislation                 Commission in regard to implementation and
        was developed in an ad hoc manner;                            enforcement under Articles 155 and 169 of the
        the narrow choiceof instruments, whereby perhaps              Treaty , the Network can help to promote
        too great a reliance was placed on regulation of              consistency in the practical application of
        the "command and control " type;                              Community policy and rules as between the
        the need for unanimous agreement within the                   Member States. This will involve, inter alia,
        Council of Ministers, frequently necessitating                exchanges of information on technical
        political compromise, has resulted in some cases              developments, compliance initiatives and
        in measures which are difficult to put i nto practical         precautionary actions. Member States might also
        operation;                                                    avail of the Network's expertise or assistance for
        the preponderant recourse to Directives as the                advice on local or national compliance
        form of legal instrument has often given rise to               mechanisms, audits and reporting arrangements.
        difficulties in their incorporation into quite widely
        differing national statutory codes and                  iii . AN ENVIRONMENT POLICY REVIEW CROUP
        administrative procedures with consequential                   comprising representatives of the Commission
        problems of interpretation and practical                       and the Member States at Director-General level
         implementation;                                               will be established to develop mutual
         management inadequacies at all administrative                 understanding and exchange of views on
         levels, from Community down to local authorities.             environmental policies and measures. It will be
                                                                       modelled on the Committee of Directors-General
 It is important to learn from these past experiences and              of Industry which has been operating very
 to take appropriate steps to improve this particular                  effectively for a number of years past One of its
 aspect of pol icy. Among the reforms which are requi red              essential purposes is to fill the gap resulting from
 are better preparation of measures, including improved                the fact that communications between the
 consultation arrangements, more effective integration                 Commission and the Member States on
 with complementary measures, better practical follow¬                 environment issues have largely been confined to
 up to legislative measures, both administrative and                   deliberation of specific proposals within the
 operative, and stricter compliance checking and                       Counci I and exchanges in relation to infri ngement
 enforcement.                                                          proceedings.
  In order to institute these reforms, it is intended to         These three dialogue groups will serve, in a special
 establish the following ad hoc dialogue groups:                 way, to promote a greater sense of responsibility
                                                                 among the principal actors in the partenariat, and to
  ii     A CONSULTATIVE FORUM will be established                ensure effective and transparent application of
          to provide for consultation and information            measures. They are not intended to duplicate the work
          exchange between the industrial/production             of committees established by Community legislation
          sectors, the business world, regional and local        for the purposes of follow-up in respect of specific
                                                                                                                            75
          authorities, professional associations, trade unions,  measures,nor by the Commission in relation to specific
 ---pagebreak---    fields of interest such as consumer protection , tourism          Integration of Policies
   development , etc . nor by Member States for                      * In pursuance ofthe Treaty (Article 130r.2) and the
   implementation and enforcement of policy at national                   objective of sustainable development , the
   level . Finally, they will not substitute the existing                 environmental dimension will be fully
   dialogue betweenindustryandtheCommission, which                        incorporated into all other Community policies;
   it is intended to strengthen in any event.
                                                                          an assessment of the implications for the
   Among the practical reforms to be undertaken will be:                  environment       will be made in the course of
                                                                          drawing up Community policies and legislation
   Improvement in Legislation                                             with special care taken in the areas of internal
   * a more careful choice and preparation of                             market, international trade, industrial , energy,
          instruments: the legislative approach may not                   agriculture, transport, regional development and
          always be the best choice as a first step even                  tourism;
          though it may have an essential role to play in the
          longer term;                                                    Member States should undertake similar
                                                                          integration by applying environmental impact
   *      relevant legislative measures and standards should              assessments to their own plans and programmes .
          benefit from prior consultation ofthe Consultative
          Forum and, before finalisation of content, should          *    Non-compliance with EC and national legislation
          be subjected to an "enforceability assessment";                 can result in damage to the environment as well
                                                                          as to property both in the physical and in the
   *      environmental legislation should incorporate                    financial sense; it can also create distortions in
          specific enforcement provisions, notably where                  competition between enterprises. In this context,
          standards are prescribed;                                       the provisions of Article 1 71 of the new Treaty in
                                                                          regard to action by the European Court in the
   *      there should be a practical follow-through on all               event of non-compl iance, i ncl udi ng the possibi I ity
          new legislation in terms of training programmes,                of imposing a lump sum or penalty payment,
          seminars and workshops;                                         could have an important incentive or corrective
                                                                          effect.
    Implémentation
   *      Directives adopted at Community level must be               Involvement ofthe Public
          transposed in national legislation within the time-        * Given their right of access to environmental
          frames decided by the Council ;                                  information (Directive 90/31 3/EECP the public
                                                                           must be enabled to participate as fully as possible
   *      Clean-up programmes and monitoring plans                         in the decision making processes for construction
          agreed in Council must be put in place in                       authorisations, operating permits, emission/
          conformity with the time-frames adopted;                '       discharge licences, etc; they have a direct interest
                                                                           in the quality of their living environment, and in
    *     All Member States that have not already done so                 addition, can provide an important spur to good
          should
          should establish
                      establish enforcement
                                   enforcement bodies
                                                    bodies and and         performance by companies in their area - perhaps
           procedures to ensure full and equal compliance                 even as employees or managers; this principle
          with both legislative and authorisation-associated               must also apply for information at the disposal of
           requirements;                                                   Community institutions;
          The reporting requirements of various Directives            *    An accessible and efficient complaints facility
           and Regulations, recently rationalized by a                     should be developed at local , regional and national
           composite Directive on reporting01, must be                     level to improve confidence between public,
           assiduously adhered to;                                         competent authorities and industrial or business
                                                                           establishments. In this context, complaints should
           Because of the implications for the relative                    be considered less a nuisance than a resource.
           competitiveness offirmswithinthe Internal Market,               They are an indication to enforcement agencies of
           as wel I as for the purposes ofappl yi ng the "pol I uter       something amiss and can keep the competent
           pays principle* a comprehensive review of fines                 authorities in touch with the realities of situations
           and penalties applied in different parts of the                 from which they may be geogra ph i cal I y remote or
           Community will be carried out before end-1 993;                 which they are not in a position to monitor on a
                                                                           continuing basis.
           Optimum transparency as regards implementation
           of legislation and , in particular, as regards             *    Individuals and public interest groups should
           authorisations for emissions into the environment               have practicable access to the courts in order to
           must be assured .
76
    n)     OJN°L377, 31.12.1991 , 91 /692/EEC
    ®      OJN° LI 58/56, 23.6.90
 ---pagebreak---      ensure that their legitimate interests are protected       monitoring implementation of Community measures,
     and that prescribed environmental measures are             was postponed for decision in the context of a review
     effectively enforced and illegal practices stopped .       to be conducted after its first two years of operation .
                                                                However, as a generator of environmental data, as a
Environmental Liability                                         body charged with ensuring the quality and
* the Commission has already proposed a Directive               comparability of data and as producer of state-of-the-
     in regard to civil liability for damage to the             environment reports, the Agency will have a key rble
     environment caused by waste*”;                             to play in the area of implementation and enforcement
                                                                in any event.
