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chgrp | The chgrp utility shall set the group ID of the file named by each file operand to the group ID specified by the group operand. For each file operand, or, if the -R option is used, each file encountered while walking the directory trees specified by the file operands, the chgrp utility shall perform actions equivalent to the chown() function defined in the System Interfaces volume of POSIX.1‐2017, called with the following arguments: * The file operand shall be used as the path argument. * The user ID of the file shall be used as the owner argument. * The specified group ID shall be used as the group argument. Unless chgrp is invoked by a process with appropriate privileges, the set-user-ID and set-group-ID bits of a regular file shall be cleared upon successful completion; the set-user-ID and set- group-ID bits of other file types may be cleared. The chgrp utility shall conform to the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Section 12.2, Utility Syntax Guidelines. The following options shall be supported by the implementation: -h For each file operand that names a file of type symbolic link, chgrp shall attempt to set the group ID of the symbolic link instead of the file referenced by the symbolic link. -H If the -R option is specified and a symbolic link referencing a file of type directory is specified on the command line, chgrp shall change the group of the directory referenced by the symbolic link and all files in the file hierarchy below it. -L If the -R option is specified and a symbolic link referencing a file of type directory is specified on the command line or encountered during the traversal of a file hierarchy, chgrp shall change the group of the directory referenced by the symbolic link and all files in the file hierarchy below it. -P If the -R option is specified and a symbolic link is specified on the command line or encountered during the traversal of a file hierarchy, chgrp shall change the group ID of the symbolic link. The chgrp utility shall not follow the symbolic link to any other part of the file hierarchy. -R Recursively change file group IDs. For each file operand that names a directory, chgrp shall change the group of the directory and all files in the file hierarchy below it. Unless a -H, -L, or -P option is specified, it is unspecified which of these options will be used as the default. Specifying more than one of the mutually-exclusive options -H, -L, and -P shall not be considered an error. The last option specified shall determine the behavior of the utility. | # chgrp
> Change group ownership of files and directories. More information:
> https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/chgrp.
* Change the owner group of a file/directory:
`chgrp {{group}} {{path/to/file_or_directory}}`
* Recursively change the owner group of a directory and its contents:
`chgrp -R {{group}} {{path/to/directory}}`
* Change the owner group of a symbolic link:
`chgrp -h {{group}} {{path/to/symlink}}`
* Change the owner group of a file/directory to match a reference file:
`chgrp --reference={{path/to/reference_file}} {{path/to/file_or_directory}}` |
more | more is a filter for paging through text one screenful at a time. This version is especially primitive. Users should realize that less(1) provides more(1) emulation plus extensive enhancements. Options are also taken from the environment variable MORE (make sure to precede them with a dash (-)) but command-line options will override those. -d, --silent Prompt with "[Press space to continue, 'q' to quit.]", and display "[Press 'h' for instructions.]" instead of ringing the bell when an illegal key is pressed. -l, --logical Do not pause after any line containing a ^L (form feed). -e, --exit-on-eof Exit on End-Of-File, enabled by default if POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable is not set or if not executed on terminal. -f, --no-pause Count logical lines, rather than screen lines (i.e., long lines are not folded). -p, --print-over Do not scroll. Instead, clear the whole screen and then display the text. Notice that this option is switched on automatically if the executable is named page. -c, --clean-print Do not scroll. Instead, paint each screen from the top, clearing the remainder of each line as it is displayed. -s, --squeeze Squeeze multiple blank lines into one. -u, --plain Suppress underlining. This option is silently ignored as backwards compatibility. -n, --lines number Specify the number of lines per screenful. The number argument is a positive decimal integer. The --lines option shall override any values obtained from any other source, such as number of lines reported by terminal. -number A numeric option means the same as --lines option argument. +number Start displaying each file at line number. +/string The string to be searched in each file before starting to display it. -h, --help Display help text and exit. -V, --version Print version and exit. | # more
> Open a file for interactive reading, allowing scrolling and search. More
> information: https://manned.org/more.
* Open a file:
`more {{path/to/file}}`
* Open a file displaying from a specific line:
`more +{{line_number}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Display help:
`more --help`
* Go to the next page:
`<Space>`
* Search for a string (press `n` to go to the next match):
`/{{something}}`
* Exit:
`q`
* Display help about interactive commands:
`h` |
git-hash-object | Computes the object ID value for an object with specified type with the contents of the named file (which can be outside of the work tree), and optionally writes the resulting object into the object database. Reports its object ID to its standard output. When <type> is not specified, it defaults to "blob". -t <type> Specify the type (default: "blob"). -w Actually write the object into the object database. --stdin Read the object from standard input instead of from a file. --stdin-paths Read file names from the standard input, one per line, instead of from the command-line. --path Hash object as it were located at the given path. The location of file does not directly influence on the hash value, but path is used to determine what Git filters should be applied to the object before it can be placed to the object database, and, as result of applying filters, the actual blob put into the object database may differ from the given file. This option is mainly useful for hashing temporary files located outside of the working directory or files read from stdin. --no-filters Hash the contents as is, ignoring any input filter that would have been chosen by the attributes mechanism, including the end-of-line conversion. If the file is read from standard input then this is always implied, unless the --path option is given. --literally Allow --stdin to hash any garbage into a loose object which might not otherwise pass standard object parsing or git-fsck checks. Useful for stress-testing Git itself or reproducing characteristics of corrupt or bogus objects encountered in the wild. | # git hash-object
> Computes the unique hash key of content and optionally creates an object
> with specified type. More information: https://git-scm.com/docs/git-hash-
> object.
* Compute the object ID without storing it:
`git hash-object {{path/to/file}}`
* Compute the object ID and store it in the Git database:
`git hash-object -w {{path/to/file}}`
* Compute the object ID specifying the object type:
`git hash-object -t {{blob|commit|tag|tree}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Compute the object ID from `stdin`:
`cat {{path/to/file}} | git hash-object --stdin` |
id | If no user operand is provided, the id utility shall write the user and group IDs and the corresponding user and group names of the invoking process to standard output. If the effective and real IDs do not match, both shall be written. If multiple groups are supported by the underlying system (see the description of {NGROUPS_MAX} in the System Interfaces volume of POSIX.1‐2017), the supplementary group affiliations of the invoking process shall also be written. If a user operand is provided and the process has appropriate privileges, the user and group IDs of the selected user shall be written. In this case, effective IDs shall be assumed to be identical to real IDs. If the selected user has more than one allowable group membership listed in the group database, these shall be written in the same manner as the supplementary groups described in the preceding paragraph. The id utility shall conform to the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Section 12.2, Utility Syntax Guidelines. The following options shall be supported: -G Output all different group IDs (effective, real, and supplementary) only, using the format "%u\n". If there is more than one distinct group affiliation, output each such affiliation, using the format " %u", before the <newline> is output. -g Output only the effective group ID, using the format "%u\n". -n Output the name in the format "%s" instead of the numeric ID using the format "%u". -r Output the real ID instead of the effective ID. -u Output only the effective user ID, using the format "%u\n". | # id
> Display current user and group identity. More information:
> https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/id.
* Display current user's ID (UID), group ID (GID) and groups to which they belong:
`id`
* Display the current user identity as a number:
`id -u`
* Display the current group identity as a number:
`id -g`
* Display an arbitrary user's ID (UID), group ID (GID) and groups to which they belong:
`id {{username}}` |
nl | Write each FILE to standard output, with line numbers added. With no FILE, or when FILE is -, read standard input. Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options too. -b, --body-numbering=STYLE use STYLE for numbering body lines -d, --section-delimiter=CC use CC for logical page delimiters -f, --footer-numbering=STYLE use STYLE for numbering footer lines -h, --header-numbering=STYLE use STYLE for numbering header lines -i, --line-increment=NUMBER line number increment at each line -l, --join-blank-lines=NUMBER group of NUMBER empty lines counted as one -n, --number-format=FORMAT insert line numbers according to FORMAT -p, --no-renumber do not reset line numbers for each section -s, --number-separator=STRING add STRING after (possible) line number -v, --starting-line-number=NUMBER first line number for each section -w, --number-width=NUMBER use NUMBER columns for line numbers --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit Default options are: -bt -d'\:' -fn -hn -i1 -l1 -n'rn' -s<TAB> -v1 -w6 CC are two delimiter characters used to construct logical page delimiters; a missing second character implies ':'. As a GNU extension one can specify more than two characters, and also specifying the empty string (-d '') disables section matching. STYLE is one of: a number all lines t number only nonempty lines n number no lines pBRE number only lines that contain a match for the basic regular expression, BRE FORMAT is one of: ln left justified, no leading zeros rn right justified, no leading zeros rz right justified, leading zeros | # nl
> A utility for numbering lines, either from a file, or from `stdin`. More
> information: https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/nl.
* Number non-blank lines in a file:
`nl {{path/to/file}}`
* Read from `stdout`:
`cat {{path/to/file}} | nl {{options}} -`
* Number only the lines with printable text:
`nl -t {{path/to/file}}`
* Number all lines including blank lines:
`nl -b a {{path/to/file}}`
* Number only the body lines that match a basic regular expression (BRE) pattern:
`nl -b p'FooBar[0-9]' {{path/to/file}}` |
git-check-ignore | For each pathname given via the command-line or from a file via --stdin, check whether the file is excluded by .gitignore (or other input files to the exclude mechanism) and output the path if it is excluded. By default, tracked files are not shown at all since they are not subject to exclude rules; but see ‘--no-index’. -q, --quiet Don’t output anything, just set exit status. This is only valid with a single pathname. -v, --verbose Instead of printing the paths that are excluded, for each path that matches an exclude pattern, print the exclude pattern together with the path. (Matching an exclude pattern usually means the path is excluded, but if the pattern begins with "!" then it is a negated pattern and matching it means the path is NOT excluded.) For precedence rules within and between exclude sources, see gitignore(5). --stdin Read pathnames from the standard input, one per line, instead of from the command-line. -z The output format is modified to be machine-parsable (see below). If --stdin is also given, input paths are separated with a NUL character instead of a linefeed character. -n, --non-matching Show given paths which don’t match any pattern. This only makes sense when --verbose is enabled, otherwise it would not be possible to distinguish between paths which match a pattern and those which don’t. --no-index Don’t look in the index when undertaking the checks. This can be used to debug why a path became tracked by e.g. git add . and was not ignored by the rules as expected by the user or when developing patterns including negation to match a path previously added with git add -f. | # git check-ignore
> Analyze and debug Git ignore/exclude (".gitignore") files. More information:
> https://git-scm.com/docs/git-check-ignore.
* Check whether a file or directory is ignored:
`git check-ignore {{path/to/file_or_directory}}`
* Check whether multiple files or directories are ignored:
`git check-ignore {{path/to/file}} {{path/to/directory}}`
* Use pathnames, one per line, from `stdin`:
`git check-ignore --stdin < {{path/to/file_list}}`
* Do not check the index (used to debug why paths were tracked and not ignored):
`git check-ignore --no-index {{path/to/files_or_directories}}`
* Include details about the matching pattern for each path:
`git check-ignore --verbose {{path/to/files_or_directories}}` |
tcpdump | Tcpdump prints out a description of the contents of packets on a network interface that match the Boolean expression (see pcap-filter(@MAN_MISC_INFO@) for the expression syntax); the description is preceded by a time stamp, printed, by default, as hours, minutes, seconds, and fractions of a second since midnight. It can also be run with the -w flag, which causes it to save the packet data to a file for later analysis, and/or with the -r flag, which causes it to read from a saved packet file rather than to read packets from a network interface. It can also be run with the -V flag, which causes it to read a list of saved packet files. In all cases, only packets that match expression will be processed by tcpdump. Tcpdump will, if not run with the -c flag, continue capturing packets until it is interrupted by a SIGINT signal (generated, for example, by typing your interrupt character, typically control-C) or a SIGTERM signal (typically generated with the kill(1) command); if run with the -c flag, it will capture packets until it is interrupted by a SIGINT or SIGTERM signal or the specified number of packets have been processed. When tcpdump finishes capturing packets, it will report counts of: packets ``captured'' (this is the number of packets that tcpdump has received and processed); packets ``received by filter'' (the meaning of this depends on the OS on which you're running tcpdump, and possibly on the way the OS was configured - if a filter was specified on the command line, on some OSes it counts packets regardless of whether they were matched by the filter expression and, even if they were matched by the filter expression, regardless of whether tcpdump has read and processed them yet, on other OSes it counts only packets that were matched by the filter expression regardless of whether tcpdump has read and processed them yet, and on other OSes it counts only packets that were matched by the filter expression and were processed by tcpdump); packets ``dropped by kernel'' (this is the number of packets that were dropped, due to a lack of buffer space, by the packet capture mechanism in the OS on which tcpdump is running, if the OS reports that information to applications; if not, it will be reported as 0). On platforms that support the SIGINFO signal, such as most BSDs (including macOS) and Digital/Tru64 UNIX, it will report those counts when it receives a SIGINFO signal (generated, for example, by typing your ``status'' character, typically control-T, although on some platforms, such as macOS, the ``status'' character is not set by default, so you must set it with stty(1) in order to use it) and will continue capturing packets. On platforms that do not support the SIGINFO signal, the same can be achieved by using the SIGUSR1 signal. Using the SIGUSR2 signal along with the -w flag will forcibly flush the packet buffer into the output file. Reading packets from a network interface may require that you have special privileges; see the pcap(3PCAP) man page for details. Reading a saved packet file doesn't require special privileges. -A Print each packet (minus its link level header) in ASCII. Handy for capturing web pages. -b Print the AS number in BGP packets in ASDOT notation rather than ASPLAIN notation. -B buffer_size --buffer-size=buffer_size Set the operating system capture buffer size to buffer_size, in units of KiB (1024 bytes). -c count Exit after receiving count packets. --count Print only on stdout the packet count when reading capture file(s) instead of parsing/printing the packets. If a filter is specified on the command line, tcpdump counts only packets that were matched by the filter expression. -C file_size Before writing a raw packet to a savefile, check whether the file is currently larger than file_size and, if so, close the current savefile and open a new one. Savefiles after the first savefile will have the name specified with the -w flag, with a number after it, starting at 1 and continuing upward. The default unit of file_size is millions of bytes (1,000,000 bytes, not 1,048,576 bytes). By adding a suffix of k/K, m/M or g/G to the value, the unit can be changed to 1,024 (KiB), 1,048,576 (MiB), or 1,073,741,824 (GiB) respectively. -d Dump the compiled packet-matching code in a human readable form to standard output and stop. Please mind that although code compilation is always DLT- specific, typically it is impossible (and unnecessary) to specify which DLT to use for the dump because tcpdump uses either the DLT of the input pcap file specified with -r, or the default DLT of the network interface specified with -i, or the particular DLT of the network interface specified with -y and -i respectively. In these cases the dump shows the same exact code that would filter the input file or the network interface without -d. However, when neither -r nor -i is specified, specifying -d prevents tcpdump from guessing a suitable network interface (see -i). In this case the DLT defaults to EN10MB and can be set to another valid value manually with -y. -dd Dump packet-matching code as a C program fragment. -ddd Dump packet-matching code as decimal numbers (preceded with a count). -D --list-interfaces Print the list of the network interfaces available on the system and on which tcpdump can capture packets. For each network interface, a number and an interface name, possibly followed by a text description of the interface, are printed. The interface name or the number can be supplied to the -i flag to specify an interface on which to capture. This can be useful on systems that don't have a command to list them (e.g., Windows systems, or UNIX systems lacking ifconfig -a); the number can be useful on Windows 2000 and later systems, where the interface name is a somewhat complex string. The -D flag will not be supported if tcpdump was built with an older version of libpcap that lacks the pcap_findalldevs(3PCAP) function. -e Print the link-level header on each dump line. This can be used, for example, to print MAC layer addresses for protocols such as Ethernet and IEEE 802.11. -E Use spi@ipaddr algo:secret for decrypting IPsec ESP packets that are addressed to addr and contain Security Parameter Index value spi. This combination may be repeated with comma or newline separation. Note that setting the secret for IPv4 ESP packets is supported at this time. Algorithms may be des-cbc, 3des-cbc, blowfish-cbc, rc3-cbc, cast128-cbc, or none. The default is des-cbc. The ability to decrypt packets is only present if tcpdump was compiled with cryptography enabled. secret is the ASCII text for ESP secret key. If preceded by 0x, then a hex value will be read. The option assumes RFC 2406 ESP, not RFC 1827 ESP. The option is only for debugging purposes, and the use of this option with a true `secret' key is discouraged. By presenting IPsec secret key onto command line you make it visible to others, via ps(1) and other occasions. In addition to the above syntax, the syntax file name may be used to have tcpdump read the provided file in. The file is opened upon receiving the first ESP packet, so any special permissions that tcpdump may have been given should already have been given up. -f Print `foreign' IPv4 addresses numerically rather than symbolically (this option is intended to get around serious brain damage in Sun's NIS server — usually it hangs forever translating non-local internet numbers). The test for `foreign' IPv4 addresses is done using the IPv4 address and netmask of the interface on that capture is being done. If that address or netmask are not available, either because the interface on that capture is being done has no address or netmask or because it is the "any" pseudo-interface, which is available in Linux and in recent versions of macOS and Solaris, and which can capture on more than one interface, this option will not work correctly. -F file Use file as input for the filter expression. An additional expression given on the command line is ignored. -G rotate_seconds If specified, rotates the dump file specified with the -w option every rotate_seconds seconds. Savefiles will have the name specified by -w which should include a time format as defined by strftime(3). If no time format is specified, each new file will overwrite the previous. Whenever a generated filename is not unique, tcpdump will overwrite the pre-existing data; providing a time specification that is coarser than the capture period is therefore not advised. If used in conjunction with the -C option, filenames will take the form of `file<count>'. -h --help Print the tcpdump and libpcap version strings, print a usage message, and exit. --version Print the tcpdump and libpcap version strings and exit. -H Attempt to detect 802.11s draft mesh headers. -i interface --interface=interface Listen, report the list of link-layer types, report the list of time stamp types, or report the results of compiling a filter expression on interface. If unspecified and if the -d flag is not given, tcpdump searches the system interface list for the lowest numbered, configured up interface (excluding loopback), which may turn out to be, for example, ``eth0''. On Linux systems with 2.2 or later kernels and on recent versions of macOS and Solaris, an interface argument of ``any'' can be used to capture packets from all interfaces. Note that captures on the ``any'' pseudo- interface will not be done in promiscuous mode. If the -D