Patent Abstract:
A six-phase charge coupled device (CCD) pixel includes a pixel pair, with each pixel having two adjacent control gates overlying corresponding variable potential wells, where voltages applied to the control gates enable charge to be accumulated into and transferred out of the wells. A clear window region overlies a fixed potential gradient region, decreasing in potential away from the control gates. This region enables a wide band of photons to be sensed by the photosensitive silicon of the CCD. The decreasing potential levels facilitate high charge transfer efficiency (i.e., high CTE) from pixel to pixel via the control or transfer gates. By applying particular voltages to the control gates, charge can be quickly and efficiently transferred between pixels. In addition, the window provides a self aligned mask for the implantation steps and thus prevents the formation of pockets (or wells) due to misalignments that decrease the charge transfer efficiency and causes non-uniformity problems as associated with prior art. Furthermore the window provides a flat region that can be covered with an anti-reflective (AR) coating layer, thus further increasing the quantum efficiency.

Full Description:
RELATED APPLICATION 
       [0001]    The present application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/502,238, filed on Aug. 10, 2006, which is based on and claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/714,129, filed Sep. 2, 2005. 
     
    
     BACKGROUND 
       [0002]    1. Field of the Invention 
         [0003]    The present invention relates to methods of manufacturing semiconductor devices, and more particularly to forming high quantum efficiency (QE) charge coupled devices (CCDs). 
         [0004]    2. Related Art 
         [0005]    Charged coupled device (CCD) sensors have been utilized in various demanding sensing applications such as high end visible light imaging, UV imaging, X-Ray imaging, spectroscopy, and more. However conventional CCDs suffer from poor sensitivity to short wavelength bands such as blue, UV, and soft X-Ray. This problem is caused by the absorption of short wavelength photons by the polysilicon layers utilized in forming gate structures in a CCD. The poor sensitivity to certain wavelength bands is manifested as a reduction in the total Quantum Efficiency (QE) of the CCD. 
         [0006]    To overcome the decreased sensitivity problem, several methods were developed and have been used for producing higher QE CCD sensors. The prior art addressing the reduced QE issue includes the following. 
         [0007]    Back Thinned CCD (also referred to as Back Illuminated CCD) technology thins the back side of the CCD via a chemical etching or grinding process in order to be able to illuminate the sensor through the back and not through the front side that contain the blocking gate structures. This approach provides high QE and fill factor (FF). However, Back Thinned CCD is a costly process. The process of thinning is both expensive and poor yielding which further increases the device price. 
         [0008]    CCD with transparent gate structure technology provides a method of forming the gate structures in the CCD from transparent material such as indium-tin-oxide (ITO). The transparent gate structure allows photons to enter the photosensitive silicon of the CCD unimpeded. A disadvantage to this approach is that it suffers from non-uniformity caused by the variation of the ITO layer thickness across the sensor array that is due to chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) used for achieving the required electrical isolation between adjacent ITO gates. Charge Transfer Efficiency (CTE) is also reduced due to fixed electrostatic charges which happen in overlying insulating layers of the device and cause small potential variations below the insulating gap between the CCD electrodes. Thus creating a potential pocket (or well) in the region beneath the electrode gap introduces charge transfer inefficiency. 
         [0009]    CCD with U-shaped gates employs adjacent, non-overlapping U-shaped electrodes within the CCD. This prior art addresses the non-uniformity and decreased CTE problems of the ITO CCD. Since the gate electrodes are of a substantially U-shaped geometry, it shields the charge transfer channel from the effects of the fixed charge (that creates the “pockets” as explained previously). However, CCD with U-shaped gates, while addressing the problems of CCD with ITO Gate, is afflicted by reduced full well due to much reduction in the gate area. This manifests as lower dynamic range. 
         [0010]    Deposition of material sensitive to short wavelength deposits materials such as UV sensitive organic phosphor coatings (e.g., Coronene or Lumagen). UV sensitive organic phosphor coating converts UV photons to the visible (i.e., increasing wavelength) and thus allows them to be sensed by the photosensitive silicon of the CCD. However, this approach suffers from increased pixel-to-pixel crosstalk due to scattered light emitted from the phosphor layer since there is a gap between the short wavelength sensitive coating, such as Lumagen and the silicon surface. This will reduce image sharpness (i.e., lower the spatial frequency response also referred to as modulation transfer function or MTF). 
