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8 

XIULU RUAN v. UNITED STATES 

Opinion of the Court 

States v. Yermian, 468 U. S. 63, 68–69 (1984).  To the con-
trary, and as we have explained, a lack of authorization is 
often the critical thing distinguishing wrongful from proper
conduct. 

B 
Analogous precedent reinforces our conclusion.  In Lipa-
rota,  we  interpreted  a  statute  penalizing  anyone  who
“ ‘knowingly uses [food stamps] in any manner not author-
ized by’ ” statute.  471 U. S., at 420.  We held that “know-
ingly” modified both the “use” of food stamps element and 
the element that the use be “not authorized.”  Id., at 423, 
433.  We applied “knowingly” to the authorization language
even  though  Congress  had  not  “explicitly  and  unambigu-
ously” indicated that it should so apply.  Id., at 426.  But if 
knowingly did not modify the fact of nonauthorization, we
explained, the statute “would . . . criminalize a broad range
of apparently innocent conduct.”  Ibid.
  Similarly, in X-Citement Video, we interpreted a statute
penalizing anyone who “ ‘knowingly transports’ ” or “ ‘know-
ingly receives’ ” videos “ ‘involv[ing] the use of a minor en-
gaging in sexually explicit conduct.’ ”  513 U. S., at 68.  We 
held  that  “knowingly”  applied  not  only  to  the  element  of
transporting or receiving videos but also to the elemental 
fact that the videos involve “the use of a minor.”  Id., at 66. 
We  recognized  that  this  was  not  “the  most  grammatical
reading of the statute.”  Id., at 70.  But, we explained, “the 
age of the performers is the crucial element separating legal 
innocence from wrongful conduct,” for possessing sexually 
explicit  videos  involving  nonminors  is  protected  First 
Amendment activity.  Id., at 72–73. 
  Finally, in Rehaif, we interpreted a statutory scheme in 
which one statutory subsection provided penalties for any-
one  who  “knowingly  violates”  a  separate  subsection.    588 
U. S.,  at  ___–___  (slip op.,  at  3–4).    This  latter  subsection