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Page Number: 92

10 

HAALAND v. BRACKEEN 

THOMAS, J., dissenting 

140  (W.  Lowrie  &  M.  Clarke  eds.  1833).  Congress  sup-
ported his Proclamation by imposing criminal penalties on 
anyone who, among other things, went “beyond the limits 
or  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  with  intent  to  be  en-
listed  or  entered  in  the  service  of  any  foreign  prince  or 
state.”  §2, 1 Stat. 383.  While this Court has at times de-
bated whether those residual foreign-affairs powers are lo-
cated in the Executive exclusively or the Federal Govern-
ment more broadly, see Zivotofsky, 576 U. S., at 20–22, it 
has long recognized the powers as arising from our consti-
tutional  framework  and  residing  at  the  federal  level,  see, 
e.g., Curtiss-Wright, 299 U. S., at 318. 

B 
After  the  Constitution’s  ratification,  the  new  Federal 
Government exercised its enumerated powers with regard
to Indian tribes.  To start, the Government embarked on an 
era  of  treaty-making  with  Indian  tribes.  See  Cohen 
§1.03[1],  at 23.    That  treaty-focused  policy  reflected  the 
Washington administration’s view that Indian tribes were
best dealt with as mostly “foreign nations,” with an eye to-
wards  peace  lest  frontier  conflicts  continue  to  plague  the 
new  Nation.  See  Letter  from  H.  Knox  to  G.  Washington
(July 7, 1789), reprinted in 3 Papers of George Washington
138 (W. Abbot 1989); see also Toler 433–434.  Many early 
treaties thus “were treaties of peace and friendship, often
providing  for  the  restoration  or  exchange  of  prisoners”  or 
including “mutual assistance pacts.”  Cohen §1.03[1], at 25. 
Others dealt with passports and commercial affairs.  Id., at 
25–26.  And many attested to the tribes’ status as depend-
ent nations, with the United States sometimes promising to 
protect the tribe.  Id., at 26. 

Unlike  the  Confederation  Congress,  the  new  Federal 
Government was no longer powerless to maintain and en-
force its treaties.  Exercising its new military powers, the
First Congress established a Department of War and vested