         [0011]    Virtual-phase CCD with single phase timing technology addresses the QE problem of the front illuminated CCD by eliminating at least one of the gate structures and thus leaving part of the pixel area uncovered by polysilicon layers associated with the gate. Thus a larger part of the CCD pixel is exposed, thereby allowing photons to enter the photosensitive silicon of the CCD unimpeded. In order to facilitate one of the charge transfer phases employed by the CCD, a virtual electrode is formed by means of appropriate implants. A drawback to this technology is that it also suffers from charge transfer efficiency (CTE) problems due to spurious potential pockets which trap charges in the signal transfer channel. The potential pockets are the result of unavoidable small misalignment of implants for potential well shape. Adding background charge in order to fill the pockets may increase CTE but inevitably increases noise (i.e., shot noise of the added background charge). 
         [0012]    Open-pinned-phase (OPP) CCD with dual-phase timing technology addresses the QE of the front-illuminated CCD by eliminating one gate structure and thus also leaving part of the pixel area uncovered by polysilicon layers associated with the gate. Thus, a larger part of the CCD pixel is exposed (also referred to as “open”), hence allowing photons to enter the photosensitive silicon of the CCD unimpeded. In order to facilitate charge transfer employed by the CCD dual gate structure is utilized. However, OPP CCD with dual-phase timing suffers from slow charge transfer process, thus precluding it from usage in applications where reasonable frame rates are of interest. Since the transfer through the open phase is unaided by electric or fringing fields and controlled primarily through thermal diffusion for smaller charge packets, the CTE at higher speeds will be unacceptable for low signals, and poor for even larger packets that are helped by self induced drift. 
         [0013]    Accordingly, it is desirable to have a CCD that can provide very high Quantum Efficiency at a reasonable price for high frame rate and other demanding application without the disadvantages discussed above associated with prior art CCDs or imaging sensors. 
       SUMMARY 
       [0014]    One aspect of the present invention discloses a six-phase Front Illuminated Charge Coupled Device (CCD) pixel with a channel potential gradient and a window through which a wide band of photons can be sensed by the photosensitive silicon of the CCD, thus providing very high quantum Efficiency (QE) similar to the back thinned CCD without the concomitant yield and cost problems. The window is formed via commonly available fabrication process etch steps. Employing selective etch steps allows the removal of the layers residing on the top of the photosensitive silicon, such as the glass protective layer, the oxide gate insulating layer, the conductive gate layer such as polysilicon, and inter-metal dielectrics, without distorting the geometry of the cell. An implant doping for providing channel potential gradient from high to low potential levels is created within the silicon beneath the window region to facilitate high charge transfer efficiency (i.e., high CTE) from pixel to pixel via the transfer gates. In addition, the window provides a self aligned mask for the implantation steps and thus prevents the formation of pockets (or wells) due to misalignments that decrease the charge transfer efficiency and causes non-uniformity problems as associated with prior art. Furthermore the window provides a flat region that can be covered with an anti-reflective (AR) coating layer, thus further increasing the QE. 
         [0015]    The implant doping may be, but not limited to, for example, boron in case of a P-channel CCD (PMOS) or, for example, phosphorus in case of an N-channel CCD (NMOS). Four independent transfer gates are formed from conductive material such as, but not limited to, polysilicon or transparent material such as indium-tin-oxide (ITO). The silicon regions that are controlled by these gates via six-phase timing will be further detailed in the accompanying drawings and the description that are set forth below. These regions have channel potential that can block charge transfer from reaching the volume under the window during the off-phase and deep enough channel potential to allow charge that is stored beneath the window region to be transferred during the on-phase. 
         [0016]    In accordance with one aspect of the current invention, the channel potential gradient in the silicon volume beneath the window region is achieved via forming a 3-D (three dimensional) geometrical implant such as a trapezoid. The implant width is inversely proportional to the potential energy, and thus implant width with respect to the charge transfer lateral direction is increased and hence produces potential energy that is decreased. This process is also referred to as “two dimensional” potential effect and is related to such effect as narrow channel FET effect. This mechanism will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and the description that are set forth below. 