•    as soon as practicable the Community will
     establish a mechanism whereby damage to the                Reports on implementation
     environment is restored by the person or body              Finally, the Commission will continue to provide reports
     who is responsible for the damage incurred ; care          to the Counci I , the European Pari i ament and the general
     wi 1 1 have be taken that the 'pol I uter pays pri nciple* publicon the extent and quality of implementation and
     is fully respected;                                        enforcement throughout the Community. According
                                                                as the quantity and quality of information is improved
•    where the author ofenvironmental damage cannot             in consequence of improved reporting by the Member
     be readily identified -for instance in the case of         States and avai labi lity of more dependable data through
     pollution from diffuse sources- other mechanismes          the European Environment Agency, together with the
     for liability-sharing should be devised.                   potential experience and observations of the proposed
                                                                 Network on practical implementation of Community
Involvement of the European Environment Agency                   measures, these reports will serve both as a performance
Under the terms of the instituting Regulation , the issue        indicator and as an incentive mechanism for general
as to whether the Agency should have a r6le in                   improvement of implementation and enforcement.
                                                                                                                            77
  *”   O.J. N° C251 of 4 October 1 989.
 ---pagebreak---         PART II
The Communities' Role in the
 Wider International Arena
                             79
 ---pagebreak---    The Communities' Role in the Wider International Arena
In the early stages, Community policy and action on the environment were mainly focussed on the solution of
particularly acute problems within the Community. Later there was a clearer recognition that pollution did not
stop at its frontiers and that it was necessary, therefore, to intensify regional and international co-operation to
combat transboundary pollution . In recent times, the evolution has gone a step further and it is now generally
accepted that problems of a global nature are seriously threatening the ecological balance of our planet as a
whole. Global issues relating to the environment and natural resources have now become so important that, in
the run-up to 2000, they could be an important determinant of the ways in which international relations will
develop - economically, politically and in security terms. This appreciation is now formally recognized in Article
130r.1 of the new Treaty on European Union which includes among the Community's environment policy
objectives the promotion of measures at international level to deal with regional or world wide environment
problems.
The scale, scope and nature of environmental and natural resource problems today is mainly due to the
unprecedented level of socio-economic development during this present century, and particularly over the
period since the end of World War II. The world is on history's steepest growth-curve : this century alone, the
world's population has tripled; about four-fifths ofthis growth has taken place since 1 950. Over the next 50 years,
population levels are expected to double and even with only a very modest improvement in living standards there
could be as much as a five-to-ten fold increase in economic activity touching all the key sectors, notably energy,
transport, industry, construction and agriculture.
These trends pose a threat to nations' economic potential, their citizens' health, their internal political security
 and, in the case of global warming, their very existence.
 In the Dublin Declaration, the European Council stressed the special responsibility of the Community and its
 constituent Member States to encourage and participate in international action to combat global environment
 problems. It stated that "the Community must use more effectively its position of moral, economic and political
 authority to advance international efforts to solve global problems and to promote sustainable development and
 respect for the global commons".
                                                                                                                     81
 ---pagebreak---                      Chapter 10: Environmental Threats and Issues
                                                          10.1 Global issues
     Four major problems are an increasing cause of global                 1991 by UNEP1” indicates that the depletion of the
     concern and call for a coherent and effective response                ozone layer over many parts of the globe is twice as
     as a matter of urgency :                                              serious as hitherto believed .
     Climate Change                                                        Biodiversity Loss
     Emissions from many different human activities are                    Biodiversity is subject to increasing pressures mainly
     dramatically increasing atmospheric concentrations                    due to the disruption ofecosystems and the destruction
     of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane                  of habitats. According to some estimates up to 100
     and nitrous oxide. Notwithstanding some scientific                    species could be lost every da/3. Apart from its
     uncertainty, experts agree that these changes in the                  ecological implications, the erosion of the Earth's
     composition of the Earth's atmosphere are resulting in                biological heritage could have serious economic effects
     a process of global warming with many associated                      since the potential todevelop new products, especially
     risks - raising of sea levels, climatic disturbances,                 food and medicines, is undermined as animal and
     drought and desertification - which could have                        plant species disappear.
     enormous implications for social and economic life.
                                                                           Déforestation
     Ozone Layer Déplétion                                                 Deforestation levels are causing increasing alarm,
     A broad scientific consensus has emerged that several                 particularly in tropical and subtropical rain-forest
     man-made chemicals especially CFCs - are responsible                  areas : according to official FAO data, deforestation is
     for the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer                  now progressing at the rate of 1 7 million hectares per
     which protects the Earth's surface from ultraviolet                   annum . This trend can aggravate other global
     radiation . This is one of the few areas where a                      environmental problems because of the role forests
     comprehensive remedial strategy including legal and                   play as a sink for C02 and as a reservoir for biological
     financial measures - has been developed . Now however                 diversity. In addition , about 2,5 million native
     the situation appears to be more grave than previously                 inhabitants of the forest areas depend on their natural
     thought. Scientific evidence published in December                    surroundings for food, fuel , furniture and clothing.
                                    10.2 Problems of Regional or Local Concern
     Atmospheric pollution,, deterioration of the marine                   Central and Eastern Europe
     environment , soil erosion     >n and desertification, unsound         In many parts of Central and Eastern Europe
     management and disposal        asal of hazardous wastes and           environmental degradation is extremely severe. Past
     toxic chemicals, industrial     rial risks, rapid urban growth,        socio-economic structures and policies inculcating
     degradation of freshwater      iter resources etc. pose grave          centralised planningandabsenceofpublicparticipation
     problems and challenges        ;s which have to be faced up to         have contributed to the emergence of a situation
     in many parts of the world     rid if sustainable, ecologically        characterized by inefficiency, wasteful practices and
     sound development is too be achieved. Of course, the                   high pollution levels,
     scale and extent of thesee problems vary according the
      particular economic and       nd demographic situation in             The Developing Countries
     each region or country.                                                But it is in the developing countries that environmental
                                                                            problems are most serious. Soil degradation and
      Developed Countries                                                   desertification, destruction of habitats, over-exploitation
      In the OECD countries some    xne progress has been achieved          ofnatural resources, deterioration of human settlements
      in combating specific          ic types of pollution and              and degradation of fresh water resources rank among
      environmental degradation,    ition, but there are still many         the developing nations' most pressing environmental
      outstanding issues which      ich will have to be urgently            problems. Population pressure and poverty are key
      addressed (as is indicated    ?d in respect of the
                                                       theCommunity
                                                          Community         factorsintheemergenceofunsustainabledevelopment
      in the preceding chapters).   :rs). It is clear however that the      patterns in many ofthese countries. Population growth
      main challenge these countries:ountries will have to face will        places burgeoning demands on their fragile resource
      be to effect a substantial    itial change in consumption             base forthe provision of basic needs : an adequate diet,
      patterns so as to reducee their share in the use of the                potable water, energy, shelter and material goods. At
      world's natural resources,     ces, while at the same time            the same time, the dire economic position in which
      ensuring a steady improvement ovement of the quality of life.         they find themselves may force these countries to
82
   I  01    UNEP: Scientifîc A&sessement of Ozone Déplétion, 17. 12.1991
      “     Whereas only 1 S million species are known today, some estimates put the total number of possible species at 1 0 times that amount.
            The daily loss rate indicated above has been estimated on the basis of this higher Figure for total species.
 ---pagebreak--- adopt short-term ecologically harmful strategies in the
endeavour to increase foreign exchange revenues
needed to service immediate needs. Lack of adequate
institutional and regulatory controls, combined with
the limited availability oftechnical , human and financial
resources exacerbates local and regional difficulties
and problems.
                                                           83
 ---pagebreak---                          Chapter 11 : International Co-operation
   It goes without saying that no single nation alone, nor group of nations, can provide effective solutions to these
   problems. Rather, it is essential to secure a high degree of international cooperation and mutual understanding
   between nations and groups of nations if the world community is to have any real chance of finding just and
   sustainable solutions and of achieving both intergenerational and intragenerational equity - not only in
   environmental terms but also economically and politically.
