Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/19pdf/18-1334_8m58.pdf
Page Number: 31

Cite as:  590 U. S. ____ (2020) 

5 

THOMAS, J., concurring in judgment 

do with Article I legislative power.  See Whitman v. Ameri-
can Trucking Assns., Inc., 531 U. S. 457, 472 (2001); Depart-
ment  of  Transportation  v.  Association  of  American  Rail-
roads, 575 U. S. 43, 67–88 (2015) (THOMAS, J., concurring
in judgment).  It has also established territorial courts that 
do  not  comply  with  Article  III.   See  Baude,  Adjudication
Outside  Article  III,  133  Harv.  L.  Rev.  1511,  1525–1530 
(2020) (analyzing territorial courts in early Territories).

The powers vested in territorial governments are distinct 
from the powers of the National Government.  Territorial 
legislatures exercise the legislative power of the Territory,
not  Article  I  legislative  power.  Cincinnati  Soap  Co.  v. 
United  States,  301  U. S.  308,  322–323  (1937).    Territorial 
officials exercise the executive power of the Territory, not
Article II executive power.  Snow v. United States, 18 Wall. 
317, 321–322 (1873).  And territorial courts exercise the ju-
dicial power of the Territory, not the “judicial power of the 
United States” under Article III.  American Ins. Co. v. 356 
Bales  of  Cotton,  1  Pet.  511,  546  (1828);  Clinton  v.  En-
glebrecht, 13 Wall. 434, 447 (1872). 

B 
Given  the  distinction  between  territorial  and  national 
powers,  the  question  becomes  whether  officers  exercising
Article  IV  territorial  power  are  officers  “of  the  United 
States”  under  the  original  meaning  of  the  Appointments 
Clause.  They are not.  Both the text of the Appointments
Clause and historical practice support this conclusion. 

1 
The text of the Appointments Clause indicates that “Of-
ficers of the United States” refers to officers exercising the
powers of the National Government, not officers exercising
territorial power.  The Clause applies to the appointment of 

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(Virgin Islands); Act of Aug. 1, 1950, §10, 64 Stat. 387 (Guam).