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Vaping has become more popular in the past few years and is widely marketed as a safer alternative to tobacco cigarettes. However, research has demonstrated that e-cigarettes like JUUL can cause many of the same conditions as traditional cigarettes including wet lung, also known as Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS).
What is Wet Lung?
Wet lung is a dangerous respiratory condition that often causes flu-like symptoms. It occurs when an injury causes fluid to leak from blood vessels into the lungs, making it more difficult for oxygen to travel throughout the body, and can eventually lead to brain damage or organ failure from lack of oxygen.
The increase in vaping has also led to an increase in cases of wet lung, particularly among young people. There are scores of lawsuits being made against the e-cigarette company JUUL for deliberately marketing to underage users. These cases demonstrate that JUUL intentionally targeted advertisements towards youth, ran ads on childrenโs websites, and mailed their products to underaged kids.
The Dangers of Vaping
Studies have shown that vaping is just as harmful as smoking cigarettes, maybe even more so. If you or someone you love suffered from wet lung due to e-cigarette use, the JUUL attorneys at Kwartler Manus, LLC, are available to discuss your potential case and compensation. Injuries from vape devices can include wet lung as well as:
- Popcorn lung - Bronchiolitis
- Pulmonary Embolism
- Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
- Collapsed Lung
- Heart Attack
- Cardiac Arrest (or other cardiac conditions)
- Heavy Metal Poisoning (including cobalt, cadmium, lead)
- Neurological conditions (including strokes, seizures)
- Respiratory disease
We know how difficult it is to heal from the harms caused by e-cigarettes, especially if your child is the one affected. At Kwartler Manus, LLC, our fierce legal team will help you receive the justice you deserve. If you or a loved one developed wet lung after using a JUUL vape, contact us online or by phone at (267) 214-8608 today! |
ืืืคืืฉ ืืจืกืืืช ืขื ืืฉื ื: ืขื ืืืืืฉ: ืืืื ืื ืืืจ ืคืืจืืืจ ืืจืฅ ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืกื ืกืคืืืืจ ืืืงืืืืจ ื ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืจ ืืกื ื ืชืืืืช:
ืืืืจืช ืืจืกืืืช ืืืฉืืืื: ืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืจืกืืืช ืฉืืจืฆืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืงืืฉ ืขื Enter ืื ืืืืืฅ ืขื ืืืคืชืืจ ืฉืืืื.
ืืงืจื: (ื ืืืืืช) = ืืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืจืกื ืื ืืืืืช, (ืงืืืืช) = ืืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืจืกื ืืงืืืืช, ื = ืขืจืืื ืืฉื ืืช.
(ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืชืจ | ืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืชืจ) ืฆืคืืื ื: (100 ืืืืืช | 100 ืืงืืืืืช) (20 | 50 | 100 | 250 | 500)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:56, 20 ืืืฆืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (9,128 ืืชืื) (+90)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:22, 20 ืืืฆืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (9,038 ืืชืื) (+65)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:27, 10 ืืืฆืืืจ 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (8,973 ืืชืื) (+363)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืช:ืืืืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 20:57, 9 ืืืฆืืืจ 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (8,610 ืืชืื) (+112)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืช:ืืืืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 20:54, 9 ืืืฆืืืจ 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (8,498 ืืชืื) (+307)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืช:ืืืืืช: ืคืกืงื ืืืฉื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:54, 9 ืืืฆืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (8,191 ืืชืื) (+79)โ . . (โโืืืจืืฉ ืืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืฉื ืช 19 ืืกืคืืจื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:10, 7 ืืืฆืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (8,112 ืืชืื) (+65)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:21, 21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (8,047 ืืชืื) (+40)โ . . (โโืกืคืจืื ืืืืื ื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 21:45, 8 ืื ืืืืืจ 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (8,007 ืืชืื) (+138)โ . . (โโืืืจืืขืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:39, 7 ืื ืืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,869 ืืชืื) (+73)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 14:10, 1 ืื ืืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,796 ืืชืื) (+80)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 17:18, 31 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,716 ืืชืื) (+63)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:28, 31 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,653 ืืชืื) (-20)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:27, 31 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,673 ืืชืื) (+24)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:40, 18 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,649 ืืชืื) (+124)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 06:58, 10 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,525 ืืชืื) (+77)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 08:19, 7 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,448 ืืชืื) (+87)โ . . (โโืกืคืจืื ืืืืื ื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 08:18, 7 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,361 ืืชืื) (+71)โ . . (โโืกืคืจืื ืืืืื ื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 08:03, 4 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,290 ืืชืื) (-34)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:35, 3 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,324 ืืชืื) (-1)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงื ืงืืจื ื])
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:35, 3 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,325 ืืชืื) (+36)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:56, 3 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,289 ืืชืื) (+1)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:56, 3 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,288 ืืชืื) (+63)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:47, 16 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (7,225 ืืชืื) (+402)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:50, 14 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,823 ืืชืื) (+34)โ . . (โโJouanno 2002)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:49, 14 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,789 ืืชืื) (+26)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:30, 12 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,763 ืืชืื) (+75)โ . . (โโืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืืืคืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 17:18, 11 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,688 ืืชืื) (-276)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 17:15, 11 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,964 ืืชืื) (+47)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 14:07, 3 ืืืืืืกื 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (6,917 ืืชืื) (0)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืช:ืืขืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 14:07, 3 ืืืืืืกื 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (6,917 ืืชืื) (+210)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืช:ืืขืืืื: ืคืกืงื ืืืฉื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:14, 5 ืืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,707 ืืชืื) (+550)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:16, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,157 ืืชืื) (-32)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:15, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,189 ืืชืื) (+49)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:14, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,140 ืืชืื) (+94)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:14, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,046 ืืชืื) (-115)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:14, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,161 ืืชืื) (+22)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:00, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,139 ืืชืื) (+144)โ . . (โโืชืืืืงื ืืืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืงื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 06:57, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,995 ืืชืื) (-67)โ . . (โโืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืกืคืืก)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 06:57, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (6,062 ืืชืื) (+10)โ . . (โโืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืกืคืืก)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 06:54, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (6,052 ืืชืื) (+220)โ . . (โโืขืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 06:53, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,832 ืืชืื) (+57)โ . . (โโืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืกืคืืก)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 06:52, 30 ืืืื ื 2010โ Mordecai Karniel (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (5,775 ืืชืื) (+190)โ . . (โโืขืืื: ืคืกืงื ืืืฉื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:33, 27 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,585 ืืชืื) (+189)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 05:38, 27 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,396 ืืชืื) (-219)โ . . (โโืืืจืืขืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 05:38, 27 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,615 ืืชืื) (+64)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:29, 24 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,551 ืืชืื) (+97)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:35, 21 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,454 ืืชืื) (+199)โ . . (/)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 19:25, 10 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,255 ืืชืื) (-68)โ . . (โโืฆืื ืืจืืช ืืงืืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:35, 3 ืืืื ื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,323 ืืชืื) (-34)โ . . (โโืฆืื ืืจืืช ืืงืืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 19:22, 29 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,357 ืืชืื) (0)โ . . (โโืกืคืจืื ืืืืื ื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:03, 24 ืืืื 2010โ Oamitay (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,357 ืืชืื) (+34)โ . . (โโืชืขืกืืงื ืืืฆืขืืช ื"ืจ ื. 01:25, 9 ืืืื 2010 (UTC))
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 18:31, 23 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,323 ืืชืื) (+4)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 18:31, 23 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,319 ืืชืื) (-139)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 18:31, 23 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,458 ืืชืื) (+337)โ . . (โโืฉืืคืืจืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืชืืื ืช ื-wiki)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 17:58, 23 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,121 ืืชืื) (+4)โ . . (โโื ืืกืืื ืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 17:58, 23 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,117 ืืชืื) (+32)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 19:43, 16 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,085 ืืชืื) (+111)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 19:33, 16 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,974 ืืชืื) (+110)โ . . (โโื ืืกืืื ืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 19:31, 16 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,864 ืืชืื) (0)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 19:11, 16 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,864 ืืชืื) (+39)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 18:53, 16 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,825 ืืชืื) (+27)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 18:48, 16 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,798 ืืชืื) (+6)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:42, 16 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,792 ืืชืื) (-168)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 12:22, 13 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,960 ืืชืื) (-210)โ . . (โโืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืจืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:16, 13 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,170 ืืชืื) (+85)โ . . (โโืืืชืืก ืืืกืืืืจืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 13:06, 11 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (5,085 ืืชืื) (+151)โ . . (โโืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืจืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 13:05, 11 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,934 ืืชืื) (-37)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:06, 11 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,971 ืืชืื) (-2)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:05, 11 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,973 ืืชืื) (+4)โ . . (โโืชืืคืืกืื ืืชืืื ืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:05, 11 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,969 ืืชืื) (+48)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 11:04, 11 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,921 ืืชืื) (+96)โ . . (โโืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืจืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:53, 11 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,825 ืืชืื) (+57)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:53, 10 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,768 ืืชืื) (+118)โ . . (โโืืืชืืก ืืืกืืืืจืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 06:04, 9 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,650 ืืชืื) (+30)โ . . (โโืฆืื ืืจืืช ืืงืืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 01:25, 9 ืืืื 2010โ Oamitay (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (4,620 ืืชืื) (+75)โ . . (ืืืื ืชืขืกืืงื ืืืฆืขืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:19, 7 ืืืื 2010โ Oamitay (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (4,545 ืืชืื) (+135)โ . . (โโืชืขืกืืงื ืืืฆืขืืช ื"ืจ ื. 07:52, 22 ืืืจืฅ 2010 (UTC))
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:05, 4 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,410 ืืชืื) (-131)โ . . (โโืฆืื ืืจืืช ืืงืืืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 18:52, 3 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,541 ืืชืื) (+171)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 14:11, 3 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,370 ืืชืื) (+39)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 15:52, 2 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,331 ืืชืื) (+69)โ . . (โโืืืชืืก ืืืกืืืืจืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:22, 2 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,262 ืืชืื) (-42)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:17, 2 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,304 ืืชืื) (+5)โ . . (โโืชืื ืืืช)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 13:42, 1 ืืืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,299 ืืชืื) (+72)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 18:11, 29 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,227 ืืชืื) (+174)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 14:31, 27 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,053 ืืชืื) (-56)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:57, 27 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,109 ืืชืื) (+241)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:09, 26 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,868 ืืชืื) (+52)โ . . (โโืชืขืกืืงื ืืืฆืขืืช ื"ืจ ื. 07:52, 22 ืืืจืฅ 2010 (UTC))
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:09, 26 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,816 ืืชืื) (+2)โ . . (โโืคืจืืืงืืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:08, 26 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,814 ืืชืื) (+93)โ . . (โโืชืขืกืืงื ืืืฆืขืืช ื"ืจ ื. 07:52, 22 ืืืจืฅ 2010 (UTC))
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 20:18, 25 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,721 ืืชืื) (+67)โ . . (โโืืืชืืก ืืืกืืืืจืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:20, 12 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,654 ืืชืื) (+42)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:19, 12 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,612 ืืชืื) (+1)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 10:18, 12 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,611 ืืชืื) (0)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:42, 12 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ . . (3,611 ืืชืื) (+163)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:35, 12 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,448 ืืชืื) (+49)โ . . (โโืชืื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 09:35, 12 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,399 ืืชืื) (+88)โ . . (โโืกืคืจืื ืืืืื ื)
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 08:45, 11 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (3,311 ืืชืื) (-908)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 07:13, 8 ืืืคืจืื 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,219 ืืชืื) (-379)โ
(ื ืืืืืช | ืงืืืืช) 20:39, 24 ืืืจืฅ 2010โ Eyalmeyer (ืฉืืื | ืชืจืืืืช)โ ื . . (4,598 ืืชืื) (-1,507)โ . . (โโืืจืืื ืืจืื) |
Bud midge has a wide host range spanning at least six plant families and hibiscus flower plant is one of those. Blossom or bud midge maggots feed inside unopened flower buds, causing deformed, discolored buds and blossoms.