         [0017]    In accordance with another aspect of the current invention, the channel potential gradient in the silicon volume beneath the window region is achieved via multiple lateral implantation steps with gradual change in doping characteristic. Its implant step in the lateral direction of the charge transfer has a different doping characteristic (for example, doping concentration) that provides a gradual or stepped decrease in potential energy. Thus, a channel potential gradient from high to low potential in the direction of the charge transfer is created. 
         [0018]    These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be more readily apparent from the detailed description of the preferred embodiments set forth below taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 
         [0019]      FIG. 1  provides a top view of a pixel-pair of a six-phase front-illuminated CCD in accordance with one embodiment of the current invention. 
           [0020]      FIG. 2  provides a side view of a pixel-pair with gradient potential window regions that is part of the six-phase front-illuminated CCD of  FIG. 1 . 
           [0021]      FIG. 3A  illustrates the potential well and barrier aspects of the six-phase potential timing of a pixel-pair that is part of the six-phase front-illuminated CCD of  FIG. 1 . 
           [0022]      FIG. 3B  illustrates the voltage aspects of the six-phase timing of a pixel-pair that is part of the six-phase front-illuminated CCD of  FIG. 1 . 
           [0023]      FIG. 4  depicts a side view of a pixel-pair of a six-phase front-illuminated CCD in accordance with another embodiment of the current invention. 
       
    
    
       [0024]    Like element numbers in different figures represent the same or similar elements. 
       DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0025]      FIG. 1  provides a top view of a pixel-pair  100  of a six-phase front-illuminated CCD according to one embodiment of the present invention. The pixel-pair  100  comprises two cells  110  and  111  which accommodate charge transfer in a direction  112  from cell  110  to cell  111 . A plurality of pixel-pairs  100  may form a CCD array with additional circuitry such as parallel and serial shift registers, charge amplification blocks and so on, as is known in the art. Pixel-pair  100  includes four independently controlled gates  101 ,  102 ,  103  and  104  that are formed from conductive material such as but not limited to polysilicon or transparent material such as indium-tin-oxide (ITO). The potential energy within the silicon regions is controlled by these gates via six-phase timing that will be further detailed in  FIG. 3 . Pixel-pair  100  further includes window regions  107  and  108  through which wide a band of photons can be sensed by the photosensitive silicon beneath it, thus providing very high QE. Within the window regions  107  and  108 , channel potential gradient regions  105  and  106  are created via implant doping steps that may be but not limited to for example boron in case of a P-channel CCD (PMOS) or for example phosphorus or arsenic in case of an N-channel CCD (NMOS). 
         [0026]    The channel potential gradient regions  105  and  106  provide a permanent gradient from high to low potential levels that facilitate high efficiency charge transfer (i.e., high CTE) from cell  110  to cell  111 . The charge transfer is controlled by changing voltage levels in each of the gates  101 - 104  following a six-phase scheme as depicted in  FIG. 3 . Cycling through the voltage levels accordingly changes the potential in each region beneath gates  101 - 104  from a sufficiently high level to block charge from reaching the window region  107  or  108 , respectively, during the off-phase to a sufficiently low level to allow charge to transfer from region  107  to  108  during the on-phase. 
         [0027]    Potential wells in the regions beneath control gates  101 - 104  are sufficiently deep due to proper implantation such as can be achieved via first implanting all portions of the pixel-pair  100  with the sample implant (e.g., a blanket implant). For example, with an N-channel CCD, this implant may be but not limited to for example phosphorous with a dose of 2E12/cm 2  at energy of 150 keV. Since this implant resides in all portions of cells  110  and  111  and is the only implant for gates  101 - 104 , the regions beneath gates  101 - 104  are self-aligned. 
         [0028]    In accordance with one aspect of the current invention, the channel potential gradient in regions  105  and  106  in the silicon volume beneath the window regions  107  and  108 , respectively, is achieved via forming a 3-D (three dimensional) geometrical implant such as a trapezoid. The implant width is inversely proportional to the potential energy. As the implant width increases with respect to the charge transfer lateral direction  112 , the potential energy is decreased, thus facilitating fast and efficient charge transfer in the direction  112 . This process is also referred to as “two dimensional” potential effect and is related to such effect as narrow channel FET effect. 
         [0029]    The implant shape is achieved via commonly available fabrication steps incorporating masks and implantations. For example, with an N-channel device, the implant may be but limited to phosphorus with a dose of approximately 1E12/cm 2  at energy of approximately 200 keV. 