flag is supported, an interface number as printed by that flag can be used as the interface argument, if no interface on the system has that number as a name. -I --monitor-mode Put the interface in "monitor mode"; this is supported only on IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi interfaces, and supported only on some operating systems. Note that in monitor mode the adapter might disassociate from the network with which it's associated, so that you will not be able to use any wireless networks with that adapter. This could prevent accessing files on a network server, or resolving host names or network addresses, if you are capturing in monitor mode and are not connected to another network with another adapter. This flag will affect the output of the -L flag. If -I isn't specified, only those link-layer types available when not in monitor mode will be shown; if -I is specified, only those link-layer types available when in monitor mode will be shown. --immediate-mode Capture in "immediate mode". In this mode, packets are delivered to tcpdump as soon as they arrive, rather than being buffered for efficiency. This is the default when printing packets rather than saving packets to a ``savefile'' if the packets are being printed to a terminal rather than to a file or pipe. -j tstamp_type --time-stamp-type=tstamp_type Set the time stamp type for the capture to tstamp_type. The names to use for the time stamp types are given in pcap-tstamp(@MAN_MISC_INFO@); not all the types listed there will necessarily be valid for any given interface. -J --list-time-stamp-types List the supported time stamp types for the interface and exit. If the time stamp type cannot be set for the interface, no time stamp types are listed. --time-stamp-precision=tstamp_precision When capturing, set the time stamp precision for the capture to tstamp_precision. Note that availability of high precision time stamps (nanoseconds) and their actual accuracy is platform and hardware dependent. Also note that when writing captures made with nanosecond accuracy to a savefile, the time stamps are written with nanosecond resolution, and the file is written with a different magic number, to indicate that the time stamps are in seconds and nanoseconds; not all programs that read pcap savefiles will be able to read those captures. When reading a savefile, convert time stamps to the precision specified by timestamp_precision, and display them with that resolution. If the precision specified is less than the precision of time stamps in the file, the conversion will lose precision. The supported values for timestamp_precision are micro for microsecond resolution and nano for nanosecond resolution. The default is microsecond resolution. --micro --nano Shorthands for --time-stamp-precision=micro or --time-stamp-precision=nano, adjusting the time stamp precision accordingly. When reading packets from a savefile, using --micro truncates time stamps if the savefile was created with nanosecond precision. In contrast, a savefile created with microsecond precision will have trailing zeroes added to the time stamp when --nano is used. -K --dont-verify-checksums Don't attempt to verify IP, TCP, or UDP checksums. This is useful for interfaces that perform some or all of those checksum calculation in hardware; otherwise, all outgoing TCP checksums will be flagged as bad. -l Make stdout line buffered. Useful if you want to see the data while capturing it. E.g., tcpdump -l | tee dat or tcpdump -l > dat & tail -f dat Note that on Windows,``line buffered'' means ``unbuffered'', so that WinDump will write each character individually if -l is specified. -U is similar to -l in its behavior, but it will cause output to be ``packet-buffered'', so that the output is written to stdout at the end of each packet rather than at the end of each line; this is buffered on all platforms, including Windows. -L --list-data-link-types List the known data link types for the interface, in the specified mode, and exit. The list of known data link types may be dependent on the specified mode; for example, on some platforms, a Wi-Fi interface might support one set of data link types when not in monitor mode (for example, it might support only fake Ethernet headers, or might support 802.11 headers but not support 802.11 headers with radio information) and another set of data link types when in monitor mode (for example, it might support 802.11 headers, or 802.11 headers with radio information, only in monitor mode). -m module Load SMI MIB module definitions from file module. This option can be used several times to load several MIB modules into tcpdump. -M secret Use secret as a shared secret for validating the digests found in TCP segments with the TCP-MD5 option (RFC 2385), if present. -n Don't convert addresses (i.e., host addresses, port numbers, etc.) to names. -N Don't print domain name qualification of host names. E.g., if you give this flag then tcpdump will print ``nic'' instead of ``nic.ddn.mil''. -# --number Print an optional packet number at the beginning of the line. -O --no-optimize Do not run the packet-matching code optimizer. This is useful only if you suspect a bug in the optimizer. -p --no-promiscuous-mode Don't put the interface into promiscuous mode. Note that the interface might be in promiscuous mode for some other reason; hence, `-p' cannot be used as an abbreviation for `ether host {local-hw-addr} or ether broadcast'. --print Print parsed packet output, even if the raw packets are being saved to a file with the -w flag. --print-sampling=nth Print every nth packet. This option enables the --print flag. Unprinted packets are not parsed, which decreases processing time. Setting nth to 100 for example, will (counting from 1) parse and print the 100th packet, 200th packet, 300th packet, and so on. This option also enables the -S flag, as relative TCP sequence numbers are not tracked for unprinted packets. -Q direction --direction=direction Choose send/receive direction direction for which packets should be captured. Possible values are `in', `out' and `inout'. Not available on all platforms. -q Quick (quiet?) output. Print less protocol information so output lines are shorter. -r file Read packets from file (which was created with the -w option or by other tools that write pcap or pcapng files). Standard input is used if file is ``-''. -S --absolute-tcp-sequence-numbers Print absolute, rather than relative, TCP sequence numbers. -s snaplen --snapshot-length=snaplen Snarf snaplen bytes of data from each packet rather than the default of 262144 bytes. Packets truncated because of a limited snapshot are indicated in the output with ``[|proto]'', where proto is the name of the protocol level at which the truncation has occurred. Note that taking larger snapshots both increases the amount of time it takes to process packets and, effectively, decreases the amount of packet buffering. This may cause packets to be lost. Note also that taking smaller snapshots will discard data from protocols above the transport layer, which loses information that may be important. NFS and AFS requests and replies, for example, are very large, and much of the detail won't be available if a too-short snapshot length is selected. If you need to reduce the snapshot size below the default, you should limit snaplen to the smallest number that will capture the protocol information you're interested in. Setting snaplen to 0 sets it to the default of 262144, for backwards compatibility with recent older versions of tcpdump. -T type Force packets selected by "expression" to be interpreted the specified type. Currently known types are aodv (Ad- hoc On-demand Distance Vector protocol), carp (Common Address Redundancy Protocol), cnfp (Cisco NetFlow protocol), domain (Domain Name System), lmp (Link Management Protocol), pgm (Pragmatic General Multicast), pgm_zmtp1 (ZMTP/1.0 inside PGM/EPGM), ptp (Precision Time Protocol), quic (QUIC), radius (RADIUS), resp (REdis Serialization Protocol), rpc (Remote Procedure Call), rtcp (Real-Time Applications control protocol), rtp (Real-Time Applications protocol), snmp (Simple Network Management Protocol), someip (SOME/IP), tftp (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), vat (Visual Audio Tool), vxlan (Virtual eXtensible Local Area Network), wb (distributed White Board) and zmtp1 (ZeroMQ Message Transport Protocol 1.0). Note that the pgm type above affects UDP interpretation only, the native PGM is always recognised as IP protocol 113 regardless. UDP-encapsulated PGM is often called "EPGM" or "PGM/UDP". Note that the pgm_zmtp1 type above affects interpretation of both native PGM and UDP at once. During the native PGM decoding the application data of an ODATA/RDATA packet would be decoded as a ZeroMQ datagram with ZMTP/1.0 frames. During the UDP decoding in addition to that any UDP packet would be treated as an encapsulated PGM packet. -t Don't print a timestamp on each dump line. -tt Print the timestamp, as seconds since January 1, 1970, 00:00:00, UTC, and fractions of a second since that time, on each dump line. -ttt Print a delta (microsecond or nanosecond resolution depending on the --time-stamp-precision option) between current and previous line on each dump line. The default is microsecond resolution. -tttt Print a timestamp, as hours, minutes, seconds, and fractions of a second since midnight, preceded by the date, on each dump line. -ttttt Print a delta (microsecond or nanosecond resolution depending on the --time-stamp-precision option) between current and first line on each dump line. The default is microsecond resolution. -u Print undecoded NFS handles. -U --packet-buffered If the -w option is not specified, or if it is specified but the --print flag is also specified, make the printed packet output ``packet-buffered''; i.e., as the description of the contents of each packet is printed, it will be written to the standard output, rather than, when not writing to a terminal, being written only when the output buffer fills. If the -w option is specified, make the saved raw packet output ``packet-buffered''; i.e., as each packet is saved, it will be written to the output file, rather than being written only when the output buffer fills. The -U flag will not be supported if tcpdump was built with an older version of libpcap that lacks the pcap_dump_flush(3PCAP) function. -v When parsing and printing, produce (slightly more) verbose output. For example, the time to live, identification, total length and options in an IP packet are printed. Also enables additional packet integrity checks such as verifying the IP and ICMP header checksum. When writing to a file with the -w option and at the same time not reading from a file with the -r option, report to stderr, once per second, the number of packets captured. In Solaris, FreeBSD and possibly other operating systems this periodic update currently can cause loss of captured packets on their way from the kernel to tcpdump. -vv Even more verbose output. For example, additional fields are printed from NFS reply packets, and SMB packets are fully decoded. -vvv Even more verbose output. For example, telnet SB ... SE options are printed in full. With -X Telnet options are printed in hex as well. -V file Read a list of filenames from file. Standard input is used if file is ``-''. -w file Write the raw packets to file rather than parsing and printing them out. They can later be printed with the -r option. Standard output is used if file is ``-''. This output will be buffered if written to a file or pipe, so a program reading from the file or pipe may not see packets for an arbitrary amount of time after they are received. Use the -U flag to cause packets to be written as soon as they are received. The MIME type application/vnd.tcpdump.pcap has been registered with IANA for pcap files. The filename extension .pcap appears to be the most commonly used along with .cap and .dmp. Tcpdump itself doesn't check the extension when reading capture files and doesn't add an extension when writing them (it uses magic numbers in the file header instead). However, many operating systems and applications will use the extension if it is present and adding one (e.g. .pcap) is recommended. See pcap-savefile(@MAN_FILE_FORMATS@) for a description of the file format. -W filecount Used in conjunction with the -C option, this will limit the number of files created to the specified number, and begin overwriting files from the beginning, thus creating a 'rotating' buffer. In addition, it will name the files with enough leading 0s to support the maximum number of files, allowing them to sort correctly. Used in conjunction with the -G option, this will limit the number of rotated dump files that get created, exiting with status 0 when reaching the limit. If used in conjunction with both -C and -G, the -W option will currently be ignored, and will only affect the file name. -x When parsing and printing, in addition to printing the headers of each packet, print the data of each packet (minus its link level header) in hex. The smaller of the entire packet or snaplen bytes will be printed. Note that this is the entire link-layer packet, so for link layers that pad (e.g. Ethernet), the padding bytes will also be printed when the higher layer packet is shorter than the required padding. In the current implementation this flag may have the same effect as -xx if the packet is truncated. -xx When parsing and printing, in addition to printing the headers of each packet, print the data of each packet, including its link level header, in hex. -X When parsing and printing, in addition to printing the headers of each packet, print the data of each packet (minus its link level header) in hex and ASCII. This is very handy for analysing new protocols. In the current implementation this flag may have the same effect as -XX if the packet is truncated. -XX When parsing and printing, in addition to printing the headers of each packet, print the data of each packet, including its link level header, in hex and ASCII. -y datalinktype --linktype=datalinktype Set the data link type to use while capturing packets (see -L) or just compiling and dumping packet-matching code (see -d) to datalinktype. -z postrotate-command Used in conjunction with the -C or -G options, this will make tcpdump run " postrotate-command file " where file is the savefile being closed after each rotation. For example, specifying -z gzip or -z bzip2 will compress each savefile using gzip or bzip2. Note that tcpdump will run the command in parallel to the capture, using the lowest priority so that this doesn't disturb the capture process. And in case you would like to use a command that itself takes flags or different arguments, you can always write a shell script that will take the savefile name as the only argument, make the flags & arguments arrangements and execute the command that you want. -Z user --relinquish-privileges=user If tcpdump is running as root, after opening the capture device or input savefile, but before opening any savefiles for output, change the user ID to user and the group ID to the primary group of user. This behavior can also be enabled by default at compile time. expression selects which packets will be dumped. If no expression is given, all packets on the net will be dumped. Otherwise, only packets for which expression is `true' will be dumped. For the expression syntax, see pcap-filter(@MAN_MISC_INFO@). The expression argument can be passed to tcpdump as either a single Shell argument, or as multiple Shell arguments, whichever is more convenient. Generally, if the expression contains Shell metacharacters, such as backslashes used to escape protocol names, it is easier to pass it as a single, quoted argument rather than to escape the Shell metacharacters. Multiple arguments are concatenated with spaces before being parsed. | # tcpdump
> Dump traffic on a network. More information: https://www.tcpdump.org.
* List available network interfaces:
`tcpdump -D`
* Capture the traffic of a specific interface:
`tcpdump -i {{eth0}}`
* Capture all TCP traffic showing contents (ASCII) in console:
`tcpdump -A tcp`
* Capture the traffic from or to a host:
`tcpdump host {{www.example.com}}`
* Capture the traffic from a specific interface, source, destination and destination port:
`tcpdump -i {{eth0}} src {{192.168.1.1}} and dst {{192.168.1.2}} and dst port
{{80}}`
* Capture the traffic of a network:
`tcpdump net {{192.168.1.0/24}}`
* Capture all traffic except traffic over port 22 and save to a dump file:
`tcpdump -w {{dumpfile.pcap}} port not {{22}}`
* Read from a given dump file:
`tcpdump -r {{dumpfile.pcap}}` |
users | Output who is currently logged in according to FILE. If FILE is not specified, use /var/run/utmp. /var/log/wtmp as FILE is common. --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit | # users
> Display a list of logged in users. See also: `useradd`, `userdel`,
> `usermod`. More information: https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/users.
* Print logged in usernames:
`users`
* Print logged in usernames according to a given file:
`users {{/var/log/wmtp}}` |
git-rev-list | List commits that are reachable by following the parent links from the given commit(s), but exclude commits that are reachable from the one(s) given with a ^ in front of them. The output is given in reverse chronological order by default. You can think of this as a set operation. Commits reachable from any of the commits given on the command line form a set, and then commits reachable from any of the ones given with ^ in front are subtracted from that set. The remaining commits are what comes out in the command’s output. Various other options and paths parameters can be used to further limit the result. Thus, the following command: $ git rev-list foo bar ^baz means "list all the commits which are reachable from foo or bar, but not from baz". A special notation "<commit1>..<commit2>" can be used as a short-hand for "^<commit1> <commit2>". For example, either of the following may be used interchangeably: $ git rev-list origin..HEAD $ git rev-list HEAD ^origin Another special notation is "<commit1>...<commit2>" which is useful for merges. The resulting set of commits is the symmetric difference between the two operands. The following two commands are equivalent: $ git rev-list A B --not $(git merge-base --all A B) $ git rev-list A...B rev-list is a very essential Git command, since it provides the ability to build and traverse commit ancestry graphs. For this reason, it has a lot of different options that enables it to be used by commands as different as git bisect and git repack. Commit Limiting Besides specifying a range of commits that should be listed using the special notations explained in the description, additional commit limiting may be applied. Using more options generally further limits the output (e.g. --since=<date1> limits to commits newer than <date1>, and using it with --grep=<pattern> further limits to commits whose log message has a line that matches <pattern>), unless otherwise noted. Note that these are applied before commit ordering and formatting options, such as --reverse. -<number>, -n <number>, --max-count=<number> Limit the number of commits to output. --skip=<number> Skip number commits before starting to show the commit output. --since=<date>, --after=<date> Show commits more recent than a specific date. --since-as-filter=<date> Show all commits more recent than a specific date. This visits all commits in the range, rather than stopping at the first commit which is older than a specific date. --until=<date>, --before=<date> Show commits older than a specific date. --max-age=<timestamp>, --min-age=<timestamp> Limit the commits output to specified time range. --author=<pattern>, --committer=<pattern> Limit the commits output to ones with author/committer header lines that match the specified pattern (regular expression). With more than one --author=<pattern>, commits whose author matches any of the given patterns are chosen (similarly for multiple --committer=<pattern>). --grep-reflog=<pattern> Limit the commits output to ones with reflog entries that match the specified pattern (regular expression). With more than one --grep-reflog, commits whose reflog message matches any of the given patterns are chosen. It is an error to use this option unless --walk-reflogs is in use. --grep=<pattern> Limit the commits output to ones with log message that matches the specified pattern (regular expression). With more than one --grep=<pattern>, commits whose message matches any of the given patterns are chosen (but see --all-match). --all-match Limit the commits output to ones that match all given --grep, instead of ones that match at least one. --invert-grep Limit the commits output to ones with log message that do not match the pattern specified with --grep=<pattern>. -i, --regexp-ignore-case Match the regular expression limiting patterns without regard to letter case. --basic-regexp Consider the limiting patterns to be basic regular expressions; this is the default. -E, --extended-regexp Consider the limiting patterns to be extended regular expressions instead of the default basic regular expressions. -F, --fixed-strings Consider the limiting patterns to be fixed strings (don’t interpret pattern as a regular expression). -P, --perl-regexp Consider the limiting patterns to be Perl-compatible regular expressions. Support for these types of regular expressions is an optional compile-time dependency. If Git wasn’t compiled with support for them providing this option will cause it to die. --remove-empty Stop when a given path disappears from the tree. --merges Print only merge commits. This is exactly the same as --min-parents=2. --no-merges Do not print commits with more than one parent. This is exactly the same as --max-parents=1. --min-parents=<number>, --max-parents=<number>, --no-min-parents, --no-max-parents Show only commits which have at least (or at most) that many parent commits. In particular, --max-parents=1 is the same as --no-merges, --min-parents=2 is the same as --merges. --max-parents=0 gives all root commits and --min-parents=3 all octopus merges. --no-min-parents and --no-max-parents reset these limits (to no limit) again. Equivalent forms are --min-parents=0 (any commit has 0 or more parents) and --max-parents=-1 (negative numbers denote no upper limit). --first-parent When finding commits to include, follow only the first parent commit upon seeing a merge commit. This option can give a better overview when viewing the evolution of a particular topic branch, because merges into a topic branch tend to be only about adjusting to updated upstream from time to time, and this option allows you to ignore the individual commits brought in to your history by such a merge. --exclude-first-parent-only When finding commits to exclude (with a ^), follow only the first parent commit upon seeing a merge commit. This can be used to find the set of changes in a topic branch from the point where it diverged from the remote branch, given that arbitrary merges can be valid topic branch changes. --not Reverses the meaning of the ^ prefix (or lack thereof) for all following revision specifiers, up to the next --not. --all Pretend as if all the refs in refs/, along with HEAD, are listed on the command line as <commit>. --branches[=<pattern>] Pretend as if all the refs in refs/heads are listed on the command line as <commit>. If <pattern> is given, limit branches to ones matching given shell glob. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --tags[=<pattern>] Pretend as if all the refs in refs/tags are listed on the command line as <commit>. If <pattern> is given, limit tags to ones matching given shell glob. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --remotes[=<pattern>] Pretend as if all the refs in refs/remotes are listed on the command line as <commit>. If <pattern> is given, limit remote-tracking branches to ones matching given shell glob. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --glob=<glob-pattern> Pretend as if all the refs matching shell glob <glob-pattern> are listed on the command line as <commit>. Leading refs/, is automatically prepended if missing. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --exclude=<glob-pattern> Do not include refs matching <glob-pattern> that the next --all, --branches, --tags, --remotes, or --glob would otherwise consider. Repetitions of this option accumulate exclusion patterns up to the next --all, --branches, --tags, --remotes, or --glob option (other options or arguments do not clear accumulated patterns). The patterns given should not begin with refs/heads, refs/tags, or refs/remotes when applied to --branches, --tags, or --remotes, respectively, and they must begin with refs/ when applied to --glob or --all. If a trailing /* is intended, it must be given explicitly. --exclude-hidden=[fetch|receive|uploadpack] Do not include refs that would be hidden by git-fetch, git-receive-pack or git-upload-pack by consulting the appropriate fetch.hideRefs, receive.hideRefs or uploadpack.hideRefs configuration along with transfer.hideRefs (see git-config(1)). This option affects the next pseudo-ref option --all or --glob and is cleared after processing them. --reflog Pretend as if all objects mentioned by reflogs are listed on the command line as <commit>. --alternate-refs Pretend as if all objects mentioned as ref tips of alternate repositories were listed on the command line. An alternate repository is any repository whose object directory is specified in objects/info/alternates. The set of included objects may be modified by core.alternateRefsCommand, etc. See git-config(1). --single-worktree By default, all working trees will be examined by the following options when there are more than one (see git-worktree(1)): --all, --reflog and --indexed-objects. This option forces them to examine the current working tree only. --ignore-missing Upon seeing an invalid object name in the input, pretend as if the bad input was not given. --stdin In addition to the <commit> listed on the command line, read them from the standard input. If a -- separator is seen, stop reading commits and start reading paths to limit the result. --quiet Don’t print anything to standard output. This form is primarily meant to allow the caller to test the exit status to see if a range of objects is fully connected (or not). It is faster than redirecting stdout to /dev/null as the output does not have to be formatted. --disk-usage, --disk-usage=human Suppress normal output; instead, print the sum of the bytes used for on-disk storage by the selected commits or objects. This is equivalent to piping the output into git cat-file --batch-check='%(objectsize:disk)', except that it runs much faster (especially with --use-bitmap-index). See the CAVEATS section in git-cat-file(1) for the limitations of what "on-disk storage" means. With the optional value human, on-disk storage size is shown in human-readable string(e.g. 12.24 Kib, 3.50 Mib). --cherry-mark Like --cherry-pick (see below) but mark equivalent commits with = rather than omitting them, and inequivalent ones with +. --cherry-pick Omit any commit that introduces the same change as another commit on the “other side” when the set of commits are limited with symmetric difference. For example, if you have two branches, A and B, a usual way to list all commits on only one side of them is with --left-right (see the example below in the description of the --left-right option). However, it shows the commits that were cherry-picked from the other branch (for example, “3rd on b” may be cherry-picked from branch A). With this option, such pairs of commits are excluded from the output. --left-only, --right-only List only commits on the respective side of a symmetric difference, i.e. only those which would be marked < resp. > by --left-right. For example, --cherry-pick --right-only A...B omits those commits from B which are in A or are patch-equivalent to a commit in A. In other words, this lists the + commits from git cherry A B. More precisely, --cherry-pick --right-only --no-merges gives the exact list. --cherry A synonym for --right-only --cherry-mark --no-merges; useful to limit the output to the commits on our side and mark those that have been applied to the other side of a forked history with git log --cherry upstream...mybranch, similar to git cherry upstream mybranch. -g, --walk-reflogs Instead of walking the commit ancestry chain, walk reflog entries from the most recent one to older ones. When this option is used you cannot specify commits to exclude (that is, ^commit, commit1..commit2, and commit1...commit2 notations cannot be used). With --pretty format other than oneline and reference (for obvious reasons), this causes the output to have two extra lines of information taken from the reflog. The reflog designator in the output may be shown as ref@{Nth} (where Nth is the reverse-chronological index in the reflog) or as ref@{timestamp} (with the timestamp for that entry), depending on a few rules: 1. If the starting point is specified as ref@{Nth}, show the index format. 2. If the starting point was specified as ref@{now}, show the timestamp format. 3. If neither was used, but --date was given on the command line, show the timestamp in the format requested by --date. 4. Otherwise, show the index format. Under --pretty=oneline, the commit message is prefixed with this information on the same line. This option cannot be combined with --reverse. See also git-reflog(1). Under --pretty=reference, this information will not be shown at all. --merge After a failed merge, show refs that touch files having a conflict and don’t exist on all heads to merge. --boundary Output excluded boundary commits. Boundary commits are prefixed with -. --use-bitmap-index Try to speed up the traversal using the pack bitmap index (if one is available). Note that when traversing with --objects, trees and blobs will not have their associated path printed. --progress=<header> Show progress reports on stderr as objects are considered. The <header> text will be printed with each progress update. History Simplification Sometimes you are only interested in parts of the history, for example the commits modifying a particular <path>. But there are two parts of History Simplification, one part is selecting the commits and the other is how to do it, as there are various strategies to simplify the history. The following options select the commits to be shown: <paths> Commits modifying the given <paths> are selected. --simplify-by-decoration Commits that are referred by some branch or tag are selected. Note that extra commits can be shown to give a meaningful history. The following options affect the way the simplification is performed: Default mode Simplifies the history to the simplest history explaining the final state of the tree. Simplest because it prunes some side branches if the end result is the same (i.e. merging branches with the same content) --show-pulls Include all commits from the default mode, but also any merge commits that are not TREESAME to the first parent but are TREESAME to a later parent. This mode is helpful for showing the merge commits that "first introduced" a change to a branch. --full-history Same as the default mode, but does not prune some history. --dense Only the selected commits are shown, plus some to have a meaningful history. --sparse All commits in the simplified history are shown. --simplify-merges Additional option to --full-history to remove some needless merges from the resulting history, as there are no selected commits contributing to this merge. --ancestry-path[=<commit>] When given a range of commits to display (e.g. commit1..commit2 or commit2 ^commit1), only display commits in that range that are ancestors of <commit>, descendants of <commit>, or <commit> itself. If no commit is specified, use commit1 (the excluded part of the range) as <commit>. Can be passed multiple times; if so, a commit is included if it is any of the commits given or if it is an ancestor or descendant of one of them. A more detailed explanation follows. Suppose you specified foo as the <paths>. We shall call commits that modify foo !TREESAME, and the rest TREESAME. (In a diff filtered for foo, they look different and equal, respectively.) In the following, we will always refer to the same example history to illustrate the differences between simplification settings. We assume that you are filtering for a file foo in this commit graph: .-A---M---N---O---P---Q / / / / / / I B C D E Y \ / / / / / `-------------' X The horizontal line of history A---Q is taken to be the first parent of each merge. The commits are: • I is the initial commit, in which foo exists with contents “asdf”, and a file quux exists with contents “quux”. Initial commits are compared to an empty tree, so I is !TREESAME. • In A, foo contains just “foo”. • B contains the same change as A. Its merge M is trivial and hence TREESAME to all parents. • C does not change foo, but its merge N changes it to “foobar”, so it is not TREESAME to any parent. • D sets foo to “baz”. Its merge O combines the strings from N and D to “foobarbaz”; i.e., it is not TREESAME to any parent. • E changes quux to “xyzzy”, and its merge P combines the strings to “quux xyzzy”. P is TREESAME to O, but not to E. • X is an independent root commit that added a new file side, and Y modified it. Y is TREESAME to X. Its merge Q added side to P, and Q is TREESAME to P, but not to Y. rev-list walks backwards through history, including or excluding commits based on whether --full-history and/or parent rewriting (via --parents or --children) are used. The following settings are available. Default mode Commits are included if they are not TREESAME to any parent (though this can be changed, see --sparse below). If the commit was a merge, and it was TREESAME to one parent, follow only that parent. (Even if there are several TREESAME parents, follow only one of them.) Otherwise, follow all parents. This results in: .-A---N---O / / / I---------D Note how the rule to only follow the TREESAME parent, if one is available, removed B from consideration entirely. C was considered via N, but is TREESAME. Root commits are compared to an empty tree, so I is !TREESAME. Parent/child relations are only visible with --parents, but that does not affect the commits selected in default mode, so we have shown the parent lines. --full-history without parent rewriting This mode differs from the default in one point: always follow all parents of a merge, even if it is TREESAME to one of them. Even if more than one side of the merge has commits that are included, this does not imply that the merge itself is! In the example, we get I A B N D O P Q M was excluded because it is TREESAME to both parents. E, C and B were all walked, but only B was !TREESAME, so the others do not appear. Note that without parent rewriting, it is not really possible to talk about the parent/child relationships between the commits, so we show them disconnected. --full-history with parent rewriting Ordinary commits are only included if they are !TREESAME (though this can be changed, see --sparse below). Merges are always included. However, their parent list is rewritten: Along each parent, prune away commits that are not included themselves. This results in .-A---M---N---O---P---Q / / / / / I B / D / \ / / / / `-------------' Compare to --full-history without rewriting above. Note that E was pruned away because it is TREESAME, but the parent list of P was rewritten to contain E's parent I. The same happened for C and N, and X, Y and Q. In addition to the above settings, you can change whether TREESAME affects inclusion: --dense Commits that are walked are included if they are not TREESAME to any parent. --sparse All commits that are walked are included. Note that without --full-history, this still simplifies merges: if one of the parents is TREESAME, we follow only that one, so the other sides of the merge are never walked. --simplify-merges First, build a history graph in the same way that --full-history with parent rewriting does (see above). Then simplify each commit C to its replacement C' in the final history according to the following rules: • Set C' to C. • Replace each parent P of C' with its simplification P'. In the process, drop parents that are ancestors of other parents or that are root commits TREESAME to an empty tree, and remove duplicates, but take care to never drop all parents that we are TREESAME to. • If after this parent rewriting, C' is a root or merge commit (has zero or >1 parents), a boundary commit, or !TREESAME, it remains. Otherwise, it is replaced with its only parent. The effect of this is best shown by way of comparing to --full-history with parent rewriting. The example turns into: .-A---M---N---O / / / I B D \ / / `---------' Note the major differences in N, P, and Q over --full-history: • N's parent list had I removed, because it is an ancestor of the other parent M. Still, N remained because it is !TREESAME. • P's parent list similarly had I removed. P was then removed completely, because it had one parent and is TREESAME. • Q's parent list had Y simplified to X. X was then removed, because it was a TREESAME root. Q was then removed completely, because it had one parent and is TREESAME. There is another simplification mode available: --ancestry-path[=<commit>] Limit the displayed commits to those which are an ancestor of <commit>, or which are a descendant of <commit>, or are <commit> itself. As an example use case, consider the following commit history: D---E-------F / \ \ B---C---G---H---I---J / \ A-------K---------------L--M A regular D..M computes the set of commits that are ancestors of M, but excludes the ones that are ancestors of D. This is useful to see what happened to the history leading to M since D, in the sense that “what does M have that did not exist in D”. The result in this example would be all the commits, except A and B (and D itself, of course). When we want to find out what commits in M are contaminated with the bug introduced by D and need fixing, however, we might want to view only the subset of D..M that are actually descendants of D, i.e. excluding C and K. This is exactly what the --ancestry-path option does. Applied to the D..M range, it results in: E-------F \ \ G---H---I---J \ L--M We can also use --ancestry-path=D instead of --ancestry-path which means the same thing when applied to the D..M range but is just more explicit. If we instead are interested in a given topic within this range, and all commits affected by that topic, we may only want to view the subset of D..M which contain that topic in their ancestry path. So, using --ancestry-path=H D..M for example would result in: E \ G---H---I---J \ L--M Whereas --ancestry-path=K D..M would result in K---------------L--M Before discussing another option, --show-pulls, we need to create a new example history. A common problem users face when looking at simplified history is that a commit they know changed a file somehow does not appear in the file’s simplified history. Let’s demonstrate a new example and show how options such as --full-history and --simplify-merges works in that case: .-A---M-----C--N---O---P / / \ \ \/ / / I B \ R-'`-Z' / \ / \/ / \ / /\ / `---X--' `---Y--' For this example, suppose I created file.txt which was modified by A, B, and X in different ways. The single-parent commits C, Z, and Y do not change file.txt. The merge commit M was created by resolving the merge conflict to include both changes from A and B and hence is not TREESAME to either. The merge commit R, however, was created by ignoring the contents of file.txt at M and taking only the contents of file.txt at X. Hence, R is TREESAME to X but not M. Finally, the natural merge resolution to create N is to take the contents of file.txt at R, so N is TREESAME to R but not C. The merge commits O and P are TREESAME to their first parents, but not to their second parents, Z and Y respectively. When using the default mode, N and R both have a TREESAME parent, so those edges are walked and the others are ignored. The resulting history graph is: I---X When using --full-history, Git walks every edge. This will discover the commits A and B and the merge M, but also will reveal the merge commits O and P. With parent rewriting, the resulting graph is: .-A---M--------N---O---P / / \ \ \/ / / I B \ R-'`--' / \ / \/ / \ / /\ / `---X--' `------' Here, the merge commits O and P contribute extra noise, as they did not actually contribute a change to file.txt. They only merged a topic that was based on an older version of file.txt. This is a common issue in repositories using a workflow where many contributors work in parallel and merge their topic branches along a single trunk: many unrelated merges appear in the --full-history results. When using the --simplify-merges option, the commits O and P disappear from the results. This is because the rewritten second parents of O and P are reachable from their first parents. Those edges are removed and then the commits look like single-parent commits that are TREESAME to their parent. This also happens to the commit N, resulting in a history view as follows: .-A---M--. / / \ I B R \ / / \ / / `---X--' In this view, we see all of the important single-parent changes from A, B, and X. We also see the carefully-resolved merge M and the not-so-carefully-resolved merge R. This is usually enough information to determine why the commits A and B "disappeared" from history in the default view. However, there are a few issues with this approach. The first issue is performance. Unlike any previous option, the --simplify-merges option requires walking the entire commit history before returning a single result. This can make the option difficult to use for very large repositories. The second issue is one of auditing. When many contributors are working on the same repository, it is important which merge commits introduced a change into an important branch. The problematic merge R above is not likely to be the merge commit that was used to merge into an important branch. Instead, the merge N was used to merge R and X into the important branch. This commit may have information about why the change X came to override the changes from A and B in its commit message. --show-pulls In addition to the commits shown in the default history, show each merge commit that is not TREESAME to its first parent but is TREESAME to a later parent. When a merge commit is included by --show-pulls, the merge is treated as if it "pulled" the change from another branch. When using --show-pulls on this example (and no other options) the resulting graph is: I---X---R---N Here, the merge commits R and N are included because they pulled the commits X and R into the base branch, respectively. These merges are the reason the commits A and B do not appear in the default history. When --show-pulls is paired with --simplify-merges, the graph includes all of the necessary information: .-A---M--. N / / \ / I B R \ / / \ / / `---X--' Notice that since M is reachable from R, the edge from N to M was simplified away. However, N still appears in the history as an important commit because it "pulled" the change R into the main branch. The --simplify-by-decoration option allows you to view only the big picture of the topology of the history, by omitting commits that are not referenced by tags. Commits are marked as !TREESAME (in other words, kept after history simplification rules described above) if (1) they are referenced by tags, or (2) they change the contents of the paths given on the command line. All other commits are marked as TREESAME (subject to be simplified away). Bisection Helpers --bisect Limit output to the one commit object which is roughly halfway between included and excluded commits. Note that the bad bisection ref refs/bisect/bad is added to the included commits (if it exists) and the good bisection refs refs/bisect/good-* are added to the excluded commits (if they exist). Thus, supposing there are no refs in refs/bisect/, if $ git rev-list --bisect foo ^bar ^baz outputs midpoint, the output of the two commands $ git rev-list foo ^midpoint $ git rev-list midpoint ^bar ^baz would be of roughly the same length. Finding the change which introduces a regression is thus reduced to a binary search: repeatedly generate and test new 'midpoint’s until the commit chain is of length one. --bisect-vars This calculates the same as --bisect, except that refs in refs/bisect/ are not used, and except that this outputs text ready to be eval’ed by the shell. These lines will assign the name of the midpoint revision to the variable bisect_rev, and the expected number of commits to be tested after bisect_rev is tested to bisect_nr, the expected number of commits to be tested if bisect_rev turns out to be good to bisect_good, the expected number of commits to be tested if bisect_rev turns out to be bad to bisect_bad, and the number of commits we are bisecting right now to bisect_all. --bisect-all This outputs all the commit objects between the included and excluded commits, ordered by their distance to the included and excluded commits. Refs in refs/bisect/ are not used. The farthest from them is displayed first. (This is the only one displayed by --bisect.) This is useful because it makes it easy to choose a good commit to test when you want to avoid to test some of them for some reason (they may not compile for example). This option can be used along with --bisect-vars, in this case, after all the sorted commit objects, there will be the same text as if --bisect-vars had been used alone. Commit Ordering By default, the commits are shown in reverse chronological order. --date-order Show no parents before all of its children are shown, but otherwise show commits in the commit timestamp order. --author-date-order Show no parents before all of its children are shown, but otherwise show commits in the author timestamp order. --topo-order Show no parents before all of its children are shown, and avoid showing commits on multiple lines of history intermixed. For example, in a commit history like this: ---1----2----4----7 \ \ 3----5----6----8--- where the numbers denote the order of commit timestamps, git rev-list and friends with --date-order show the commits in the timestamp order: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. With --topo-order, they would show 8 6 5 3 7 4 2 1 (or 8 7 4 2 6 5 3 1); some older commits are shown before newer ones in order to avoid showing the commits from two parallel development track mixed together. --reverse Output the commits chosen to be shown (see Commit Limiting section above) in reverse order. Cannot be combined with --walk-reflogs. Object Traversal These options are mostly targeted for packing of Git repositories. --objects Print the object IDs of any object referenced by the listed commits. --objects foo ^bar thus means “send me all object IDs which I need to download if I have the commit object bar but not foo”. See also --object-names below. --in-commit-order Print tree and blob ids in order of the commits. The tree and blob ids are printed after they are first referenced by a commit. --objects-edge Similar to --objects, but also print the IDs of excluded commits prefixed with a “-” character. This is used by git-pack-objects(1) to build a “thin” pack, which records objects in deltified form based on objects contained in these excluded commits to reduce network traffic. --objects-edge-aggressive Similar to --objects-edge, but it tries harder to find excluded commits at the cost of increased time. This is used instead of --objects-edge to build “thin” packs for shallow repositories. --indexed-objects Pretend as if all trees and blobs used by the index are listed on the command line. Note that you probably want to use --objects, too. --unpacked Only useful with --objects; print the object IDs that are not in packs. --object-names Only useful with --objects; print the names of the object IDs that are found. This is the default behavior. Note that the "name" of each object is ambiguous, and mostly intended as a hint for packing objects. In particular: no distinction is made between the names of tags, trees, and blobs; path names may be modified to remove newlines; and if an object would appear multiple times with different names, only one name is shown. --no-object-names Only useful with --objects; does not print the names of the object IDs that are found. This inverts --object-names. This flag allows the output to be more easily parsed by commands such as git-cat-file(1). --filter=<filter-spec> Only useful with one of the --objects*; omits objects (usually blobs) from the list of printed objects. The <filter-spec> may be one of the following: The form --filter=blob:none omits all blobs. The form --filter=blob:limit=<n>[kmg] omits blobs larger than n bytes or units. n may be zero. The suffixes k, m, and g can be used to name units in KiB, MiB, or GiB. For example, blob:limit=1k is the same as blob:limit=1024. The form --filter=object:type=(tag|commit|tree|blob) omits all objects which are not of the requested type. The form --filter=sparse:oid=<blob-ish> uses a sparse-checkout specification contained in the blob (or blob-expression) <blob-ish> to omit blobs that would not be required for a sparse checkout on the requested refs. The form --filter=tree:<depth> omits all blobs and trees whose depth from the root tree is >= <depth> (minimum depth if an object is located at multiple depths in the commits traversed). <depth>=0 will not include any trees or blobs unless included explicitly in the command-line (or standard input when --stdin is used). <depth>=1 will include only the tree and blobs which are referenced directly by a commit reachable from <commit> or an explicitly-given object. <depth>=2 is like <depth>=1 while also including trees and blobs one more level removed from an explicitly-given commit or tree. Note that the form --filter=sparse:path=<path> that wants to read from an arbitrary path on the filesystem has been dropped for security reasons. Multiple --filter= flags can be specified to combine filters. Only objects which are accepted by every filter are included. The form --filter=combine:<filter1>+<filter2>+...