   Over the past twenty years, the Community has been playing an important part in international action in the field
   of the environment. The Community is a contracting party to some 30 conventions and international agreements,
   and is actively supporting the work of different international and regional institutions, such as UNEP, UN-ECE,
   OECD and the Council of Europe . In pursuance of its obligations under the Treaty, as amended by the Single
   European Act, and under Article 130r.1 of the new Treaty on European Union, the Community's involvement
   in international environmental action will be stepped up over the period covered by the Programme.
                        11.1 The Community's Position on the Major Issues
   As regards climate   iate change , the Community 's          in order to maintain their evolution potential ; the
   commitment to stabilise
                        bilise C02 emissions at 11990990 levels diversity of the species themselves; and lastly the
   by the year 2000 with/vith further reductions thereafter is  varietyofthe ecosystems in which they aretobe found ,
   the basis for its position
                         ition in the ongoing negotiations to   Ex-situ conservation should be regarded as a
   draft a framework global    Convention on cl imate change.
                        lobalConventiononclimatechange.         complement to in-situ conservation and never as a
   The elaboration of complementary protocols to define         substitution toit. The convention on biological diversity-
   specific global targets
                         gets and commitments on carbon         should also addressthe questions concerning access to
   emissions and "sinks",
                        ks", particularly forests, on the basis biogenetic resources and control of biotechnological
   of such framework    rk must also be accelerated . The       risks .
   Convention should set an ultimate global objective of
   stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at a level         The envisaged declaration at UNCED on the
   that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic                   management and development of all forests - temperate,
   interference with the global climate, within a time          boreal and tropical - should incorporate a commitment
   frame sufficient to al low ecosystems to adapt natural ly.   to conclude an international Convention on forests at
   It should also take into account the common , but            the earliest possible time. In addition the active
   differentiated, responsibilities ofthe Parties, recognizing  participation of the ITTO and GATT will be necessary
   that the manner in which they will have to implement         in order to address the particular issue of international
   their commitments may depend on their level of               trade in tropical timber with a view to reconciling
   development and greenhouse gas emissions.                    environmental imperatives and legitimate trade
                                                                activities in the meantime. Assistance in the forestry
   The Community is a contracting party to the Vienna           sector requires co-operation and coordination . A
   Convention for the protection of the ozone layer and         revamping of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan, with
   to the Montrea I Protocol on substances that deplete the     an emphasis on a country-driven rather than a donor-
   ozone layer. The Community has decided to introduce          driven approach, will help countries to plan and
   unilateral control measures which are more severe            manage their own forest resources in a sustainable
   than those in the Protocol . In view of the new scientific   way.
   evidence available the Community would support a
   bringing forward of the phasing-out schedule agreed          In conformity with the mandate given by the European
   in June 1990, and urge all parties to the Montreal           Council and the G-7 economic summit, the Commission
   Protocol to adopt more stringent measures along the          has launched a pilot project for the conservation of the
    lines of the Community regulation.                          largesttropical forest ofthe world. This is an exceptional
                                                                initiative to which the Commission is participating
   The convention to be adopted on biological diversity         with the Brazilian Government and the World Bank,
   at UNCED should recognize that the conservation of           and involving a total amount of250 million USdollars.
   biological diversity for the benefit of present and          This enables the Community to adopt a positive stance
   future generations is a common responsibility of             in the run-up to the UNCED Conference (Rio, June
   mankind, and should ensure its protection at three           1 992). It is hoped that the resu Its of the programme can
   different levels : genetic diversity within each species,    be successfully applied to other regions.
84
 ---pagebreak---               11.2 Other Priority Issues of Major International Importance
The Community is in the process of formally adopting                                                     invt
                                                           The Community should strengthen its involvement              in
a new regulation to bring its legislation into line with   all relevant initiatives to protect regional
                                                                                                     region ; seas and
the existing "Prior Informed Consent" procedures in        international water courses . In addition   add il      to its
the case of international trade in toxic chemicals and     participation in existing agreements for the   the protection
pesticides. The elaboration of legally binding                                                           the <
                                                           ofthe Mediterranean and the North Sea, theCommunity
international agreementsaimedatupgradingthestatus          intends soon to become a contracting pparty to the
of the UNEP London Guidelines for the exchange of          Helsinki Convention on the protection of the marine
information on chemicals in international trade, as        environmentintheBalticSeaArea.Itisalsop
                                                           environment    in the Baltic Sea Area. It isalso participating
well as of the FAO Code of Conduct on distribution of      in the negotiations for the eleboration of a framework
pesticides would mark a major step forwards. The                                                       oftrar
                                                           convention on the protection and use oftransboundary
establishmentofPriorlnformedConsentprocedurestoreduce      water courses and international lakes, as well as of a
the risks associated to international trade in genetically number of agreements on several European river basins,
modified organisms would also be highly desirable.         including the Danube basin . A convention on the Elbe
                                                           was signed by the European Community together with
As regards hazardous wastes, efforts will be directed      Germany and the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic
towards ensu ri ng the widest possible appl ication ofthe  in 1990, and one on the Oder will be signed shortly.
provisions of the Basle Convention, and towards the        The Community is actively supporting, through its
adoption of a specific Protocol to the Convention on       MEDSPA programme, the Environmental Programme
liability and compensation . At the same time, the         for the Mediterranean launched jointly by the World
export of hazardous wastes to countries that do not        Bank and the EIB . This plan provides a good example
have the facilities to treat and dispose of the wastes     of interinstitutional co-operation for the protection of
under the same stringent conditions as apply in the        the environment which could be extended to other
country oforigin should be banned in accordance with       regions.
the Lom£ convention and other relevant regional
conventions .
                                          11.3 Global Partnership
The ongoing negotiations on global environmental           resolution of environmental problems of global
 issues are increasingly demonstrating that a joint effort significance in developing countries, although its
 by both industrialised and developing countries is        structure and procedures should be developed and
 required to establish and execute a coherent and          adjusted so as to take into account the needs of the
 effective strategy to respond to these challenges. Its     participating partners. The Community, as such, should
 scientific and technological co-operation must be          be party to the GEF in order to optimize efficiency in
 strengthened in order to reinforce endogenoustechnical    the application ofCommunity funds already committed
 capacities, flow of know-how and technologies must         for global and environment-related projects.
 be accelerated with the active involvement of all
 relevant actors, particularly the business community.      Recent experiences have shown that trade and
                                                            environment related issues are becoming increasingly
  High priority must be attached to the creation of new     important as environmental policies and strategies are
  and additional financial resources to cover the           strengthened and extended at both national and
  supplementary costs which might fall on developing        international level . Against this background, it is
  countries in consequence of internationally agreed        essential to accelerate the dia logue on the i nterli nkages
  measures to protect the global environment. In its        between environmental and trade policies in all relevant
  conclusions on UNCED of 12 December 1991 , the            international fora, especially in the GATT. This dialogue
  Environment Council recognised that new and               should be one of the main priorities on the post-
  additional financial resources are needed to assist        Uruguay Round agenda, and recognizingthat uni lateral
  developing countries to deal with global environmental    use of trade instruments for environmental purposes
  externalities. It was also stressed that the Global       should be avoided in principle, should focus on the
  Environmental Facility (GEF) should play a leading         role of international trade in promoting sustainable
  role as the multilateral financial mechanism in the       development.
