Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/19pdf/18-1334_8m58.pdf
Page Number: 29.0

Cite as:  590 U. S. ____ (2020) 

3 

THOMAS, J., concurring in judgment 

the original meaning of the phrase “Officers of the United
States.”  Since  the  founding,  this  Court  has  recognized  a 
distinction between Article IV power and the powers of the 
National Government in Articles I, II, and III.  The found-
ing  generation  understood  the  phrase  “Officers  of  the
United States” to refer to officers exercising the powers of 
the National Government, not officers solely exercising Ar-
ticle  IV  territorial  power.  Because  the  Board’s  members 
perform duties pursuant to Article IV, they do not qualify 
as “Officers of the United States.” 

A 
The Territory Clause of Article IV provides Congress the
“Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regu-
lations respecting the Territory . . . belonging to the United
States.”  §3, cl. 2.  This power is “absolute and undisputed.” 
Sere v. Pitot, 6 Cranch 332, 337 (1810).  Congress has “full
and  complete  legislative  authority  over  the  people  of  the
Territories  and  all  the  departments  of  the  territorial  gov-
ernments.”  National Bank v. County of Yankton, 101 U. S. 
129, 133 (1880).

“No  one  has  ever  doubted  the  authority  of  congress  to
erect  territorial  governments  within  the  territory  of  the 
United States, under the general language of the clause, ‘to 
make all needful rules and regulations.’ ”  3 J. Story, Com-
mentaries on the Constitution of the United States §1319, 
p. 195 (1833).  These governments are “the creations, exclu-
sively, of [Congress], and subject to its supervision and con-
trol.”  Benner v. Porter, 9 How. 235, 242 (1850).1 

—————— 

1 The Court of Appeals attempted to draw a distinction between power 
exercised  pursuant  to  territorial  laws  enacted  by  Congress  and  power 
exercised pursuant to territorial laws enacted by a territorial legislature. 
There is no meaningful distinction in this context.  While the legislature 
of the Territory may establish laws for the Territories, Article IV remains 
the “ultimate source” of territorial power.  Puerto Rico v. Sánchez Valle,