You may be aware that bud midge is an exotic pest that has found its way to Florida. It has been reported by many local hobby growers.
Bud drop on hibiscus
Bud drop on hibiscus is a very common problem that is often caused by tiny insects referred as blossom midges. Although there are no official recommendations for control of this pest, you can find a spray application of products containing imidacloprid which often control the midges adequately to allow blooming to resume.
You have to know that imidacloprid can lead to bud drop in hibiscus. Hence you should remember to remove and dispose of any dropped hibiscus flower buds since these midges pupate in the soil.
You will also observe that in some winters blooming resumes on hibiscus even without spraying, apparently because cooler temperatures slow down the development of the midges.
How can pest management help you?
Management can help you to determine the cause of distorted flowers or premature bud drop, the damaged buds need to be dissected and examined for the presence of the maggots.
There are many other causes for hibiscus flower buds to drop, such as genetic weakness, flower hibiscus root problems, over fertilization, over watering, compacted soil, flower thrips or aphid infestation or very hot or dry weather.
You must maintain a good sanitation because it is very important management practice for hibiscus flower bud midge. You have to remove and dispose infested buds and fallen flowers.
You should keep in mind that sanitation is very important in controlling the pest. You have to follow few control methods that include vigorous sanitation by removal of fallen or distorted buds, double bagging and tightly tying them for household trash disposal.
Integrated pest management strategies consist of site preparation, monitoring the crop and pest population, problem analysis, and selection of appropriate control methods. You can take help of the management and practice insect control methods with little knowledge.
Few preventive guidelines
A home garden is a unique ecosystem and disease control can be achieved in most home gardens by using some preventive measures and you can grow hibiscus flower plants as you wish.
The first thing you have to do for the prevention of pests is improving your soil fertility. Improve the physical properties of the soil including texture and drainage to reduce water logging.
The preventive and control methods should be socially acceptable, environmental safe, and economically practical.
If you have an insect problem, you need to know what insect pest you are dealing with and what stage of the insectโs life cycle is most likely to cause damage, as well as the stage most susceptible to control measures.
You can also prevent midges by buying healthy plant materials from accredited nurseries and garden centers. You have to fertilize and irrigate plants as needed to grow strong plants.
You should remove diseased and dead plants and part of plants from the garden regularly to reduce disease pressure to minimum. Following such preventive measures can help you to grow hibiscus flower plants without any problems. |
aiSober โ an Application based on IoT using BioSensor & Patent Technology for Safety and Behaviour change.
This project is an individual coursework based on emerging technologies that are compatible with Wearable and Artificial Intelligence โ Machine Learning.
The system will be combined with two main technologies; one is BioSensor that detects BAC (Blood Alcohol Concentration) alcohol through the pores of the skin by wearing a wristband. Whereas, the patent technology has the ability to predict user state using machine learning and allows to detect if the user is drunk. The system determines when the user is drunk by tracking movement and comparing them to the usual pattern of movement.
The primary aim of this project is to prevent drunk people to drive a car and provide them with a ride (taxi) service. The objective is to help users change their behaviour and monitor their health by tracking alcohol consumption in the blood through the wearable.
The National Union of Students has found some interesting facts after conducting a survey with students. The survey was completed by 2,2K + students which gave insights of studentsโ behaviour towards, attitudes to, and perceptions of alcohol use.
According to this survey, respondents most commonly reported that they drink alcohol 3 days a week and 60% say that drinking helps them to relax and socialise. 45% of respondents have agreed to woken up feeling embarrassed and 41% were not able to remember what happened the night before. About 41% of respondent admitted they took risk with personal safety such as walking home alone. (Students & Alcohol National Survey, 2018)
According to surveys and study, drinkers regretted of their drinking sessions. The report also tells that people generally โoverwhelmingly like getting drunk and many people could be doing so in a potentially harmful way.โ (Independent, 2019)
People who drink heavily have a destructive habit which will ultimately have a negative impact on their physical and mental health. Moreover, their family and friends suffer with them.
Looking at these issues objectively, it becomes obvious that many target users regret their behaviour after drinking and many of them want to change this destructive habit.
Damages Resulting From a Car Accident
The most tragic and horrific thing that happen from a car accident is wrongful death and of loved one. An unexpected death from accident can bring shock and grief to the victimโs family and can be challenging to deal with because there is no time to prepare emotionally.
I have gone through this traumatic and horrifying experience myself, when my father and my younger brother were hit by an alcoholic driver in Germany (year 2010). My father was cut from the car and taken to a hospital, in a coma. My brother went through major surgeries. After 30 days of multiple surgeries my father passed away and my brother was left to recover from his injuries and to grieve the loss of our father.
After this horrific accident, it took a year for my brother to heal physically, but it took many more years to heal mentally for him and also for us as a family. Each day was defined by intense emotions that we all felt we could no longer control.
Since that day, I wanted work hard in order to propose a solution for this horrific issue. Although, my father cannot come back nor can the pain we went through be healed, but I hope that proposing this solution can save many other lives.
Aims and Objectives
The primary aim of this project is to prevent drunk people to drive a car and provide them with a ride (taxi) service. The objective is to sense a possible danger by userโs voice and emotion estimation
Prevent Driving with the help of car sensors and โActivity Recognitionโ technologies.
Providing BAC (blood alcohol concentration) Tracker system (wearable) to track real-time BAC reading.
The objective is to help people change their behaviour and monitor their health by tracking alcohol consumption in the blood and provide the motivation to quit drinking.
Facilitate a โrideโ (taxi) service or a โdesignated driverโ via โauto rideโ feature or pre-plan.
This feature helps to pre-plan an event and get a ride when the user is unable to take the right action.
1. AI โ Machine Learning
The system will use a โpatentโ technology that predict user state using machine learning and allows to detect if the user is drunk. The system determines when user is drunk by tracking movement and comparing them to usual pattern of movement. (Search Result suggestions based on dynamic network latency classification, 2018)
2. Enzymatic Alcohol BioSensor Wearable
A new technology which can estimate BAC (Blood Alcohol Concentration) by detecting alcohol through the pores of the skin and it has โthe ability to detect alcohol that emanates from the bloodstream and diffuses through the skin.โ (Wearable Enzymatic Alcohol Biosensor, 2019)
3. A touch-based sensor system
The touch-based system can read blood alcohol (BAC) through fingertips. The other solution is an air-sampling system that can test and isolate just the air exhaled by the driver. These two systems will be tested in real vehicles by DADDS. (Driver Alcohol Detection System for Safety โ Technology Overview, 2020)
4. Self-driving cars (Automated / Autonmous)
A technology proposed by Nissan Motor of detecting the driverโs state from the driving behaviour and using facial monitoring system with the help of mounted camera in the system (Nissan Motor Co., n.d.) can be implemented in self-driving cars. The constant monitoring behaviour of the vehicle can identify signs of inattentiveness in the driver and will decide on a course of action through the system and issue alerts of voice and message via the aiSober app.
Three personas were created based on user research. The user research suggested that there are several types of users with diverse needs. (Occupations With High Rates of Alcoholism โ Addiction Center, 2015)
User Flow Map
User flow map was created to identify problems that users encounter and the app offers solutions.
Low-fidelity wireframes helped to arrange the interface elements while keeping focus on the functionality rather than visual appearance. Moreover, the simplicity of low-fidelity wireframes allowed to quickly test ideas without wasting time into the details.
The deliverable of this project are mid- to high-fidelity prototype designed and prototyped interactively with Adobe XD. The prototype for User 1 contains 56 static click-able screens. The prototype for User 2 contains 21 static click-able screens.
Onboarding briefly explaines main features of the app. New users will have an option to connect wearable deviced before registering with aiSober app.
Identifying User's Main Goals
The objective of two different navigation system is to identify user needs and provide them a system according to their needs. The User 1 has goal to track his BAC, get a ride service and manage pre-booking.However, the User 2 is more likely to use the app only to send a ride service to friends or track their journey for safety reasons. Therefore, after selecting main goals, the User 2 will be directed to a different navigation and features which means they see features of book a ride for friend, track their journey and get alert in an emergency.
Playback audio alerts the user by voice if the current BAC reaches over the limit. (Please refer to the screen recording video).
The Auto Ride system (toggle if enabled) will allow user to get a ride service in case of over BAC. The ride service will be auto booked and paid at the back-end. Tracking the current location of the user is also enabled when this feature is ON. This makes it possible for the ride service to easily track userโs current location. The objective of this feature is to make it easier for users to book a ride before they get drunk and are unable to react logically and take wise action when necessary.
Raise Alarm (Hands Free) โ The hands-free voice alert system allows user to raise alarm by just saying โHelpโ. Which will allow to sent a raise alarm to emergency contacts. The alert will allow contacts to send help and track live location.
The aiSober app project mainly focused on the behaviour change and safety of users by preventing them from driving a car in drunken condition. The outcome of this project is thoroughly researched and include an overview of the results which has been obtained from literature review, user โs research, personas and storyboards and understanding usage of emerging technologies. Other factors that were taken into consideration were psychology, environmental pressures, and demographic issues.
The research during the study provided invaluable insights. Study on Artificial Intelligence, particularly research on new technologies such as BioSensor and โPatentโ technologies have also played a crucial role in this particular project.
The idea to keep a separate navigation system for users who intend to use app only to send a ride or help their contacts was the most difficult decision. During the development process I went through many test versions until I obtained the most effective user experience.
Some factors which were considered in the design process include; high contrast, labels, formatting to make the app more user friendly and accessible to users. The user interface is designed to provide large enough spaces between interactive elements, such as buttons, so that users can tap the correct element.
A pattern library which consist of a collection of reusable Interface elements were organised that will allow developers to see visual look, behaviour, and code. During the development process the feedback received by the supervisor on the presentation was very helpful and this resulted in a decision to document the technology of a โself-driving carโ and its compatibility with the aiSober application.
New technical skills were learned during the design process; such as adding a state of playback of audio in Adobe XD and the new feature of adding โnew statesโ into the prototype made it possible to create a more interactive prototype. However, due to time constraints and current lock-down circumstances, it was not yet possible to test the app with target users.
Overall, it has been a very challenging project because of the need to analyse all of the problems and to find a solution and doing so required to make of a lot of complicated decisions. It is extremely rewarding to experience and work on a viable solution for this issue. In the future, this design concept and ideas can be implement to develop a native application that will be compatible with wearable devices.
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ืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ', ืืขื ืืฉืืืื (65%) ืืืืจืช ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืจ ืืช ืฉืืจืืชื ืื ืง ื'ืื. ืคื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืจืชื ืื ืืืืืืื. ืชื ืืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืื ืฉืืื ืืคืื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืกืืจืช ืืืืจืกื. ืืืืืืฅ' ืืขืื ืืื ืืืชืืงื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืชืจ ืืืืจืืช ืฉืื
11.12.2013, 07:05 | ืืืื ืืื ื
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ืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ' ืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช. ื"ืืืืืืกื" ื ืืืข ืื ืืืืขืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืืจื, ืืืจื ืฉืืืืจื ืฉืืจื ืืช ืื ืง ืืืฉืงืขืืช ื'ืื.ืคื ืืืจืื ืืงืื ืขืกืงืช ืืืืจื ืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืจื ืืืจืช. ืืคืขืืื ื ืขืฉืชื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืขื ืืืื ืคื ืืืช ืื ืืืข ืืจืืืฉืชื.
