Patent Abstract:
A railing system includes an upper core member having a cap connector. In a first embodiment, a railing system includes a cap member having a cap flange that detachably couples with the cap connector on the upper core member. The cap member forms an enclosed conduit between the cap member and the upper core member. In a second embodiment, a kit for fabricating a railing span is contained in a packaging. The kit includes an upper core member and lower core member having selected lengths and a plurality of balusters for connection between the upper and lower core members. In a third aspect of the invention, a method of routing an opening for a baluster used in an inclined railing structure includes the step of plunging a router bit into a side of a component at an angle based on the installed angle of the inclined railing structure.

Full Description:
RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/757,739, filed Jan. 10, 2006, and further claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/677,285, filed May 3, 2005, the contents of both applications being incorporated by reference herein. 
     
    
     FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
       [0002]    The present invention relates to outdoor railing systems, and particularly to outdoor railing assemblies having detachable hollow components to permit installation and servicing of cable, wiring and utility lines through the railing system after the railing system is installed. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0003]    Outdoor railing structures, such as handrails for decks and terraces, are constructed of a variety materials. Many manufacturers and builders of railing structures use polyvinylchloride (PVC) and other plastics to form railing components. Plastic materials require less maintenance than wood, and provide exceptional durability in outdoor installations. In a typical plastic railing system, a pair of closed tubular rails (top and bottom rails) extend parallel to one another between vertical posts or columns. The space between the top and bottom rails is occupied by a series of balusters that connect between the rails. 
         [0004]    There are certain drawbacks in using closed tubular rails in a railing system. Closed tubular rails are typically connected to balusters by cutting routed openings in the rails and inserting the ends of the balusters into the hollow interior of the rails. The routed openings introduce areas of relative weakness, called “fracture points”, along the span of the rail. This is a significant concern, since the top and bottom rails are the primary load bearing components in the railing structure. Railing systems that are intended for use in residential construction must be tested to ensure that they support minimum load requirements. Load bearing rails that fail to meet the minimum load requirements can not be used for residential construction. Therefore, closed tubular rails with routed openings have certain limitations that may affect whether or not they can be used in a given project. 
         [0005]    Structural integrity has been addressed in the past by adding reinforcing members to the railing components. For example, closed tubular rail systems have been installed with aluminum stiffeners inserted in the hollow interior of the rails. Although aluminum stiffeners increase structural integrity, they may not be desirable in every case. Compared to plastic material, aluminum stiffeners are relatively difficult to cut to a specified length. In addition, insertion of stiffeners into plastic railing components adds additional steps to the installation process. 
         [0006]    Closed tubular rails also limit the ability to run wires, cables and utility lines along the railing structure. In most instances, the wiring is simply affixed to the exterior of the closed tubular rail. This leaves the wiring visible on the exterior of the railing, which can detract from the appearance of the railing. In addition, the size and shape of the railing may not allow for more than a few wires to be run along the railing. It may be possible to route the wiring through the interior of the closed tubular railing, but this necessitates cutting into the railing to gain access to the interior of the railing. The process of feeding wiring through a closed tubular rail may be further complicated by posts or other components that divide sections of rail and obstruct the hollow interior of the closed rails. Therefore, the process of cutting into an installed railing can require significant time and labor. Cutting through the sides of plastic rails also leaves holes that may detract from the appearance of the railing system. 
         [0007]    Known plastic railing systems involve a number of competing interests. Examples of competing interests include the appearance of railing assembly and the ease of installation. It has been found that when an assembly is modified to address one of these objectives, the other objective is sacrificed. This balancing act between appearance and ease of installation is commonly observed with visible hardware. Systems that do not conceal hardware are relatively simple to install, since they usually require fewer components and steps for assembling. In contrast, many known systems that are designed to conceal hardware require the handling of more components, which increase the time and expense for installing the railing assembly. 
         [0008]    The goal of improving aesthetic appearance also competes with the goal of providing structural integrity. As noted above, the use of routed openings to connect balusters with railing components provides a neat and virtually seamless appearance. Unfortunately, routed openings can create fracture zones that compromise the structural integrity of the railing system. 
         [0009]    Based on the foregoing, there is much room for improvement in existing railing systems. Among other needs, there is a need for railing systems which are more capable of satisfying competing interests. 
       SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
       [0010]    In a first aspect of the invention, a railing system includes an upper core member having an upper portion and a lower portion, the upper portion including a cap connector, and the lower portion including a base connector. The railing system includes a cap member having a cap flange that detachably couples with the cap connector on the upper core member. The cap member has a hollow interior forming an enclosed conduit between the cap member and the upper core member. The railing system also includes a base member having a base flange detachably coupled with the base connector on the upper core member. The base member and the cap member substantially enclose the upper core member. 
         [0011]    In a second aspect of the invention, a kit for fabricating a railing span having a selected length is contained in a packaging. The kit includes an upper core member having the selected length, a lower core member having the selected length, and a plurality of balusters for connection between the upper and lower core members at a selected uniform spacing. 
         [0012]    In a third aspect of the invention, a method of routing an opening for a baluster used in an inclined railing structure includes the steps of determining the installed angle of the inclined railing structure relative to horizontal, providing a router with a router bit, selecting a router bit angle based on the installed angle of the inclined railing structure, pivoting the router bit to the selected router bit angle, and plunging the router bit into a side of a component into which the baluster will be inserted, with the side being oriented horizontally. 
     
    
     
       DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0013]    The foregoing summary and the following description will be better understood when read in conjunction with the figures in which: 
           [0014]      FIG. 1  is a perspective view of a railing span in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0015]      FIG. 2  is a cross section view of a the railing span of  FIG. 1 , taken through line  2 - 2  of  FIG. 1 . 
           [0016]      FIG. 3  is a cross section view of a first cap member in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0017]      FIG. 4  is a perspective view of the first cap member of  FIG. 3 , which is truncated for clarity. 
           [0018]      FIG. 5  is a cross section view of a second cap member in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0019]      FIG. 6  is a perspective view of the second cap member of  FIG. 5 , which is truncated for clarity. 
           [0020]      FIG. 7  is a perspective view of a first core member in accordance with the present invention, which is truncated for clarity. 
           [0021]      FIG. 8  is a perspective view of a second core member in accordance with the present invention, which is truncated for clarity. 