<filterN> can also be used to combined several filters, but this is harder than just repeating the --filter flag and is usually not necessary. Filters are joined by + and individual filters are %-encoded (i.e. URL-encoded). Besides the + and % characters, the following characters are reserved and also must be encoded: ~!@#$^&*()[]{}\;",<>?'` as well as all characters with ASCII code <= 0x20, which includes space and newline. Other arbitrary characters can also be encoded. For instance, combine:tree:3+blob:none and combine:tree%3A3+blob%3Anone are equivalent. --no-filter Turn off any previous --filter= argument. --filter-provided-objects Filter the list of explicitly provided objects, which would otherwise always be printed even if they did not match any of the filters. Only useful with --filter=. --filter-print-omitted Only useful with --filter=; prints a list of the objects omitted by the filter. Object IDs are prefixed with a “~” character. --missing=<missing-action> A debug option to help with future "partial clone" development. This option specifies how missing objects are handled. The form --missing=error requests that rev-list stop with an error if a missing object is encountered. This is the default action. The form --missing=allow-any will allow object traversal to continue if a missing object is encountered. Missing objects will silently be omitted from the results. The form --missing=allow-promisor is like allow-any, but will only allow object traversal to continue for EXPECTED promisor missing objects. Unexpected missing objects will raise an error. The form --missing=print is like allow-any, but will also print a list of the missing objects. Object IDs are prefixed with a “?” character. --exclude-promisor-objects (For internal use only.) Prefilter object traversal at promisor boundary. This is used with partial clone. This is stronger than --missing=allow-promisor because it limits the traversal, rather than just silencing errors about missing objects. --no-walk[=(sorted|unsorted)] Only show the given commits, but do not traverse their ancestors. This has no effect if a range is specified. If the argument unsorted is given, the commits are shown in the order they were given on the command line. Otherwise (if sorted or no argument was given), the commits are shown in reverse chronological order by commit time. Cannot be combined with --graph. --do-walk Overrides a previous --no-walk. Commit Formatting Using these options, git-rev-list(1) will act similar to the more specialized family of commit log tools: git-log(1), git-show(1), and git-whatchanged(1) --pretty[=<format>], --format=<format> Pretty-print the contents of the commit logs in a given format, where <format> can be one of oneline, short, medium, full, fuller, reference, email, raw, format:<string> and tformat:<string>. When <format> is none of the above, and has %placeholder in it, it acts as if --pretty=tformat:<format> were given. See the "PRETTY FORMATS" section for some additional details for each format. When =<format> part is omitted, it defaults to medium. Note: you can specify the default pretty format in the repository configuration (see git-config(1)). --abbrev-commit Instead of showing the full 40-byte hexadecimal commit object name, show a prefix that names the object uniquely. "--abbrev=<n>" (which also modifies diff output, if it is displayed) option can be used to specify the minimum length of the prefix. This should make "--pretty=oneline" a whole lot more readable for people using 80-column terminals. --no-abbrev-commit Show the full 40-byte hexadecimal commit object name. This negates --abbrev-commit, either explicit or implied by other options such as "--oneline". It also overrides the log.abbrevCommit variable. --oneline This is a shorthand for "--pretty=oneline --abbrev-commit" used together. --encoding=<encoding> Commit objects record the character encoding used for the log message in their encoding header; this option can be used to tell the command to re-code the commit log message in the encoding preferred by the user. For non plumbing commands this defaults to UTF-8. Note that if an object claims to be encoded in X and we are outputting in X, we will output the object verbatim; this means that invalid sequences in the original commit may be copied to the output. Likewise, if iconv(3) fails to convert the commit, we will quietly output the original object verbatim. --expand-tabs=<n>, --expand-tabs, --no-expand-tabs Perform a tab expansion (replace each tab with enough spaces to fill to the next display column that is multiple of <n>) in the log message before showing it in the output. --expand-tabs is a short-hand for --expand-tabs=8, and --no-expand-tabs is a short-hand for --expand-tabs=0, which disables tab expansion. By default, tabs are expanded in pretty formats that indent the log message by 4 spaces (i.e. medium, which is the default, full, and fuller). --show-signature Check the validity of a signed commit object by passing the signature to gpg --verify and show the output. --relative-date Synonym for --date=relative. --date=<format> Only takes effect for dates shown in human-readable format, such as when using --pretty. log.date config variable sets a default value for the log command’s --date option. By default, dates are shown in the original time zone (either committer’s or author’s). If -local is appended to the format (e.g., iso-local), the user’s local time zone is used instead. --date=relative shows dates relative to the current time, e.g. “2 hours ago”. The -local option has no effect for --date=relative. --date=local is an alias for --date=default-local. --date=iso (or --date=iso8601) shows timestamps in a ISO 8601-like format. The differences to the strict ISO 8601 format are: • a space instead of the T date/time delimiter • a space between time and time zone • no colon between hours and minutes of the time zone --date=iso-strict (or --date=iso8601-strict) shows timestamps in strict ISO 8601 format. --date=rfc (or --date=rfc2822) shows timestamps in RFC 2822 format, often found in email messages. --date=short shows only the date, but not the time, in YYYY-MM-DD format. --date=raw shows the date as seconds since the epoch (1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC), followed by a space, and then the timezone as an offset from UTC (a + or - with four digits; the first two are hours, and the second two are minutes). I.e., as if the timestamp were formatted with strftime("%s %z")). Note that the -local option does not affect the seconds-since-epoch value (which is always measured in UTC), but does switch the accompanying timezone value. --date=human shows the timezone if the timezone does not match the current time-zone, and doesn’t print the whole date if that matches (ie skip printing year for dates that are "this year", but also skip the whole date itself if it’s in the last few days and we can just say what weekday it was). For older dates the hour and minute is also omitted. --date=unix shows the date as a Unix epoch timestamp (seconds since 1970). As with --raw, this is always in UTC and therefore -local has no effect. --date=format:... feeds the format ... to your system strftime, except for %s, %z, and %Z, which are handled internally. Use --date=format:%c to show the date in your system locale’s preferred format. See the strftime manual for a complete list of format placeholders. When using -local, the correct syntax is --date=format-local:.... --date=default is the default format, and is based on ctime(3) output. It shows a single line with three-letter day of the week, three-letter month, day-of-month, hour-minute-seconds in "HH:MM:SS" format, followed by 4-digit year, plus timezone information, unless the local time zone is used, e.g. Thu Jan 1 00:00:00 1970 +0000. --header Print the contents of the commit in raw-format; each record is separated with a NUL character. --no-commit-header Suppress the header line containing "commit" and the object ID printed before the specified format. This has no effect on the built-in formats; only custom formats are affected. --commit-header Overrides a previous --no-commit-header. --parents Print also the parents of the commit (in the form "commit parent..."). Also enables parent rewriting, see History Simplification above. --children Print also the children of the commit (in the form "commit child..."). Also enables parent rewriting, see History Simplification above. --timestamp Print the raw commit timestamp. --left-right Mark which side of a symmetric difference a commit is reachable from. Commits from the left side are prefixed with < and those from the right with >. If combined with --boundary, those commits are prefixed with -. For example, if you have this topology: y---b---b branch B / \ / / . / / \ o---x---a---a branch A you would get an output like this: $ git rev-list --left-right --boundary --pretty=oneline A...B >bbbbbbb... 3rd on b >bbbbbbb... 2nd on b <aaaaaaa... 3rd on a <aaaaaaa... 2nd on a -yyyyyyy... 1st on b -xxxxxxx... 1st on a --graph Draw a text-based graphical representation of the commit history on the left hand side of the output. This may cause extra lines to be printed in between commits, in order for the graph history to be drawn properly. Cannot be combined with --no-walk. This enables parent rewriting, see History Simplification above. This implies the --topo-order option by default, but the --date-order option may also be specified. --show-linear-break[=<barrier>] When --graph is not used, all history branches are flattened which can make it hard to see that the two consecutive commits do not belong to a linear branch. This option puts a barrier in between them in that case. If <barrier> is specified, it is the string that will be shown instead of the default one. --count Print a number stating how many commits would have been listed, and suppress all other output. When used together with --left-right, instead print the counts for left and right commits, separated by a tab. When used together with --cherry-mark, omit patch equivalent commits from these counts and print the count for equivalent commits separated by a tab. | # git rev-list
> List revisions (commits) in reverse chronological order. More information:
> https://git-scm.com/docs/git-rev-list.
* List all commits on the current branch:
`git rev-list {{HEAD}}`
* Print the latest commit that changed (add/edit/remove) a specific file on the current branch:
`git rev-list -n 1 HEAD -- {{path/to/file}}`
* List commits more recent than a specific date, on a specific branch:
`git rev-list --since={{'2019-12-01 00:00:00'}} {{branch_name}}`
* List all merge commits on a specific commit:
`git rev-list --merges {{commit}}`
* Print the number of commits since a specific tag:
`git rev-list {{tag_name}}..HEAD --count` |
lpr | lpr submits files for printing. Files named on the command line are sent to the named printer or the default destination if no destination is specified. If no files are listed on the command- line, lpr reads the print file from the standard input. THE DEFAULT DESTINATION CUPS provides many ways to set the default destination. The LPDEST and PRINTER environment variables are consulted first. If neither are set, the current default set using the lpoptions(1) command is used, followed by the default set using the lpadmin(8) command. The following options are recognized by lpr: -E Forces encryption when connecting to the server. -H server[:port] Specifies an alternate server. -C "name" -J "name" -T "name" Sets the job name/title. -P destination[/instance] Prints files to the named printer. -U username Specifies an alternate username. -# copies Sets the number of copies to print. -h Disables banner printing. This option is equivalent to -o job-sheets=none. -l Specifies that the print file is already formatted for the destination and should be sent without filtering. This option is equivalent to -o raw. -m Send an email on job completion. -o option[=value] Sets a job option. See "COMMON JOB OPTIONS" below. -p Specifies that the print file should be formatted with a shaded header with the date, time, job name, and page number. This option is equivalent to -o prettyprint and is only useful when printing text files. -q Hold job for printing. -r Specifies that the named print files should be deleted after submitting them. COMMON JOB OPTIONS Aside from the printer-specific options reported by the lpoptions(1) command, the following generic options are available: -o job-sheets=name Prints a cover page (banner) with the document. The "name" can be "classified", "confidential", "secret", "standard", "topsecret", or "unclassified". -o media=size Sets the page size to size. Most printers support at least the size names "a4", "letter", and "legal". -o number-up={2|4|6|9|16} Prints 2, 4, 6, 9, or 16 document (input) pages on each output page. -o orientation-requested=4 Prints the job in landscape (rotated 90 degrees counter- clockwise). -o orientation-requested=5 Prints the job in landscape (rotated 90 degrees clockwise). -o orientation-requested=6 Prints the job in reverse portrait (rotated 180 degrees). -o print-quality=3 -o print-quality=4 -o print-quality=5 Specifies the output quality - draft (3), normal (4), or best (5). -o sides=one-sided Prints on one side of the paper. -o sides=two-sided-long-edge Prints on both sides of the paper for portrait output. -o sides=two-sided-short-edge Prints on both sides of the paper for landscape output. | # lpr
> CUPS tool for printing files. See also: `lpstat` and `lpadmin`. More
> information: https://www.cups.org/doc/man-lpr.html.
* Print a file to the default printer:
`lpr {{path/to/file}}`
* Print 2 copies:
`lpr -# {{2}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Print to a named printer:
`lpr -P {{printer}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Print either a single page (e.g. 2) or a range of pages (e.g. 2–16):
`lpr -o page-ranges={{2|2-16}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Print double-sided either in portrait (long) or in landscape (short):
`lpr -o sides={{two-sided-long-edge|two-sided-short-edge}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Set page size (more options may be available depending on setup):
`lpr -o media={{a4|letter|legal}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Print multiple pages per sheet:
`lpr -o number-up={{2|4|6|9|16}} {{path/to/file}}` |
lp | lp submits files for printing or alters a pending job. Use a filename of "-" to force printing from the standard input. THE DEFAULT DESTINATION CUPS provides many ways to set the default destination. The LPDEST and PRINTER environment variables are consulted first. If neither are set, the current default set using the lpoptions(1) command is used, followed by the default set using the lpadmin(8) command. The following options are recognized by lp: -- Marks the end of options; use this to print a file whose name begins with a dash (-). -E Forces encryption when connecting to the server. -U username Specifies the username to use when connecting to the server. -c This option is provided for backwards-compatibility only. On systems that support it, this option forces the print file to be copied to the spool directory before printing. In CUPS, print files are always sent to the scheduler via IPP which has the same effect. -d destination Prints files to the named printer. -h hostname[:port] Chooses an alternate server. -i job-id Specifies an existing job to modify. -m Sends an email when the job is completed. -n copies Sets the number of copies to print. -o "name=value [ ... name=value ]" Sets one or more job options. See "COMMON JOB OPTIONS" below. -q priority Sets the job priority from 1 (lowest) to 100 (highest). The default priority is 50. -s Do not report the resulting job IDs (silent mode.) -t "name" Sets the job name. -H hh:mm -H hold -H immediate -H restart -H resume Specifies when the job should be printed. A value of immediate will print the file immediately, a value of hold will hold the job indefinitely, and a UTC time value (HH:MM) will hold the job until the specified UTC (not local) time. Use a value of resume with the -i option to resume a held job. Use a value of restart with the -i option to restart a completed job. -P page-list Specifies which pages to print in the document. The list can contain a list of numbers and ranges (#-#) separated by commas, e.g., "1,3-5,16". The page numbers refer to the output pages and not the document's original pages - options like "number-up" can affect the numbering of the pages. COMMON JOB OPTIONS Aside from the printer-specific options reported by the lpoptions(1) command, the following generic options are available: -o job-sheets=name Prints a cover page (banner) with the document. The "name" can be "classified", "confidential", "secret", "standard", "topsecret", or "unclassified". -o media=size Sets the page size to size. Most printers support at least the size names "a4", "letter", and "legal". -o number-up={2|4|6|9|16} Prints 2, 4, 6, 9, or 16 document (input) pages on each output page. -o orientation-requested=4 Prints the job in landscape (rotated 90 degrees counter- clockwise). -o orientation-requested=5 Prints the job in landscape (rotated 90 degrees clockwise). -o orientation-requested=6 Prints the job in reverse portrait (rotated 180 degrees). -o print-quality=3 -o print-quality=4 -o print-quality=5 Specifies the output quality - draft (3), normal (4), or best (5). -o sides=one-sided Prints on one side of the paper. -o sides=two-sided-long-edge Prints on both sides of the paper for portrait output. -o sides=two-sided-short-edge Prints on both sides of the paper for landscape output. | # lp
> Print files. More information: https://manned.org/lp.
* Print the output of a command to the default printer (see `lpstat` command):
`echo "test" | lp`
* Print a file to the default printer:
`lp {{path/to/filename}}`
* Print a file to a named printer (see `lpstat` command):
`lp -d {{printer_name}} {{path/to/filename}}`
* Print N copies of file to default printer (replace N with desired number of copies):
`lp -n {{N}} {{path/to/filename}}`
* Print only certain pages to the default printer (print pages 1, 3-5, and 16):
`lp -P 1,3-5,16 {{path/to/filename}}`
* Resume printing a job:
`lp -i {{job_id}} -H resume` |
uptime | Print the current time, the length of time the system has been up, the number of users on the system, and the average number of jobs in the run queue over the last 1, 5 and 15 minutes. Processes in an uninterruptible sleep state also contribute to the load average. If FILE is not specified, use /var/run/utmp. /var/log/wtmp as FILE is common. --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit | # uptime
> Tell how long the system has been running and other information. More
> information: https://ss64.com/osx/uptime.html.
* Print current time, uptime, number of logged-in users and other information:
`uptime` |
git-count-objects | This counts the number of unpacked object files and disk space consumed by them, to help you decide when it is a good time to repack. -v, --verbose Report in more detail: count: the number of loose objects size: disk space consumed by loose objects, in KiB (unless -H is specified) in-pack: the number of in-pack objects size-pack: disk space consumed by the packs, in KiB (unless -H is specified) prune-packable: the number of loose objects that are also present in the packs. These objects could be pruned using git prune-packed. garbage: the number of files in object database that are neither valid loose objects nor valid packs size-garbage: disk space consumed by garbage files, in KiB (unless -H is specified) alternate: absolute path of alternate object databases; may appear multiple times, one line per path. Note that if the path contains non-printable characters, it may be surrounded by double-quotes and contain C-style backslashed escape sequences. -H, --human-readable Print sizes in human readable format | # git count-objects
> Count the number of unpacked objects and their disk consumption. More
> information: https://git-scm.com/docs/git-count-objects.
