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26 

AMERICAN LEGION v. AMERICAN HUMANIST ASSN. 

Opinion of the Court 
Opinion of ALITO, J. 

Proclamation),  and  it  reenacted  the  Northwest  Territory 
Ordinance,  which  provided  that  “[r]eligion,  morality,  and 
knowledge,  being  necessary  to  good  government  and  the 
happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education 
shall forever be encouraged,” 1 Stat. 52, n. (a).  President 
Washington  echoed  this  sentiment  in  his  Farewell  Ad-
dress,  calling  religion  and  morality  “indispensable  sup-
ports”  to  “political  prosperity.”    Farewell  Address  (1796), 
in 35 The Writings of George Washington 229 (J. Fitzpat-
rick  ed.  1940).    See  also  P.  Hamburger,  Separation  of 
Church and State 66 (2002).  The First Congress looked to 
these “supports” when it chose to begin its sessions with a 
prayer.  This practice was designed to solemnize congres-
sional  meetings,  unifying  those  in  attendance  as  they 
pursued a common goal of good governance. 
  To achieve that purpose, legislative prayer needed to be 
inclusive  rather  than  divisive,  and  that  required  a  deter-
mined  effort  even  in  a  society  that  was  much  more  reli-
giously  homogeneous  than  ours  today.    Although  the 
United  States  at  the  time  was  overwhelmingly  Christian 
and  Protestant,28  there  was  considerable  friction  between 
Protestant  denominations.    See  M.  Noll,  America’s  God: 
From  Jonathan  Edwards  to  Abraham  Lincoln  228  (2002).  
Thus,  when  an  Episcopal  clergyman  was  nominated  as 
chaplain,  some  Congregationalist  Members  of  Congress 
objected  due  to  the  “ ‘diversity  of  religious  sentiments 
represented  in  Congress.’ ”    D.  Davis,  Religion  and  the 
Continental  Congress  74  (2000).    Nevertheless,  Samuel 
Adams, a staunch Congregationalist, spoke in favor of the 
motion:  “ ‘I  am  no  bigot.    I  can  hear  a  prayer  from  a  man  
of  piety  and  virtue,  who  is  at  the  same  time  a  friend  of  
his  country.’ ”    Ibid.    Others  agreed  and  the  chaplain  was 
appointed. 
  Over  time,  the  members  of  the  clergy  invited  to  offer 

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28 W. Hutchison, Religious Pluralism in America 20–21 (2003).