           [0022]      FIG. 9  is an elevation view of a first bracket in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0023]      FIG. 10  is a perspective view of the first bracket of  FIG. 9 . 
           [0024]      FIG. 11  is an elevation view of a second bracket in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0025]      FIG. 12  is a perspective view of the second bracket of  FIG. 11 . 
           [0026]      FIG. 13  is an elevation view of a third bracket in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0027]      FIG. 14  is a perspective view of the third bracket of  FIG. 13 . 
           [0028]      FIG. 15  is a cross section view of a third cap member in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0029]      FIG. 16  is a perspective view of the third cap member of  FIG. 15 , which is truncated for clarity. 
           [0030]      FIG. 17  is a cross section view of an upper rail member in accordance with the present invention, showing a third core member. 
           [0031]      FIG. 18  is a cross section view of a lower rail member in accordance with the present invention, showing a fourth core member. 
           [0032]      FIG. 19  is a front elevation view of a fourth bracket in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0033]      FIG. 20  is a perspective view of the fourth bracket of  FIG. 19 . 
           [0034]      FIG. 21  is a bottom elevation view of the fourth bracket of  FIG. 19 . 
           [0035]      FIG. 22  is a side elevation view of the fourth bracket of  FIG. 19 . 
           [0036]      FIG. 23  is a front elevation view of a fifth bracket in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0037]      FIG. 24  is a perspective view of the fifth bracket of  FIG. 23 . 
           [0038]      FIG. 25  is a bottom elevation view of the fifth bracket of  FIG. 23 . 
           [0039]      FIG. 26  is a side elevation view of the fifth bracket of  FIG. 23 . 
           [0040]      FIG. 27  is a first perspective view of the fourth bracket of  FIG. 19  connected to an upper core member in accordance with the present invention, wherein the upper core element is truncated for clarity. 
           [0041]      FIG. 28  is a second perspective view of the fourth bracket and upper core member of  FIG. 27 . 
           [0042]      FIG. 29  is a front elevation view of the fourth bracket and upper core member of  FIG. 27 . 
           [0043]      FIG. 30  is a side elevation view of the fourth bracket and upper core member of  FIG. 27 . 
           [0044]      FIG. 31  is a top elevation view of a sixth bracket in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0045]      FIG. 32  is a perspective view of the sixth bracket of  FIG. 31 . 
           [0046]      FIG. 33  is a front elevation view of the sixth bracket of  FIG. 31 . 
           [0047]      FIG. 34  is a side elevation view of the sixth bracket of  FIG. 31 . 
           [0048]      FIG. 35  is a front elevation view of a seventh bracket in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0049]      FIG. 36  is a perspective view of the seventh bracket of  FIG. 35 . 
           [0050]      FIG. 37  is a top elevation view of the seventh bracket of  FIG. 35 . 
           [0051]      FIG. 38  is a side elevation view of the seventh bracket of  FIG. 35 . 
           [0052]      FIG. 39  is a perspective view of a decorative cover component, wherein the component is truncated for clarity. 
           [0053]      FIG. 40  is a side cross-sectional view of the component shown in  FIG. 39  taken through line A-A in  FIG. 39 . 
           [0054]      FIG. 41  is a perspective view of the component of  FIG. 39  with a baluster inserted through the component, wherein the baluster is also truncated for clarity. 
           [0055]      FIG. 42  is a perspective cross-sectional view of the component in  FIG. 39  taken through line A-A in  FIG. 39 . 
           [0056]      FIG. 43  is a perspective view of components forming an alternate railing span in accordance with the present invention, wherein the railing span is truncated for clarity. 
           [0057]      FIG. 44  is a top view of the railing span of  FIG. 43 . 
           [0058]      FIG. 45  is an end view of the railing span of  FIG. 43 . 
           [0059]      FIG. 46  is a side elevation view of the railing span of  FIG. 43 . 
           [0060]      FIG. 47  is a perspective view of a decorative component used in the railing span of  FIG. 43 , wherein the decorative component is truncated for clarity. 
           [0061]      FIG. 48  is a top view of the decorative component of  FIG. 47 . 
           [0062]      FIG. 49  is an end view of the decorative component of  FIG. 47 . 
           [0063]      FIG. 50  is a side elevation view of the decorative component of  FIG. 47 . 
           [0064]      FIG. 51  is an exploded perspective view of an exemplary railing system in accordance with the present invention, wherein certain components are truncated for clarity. 
           [0065]      FIG. 52  is a truncated schematic view of railing components packaged in a boxed set in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0066]      FIGS. 53A-53H  are schematic views illustrating steps for assembling an exemplary railing system in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0067]      FIG. 54  is a cross section view of a railing span with a fifth core member in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0068]      FIG. 55  is a cross section view of a railing span with a sixth core member in accordance with the present invention. 
           [0069]      FIG. 56  is a cross section view of a seventh core member in accordance with the present invention. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS  
       [0070]    The drawbacks associated with closed tubular railing assemblies are addressed to a great degree by a railing system in accordance with the present invention, which features structural core members having detachable cover elements. The detachable cover elements permit access to the interior of the assembly without cutting into the assembly or dismantling rails from the support structure. Therefore, cover elements can be detached, for instance, to run utility wiring through the railing system. In addition, the detachable cover elements allow for design flexibility, so that the owner can incorporate different decorative components into the railing system, change decorative components as desired, and replace damaged components, without disassembling or modifying the structural components that support the railing. 
         [0071]    Referring now to the drawing figures in general, and to  FIG. 1  specifically, a railing span  100  is shown. The span  100  includes an upper rail  110  and a lower rail  120  that extends generally parallel to the upper rail. The upper and lower rails  110 ,  120  are separated by a series of balusters  130 . The railing span  100  may be installed between a pair of support elements, including but not limited to posts, columns or walls. For purposes of this description, the railing span  100  will be described in connection with a railing system that extends along the periphery of a deck, terrace, or other elevated structure. Of course, the railing span  100  is not intended solely for elevated structures, and may be used in any location where a railing installation is desired. 