                                                                                                                           85
 ---pagebreak---                                           11.4 Regional Co-operation
   It is particularly important to strengthen regional          on civil liability and compensation for environmental
   cooperation to tackle specific transboundary problems,       damage.
   The introduction of environmental considérations into
   regional co-operation instruments and the                    In this context, the Community must actively support
   establishment and effective enforcement of appropriate       regional initiatives in these areas, especially within the
   legal agreementsare needed to preventthetransposition        UN-ECEand the Council of Europe, by participating in
   of environmental problems or transfers of pollution          the new convention on environmental impact
   from one country to its neighbours. A high priority          assessment in a transboundary context, in the
   shouldthereforebeattachedtotheadoptionofeffective            negotiations on prevention and control of
   rules for the management and protection of shared            transboundary effects of industrial accidents and
   environmental resources for the prevention of                deliberations on civil liability for damage resulting
   detrimental transboundary impacts, and agreements            from activities dangerous to the environment.
                                            11.5 Institutional Issues
   The solution ofthe emergingenvironmental challenges          Finally, it must be said that the rapid development of
   requires the improvement and strengthening of existing       international environment law which has taken place
   international institutions, in particular UNEP, as well      over the past two decades has not a I ways been matched
   as enhanced coordination between them to ensure              by a corresponding effort to implement the existing
   optimum use of resources.                                    conventions and agreements. For this reason, it is
                                                                essential toestablish appropriate mechanims to monitor
   Particular emphasis should be put on achieving a             compliance with regional and international
   better scientific understanding of ecological processes      environmental agreements. Questions relating to
   and on improving the collection and dissemination of         prevention and settlement of environmental disputes
   environmental information, with a view to providing a        have also to be addressed, ensuring the partici pation of
   sound basis for international action in this field . To this all relevant international actors.
   end the possibility of creating an international network
   of environmental agencies should be considered.
86
 ---pagebreak---                          Chapter 12 : Bilateral Co-operation
Environmental concerns are now being reflected in the bilateral co-operation links established between the
Community and its partners all over the world . Co-operation with other industrialised countries, with a view to
achieving a better coordination ofenvironmental policies and a more effective response to common environmental
challenges has been steadily increasing particularly through active participation in the work carried out by the
OECD . At the same time, the existing mechanisms for consultation and exchange of information on
environmental issues between the Community and its major industrialised partners, namely USA, Canada, Japan
and Australia, need to be substantially reinforced . In the pan-European context, the agreement on the European
Economic Area calls for a progressive convergence of environmental policies in the Community and in EFTA
countries. This convergence should be progressively reflected in international fora, where the positions adopted
by both groups of countries already reflea similar concerns and objeaives.
Environmental co-operation with industrialised countries should be reinforced and extended. It is particularly
important to achieve a closer convergence of environmental policies, especial ly as regards those measures which
might have a significant impaa on the competitive position of industry. It is essential to avoid that the
implementation of involving environment policies would have a detrimental effea on the competitiveness of a
country or of a group of countries vis- it -vis its industrialised partners.
It is clear however that particular priority should be attached to the reinforcement of environmental co-operation
with developing and Central and Eastern European countries, in view of the extremely severe environmental
situation these countries are confronted with .
                                        12.1 Developing Countries
The Community is committed to assisting developing              The African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries
countries in addressing the increasingly grave                  At Community level , a significant effort has been
environmental problems they face and in achieving               undertaken over the past years to increase the resources
sustainable development. At present,the Community               available for co-operation with developing countries,
and its Member states contribute about 47% of total             and to make them more concessional . A comprehensive
official development assistance, representing 0,45%             co-operation relationship with APC countries has been
of GDP (over twice the percentage of funds provided             established since 1 963 . Environmental proteaion and
 by either the USA or Japan). The Community and                 sustainable development are playing an increasingly
 Member States will continue to intensify their efforts:        important part in this relationship. These issues are at
 apart from the additional financial resources which            the very core of the Lom£ IV Convention which was
will be required to promote the developing countries'           signed in December 1989 and came into effea in
 participation in measures aimed at the solution of             September 1 991 {1 ). The Convention stresses that :
 global environmental problems, it is necessary to                    'development shall be based on a sustainable
 increase official development aid and to mobilise new                balance between its economic objeaives, the
 financial resources, especially private ones, to finance             rational management of the environment and the
 sustainable and environmentally sound development                    enhancement of natural and human resources ...
 programmes and projects. The Community and its                       priority must be given to environmental proteaion
 Member States reaffirmed in December 1991 their                      and the conservation of natural resources, which
 commitment to reach the accepted UN target of 0,7 %                  are essential conditions for sustainable and
 of GN P for overseas development aid , in order to assist            balanced development from both the economic
 developing countries in the implementation of                        and human viewpoints... co-operation shall entail
 sustainable development policies at the national level .             mutual responsibility for preservation of the natural
                                                                       heritage.'
  Furthermore, coordination between Community aid
  andtheindividual bilateral programmes of the Member            A specific title ofthe Convention lists the mai n princi pies
  States has been strengthened over time to ensure a             and priorities for ACP/EC environmental co-operation,
  coherent and effaive response to partners’ needs . The         and includes provisions for the saeening of all projeas
  Community is also working towards ever-closer                  and programmes for their environmental impaa, on
  coordination over long-term aid programming in the             the furnishing of adequate information on pesticides
  belief that its partners should not be faced with              and other toxic chemicals, and measures prohibiting
  conflicting advice, priorities and administrative              the export of radioaaive and hazardous waste from the
  procedures from the various donor agencies within              Community to the APC States.
  Europe. Such coordination also extends to other
                                                                                                                               87
  multinational donor institutions.
  üj
          OJN*L229, 17.M i 9 >
 ---pagebreak---      FIGURE 10: DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM ALL EUROPEAN SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 1990
                                   ν'·1 Й1
                                                                                       RIVM / CCE
                                                                                       Data :
                                                                                       ex CL .s 1990
                                                                                       Emiss.Europe
                                                                                       Reuion :
                                                                                       EUROPE
                        *  '4         x
                                    • n
                                                                         s
                      \                                               }                  PT~~1 fcO EXCEEDANCE
               l                                                                          Kl sS            20000
                                                                    1                     £~\
                                                                                          I    I *S        500 00
                                                                                         □
                                                                                         I     I 5s       1000 00
        %                                           ξ. ild                                        s
                                                                                                  s       200000
                                                    s
        η
                            m                                                             Hfl s          10000 00
                                                        Si                                 Unit : eq/lia.yr
      ©                                                                        /
                                           4
                                                                             I
                                                                             I
                                     a                   I      *
                  Sli
                                    /                                                  l>.Hf   4.f». 1991
                                                                                       kv-m.»rk r\c . C'r»l.l.«»i«l**
                                                                                        1990 KmisvKiimpr
   FIGURE 1 1 : DEPOSITION OF SO, AND NOx FROM EUROPEAN SOURCES IN EXCESS OF CRITICAL LOADS IN 2000 ON BASIS OF THE
                 EC "HIGH PRICES' SCENARIO AND THE EXPECTED REDUCTIONS IN THE OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
   »                    min
                        PTJitêfÊli            •;rt.                                   RIVM/CCE
                                              m            \..ц                        Data :
                                                                                       exe. I % Cl . or
                                                                                        HP-dcp. in 2000
               >
                                                                                       Region :
                                                                           /            EUROPE
                                                                          /
    I                                     К5.