         [0030]    The window regions  107  and  108  are created via commonly available fabrication process steps of selective etch and appropriate masks. Employing selective etching allows the removal of the layers residing on the top of the photosensitive silicon, such as the glass protective layer (not shown here), the oxide gate insulating layer (not shown here), and the conductive layer used for gates  101 - 104  (e.g., polysilicon or ITO). 
         [0031]    The window regions  107  and  108  are formed before the implant doping steps, thus providing a self aligned mask for the implantation steps. Guaranteeing the implant alignment in this matter prevents the formation of pockets (or wells) due to misalignments that decrease the charge transfer efficiency and causes non-uniformity problems as associated with prior art. Furthermore, an anti-reflective (AR) coating layer that is not shown here can be deposited on the flat surface of the window regions  107  and  108  and thus further increasing the QE. 
         [0032]    The surface regions underneath the window  107  and  108  may be further pinned to the substrate potential by an implant that produces a degenerately doped region at the surface. For the N-channel example given here, this is typically done with but not limited to boron of a dose such as 1E12/cm 2  at a low energy that depends on the thickness of the material through which the implant is being done (for example energy of 10 keV). 
         [0033]      FIG. 2  provides a side view of a pixel-pair  200  with gradient potential window regions that is part of the six-phase front-illuminated CCD. The pixel-pair  200  comprises two cells  209  and  210  which accommodate charge transfer in a direction  216  from cell  209  to cell  210 . A plurality of pixel-pairs  200  may form a CCD array with additional circuitry such as parallel and serial shift registers, charge amplification blocks, and so on. Prior to gate deposition, a high quality gate dielectric  218  is grown or deposited on a silicon substrate  208 . The dielectric  218  can be but not limited to SiO 2  (silicon oxide) or a compound dielectric such as silicon-oxi-nitride. Pixel-pair  200  includes four independently controlled gates  201 ,  202 ,  203  and  204  that are formed via deposition of conductive material on the silicon substrate  208 , such as but not limited to polysilicon or transparent material such as indium-tin-oxide (ITO). The gates  201 - 204  may be doped via implantation or diffusion to increase conductivity. The gates  201 - 204  are further thermally oxidized to provide a high quality isolation insulator layer  207  (i.e., the oxide layer prevents any connection between gates  201 - 204 ). The isolation layer  207  is not limited to thermally oxidation and can be formed via other methods known to those who skilled in the art such as deposition. Additional steps known to those skilled in the art such as deposition of compound insulators for example oxy-nitride or other protective (not shown here) may be employed. 
         [0034]    The potential energy levels  211 ,  212 ,  213  and  214  within the silicon substrate  208  are controlled by gates  201 ,  202 ,  203  and  204 , respectively, via six-phase timing that will be further detailed in  FIG. 3 . Pixel-pair  200  further includes window regions  205  and  206  through which a wide band of photons can be sensed by the photosensitive silicon beneath it, thus providing very high QE. 
         [0035]    Within the window regions  205  and  206 , channel potential gradient regions  215  and  216  are created via implant doping that may be but not limited to for example boron in case of a P-channel CCD (PMOS) or for example phosphorus in case of an N-channel CCD (NMOS) as demonstrated in the embodiments of the current invention that are depicted in  FIG. 1  and  FIG. 2 . An N-channel process is selected for demonstration of the current invention and can be easily converted to P-channel process by those who are skilled in the art. Additional implants (not shown here) for surface pinning underneath the window regions  205  and  206  may be employed (e.g., boron). 
         [0036]    The channel potential gradient regions  215  and  216  each provide a permanent gradient from high to low potential levels in the direction  216  that facilitate high efficiency charge transfer (i.e., high CTE) from cell  209  to cell  210 . The charge transfer is controlled by changing voltage levels in each of the gates  201 - 204  independently, following the six-phase scheme that is depicted in  FIG. 3 . Cycling through the voltage levels accordingly changes the potential levels  211 - 214  in each region beneath gates  201 - 204 , respectively, from a high enough level to block charge from reaching the window region  205  or  206 , respectively, during the off-phase to a sufficiently low level to allow charge to transfer from region  205  to  206  during the on-phase. 