         [0072]    Referring to  FIG. 2 , the internal components of the railing span  100  are shown in more detail. The upper rail  110  includes an upper core member  112 , and the lower rail  120  includes a lower core member  122 . The upper and lower core members  112 ,  122  are rigid load bearing components that provide internal support for the railing span  100 . Each core member may be formed of a structural material that distributes loads along the length of the rail, including but not limited to aluminum, wood or a variety of composites containing wood, plastics and other additives. 
         [0073]    In a preferred embodiment, the core members contain wood composites, such as wood dust or wood fibers mixed with plastic or encapsulated in a thermoplastic polymer. The use of wood composites is preferred because they are easy to cut in the field and do not rot, splinter or deteriorate like ordinary wood. Wood composites have also shown the unexpected benefit of providing enough strength under load to eliminate the need for reinforcements, like aluminum stiffeners. The core members  112 ,  122  may be connected with posts, columns, walls or other support structures to anchor the railing span  100  on a deck, as discussed in more detail below. 
         [0074]    As an alternative to wood or wood composite material, the core members may be formed of an aluminum extrusion. Referring now to  FIG. 54 , a railing span  6000  is shown with an upper core member  6112  formed of an aluminum extrusion with a first cross-sectional configuration. The upper core member  6112  cooperatively engages with decorative cover members, which will be explained below in more detail. Upper core member  6112  has an upper portion that detachably engages a decorative hand rail cover  6110 . The upper core member  6112  also has a lower portion that detachably engages a decorative cover  6114 . The decorative covers  6110 ,  6114  are easily removable from upper core member  6112  without the use of hand tools. This allows the covers  6110 ,  6114  to be replaced with other covers without disassembling the structural elements of the installed railing. The removable covers are removable by hand, and can be replaced at any time with covers having different aesthetic outer configurations, and/or covers having different internal configurations that are specially adapted to house wires, conduits or other components being run within the railing. Covers  6110 ,  6114  substantially enclose the upper core member  6112  so that the core member is not visible on the exterior of the railing. 
         [0075]      FIG. 55  shows a railing span  7000  with an upper core member  7112  formed of an aluminum extrusion with a second cross-sectional configuration. Upper core member  7112  has an upper portion that cooperatively engages a decorative cap member  7110 . Like the covers in  FIG. 54 , cap member  7110  is detachable from upper core member  7112  without the use of hand tools.  FIG. 56  shows a lower core member  7122  formed of an aluminum extrusion that may be sold and used with the components shown in  FIG. 55 . 
         [0076]    As noted above, the core members of the present invention are surrounded by one or more detachable cover elements that substantially enclose and conceal the core members. The cover elements provide a decorative exterior or facade around the internal core members, while the core members are load bearing members that provide the support for the railing span  100 . The core members form a skeleton that provides the structural integrity of the railing system, while the cover elements essentially “float” on the core members. This arrangement allows the manufacturer or installer to cut routed openings through the cover elements to receive the balusters  130 . Because the routed openings are cut into the cover elements, and not the load bearing core members, the routed openings do not create fracture zones or other issues that can undermine the structural integrity of the railing system. 
         [0077]    In the embodiment shown in  FIG. 2 , the cover elements include a cap member  114  and a base member  116  which enclose or substantially enclose the upper core member  112 . The upper core member  112  has an upper portion  117  and a lower portion  118 . The upper portion  117  has a pair of cap connectors  113  that engage with the cap member  114 . The lower portion  118  has a pair of base connectors  115  that engage with the base member  116 . The upper core member  112 , cap member  114  and base member  116  may be formed with a variety of cooperating engagements that facilitate interconnection between components.  FIGS. 3 and 4  illustrate a cap member  214  having one possible geometry, and  FIGS. 5 and 6  illustrate a cap member  314  having another possible geometry. Base member  116  is shown in more detail in  FIGS. 15 and 16 . 
         [0078]    In  FIG. 2 , cap member  114  includes a pair of cap flanges  111 . The cap flanges  111  mate with or cooperatively engage the cap connectors  113  on the upper core member  112 . The cap connectors  113  may include longitudinal ridges or edges that engage with the cap flanges  111 . Base member  116  includes a pair of base flanges  119 . The base flanges  119  mate with or cooperatively engage the base connectors  115  on the upper core member  112 . The base connectors  115  may include corner edges that engage with the base flanges  116 . The internal geometries of the cap member  114  and base member  116  may be formed with resilient flexible flanges, ridges, hubs, or other elements that snap over the exterior of the upper core member  112  and firmly hold the cap member and base member on the core member, without the use of fasteners or adhesives. The snapping connection between components allows the cap member  114  and base member  116  to be readily attached and removed by hand, without the use of tools. 
         [0079]    In the preferred embodiment, the cap flanges  111 , cap connectors  113 , base flanges  119  and base connectors  115  have rounded edges so that the mating surfaces slide over one another with minimal resistance when the cap member  114  and base member  116  are snapped onto the core member  112 . The side portions of the cap member  114  and base member  116  are resiliently flexible. The cap flanges  111  are spaced apart at a distance which is slightly less than the width of the upper portion  117  of the upper core member  112 . Similarly, the base flanges  119  are spaced apart at a distance that is slightly less than the width of the lower portion  118  of the upper core member  112 . In this arrangement, the cap flanges  111  flex outwardly with respect to the longitudinal axis of the cap member  114  as the cap member is pressed downwardly onto the upper core member. Similarly, the base flanges  119  flex outwardly with respect to the longitudinal axis of the base member  116  as the base member is pressed upwardly onto the upper core member. The cap flanges  111  and base flanges  119  remain flexed outwardly until they pass the cap connectors  113  and base connectors  115 , respectively, after which the resilience of the cap flanges and base flanges displaces or “snaps” them inwardly and back to their original configuration. In this position, the cap flanges  111  and base flanges  119  engage the cap connectors  113  and base connectors  115 , respectively, to detachably secure to the cap member  114  and base member  116  to the upper core member. 
         [0080]    The lower core member  122  is surrounded by a cover member  124 . The cover member  124  has a pair of cover flanges  126  that engage with the exterior of the lower core member  122 . As with the cap member  114  and base member  116 , the internal geometry of the cover member  124  may be formed with resilient flexible flanges, ridges, hubs, or other elements that snap over the exterior of the lower core member  122  to secure the cover member on the lower core member without the use of fasteners or adhesives. 