ืงืจืื ืขืื ืืืืืืืกื
ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืืกืืื ืงืืืข ืกืืื ืืจืืืืืืช
ืืชืจืืืช ืืืื: ืืืจืื ืืืกืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉื ืืืืืืื "ืขืืืก 4" ื-4 ืฉื ืื
ืฆืจืืช ืืืื: ืืื ืืืืืืื "ืขืืืก 5" ืงืืฆืจื ื-11 ืืืืฉืื ืืคืืืช ืืฉื ืชืงืื
ืืืืืืฅ', ืฉืฉืืื ืืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืจืช ืืืจืืงืื ืืคืจืืืช, ืืืงืฉ ืขืืืจ ืืืืจื ืกืืื ืฉื 500โ600 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ, ืงืจืื ืึพ2 ืืืืืืจื ืฉืงื โ ืฉืืื ืืคืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืกื, ืฉื ืืื ื ืกืืจืช ืกืืื 970 ืืืืืื ืฉืงื. ืืืืืจ ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืืขืื ื ืจืืื ื ืืฉื ืื ืจืืืื.
ืืกืืืืช ืืื ืืกืืืจืื ืืืช ืืขืกืงื ืฉืืชืืฆืขื ืืคื ื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืจืืฉื ืืืจืช ืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืื, Eutelsat, ืืช ืืืจืช ืืืืืืื ืื satmex ืืคื ืืืคืื ืฉื 11 ืฉืืืชื ืฉืืืคืื ืืงืื ืื ืืืื. Eutelsat ืฉืืืื ืืืืชื ืขืกืงื 831 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืฉื 311 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ.
ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืขืืกืงืช ืืืชื ืฉืืจืืชื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืฉืืืืง ืืงืืขื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืื ืฉืืืขืืืชื. ืืืืืืฅ' ืืืืืง ืืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืจืืงืื ืืืืืจ ืึพ65% ืืื ืืืช ืืืืจื.
ื ืจืื ืื ืืืืืืฅ' ืืื ื ืืขืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืงื ืืืืจืช ืืืืืืื ืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจ ืืขืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืงื ืกืื ืจืืืช ืืืชืจ ืขืกืงื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืื ืืืจืืฉื ืืืง. ืืืืจื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืขืกืงืื, ืฉืืื ืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืืชืืงื ืืขืช. ืืื ืื, ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืื ืืืืงื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืฉืืืืืืฅ' ืื ื ืื ื ืขื ืื ืืืืืงืชื ืื.
ืืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืจืืขื ืืืืืื ืื ืคืขืืืื: ืขืืืก 2 ืืขืืืก 3, ืืืกืคืงืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืคื; ืขืืืก 5, ืืืกืคืง ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืคืจืืงื; ืืขืืืก 4, ืฉืฉืืืจ ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืืชืืื ื ืืกืคืง ืฉืืจืืชื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืกืื, ืจืืกืื ืืืืืจื ืืชืืืื.
ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืช ืืฉืืจ ืึพ2015 ืืืืืื ื ืืกืฃ โ ืขืืืก 6 โ ืฉืืืืืฃ ืืช ืขืืืก 2 ืืฆืคืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืึพ2016. ืฉืืจืืชื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืืืืจื ืืืืจืช ืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื, ืงืืฉืืจืืืช ืืื ืืจื ื ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืขืืจืช ื ืชืื ืื. ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืืจืช ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื yes. ืืืืื ืฉึพyes ื ืฉืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืชื ืืขื ืฉืืืื, ืืืชืงืฉืจืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืจืช ืืขืกืงืช ืืขืื ืขื ืืื.
ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืืจืืคื ืคืืข ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืืจื ืืื ืื ืืืืงืืฉืื ืืืืฆืจื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืคืืขื. ืืื ืื, ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืงืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืืืืืื ืขืืืก 5 ืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืงืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืคืจืืงื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืฉืืงืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืฉืืจืืชื ืืื ืืจื ื ืืืืฉืช.
ืจืืืื ืชืงืืืช ืืขืืืก
ืืืฆืืขืื ืฉื ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืชืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืงืืขื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืืืจ ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืจืช ืืช ืืืชื ืืงืืขืื ืืืขืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื. ืืืจื ืืืืชื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืื ืกืืช ืืืจืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืฉืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืกืื ืืืืืืื ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืชืงืืืช.
ืืืืจื ืกืืืืช ืืืืจืื ื ืืกืืจื ืฉื ืชืงืืืช ืืืืืืื ืขืืืก 5. ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืื ืชืงืื ืืืืชืืช ืฉืืจืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืืืงื ืฉื 200 ืืืืืื ืฉืงื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืืื. ืืชืงืื ืฉืืชืืืชื ืืกืคืง ืืื ืคืืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืขืืืจ ืืชื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืขืื, ืื ืื ืคืืขื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืจืืช ืืฉืจ ื ืืชื ืืืงืืืืชืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืื ืื.
ืืืจ ืืงืจื ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช | ืฆืืืื: ืขืืืช ืฉืขื
ืขืืืก 5, ืฉืฉืืืจ ืืื ืืืจ 2012, ืจืฉืื ืืกืคืจื ืืื ืืคื ืฉืืื ืฉื 179 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ, ืื ืืื ืฆืคืื ืืจืืช ืื ืืชืืจืจ ืฉืืชืงืื ืชืคืืข ืืจืืืืืืชื. ืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืขืงื ืืชืงืืืช, ืืื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืื ืขื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืคืืืืกื, ืืืขืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืืืื ืืืงื ืืืื. ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืชืงืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืจืื ื โ ืืื ืื ืชืคืืฆื.
ืืฉื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืกื ื ืืืฆื ืืื ืืฆืืช ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืก ืื"ื ืฉื ืึพ525 ืืืืืื ืฉืงื. ืื ืฉืืืฃ ืืืืืก ืืื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืคื ืกืื ืขืืืชืื, ืฉืืฉืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืืืืืจื ืฉืงื ืฉื ืชื ื ืืืื ืึพ2008 ืืืืืช ืขืืืก 5, ืื ืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืชืงืืืช ืฉืจืืคื ืืช ืืืืืืื.
ืชืืืืช
ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืชื''ื.ืคื ืืืจืืืืืืืืขืืืกืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ'
5 ืชืืืืืช ืืืชืืืช ืชืืืื
ืืืืืืฅ ืื ืืขืื ืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืง-YES
ืืจืืข ืฉืงืืืฆืช ืืืง ืืฉืชืืืช ืขื ืืก ืื ืืืืืื ืืกืคืง ืชืฉืชืืช ืงืืืืช ืืืืืจืื, ืืื ืื ืืืคืืื ืืช ืงืืืฆืช ืืก ืืืคืกืืื ืืืจืืืื. ืืืืืคืงื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืขื ืงืืืฆืช ืืื ืฉืืืืจืื ืืื ืจืืื ืคืก ืืื, ืืขื ืืคืจืืคืจืื ืฉืืื ื ืขื ืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืก ืื ืื
ืืื ื , ืืจืื | 11.12.13
ืฉืืื ืืืืืืงื ืืืืืื
ื ืืื, ืฉืื ืืืจ ืื ืกืืคื, ืืื ืชืืื ืื ืคืงื ืคืงื ืืืื ืืชืื ืขื ืืงืจื ืืื... ืืืืืืง ืืื ืืืืชื ืจืืฆื ืืืขืช ืืื ืืฉ ืื ื say ืืขื ืืื ืืืคืจื ืื ืืฉ ืื ื ืื ืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืืฅ' ืืืฆืข ืืฆืขืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืืจ (ืืืคืงืข ืืืืื ;-) ) ืืืืืื. ืืชืฉืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืกืคืืง ื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืงืื, ื"ืฆืขืจ", ืืืคืจื ืืืืจืืื ืืจืืืื. ืืืฉืื ืคืฉืคืฉ ืืขืืืง ืืชืฉืงืืคื ืกืืจืืช ืืืืืื? ืืืืืง ืืื ืืืืืฅ
ืื ืฆืจืื ืืืชื? ืื ืื ื
ืืื ืืฉืืช ืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืงืื ืื. ืฆืจืื ืืืคืก ืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืจืืง ืืช ืืืืืงืื ืื ืืคื ืืืฉืคื ืฉื ืืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืืชืื ืืช ืืงืคืืืืืื ืืืืฉ, ืืคืขื ืขื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืื ืืจืฉืื. ืืคืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื: "ืจืืกื ืขืืืื ืืืฉ ืงืืืื ืืืื ื". |
ืืื ืืืืฉื, ืคืขื ืืืืื ืกืืฆืืืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืขืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืคืืืืืืื-ืืืจืชืืื ืฉื ื ืฉืื, ืืคื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ื"ืืืจื ืืืคืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืื". ืืืงืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืคืืื ืืกืืื ืืขืืืงืื (ืื, ืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืคืืืกืืืง) ืื ืื ื ื ืืจืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืช ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืจื ืืืืคืข ืฉื ืกืื ืืืคืืกืืืช ืขื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืช, ืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืงืจ ืืืกืื' ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืกืืฃ ืกืืกืื ืืืจืืืื ืขื ืืืฆืขืื ืฉื ืืืฆืจืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืืื ืื ืฆืจืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืจืืืฉ ื ืฉืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืช.
ืื ืื ืืืจ ืฉืืืื ื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืืคืืื ืืกืืืช (ืฉื ืืฆืืช ืขืืื ืืขืืฆืืื, ืื?) ืืืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืชืจืืช, ืืืคื ื ืืืืคืื โ ืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืฉื? ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืื ืกืืื ื ืขืืืจืื ืืช ืืืฉืช ืืคืจืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืข ืืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืฉ. ืื ืืขืฆืืืื, ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืช. ืืืืฆืืื ืืืืื ื.
ืขืื ืืืื ืืืืฃ:
ืงืื ืืงื ืื ืืืคืืื ืืช ื ืืจืช' ืืืกื ืื ืืก ืืืืื
ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืืคืืื ืืืฉ ืฉืืฉื ื ืืช ืืขืืื
ืื ืขืืืื ืืื ืืคืืช ืืขื ืืืืื 41
ืืืืช ืืืฉืื: ืืืืืื ื
ืคืืฉืชื ืคืขื ืืืฉืื ืฉืืืจื ืฉืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืจ ืืื ื ืื ืฉืืฉ. ืืื ืขืืื ืฉื, ืืื ืืชืืืจื, ืืื ืื ืงืจื, ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืฉืืงืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื. ืืืืื ื โ ืชืืชืื ืื ืฉืขืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืฉื โ ืื ืื ื ืืืื, ืืกืคืง ืื ืืืืืืื ืืขื ืคื ืืืงืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืชืืจืืื ืืช ืืืงื ืื ืืื ืืคืืจืืืช, ืืืจืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืฆืจืืช. ืืืจืืช ืืืืฅ ืืืืชื ืคืืกืง ืฉื ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืื ื'ืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืชื ื ืืืื ืกืงืกื ืืืืืื (ืื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืคืืจ, ืื ืื ื ืืกืชืืืืช ืขืืืื!) ืืืืืฅ ืืขืฆืืจ ืืืื ืืืืกืชืคืง ืืชืืชืื ืื ืฉืืืกืื ืื ืืช ืื ืืชืืช ืืขืืืฃ ื-100% ืืืชื ื.
