Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/22pdf/20-1199_hgdj.pdf
Page Number: 53

Cite as:  600 U. S. ____ (2023) 

5 

THOMAS, J., concurring 

movement and barring them from following certain occupa-
tions, owning firearms, serving on juries, testifying in cases 
involving whites, or voting.”  E. Foner, The Second Found-
ing 48 (2019).

Congress responded with the landmark Civil Rights Act
of 1866, 14 Stat. 27, in an attempt to pre-empt the Black 
Codes.  The  1866  Act  promised  such  a  sweeping  form  of
equality that it would lead many to say that it exceeded the 
scope of Congress’ authority under the Thirteenth Amend-
ment.  As enacted, it stated: 

“Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Represent-
atives of the United States of America in Congress as-
sembled,  That  all  persons  born  in  the  United  States
and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians
not  taxed,  are  hereby  declared  to  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States;  and  such  citizens,  of  every  race  and 
color, without regard to any previous condition of slav-
ery  or  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment 
for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con-
victed,  shall  have  the  same  right,  in  every  State  and 
Territory  in  the  United  States,  to  make  and  enforce 
contracts, to sue, be parties, and give evidence, to in-
herit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and 
personal property, and to full and equal benefit of all 
laws  and  proceedings  for  the  security  of  person  and 
property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and shall be 
subject to like punishment, pains, and penalties, and to
none other, any law, statute, ordinance, regulation, or 
custom, to the contrary notwithstanding.” 

The text of the provision left no doubt as to its aim: All per-
sons born in the United States were equal citizens entitled 
to  the  same  rights  and  subject  to  the  same  penalties  as 
white  citizens  in  the  categories  enumerated.  See  M. 
McConnell,  Originalism  and  the  Desegregation  Decisions,
81 Va. L. Rev. 947, 958 (1995) (“Note that the bill neither