         [0081]    The cap member  114 , base member  116  and cover member  124  (hereinafter collectively referred to as the “cover elements”) may be formed of PVC. Alternatively, the cover elements may be formed of wood or a variety of composites containing wood, plastics and other additives. In a preferred embodiment, the cover elements contain wood composites formed of wood dust or wood fibers mixed with plastic or encapsulated in a thermoplastic polymer. As described in more detail below, the selection of wood and plastic composites, combined with the selection of detachable cap members, provides a new and unique set of advantages. The wood component of the material allows the cover elements to be painted or stained to match an adjoining building or other feature. Meanwhile, the plastic component of the material provides a resilient flexibility that permits the cover elements to be attached and removed from the core members. Accordingly, the cover elements are easily detachable so that they can be painted or stained, apart from the rest of the railing structure. This allows the cover elements to be painted or stained more easily. Alternatively, the cover elements can be removed and replaced with other cover elements. 
         [0082]    As noted above, the cross-sectional configuration of the core members permit the core members to cooperatively engage with the cover elements. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that an infinite number of cross-sectional configurations may be chosen for the core members, whether the core members are formed of wood, wood composite, aluminum extrusions, or other materials. Therefore, the particular cross-sectional shape selected for a core member is not critical. A number of cross-sectional shapes may be used which cooperatively engage cap members and cover members. This flexibility of design has many advantages. For example, the cross-sectional design of the core members can be modified at any time to allow for a particular layout of internal conduits and raceways in the railing. In addition, the cross-sectional design of the core members may be modified to accommodate cover elements that feature new shapes and designs. Therefore, the illustrative embodiments of core elements shown, for example, in  FIGS. 2 ,  7 ,  8 ,  17 ,  18 ,  27 - 30 ,  43 - 52 , and  54 - 56  herein are not the only configurations contemplated in the present invention. 
         [0083]    If desired, the cover elements may be covered with a decorative surface treatment, including but not limited to a special finish, coating, or external layer to enhance the appearance of the railing. Surface treatments may include simulated wood grain finishes, metallic jackets, or other effects. In  FIG. 2 , the cap member  114 , base member  116  and cover member  124  are covered with a copper shell or jacket  157 . Surface treatments are interchangeable with, or can be covered over by, other surface treatments. For example, a cover member  124  formed of a wood composite and having a wood grain finish may be covered by a copper jacket to change the style and appearance of the railing. 
         [0084]    The cover elements are also interchangeable with other cover elements to change the appearance of the railing system. Cover elements are readily interchangeable on the core members  112 ,  122 , without disturbing the structural characteristics of the railing assembly. That is, the detachable cover elements are configured to permit different decorative rail coverings to be installed over the core members, so that the railing system is not limited to one particular railing style or aesthetic effect. The appearance and style of the railing span  100  can be changed by simply detaching the cap member, base member and cover member, and replacing them with components having different finishes, coatings or shells. This may be desirable in instances where the adjacent building or deck is painted or sided with a color that does not match the existing railing style. Since the structural integrity of the railing system is provided by the core members, the owner or installer can change cover elements at any time without having to perform any additional structural testing or inspection. 
         [0085]    Referring now to  FIGS. 2 ,  7  and  8 , the upper and lower core members  112 ,  122  respectively engage upper and lower ends of the balusters  130 . The upper core member  112  forms an inverted channel  140  that receives the upper end  132  of each baluster  130 . Similarly, the lower core member  122  forms an upright channel  150  that receives the lower end  134  of each baluster  130 , The central portion of the base member  116  forms a routed opening  141  having dimensions generally equal to or slightly larger than the cross-sectional dimension of the upper end  132  of baluster  130 . Similarly, the central portion of cover member  120  forms a routed opening  151  having dimensions generally equal to or slightly larger than the cross-sectional dimension of the lower end  134  of baluster  130 . As alluded to earlier, the routed openings  141 ,  151  do not create fracture points or other structural concerns that affect the structural integrity of the railing span  100 , since the core members  112 ,  122  attribute to substantially all of the load bearing capacity of the railing span. 
         [0086]    The cap member  114  forms an inverted, generally U-shaped cap or cover that extends over the upper core member  112 . The U-shaped cap member  114  forms a hollow interior  142  adapted to receive the upper portion  117  of the upper core member  112 . The interior of the cap member  114  only engages a limited amount of surface area on the upper portion  117  of the upper core member  112 , leaving one or more void spaces between the cap member and upper core member. In  FIG. 2 , the cap member  114  and upper core member  112  form a conduit or raceway  152 . The conduit  152  extends along the top of the upper core member  112  and beneath the cap member  114 . The cap member  114  connects over the upper core member  112  in a snug fit that forms a substantially air-tight enclosure around the conduit  152 . 
         [0087]    The conduit  152  forms a protective duct to house wiring, cable and other utility lines. In  FIG. 2 , the conduit  152  contains a first cable  154  and a second cable  156 . The conduit  152  may be used to run a variety of utility lines through the railing, including but not limited to wires, cables, and lines associated with light fixtures, audio components, video equipment, computers, telephones, plumbing fixtures, grills, and machinery running on compressed air. The detachable cap member  114  allows easy access to the conduit  152  any time that utility lines are to be installed, serviced or replaced inside the conduit. Unlike closed tubular rail systems, the detachable assembly of the present invention allows wiring to be installed into an existing railing system with no cutting into the components or disconnection of rails from support structures. 
         [0088]    From the foregoing, the core members and cover elements provide a novel combination with multiple advantages not offered by prior railing systems. As a general matter, the combination of structural core members and removable cover elements provides the unique benefit of permitting repairs, cosmetic upgrading, and installation of utility lines and other elements inside the railing system, all without disturbing the structural foundation of the railing system. 
         [0089]    The combination of core members and cover elements also satisfies many competing interests. For example, the combination of core members and cover elements satisfy the competing interests of aesthetics versus ease of installation. In particular, the snap-on covers provide improved aesthetic appearance by concealing structural components, hardware, wires, cables and other components on the interior of the railing, while simplifying installation by allowing assembly without tools. The cover elements also satisfy the competing interests of aesthetics and structural integrity. Because the core members provide virtually all of the structural support for the railing, the decorative covers sustain minimal or no stress when load is applied to the railing. As a result, the decorative covers can be formed with routed openings, and balusters can be installed through routed openings in the decorative covers to form a virtually seamless appearance. The potential for fracture points around the routed openings is substantially eliminated because structural loads are almost exclusively absorbed by the core members and not the cover elements. 