                                                                       r                         NO EXCEE0ANCE
                                                                    /                     □
                                                                                                           200 X
    t
    »
                                         «y                         I
                                                                                                 S
    i
                                                                   ;                      EH3 4            500 00
                               S3ï                                                                        1000 00
        А                                                         77                             i       2000 00
                                                                                 \
                               fcAétfïSBl                                                         i       7000.00
                              m                                                             Unil: eq /ha yr
                                                                          /
      §
                                           \ :
                                      a
                                                                                        I XxiM-lïlc : •l uinhiiutl *
                                                                                        Uitc : 27.11.1991             I
                                                                                        Hvin ork : m Cl . CNCCSS O
                                                                                        Hl'-hurup. drpn. ilt 2IMNI
88
 ---pagebreak--- As for the financial resources, the Community will                for the allocation of funds under the bilateral financial
make available to its ACP partners within the context             protocols ( 1.075 MECU in budgetary appropriations
of Lom6 IV Convention , 1 2.000 MECU for the most                 and 1.300 MECU in ElB 's loans).              MEDSPA, an
part in the form of a subvention , phased over a period           environmental funding programme which enables
of 5 years. Between 1 986 and 1 989, 230 projects for             expenditure on technical assistance in non-Community
combatting desertification were financed amounting                Mediterranean countries can also contribute in this
to 1 . 700 MECU . To this, one must add projects for the          area. Taken together, the above elements comprise a
management of mari ne resources, for the promotion of             coherent set of financial instruments which could
renewable energies and other similar interventions.               significantly contribute to implementing the
Following the first assessment of indicative programmes           commitments and objectives agreed by the riparian
of Lome IV, it is expected that an amount of 400 MECU             States, the Community, the EIB and the World Bank
per annum will be allocated to environmental                      when adopting the Nicosia Charter (1 990).
programmes.
                                                                  The Question of Priorities
The Asian and Latin American ( ALA) countries                     Although the setting of priorities for cooperation in the
The evolution in the environmental dimension in the               field of the environment with our APC, ALA and
Lom£ Conventions has its parallel in the evolution in             Mediterranean partners must be the result of a bilateral
policy orientations governing co-operation with the               dialogue which takes account of the specific needs
ALA countries. Under new guidelines established at                and priorities of each country, it is clear that for
the beginning of 1991 , environmental protection is               environmental co-operation to work effectively
listed among the priority areas for co-operation . At             particular emphasis must be put on institution building
least 10% of the total amount available for technical             and on the improvement of endogenous technical
and financial co-operation with ALA countries (2750               capacities in the developi ng countries. No programme
MECU in the period 1991 /95) must be allocated to                 of assistance will be successful if the recipient country
environmental projects. The new guidelinesalso stress              lacks the skills, management, and organizational ability
the need to integrate environmental evaluation in the             to formulate and implement appropriate environmental
development process as a whole, with the aim of                   protection and sustainable development policies. The
ensuring long-term protection of the natural resource             reinforcement of scientific and technological co¬
 base and sustainable development.                                operation with developing countries is of vital
                                                                   importance; existing programmes for joint research
The Non-Community Mediterranean Countries                         and train ingin the environment and development field
 Similarly, the renewed policy orientations in respect of         should be continued and extended . In the allocation
 co-operation with non-Community Mediterranean                    of funds and in the choice of projects, high priority
 Countries for the period 1992/1996 foresee a                      should also be accorded to programming which are
 reinforcement of regional co-operation in the field of            crucial for the development process, such as energy
 the environment. Regional projects in this area - e.g.           efficiency and development of renewable energy
 fight against marine pollution and management of                  sources, combating and reversal of land degradation ,
 coastal areas - will be implemented by means of                   desertification and deforestation, and protection and
 horizontal co-operation outside bilateral agreements.             management of fresh water resources.
 An important part of the Mediterranean horizontal
 allocations of 230 MECU will be devoted to                         Finally, the Community will establish appropriate
 environmental projects including, in particular,                  environmental safeguards at both programme and
 demonstration and training projects. The El B isexpected          project levels , as recognized , inter alia, in the Lom£ IV
 to allocate some 1 .800 MECU in loans to the region               Convention and in the Resolution on environment and
  coveri ng the enti re range of projects proposed, i ncl ud i ng  development adopted by the Development Council in
 environmental projects referred to. In addition ,                 May 1 990" 1.
  environmental protection is one of the main priorities
                                   12.2 Central and Eastern Europe (CEE)
  The momentous political changes in Central and Eastern            Environmental degradation in many CEE regions is
  Europe have had a major impact on the international               severe; in some areas the damage already incurred
  political agenda, with environmental issues featuring             may be irreversible. Although the extent and type of
  very high on the list of priorities for discussion . The          degradation varies from country to country, and from
  improvement of environmental standards and the                    region to region, common problems prevail . These
  protection of human health and qual ity of I ife has been         problems include extensive acid rain damage to forests
  highlighted by the new democratic governments as a                (up to 75% of Pol ish forests are said to be affected), and
  priority to be addressed in parallel with the process of          the poisoning of complete river systems (the water of
  economic reform and liberalization .                              the Vistula is unfit even for industrial use). There is a
                                                                    permanent high risk of serious industrial accidents
                                                                                                                                89
                                                                    particularly in the nuclear and chemical fields.
  01
          Council Resolution 6723/90 of 29.5.1990
 ---pagebreak---    Many of the problems have a regional , transboundary       and technology. This strategy provides the foundation
   dimension : the Vistula basin covers most East European    for the 1991 PHARE Environment Programmes for
   countries, the Elbe crosses the Czech and Slovak           Poland (35 Mecu), Hungary ( 10 Mecu), Roumania (2
   Federal Republic and Germany, the Danube basin             Mecu), Bulgaria ( 15 Mecu ) and the Czech and Slovak
   covers most of the southern countries : their pollution    Federal Republic (5 Mecu ).
   spreads into the Baltic, the North Sea and the Black
   Sea . Figure 10 indicates the relative impact of           In view of the transboundary nature of most
   depositions of SO^ and NOx in Europe resulting from        environmental problems, the first regional environment
   emissions from Europe as a whole in 1990. The              programme under PHARE , with a Community
   importance of taking a pan-European view in the case       contribution of 20 Mecu , was launched in 1991 . This
   of these depositions can be deduced from Figure 1 1        programme includes initiatives for the Danube Basin ,
   which indicates the projected depositions in 2000 on       the Black Triangle, the extension of CORINE activities
   the basis of the most stringent scenario for the EC (see   to CEE, a Report on the State of the Environment in
   ''acidification') and expected reductions in Central       Europe and applied research .
   and Eastern European countries ( based on present
   undertakings).                                             Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
                                                              Under the PHARE Environment Programme, 15 Mecu
   Association Agreements                                     have been allocated from the 1991 budget to a
   On 31 December 1991 the Community concluded                Regional Nuclear Safety Programme . The Technical
   Association Agreements with Poland , the Czech and         Assistance Programme for the former USSR countries
   Slovak Federal Republic and Hungary. They provide          includes an energy sector programme which provides
   the long-term framework within which relations             53 MECU towards the management and safety of their
   between the Community and these countries will             nuclear installations . More wide-ranging possibilities
   develop includingenvironmental co-operation . Similar      will be offered by the recent co-operation agreement
   Agreements with Roumania and Bulgaria are currently        with the former USSR countries on nuclear safety as
   being negotiated . Trade and Co-operation Agreements       well as from the Eurpean Energy Charter and
   with the Baltic States and Albania, which will also        consequential Protocols .
   contain environmental provisions, are in preparation .
