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2 

SACKETT v. EPA 

Opinion of the Court 

For more than a half century, the agencies responsible for 
enforcing  the  Act  have  wrestled  with  the  problem  and
adopted varying interpretations.  On three prior occasions,
this Court has tried to clarify the meaning of “the waters of
the  United  States.”  But  the  problem  persists.  When  we 
last addressed the question 17 years ago, we were unable to 
agree on an opinion of the Court.3  Today, we return to the 
problem and attempt to identify with greater clarity what
the Act means by “the waters of the United States.” 

I 
A 
For most of this Nation’s history, the regulation of water
pollution  was  left  almost  entirely  to  the  States  and  their
subdivisions.  The common law permitted aggrieved parties
to bring nuisance suits against polluters.  But as industrial 
production  and  population  growth  increased  the  quantity 
and toxicity of pollution, States gradually shifted to enforce-
ment by regulatory agencies.4  Conversely, federal regula-
tion was largely limited to ensuring that “traditional navi-
gable waters”—that is, interstate waters that were either
navigable in fact and used in commerce or readily suscepti-
ble  of  being  used  in  this  way—remained  free  of  impedi-
ments.  See, e.g., Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, 30 Stat. 
1151; see also United States v. Appalachian Elec. Power Co., 
311  U. S.  377,  406–407  (1940);  The  Daniel  Ball,  10  Wall. 
557, 563 (1871).

Congress’s early efforts at directly regulating water pol-
lution  were  tepid.  Although  the  Federal  Water  Pollution 
Control Act of 1948 allowed federal officials to seek judicial 
abatement of pollution in interstate waters, it imposed high 

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3 See  Rapanos  v.  United  States,  547  U. S.  715  (2006).    Neither  party 
contends that any opinion in Rapanos controls.  We agree.  See Nichols 
v. United States, 511 U. S. 738, 745–746 (1994). 

4 See  N.  Hines,  Nor  Any  Drop  To  Drink:  Public  Regulation  of  Water 

Quality, 52 Iowa L. Rev. 186, 196–207 (1966).