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Unit: $U54

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Cite as: 529 U. S. 598 (2000)

609

Opinion of the Court

514 U. S., at 558 (citing Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining
& Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 U. S. 264, 276–277 (1981);
Perez v. United States, 402 U. S. 146, 150 (1971)).
“First,
Congress may regulate the use of the channels of interstate
514 U. S., at 558 (citing Heart of Atlanta Motel,
commerce.”
Inc. v. United States, 379 U. S. 241, 256 (1964); United States
v. Darby, 312 U. S. 100, 114 (1941)).
“Second, Congress is
empowered to regulate and protect the instrumentalities
of interstate commerce, or persons or things in interstate
commerce, even though the threat may come only from intra-
state activities.” 514 U. S., at 558 (citing Shreveport Rate
Cases, 234 U. S. 342 (1914); Southern R. Co. v. United States,
“Finally, Con-
222 U. S. 20 (1911); Perez, supra, at 150).
gress’ commerce authority includes the power to regulate
those activities having a substantial relation to interstate
commerce, . . . i. e., those activities that substantially affect
514 U. S., at 558–559 (citing Jones &
interstate commerce.”
Laughlin Steel, supra, at 37).

Petitioners do not contend that these cases fall within
either of the ﬁrst two of these categories of Commerce
Clause regulation. They seek to sustain § 13981 as a regu-
lation of activity that substantially affects interstate com-
merce. Given § 13981’s focus on gender-motivated violence
wherever it occurs (rather than violence directed at the in-
strumentalities of interstate commerce, interstate markets,
or things or persons in interstate commerce), we agree that
this is the proper inquiry.

Since Lopez most recently canvassed and clariﬁed our
case law governing this third category of Commerce Clause
regulation, it provides the proper framework for conducting
In Lopez, we held that the
the required analysis of § 13981.
Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990, 18 U. S. C. § 922(q)(1)(A),
which made it a federal crime to knowingly possess a ﬁre-
arm in a school zone, exceeded Congress’ authority under the
Commerce Clause. See 514 U. S., at 551. Several signiﬁ-
cant considerations contributed to our decision.