         [0090]    The assembly of the present invention may include a variety of core member configurations to support a railing and create conduits for concealing wires, cables and other utility lines.  FIG. 17  shows an alternate upper core member  712  which is covered by a cap member  714  and a base member  716 . The upper core member forms two side conduits  715 ,  717  that contain cables  754  and  756 , respectively.  FIG. 18  shows an alternate lower core member  722  which is surrounded by a cover member  724 . Like upper core member  712 , lower core member  722  forms two side conduits  725 ,  727 , which allow utility lines to be housed in the lower rail. In  FIG. 18 , side conduits  725 ,  727  contain cables  764  and  766 , respectively. 
         [0091]    As noted earlier, the snapping connection between the cap member  114  and upper core member  112  allows the cap member to be readily attached and removed from the upper core member by hand, without the use of tools. If desired, fasteners or adhesives may be used to further secure the cap member and base member over the upper core element. The use of fasteners or adhesives will make removal of the cap member  114  from the upper core member  112  more difficult, however, in the event that the conduit  152  needs to be accessed for purposes of installing, maintaining or replacing wiring through the rail. 
         [0092]    It is often desirable to limit or eliminate the number of visible fasteners, couplings and other mounting components in a railing assembly. Fasteners that are exposed on the exterior of a railing assembly can detract from the appearance of the railing system, and may be damaged from elements such as moisture. The core members and caps of the present invention are configured for connection to posts, columns or other support structures with the use of a minimal number of connector components that are completely concealed inside the railing system. 
         [0093]    Referring to  FIGS. 9-14 , a variety of brackets are shown.  FIGS. 9 and 10  illustrate a bracket  400  for joining an upper core member to a support structure, where the core member extends generally perpendicular or normal to the support surface. The bracket  400  has a back plate  410  and a number of tabs  420  that extend outwardly from the back plate. The back plate  410  has a number of mounting holes  430  that may be used to mount the bracket  400  to the support structure. The tabs  420  extend generally perpendicular to the back plate, and are configured to align with recesses on an upper core member (such as recesses  143  on upper core member  112  in  FIG. 7 ) to join the core member to the bracket  400 . The tabs  420  each have a slot  440  for inserting fasteners, such as screws. Once the tabs  420  are aligned with recesses on the upper core member, the fasteners may be inserted through the slots  440  and driven into the sides of the upper core member. Bracket  400  may also include one or more notches or apertures to allow wiring to extend from a core member into a post or other support structure without interruption. In  FIGS. 9 and 10 , the top edge of bracket  400  includes a pair of apertures  450 . The apertures are adapted to receive a utility line from a conduit and pass the line into a support structure. The apertures  450  are rounded to limit the potential for slicing or gouging of wiring that passes through the bracket  400 . 
         [0094]      FIGS. 11 and 12  illustrate a bracket  500  for joining a lower core member to a support structure, where the core member extends generally perpendicular or normal to the support surface. The bracket  500  has a back plate  510  and a number of tabs  520  that cooperate with recesses on a lower core member (such as recesses  153  on lower core member  122  in  FIG. 8 ). Bracket  500  has a number of mounting holes  530  and a number of fastener slots  540  that connect the bracket to the lower core member in the same general manner described above in connection with bracket  400 .  FIGS. 13 and 14  illustrate a bracket  600  for connecting either an upper core member or a lower core member to a support structure at a non-perpendicular angle, such as for a staircase railing. Bracket  600  has a back plate  610  and a number of tabs  620  that cooperate with the upper core member or lower core member. Bracket  600  has a number of mounting holes  630  and a number of fastener slots  640  that connect the bracket to the upper or lower core member in the same general manner described above in connection with brackets  400 ,  500 . 
         [0095]    Referring now to  FIG. 51 , another exemplary railing system  1000  is shown in accordance with the present invention. Railing system  1000  includes an upper core element  1112 , a lower core element  1122  and a series of balusters  1130  extending between the upper core element and lower core element. A top bracket  800  connects the upper core element  1112  to a support structure, and the bottom bracket  900  connects the lower core element  1122  to a support structure. A decorative base member  1116  connects to the underside of upper core element  1112 , and a decorative cover member  1124  connects over top of lower core element  1122 . A decorative cap  1114  connects over top of upper core element  1112 . As with the other components described above, the base member  1116 , cover member  1124  and cap  1114  may be snapped onto the structural core members  1112 ,  1122  by hand, without the use of tools. In addition, the base member  1116 , cover member  1124 , cap  1114  and core members  1112 ,  1122  form one or more conduits for the passage of wires, cables and utility lines. 
         [0096]    Referring now to  FIGS. 19-22 , the top bracket  800  shown in  FIG. 51  is shown in more detail. Bracket  800  is similar to the bracket  400  shown in  FIG. 9 , and is especially suited for core members made from wood composite materials or other soft materials. Bracket  800  has a back plate  830  and a pair of mounting holes  842  that allow the bracket to be connected to a support structure in the same general manner described above in connection with bracket  400 . A pair of tabs  820  extend outwardly from the back plate  830 . The tabs  820  extend generally perpendicular to the back plate  830 , and are configured to align with side recesses on an upper core member, such as side recesses  1114  on upper core member  1112  in  FIGS. 27-30 . The tabs  820  each have a slot  840  for inserting fasteners, such as screws. Once the tabs  820  are aligned with recesses on an upper core member, fasteners may be inserted through the slots  840  and driven into the sides of the upper core member. 
         [0097]    The bracket  800  includes a pair of ribs  850  on each tab  820 . The ribs  850  extend parallel to the longitudinal axis of the tabs  820 , forming two pairs of opposing ribs that face inwardly with respect to the bracket. When the bracket tabs  820  are inserted into the side recesses on an upper core member, the ribs  850  engage the sides of the core member. Referring to  FIG. 29 , for example, the ribs  850  extend into the recesses  1114  and engage the sides of upper core member  1112 . The width of the space between opposing ribs  850  is slightly less than the width between the opposing recesses  1114 . As a result, the ribs  850  press inwardly into the material of the upper core member  1112 , providing a secure, press-fit connection. 
