Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/20pdf/19-1434_ancf.pdf
Page Number: 68.0

Cite as:  594 U. S. ____ (2021) 

21 

THOMAS, J., dissenting 

appointed  annually  by  the  house  of  representatives,  with
the concurrence of the Senate.”  Art. VIII, §3 (1792).  But 
“all inferior officers in the treasury department” were to be
“appointed in such manner as is or may be directed by law.” 
§6.

Although not dipositive, this Court has adopted the no-
menclature  of  the  principal-inferior  distinction.  See,  e.g., 
ante, at 5–6; Edmond, 520 U. S., at 661 (“distinguishing be-
tween  principal  and  inferior  officers  for  Appointments
Clause purposes”); Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U. S. 1, 132 (1976) 
(per curiam) (“Principal officers are selected by the Presi-
dent  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.    Inferior 
officers Congress may allow to be appointed by the Presi-
dent alone, by the heads of departments, or by the Judici-
ary”); cf. Lucia, 585 U. S., at ___ (THOMAS, J., concurring)
(slip op., at 2) (“While principal officers must be nominated 
by the President and confirmed by the Senate, Congress can 
authorize the appointment of ‘inferior Officers’ by ‘the Pres-
ident alone,’ ‘the Courts of Law,’ or ‘the Heads of Depart-
ments’ ”);  United  States  v.  Germaine,  99  U. S.  508,  511 
(1879) (“the principal officer in” the Opinions Clause “is the
equivalent of the head of department in the other”).  And in 
reasoning adopted unanimously by the Court, at least one 
opinion defined “principal officers” for purposes of the Ap-
pointments Clause to be “ambassadors, ministers, heads of 
departments,  and  judges.”    Freytag  v.  Commissioner,  501 
U. S. 868, 884 (1991). 

2 
Regardless  of  which  of  the  three  interpretations  is  cor-
rect, all lead to the same result here.  Administrative patent 
judges are inferior officers.

Start with the broadest understanding.  A careful read of 
the Appointments Clause reveals that the office of “admin-
istrative patent judge” does not appear amidst the offices of 
ambassador,  consul,  public  minister,  and  Supreme  Court