         [0037]    The window regions  205  and  206  are formed before the implant doping steps, thus providing a self aligned mask for the implantation steps. This ensures the implants are aligned and thus prevents the formation of pockets (or wells) due to misalignments which are a serious problem that afflicts conventional devices and causes poor charge transfer efficiency and non-uniformity. 
         [0038]    The permanent channel potential gradients  215  and  216  allow for a fast and complete charge transfer and thus provide high CTE at high frame rate. Furthermore, the anti-reflective (AR) coating layer  217  is deposited on the flat surface of the window regions  205  and  206 , thus further increasing the QE. 
         [0039]      FIGS. 3A and 3B  illustrate a six-phase timing in accordance with a front-illuminated CCD as disclosed herein in one embodiment.  FIG. 3A  demonstrates the charge transfer stages from cell  307  to cell  308  within a pixel-pair  300  according to one embodiment. Cells  307  and  308  are similar to cells  110  and  111  of  FIG. 1  and cells  209  and  210  of  FIG. 2 . The pixel-pair  300  may be part of a front-illuminated CCD and is detailed in  FIGS. 1 ,  2 , and  4 .  FIG. 3A  shows the potential changes cycle (potential level indicated by  317 ), while  FIG. 3B  shows the control gates voltage levels (voltage level indicated by  318 ). 
         [0040]    As explained previously, charge is accumulated underneath window regions  315  and  316  proportionally to the wide band of photons that are sensed by the photosensitive silicon during the integration time period. The charge transfer is facilitated via independent potential changes in the regions beneath control gates  311 ,  312 ,  313  and  314  and the permanent channel potential gradient in window regions  315  and  316 . The potential changes in regions beneath control gates  311 ,  312 ,  313  and  314  are induced by voltage applied independently to the gates in each of the six phases  301 - 306 . 
         [0041]    The process chosen for demonstration is for an N-channel device (NMOS) but those who skilled in the art can apply the scheme to a P-channel (PMOS) device with opposite voltages. 
         [0042]    During phase  301 , positive voltage is applied to the control gate  311 , thus creating a well in the region beneath gate  311  into which charge that was accumulated in a previous cell of a previous pixel-pair (not shown here) is transferred. At the same time, negative voltage is applied to the control gate  312 , thus providing a barrier in the region beneath the gate  312  that prevents charge  309  from leaking into window region  315 . The region beneath control gates  313  and  314  of cell  308  are both in high potential (barrier) state (a negative voltage applied to both control gates  313  and  314 ). 
         [0043]    During phase  302 , positive voltage is applied to the gate  312  thus providing together with gate  311  a well beneath both gates  311  and  312  that is sufficient to accumulate all the  309  (i.e., emptying the prior cell not shown here). The region beneath control gates  313  and  314  of cell  308  both remain in a high potential (barrier) state. 
         [0044]    During phase  303 , negative voltage is applied to gate  311  thus providing a barrier in the region beneath gate  311 , thereby preventing charge  309  from leaking back into the prior cell (not shown here). Potential well in the region beneath control gate  312  is sufficiently deep (due to proper implantation as explained in  FIG. 1 ) to completely hold charge  309  and prevent charge leakage. The region beneath control gates  313  and  314  of cell  308  both still remain in a high potential (barrier) state. 
         [0045]    During the next phase  304 , negative voltage is applied to gate  312 , thus increasing the potential in the region beneath gate  312  and spilling the charge  309  into the region beneath window  315 . Since the potential in region  315  is permanently sloping from high near region beneath control gate  312  to low near next cell  308 , charge  309  that has been spilled from the region beneath control gate  312  quickly migrates within region  315  toward next cell  308 . The charge  309  is further accumulating in region beneath control gate  313  of next cell  308  since gate  313  is provided with positive voltage thus providing a potential well. The region beneath control gate  314  still provides a barrier (to allow cell  308  to empty prior to charge transfer). 
         [0046]    During the next phase  305 , positive voltage is applied to gate  314 , thus providing together with the region beneath control gate  313  a well sufficient to completely hold charge  309 , thus emptying region  315  of cell  307 . 
         [0047]    During the last phase  306  in the six-phase cycle, positive voltage is maintained on gate  314  while a negative voltage is applied to gate  313 , collecting all the charge under gate  314  and getting ready to shift it to the next cell on the next phase. The barrier created under gate  313  prevents charge from leaking back into region  315 . 