* Count all objects and display the total disk usage:
`git count-objects`
* Display a count of all objects and their total disk usage, displaying sizes in human-readable units:
`git count-objects --human-readable`
* Display more verbose information:
`git count-objects --verbose`
* Display more verbose information, displaying sizes in human-readable units:
`git count-objects --human-readable --verbose` |
git-shortlog | Summarizes git log output in a format suitable for inclusion in release announcements. Each commit will be grouped by author and title. Additionally, "[PATCH]" will be stripped from the commit description. If no revisions are passed on the command line and either standard input is not a terminal or there is no current branch, git shortlog will output a summary of the log read from standard input, without reference to the current repository. -n, --numbered Sort output according to the number of commits per author instead of author alphabetic order. -s, --summary Suppress commit description and provide a commit count summary only. -e, --email Show the email address of each author. --format[=<format>] Instead of the commit subject, use some other information to describe each commit. <format> can be any string accepted by the --format option of git log, such as * [%h] %s. (See the "PRETTY FORMATS" section of git-log(1).) Each pretty-printed commit will be rewrapped before it is shown. --date=<format> Show dates formatted according to the given date string. (See the --date option in the "Commit Formatting" section of git-log(1)). Useful with --group=format:<format>. --group=<type> Group commits based on <type>. If no --group option is specified, the default is author. <type> is one of: • author, commits are grouped by author • committer, commits are grouped by committer (the same as -c) • trailer:<field>, the <field> is interpreted as a case-insensitive commit message trailer (see git-interpret-trailers(1)). For example, if your project uses Reviewed-by trailers, you might want to see who has been reviewing with git shortlog -ns --group=trailer:reviewed-by. • format:<format>, any string accepted by the --format option of git log. (See the "PRETTY FORMATS" section of git-log(1).) Note that commits that do not include the trailer will not be counted. Likewise, commits with multiple trailers (e.g., multiple signoffs) may be counted more than once (but only once per unique trailer value in that commit). Shortlog will attempt to parse each trailer value as a name <email> identity. If successful, the mailmap is applied and the email is omitted unless the --email option is specified. If the value cannot be parsed as an identity, it will be taken literally and completely. If --group is specified multiple times, commits are counted under each value (but again, only once per unique value in that commit). For example, git shortlog --group=author --group=trailer:co-authored-by counts both authors and co-authors. -c, --committer This is an alias for --group=committer. -w[<width>[,<indent1>[,<indent2>]]] Linewrap the output by wrapping each line at width. The first line of each entry is indented by indent1 spaces, and the second and subsequent lines are indented by indent2 spaces. width, indent1, and indent2 default to 76, 6 and 9 respectively. If width is 0 (zero) then indent the lines of the output without wrapping them. <revision-range> Show only commits in the specified revision range. When no <revision-range> is specified, it defaults to HEAD (i.e. the whole history leading to the current commit). origin..HEAD specifies all the commits reachable from the current commit (i.e. HEAD), but not from origin. For a complete list of ways to spell <revision-range>, see the "Specifying Ranges" section of gitrevisions(7). [--] <path>... Consider only commits that are enough to explain how the files that match the specified paths came to be. Paths may need to be prefixed with -- to separate them from options or the revision range, when confusion arises. Commit Limiting Besides specifying a range of commits that should be listed using the special notations explained in the description, additional commit limiting may be applied. Using more options generally further limits the output (e.g. --since=<date1> limits to commits newer than <date1>, and using it with --grep=<pattern> further limits to commits whose log message has a line that matches <pattern>), unless otherwise noted. Note that these are applied before commit ordering and formatting options, such as --reverse. -<number>, -n <number>, --max-count=<number> Limit the number of commits to output. --skip=<number> Skip number commits before starting to show the commit output. --since=<date>, --after=<date> Show commits more recent than a specific date. --since-as-filter=<date> Show all commits more recent than a specific date. This visits all commits in the range, rather than stopping at the first commit which is older than a specific date. --until=<date>, --before=<date> Show commits older than a specific date. --author=<pattern>, --committer=<pattern> Limit the commits output to ones with author/committer header lines that match the specified pattern (regular expression). With more than one --author=<pattern>, commits whose author matches any of the given patterns are chosen (similarly for multiple --committer=<pattern>). --grep-reflog=<pattern> Limit the commits output to ones with reflog entries that match the specified pattern (regular expression). With more than one --grep-reflog, commits whose reflog message matches any of the given patterns are chosen. It is an error to use this option unless --walk-reflogs is in use. --grep=<pattern> Limit the commits output to ones with log message that matches the specified pattern (regular expression). With more than one --grep=<pattern>, commits whose message matches any of the given patterns are chosen (but see --all-match). When --notes is in effect, the message from the notes is matched as if it were part of the log message. --all-match Limit the commits output to ones that match all given --grep, instead of ones that match at least one. --invert-grep Limit the commits output to ones with log message that do not match the pattern specified with --grep=<pattern>. -i, --regexp-ignore-case Match the regular expression limiting patterns without regard to letter case. --basic-regexp Consider the limiting patterns to be basic regular expressions; this is the default. -E, --extended-regexp Consider the limiting patterns to be extended regular expressions instead of the default basic regular expressions. -F, --fixed-strings Consider the limiting patterns to be fixed strings (don’t interpret pattern as a regular expression). -P, --perl-regexp Consider the limiting patterns to be Perl-compatible regular expressions. Support for these types of regular expressions is an optional compile-time dependency. If Git wasn’t compiled with support for them providing this option will cause it to die. --remove-empty Stop when a given path disappears from the tree. --merges Print only merge commits. This is exactly the same as --min-parents=2. --no-merges Do not print commits with more than one parent. This is exactly the same as --max-parents=1. --min-parents=<number>, --max-parents=<number>, --no-min-parents, --no-max-parents Show only commits which have at least (or at most) that many parent commits. In particular, --max-parents=1 is the same as --no-merges, --min-parents=2 is the same as --merges. --max-parents=0 gives all root commits and --min-parents=3 all octopus merges. --no-min-parents and --no-max-parents reset these limits (to no limit) again. Equivalent forms are --min-parents=0 (any commit has 0 or more parents) and --max-parents=-1 (negative numbers denote no upper limit). --first-parent When finding commits to include, follow only the first parent commit upon seeing a merge commit. This option can give a better overview when viewing the evolution of a particular topic branch, because merges into a topic branch tend to be only about adjusting to updated upstream from time to time, and this option allows you to ignore the individual commits brought in to your history by such a merge. --exclude-first-parent-only When finding commits to exclude (with a ^), follow only the first parent commit upon seeing a merge commit. This can be used to find the set of changes in a topic branch from the point where it diverged from the remote branch, given that arbitrary merges can be valid topic branch changes. --not Reverses the meaning of the ^ prefix (or lack thereof) for all following revision specifiers, up to the next --not. --all Pretend as if all the refs in refs/, along with HEAD, are listed on the command line as <commit>. --branches[=<pattern>] Pretend as if all the refs in refs/heads are listed on the command line as <commit>. If <pattern> is given, limit branches to ones matching given shell glob. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --tags[=<pattern>] Pretend as if all the refs in refs/tags are listed on the command line as <commit>. If <pattern> is given, limit tags to ones matching given shell glob. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --remotes[=<pattern>] Pretend as if all the refs in refs/remotes are listed on the command line as <commit>. If <pattern> is given, limit remote-tracking branches to ones matching given shell glob. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --glob=<glob-pattern> Pretend as if all the refs matching shell glob <glob-pattern> are listed on the command line as <commit>. Leading refs/, is automatically prepended if missing. If pattern lacks ?, *, or [, /* at the end is implied. --exclude=<glob-pattern> Do not include refs matching <glob-pattern> that the next --all, --branches, --tags, --remotes, or --glob would otherwise consider. Repetitions of this option accumulate exclusion patterns up to the next --all, --branches, --tags, --remotes, or --glob option (other options or arguments do not clear accumulated patterns). The patterns given should not begin with refs/heads, refs/tags, or refs/remotes when applied to --branches, --tags, or --remotes, respectively, and they must begin with refs/ when applied to --glob or --all. If a trailing /* is intended, it must be given explicitly. --exclude-hidden=[fetch|receive|uploadpack] Do not include refs that would be hidden by git-fetch, git-receive-pack or git-upload-pack by consulting the appropriate fetch.hideRefs, receive.hideRefs or uploadpack.hideRefs configuration along with transfer.hideRefs (see git-config(1)). This option affects the next pseudo-ref option --all or --glob and is cleared after processing them. --reflog Pretend as if all objects mentioned by reflogs are listed on the command line as <commit>. --alternate-refs Pretend as if all objects mentioned as ref tips of alternate repositories were listed on the command line. An alternate repository is any repository whose object directory is specified in objects/info/alternates. The set of included objects may be modified by core.alternateRefsCommand, etc. See git-config(1). --single-worktree By default, all working trees will be examined by the following options when there are more than one (see git-worktree(1)): --all, --reflog and --indexed-objects. This option forces them to examine the current working tree only. --ignore-missing Upon seeing an invalid object name in the input, pretend as if the bad input was not given. --bisect Pretend as if the bad bisection ref refs/bisect/bad was listed and as if it was followed by --not and the good bisection refs refs/bisect/good-* on the command line. --stdin In addition to the <commit> listed on the command line, read them from the standard input. If a -- separator is seen, stop reading commits and start reading paths to limit the result. --cherry-mark Like --cherry-pick (see below) but mark equivalent commits with = rather than omitting them, and inequivalent ones with +. --cherry-pick Omit any commit that introduces the same change as another commit on the “other side” when the set of commits are limited with symmetric difference. For example, if you have two branches, A and B, a usual way to list all commits on only one side of them is with --left-right (see the example below in the description of the --left-right option). However, it shows the commits that were cherry-picked from the other branch (for example, “3rd on b” may be cherry-picked from branch A). With this option, such pairs of commits are excluded from the output. --left-only, --right-only List only commits on the respective side of a symmetric difference, i.e. only those which would be marked < resp. > by --left-right. For example, --cherry-pick --right-only A...B omits those commits from B which are in A or are patch-equivalent to a commit in A. In other words, this lists the + commits from git cherry A B. More precisely, --cherry-pick --right-only --no-merges gives the exact list. --cherry A synonym for --right-only --cherry-mark --no-merges; useful to limit the output to the commits on our side and mark those that have been applied to the other side of a forked history with git log --cherry upstream...mybranch, similar to git cherry upstream mybranch. -g, --walk-reflogs Instead of walking the commit ancestry chain, walk reflog entries from the most recent one to older ones. When this option is used you cannot specify commits to exclude (that is, ^commit, commit1..commit2, and commit1...commit2 notations cannot be used). With --pretty format other than oneline and reference (for obvious reasons), this causes the output to have two extra lines of information taken from the reflog. The reflog designator in the output may be shown as ref@{Nth} (where Nth is the reverse-chronological index in the reflog) or as ref@{timestamp} (with the timestamp for that entry), depending on a few rules: 1. If the starting point is specified as ref@{Nth}, show the index format. 2. If the starting point was specified as ref@{now}, show the timestamp format. 3. If neither was used, but --date was given on the command line, show the timestamp in the format requested by --date. 4. Otherwise, show the index format. Under --pretty=oneline, the commit message is prefixed with this information on the same line. This option cannot be combined with --reverse. See also git-reflog(1). Under --pretty=reference, this information will not be shown at all. --merge After a failed merge, show refs that touch files having a conflict and don’t exist on all heads to merge. --boundary Output excluded boundary commits. Boundary commits are prefixed with -. History Simplification Sometimes you are only interested in parts of the history, for example the commits modifying a particular <path>. But there are two parts of History Simplification, one part is selecting the commits and the other is how to do it, as there are various strategies to simplify the history. The following options select the commits to be shown: <paths> Commits modifying the given <paths> are selected. --simplify-by-decoration Commits that are referred by some branch or tag are selected. Note that extra commits can be shown to give a meaningful history. The following options affect the way the simplification is performed: Default mode Simplifies the history to the simplest history explaining the final state of the tree. Simplest because it prunes some side branches if the end result is the same (i.e. merging branches with the same content) --show-pulls Include all commits from the default mode, but also any merge commits that are not TREESAME to the first parent but are TREESAME to a later parent. This mode is helpful for showing the merge commits that "first introduced" a change to a branch. --full-history Same as the default mode, but does not prune some history. --dense Only the selected commits are shown, plus some to have a meaningful history. --sparse All commits in the simplified history are shown. --simplify-merges Additional option to --full-history to remove some needless merges from the resulting history, as there are no selected commits contributing to this merge. --ancestry-path[=<commit>] When given a range of commits to display (e.g. commit1..commit2 or commit2 ^commit1), only display commits in that range that are ancestors of <commit>, descendants of <commit>, or <commit> itself. If no commit is specified, use commit1 (the excluded part of the range) as <commit>. Can be passed multiple times; if so, a commit is included if it is any of the commits given or if it is an ancestor or descendant of one of them. A more detailed explanation follows. Suppose you specified foo as the <paths>. We shall call commits that modify foo !TREESAME, and the rest TREESAME. (In a diff filtered for foo, they look different and equal, respectively.) In the following, we will always refer to the same example history to illustrate the differences between simplification settings. We assume that you are filtering for a file foo in this commit graph: .-A---M---N---O---P---Q / / / / / / I B C D E Y \ / / / / / `-------------' X The horizontal line of history A---Q is taken to be the first parent of each merge. The commits are: • I is the initial commit, in which foo exists with contents “asdf”, and a file quux exists with contents “quux”. Initial commits are compared to an empty tree, so I is !TREESAME. • In A, foo contains just “foo”. • B contains the same change as A. Its merge M is trivial and hence TREESAME to all parents. • C does not change foo, but its merge N changes it to “foobar”, so it is not TREESAME to any parent. • D sets foo to “baz”. Its merge O combines the strings from N and D to “foobarbaz”; i.e., it is not TREESAME to any parent. • E changes quux to “xyzzy”, and its merge P combines the strings to “quux xyzzy”. P is TREESAME to O, but not to E. • X is an independent root commit that added a new file side, and Y modified it. Y is TREESAME to X. Its merge Q added side to P, and Q is TREESAME to P, but not to Y. rev-list walks backwards through history, including or excluding commits based on whether --full-history and/or parent rewriting (via --parents or --children) are used. The following settings are available. Default mode Commits are included if they are not TREESAME to any parent (though this can be changed, see --sparse below). If the commit was a merge, and it was TREESAME to one parent, follow only that parent. (Even if there are several TREESAME parents, follow only one of them.) Otherwise, follow all parents. This results in: .-A---N---O / / / I---------D Note how the rule to only follow the TREESAME parent, if one is available, removed B from consideration entirely. C was considered via N, but is TREESAME. Root commits are compared to an empty tree, so I is !TREESAME. Parent/child relations are only visible with --parents, but that does not affect the commits selected in default mode, so we have shown the parent lines. --full-history without parent rewriting This mode differs from the default in one point: always follow all parents of a merge, even if it is TREESAME to one of them. Even if more than one side of the merge has commits that are included, this does not imply that the merge itself is! In the example, we get I A B N D O P Q M was excluded because it is TREESAME to both parents. E, C and B were all walked, but only B was !TREESAME, so the others do not appear. Note that without parent rewriting, it is not really possible to talk about the parent/child relationships between the commits, so we show them disconnected. --full-history with parent rewriting Ordinary commits are only included if they are !TREESAME (though this can be changed, see --sparse below). Merges are always included. However, their parent list is rewritten: Along each parent, prune away commits that are not included themselves. This results in .-A---M---N---O---P---Q / / / / / I B / D / \ / / / / `-------------' Compare to --full-history without rewriting above. Note that E was pruned away because it is TREESAME, but the parent list of P was rewritten to contain E's parent I. The same happened for C and N, and X, Y and Q. In addition to the above settings, you can change whether TREESAME affects inclusion: --dense Commits that are walked are included if they are not TREESAME to any parent. --sparse All commits that are walked are included. Note that without --full-history, this still simplifies merges: if one of the parents is TREESAME, we follow only that one, so the other sides of the merge are never walked. --simplify-merges First, build a history graph in the same way that --full-history with parent rewriting does (see above). Then simplify each commit C to its replacement C' in the final history according to the following rules: • Set C' to C. • Replace each parent P of C' with its simplification P'. In the process, drop parents that are ancestors of other parents or that are root commits TREESAME to an empty tree, and remove duplicates, but take care to never drop all parents that we are TREESAME to. • If after this parent rewriting, C' is a root or merge commit (has zero or >1 parents), a boundary commit, or !TREESAME, it remains. Otherwise, it is replaced with its only parent. The effect of this is best shown by way of comparing to --full-history with parent rewriting. The example turns into: .-A---M---N---O / / / I B D \ / / `---------' Note the major differences in N, P, and Q over --full-history: • N's parent list had I removed, because it is an ancestor of the other parent M. Still, N remained because it is !TREESAME. • P's parent list similarly had I removed. P was then removed completely, because it had one parent and is TREESAME. • Q's parent list had Y simplified to X. X was then removed, because it was a TREESAME root. Q was then removed completely, because it had one parent and is TREESAME. There is another simplification mode available: --ancestry-path[=<commit>] Limit the displayed commits to those which are an ancestor of <commit>, or which are a descendant of <commit>, or are <commit> itself. As an example use case, consider the following commit history: D---E-------F / \ \ B---C---G---H---I---J / \ A-------K---------------L--M A regular D..M computes the set of commits that are ancestors of M, but excludes the ones that are ancestors of D. This is useful to see what happened to the history leading to M since D, in the sense that “what does M have that did not exist in D”. The result in this example would be all the commits, except A and B (and D itself, of course). When we want to find out what commits in M are contaminated with the bug introduced by D and need fixing, however, we might want to view only the subset of D..M that are actually descendants of D, i.e. excluding C and K. This is exactly what the --ancestry-path option does. Applied to the D..M range, it results in: E-------F \ \ G---H---I---J \ L--M We can also use --ancestry-path=D instead of --ancestry-path which means the same thing when applied to the D..M range but is just more explicit. If we instead are interested in a given topic within this range, and all commits affected by that topic, we may only want to view the subset of D..M which contain that topic in their ancestry path. So, using --ancestry-path=H D..M for example would result in: E \ G---H---I---J \ L--M Whereas --ancestry-path=K D..M would result in K---------------L--M Before discussing another option, --show-pulls, we need to create a new example history. A common problem users face when looking at simplified history is that a commit they know changed a file somehow does not appear in the file’s simplified history. Let’s demonstrate a new example and show how options such as --full-history and --simplify-merges works in that case: .-A---M-----C--N---O---P / / \ \ \/ / / I B \ R-'`-Z' / \ / \/ / \ / /\ / `---X--' `---Y--' For this example, suppose I created file.txt which was modified by A, B, and X in different ways. The single-parent commits C, Z, and Y do not change file.txt. The merge commit M was created by resolving the merge conflict to include both changes from A and B and hence is not TREESAME to either. The merge commit R, however, was created by ignoring the contents of file.txt at M and taking only the contents of file.txt at X. Hence, R is TREESAME to X but not M. Finally, the natural merge resolution to create N is to take the contents of file.txt at R, so N is TREESAME to R but not C. The merge commits O and P are TREESAME to their first parents, but not to their second parents, Z and Y respectively. When using the default mode, N and R both have a TREESAME parent, so those edges are walked and the others are ignored. The resulting history graph is: I---X When using --full-history, Git walks every edge. This will discover the commits A and B and the merge M, but also will reveal the merge commits O and P. With parent rewriting, the resulting graph is: .-A---M--------N---O---P / / \ \ \/ / / I B \ R-'`--' / \ / \/ / \ / /\ / `---X--' `------' Here, the merge commits O and P contribute extra noise, as they did not actually contribute a change to file.txt. They only merged a topic that was based on an older version of file.txt. This is a common issue in repositories using a workflow where many contributors work in parallel and merge their topic branches along a single trunk: many unrelated merges appear in the --full-history results. When using the --simplify-merges option, the commits O and P disappear from the results. This is because the rewritten second parents of O and P are reachable from their first parents. Those edges are removed and then the commits look like single-parent commits that are TREESAME to their parent. This also happens to the commit N, resulting in a history view as follows: .-A---M--. / / \ I B R \ / / \ / / `---X--' In this view, we see all of the important single-parent changes from A, B, and X. We also see the carefully-resolved merge M and the not-so-carefully-resolved merge R. This is usually enough information to determine why the commits A and B "disappeared" from history in the default view. However, there are a few issues with this approach. The first issue is performance. Unlike any previous option, the --simplify-merges option requires walking the entire commit history before returning a single result. This can make the option difficult to use for very large repositories. The second issue is one of auditing. When many contributors are working on the same repository, it is important which merge commits introduced a change into an important branch. The problematic merge R above is not likely to be the merge commit that was used to merge into an important branch. Instead, the merge N was used to merge R and X into the important branch. This commit may have information about why the change X came to override the changes from A and B in its commit message. --show-pulls In addition to the commits shown in the default history, show each merge commit that is not TREESAME to its first parent but is TREESAME to a later parent. When a merge commit is included by --show-pulls, the merge is treated as if it "pulled" the change from another branch. When using --show-pulls on this example (and no other options) the resulting graph is: I---X---R---N Here, the merge commits R and N are included because they pulled the commits X and R into the base branch, respectively. These merges are the reason the commits A and B do not appear in the default history. When --show-pulls is paired with --simplify-merges, the graph includes all of the necessary information: .-A---M--. N / / \ / I B R \ / / \ / / `---X--' Notice that since M is reachable from R, the edge from N to M was simplified away. However, N still appears in the history as an important commit because it "pulled" the change R into the main branch. The --simplify-by-decoration option allows you to view only the big picture of the topology of the history, by omitting commits that are not referenced by tags. Commits are marked as !TREESAME (in other words, kept after history simplification rules described above) if (1) they are referenced by tags, or (2) they change the contents of the paths given on the command line. All other commits are marked as TREESAME (subject to be simplified away). | # git shortlog
> Summarizes the `git log` output. More information: https://git-
> scm.com/docs/git-shortlog.
