Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/20pdf/19-123_g3bi.pdf
Page Number: 59.0

Cite as:  593 U. S. ____ (2021) 

37 

ALITO, J., concurring in judgment
ALITO, J., concurring in judgment 

any  conduct  that  is  generally  prohibited  or  generally  re-
quired can be regarded as necessary to protect public peace 
or safety.  See City of Boerne, 521 U. S., at 539 (Scalia, J., 
concurring  in  part)  (“At  the  time  these  provisos  were
enacted, keeping ‘peace’ and ‘order’ seems to have meant,
precisely, obeying the laws”).

This argument gives “public peace and safety” an unnat-
urally  broad  interpretation.  Samuel  Johnson’s  1755  dic-
tionary  defined  “peace”  as:  “1.  Respite  from  war. . . .  2. 
Quiet from suits or disturbances. . . . 3. Rest from any com-
motion. 4. Stil[l]ness from riots or tumults. . . . 5. Reconcil-
iation of differences. . . . 6. A state not hostile. . . . 7. Rest; 
quiet; content; freedom from terrour; heavenly rest. . . .”  2 
Johnson.44 

In  ordinary  usage,  the  term  “safety”  was  understood  to 
mean:  “1.  Freedom  from  danger.  . . .  2.  Exemption  from 
hurt. 3. Preservation from hurt. . . .”  Ibid.45 

When “peace” and “safety” are understood in this way, it
cannot  be  said  that  every  violation  of  every  law  imperils
public “peace” or “safety.”  In 1791 (and today), violations of 

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44 See also 2 Webster (“1. In a general sense, a state of quiet or tran-
quility; freedom from disturbance or agitation. . . .  2. Freedom from war 
with a foreign nation; public quiet.  3. Freedom from internal commotion 
or civil war.  4. Freedom from private quarrels, suits or disturbance.  5. 
Freedom from agitation or disturbance by the passions, as from fear, ter-
ror, anger, anxiety or the like; quietness of mind; tranquillity; calmness;
quiet of conscience. . . . 6. Heavenly rest; the happiness of heaven. . . . 7. 
Harmony; concord; a state of reconciliation between parties at variance.
8. Public tranquility; that quiet, order and security which is guarauteed
by  the  laws;  as,  to  keep  the  peace;  to  break  the  peace”);  2  Ash  (“Rest,
quiet, respite from war, respite from tumult; reconciliation, an accommo-
dation of differences”). 

45 See also Bailey (“Freedom from Danger, Custody, Security”); 2 Ash 
(“Security  from  danger,  freedom  from  hurt;  custody,  security  from  es-
cape”); 2 Webster (“[1.] Freedom from danger or hazard . . . . 2. Exemp-
tion from hurt, injury or loss. . . . 3. Preservation from escape; close cus-
tody. . . . 4. Preservation from hurt”).