         [0098]    The ribs  850  may be configured in a variety of cross-sectional shapes and arrangements. The cross sectional shape and cross-sectional area of the ribs will affect, among other things, the amount of force required to mount the core members onto the brackets. Suitable cross-sectional shapes include, but are not limited to, triangular (or “V-shaped”), rectangular, square or semi-circular. The ribs may have a constant cross-sectional area along their length, or a gradually decreasing cross-sectional area that starts with a maximum area in proximity to the back plate and tapers to a minimum area as the rib extends away from the back plate. With a tapered cross section, the tabs initially slide onto the core members with little or no resistance. As the core member is advanced further over the tabs, the ribs gradually penetrate deeper into the core member, forming a tight fit. 
         [0099]    Referring now to  FIGS. 23-26 , the bottom bracket  900  for joining a lower core member to a support structure is shown. Bottom bracket  900  has a back plate  930  and a pair of mounting holes  942  that allow the bracket to be connected to a support structure in the same general manner described above in connection with bracket  800 . A pair of tabs  920  extend outwardly from the back plate  930 . The tabs  920  extend generally perpendicular to the back plate  930 , and are configured to align with the side walls of the inner channel in a lower core member. The tabs  920  each have a slot  940  for inserting fasteners, such as screws. Once the tabs  920  are inserted into the channel in a lower core member, fasteners may be inserted through the slots  940  and driven into the sides of the lower core member. A pair of ribs  950  extend parallel to the longitudinal axis of the tabs  920 . The ribs extend outwardly from the sidewall of each tab  920 , forming two pairs of opposing ribs that face outwardly with respect to the bracket. The distance measured between the outermost portions of the ribs is slightly greater than the width of the inner channel in the lower core member. As a result, the ribs  950  press inwardly into the material of the lower core member when the bracket  950  is connected to the lower core member. 
         [0100]    Some core member materials are prone to expansion and contraction under different conditions. For example, aluminum is prone to thermal expansion, and wood composite may be prone to moisture expansion. Therefore, the bracket and core member are preferably connected in an arrangement that allows the core member to expand and contract. Referring to  FIG. 30 , bracket  800  is connected to core member  1112  with the tab  820  only partially inserted into the side recess  1114  of the core member. That is, the back plate  830  is not pressed flush against the end of the core member  1112 . A small gap or clearance space “X” is maintained between the back plate  830  and the end of the core member  1112 . In this arrangement, space is provided between the bracket  830  and the end of the core member  1112  to allow the core member to expand. If space for expansion is not provided, the core member may become compressed between support structures as the core member expands, potentially causing damage to the core member or fasteners that support the core member. 
         [0101]    Referring now to  FIGS. 31-34 , another top bracket  2000  is shown which is intended for use with inclined railings, such as stair rails. Bracket  2000  includes a back plate  2030  and a pair of tabs  2020  that extend generally perpendicularly from the back plate. Each tab  2020  includes a pair of ribs  2050  that gradually decrease in cross-sectional area as the ribs extend away from the back plate  2030 . The tabs  2020  include holes  2040  for attaching the tabs to a core member, Back plate  2030  includes a pair of mounting holes  2042  for mounting the bracket  2000  to a support structure. 
         [0102]    As shown in  FIG. 34 , each tab  2020  has a first top edge surface  2022  and a second top edge surface  2024  adjacent the first top edge surface. The first top edge surface  2022  extends at a first angle with respect to the plane formed by the back plate  2030 . The second top edge surface  2024  extends at a second angle with respect to the plane formed by the back plate  2030 . The second angle is less than the first angle, such that the first and second top edge surfaces  2022 ,  2024  extend at different pitches. The different pitches allow bracket  2000  to support an upper core element at a variety of angles. That is, at least one of the edges  2022 ,  2024  will more or less conform with the inner edge of an inclined rail. The top edge surfaces  2022 ,  2024  are preferably configured to support rails inclined at angles ranging from about 20 degrees to about 50 degrees. This range is not intended to be the only range contemplated, as smaller or larger angles may also be desirable in certain circumstances. 
         [0103]    Referring now to  FIGS. 35-38 , another bottom bracket  3000  is shown which is intended for use with inclined railings, such as stair rails. Bracket  3000  includes a back plate  3030  and a pair of tabs  3020  that extend generally perpendicularly from the back plate. Each tab  3020  includes a pair of ribs  3050  that gradually decrease in cross-sectional area as the ribs extend away from the back plate  2030 . Back plate  3030  includes a pair of mounting holes  3042  for mounting the bracket  3000  to a support structure. As with the top bracket  2000  of  FIGS. 31-34 , the tabs  3020  in bottom bracket  3000  have first and second top edges  3022 ,  3024  that extend at different pitches to support a lower core element at a variety of angles. 
         [0104]    Referring again to  FIGS. 1 and 2 , the holes that extend through the decorative core element covers, such as base member  116  and cover member  124 , may be routed. For stair rails and other inclined railings, the balusters will extend through the decorative cover at a non-perpendicular angle. Problems with appearance may occur where the opening is routed at an angle perpendicular to the decorative cover, or at an angle different to the angle in which the baluster extends through the cover. In such cases, the edges of the opening are not parallel to the sides of the baluster. When the edges of the opening are not parallel to the sides of the baluster, the opening will form gaps around the baluster that expose the sidewalls of the routed opening. Visible sidewalls can detract from the appearance of the railing assembly. Moreover, the gaps between the baluster and cover can collect dirt and other particles. Over time, dirt and other particles that accumulate on the sidewalls can make the sidewalls even more visible. 
         [0105]    It has been discovered that the appearance of stair railings and other inclined railings is greatly improved by routing holes for balusters at an angle that is equal to, or closely corresponds with, the angle of the railing. In one method of manufacture, a special milling machine is used to form the openings in the base member and cover member. A conventional milling machine is modified by tilting the router head to an angle corresponding to the pitch at which the core elements will extend in the finished installation. Once the router head is set, the router bit is plunged into the decorative cover at the appropriate angle to cut the opening. In the case of square balusters, the opening will have two sides that extend perpendicularly through the cover, and two sides that extend at a non-perpendicular angle corresponding to the angle of pitch. When the balusters are installed through the openings in the finished installation, all four sides of the balusters will extend parallel to the four sides of the holes, forming a flush appearance. 