* View a summary of all the commits made, grouped alphabetically by author name:
`git shortlog`
* View a summary of all the commits made, sorted by the number of commits made:
`git shortlog -n`
* View a summary of all the commits made, grouped by the committer identities (name and email):
`git shortlog -c`
* View a summary of the last 5 commits (i.e. specify a revision range):
`git shortlog HEAD~{{5}}..HEAD`
* View all users, emails and the number of commits in the current branch:
`git shortlog -sne`
* View all users, emails and the number of commits in all branches:
`git shortlog -sne --all` |
pv | pv shows the progress of data through a pipeline by giving information such as time elapsed, percentage completed (with progress bar), current throughput rate, total data transferred, and ETA. To use it, insert it in a pipeline between two processes, with the appropriate options. Its standard input will be passed through to its standard output and progress will be shown on standard error. pv will copy each supplied FILE in turn to standard output (- means standard input), or if no FILEs are specified just standard input is copied. This is the same behaviour as cat(1). A simple example to watch how quickly a file is transferred using nc(1): pv file | nc -w 1 somewhere.com 3000 A similar example, transferring a file from another process and passing the expected size to pv: cat file | pv -s 12345 | nc -w 1 somewhere.com 3000 A more complicated example using numeric output to feed into the dialog(1) program for a full-screen progress display: (tar cf - . \ | pv -n -s $(du -sb . | awk '{print $1}') \ | gzip -9 > out.tgz) 2>&1 \ | dialog --gauge 'Progress' 7 70 Taking an image of a disk, skipping errors: pv -EE /dev/your/disk/device > disk-image.img Writing an image back to a disk: pv disk-image.img > /dev/your/disk/device Zeroing a disk: pv < /dev/zero > /dev/your/disk/device Note that if the input size cannot be calculated, and the output is a block device, then the size of the block device will be used and pv will automatically stop at that size as if -S had been given. (Linux only): Watching file descriptor 3 opened by another process 1234: pv -d 1234:3 (Linux only): Watching all file descriptors used by process 1234: pv -d 1234 pv takes many options, which are divided into display switches, output modifiers, and general options. | # pv
> Monitor the progress of data through a pipe. More information:
> https://manned.org/pv.
* Print the contents of the file and display a progress bar:
`pv {{path/to/file}}`
* Measure the speed and amount of data flow between pipes (`--size` is optional):
`command1 | pv --size {{expected_amount_of_data_for_eta}} | command2`
* Filter a file, see both progress and amount of output data:
`pv -cN in {{big_text_file}} | grep {{pattern}} | pv -cN out >
{{filtered_file}}`
* Attach to an already running process and see its file reading progress:
`pv -d {{PID}}`
* Read an erroneous file, skip errors as `dd conv=sync,noerror` would:
`pv -EE {{path/to/faulty_media}} > image.img`
* Stop reading after reading specified amount of data, rate limit to 1K/s:
`pv -L 1K --stop-at --size {{maximum_file_size_to_be_read}}` |
nl | Write each FILE to standard output, with line numbers added. With no FILE, or when FILE is -, read standard input. Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options too. -b, --body-numbering=STYLE use STYLE for numbering body lines -d, --section-delimiter=CC use CC for logical page delimiters -f, --footer-numbering=STYLE use STYLE for numbering footer lines -h, --header-numbering=STYLE use STYLE for numbering header lines -i, --line-increment=NUMBER line number increment at each line -l, --join-blank-lines=NUMBER group of NUMBER empty lines counted as one -n, --number-format=FORMAT insert line numbers according to FORMAT -p, --no-renumber do not reset line numbers for each section -s, --number-separator=STRING add STRING after (possible) line number -v, --starting-line-number=NUMBER first line number for each section -w, --number-width=NUMBER use NUMBER columns for line numbers --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit Default options are: -bt -d'\:' -fn -hn -i1 -l1 -n'rn' -s<TAB> -v1 -w6 CC are two delimiter characters used to construct logical page delimiters; a missing second character implies ':'. As a GNU extension one can specify more than two characters, and also specifying the empty string (-d '') disables section matching. STYLE is one of: a number all lines t number only nonempty lines n number no lines pBRE number only lines that contain a match for the basic regular expression, BRE FORMAT is one of: ln left justified, no leading zeros rn right justified, no leading zeros rz right justified, leading zeros | # nl
> A utility for numbering lines, either from a file, or from `stdin`. More
> information: https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/nl.
* Number non-blank lines in a file:
`nl {{path/to/file}}`
* Read from `stdout`:
`cat {{path/to/file}} | nl {{options}} -`
* Number only the lines with printable text:
`nl -t {{path/to/file}}`
* Number all lines including blank lines:
`nl -b a {{path/to/file}}`
* Number only the body lines that match a basic regular expression (BRE) pattern:
`nl -b p'FooBar[0-9]' {{path/to/file}}` |
git-svn | git svn is a simple conduit for changesets between Subversion and Git. It provides a bidirectional flow of changes between a Subversion and a Git repository. git svn can track a standard Subversion repository, following the common "trunk/branches/tags" layout, with the --stdlayout option. It can also follow branches and tags in any layout with the -T/-t/-b options (see options to init below, and also the clone command). Once tracking a Subversion repository (with any of the above methods), the Git repository can be updated from Subversion by the fetch command and Subversion updated from Git by the dcommit command. --shared[=(false|true|umask|group|all|world|everybody)], --template=<template-directory> Only used with the init command. These are passed directly to git init. -r <arg>, --revision <arg> Used with the fetch command. This allows revision ranges for partial/cauterized history to be supported. $NUMBER, $NUMBER1:$NUMBER2 (numeric ranges), $NUMBER:HEAD, and BASE:$NUMBER are all supported. This can allow you to make partial mirrors when running fetch; but is generally not recommended because history will be skipped and lost. -, --stdin Only used with the set-tree command. Read a list of commits from stdin and commit them in reverse order. Only the leading sha1 is read from each line, so git rev-list --pretty=oneline output can be used. --rmdir Only used with the dcommit, set-tree and commit-diff commands. Remove directories from the SVN tree if there are no files left behind. SVN can version empty directories, and they are not removed by default if there are no files left in them. Git cannot version empty directories. Enabling this flag will make the commit to SVN act like Git. config key: svn.rmdir -e, --edit Only used with the dcommit, set-tree and commit-diff commands. Edit the commit message before committing to SVN. This is off by default for objects that are commits, and forced on when committing tree objects. config key: svn.edit -l<num>, --find-copies-harder Only used with the dcommit, set-tree and commit-diff commands. They are both passed directly to git diff-tree; see git-diff-tree(1) for more information. config key: svn.l config key: svn.findcopiesharder -A<filename>, --authors-file=<filename> Syntax is compatible with the file used by git cvsimport but an empty email address can be supplied with <>: loginname = Joe User <user@example.com> If this option is specified and git svn encounters an SVN committer name that does not exist in the authors-file, git svn will abort operation. The user will then have to add the appropriate entry. Re-running the previous git svn command after the authors-file is modified should continue operation. config key: svn.authorsfile --authors-prog=<filename> If this option is specified, for each SVN committer name that does not exist in the authors file, the given file is executed with the committer name as the first argument. The program is expected to return a single line of the form "Name <email>" or "Name <>", which will be treated as if included in the authors file. Due to historical reasons a relative filename is first searched relative to the current directory for init and clone and relative to the root of the working tree for fetch. If filename is not found, it is searched like any other command in $PATH. config key: svn.authorsProg -q, --quiet Make git svn less verbose. Specify a second time to make it even less verbose. -m, --merge, -s<strategy>, --strategy=<strategy>, -p, --rebase-merges These are only used with the dcommit and rebase commands. Passed directly to git rebase when using dcommit if a git reset cannot be used (see dcommit). -n, --dry-run This can be used with the dcommit, rebase, branch and tag commands. For dcommit, print out the series of Git arguments that would show which diffs would be committed to SVN. For rebase, display the local branch associated with the upstream svn repository associated with the current branch and the URL of svn repository that will be fetched from. For branch and tag, display the urls that will be used for copying when creating the branch or tag. --use-log-author When retrieving svn commits into Git (as part of fetch, rebase, or dcommit operations), look for the first From: line or Signed-off-by trailer in the log message and use that as the author string. config key: svn.useLogAuthor --add-author-from When committing to svn from Git (as part of set-tree or dcommit operations), if the existing log message doesn’t already have a From: or Signed-off-by trailer, append a From: line based on the Git commit’s author string. If you use this, then --use-log-author will retrieve a valid author string for all commits. config key: svn.addAuthorFrom | # git svn
> Bidirectional operation between a Subversion repository and Git. More
> information: https://git-scm.com/docs/git-svn.
* Clone an SVN repository:
`git svn clone {{https://example.com/subversion_repo}} {{local_dir}}`
* Clone an SVN repository starting at a given revision number:
`git svn clone -r{{1234}}:HEAD {{https://svn.example.net/subversion/repo}}
{{local_dir}}`
* Update local clone from the remote SVN repository:
`git svn rebase`
* Fetch updates from the remote SVN repository without changing the Git HEAD:
`git svn fetch`
* Commit back to the SVN repository:
`git svn dcommit` |
grep | grep searches for PATTERNS in each FILE. PATTERNS is one or more patterns separated by newline characters, and grep prints each line that matches a pattern. Typically PATTERNS should be quoted when grep is used in a shell command. A FILE of “-” stands for standard input. If no FILE is given, recursive searches examine the working directory, and nonrecursive searches read standard input. Generic Program Information --help Output a usage message and exit. -V, --version Output the version number of grep and exit. Pattern Syntax -E, --extended-regexp Interpret PATTERNS as extended regular expressions (EREs, see below). -F, --fixed-strings Interpret PATTERNS as fixed strings, not regular expressions. -G, --basic-regexp Interpret PATTERNS as basic regular expressions (BREs, see below). This is the default. -P, --perl-regexp Interpret PATTERNS as Perl-compatible regular expressions (PCREs). This option is experimental when combined with the -z (--null-data) option, and grep -P may warn of unimplemented features. Matching Control -e PATTERNS, --regexp=PATTERNS Use PATTERNS as the patterns. If this option is used multiple times or is combined with the -f (--file) option, search for all patterns given. This option can be used to protect a pattern beginning with “-”. -f FILE, --file=FILE Obtain patterns from FILE, one per line. If this option is used multiple times or is combined with the -e (--regexp) option, search for all patterns given. The empty file contains zero patterns, and therefore matches nothing. If FILE is - , read patterns from standard input. -i, --ignore-case Ignore case distinctions in patterns and input data, so that characters that differ only in case match each other. --no-ignore-case Do not ignore case distinctions in patterns and input data. This is the default. This option is useful for passing to shell scripts that already use -i, to cancel its effects because the two options override each other. -v, --invert-match Invert the sense of matching, to select non-matching lines. -w, --word-regexp Select only those lines containing matches that form whole words. The test is that the matching substring must either be at the beginning of the line, or preceded by a non-word constituent character. Similarly, it must be either at the end of the line or followed by a non-word constituent character. Word-constituent characters are letters, digits, and the underscore. This option has no effect if -x is also specified. -x, --line-regexp Select only those matches that exactly match the whole line. For a regular expression pattern, this is like parenthesizing the pattern and then surrounding it with ^ and $. General Output Control -c, --count Suppress normal output; instead print a count of matching lines for each input file. With the -v, --invert-match option (see above), count non-matching lines. --color[=WHEN], --colour[=WHEN] Surround the matched (non-empty) strings, matching lines, context lines, file names, line numbers, byte offsets, and separators (for fields and groups of context lines) with escape sequences to display them in color on the terminal. The colors are defined by the environment variable GREP_COLORS. WHEN is never, always, or auto. -L, --files-without-match Suppress normal output; instead print the name of each input file from which no output would normally have been printed. -l, --files-with-matches Suppress normal output; instead print the name of each input file from which output would normally have been printed. Scanning each input file stops upon first match. -m NUM, --max-count=NUM Stop reading a file after NUM matching lines. If NUM is zero, grep stops right away without reading input. A NUM of -1 is treated as infinity and grep does not stop; this is the default. If the input is standard input from a regular file, and NUM matching lines are output, grep ensures that the standard input is positioned to just after the last matching line before exiting, regardless of the presence of trailing context lines. This enables a calling process to resume a search. When grep stops after NUM matching lines, it outputs any trailing context lines. When the -c or --count option is also used, grep does not output a count greater than NUM. When the -v or --invert-match option is also used, grep stops after outputting NUM non-matching lines. -o, --only-matching Print only the matched (non-empty) parts of a matching line, with each such part on a separate output line. -q, --quiet, --silent Quiet; do not write anything to standard output. Exit immediately with zero status if any match is found, even if an error was detected. Also see the -s or --no-messages option. -s, --no-messages Suppress error messages about nonexistent or unreadable files. Output Line Prefix Control -b, --byte-offset Print the 0-based byte offset within the input file before each line of output. If -o (--only-matching) is specified, print the offset of the matching part itself. -H, --with-filename Print the file name for each match. This is the default when there is more than one file to search. This is a GNU extension. -h, --no-filename Suppress the prefixing of file names on output. This is the default when there is only one file (or only standard input) to search. --label=LABEL Display input actually coming from standard input as input coming from file LABEL. This can be useful for commands that transform a file's contents before searching, e.g., gzip -cd foo.gz | grep --label=foo -H 'some pattern'. See also the -H option. -n, --line-number Prefix each line of output with the 1-based line number within its input file. -T, --initial-tab Make sure that the first character of actual line content lies on a tab stop, so that the alignment of tabs looks normal. This is useful with options that prefix their output to the actual content: -H,-n, and -b. In order to improve the probability that lines from a single file will all start at the same column, this also causes the line number and byte offset (if present) to be printed in a minimum size field width. -Z, --null Output a zero byte (the ASCII NUL character) instead of the character that normally follows a file name. For example, grep -lZ outputs a zero byte after each file name instead of the usual newline. This option makes the output unambiguous, even in the presence of file names containing unusual characters like newlines. This option can be used with commands like find -print0, perl -0, sort -z, and xargs -0 to process arbitrary file names, even those that contain newline characters. Context Line Control -A NUM, --after-context=NUM Print NUM lines of trailing context after matching lines. Places a line containing a group separator (--) between contiguous groups of matches. With the -o or --only-matching option, this has no effect and a warning is given. -B NUM, --before-context=NUM Print NUM lines of leading context before matching lines. Places a line containing a group separator (--) between contiguous groups of matches. With the -o or --only-matching option, this has no effect and a warning is given. -C NUM, -NUM, --context=NUM Print NUM lines of output context. Places a line containing a group separator (--) between contiguous groups of matches. With the -o or --only-matching option, this has no effect and a warning is given. --group-separator=SEP When -A, -B, or -C are in use, print SEP instead of -- between groups of lines. --no-group-separator When -A, -B, or -C are in use, do not print a separator between groups of lines. File and Directory Selection -a, --text Process a binary file as if it were text; this is equivalent to the --binary-files=text option. --binary-files=TYPE If a file's data or metadata indicate that the file contains binary data, assume that the file is of type TYPE. Non-text bytes indicate binary data; these are either output bytes that are improperly encoded for the current locale, or null input bytes when the -z option is not given. By default, TYPE is binary, and grep suppresses output after null input binary data is discovered, and suppresses output lines that contain improperly encoded data. When some output is suppressed, grep follows any output with a message to standard error saying that a binary file matches. If TYPE is without-match, when grep discovers null input binary data it assumes that the rest of the file does not match; this is equivalent to the -I option. If TYPE is text, grep processes a binary file as if it were text; this is equivalent to the -a option. When type is binary, grep may treat non-text bytes as line terminators even without the -z option. This means choosing binary versus text can affect whether a pattern matches a file. For example, when type is binary the pattern q$ might match q immediately followed by a null byte, even though this is not matched when type is text. Conversely, when type is binary the pattern . (period) might not match a null byte. Warning: The -a option might output binary garbage, which can have nasty side effects if the output is a terminal and if the terminal driver interprets some of it as commands. On the other hand, when reading files whose text encodings are unknown, it can be helpful to use -a or to set LC_ALL='C' in the environment, in order to find more matches even if the matches are unsafe for direct display. -D ACTION, --devices=ACTION If an input file is a device, FIFO or socket, use ACTION to process it. By default, ACTION is read, which means that devices are read just as if they were ordinary files. If ACTION is skip, devices are silently skipped. -d ACTION, --directories=ACTION If an input file is a directory, use ACTION to process it. By default, ACTION is read, i.e., read directories just as if they were ordinary files. If ACTION is skip, silently skip directories. If ACTION is recurse, read all files under each directory, recursively, following symbolic links only if they are on the command line. This is equivalent to the -r option. --exclude=GLOB Skip any command-line file with a name suffix that matches the pattern GLOB, using wildcard matching; a name suffix is either the whole name, or a trailing part that starts with a non-slash character immediately after a slash (/) in the name. When searching recursively, skip any subfile whose base name matches GLOB; the base name is the part after the last slash. A pattern can use *, ?, and [...] as wildcards, and \ to quote a wildcard or backslash character literally. --exclude-from=FILE Skip files whose base name matches any of the file-name globs read from FILE (using wildcard matching as described under --exclude). --exclude-dir=GLOB Skip any command-line directory with a name suffix that matches the pattern GLOB. When searching recursively, skip any subdirectory whose base name matches GLOB. Ignore any redundant trailing slashes in GLOB. -I Process a binary file as if it did not contain matching data; this is equivalent to the --binary-files=without-match option. --include=GLOB Search only files whose base name matches GLOB (using wildcard matching as described under --exclude). If contradictory --include and --exclude options are given, the last matching one wins. If no --include or --exclude options match, a file is included unless the first such option is --include. -r, --recursive Read all files under each directory, recursively, following symbolic links only if they are on the command line. Note that if no file operand is given, grep searches the working directory. This is equivalent to the -d recurse option. -R, --dereference-recursive Read all files under each directory, recursively. Follow all symbolic links, unlike -r. Other Options --line-buffered Use line buffering on output. This can cause a performance penalty. -U, --binary Treat the file(s) as binary. By default, under MS-DOS and MS-Windows, grep guesses whether a file is text or binary as described for the --binary-files option. If grep decides the file is a text file, it strips the CR characters from the original file contents (to make regular expressions with ^ and $ work correctly). Specifying -U overrules this guesswork, causing all files to be read and passed to the matching mechanism verbatim; if the file is a text file with CR/LF pairs at the end of each line, this will cause some regular expressions to fail. This option has no effect on platforms other than MS-DOS and MS-Windows. -z, --null-data Treat input and output data as sequences of lines, each terminated by a zero byte (the ASCII NUL character) instead of a newline. Like the -Z or --null option, this option can be used with commands like sort -z to process arbitrary file names. | # grep
> Find patterns in files using regular expressions. More information:
> https://www.gnu.org/software/grep/manual/grep.html.