ืจืง ืื ืืืชืืืคืฃ: ืืื ืกื ืกืงืื ื
ืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืฆืขืืจ ืืืืืฅ ืืืชืงืืฅ ืืกืืื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืื ืืืฉืืืข ืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืืคื ื ืืืฉืจืืืืช: ืคืขื ืื ืืื ืคื ืกืงืื ื! ืืืืช! ืืื ืืืื ื ืฆืจืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืงื ืืืคืื ืคืขืื. ืืกืงืื ื ืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืื, ืืงืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฉ ืืชืืืฉืืืช ืืจืืื ืฉืืขืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืจ. ืืืฉืจืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืกืงืื ื, ืกืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืงื ืืขืืจืจืช ืืขืจืื. ืืจื ืืกืงืื ื ืืืืื ืืืขื ืืืื ื ืฉืื, ืจืืื ืขื ืขืืจ ืืื ืืจืงืกืื/ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืื. ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืืฆืืืื, ืืฉืคืฉืฃ ืืช ืืืจืืืื ืืืขืืงืจืื ืืืจื ืื ื ืืืฆืืขืจ ืขื ืืจืืืช ืฆืืจืื. ืงื ืืช ืกืงืื ื ืขื ืืืืงืจื? ืขืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืืช ืขืืืืช ืจืง ืขื ืขืฆืื. ืืืจ ืขืืืฃ ืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืื, ืืคืืืช ืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืชืืืคืฃ, ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืฉืืคืช ืืืจืืฅ.
ืืืงืืืจืื ืืงืืื, ืืงืจืื ืืืจืืืง. ืชืืื ื: Shutterstock
ืขืืืืชืื ืืคืื: ื ืขืื ืกืืืืื
ืฉืืืข ืฉืขืืจ, ืืืืื ืคืืจืื, ืืชืืืื ืจืืืืืช ืขืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืช ืชืฉืืืจืช ืฉืืืคืคื ืขื ืขืงืื ืกืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืฉืืืชื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืื "ื ืืจื ืกืงืกืืช". ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืคื ืืฉืขืืช, ืืขืงืืื ื ืฉืจื ืืืคืืช ืืจืืืืื ืืืคืคื ืขื ืจืืืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืคืื ืืฉืืคืืช ืืฉืืืืช. ืื ืืฉืื ืื ื ืฆืขืืจืืช ืืื ื ืื ืื ื, ืื ืื ื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืช ืืคืืื, ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ื"ืืชืืช ืฉืื ื ืจืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจ" ืืืขืืืจืืช ืืืื ืงืืืืฆื ืืงืืืช. ืืจืืข ืืืื, ืืื ืกืืื ืงื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืชืืืจืืช ืืืคืชืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืงื. ืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืจืง ืืืืกืจ ื ืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืฉ ืฉืขืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืืช, ืืืงืืช ืืฉืื ืขืืืืชืื ืืืคืืช ืืจืืืืื, ืืื ืืืงืก ืืืืืก ืืืฆืืข ืคืืืฉ. ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืืจ? ืืื ืืขืื, ืชืฉืืื ืืช ืืืงืืืจืื ืืงืืื ืฉืืืืขืืช ืขื ื ืืชืืืื ืฉืืื ืขืืฉื ืขื ืื ืช ืืชืงื ืืช ื ืืงื ืืขืงืืื ืืชืคืจืกืืืช ืืืช ืืืืืฉ. ืื ืืืืข ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืช ืืขืงืืื ืืฆื ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืื ืขืืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืื ืื. ืืืืื ืกื ืืงืจืก ืื ืืื ืืืื ืขืืฉืื.
ืงืื ืงืจืืฉืืื ืืืจื ืืขืื ืืื ืืืฉืจื. ืชืืื ื: Shutterstock
ืืฆืขืืื ืงืื ืื: ืืฆืืืืช ืขืืคืจืื
ืืืื. ืื ืื ืืฉ ืืฆืืืช ืขืืคืจืื ืืืจืื. ืืขืฆื, ืืฉ ืื ืืืฉ. ืื ืืืชืงืืคื ืืฉืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืื ืืชืขืงืฉืชื ืฉืื ื ืจืืฆื ืขืืืื ืืฉืจืืืช ืืืืชืืืฉ ืืืชืื. ืื ืืืงืจ ืืชืืืฆืืชื ืขื ืืืืฆื ืืืืคืชืจืช, ืืฆืืืช ืขืืคืจืื (ืขื ืืืชื ืืืื!) ืืงืืืืชื ืืช ืืื-ืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืืืฆืื ืืช ืืฉืืืช ืืื. ืื ื ืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืื ืกืงืกื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืื, ืืื ืงืืืื ืืื โ ื ืืกืืชื ืืืชืืืฉื ืืืชื ืฉืืื ื ืฉืขืืช ืืื ืืืืฉื? ืื ืืจืืื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืืคื ืืื? ืื ืืจืืฅ ืืืจื ืืืืืืืืก? ืื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืขื ืืฆืืืืช ืขืืคืจืื, ืื ื ืจืืืช ื ืืืจ ืืืคืงืืช ืืืคื ื ืฉื "ืื ืื", ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืขืืืื ืืืื, ืืขืื ืขื ืืื ืืคื ืื.
ืื ืฉืจืืืื ืื ืื ืฉืืฉ: ืฉืืืืช ืฉืงืืคืืช
ืืืืืื ืื ื ืืืฉื ืืงืืงื, ืืขืืช ืืจืื ื ืขืจื, ืชืืชืืื ืจืืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืจืืฉื, ืจืืืื ืืืงืืช (ืืืืคื ืืืขื, ืื?) ืืื ื ืืฉืชืืืืช ืื ืขื ืฆืื ืืืืช ืืฉืืืช ืืคืชืืืื ืฉื ืขืืง ืืืจืขืื, ืจืง ืื ื ืืื ืฉืงืืฃ-ืื-ืืืืื ืืขืืจื. ืืืฆืืืืช, ืืืืฉืช ืฉืืื ืฉืงืืคื-ืงืืืื ืืืจืฉืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคืจืฆืื ืื ืืื ืืืฉืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืจืืงืื. ืืช ืฆืจืืื ืงืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืชืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืข ืืืฃ, ืขื ืืชืคืืืช ืฉืงืืคืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืืง ืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืกืื ืชืื ืื ืืืง, ืืืืืจืฃ ืืื ืงืจ ืืืงืืฅ ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืืืื โ ืชืืืื ืื ืืจื ืื ื ืืคืืงืก ืื ืกืืืจ ืขื ืืื. ืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืฉืงืืคืืช, ืื ื ืจืืืช ืืื ืจืง ืขื ืืืืื ืืืช ืื ืืช 16, ืืื ืื ืขื ืคืืืืจ ืืจืื.
ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืืขืจื: ืืืื
ืื ืืจืืจ ืืื, ืืื ืืืชื ืคืจืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืฉื ื ืฉืื ืืชืืจืื ื ืืื, ืืฉืืจืืข ืฉืืื ืืืกืจ ืืืืืชืื ืื ืฉืืช ืืคื ืืกืื ืฉืืจืืจ ืืืืฉื, ืืืจ ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืจื ื ืื. ืืขืฆื, ืื ืืจืืจ ืืื โ ืื ืืช ืืฉืคืืช ืงืจืืฉืืื, ืฉืื ืืกืืช ืขื ืฉืื ืฆืืข ืขื ืื ืช ืืกืคืง ืขืื ืชืืื ืช ืืื ืกืืืจื ืืืืจืืฃ ืืืืงืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืช ืฉืขืื ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืขืืืจ ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืืืืื (ื ืกื ืืชื ืืืืื ืืฉืืชื ืืจืืืฉืืช ืืื ืกืงืจืื ืืืืจื). ืื ืื ืื ืจืืฆืืช ืื ืฉืื, ืื ืืกืืจ. ืื ืืื ืื ืขืืฉืืช ืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืจืขืฉ. ืื ื, ืืืืื, ืขืื ืื ืืืฉ ืืฉื ืฉืืืฆื ืื ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืืื.
ืจืง ืื ืืืชืืืคืฃ: ืืื ืกื ืกืงืื ื
ืืืืจ ืืฆืขืืจ ืืืืืฅ ืืืชืงืืฅ ืืกืืื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืื ืืืฉืืืข ืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืืคื ื ืืืฉืจืืืืช: ืคืขื ืื ืืื ืคื ืกืงืื ื! ืืืืช! ืืื ืืืื ื ืฆืจืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืงื ืืืคืื ืคืขืื. ืืกืงืื ื ืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืื, ืืงืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฉ ืืชืืืฉืืืช ืืจืืื ืฉืืขืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืจ. ืืืฉืจืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืกืงืื ื, ืกืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืงื ืืขืืจืจืช ืืขืจืื. ืืจื ืืกืงืื ื ืืืืื ืืืขื ืืืื ื ืฉืื, ืจืืื ืขื ืขืืจ ืืื ืืจืงืกืื/ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืื. ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืืฆืืืื, ืืฉืคืฉืฃ ืืช ืืืจืืืื ืืืขืืงืจืื ืืืจื ืื ื ืืืฆืืขืจ ืขื ืืจืืืช ืฆืืจืื. ืงื ืืช ืกืงืื ื ืขื ืืืืงืจื? ืขืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืืช ืขืืืืช ืจืง ืขื ืขืฆืื. ืืืจ ืขืืืฃ ืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืื, ืืคืืืช ืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืชืืืคืฃ, ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืฉืืคืช ืืืจืืฅ. |
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ืชืงืฆืืจ
ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉื, ืื ืืืงืืง, ืื ืคืจืฉื ืืงืจื ืืื ืจืืคื, ืืืื ืื ืขืกืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืืื ืืช โ ืจืื ืืื ื ืืื ื'ื ืื, ืืืืืื ืืืงืืงื ืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื.
ืืื ื ืืืืฉื
ืืืืจ: ืืจืขื ื ืชื ืืื
ืจืื ืืื ื ืืื ื'ื ืื (ืืืืื ืืช: ืืจืื ืืก), ืืืจืืฉื ืชืืืืช: ืจืื"ื (ืื ืืกืืฃ ืืืื ื- 10 ืืกื"ื ) ืืื ืืืฉื, ืืืงืืง, ืคืจืฉื ืืงืจื ืืจืืคื, ืืขืกืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืืื ืืช.
ืืื ื'ื ืื ืื ืืคืขื ืืงืืจืืืื ืฉืืกืคืจื, ืืชืงืืคืช ืชืืจ ืืืื. ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืงืืงื ืืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืกืคืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืงืืืง ืืขืืจื (ืืื ืจืื ืื ืกืคืจ ืฉืขืืกืง ืืจืคืืื, ืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืืืข ืืืืื ื), ืืืืคืืจืกื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืจืช ืืืงืืืง. ืืกืคืจ ืืืืข ืืฉืืืช ืฉื ื ืืืงืื: ืกืคืจ ืืจืงืื ืืกืคืจ ืืฉืืจืฉืื. ืฉื ืืื ื ืืชืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืชืืจืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืข"ื ืืื ืชืืืื.
