Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/14pdf/13-1041_0861.pdf
Page Number: 31.0

Cite as:  575 U. S. ____ (2015) 

7 

THOMAS, J., concurring in judgment 

of debts.  Id., at 403–409.3 

When  the  Framers  met  for  the  Constitutional  Conven-
tion,  they  understood  the  need  for  greater  checks  and 
balances  to  reinforce  the  separation  of  powers.    As  Madi-
son remarked, “experience has taught us a distrust” of the 
separation of powers alone as “a sufficient security to each
[branch]  [against]  encroachments  of  the  others.”    2  Re-
cords of the Federal Convention of 1787, p. 77 (M. Farrand
rev. 1966).  “[I]t is necessary to introduce such a balance of
powers  and  interests,  as  will  guarantee  the  provisions  on
paper.”  Ibid.  The Framers thus separated the three main 
powers  of  Government—legislative,  executive,  and  judi-
cial—into the three branches created by Articles I, II, and 
III.  But they also created checks and balances to reinforce
that separation.  For example, they gave Congress specific
enumerated  powers  to  enact  legislation,  Art. I,  §8,  but 
gave  the  President  the  power  to  veto  that  legislation,
subject to congressional override by a supermajority vote, 
Art. I, §7, cls. 2, 3.  They gave the President the power to
appoint  principal  officers  of  the  United  States,  but  gave 
the  Senate  the  power  to  give  advice  and  consent  to  those 
appointments.  Art. II, §2, cl. 2.  They gave the House and
Senate the power to agree to adjourn for more than three 
days, Art. I, §5, cl. 4, but gave the President the power, “in 
Case  of  Disagreement  between  them,”  to  adjourn  the 
Congress “to such Time as he shall think proper.”  Art. II, 
§3, cl. 3.  During the ratification debates, Madison argued
that  this  structure  represented  “the  great  security”  for
liberty in the Constitution.  The Federalist No. 51, p. 321 

—————— 

3 The  practices  of  the  time  can  perhaps  best  be  summarized  by  the
following  commentary  from  a  contemporaneous  magazine:  “[S]o  many 
legal  infractions  of  sacred  right—so  many  public  invasions  of  private 
property—so many wanton abuses of legislative powers!”  Giles Hickory
(Noah  Webster),  Government,  The  American  Magazine,  Mar.  1788,  p.
206.