Document ID: ./input/supremecourt_opinions/opinions/21pdf/20-843_7j80.pdf
Page Number: 102

Cite as:  597 U. S. ____ (2022) 

19 

BREYER, J., dissenting 

93.8 people/square mile, and some States have population 
densities  as  low  as  1.3  (Alaska),  5.9  (Wyoming),  and  7.4 
(Montana) people/square mile.  Ibid.  These numbers reflect 
in part the fact that these “may issue” jurisdictions contain
some of the country’s densest and most populous urban ar-
eas,  e.g.,  New  York  City,  Los  Angeles,  San  Francisco,  the 
District of Columbia, Honolulu, and Boston.  U. S. Census 
Bureau, Urban Area Facts (Oct. 8, 2021), https://www.census 
. gov/programs-surveys/geography/guidance/geo-areas/ 
urban-rural/ua-facts.html.  New York City, for example, has 
a  population  of  about  8.5  million  people,  making  it  more 
populous  than  38  States,  and  it  squeezes  that  population
into  just  over  300  square  miles.  Quick  Facts:  New  York 
City; 2020 Population; Brief for City of New York as Amicus 
Curiae 8, 22. 

As  I  explained  above,  supra,  at  8–9,  densely  populated 
urban  areas  face  different  kinds  and  degrees  of  dangers
from gun violence than rural areas.  It is thus easy to see
why the seven “may issue” jurisdictions might choose to reg-
ulate firearm carriage more strictly than other States.  See 
Grossman 199 (“We find strong evidence that more urban 
states  are  less  likely  to  shift  to  ‘shall  issue’  than  rural 
states”).

New York and its amici present substantial data justify-
ing the State’s decision to retain a “may issue” licensing re-
gime.  The data show that stricter gun regulations are as-
sociated  with  lower  rates  of  firearm-related  death  and 
injury.  See,  e.g.,  Brief  for  Citizens  Crime  Commission  of 
New  York  City  as  Amicus  Curiae  9–11;  Brief  for  Former 
Major City Police Chiefs as Amici Curiae 9–12; Brief for Ed-
ucational  Fund  25–28;  Brief  for  Social  Scientists  et al.  as 
Amici Curiae 9–19.  In particular, studies have shown that
“may issue” licensing regimes, like New York’s, are associ-
ated  with  lower  homicide  rates  and  lower  violent  crime 
rates than “shall issue” licensing regimes.  For example, one 
study compared homicide rates across all 50 States during