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Page Number: 66.0

24 

HAALAND v. BRACKEEN 

GORSUCH, J., concurring 

which  raises  the  question:  What  powers  does  the  federal 
government possess with respect to Tribes? 

1 
Because the federal government enjoys only “limited” and
“enumerated  powers,”  we  look  to  the  Constitution’s  text. 
McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 405 (1819).  Notably,
our founding document does not include a plenary federal 
authority  over  Tribes.    Nor  was  this  an  accident,  at  least 
not in the final accounting.  The framers considered a gen-
eral  Indian  Affairs  Clause  but  left  it  on  the  cutting-room
floor.  See L. Toler, The Missing Indian Affairs Clause, 88 
U. Chi. L. Rev. 413, 444–476 (2021) (Toler).  That choice 
reflects  an  important  insight  about  the  Constitution’s
Indian-law bargain:  “Without an Indian affairs power,” any 
assertion of unbounded federal authority over the Tribes is 
“constitutionally wanting.”  Id., at 476. 

Instead of a free-floating Indian-affairs power, the fram-
ers opted for a bundle of federal authorities tailored to “the 
regulation of [the Nation’s] intercourse with the Indians.” 
Worcester, 6 Pet., at 559.  In keeping with the framers’ faith 
in  the  separation  of  powers,  they  chose  to  split  those  au-
thorities  “between  the  [E]xecutive  and  the  [L]egislature.” 
Toler 479.  “The residue of Indian affairs power”—all those 
Indian-related powers not expressly doled out by the Con-
stitution—remained 
“the  sovereign
[T]ribes.”  Id., at 481. 

the  province  of 

What was included in the federal government’s bundle of 
enumerated powers?  In the early years, the most important
component was the authority to “make Treaties” with the 
Tribes.  Art. II,  §2,  cl. 2.    But  other  provisions  also  facili-
tated the management of Indian relations.  The Constitu-
tion vested in Congress the power to “declare War” against
the Tribes.  Art. I., §8, cl. 11.  It gave Congress authority to
“dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations re-
specting  the  Territory  or  other  Property  belonging  to  the