         [0106]    Referring to  FIGS. 39-42 , various views of a decorative cover member  4024  having an angled opening  4026  are shown. The angled opening  4026  is formed by two sides that extend perpendicularly through the cover, and two sides that extend at a non-perpendicular angle. The angled opening  4026  is adapted to receive a baluster  4130  that intersects the cover member  4024  at a non-perpendicular angle. In a stair rail installation, the cover member  4024  would be inclined at an angle corresponding to the pitch of the staircase, and the baluster  4130  would preferably extend vertically. The sidewalls of the routed opening  4026  are cut so that they are parallel to the sides of the baluster in the final assembly, with the opening preferably routed to dimensions that provide only a very small clearance for the baluster. Using this routing technique, the sidewalls of the routed hole are not visible on the exterior of the railing where the baluster  4130  penetrates the cover member  4024 . The baluster  4130  passes through the cover member  4024  in a smooth transition, as shown in  FIG. 41 . 
         [0107]    The angle of incline for staircases, ramps or other inclined structures varies. If the angle of incline of a particular installation is significantly different from the angle of the routed hole, the sidewalls of the cover member will be very visible where the baluster penetrates the cover member. In the preferred system, a selection of cover members and base members are provided having openings routed at different angles to accommodate a limited range of stair pitches. For example, it has been discovered that manufacturing two types of cover members to address two separate ranges of stair pitch is effective to accommodate virtually all stair pitches. In this approach, two cover member parts are manufactured, with one cover member having routed openings at a first angle, and the other cover member having routed openings at a second angle. The first angle would be appropriate for a first range of stair pitches, and the second angle would be appropriate for a second range of stair pitches. It has been found, for instance, that a hole angle of about 35 degrees relative to horizontal accommodates a range of stair pitches between about 29 to about 35 degrees relative to horizontal, and a second hole angle of about 41 degrees relative to horizontal accommodates a range of stair pitches between about 35 to about 41 degrees relative to horizontal. 
         [0108]    In manufacturing cover members with angled routed openings, two or more routers may be used, with each router having a router bit angled at a unique angle to fabricate components suitable for a specific range of stair pitches. For example, a first router may have a bit angled at about 35 degrees relative to horizontal, and the second router may have a bit angled at about 41 degrees relative to horizontal. 
         [0109]    Referring back to  FIGS. 1 and 2 , the cap member  114  and upper core member  112  may be snapped together and detached from one another by hand. This has the advantage of allowing broken or damaged balusters to be removed and replaced without disassembling the core members from the adjacent posts or other support structures. A damaged baluster can be replaced by detaching the base member  116  from the upper core member  112  and sliding the base member down along the balusters  130  until it reaches a midsection of the balusters. Similarly, the cover member  124  is detached from the lower core member  122  and slid upwardly along the balusters  130  to the midsections of the balusters. In this arrangement, the two ends of the damaged baluster are no longer retained in vertical alignment by the routed openings in the base member  116  and cover member  124 . As a result, the damaged baluster can be tilted within the channels of the upper and lower core members  112 ,  122  until the ends of the baluster clear the channels. Once the ends of the baluster clear the channels, the baluster can be maneuvered out of the span, and a replacement baluster can be inserted through the vacant openings in the base member  116  and cover member  124 . An end of the replacement baluster is inserted into the channel of the upper core member  112 , and the opposite end of the replacement baluster is inserted into the channel of the lower core member  122 . The base member  116  is then raised along the balusters  130  and reattached to the underside of the upper core member  112 . Similarly, the cover member  124  is lowered along the balusters and reattached to the lower core member  122 , completing the repair. 
         [0110]    Referring now to  FIGS. 53A-53H , a method for assembling a railing system in accordance with the present invention will now be described. The method assumes that posts are installed as the support structures. It will be understood that other support structures may be used, including but not limited to porch columns and walls. 
         [0111]    After the posts are installed, the lower core member and bottom bracket are anchored into the post. In  FIG. 53A , the brackets are anchored using screws. Once the lower core member is connected to the posts, the pre-routed cover member is lowered over the lower core member, as shown in  FIG. 53B , and snapped onto the lower core member. As described above, the caps and cover members are resiliently flexible, allowing the installer to connect the caps and cover members to the core members by hand without the need for tools. 
         [0112]    Referring to  FIG. 53C , balusters are inserted into the pre-routed holes of the cover member. Once all of the balusters are in place, the pre-routed base member cover is slid down onto the balusters and lowered to a mid span portion of the balusters so that the cover does not obstruct the top ends of the balusters. The upper core member is then cut to the proper length, as shown in  FIG. 53D . As noted above, the upper core member may be formed of a wood composite which has the advantage of cutting relatively easily. The upper core member is positioned over the balusters and anchored to the posts using the upper brackets, as shown in  FIGS. 53E and 53F . 
         [0113]    Referring next to  FIG. 53G , the cap cover is aligned over top of the upper core member and snapped into place. The base cover is then slid upwardly along the balusters and snapped onto the underside of upper core element, as shown in  FIG. 53H . 
         [0114]    Referring now to  FIGS. 43-50 , an alternate railing assembly  5000  is shown. The railing  5000  includes an upper core member  5012 , a lower core member  5022  and a panel  5030  supported between the upper core member and lower core member. The upper core member  5012  has a bottom section that connects with a decorative base member  5016 . The lower core member  5022  has a top section that connects with a decorative cover member  5024 . As with the previous embodiments, the decorative base member  5016  and cover member  5024  may be adorned with various paint colors, finishes, metallic jackets or other surface enhancements to achieve a desired look. 
         [0115]    The upper and lower core members have channels  5050  that connect with the decorative base member  5016  and cover member  5024 . The decorative base member  5016  and cover member  5024  are preferably identical in structure, thereby reducing the number of different components used in the railing assembly  5000 . The decorative base member  5016  and cover member  5024  extend in an opposing relationship in the installed railing assembly  5000 , as shown in  FIGS. 43 and 45 . 
         [0116]    The panel  5030  may be formed of a variety of materials, depending on the desired structural and aesthetic properties of the railing, as well as privacy considerations. Suitable materials include transparent materials, translucent materials, or opaque materials. Suitable transparent materials for the panel  5030  include but are not limited to glass or acrylic plastic. Where glass is used, it may be desirable to use a tinted glass to partially shade the area inside the railing. Tinted or reflective panel materials provide a limited amount of privacy for areas inside the railing. 