ืกืคืจ ืืจืงืื ืืื ืกืคืจ ืืงืืืง ืืืืื 46 ืคืจืงืื ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืฉืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืคื ืืืชืืืช, ืืืืืคื ืชื ืืขืืช, ืืฉืงืื ืฉืืืช, ืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืชืืืช, ืขื ืืื ื ืชืืืืจ ืืขืื.
ืกืคืจ ืืฉืืจืฉืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืืจ ืืคื ืฉืืจืฉื ืืฉืื ืืืงืจื ืืกืืจ ื"ื, ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืจืืืช.
ืืฆืคืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืงืื โ ืืืฆื ืืื.
ืื ืืืกืืคื ืฉื ืช ืืขืืจืืช - ืืืกืืืจืื3
ืืืืืืืืจืคืื:
ืืืชืจ: ืืื ื ืืืืฉื
ืฉื ืืคืจืกืื ืืงืืจื: ืืกืืคืช ืขืจืืื ืืฉื ืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืืจืืช
ืืืืจ: ื ืชื ืืื, ืืจืขื
ืชืืจืื: ืชืฉืข"ื , 2010
ืืขืื ืืืืืืช : ืืื : ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช
ืืืืืจ ืืืืืจ ืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืคืจืื ืืืฉืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืื ืืืคืืฅ, ืืืขืชืืง, ืืฉืืจ ืื ืืคืจืกื ืืืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืชืื ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืืกืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืจืื ืืฉืื ืื, ืืืฆืืืื ืื ืืชืืชืืช ืื ืคืจืื.
ืืืขืชืงืช ืืงืืข ืืืกืืื, ืขืืจื ืืืกืื ืืืขื, ืกืื ื ืืช ืืืงืื ืืจืฆืื ืืืืฆื:
CTRL+V ืืืืืงืช ืืงืืข . ืกืื ื ืืช ืืงืืข ืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืขืืืจ ืชืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืขื ืืคืชืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืขืืืจ.
ืืืืจ ืืกืืืื ืืืฆื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืคืชืืจ "ืืขืชืง ืงืืข ืืืกืื ืขืจืืื".
ืืขืชืง ืงืืข ืืืกืื ืขืจืืื
ืกืื ื ืืช ืืงืืข ืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืขืืืจ ืชืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืขื ืืคืชืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืขืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืืกืืืื ืืืฆื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืคืชืืจ "ืืขืชืง ืงืืข ืืืกืื ืขืจืืื". |
The Tarkine is an area in the north-west of Tasmania
The Tarkine (indigenous name: takayna) is an area of the north west Tasmania, Australia, which environmental non-government organisations (ENGOs) claim contains significant areas of wilderness. The Tarkine is noted for its beauty and natural values, containing the largest area of Gondwanan cool-temperate rainforest in Australia, as well as for its prominence in Tasmania's early mining history. The area's high concentration of Aboriginal sites has led to it being described by the Australian Heritage Council as "one of the world's great archaeological regions".
The Tasmanian government defines the Tarkine as an "unbounded locality" centred in the Waratah-Wynyard council area. The generally accepted definition is the area between the Arthur River in the North, the Pieman River in the south, the ocean to the west and the Murchison Highway in the east. It was first officially recognised in May, 2013, following a recommendation by the Nomenclature Board of Tasmania which was accepted by Bryan Green. He declared that the name applied to the whole north-west region of Tasmania, but this interpretation was rejected by the Cradle Coast Authority, which had requested the official naming. The name does not appear in maps, but in recent decades has featured prominently in the Australian media as a subject of contention between conservationists and mining/logging interests.
The Tarkine can be entered from several points, with the most common being via Sumac Road from the north, Corinna in the south, Waratah in the west and Wynyard from the north-east. Wynyard has an interstate airport and sealed road access into the Tarkine.
The name "Tarkine" was coined by the conservation movement and was in use by 1991. It is a diminutive of the name "Tarkiner", which is the anglicised pronunciation of one of the Aboriginal tribes who inhabited the western Tasmanian coastline from the Arthur River to the Pieman River before European colonisation.
Natural and archaeological values
The Tarkine contains extensive high-quality wilderness as well as extensive, largely undisturbed tracts of cool temperate rainforest which are extremely rare. It also represents Australia's largest remaining single tract of temperate rainforest. It contains approximately 1,800 kmยฒ of rainforest, around 400 kmยฒ of eucalypt forest and a mosaic of other vegetation communities, including dry sclerophyll forest, woodland, buttongrass moorland, sandy littoral communities, wetlands, grassland and Sphagnum communities. Significantly, it has a high diversity of non-vascular plants (mosses, liverworts and lichens) including at least 151 species of liverworts and 92 species of mosses. Its range of vertebrate fauna include 28 terrestrial mammals, 111 land and freshwater birds, 11 reptiles, 8 frogs and 13 freshwater fish. The Tarkine provides habitat for over 60 rare, threatened and endangered species of flora and fauna.
The Tarkine played a central role in the development of Tasmania's early mining industry, and remains of early mining activity can still be seen in many rivers and creeks in the area that were mined for gold, tin and osmiridium. Nowadays the remains of approximately 600 sites of historic mining activity in the area are still evident. The majority of these mining operations were alluvial workings or small hard-rock mines, consisting often of single adits. Larger scale mining has been carried out mainly at Luina, Savage River and Mt Bischoff. Part of the area is contained in the Arthur โ Pieman Conservation Area managed by the Tasmania parks and wildlife service.
Early conservation movement
The campaign to protect the Tarkine began in the 1960s. A formal conservation proposal was put forward by the then Circular Head Mayor Horace Jim Lane for the establishment of a 'Norfolk Range National Park'. Lane's proposal was not realised.
From the late 1990s, the area came under increasing national and international scrutiny in a similar vein to the environmental protests surrounding Tasmania's Franklin River and Queensland's Daintree Rainforest. The case for protecting the Tarkine was significantly advanced with the Federal Government's Forestry Package in 2005 adding 70,000 hectares to reserves in the Tarkine.
Around 80% of the Tarkine is now in conservation reserves, however recent changes to Tasmanian legislation allow logging to occur in the majority of those reserves. Only 5% is protected from mining.
Proposed Tarkine National Heritage listing
In December 2009, the Tarkine was listed as a National Heritage Area following an Emergency National Heritage Listing. The Emergency Listing was in response to a proposed Tarkine Road, which would have coursed through old growth forest and detrimentally affected the natural values of undisturbed areas. In December 2010, the incoming Environment Minister Tony Burke allowed the emergency listing to lapse in the face of numerous mining proposals in the Tarkine. This was despite recommendations from the Australian Heritage Council to permanently list the Tarkine. Minister Burke has further extended the period for reassessment of the Tarkine, with the Australian Heritage Council now due to re-report on the suitability of the Tarkine as a National Heritage location by the end of December 2013. Conservation groups have declared this an unacceptable delay, and have voiced concerns that this leaves the Tarkine unprotected from mining while the reassessment takes place.
On 8 February 2013 Minister Tony Burke announced that he would reject advice from the Australian Heritage Council that 433,000 hectares should be heritage listed and instead apply a National Heritage Listing only to the 21,000 hectares contained in a 2 km wide section along the coastline.
Proposed Tarkine National Park
The environmentalist organisation Tarkine National Coalition, headed by Scott Jordan, proposed the Tarkine be officially declared a national park. However, the process of securing such a declaration has been complicated by the processes of the Tasmanian Forests Intergovernmental Agreement. This legislation was signed on 7 August 2011 by Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard and Tasmanian Premier Lara Giddings. The agreement established a $276 million package to transition Tasmania out of native forest logging, while conserving large areas of high conservation value vegetation. Julia Gillard stated that the Agreement would better protect the Tarkine, describing the wilderness area as "very important".
Subsequent related state legislation (the Tasmanian Forests Agreement Bill 2013) passed through the Tasmanian House of Assembly on 23 November 2012 and then passed to the Tasmanian Legislative Council where it was debated and referred on to a Select Committee. It was ultimately passed on 30 April 2013. The Hobart Mercury noted that "Despite a raft of controversial amendments from the Upper House, all but one of the Tasmanian Greens MPs supported the Bill in the Lower House"
Following a change in Tasmanian state government, the Tasmanian Forests Agreement reserves were rescinded in 2014, and previous reserves were made available for 'specialty timber' logging. 'Specialty timber' includes rainforest species such as celery top pine, sassafras, blackwood, myrtle and even eucalypts. This effectively renders the reserve estate in the Tarkine toothless, with the exception of the Savage River National Park covering just 5% of the Tarkine area.
The campaign for a Tarkine National Park continues.
Mining in the Tarkine
The areas of Corinna - Long Plains, as well as the Savage, Donaldson and Whyte rivers were important early goldfields, exploited since the 1870s, and Tasmania's two largest gold nuggets, of 7.6 and 4.4 kg, were found near the confluence of the Whyte and Rocky rivers. Tin mining was prominent in both the Mt Bischoff - Waratah area starting in the 1870s, as well as the Meredith Range - Stanley River - Wilson River area. The Mt. Bischoff mine in Waratah was in its heyday one of the richest tin deposits in the world. From the 1880s onwards, osmiridium was extensively mined in many creeks and rivers in the catchments of the Savage, Haezlewood and Wilson rivers, and particularly the Bald Hill area. Tin, copper and tungsten were mined at Balfour, and the Magnet mine was exploited for silver since the 1890s, and continues to be an important amateur fossicking area for mineral specimens to this day.
Historically, approximately 600 mine tenements have been worked in the Tarkine area, however most of these tenements being small alluvial workings consisting of sifting gravels from riverbeds. Mining activity in the Tarkine has continued uninterrupted since the 1870s, and two modern industrial mines are currently operating in the area: a small silica quarry, and a large open cut iron ore mine at Savage River.Both these existing mines are outside of the proposed Tarkine National Park boundary. In addition, 38 exploration licenses are currently held over areas of the Tarkine, and 10 mines have been proposed over the 2012-2017 period. Of these proposed mines, nine are proposed to be open cut mines. The issue of mining in the Tarkine is highly contentious, as conservationists oppose the environmental damage caused by modern mining methods. The Tarkine is highly prospective for economically-important minerals, and proponents argue that current and proposed mines would take up just 1% of the Tarkine. Conservationists argue that this impact is greater when considering transport routes and damage to water catchments. They point to the acid mine drainage affecting the Whyte River, rendering it orange stained and devoid of aquatic life for six kilometres following the now closed Cleveland mine at Luina, and similar impacts downstream from historic operations of the Savage River mine and the closed Mt Bischoff mine. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is the leaching of sulphuric acid, caused by the chemical reaction between sulphides in the ore and oxygen that can occur once ore is exposed to atmosphere. Start-up mining company Venture Minerals have proposed three open cut mines within the existing reserves and moratorium area, with plans to explore over an additional 37 km of ore bearing skarn mostly in reserves.
Conservation groups such as the Tarkine National Coalition and Operation Groundswell oppose new mines and mining exploration in the Tarkine and are warning of a campaign to surpass the Franklin River campaign of the 1980s. Alternatively, significant local support for mining has also been evidenced, with over 3500 people attending one pro-development rally and the mayors of the four affected council areas publicly condemning the environmental groups.
