Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/22pdf/20-1199_hgdj.pdf
Page Number: 55

Cite as:  600 U. S. ____ (2023) 

7 

THOMAS, J., concurring 

wise general citizenship language.  14 Stat. 27.1  As Trum-
bull  explained,  the  provision  created  a  bond  between  all 
Americans; “any statute which is not equal to all, and which 
deprives  any  citizen  of  civil  rights  which  are  secured  to 
other citizens,” was “an unjust encroachment upon his lib-
erty” and a “badge of servitude” prohibited by the Constitu-
tion.  Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., at 474 (emphasis 
added).

Trumbull and most of the Act’s other supporters identi-
fied the Thirteenth Amendment as a principal source of con-
stitutional authority for the Act’s nondiscrimination provi-
sions.  See,  e.g.,  id.,  at  475  (statement  of  Sen.  Trumbull); 
id.,  at  1152  (statement  of  Rep.  Thayer);  id.,  at  503–504 
(statement of Sen. Howard).  In particular, they explained 
that  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  allowed  Congress  not
merely to legislate against slavery itself, but also to counter 
measures “which depriv[e] any citizen of civil rights which
are secured to other citizens.”  Id., at 474. 

But  opponents  argued  that  Congress’  authority  did  not 
sweep so broadly.  President Andrew Johnson, for example, 
contended that Congress lacked authority to pass the meas-
ure, seizing on the breadth of the citizenship text and em-
phasizing state authority over matters of state citizenship.
See S. Doc. No. 31, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 1, 6 (1866) (John-
son veto message).  Consequently, “doubts about the consti-
tutional authority conferred by that measure led supporters
to  supplement  their  Thirteenth  Amendment  arguments
with  other  sources  of  constitutional  authority.”    R.  Wil-
liams, Originalism and the Other Desegregation Decision, 
99  Va.  L. Rev.  493,  532–533  (2013)  (describing  appeals  to 
the naturalization power and the inherent power to protect 

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1 In fact, Indians would not be considered citizens until several decades 
later.    Indian  Citizenship  Act  of  1924,  ch.  233,  43  Stat.  253  (declaring 
that all Indians born in the United States are citizens).