* Search for a pattern within a file:
`grep "{{search_pattern}}" {{path/to/file}}`
* Search for an exact string (disables regular expressions):
`grep --fixed-strings "{{exact_string}}" {{path/to/file}}`
* Search for a pattern in all files recursively in a directory, showing line numbers of matches, ignoring binary files:
`grep --recursive --line-number --binary-files={{without-match}}
"{{search_pattern}}" {{path/to/directory}}`
* Use extended regular expressions (supports `?`, `+`, `{}`, `()` and `|`), in case-insensitive mode:
`grep --extended-regexp --ignore-case "{{search_pattern}}" {{path/to/file}}`
* Print 3 lines of context around, before, or after each match:
`grep --{{context|before-context|after-context}}={{3}} "{{search_pattern}}"
{{path/to/file}}`
* Print file name and line number for each match with color output:
`grep --with-filename --line-number --color=always "{{search_pattern}}"
{{path/to/file}}`
* Search for lines matching a pattern, printing only the matched text:
`grep --only-matching "{{search_pattern}}" {{path/to/file}}`
* Search `stdin` for lines that do not match a pattern:
`cat {{path/to/file}} | grep --invert-match "{{search_pattern}}"` |
systemd-run | systemd-run may be used to create and start a transient .service or .scope unit and run the specified COMMAND in it. It may also be used to create and start a transient .path, .socket, or .timer unit, that activates a .service unit when elapsing. If a command is run as transient service unit, it will be started and managed by the service manager like any other service, and thus shows up in the output of systemctl list-units like any other unit. It will run in a clean and detached execution environment, with the service manager as its parent process. In this mode, systemd-run will start the service asynchronously in the background and return after the command has begun execution (unless --no-block or --wait are specified, see below). If a command is run as transient scope unit, it will be executed by systemd-run itself as parent process and will thus inherit the execution environment of the caller. However, the processes of the command are managed by the service manager similarly to normal services, and will show up in the output of systemctl list-units. Execution in this case is synchronous, and will return only when the command finishes. This mode is enabled via the --scope switch (see below). If a command is run with path, socket, or timer options such as --on-calendar= (see below), a transient path, socket, or timer unit is created alongside the service unit for the specified command. Only the transient path, socket, or timer unit is started immediately, the transient service unit will be triggered by the path, socket, or timer unit. If the --unit= option is specified, the COMMAND may be omitted. In this case, systemd-run creates only a .path, .socket, or .timer unit that triggers the specified unit. By default, services created with systemd-run default to the simple type, see the description of Type= in systemd.service(5) for details. Note that when this type is used, the service manager (and thus the systemd-run command) considers service start-up successful as soon as the fork() for the main service process succeeded, i.e. before the execve() is invoked, and thus even if the specified command cannot be started. Consider using the exec service type (i.e. --property=Type=exec) to ensure that systemd-run returns successfully only if the specified command line has been successfully started. After systemd-run passes the command to the service manager, the manager performs variable expansion. This means that dollar characters ("$") which should not be expanded need to be escaped as "$$". Expansion can also be disabled using --expand-environment=no. The following options are understood: --no-ask-password Do not query the user for authentication for privileged operations. --scope Create a transient .scope unit instead of the default transient .service unit (see above). --unit=, -u Use this unit name instead of an automatically generated one. --property=, -p Sets a property on the scope or service unit that is created. This option takes an assignment in the same format as systemctl(1)'s set-property command. --description= Provide a description for the service, scope, path, socket, or timer unit. If not specified, the command itself will be used as a description. See Description= in systemd.unit(5). --slice= Make the new .service or .scope unit part of the specified slice, instead of system.slice (when running in --system mode) or the root slice (when running in --user mode). --slice-inherit Make the new .service or .scope unit part of the inherited slice. This option can be combined with --slice=. An inherited slice is located within systemd-run slice. Example: if systemd-run slice is foo.slice, and the --slice= argument is bar, the unit will be placed under the foo-bar.slice. --expand-environment=BOOL Expand environment variables in command arguments. If enabled (the default), environment variables specified as "${VARIABLE}" will be expanded in the same way as in commands specified via ExecStart= in units. With --scope, this expansion is performed by systemd-run itself, and in other cases by the service manager that spawns the command. Note that this is similar to, but not the same as variable expansion in bash(1) and other shells. See systemd.service(5) for a description of variable expansion. Disabling variable expansion is useful if the specified command includes or may include a "$" sign. -r, --remain-after-exit After the service process has terminated, keep the service around until it is explicitly stopped. This is useful to collect runtime information about the service after it finished running. Also see RemainAfterExit= in systemd.service(5). --send-sighup When terminating the scope or service unit, send a SIGHUP immediately after SIGTERM. This is useful to indicate to shells and shell-like processes that the connection has been severed. Also see SendSIGHUP= in systemd.kill(5). --service-type= Sets the service type. Also see Type= in systemd.service(5). This option has no effect in conjunction with --scope. Defaults to simple. --uid=, --gid= Runs the service process under the specified UNIX user and group. Also see User= and Group= in systemd.exec(5). --nice= Runs the service process with the specified nice level. Also see Nice= in systemd.exec(5). --working-directory= Runs the service process with the specified working directory. Also see WorkingDirectory= in systemd.exec(5). --same-dir, -d Similar to --working-directory=, but uses the current working directory of the caller for the service to execute. -E NAME[=VALUE], --setenv=NAME[=VALUE] Runs the service process with the specified environment variable set. This parameter may be used more than once to set multiple variables. When "=" and VALUE are omitted, the value of the variable with the same name in the program environment will be used. Also see Environment= in systemd.exec(5). --pty, -t When invoking the command, the transient service connects its standard input, output and error to the terminal systemd-run is invoked on, via a pseudo TTY device. This allows running programs that expect interactive user input/output as services, such as interactive command shells. Note that machinectl(1)'s shell command is usually a better alternative for requesting a new, interactive login session on the local host or a local container. See below for details on how this switch combines with --pipe. --pipe, -P If specified, standard input, output, and error of the transient service are inherited from the systemd-run command itself. This allows systemd-run to be used within shell pipelines. Note that this mode is not suitable for interactive command shells and similar, as the service process will not become a TTY controller when invoked on a terminal. Use --pty instead in that case. When both --pipe and --pty are used in combination the more appropriate option is automatically determined and used. Specifically, when invoked with standard input, output and error connected to a TTY --pty is used, and otherwise --pipe. When this option is used the original file descriptors systemd-run receives are passed to the service processes as-is. If the service runs with different privileges than systemd-run, this means the service might not be able to re-open the passed file descriptors, due to normal file descriptor access restrictions. If the invoked process is a shell script that uses the echo "hello" >/dev/stderr construct for writing messages to stderr, this might cause problems, as this only works if stderr can be re-opened. To mitigate this use the construct echo "hello" >&2 instead, which is mostly equivalent and avoids this pitfall. --shell, -S A shortcut for "--pty --same-dir --wait --collect --service-type=exec $SHELL", i.e. requests an interactive shell in the current working directory, running in service context, accessible with a single switch. --quiet, -q Suppresses additional informational output while running. This is particularly useful in combination with --pty when it will suppress the initial message explaining how to terminate the TTY connection. --on-active=, --on-boot=, --on-startup=, --on-unit-active=, --on-unit-inactive= Defines a monotonic timer relative to different starting points for starting the specified command. See OnActiveSec=, OnBootSec=, OnStartupSec=, OnUnitActiveSec= and OnUnitInactiveSec= in systemd.timer(5) for details. These options are shortcuts for --timer-property= with the relevant properties. These options may not be combined with --scope or --pty. --on-calendar= Defines a calendar timer for starting the specified command. See OnCalendar= in systemd.timer(5). This option is a shortcut for --timer-property=OnCalendar=. This option may not be combined with --scope or --pty. --on-clock-change, --on-timezone-change Defines a trigger based on system clock jumps or timezone changes for starting the specified command. See OnClockChange= and OnTimezoneChange= in systemd.timer(5). These options are shortcuts for --timer-property=OnClockChange=yes and --timer-property=OnTimezoneChange=yes. These options may not be combined with --scope or --pty. --path-property=, --socket-property=, --timer-property= Sets a property on the path, socket, or timer unit that is created. This option is similar to --property=, but applies to the transient path, socket, or timer unit rather than the transient service unit created. This option takes an assignment in the same format as systemctl(1)'s set-property command. These options may not be combined with --scope or --pty. --no-block Do not synchronously wait for the unit start operation to finish. If this option is not specified, the start request for the transient unit will be verified, enqueued and systemd-run will wait until the unit's start-up is completed. By passing this argument, it is only verified and enqueued. This option may not be combined with --wait. --wait Synchronously wait for the transient service to terminate. If this option is specified, the start request for the transient unit is verified, enqueued, and waited for. Subsequently the invoked unit is monitored, and it is waited until it is deactivated again (most likely because the specified command completed). On exit, terse information about the unit's runtime is shown, including total runtime (as well as CPU usage, if --property=CPUAccounting=1 was set) and the exit code and status of the main process. This output may be suppressed with --quiet. This option may not be combined with --no-block, --scope or the various path, socket, or timer options. -G, --collect Unload the transient unit after it completed, even if it failed. Normally, without this option, all units that ran and failed are kept in memory until the user explicitly resets their failure state with systemctl reset-failed or an equivalent command. On the other hand, units that ran successfully are unloaded immediately. If this option is turned on the "garbage collection" of units is more aggressive, and unloads units regardless if they exited successfully or failed. This option is a shortcut for --property=CollectMode=inactive-or-failed, see the explanation for CollectMode= in systemd.unit(5) for further information. --user Talk to the service manager of the calling user, rather than the service manager of the system. --system Talk to the service manager of the system. This is the implied default. -H, --host= Execute the operation remotely. Specify a hostname, or a username and hostname separated by "@", to connect to. The hostname may optionally be suffixed by a port ssh is listening on, separated by ":", and then a container name, separated by "/", which connects directly to a specific container on the specified host. This will use SSH to talk to the remote machine manager instance. Container names may be enumerated with machinectl -H HOST. Put IPv6 addresses in brackets. -M, --machine= Execute operation on a local container. Specify a container name to connect to, optionally prefixed by a user name to connect as and a separating "@" character. If the special string ".host" is used in place of the container name, a connection to the local system is made (which is useful to connect to a specific user's user bus: "--user --machine=lennart@.host"). If the "@" syntax is not used, the connection is made as root user. If the "@" syntax is used either the left hand side or the right hand side may be omitted (but not both) in which case the local user name and ".host" are implied. -h, --help Print a short help text and exit. --version Print a short version string and exit. All command line arguments after the first non-option argument become part of the command line of the launched process. | # systemd-run
> Run programs in transient scope units, service units, or path-, socket-, or
> timer-triggered service units. More information:
> https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-run.html.
* Start a transient service:
`sudo systemd-run {{command}} {{argument1 argument2 ...}}`
* Start a transient service under the service manager of the current user (no privileges):
`systemd-run --user {{command}} {{argument1 argument2 ...}}`
* Start a transient service with a custom unit name and description:
`sudo systemd-run --unit={{name}} --description={{string}} {{command}}
{{argument1 argument2 ...}}`
* Start a transient service that does not get cleaned up after it terminates with a custom environment variable:
`sudo systemd-run --remain-after-exit --set-env={{name}}={{value}} {{command}}
{{argument1 argument2 ...}}`
* Start a transient timer that periodically runs its transient service (see `man systemd.time` for calendar event format):
`sudo systemd-run --on-calendar={{calendar_event}} {{command}} {{argument1
argument2 ...}}`
* Share the terminal with the program (allowing interactive input/output) and make sure the execution details remain after the program exits:
`systemd-run --remain-after-exit --pty {{command}}`
* Set properties (e.g. CPUQuota, MemoryMax) of the process and wait until it exits:
`systemd-run --property MemoryMax={{memory_in_bytes}} --property
CPUQuota={{percentage_of_CPU_time}}% --wait {{command}}`
* Use the program in a shell pipeline:
`{{command1}} | systemd-run --pipe {{command2}} | {{command3}}` |
tput | The @TPUT@ utility uses the terminfo database to make the values of terminal-dependent capabilities and information available to the shell (see sh(1)), to initialize or reset the terminal, or return the long name of the requested terminal type. The result depends upon the capability's type: string @TPUT@ writes the string to the standard output. No trailing newline is supplied. integer @TPUT@ writes the decimal value to the standard output, with a trailing newline. boolean @TPUT@ simply sets the exit code (0 for TRUE if the terminal has the capability, 1 for FALSE if it does not), and writes nothing to the standard output. Before using a value returned on the standard output, the application should test the exit code (e.g., $?, see sh(1)) to be sure it is 0. (See the EXIT CODES and DIAGNOSTICS sections.) For a complete list of capabilities and the capname associated with each, see terminfo(5). Options -S allows more than one capability per invocation of @TPUT@. The capabilities must be passed to @TPUT@ from the standard input instead of from the command line (see example). Only one capname is allowed per line. The -S option changes the meaning of the 0 and 1 boolean and string exit codes (see the EXIT CODES section). Because some capabilities may use string parameters rather than numbers, @TPUT@ uses a table and the presence of parameters in its input to decide whether to use tparm(3X), and how to interpret the parameters. -Ttype indicates the type of terminal. Normally this option is unnecessary, because the default is taken from the environment variable TERM. If -T is specified, then the shell variables LINES and COLUMNS will also be ignored. -V reports the version of ncurses which was used in this program, and exits. -x do not attempt to clear the terminal's scrollback buffer using the extended “E3” capability. Commands A few commands (init, reset and longname) are special; they are defined by the @TPUT@ program. The others are the names of capabilities from the terminal database (see terminfo(5) for a list). Although init and reset resemble capability names, @TPUT@ uses several capabilities to perform these special functions. capname indicates the capability from the terminal database. If the capability is a string that takes parameters, the arguments following the capability will be used as parameters for the string. Most parameters are numbers. Only a few terminal capabilities require string parameters; @TPUT@ uses a table to decide which to pass as strings. Normally @TPUT@ uses tparm(3X) to perform the substitution. If no parameters are given for the capability, @TPUT@ writes the string without performing the substitution. init If the terminal database is present and an entry for the user's terminal exists (see -Ttype, above), the following will occur: (1) first, @TPUT@ retrieves the current terminal mode settings for your terminal. It does this by successively testing • the standard error, • standard output, • standard input and • ultimately “/dev/tty” to obtain terminal settings. Having retrieved these settings, @TPUT@ remembers which file descriptor to use when updating settings. (2) if the window size cannot be obtained from the operating system, but the terminal description (or environment, e.g., LINES and COLUMNS variables specify this), update the operating system's notion of the window size. (3) the terminal modes will be updated: • any delays (e.g., newline) specified in the entry will be set in the tty driver, • tabs expansion will be turned on or off according to the specification in the entry, and • if tabs are not expanded, standard tabs will be set (every 8 spaces). (4) if present, the terminal's initialization strings will be output as detailed in the terminfo(5) section on Tabs and Initialization, (5) output is flushed. If an entry does not contain the information needed for any of these activities, that activity will silently be skipped. reset This is similar to init, with two differences: (1) before any other initialization, the terminal modes will be reset to a “sane” state: • set cooked and echo modes, • turn off cbreak and raw modes, • turn on newline translation and • reset any unset special characters to their default values (2) Instead of putting out initialization strings, the terminal's reset strings will be output if present (rs1, rs2, rs3, rf). If the reset strings are not present, but initialization strings are, the initialization strings will be output. Otherwise, reset acts identically to init. longname If the terminal database is present and an entry for the user's terminal exists (see -Ttype above), then the long name of the terminal will be put out. The long name is the last name in the first line of the terminal's description in the terminfo database [see term(5)]. Aliases @TPUT@ handles the clear, init and reset commands specially: it allows for the possibility that it is invoked by a link with those names. If @TPUT@ is invoked by a link named reset, this has the same effect as @TPUT@ reset. The @TSET@(1) utility also treats a link named reset specially. Before ncurses 6.1, the two utilities were different from each other: • @TSET@ utility reset the terminal modes and special characters (not done with @TPUT@). • On the other hand, @TSET@'s repertoire of terminal capabilities for resetting the terminal was more limited, i.e., only reset_1string, reset_2string and reset_file in contrast to the tab-stops and margins which are set by this utility. • The reset program is usually an alias for @TSET@, because of this difference with resetting terminal modes and special characters. With the changes made for ncurses 6.1, the reset feature of the two programs is (mostly) the same. A few differences remain: • The @TSET@ program waits one second when resetting, in case it happens to be a hardware terminal. • The two programs write the terminal initialization strings to different streams (i.e., the standard error for @TSET@ and the standard output for @TPUT@). Note: although these programs write to different streams, redirecting their output to a file will capture only part of their actions. The changes to the terminal modes are not affected by redirecting the output. If @TPUT@ is invoked by a link named init, this has the same effect as @TPUT@ init. Again, you are less likely to use that link because another program named init has a more well- established use. Terminal Size Besides the special commands (e.g., clear), @TPUT@ treats certain terminfo capabilities specially: lines and cols. @TPUT@ calls setupterm(3X) to obtain the terminal size: • first, it gets the size from the terminal database (which generally is not provided for terminal emulators which do not have a fixed window size) • then it asks the operating system for the terminal's size (which generally works, unless connecting via a serial line which does not support NAWS: negotiations about window size). • finally, it inspects the environment variables LINES and COLUMNS which may override the terminal size. If the -T option is given @TPUT@ ignores the environment variables by calling use_tioctl(TRUE), relying upon the operating system (or finally, the terminal database). | # tput
> View and modify terminal settings and capabilities. More information:
> https://manned.org/tput.