- "Tasmanian Forest Agreement Verification: Advice to Prime Minister and Premier of Tasmania Interim Reserve Boundaries" (PDF). Government of Tasmania. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
- "The Tarkine national heritage assessment" (PDF). Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
- "Tarkine ecological facts and statistics". WWF. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
- "Gold in Tasmania" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "Osmiridium in Tasmania" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "The Stanley River Tin Field" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "The Mount Bischoff Tin Field" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- Richards, Thomas; Sutherland-Richards, Phillipa (1992). "Archaeology". In: Harries, D.N. (editor). Forgotten Wilderness: North-West Tasmania. A Report to the Australian Heritage Commission. Hobart: Tasmanian Conservation Trust.
- "List map". Tasmanian Government. Search for Tarkine. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
- Siobhan Maiden (13 May 2009). "Where is the Tarkine?". ABC News.
- Eliza Wood (27 October 2011). "A week in the west: the Tarkine". ABC Rural.
- Sean Ford (31 May 2013). "Tarkine officially covers most of NW and West". The Advocate.
- Sean Ford (25 June 2013). "Calls for Green to admit he got it wrong". The Advocate.
- Mark Acheson (1 June 2013). "Tarkine knows no boundaries: Jaensch". The Advocate.
- "Tarkine protest halts iron mine". The Mercury. 11 May 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
- "Tarkine a question of values: mines versus ancient rainforest". University of Tasmania. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
- Friends of the Earth Australia (1991). Chain Reaction Issues 63-72. Friends of the Earth Australia.
- George Augustus Robinson described his meetings with Tarkiner Aborgines in his 1829-1834 diaries.
- Hitchcock, P. "Verification of the Heritage Value of ENGO-Proposed Reserves" (PDF). IVG Forest Conservation Report 5A. Retrieved 2013-02-26.
- "Tarkine World Heritage Values Summary". Australian Government. Retrieved 2013-02-26.
- "Press Conference - Tarkine National Heritage Listing". Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. 8 February 2013.
- "Tarkine National Park". Tarkine National Coalition. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
- "Tasmanian Forests Intergovernmental Agreement between the Commonwealth of Australia and the State of Tasmania" (PDF). Australian Government. 7 August 2011.
- Yard, Annah (7 August 2011). "Gillard signs off on Tasmanian forest deal". ABC News.
- "Legislation Passed Through House of Assembly". The Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
- "Tasmanian Forest Agreement Update". The Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
- "Peace, (im)perfect peace". 1 May 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2013.
- "Report on the Corinna Goldfield" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "Report on Mineral Fields between Waratah and Long Plains" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "Diamonds in Tasmania" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "Mt Bischoff mine, Waratah, Waratah district, Tasmania, Australia". Mindat.org. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "The Bald Hill Osmiridium Field" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "The Mount Balfour Mining Field" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "HISTORY OF MAGNET MINE" (PDF). Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "MAGNET MINE FOSSICKING AREA". Mineral Resources Tasmania. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- "Nic Haygarth: plenty of mining fodder for this Tasmanian historian". Tasmanian Mining. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
- Kempton, Helen (18 November 2012). "Tarkine row at boiling point". The Mercury.
- "Council takes on Tarkine Coalition". ABC News. 19 September 2012.
- "Councilโs issue joint response to Tarkine campaign" (PDF). Waratah Wynyard Council. 14 February 2013.
- Road to Nowhere A review of the video "Manifestations" about protests that took place in the Tarkine in 1994/95. |
Nuts and seeds contain healthful mono- and polyunsaturated fats. These fats are essential to health by managing inflammation and maintaining the normal structure of every cell in our bodies. Saturated and trans fats, found in meats, full-fat dairy, fried and processed foods can be damaging to our bodies by triggering inflammation. Research shows that diets high in these unhealthy fats can lead to a host of diseases. Choosing healthy fats instead can lower cholesterol and decrease inflammation. A study published by "British Medical Journal" in 1998 found that individuals who consumed nuts five times a week had a 35% reduction in heart disease risk.
Fiber helps to slow digestion, which helps you feel full longer. This translates into eating less, which over time can lead to weight loss. The role of fiber does not stop there. Fiber intake from fruits, vegetables, whole grains and nuts helps to decrease cholesterol. There are various mechanisms by which this occurs. First, fiber binds to bile acids, which are needed to digest fat. This process not only decreases fat absorption, but also leads to cholesterol being used to replace bile acids excreted when bound to fiber. Secondly, the fermentation process of fiber that occurs in the intestines causes a short-chain fatty acid called propionate to form. Propionate acts in the liver to prevent the enzyme HMG CoA reductase from triggering production of cholesterol. The "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" published research that found an additional 25% reduction in cholesterol levels after nut consumption that could not be explained from the composition of healthy fat alone. Researchers speculated that fiber and mineral content in nuts were responsible.
A plant-based diet is currently being recommended by the American Cancer Association for the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. This diet includes some lean protein, such as poultry or fish, and is high in fruits, vegetables, legumes and whole grains. It limits red meats, processed meats and refined foods. A study published by "Circulation" in 2008 that followed over 72,000 women for 28 years found that those women who chose a plant-based diet had a greater than 25% decrease in both heart disease and cancer risk. An ounce of nuts provides 6 g of protein on average.
Nuts and seeds contain minerals such as magnesium, zinc, calcium and phosphorus needed for bone development, immunity and energy production. The Nurses' Health Study found that subjects who consumed the highest amount of magnesium, about 350 mg per day, had significantly less inflammation than those with the lowest intake. Inflammation is related to nearly every disease and has direct links to heart disease and type II diabetes. One ounce of sunflower seed kernels contain 100 mg of magnesium. Calcium is a mineral needed for bone development, but it is also needed to send signals to cells and produce energy. One ounce of almonds provides 75 mg of calcium.
In a Nutshell
A handful of nuts, or about 1 oz., is a serving. Aim to consume a variety of nuts and seeds, as they all contain different vitamins, minerals and ratios of healthy fats. This will not only give your taste buds some variety but also ensure that your body is getting adequate amounts of all the different nutrients nuts have to offer. Opt for nuts or seeds in their most natural state, without added oils or salt. So next time you crave something crunchy, skip the potato chips and indulge that craving guilt-free by grabbing some nuts or seeds.
- "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"; Plant-based Foods and Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease; Frank Hu; Sept 2003
- "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"; Nuts and their Bioactive Consitutents Effects on Serum Lipids and Other Factors that Affect Disease Risk; Penny Kris-Etherton et al.; 1999
- "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"; Dietary Fiber Intake and Risk Factors for CVD in French Adults; Denis Lairon et al.; 2005
- "American Journal of Clinical Nutrition; Magnesium Intake and Plasma Concentration of Markers of Systemic Inflammation and Endothelial Dysfunction in Women; Yiqing Song et al.; April 2007
- "British Medical Journal"; Frequent Nut Consmption and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women: Prospective Cohort Study; Frank Hu et al.; November 1998
- "Circulation"; Dietary Patterns and Risk of of Mortality From Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, and All Causes in a Prospective Cohort of Women; Christin Heidemann et al.; 2008 |
ืืื ืื ืืืืืืช (1) ืื ืืืืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืืืข (1) ืืกืืื (1) ืืขืืืช ืกืคืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืืืื (1) ืืจืืืช ืกืืื ืืืืืฃ (1) ืืืงืช ืืืื ืืื (1) ืืืขื ืืืก (1) ืืืืืฃ ืืืืจืื ืืืืฃ (3) ืืืืจืื ืืคืืืืจื (1) ืืืคืื ืืืืงืืช ืขืื ืืื (1) ืืืคืื ืืืืืจืื (2) ืืืคืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื (2) ืืืคืื ืืขืืจ ืืคื ืื (3) ืืืคืื ืืคืฆืขื ืืงื ื (3) ืืืคืื ืืงืืืื (1) ืืืคืืช ืืืื ืืื (1) ืืืคืืช ืขืื ืืื (1) ืืืืฉ ืืกืืงืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืจืืืื (2) ืืชืื ืขืืื ื ืืขืืชืื (1) ืืืืืช ืืืจืฃ (3) ืืขืจืืช ืื ืฉืืื (1) ืืฉืืช ืคืจืืคืืืืก ืืฉืืงืื ืืขืืจ (2) ื ืจืืช ืืืคื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื (1) ืกืืื ืคืจืืคืืืืก (1) ืกืืืจืช (1) ืคืจืืคืืืืก (2) ืคืจืืคืืืืก ืืฉืืื (2) ืคืจืืงืืืคืืืืก (2) ืงืืฆืจ ื ืฉืืื (1) ืงืจื ืืืืืืฉ ืชืื ืขืืจ ืืคื ืื (1) ืงืจื ืืืืคืื ืืืงื ื (1) ืจืืคืื ืืืขื (1) ืฉืืืช ืืฉืืืข (1) ืฉืืงืื ืืขืืจ (4) ืฉืคืขืช (3) ืชืืื ื ื ืืื ื (5)
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As more centralized governments developed during the Later Middle Ages (1000-1500), significant changes took place in the way armies were raised. This included the more extensive use of mercenaries and led to the development of Europeโs professional armies.
While members of the nobility continued to fight primarily as the result of social and feudal obligations, other soldiers increasingly fought for pay. Although in theory some vassals in the later Middle Ages were obliged to serve their lord annually for up to 40 days in the field, if they had the financial ability they would often pay someone to serve in their stead. The limited service requirements of feudal obligations could also cause severe problems concerning a lordโs ability to sustain prolonged warfare. Once a vassalโs required service was over, he could theoretically withdraw if alternative arrangements had not been made. Thus, in addition to calling up their vassals, wealthier lords and kings often employed mercenaries. Successful use of mercenaries was usually dependent on their morale, as they were prone to flee when battles went poorly or pay was tardy. Finally, cities sometimes recruited armies from local populations or, if recruitment efforts were unsuccessful, raised armies through conscription.
Once an army was raised, the issue of logistics was paramount. Supply was so important that it often determined the makeup and size of armies. Among the most important members of an armyโs leadership was the marshal, whose duties included marshaling, or gathering, the forces; organizing the armyโs heavy weapons; and providing for the armyโs constant provisioning. While all soldiers were responsible for providing their personal arms and armor, the leadership was obliged to provide weapons beyond the pocketbook of the common soldier, such as siege engines. Moreover, although soldiers would bring an initial supply of rations for themselves, the armyโs leadership was responsible for plotting a route that allowed for resupply. This was done by maintaining supply chains, purchasing supplies from local populations, or, more often than not, foraging (plundering). Whatever the mean of provisioning, food and drink were a constant worry and often in short supply.
Medieval European armies were normally arranged in three sections (battles or battalions) that included a vanguard, a main body, and a rear guard. The vanguard was the forward division of the army, usually comprised of archers and other soldiers who wielded long-range weapons. Their purpose was to inflict as much damage as possible on an opposing army before the main bodies, composed of infantry and armored cavalry, clashed. The main body comprised the bulk of the armyโs forces, and its performance was usually crucial to the armyโs success. The rear guard was usually comprised of less heavily armored and more agile cavalry, often mounted sergeants who could move quickly around the battlefield and chase down fleeing enemy soldiers. It also guarded the main forceโs rear as well as the armyโs supplies and camp followers (noncombatants who accompanied the army). Each section deployed in either a linear or block formation depending on the situation on the battlefield. While a block formation could better withstand cavalry charges, a linear formation allowed nearly the entire army to take part in a battle.
