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FULTON v. PHILADELPHIA 

ALITO, J., concurring in judgment
ALITO, J., concurring in judgment 

as they do today.  “To prohibit” meant either “[t]o forbid” or
“to hinder.” 2 S. Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage (1755) (Johnson (1755)).30  The term “exercise” had 
both  a  broad  primary  definition  (“[p]ractice”  or  “outward
performance”)  and  a  narrower  secondary  one  (an  “[a]ct  of 
divine worship whether publick or private”).  1 id.31  (The
Court long ago declined to give the First Amendment’s ref-
erence to “exercise” this narrow reading.  See, e.g., Cantwell 
v. Connecticut, 310 U. S. 296, 303–304 (1940).)  And “free,” 
in the sense relevant here, meant “unrestrained.”  1 John-
son (1755).32 

—————— 

30 See also N. Bailey, Universal Etymological English Dictionary (22d 
ed. 1770) (Bailey) (“to forbid, to bar, to keep from”); T. Dyche & W. Par-
don, A New General English Dictionary (14th ed. 1771) (Dyche & Par-
don) (“to forbid, bar, hinder, or keep from any thing”); 2 Johnson (6th ed. 
1785) (“1. To forbid, to interdict by authority. . . . 2. To debar; to hinder”); 
2 J. Ash, The New & Complete Dictionary of the English Language (2d 
ed. 1795) (Ash) (“To forbid, to interdict by authority; to debar, to hinder”); 
2 N. Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828)
(Webster)  (“1.  To  forbid;  to  interdict  by  authority;  . . .  2.  To  hinder;  to 
debar; to prevent; to preclude”); 2 J. Boag, The Imperial Lexicon of the 
English Language 275 (1850) (Boag) (“To forbid; to interdict by authority.
To hinder; to debar; to prevent; to preclude”). 

31 See also Bailey (“to practice”); Dyche & Pardon (“to practice or do a 
thing  often;  to  employ  one’s  self  frequently  in  the  same  thing”);  1  Ash 
(“Practise, use, employment, a task, an act of divine worship”); 2 Johnson
(9th ed. 1805) (“Practice; outward performance”; “Act of divine worship, 
whether publick or private”); 1 Webster (“1. Use, practice; . . . 2. Practice; 
performance; as the exercise of religion . . . 10. Act of divine worship”); 1 
Boag 503 (“Use; practice; . . . Practice; performance . . . Act of divine wor-
ship”).

32 See  also  Dyche  &  Pardon  (“at  liberty,  that  can  do  or  refuse  at  his  
pleasure,  that  is  under  no  restraint”);  1  Ash  (“Having  liberty,”  “unre-
strained,” ”exempt”); 1 Webster (“1. Being at liberty; not being under ne-
cessity  or  restraint,  physical  or  moral  . . .  5.  Unconstrained;  unre-
strained; not under compulsion or control”); 1 Boag 567–568 (“Being at 
liberty; not being under necessity or restraint, physical or moral . . . Un-
constrained; unrestrained, not under compulsion or control.  Permitted; 
allowed; open; not appropriated.  Not obstructed”).