                                                              Looking to the Future
   PHARE Environment Sector Strategy and Regional             The task facing these governments is mountainous.
   Programmes                                                 Substantive, lasting, progress will only be possible
   Since the very beginning, environmental protection         with assistance from the outside, especially from the
   has been an integral part of the Community's PHARE         Community. During the period covered by the current
   programme ofassi stance for economic reform i n Central     Environment Sector Strategy major changes in policy
   and Eastern Europe. Originally geared to help Poland       will be determined , institutional and regulatory
   and Hungary, the programme now includes the Czech          frameworks and capabilities strengthened, and the link
   and Slovak Federal Republic, Roumania, Yugoslavia          between environmental and economic reform
   and Bulgaria.                                              reinforced . But the financial investment needed to
                                                              reduce pollution to critical load levels and to move to
   The 1990 PHARE environment programmes were                 the sustainable use of natural resources in CEE will
   launched in Poland (22 Mecu), Hungary (25 Mecu),           require resources which are clearly well beyond those
   the Czech and Slovak Republic (30 Mecu) and in the         available under the PHARE and other G-24
   ex-GDR (20 Mecu). Since these programmes compri sed        Programmes.
   a relatively large number of different project activities,
   PHARE- financed technical assistance teams were set        Consequently, as we move towards the year 2000, it
   up in the respective Environment Ministries to assist      will increasingly be the private and public sectors in
   with programme preparation and implementation. The         the CEE countries themselves that must          assume
   experience of the PF1ARE 1990 programmes, based             responsibility for generating the required investments
    largely on 'project shopping lists', underlined the       needed to reduce pollution at source. This will require
   need for a more strategic approach to the environmental    fundamental changes in pricing policies, substantial
    problems of the region .                                   investments in new equipment and technologies, and
                                                              even the complete closure of some of the very worst
   Consequently an 'Environment Sector Strategy for            polluting production units. Extensive credits and
   CEE', covering a 3-year period, prepared by the            forward-looking lending policies on the part of both
    Commission, has been endorsed by both the G-24             national and international banking institutions will be
    Environment Working Group and the Environment             called for. In this context the role of the recently
    Ministers' meeting at Dobris Castle in june 1 991 . This  established European Bank for Reconstruction and
    strategy identifies a number of policy objectives and      Development ( EBRD) will be crucial ; indeed the EBRD
    priorities including public awareness building,            has already launched its first lending programmes in
90
    strengthening and expansion ofthe institutional , policy  the environment sector in the CEE .
    and regulatory frameworks and transfer of information
 ---pagebreak---                                            T»ble 19 : INTERNATIONAL EN VIRON MENTAL ISSUES
      OBJECTIVES                TARGETS UP TO 2000                                MEASURES REQUIRED                       PRINCIP1-E ACTORS
1 . Préservation oi  * no further deterioration of ecosystems     * Global Convention on Biodiversity                International Community
    Global     Bio -   and habitats necessary to maintain
    diverrity          diversity of species and within species    • National and Regional Strategies on              All Countries ( EC +- MS )
                                                                     Biodiversity
                                                                     - préventive approach , EIA
                                                                     - inventories
                                                                     - protection of forests , wetlands and other
                                                                        species - rich ecosystems
                                                                  * Increased technical and financial Assistance     Industrialized Countries
                                                                     to Developing Countries                         (including EC)
                                                                  • Valuation of biological resources                id
2. Control of        • Stabilisation of COj emissions ai 1990     • Global Gimate Change Convention                  International Community
    Global Warm *      levels
    in g             * Limitation or réduction of CH4 émissions      - Protocol on CO, émission réductions
                                                                     - Protocol cn limitation of CH4 emissions
                                                                  • Increased technical and financial Assistance
                                                                    to Developing and CEE Countries
                     * Increased energy effiency                  * National and Regional Strategies including       Individual States ,
                                                                                                                     Regions , including EC + MS
                     • Prolection/enhancement of Greenhouse          - Inventories of Greenhouse gases + sinks
                       gases reservoirs/sinks                       ♦ Increased energy effiency
                                                                     • Promotion of renewable sources of energy
                                                                     - Economic/ftscal incentives
3 . Protection of    • Phase-out of production and use of CFCs,   • Full implemcntation of Montreal Protocol         International Community
    Ozone Laver        Halons , Carbontetrachloride and I.I.I.       (incl. technical and financial assistance )
                       tri chi ore thane                          * Review of scientific data and response           id
                                                                  • EC Régulations                                   EC + MS
4 . Protection   of  • Maintcnance/reinstalement of forests at    • Global agreemenlon protection, development       International Community
    Forests            least at 1990 levels                          and management of forests                       + ITTO
                                                                  • Implementation of forest provisions in global    id
                     * Substantia] reafforestation programmes        conventions on biodiversity and climate
                       for tropical , temperate and boreal forest    change
                       areas                                      • 1 1 1 O “Target 2000" on timber trade            Producing + importing
                                                                  • Reduced limber consumption, including            countries, ITTO, EC, GATT
                     • Integrated        protection / sustainable   promotion of recycling of paper and board        id
                       management of forest areas                 • Restructuring of relevant international          International Community
                                                                     organisations e.g. ITTO, TFAP, UNEP
                                                                  • National strategies for promotion ,              All countries
                                                                     enhancement and protection of forests
                                                                  • Finalization of pilot programme on Brazilian     Brazil , EC, World Bank,
                                                                     rain-forest; extension to other forest areas    G-7, other countries
                                                                  • Increased technical and financial assistances    International Community
                                                                     to developing countries                         EC
                                                                  • Monitoring of global forest coverage ,           id
                                                                     including remote sensing
5 . Promotion    of  * Relief of pressure on the environment in   • Adoption and implementation of “Agenda 21”       UNCED participants
    sustainable        developing countries resulting from        • Effective implémentation of provisions on
    development        population growth and poverty                 sustainable development in Lomé IV              EC + ACP
                                                                  • Effective implementation of environmental
                     • Integration of environmental objectives       guidelines for co-operation between EC and      EC + ALA
                       and criteria into macro-economic reform       ALA countries
                       programmes                                 • Effective implementation of NicosiaQiarter       Mediterranean Countries
                     • Solution of critical problems for the      • PHARE national and regional programmes           EC, EIB , MAP. World Bank
                       development process in developing          • Increased technical and financial assistance     International Community
                       countries and in Central and Eastern          to all developing countries for die formulation EC , World Bank , G-24 , EIB ,
                        Europe                                       and implementation of national and regional     Multinational
                                                                     programmes for sustainable development          companies , financial
                        - energy demand and supply                    - institutional strengthening                  institutions , Research
                        - îand dégradation + désertification          - financial resources                          and Technological Bodies
                        - water resources                             - scientific and technical transfer, co ¬
                                                                         operation and assistance
                                                                  • Increased public health and environmental        International Community
                                                                     awareness                                       Individual countries
                                                                      - govemement, local and rcgio?ial authority    NGOI
                                                                         and corporate decision-makers
                                                                      - general public
                                                                  * Codes of conduct for enterprise*                  International Community
                                                                                                                                                          91
                                                                                                                      EC , MS, Enterprises
                                                                   • Investment in environmental cleanup in           irtemaria Caanmty, BC.ftlARE, Warid
                                                                      for:'vr <            -. med countries           JUL dfi. BcRD, Frspai inaoskn
 ---pagebreak---                                                    Chapter 13 :
                   UNCED : The United Nations Conference on
                                 Environment and Development
   Just as the 1972 Conference in Stockholm created a        *     An “Earth Charter* or Declaration of basic rights
   new awareness and concern about the environment at              and obligations with respect to environment and
   broad international level, so too can the 1992 UN               development.