The importance of the mounted knight in medieval armies was foundational to Europeโs social order. The prohibitive cost of proper arms, armor, and horses limited knighthood primarily to the landed feudal class. The typical knight was generally much more effective on the battlefield than the common infantryman, as he was not only better equipped but also better trained. Knights were usually placed in command of the cavalry (many of whom were less well-armed sergeants from lower social classes), which was used primarily to overrun enemy positions and break up enemy formations. If the cavalry charge was successful, infantry was positioned to exploit any break in the enemy line.
The infantry was composed of pikemen, archers, crossbowmen, swordsmen, and others who fought on foot and were usually joined by knights and other cavalry who had lost their horses. While some infantry were experienced warriors, many were poorly trained and only sporadically went into combat under the leadership of their local lords. Pikemen defended against enemy cavalry by pointing a concentrated number of pikes (long spears) in the direction of an onrushing cavalry charge, while archers could fill the sky with arrows to devastate the ranks of their approaching opponents. After several volleys, the archers could step aside to allow the cavalry and other infantry to engage their then weakened opponents. When the main bodies of two armies clashed on the battlefield, infantrymen armed with swords, battle-axes, and similar weapons provided screening for the cavalry and were essential for hand-to-hand combat. As the battlefield became chaotic, communication was usually limited to audible commands (sometimes produced by musical instruments), messengers, or visual signals that included the use of banners, standards, or flags.
The development of effective siege warfare was necessitated by the common use of defensive walls to protect medieval cities. Many cities also contained a keep, or elevated fortification, for additional protection in case the walls were breached by an enemy. Medieval strategists understood that the most effective way for an army to overcome defensive walls was simply to knock them down and rush through any openings. This was less risky than maneuvers that involved scaling ladders while fending off the attacks of defenders who benefited from their elevated position. Consequently, a variety of powerful siege engines that included the mangonel, the ballista, and the trebuchet were used to launch heavy projectiles at resisting cities and batter their defenses. Additionally, attacking armies used siege towers to position soldiers on a level equal to those defending a city wall, while forces on the ground would also employ battering rams to knock down gates or sappers to undermine walls.
Archers also played an important role in siege warfare. Talented marksmen could wreak havoc on the opposing armies of both sides. The skill and range of archers defending a cityโs walls determined the placement of the attacking armyโs camp, as it was important to make sure that the attackers were out of range of arrows. In the case of those who used the powerful English longbow rather than the more common short bow, archers had a much higher rate of fire and effective range, which made them especially valuable for use in siege warfare and by the vanguard on the battlefield.
Technological developments also aided armies defending cities or castles under siege. Concentric castles were developed during the period of the crusades, as were architectural improvements, such as the round tower, to make walls stronger and more defensible. Deeper wells allowed better access to water during lengthy sieges, and small openings in the wall for defending archers provided them protected positions. Attackers were also repelled from city walls with boiling oil or water as well as molten lead. Yet the most revolutionary changes in tactics, strategy, equipment, and organization emerged with the introduction of gunpowder to European battlefields in the fourteenth century. Powerful cannon tipped siege warfare in favor of the attacking army, while hand cannon and other firearms made the armor of knights obsolete. This led to the diminished importance of the mounted nobility, which contributed to the rise of full-time professional armies in the early modern period.
The walls of Nicosia (1567) are a typical example of Italian Renaissance military architecture that survives to this day.
At the beginning of the Renaissance, fortifications had to be completely reconsidered as a result of developments in artillery. During the Middle Ages, well-stocked fortresses with a source of potable water stood a fairly good chance of resisting siege warfare. Such assaults usually began in the spring or early summer, and hostile troops returned home at the onset of cold weather if success did not appear imminent. Because repeated artillery bombardment of medieval structures often yielded rapid results, warfare continued year-round by the latter 15th century. Even though winter might be approaching, military commanders persisted in barrages of artillery as long as supplies were available for their troops, certain that they could break the siege in a few more days or weeks. A new type of defensive fortification was needed, and it was designed in Italy.
Medieval fortified structures consisted of high walls and towers with slot windows, constructed of brick or stone. These buildings were designed to withstand a long siege by hostile forces. The only ways to capture such a fortification were (1) to roll a wooden siege tower against the wall and climb over, but such towers were quite flammable and could be threatened by fiery objects catapulted over the wall; (2) to batter down part of the wall, under an assault of arrows, hot pitch, and other weapons hailing down from above; and (3) to tunnel under the foundation, a process that could take a very long time. Conventional towers and high walls were no match for artillery bombardment, which could be accomplished from a distance with no threat to the invading army. In addition, the walls and towers of medieval fortifications were not equipped for the placement and utilization of heavy defensive artillery. During the 15th century, European towns began to construct low, thick walls against their main defensive walls, permitting pieces of artillery to be rolled along the top and positioned as needed. The outer walls were often sloped outwardly or slightly rounded to deflect projectiles at unpredictable angles back toward the enemy. Bulwarks, usually U-shaped formations of earth, timber, and stone, were built to protect the main gate and to provide defensive artillery posts. In both central and northern Europe, many towns constructed gun towers whose sole purpose was the deployment of defensive artillery. These structures had guns at several levels, but usually lighter, lower caliber weapons than those used on the walls. Heavier weapons would have created unbearable noise and smoke in the small rooms in which they were discharged. In several conventional medieval towers, the roof was removed and a gun platform install.
Near the close of the 15th century, Italian architects and engineers invented a new type of defensive trace, improving upon the bulwark design. In the โItalian traceโ [trace italienne -Star fort] triangle-shaped bastions with thick, outward-sloping sides were pointed out from the main defensive wall, with their top at the same level as the wall. At Civitavecchia, a port near Rome used by the papal navy, the city walls were fortified with bastions in 1520-the first example of bastions completely circling a defensive wall. Bastions solved several problems of the bulwark system, especially with bastions joined to the wall and not placed a short distance away, where troops could be cut off by enemy troops. The most important improvement was the elimination of the blind spot caused by round towers and bulwarks; gunners had a complete sweep of enemy soldiers in the ditches below. Development of the bastion design in Italy was a direct response to the 1494 invasion by the troops of Charles VIII and the superior artillery of France at that time, and to continued threats from the Turks. Bastion-dominated fortifications were constructed along the Mediterranean coast to create a line of defense against naval attacks. Several such fortifications were built in northern Europe, beginning with Antwerp in 1544. In some instances fortifications were not feasible, for reasons such as very hilly terrain or opposition from estate owners reluctant to lose property, and in some regions military threat was not extreme enough to warrant the effort of constructing new fortifications. In such cases, an existing fortress might be renovated and strengthened to create a citadel. Municipalities often opposed construction of citadels, which symbolized tyranny, because they were imposed on defeated cities by warlords. Citadels proved to be an effective means, however, for providing a protective enclosure during enemy attacks. By the mid-16th century, the expense of fortifications was exorbitant. Henry VIII, for example, was spending more than one-quarter of his entire income on such structures, and the kingdom of Naples was expending more than half.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND INFLUENCE OF FIREARM
After countless unsuccessful experiments, lethal accidents and ineffective trials, firearms research and techniques gradually improved, and chroniclers report many types of gunsโmainly used in siege warfareโwith numerous names such as veuglaire, pot-de-fer, bombard, vasii, petara and so on. In the second half of the 14th century, firearms became more efficient, and it seemed obvious that cannons were the weapons of the future. Venice successfully utilized cannons against Genoa in 1378. During the Hussite war from 1415 to 1436, the Czech Hussite rebels employed firearms in combination with a mobile tactic of armored carts (wagenburg) enabling them to defeat German knights. Firearms contributed to the end of the Hundred Yearsโ War and allowed the French king Charles VII to defeat the English in Auray in 1385, Rouen in 1418 and Orleans in 1429. Normandy was reconquered in 1449 and Guyenne in 1451. Finally, the battle of Chatillon in 1453 was won by the French artillery. This marked the end of the Hundred Yearsโ War; the English, divided by the Wars of the Roses, were driven out of France, keeping only Calais. The same year saw the Turks taking Constantinople, which provoked consternation, agitation and excitement in the whole Christian world.
In that siege and seizure of the capital of the Eastern Roman empire, cannon and gunpowder achieved spectacular success. To breach the city walls, the Turks utilized heavy cannons which, if we believe the chronicler Critobulos of Imbros, shot projectiles weighing about 500 kg. Even if this is exaggerated, big cannons certainly did exist by that time and were more common in the East than in the West, doubtless because the mighty potentates of the East could better afford them. Such monsters included the Ghent bombard, called โDulle Grietโ; the large cannon โMons Bergโ which is today in Edinburgh; and the Great Gun of Mohammed II, exhibited today in London. The latter, cast in 1464 by Sultan Munir Ali, weighed 18 tons and could shoot a 300 kg stone ball to a range of one kilometer.
A certain number of technical improvements took place in the 15th century. One major step was the amelioration of powder quality. Invented about 1425, corned powder involved mixing saltpeter, charcoal and sulphur into a soggy paste, then sieving and drying it, so that each individual grain or corn contained the same and correct proportion of ingredients. The process obviated the need for mixing in the field. It also resulted in more efficient combustion, thus improving safety, power, range and accuracy.
Another important step was the development of foundries, allowing cannons to be cast in one piece in iron and bronze (copper alloyed with tin). In spite of its expense, casting was the best method to produce practical and resilient weapons with lighter weight and higher muzzle velocity. In about 1460, guns were fitted with trunnions. These were cast on both sides of the barrel and made sufficiently strong to carry the weight and bear the shock of discharge, and permit the piece to rest on a two-wheeled wooden carriage. Trunnions and wheeled mounting not only made for easier transportation and better maneuverability but also allowed the gunners to raise and lower the barrels of their pieces.
One major improvement was the introduction in about 1418 of a very efficient projectile: the solid iron shot. Coming into use gradually, the solid iron cannonball could destroy medieval crenellation, ram castle-gates, and collapse towers and masonry walls. It broke through roofs, made its way through several stories and crushed to pieces all it fell upon. One single well-aimed projectile could mow down a whole row of soldiers or cut down a splendid armored knight.
About 1460, mortars were invented. A mortar is a specific kind of gun whose projectile is shot with a high, curved trajectory, between 45ยฐ and 75ยฐ, called plunging fire. Allowing gunners to lob projectiles over high walls and reach concealed objectives or targets protected behind fortifications, mortars were particularly useful in sieges. In the Middle Ages they were characterized by a short and fat bore and two big trunnions. They rested on massive timber-framed carriages without wheels, which helped them withstand the shock of firing; the recoil force was passed directly to the ground by means of the carriage. Owing to such ameliorations, artillery progressively gained dominance, particularly in siege warfare.
Individual guns, essentially scaled down artillery pieces fitted with handles for the firer, appeared after the middle of the 14th century. Various models of portable small arms were developed, such as the clopi or scopette, bombardelle, baton-de-feu, handgun, and firestick, to mention just a few.
In purely military terms, these early handguns were more of a hindrance than an asset on the battlefield, for they were expensive to produce, inaccurate, heavy, and time-consuming to load; during loading the firer was virtually defenseless. However, even as rudimentary weapons with poor range, they were effective in their way, as much for attackers as for soldiers defending a fortress.