         [0048]    The diagram further shows for completeness purpose the first phase  301  of the next six-phase cycle where charge  309  will now spill into region  316  in cell  308  and new charge  310  enters cell  307 . 
         [0049]      FIG. 4  depicts a side view of a pixel-pair  400  of a six-phase front-illuminated CCD with a window region and channel potential gradient in accordance with another embodiment of the current invention. The pixel-pair  400  comprises two cells  409  and  410  which accommodate charge transfer in the direction  411  from cell  409  to cell  410 . A plurality of pixel-pairs  400  may form a CCD array with additional circuitry such as parallel and serial shift registers, charge amplification blocks and so on. Pixel-pair  400  includes four independently controlled gates  401 ,  402 ,  403  and  404  that are formed from conductive material such as but not limited to polysilicon or transparent material such as indium-tin-oxide (ITO). The potential energy within the silicon regions is controlled by these gates via six-phase timing that was detailed in  FIG. 3A  and  FIG. 3B . Pixel-pair  400  further includes window regions  405  and  406  through which a wide band of photons can be sensed by the photosensitive silicon beneath it, thus providing very high QE. Within the window regions  405  and  406 , channel potential gradient regions are created via implant doping that may be but not limited to for example boron in case of a P-channel CCD (PMOS) or for example phosphorus in case of an N-channel CCD (NMOS). 
         [0050]    The channel potential gradient regions  405  and  406  provide a permanent gradient from high to low potential levels that facilitate high efficiency charge transfer (i.e., high CTE) from cell  409  to cell  410 . The charge transfer is controlled by changing voltage levels in each of the gates  401 - 404  following the six-phase scheme as depicted in  FIG. 3A  and  FIG. 3B . Cycling through the voltage levels accordingly changes the potential in each region beneath gates  401 - 404  from a high enough level to block charge from reaching the window region  405  or  406 , respectively, during the off-phase to a sufficiently low level to allow charge to transfer from region  405  to  406  during the on-phase. 
         [0051]    In accordance with another aspect of the current invention, the channel potential gradient in regions  405  and  406  beneath the window regions comprises increasing levels of doping concentration regions  412 - 415 . A low doped region  412  is near cell  409 , with higher doped regions closer to cell  410 , ending with a highly doped region  415  towards cell  410 . In the example represented in  FIG. 4 , the photosensitive regions  405  and  406  comprise a plurality of sub-regions  412 ,  413 ,  414 , and  415  that are parallel to each other with respect to the charge transfer direction  411 , each having an increased doping concentration of for example phosphorus or arsenic in case of N-channel device. This results in a stepwise change in doping concentration providing the fringing field necessary to promote charge movement, thus facilitating fast and efficient charge transfer in the direction  411 . 
         [0052]    The regions  412 - 415  can be achieved via available fabrication steps utilizing for example a “sliding mask” that, over several implants of the same dose of for example phosphorus or arsenic for an N-channel device, would expose progressively more of the area beneath window regions  405  and  406 . The result would be a multi-stepped region comprising regions  412 , 413 ,  414  and  415  that have increasing concentration in the direction of charge transfer  411 . 
         [0053]    The window regions  405  and  406  are created via commonly available fabrication process steps of selective etch. Employing selective etch allows the removal of the layers residing on the top of the photosensitive silicon such as the glass protective layer (not shown here), the oxide gate insulating layer (not shown here), and the conductive layer used for gates  401 - 404  (e.g. Polysilicon or ITO). The window process was further detailed in  FIG. 1   
         [0054]    The window regions  405  and  406  are formed before the doping steps thus providing a self aligned mask for the said doping steps. The alignment prevents the formation of pockets (or wells) due to misalignments that decrease the charge transfer efficiency and causes non-uniformity problems as associated with conventional devices. 
         [0055]    The surface regions underneath the window  405  and  406  may be further pinned to the substrate potential by an implant that produces a degenerately doped region at the surface. For the N-channel example given here, this is typically done with but not limited to boron of a dose such as 1E12/cm 2  at a low energy that depends on the thickness of the material through which the implant is being done (for example energy of 10 keV). 
         [0056]    Having thus described embodiments of the present invention, persons of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that changes may be made in form and detail without departing from the scope of the invention. Thus the invention is limited only by the following claims.

Technology Classification (CPC): 7