* Move the cursor to a screen location:
`tput cup {{row}} {{column}}`
* Set foreground (af) or background (ab) color:
`tput {{setaf|setab}} {{ansi_color_code}}`
* Show number of columns, lines, or colors:
`tput {{cols|lines|colors}}`
* Ring the terminal bell:
`tput bel`
* Reset all terminal attributes:
`tput sgr0`
* Enable or disable word wrap:
`tput {{smam|rmam}}` |
link | Call the link function to create a link named FILE2 to an existing FILE1. --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit | # link
> Create a hard link to an existing file. For more options, see the `ln`
> command. More information: https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/link.
* Create a hard link from a new file to an existing file:
`link {{path/to/existing_file}} {{path/to/new_file}}` |
logname | The logname utility shall write the user's login name to standard output. The login name shall be the string that would be returned by the getlogin() function defined in the System Interfaces volume of POSIX.1‐2017. Under the conditions where the getlogin() function would fail, the logname utility shall write a diagnostic message to standard error and exit with a non-zero exit status. None. | # logname
> Shows the user's login name. More information:
> https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/logname.
* Display the currently logged in user's name:
`logname` |
iconv | The iconv utility shall convert the encoding of characters in file from one codeset to another and write the results to standard output. When the options indicate that charmap files are used to specify the codesets (see OPTIONS), the codeset conversion shall be accomplished by performing a logical join on the symbolic character names in the two charmaps. The implementation need not support the use of charmap files for codeset conversion unless the POSIX2_LOCALEDEF symbol is defined on the system. The iconv utility shall conform to the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Section 12.2, Utility Syntax Guidelines. The following options shall be supported: -c Omit any characters that are invalid in the codeset of the input file from the output. When -c is not used, the results of encountering invalid characters in the input stream (either those that are not characters in the codeset of the input file or that have no corresponding character in the codeset of the output file) shall be specified in the system documentation. The presence or absence of -c shall not affect the exit status of iconv. -f fromcodeset Identify the codeset of the input file. The implementation shall recognize the following two forms of the fromcodeset option-argument: fromcode The fromcode option-argument must not contain a <slash> character. It shall be interpreted as the name of one of the codeset descriptions provided by the implementation in an unspecified format. Valid values of fromcode are implementation-defined. frommap The frommap option-argument must contain a <slash> character. It shall be interpreted as the pathname of a charmap file as defined in the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Section 6.4, Character Set Description File. If the pathname does not represent a valid, readable charmap file, the results are undefined. If this option is omitted, the codeset of the current locale shall be used. -l Write all supported fromcode and tocode values to standard output in an unspecified format. -s Suppress any messages written to standard error concerning invalid characters. When -s is not used, the results of encountering invalid characters in the input stream (either those that are not valid characters in the codeset of the input file or that have no corresponding character in the codeset of the output file) shall be specified in the system documentation. The presence or absence of -s shall not affect the exit status of iconv. -t tocodeset Identify the codeset to be used for the output file. The implementation shall recognize the following two forms of the tocodeset option-argument: tocode The semantics shall be equivalent to the -f fromcode option. tomap The semantics shall be equivalent to the -f frommap option. If this option is omitted, the codeset of the current locale shall be used. If either -f or -t represents a charmap file, but the other does not (or is omitted), or both -f and -t are omitted, the results are undefined. | # iconv
> Converts text from one encoding to another. More information:
> https://manned.org/iconv.
* Convert file to a specific encoding, and print to `stdout`:
`iconv -f {{from_encoding}} -t {{to_encoding}} {{input_file}}`
* Convert file to the current locale's encoding, and output to a file:
`iconv -f {{from_encoding}} {{input_file}} > {{output_file}}`
* List supported encodings:
`iconv -l` |
paste | The paste utility shall concatenate the corresponding lines of the given input files, and write the resulting lines to standard output. The default operation of paste shall concatenate the corresponding lines of the input files. The <newline> of every line except the line from the last input file shall be replaced with a <tab>. If an end-of-file condition is detected on one or more input files, but not all input files, paste shall behave as though empty lines were read from the files on which end-of-file was detected, unless the -s option is specified. The paste utility shall conform to the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Section 12.2, Utility Syntax Guidelines. The following options shall be supported: -d list Unless a <backslash> character appears in list, each character in list is an element specifying a delimiter character. If a <backslash> character appears in list, the <backslash> character and one or more characters following it are an element specifying a delimiter character as described below. These elements specify one or more delimiters to use, instead of the default <tab>, to replace the <newline> of the input lines. The elements in list shall be used circularly; that is, when the list is exhausted the first element from the list is reused. When the -s option is specified: * The last <newline> in a file shall not be modified. * The delimiter shall be reset to the first element of list after each file operand is processed. When the -s option is not specified: * The <newline> characters in the file specified by the last file operand shall not be modified. * The delimiter shall be reset to the first element of list each time a line is processed from each file. If a <backslash> character appears in list, it and the character following it shall be used to represent the following delimiter characters: \n <newline>. \t <tab>. \\ <backslash> character. \0 Empty string (not a null character). If '\0' is immediately followed by the character 'x', the character 'X', or any character defined by the LC_CTYPE digit keyword (see the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Chapter 7, Locale), the results are unspecified. If any other characters follow the <backslash>, the results are unspecified. -s Concatenate all of the lines from each input file into one line of output per file, in command line order. The <newline> of every line except the last line in each input file shall be replaced with a <tab>, unless otherwise specified by the -d option. If an input file is empty, the output line corresponding to that file shall consist of only a <newline> character. | # paste
> Merge lines of files. More information:
> https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/paste.
* Join all the lines into a single line, using TAB as delimiter:
`paste -s {{path/to/file}}`
* Join all the lines into a single line, using the specified delimiter:
`paste -s -d {{delimiter}} {{path/to/file}}`
* Merge two files side by side, each in its column, using TAB as delimiter:
`paste {{file1}} {{file2}}`
* Merge two files side by side, each in its column, using the specified delimiter:
`paste -d {{delimiter}} {{file1}} {{file2}}`
* Merge two files, with lines added alternatively:
`paste -d '\n' {{file1}} {{file2}}` |
ls | For each operand that names a file of a type other than directory or symbolic link to a directory, ls shall write the name of the file as well as any requested, associated information. For each operand that names a file of type directory, ls shall write the names of files contained within the directory as well as any requested, associated information. Filenames beginning with a <period> ('.') and any associated information shall not be written out unless explicitly referenced, the -A or -a option is supplied, or an implementation-defined condition causes them to be written. If one or more of the -d, -F, or -l options are specified, and neither the -H nor the -L option is specified, for each operand that names a file of type symbolic link to a directory, ls shall write the name of the file as well as any requested, associated information. If none of the -d, -F, or -l options are specified, or the -H or -L options are specified, for each operand that names a file of type symbolic link to a directory, ls shall write the names of files contained within the directory as well as any requested, associated information. In each case where the names of files contained within a directory are written, if the directory contains any symbolic links then ls shall evaluate the file information and file type to be those of the symbolic link itself, unless the -L option is specified. If no operands are specified, ls shall behave as if a single operand of dot ('.') had been specified. If more than one operand is specified, ls shall write non-directory operands first; it shall sort directory and non-directory operands separately according to the collating sequence in the current locale. Whenever ls sorts filenames or pathnames according to the collating sequence in the current locale, if this collating sequence does not have a total ordering of all characters (see the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Section 7.3.2, LC_COLLATE), then any filenames or pathnames that collate equally should be further compared byte-by-byte using the collating sequence for the POSIX locale. The ls utility shall detect infinite loops; that is, entering a previously visited directory that is an ancestor of the last file encountered. When it detects an infinite loop, ls shall write a diagnostic message to standard error and shall either recover its position in the hierarchy or terminate. The ls utility shall conform to the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, Section 12.2, Utility Syntax Guidelines. The following options shall be supported: -A Write out all directory entries, including those whose names begin with a <period> ('.') but excluding the entries dot and dot-dot (if they exist). -C Write multi-text-column output with entries sorted down the columns, according to the collating sequence. The number of text columns and the column separator characters are unspecified, but should be adapted to the nature of the output device. This option disables long format output. -F Do not follow symbolic links named as operands unless the -H or -L options are specified. Write a <slash> ('/') immediately after each pathname that is a directory, an <asterisk> ('*') after each that is executable, a <vertical-line> ('|') after each that is a FIFO, and an at-sign ('@') after each that is a symbolic link. For other file types, other symbols may be written. -H Evaluate the file information and file type for symbolic links specified on the command line to be those of the file referenced by the link, and not the link itself; however, ls shall write the name of the link itself and not the file referenced by the link. -L Evaluate the file information and file type for all symbolic links (whether named on the command line or encountered in a file hierarchy) to be those of the file referenced by the link, and not the link itself; however, ls shall write the name of the link itself and not the file referenced by the link. When -L is used with -l, write the contents of symbolic links in the long format (see the STDOUT section). -R Recursively list subdirectories encountered. When a symbolic link to a directory is encountered, the directory shall not be recursively listed unless the -L option is specified. The use of -R with -d or -f produces unspecified results. -S Sort with the primary key being file size (in decreasing order) and the secondary key being filename in the collating sequence (in increasing order). -a Write out all directory entries, including those whose names begin with a <period> ('.'). -c Use time of last modification of the file status information (see the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, sys_stat.h(0p)) instead of last modification of the file itself for sorting (-t) or writing (-l). -d Do not follow symbolic links named as operands unless the -H or -L options are specified. Do not treat directories differently than other types of files. The use of -d with -R or -f produces unspecified results. -f List the entries in directory operands in the order they appear in the directory. The behavior for non- directory operands is unspecified. This option shall turn on -a. When -f is specified, any occurrences of the -r, -S, and -t options shall be ignored and any occurrences of the -A, -g, -l, -n, -o, and -s options may be ignored. The use of -f with -R or -d produces unspecified results. -g Turn on the -l (ell) option, but disable writing the file's owner name or number. Disable the -C, -m, and -x options. -i For each file, write the file's file serial number (see stat() in the System Interfaces volume of POSIX.1‐2017). -k Set the block size for the -s option and the per- directory block count written for the -l, -n, -s, -g, and -o options (see the STDOUT section) to 1024 bytes. -l (The letter ell.) Do not follow symbolic links named as operands unless the -H or -L options are specified. Write out in long format (see the STDOUT section). Disable the -C, -m, and -x options. -m Stream output format; list pathnames across the page, separated by a <comma> character followed by a <space> character. Use a <newline> character as the list terminator and after the separator sequence when there is not room on a line for the next list entry. This option disables long format output. -n Turn on the -l (ell) option, but when writing the file's owner or group, write the file's numeric UID or GID rather than the user or group name, respectively. Disable the -C, -m, and -x options. -o Turn on the -l (ell) option, but disable writing the file's group name or number. Disable the -C, -m, and -x options. -p Write a <slash> ('/') after each filename if that file is a directory. -q Force each instance of non-printable filename characters and <tab> characters to be written as the <question-mark> ('?') character. Implementations may provide this option by default if the output is to a terminal device. -r Reverse the order of the sort to get reverse collating sequence oldest first, or smallest file size first depending on the other options given. -s Indicate the total number of file system blocks consumed by each file displayed. If the -k option is also specified, the block size shall be 1024 bytes; otherwise, the block size is implementation-defined. -t Sort with the primary key being time modified (most recently modified first) and the secondary key being filename in the collating sequence. For a symbolic link, the time used as the sort key is that of the symbolic link itself, unless ls is evaluating its file information to be that of the file referenced by the link (see the -H and -L options). -u Use time of last access (see the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1‐2017, sys_stat.h(0p)) instead of last modification of the file for sorting (-t) or writing (-l). -x The same as -C, except that the multi-text-column output is produced with entries sorted across, rather than down, the columns. This option disables long format output. -1 (The numeric digit one.) Force output to be one entry per line. This option does not disable long format output. (Long format output is enabled by -g, -l (ell), -n, and -o; and disabled by -C, -m, and -x.) If an option that enables long format output (-g, -l (ell), -n, and -o is given with an option that disables long format output (-C, -m, and -x), this shall not be considered an error. The last of these options specified shall determine whether long format output is written. If -R, -d, or -f are specified, the results of specifying these mutually-exclusive options are specified by the descriptions of these options above. If more than one of any of the other options shown in the SYNOPSIS section in mutually-exclusive sets are given, this shall not be considered an error; the last option specified in each set shall determine the output. Note that if -t is specified, -c and -u are not only mutually- exclusive with each other, they are also mutually-exclusive with -S when determining sort order. But even if -S is specified after all occurrences of -c, -t, and -u, the last use of -c or -u determines the timestamp printed when producing long format output. | # ls
> List directory contents. More information:
> https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/ls.
* List files one per line:
`ls -1`
* List all files, including hidden files:
`ls -a`
* List all files, with trailing `/` added to directory names:
`ls -F`
* Long format list (permissions, ownership, size, and modification date) of all files:
`ls -la`
* Long format list with size displayed using human-readable units (KiB, MiB, GiB):
`ls -lh`
* Long format list sorted by size (descending):
`ls -lS`
* Long format list of all files, sorted by modification date (oldest first):
`ls -ltr`
* Only list directories:
`ls -d */` |
mktemp | Create a temporary file or directory, safely, and print its name. TEMPLATE must contain at least 3 consecutive 'X's in last component. If TEMPLATE is not specified, use tmp.XXXXXXXXXX, and --tmpdir is implied. Files are created u+rw, and directories u+rwx, minus umask restrictions. -d, --directory create a directory, not a file -u, --dry-run do not create anything; merely print a name (unsafe) -q, --quiet suppress diagnostics about file/dir-creation failure --suffix=SUFF append SUFF to TEMPLATE; SUFF must not contain a slash. This option is implied if TEMPLATE does not end in X -p DIR, --tmpdir[=DIR] interpret TEMPLATE relative to DIR; if DIR is not specified, use $TMPDIR if set, else /tmp. With this option, TEMPLATE must not be an absolute name; unlike with -t, TEMPLATE may contain slashes, but mktemp creates only the final component -t interpret TEMPLATE as a single file name component, relative to a directory: $TMPDIR, if set; else the directory specified via -p; else /tmp [deprecated] --help display this help and exit --version output version information and exit | # mktemp
> Create a temporary file or directory. More information:
> https://ss64.com/osx/mktemp.html.
* Create an empty temporary file and print the absolute path to it:
`mktemp`
* Create an empty temporary file with a given suffix and print the absolute path to file:
`mktemp --suffix "{{.ext}}"`
* Create a temporary directory and print the absolute path to it:
`mktemp -d` |
git-range-diff | This command shows the differences between two versions of a patch series, or more generally, two commit ranges (ignoring merge commits). In the presence of <path> arguments, these commit ranges are limited accordingly. To that end, it first finds pairs of commits from both commit ranges that correspond with each other. Two commits are said to correspond when the diff between their patches (i.e. the author information, the commit message and the commit diff) is reasonably small compared to the patches' size. See ``Algorithm`` below for details. Finally, the list of matching commits is shown in the order of the second commit range, with unmatched commits being inserted just after all of their ancestors have been shown. There are three ways to specify the commit ranges: • <range1> <range2>: Either commit range can be of the form <base>..<rev>, <rev>^! or <rev>^-<n>. See SPECIFYING RANGES in gitrevisions(7) for more details. • <rev1>...<rev2>. This is equivalent to <rev2>..<rev1> <rev1>..<rev2>. • <base> <rev1> <rev2>: This is equivalent to <base>..<rev1> <base>..<rev2>. --no-dual-color When the commit diffs differ, ‘git range-diff` recreates the original diffs’ coloring, and adds outer -/+ diff markers with the background being red/green to make it easier to see e.g. when there was a change in what exact lines were added. Additionally, the commit diff lines that are only present in the first commit range are shown "dimmed" (this can be overridden using the color.diff.<slot> config setting where <slot> is one of contextDimmed, oldDimmed and newDimmed), and the commit diff lines that are only present in the second commit range are shown in bold (which can be overridden using the config settings color.diff.<slot> with <slot> being one of contextBold, oldBold or newBold). This is known to range-diff as "dual coloring". Use --no-dual-color to revert to color all lines according to the outer diff markers (and completely ignore the inner diff when it comes to color). --creation-factor=<percent> Set the creation/deletion cost fudge factor to <percent>. Defaults to 60. Try a larger value if git range-diff erroneously considers a large change a total rewrite (deletion of one commit and addition of another), and a smaller one in the reverse case. See the ``Algorithm`` section below for an explanation why this is needed. --left-only Suppress commits that are missing from the first specified range (or the "left range" when using the <rev1>...<rev2> format). --right-only Suppress commits that are missing from the second specified range (or the "right range" when using the <rev1>...<rev2> format). --[no-]notes[=<ref>] This flag is passed to the git log program (see git-log(1)) that generates the patches. <range1> <range2> Compare the commits specified by the two ranges, where <range1> is considered an older version of <range2>. <rev1>...<rev2> Equivalent to passing <rev2>..<rev1> and <rev1>..<rev2>. <base> <rev1> <rev2> Equivalent to passing <base>..<rev1> and <base>..<rev2>. Note that <base> does not need to be the exact branch point of the branches. Example: after rebasing a branch my-topic, git range-diff my-topic@{u} my-topic@{1} my-topic would show the differences introduced by the rebase. git range-diff also accepts the regular diff options (see git-diff(1)), most notably the --color=[<when>] and --no-color options. These options are used when generating the "diff between patches", i.e. to compare the author, commit message and diff of corresponding old/new commits. There is currently no means to tweak most of the diff options passed to git log when generating those patches. | # git range-diff
> Compare two commit ranges (e.g. two versions of a branch). More information:
> https://git-scm.com/docs/git-range-diff.
* Diff the changes of two individual commits:
`git range-diff {{commit_1}}^! {{commit_2}}^!`
* Diff the changes of ours and theirs from their common ancestor, e.g. after an interactive rebase:
`git range-diff {{theirs}}...{{ours}}`
* Diff the changes of two commit ranges, e.g. to check whether conflicts have been resolved appropriately when rebasing commits from `base1` to `base2`:
`git range-diff {{base1}}..{{rev1}} {{base2}}..{{rev2}}` |
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