   Conference in Rio de Janeiro bring global political will  *     An agenda for action, “Agenda 21 “, which will
   and commitment to effective action into a new                   constitute the agreed work programme of the
   dimension . The basic aim of the Conference is to               international community for the period beyond
   elaborate strategies and measures to halt and reverse           1 992 and into the 21 st century.
   the effects ofenvi ron mental degradation and to promote
   sustainable and environmentally sound development
   in all countries. It should therefore mark the transition It is clear that the outcome of UNCED will deeply
   from a model ofdevelopment almost exclusively aimed       influence the Community's actions, policies and
   at promoting economic growth towards a model              objectives in the years to come . The implementation
   wherein environmental protection and rational             of the principles and measures to be agreed at the
   management of natural resources will be taken on          Conference will require, first of all , a reassessment of
   board as integral componentsofdevelopment patterns.       the Community's own internal policies; secondly, in
                                                             conformity with the Dublin Declaration , the
   The Community and its Member States are actively          Community must continue its efforts to promote
   participating in UNCED's preparatory process. In          international action to protea the environment and to
   October       1991 ,    the   Commission      tabled    a meetthe specific needs and requirements of its partners
   communication to the Council ("A common platform          in the developing world and in Central and Eastern
   : Guidelines for the Community for UNCED 1 992"(1 ))      Europe.
   proposing some basic orientations to guide the
   Community 's stance at the Conference . This              In the case of the link between the ACP countries and
   communication provided the basis for the adoption of      the Community under the Lom£ Convention , the
   the Council 's conclusions of 12 December 1991 on         UNCED process will deepen joint reflection on future
   UNCED, where it was particularly stressed that,           programmes and will help to promote mutual priorities
   although sustainable development is important to all      in matters of protection and conservation of the
   countries, whateverthe present stateoftheireconomies,     environment .
   there is a special responsibility on the more developed
   countries, not only to pursue sustainability themselves,  The internal and external dimensions of Community
   but also to assist other countries, in a fair and         environment policy are inextricably linked . Both
   constructive partnership based on mutual trust and        aspects will have to be duly integrated to build up a
   equity, to make progress in the same direction.           coherent and effective response to the complex
                                                             problemson UNCED's agenda. Whateverthe remaining
   Apart from the expected adoption of framework             uncertainties about the extent and depth of the
   conventions on climate change and biodiversity and of     environmental damage we are inflicting upon our
   a statement of principles on conservation and             planet, the overwhelming evidence is that the threats
   development of forests ( including a commitment to        and risks posed by current trends in consumption and
   conclude a legally binding instrument at the earliest     behaviour are much too great to justify.
   possible time) UNCED 's output should include two
   key elements :
92
   m
           SEC (91 ) 1693 final , 30.10.1991
 ---pagebreak---         PART NI
Priorities, Costs, Review
                          93
 ---pagebreak---                           Chapter 14 : Selection of Priorities
Because this Programme is as much about policy and           *     Information , Education and Training of all
strategy designed to change current trends as about               economic actors including policy-makers,
specific actions, and because it is based on the principle        planners, managers, workers, consumers;
ofsubsidiarity and the concept of shared responsibil ity,    *     Full IntegrationofEnvironmentandOtherPolicies
there is less a question of selection of priorities than a   *    Stria Implémentation and Enforcement
choice of critical paths. Clearly, in the case of some
long-term objectives, as could apply in the transport        Priority Fields of Action
and energy sectors for example, certain steps have to        In the endeavour to move towards a more sustainable
be taken as a matter of priority now in order to produce     balance between human aaivity and socio-economic
the desired results over an extended time-frame. In          development and the resources and regenerative
cases involving interaction between the public and           capacity of nature, priority is accorded to the following
private sectors, the determination of rules or               fields of aaion :
establishment of guidelines by the former may be a           *    Sustainable Management of Natural Resources:
prerequisite for actions by the latter, thereby indicating        soil , water, natural areas and coastal zones
different time-frames and priorities in a common field       *     Integrated Pollution Control
of action .                                                  *     Prevention and Management of Waste
                                                             *     Reduaion in the Consumption of Non-Renewable
                                                                   Energy
Horizontal Measures                                          *     More Efficient Management of Mobility
In order to change patterns of consumption and               *     Improvement of the Urban Environment
behaviour in society so as to make them compatible           *     Improvement of Health and Safety, with special
with the concept of sustainability' it will be necessary           emphasis on industrial risk assessment and
to strike a new balance between the perceived short¬               management, nuclear safety and radiation
term benefits of individual persons or bodies and the              proteaion .
 long-term benefit of society as a whole. While the
 regulatory approach will continue to have an important      It will be noted that, in keeping with the principle of
funaion it would not be able to achieve the desired          subsidiarity and the concept of shared responsibility
 balance without the addition of complementary               which permeates this Programme, many ofthe specific
 measures. To this end , the following horizontal            aaions envisaged will fall to be carried out at levels
 measures are accorded priority :                            other than that of the Community. Furthermore,
 * Improvement of Data : basic information , trends,          pursuant to Treaty requirements on integration of
      indicators;                                            environment into other policies, some of the above
 *    Getting the Prices Right : internal isation ofexternal  priority areas will fall to be pursued partly, or primarily,
      costs through valuation and costing mechanisms,        within the ambit of policies such as those on agriculture,
      cost/benefit analysis, economic/fiscal incentives,     energy and transport.
      environmental auditing, civil liability, etc.;
                                                                                                                           95
 ---pagebreak---                                Chapter 15 : The Question of Cost
   General considérations                                       (i)     Information about the physical state of the
   One of the major shortcomings of economic policy in                  environment is often lacking or insufficient. There
   the past has teen its failure to take into account or                is uncertainty about the tolerance limits of the
   measure accurately the full external costs imposed on                environment .
   the environment . Historically, the Earth's eco-system
   has been treated as an infinite source of raw materials,     ( ii ) Thecostsofenvironmental damage or the benefits
   energy, water etc.                                                   of repairing the environment or costs of "non-
                                                                        action " are difficult to assess, with practical
   Society's i ncome (or GDP) was seen to depend on ly on               techniques only just beginning to emerge.
   capital and labour resources . However, it is now clear
   that society's income today and in the future and the        ( ii i) The val ue ofthe environment to future generations
   sustained production of goods and services depend                    requires the choice of an appropriate discount
   not just on the availabilityofcapitalandlabourbutalso                rate, itself a potentially controversial issue.
   on natural and environment resources. Failure to
   properly account for, cost and value the environment         iv) Unlike business which uses money as a common
   and environment policy may lead to a wholly                          unit of measurement, there is no "numeraire" for
   misleading understandingof society's wealth, its income              environmental variables. This means it is difficult
   and its real sustainable development potential .                     to weigh up true opportunity costs of improving
                                                                        one environmental variable against another. Also
   Policies which are designed to promote economic                      because some environmental threats may damage
   development are doomed to eventual failure if they do                human health and, secondly, because ultimately
   not include the environmental din tendon as an integral              all environmental variables interl ink, environment
   component . The climatic changes, acidification ,                     policy requires an integrated or " holistic "
   desertification, flooding, toxic waste and pollution                 approach.