         [0117]    As noted above, the decorative base member  5016  and cover member  5024  are preferably identical in structure. For purposes of this description, the decorative cover member  5024  will be described, with the understanding that the same description applies to the decorative base member  5016 . Referring to  FIGS. 47-50 , the cover member  5024  includes a resilient flexible body portion  5025 . The body portion  5025  is generally U-shaped and includes a panel face  5026  and a pair of side faces  5027  on each end of the panel face. Each side face  5027  has a rim  5028  that extends inwardly with respect to the body portion  5025 . The width of the U-shaped body portion  5025  is generally equal to the width of the lower core member  5022 . The rims  5026  are generally rounded and form hooks or ledges  5031  that engage the lower core member  5022  when the cover member  5024  is attached to the lower core member. 
         [0118]    During assembly, the cover member  5024  is pressed downwardly over the lower core member  5022 . As the cover member  5024  is pressed downwardly, the rounded rims  5028  glide over the wider portions of the lower core member  5024  and deflect outwardly. Once the rims  5028  pass over the entire lower core member  5022 , the resiliently flexible property of the body portion  5025  causes the side faces  5027  to snap inwardly. The rims  5028  snap around the flat bottom portion of the lower core member  5022 , and the ledges  5031  rest against the flat bottom portion to securely connect the cover member to the lower core member, as shown in  FIGS. 44 and 45 . 
         [0119]    The panel  5030  is supported along a first edge by the lower portion of the upper core member and supported along a second edge by the channel in the lower core member. In particular, a groove  5033  extends along the panel face  5026 , and is configured to support the lower edge of panel  5030 . The lower core element  5022  and cover member  5024  may be configured such that the groove  5033  is either centered along the railing or offset to one side. In  FIGS. 45 and 49 , the groove  5033  extends along the center line of the cover member  5024 . The groove  5033  extends between a pair of stiffening sections  5029  formed in the cover member  5024 . The underside of the groove  5033  and stiffening sections  5029  form a contour that cooperates with the interior channel  5050  of lower core member  5024 . When the cover member  5024  is snapped onto the lower core member  5022 , the stiffening sections  5029  preferably engage the mouth of the channel  5050  in a frictional engagement. The frictional engagement provided by the stiffening sections  5029  in and the engagement of the rims  5026  on the exterior of the lower core member  5022  securely hold the cover member  5029  in a stable position on the lower core member. As such, the panel  5033  is securely connected with the lower core element  5022 . 
         [0120]    The groove  5033  has a width that is generally equal to or slightly larger than the width of the panel  5030 . In a preferred embodiment, the groove  5033  includes an elastic insert  5032  that provides a cushion between cover member  5024  and the edges of panel  5030 . The cushion or insert  5032  lines the walls of the groove and forms a U-shaped channel to receive an edge of the panel  5030 . The insert  5032  is preferably formed of a resilient material such as rubber, which is firm enough to form a tight fit in the groove  5033 , but soft enough to limit the potential for chipping or damaging of the panel  5030  when the panel is mounted into the groove. 
         [0121]    All of the foregoing railing assemblies may be distributed and sold in a variety of ways. For example, the railing assembly may be sold to building contractors, or to homeowners interested in installing the railing assembly themselves. In a preferred method of distribution, railing components are packaged and sold in the form of kits that simplify purchasing. For example, components of the railing assembly may be sold in boxed sets, with each boxed set containing components that constitute a unit or modular portion of a railing system. For example, the boxed set may contain all the structural components needed to construct a single span of railing between posts. Alternatively, the boxed set may contain all the structural and decorative components needed to construct a finished span of railing between posts. Such a boxed set may include a top beam, a bottom beam, a set of balusters, a decorative cap member, a decorative base member and a decorative cover member. 
         [0122]    Referring to  FIG. 52 , a boxed set  6000  in accordance with the present invention includes a box container  6008 , an upper core member  6112 , a lower core member  6122 , a pair of decorative covers  6116 ,  6124  for the upper and lower core members, and nine balusters  6130 . Other combinations of components and forms of packaging may also be desirable. The boxed sets may be fabricated for any length of span, such as a six foot length, eight foot length, ten foot length, or twelve foot length. Each boxed set would provide all the fasteners needed to install the span. As noted earlier, the preferred railing systems of the present invention require very few fasteners and hardware. 
         [0123]    By packaging components in sets corresponding to individual railing spans of a given length, the professional installer or homeowner can easily determine how much product to purchase for a given project. The installer or homeowner would simply determine the total length of the proposed railing system and divide the total length by the unit length provided in each kit. The result would be the number of kits that should be purchased. This ensures that the correct number of components and fasteners are ordered, and avoids the miscalculations that can be made when ordering railing components in bulk quantities. 
         [0124]    In certain instances, it may be desirable to package and sell components individually. For example, components may be packaged and sold as optional upgrades or accessories for use with separately sold boxed sets. Each accessory would be packaged and sold separately, allowing the customer to order only those types and quantities of accessories that are needed. The individual accessories are preferably packaged with appropriate labeling or indicia to show which boxed sets are compatible with the accessories. Accessories and upgrades may include decorative caps, decorative base members, decorative cover members, metallic jackets or other decorative additions. For example, accessories may include decorative caps stained or painted in a certain color tone. Alternatively, the decorative accessories and upgrades may be sold in the form of coordinated kits. For example, a set of wood tone caps and cover members may be packaged with a set of copper jackets to create a kit for upgrading a railing structure. The accessory kits preferably contain all the accessory parts needed to upgrade a single span of railing, similar to the railing boxed sets described above. 
         [0125]    As noted above, the components described herein may be formed of various materials, including but not limited to aluminum or high strength composite materials containing wood or polymers. Composite materials may include wood-plastic composites or wood fiber composites. In a preferred embodiment, the components are formed of a wood fiber composite formed of dried wood fibers encapsulated in thermoplastic polymer. 
         [0126]    The terms and expressions which have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation. There is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof. It is recognized, therefore, that various modifications are possible within the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the invention incorporates variations that fall within the scope of the following claims.

Technology Classification (CPC): 7