   which are causing so much concern today can all be
   traced back, to one extent or another, to short-sighted      (v) Community public policy choices are governed
   actions for economic gain which failed to take the                    not just by environmental costs and benefits (even
   longer-term environmental costs into account. Just as                 if measurable) but by other principles enumerated
   a sound business enterprise endeavours to maintain                    in the Treaty (e.g. precautionary and preventive
   and increase its capital value and invests in facilities,             principles, social cohesion etc.)
   expands production , buys new equipment and
   improves the quality of its services in order to protect     Also, there should be a clear understanding that certain
   its long-term health, so also Planet Earth requires          aspects of the environment are or can be "priceless"
   certain types of 'investments' in order to maintain          and thereby not susceptible to normal economic costing
   itself as a healthy ecosystem and to ensure long-term,       mechanisms such as cost-benefit analysis or the free
   sustainable, economic growth . Future generations            play of market forces e.g. an adequate quality level of
   depend on the investments we make now. Failure to            drinking water, the last giant panda or elephant, the
   make these investments in due time could ultimately          singing of birds, aspects of cultural heritage. Where
   put whole regions and ultimately civilization itself out     satisfactory economic evaluation and costing is not
   of business.                                                  possible, qualitative evaluation is an indispensable
                                                                tool for acceleratingthe full integration ofenvironmental
                                                                considerations into the decision making process and
   Practical Difficulties in Costing the Environment and        transition towards sustainable development To this
   its Preservation                                             end, instruments such asenvironmental indicators and
   Firstly, it is not possible to indicate the potential "cost” environmental impact assessments should be further
   of the Programme as a whole to the Member States, the        developed and refined .
   regional and local authorities and the economic actors.
   If the concept of sustainable development has any             None of this is to deny the importance of costing
   credibility, the ultimate benefits should outweigh the       environmental policiesand programmes. In accordance
   so-called costs over time; in this context, the new          with the Treaty, an analysis of the potential costs and
   Treaty (Article 1 30r.3 ) requires that the real cost of      benefits of action and non-action will be undertaken in
   non-action be taken i nto account i n any su ch equation;    developing specific formal proposals within the
    if the costs of 'non-action' are not taken into account,     Commission . In developing such proposals every care
   decision-making will tend to be biased against a             will be taken as far as possible to avoid the imposition
   sustainably optimal policy response. However, in             of this disproportionate costs and to ensure that the
    practical terms, a number of major difficulties arise :      benefits will outweigh the costs over time.
96
 ---pagebreak--- Future Perspectives on Costing                                    domain . Appropriate discount rates should be
As soon as may be possible, then, a broad and balanced            chosen to safeguard the rightsof future generations
approach to the design and the choice ofenvironmental             with due allowance for uncertainty and risk.
priorities must be elaborated , based on the fullest
possible assessment of all relevant costs and benefits.           A Community cost-benefit methodology should
In the same vein, the selection of instruments should be          be drawn-up as a matter of urgency which could
such as to allow given environmental targets to be                be applied to all projects and policies with an
reached with least costs. In this latter respect, the             environmental dimension . Consideration should
measurement of costs should include the administrative            be given to whether the costs of "shadow"
or resource costs carried by the public sector and an             environmental restoration projects should be
economic evaluation of the diminution of the natural              included in economic cost-benefit analyses and
resources stock as well as the compliance costs faced             under what conditions such shadow projects
by enterprises and private households. The following              should be given preference (e.g. in conditions of
5-point plan is advanced as a package to be pursued               great uncertainty).
during the term of the Programme in order to come to
terms with the difficulties outlined above and to devise          All Community environmental policies and other
an appropriate and effective costi ng mechanism which             policies havingan environmental dimension must
will serve the dual requirement of environmental                  be costed as comprehensively as possible, taking
protection and sustainable development :                          i nto account al I costs and benefits of " action " and
                                                                  " non-action" in conformity with Article 130r of
*      As a matter of priority, improved information on           the Treaty. Where possible priorities should be
       the state ofthe envi ronment, appropriate indicators       determined on the basis of where benefits are
       and tolerance capacities must be made available            highest.
       to policy makers in order to better define
       sustainable development parameters.                        Environmentally adjusted ( i.e. to take account of
                                                                  the natural resource stock of air, water, soil ,
       Further intensive research efforts are needed to           landscape, heritage etc) national accounts should
       value and account for the environment ;                    be available on a pilot basis from 1 995 onwards
       international coordination and burden-sharing              for all Community countries, with a view to formal
       should be encouraged wherever possible in this             adoption by the end of the decade .
                         Chapter 16 : Review of the Programme
 The road to sustainable development both within the        While this Programme adopts the end of the decade as
 Community and beyond will be a long one. This              its horizon , the present intention is to have it "rol I over"
 Community Programme isintented to initiate changes         at an intermediate stage . Apart from the expected
 in behaviour and trends at Community level , in the        improvement in relevant information and availability
 Member States, in the business world and at the level      of results from the Community's current research
 of the ordinary citizen . The approach adopted             programme on the environment 0990-94), there will
 throughout is to determine                                 be major reviews of Community policies on industry,
 * objectives, either specific or general , pointing        energy, transport, agriculture and the Structural Funds
        towards a sustainable development path;             over the next few years.
 * targets for the period up to 2000 so that there will
        be either a quantifiable or qualitative measure of  Applying the analogy of a large ship, which takes
        progress; and                                       considerable time and space to manoeuvre, the 1 992 -
  *     actions to be taken in the short-to- medium term to 95 phase should be viewed as a priming period,
        initiate the journey and/or to accelerate progress. changing the sense of direction and commitment, and
                                                            the 1 996-2000 phase as getting the operation under
  Becauseof inadequaciesin base-linedataand projected        full steam. Accordingly, a comprehensive reappraisal
 trends there are bound to be uncertainties about the       of the situation will be undertaken and an up-dated
 validity of certain targets or the urgency of certain       report on the state of the environment and a review of
  actions. However, the Heads of State and Government       the policy-cum-strategy set out in this Programme will
  of the Community have determined that, in aiming for       be published before the end of 1 995 .
  sustainable development, the precautionary approach
  should apply.
                                                                                                                           97
 ---pagebreak---                                                      Conclusion
   We are at a turning point in the integration of             The achievement of this Programme and its objective
   environment issues into the other policies of the           of sustainable development constitutes one of the
   Community. The impact of the Internal Market, the           major political and economic challenges for the
   need to put sustainable development at the heart of         Community between now and the year 2000. It is the
   other policies and to set an adequate example to the        basis for the 'more enlightened and more systematic
   rest of the world require a major change in approach.       approach to environmental management" that the
                                                               European Council in June 1990 felt was urgently
   This Programme itself constitutes a turning point. It sets  required. To fail to rise to this challenge would not only
   out for the first time both a strategy and timetable for    be detrimental to the present generation but would
   the actions necessary to ensure that the Community          also constitute a grave disservice to future generations.
   itself moves towards a sustainable economy, and for         The Community and all its citizens must take their
   assisting less-developed neighbours to do so also. This     responsibilities in their own hands. It is above all a
   Programme is not merely a task for the Community            shared responsibility which requires collective action.
   institutions: it will require the full partnership and full
   support of al I the actors necessary to make it work. The   THE ENVIRONMENT IS DEPENDENT ON OUR
   Community can only provide the framework.                   COLLECTIVE            ACTIONS ;          TOMORROW 'S
                                                               ENVIRONMENT DEPENDS ON HOW WE ACT
                                                               TODAY.
98