The harquebus was a portable gun fitted with a hook that absorbed the recoil force when firing from a battlement. It was generally operated by two men, one aiming and the other igniting the propelling charge. This weapon evolved in the Renaissance to become the matchlock musket in which the fire mechanism consisted of a pivoting S-shaped arm. The upper part of the arm gripped a length of rope impregnated with a combustible substance and kept alight at one end, called the match. The lower end of the arm served as a trigger: When pressed it brought the glowing tip of the match into contact with a small quantity of gunpowder, which lay in a horizontal pan fixed beneath a small vent in the side of the barrel at its breech. When this priming ignited, its flash passed through the vent and ignited the main charge in the barrel, expelling the spherical lead bullet.
The wheel lock pistol was a small harquebus taking its name from the city Pistoia in Tuscany where the weapon was first built in the 15th century. The wheel lock system, working on the principle of a modern cigarette lighter, was reliable and easy to handle, especially for a combatant on horseback. But its mechanism was complicated and therefore expensive, and so its use was reserved for wealthy civilian hunters, rich soldiers and certain mounted troops.
Portable cannons, handguns, harquebuses and pistols were muzzle-loading and shot projectiles that could easily penetrate any armor. Because of the power of firearms, traditional Middle Age weaponry become obsolete; gradually, lances, shields and armor for both men and horses were abandoned.
The destructive power of gunpowder allowed the use of mines in siege warfare. The role of artillery and small firearms become progressively larger; the new weapons changed the nature of naval and siege warfare and transformed the physiognomy of the battlefield. This change was not a sudden revolution, however, but a slow process. Many years elapsed before firearms became widespread, and many traditional medieval weapons were still used in the 16th century.
One factor militating against artilleryโs advancement in the 15th century was the amount of expensive material necessary to equip an army. Cannons and powder were very costly items and also demanded a retinue of expensive attendant specialists for design, transport and operation. Consequently firearms had to be produced in peacetime, and since the Middle Ages had rudimentary ideas of economics and fiscal science, only a few kings, dukes and high prelates possessed the financial resources to build, purchase, transport, maintain and use such expensive equipment in numbers that would have an appreciable impression in war.
Conflicts with firearms became an economic business involving qualified personnel backed up by traders, financiers and bankers as well as the creation of comprehensive industrial structures. The development of firearms meant the gradual end of feudalism. Firearms also brought about a change in the mentality of combat because they created a physical and mental distance between warriors. Traditional mounted knights, fighting each other at close range within the rules of a certain code, were progressively replaced by professional infantrymen who were anonymous targets for one another, while local rebellious castles collapsed under royal artilleryโs fire. Expensive artillery helped to hasten the process by which central authority was restored.
The collapse of the monetary economy in Western Europe following the fall of Rome left just two areas where gold coin was still used in the 10th century: southern Italy and southern Spain (al-Andalus). Ready gold drew mercenaries to wars in those regions as carrion creatures draw near dead flesh. Also able to pay in coin for military specialists and hardened veterans was the Byzantine Empire, along with the Muslim states it opposed and fought for several centuries. The rise of mercenaries in Western Europe in the 11th century as a money economy resumed disturbed the social order and was received with wrath and dismay by the clergy and service nobility. Early forms of monetary service did not necessarily involve straight wages. They included fief money and scutage. But by the end of the 13th century paid military service was the norm in Europe. This meant that local bonds were forming in many places and a concomitant sense of โforeignnessโ attached to long-service soldiers. Mercenaries were valued for their military expertise but now feared and increasingly despised for their perceived moral indifference to the causes for which they fought. Ex-mercenary bands (routiers, Free Companies) were commonplace in France in the 12th century and a social and economic scourge wherever they moved during the Hundred Yearsโ War (1337-1453). Their main weapon was the crossbow, on land and at sea. In the galley wars of the Mediterranean many Genoese, Pisan, and Venetian crossbowmen hired out as specialist marine archers. Much of the Reconquista in Spain was fueled by the mercenary impulse and concomitant necessity for armies to live off the land. The hard methods and cruel attitudes learned by Iberians while fighting Moors were then applied in the Americas by quasi-mercenary conquistadores. Mercenaries- โcondottieri,โ or foreign โcontractorsโ-also played a major part in the wars of the city-states of the Italian Renaissance.
French โgen dโarmesโ and Swiss pikemen and halberdiers fought for Lorraine at Nancy (1477). By the start of the 15th century Swiss companies hired out with official Cantonal approval or as free bands who elected their officers and went to Italy to fight as condottieri. With the end of the wars of the Swiss Confederation against France and Burgundy, Swiss soldiers of fortune formed a company known as โdas torechte Lebenโ (roughly, โthe mad lifeโ) and fought for pay under a Banner displaying a town idiot and a pig. Within four years of Nancy some 6,000 Swiss were hired by Louis XI. In 1497, Charles VIII (โThe Affableโ) of France engaged 100 Swiss halberdiers as his personal bodyguard (โGarde de Cent Suissesโ). In either form, the Swiss became the major mercenary people of Europe into the 16th century. โPas dโargent, pas de Suissesโ (โno money, no Swissโ) was a baleful maxim echoed by many sovereigns and generals. Mercenaries of all regional origins filled out the armies of Charles V, and those of his son, Philip II, as well as their enemies during the wars of religion of the 16th and 17th centuries. By that time Swiss mercenaries who still used pikes (and many did) were largely employed to guard the artillery or trenches or supplies. Similarly, by the late 16th century German Landsknechte were still hired for battle as shock troops but they were considered undisciplined and perfectly useless in a siege.
In Poland in the 15th century most mercenaries were Bohemians who fought under the flag of St. George, which had a red cross on a white background. When Bohemian units found themselves on opposite sides of a battlefield they usually agreed that one side would adopt a white cross on a red background while their countrymen on the other side used the standard red-on-white flag of St. George. In the Polish-Prussian and Teutonic Knights campaigns of the mid-15th century the Brethren-by this point too few to do all their own fighting-hired German, English, Scots, and Irish mercenaries to fill out their armies. During the โWar of the Citiesโ (1454-1466) German mercenaries were critical to the victory of the Teutonic Knights at Chojnice (September 18, 1454). When the Order ran out of money, however, Bohemian soldiers-for-hire who held the key fortress and Teutonic capital of Marienburg for the Knights sold it to a besieging Polish army and departed, well paid and unscathed by even a token fight.
From the end of the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282-1302), the Italians tried to decide for themselves what government they wanted, resulting in conflict between the Ghibellines-who supported Imperial rule-and the Guelfs-who supported papal rule. The Guelfs were successful in the first decade of the fourteenth century, ironically at much the same time the papacy moved to Avignon in 1308. Suddenly freed from either Imperial or papal influence, the large number of sovereign states in northern and central Italy began to try to exert control over their neighbors. Florence, Milan, and Venice, and to a lesser extent Lucca, Siena, Mantua, and Genoa, all profited from the early-fourteenth-century military situation by exerting their independence. But this independence came at a price. The inhabitants of the north Italian city-states had enough wealth to be able to pay for others to fight for them and they frequently employed soldiers, condottieri in their language (from the condotte, the contract hiring these soldiers) and mercenaries in ours. Indeed, the immense wealth of the Italian city-states in the late Middle Ages meant that the number of native soldiers was lower than elsewhere in Europe at the same time, but it meant the cost of waging war was much higher.
One might think that having to add the pay for condottieri to the normal costs of war would have limited the numbers of military conflicts in late medieval Italy. But that was not the case and, in what was an incredibly bellicose time, Italy was one of the most fought over regions in Europe. Most of these wars were small, with one cityโs mercenary forces facing anotherโs, but they were very frequent. They gave employment to a large number of condottieri, who in turn fought the wars, which in turn employed the condottieri. An obvious self-perpetuating circle developed. It was fueled by a number of factors: the wealth of northern Italy; the greed of wealthier Italians to acquire more wealth by occupying neighboring cities and lands (or to keep these cities from competing by incorporating their economies); their unwillingness themselves to fight the wars; and the availability of a large number of men who were not only willing to do so, but who saw regular employment in their mercenary companies as a means to comfort, wealth, and often titles and offices. In 1416, one condottierie, Braccio da Montone, became lord of Perugia, while a short time later two others, condottieri sons of the condottiere Muccio Attendolo Sforza, Alessandro and Francesco, became the Master of Pesaro and Duke of Milan, respectively. Other condottieri became governors of Urbino, Mantua, Rimini, and Ferrara during the fifteenth century.
Venice and Genoa continued to be the greatest rivals among the northern Italian city-states. Both believed the Mediterranean to be theirs, and they refused to share it with anyone, including Naples and Aragon, nor, of course, with each other. This became a military issue at the end of the fifteenth century. The common practice was a monopoly trading contract. Veniceโs monopoly with the crusader states ceased when the crusaders were forced from the Middle East in 1291, although they were able to sustain their trade with the victorious Muslim powers. And Veniceโs contract with Constantinople was abandoned with the fall of the Latin Kingdom in 1261, only to be replaced by a similar contract with Genoa that would last till the cityโs fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Frequently during the late Middle Ages, this rivalry turned to warfare, fought primarily on the sea, as was fitting for two naval powers. Venice almost always won these engagements, most notably the War of Chioggia (1376-1381), and there seems little doubt that such defeats led to a weakening of the political independence and economic strength of Genoa. Although Venice never actually conquered Genoa, nor does it appear that the Venetian rulers considered this to be in their cityโs interest, other principalities did target the once powerful city-state. Florence held Genoa for a period of three years (1353-1356), and Naples, Aragon, and Milan vied for control in the fifteenth century. Seeking defensive assistance, the Republic of Genoa sought alliance with the Kingdom of France, and it is in this context that their most prominent military feature is set, the Genoese mercenary. During the Hundred Years War, Genoa supplied France with naval and, more famously, crossbowmen mercenaries, the latter ironically provided by a city whose experience in land warfare was rather thin.
Before the fifteenth century, the Republic of Venice had also rarely participated in land campaigns-except for leading the forces of the Second Crusade in their attack of Constantinople in 1204. Seeing the sea not only as a provider of economic security but also as defense for the city, Venetian doges and other city officials had rarely pursued campaigns against their neighbors. However, in 1404- 1405, a Venetian army, once again almost entirely mercenaries, attacked to the west and captured Vicenza, Verona, and Padua. In 1411-1412 and again in 1418-1420, they attacked to the northeast, against Hungary, and captured Dalmatia, Fruili, and Istria. So far it had been easy-simply pay for enough condottieri to fight the wars, and reap the profits of conquest. But in 1424 Venice ran into two Italian city-states that had the same military philosophy they did, and both were as wealthy: Milan and Florence. The result was thirty years of protracted warfare.
The strategy of all three of these city-states during this conflict was to employ more and more mercenaries. At the start, the Venetian army numbered 10,000-12,000; by 1432 this figure had grown to 18,000; and by 1439 it was 25,000, although it declined to 20,000 during the 1440s and 1450s. The other two city-states kept pace. At almost any time after 1430 more than 50,000 soldiers were fighting in northern Italy. The economy and society of the whole region were damaged, with little gain by any of the protagonists during the war. At its end, a negotiated settlement, Venice gained little, but it also lost very little. The city went back to war in 1478-1479, the Pazzi War, and again in 1482-1484, the War of Ferrara. The Florentines and Milanese participated in both as well.
After the acquisition of Vicenza, Verona, and Padua in 1405 Venice shared a land frontier with Milan. From that time forward Milan was the greatest threat to Venice and her allies, and to practically any other city-state, town, or village in northern Italy. Milan also shared a land frontier with Florence, and if Milanese armies were not fighting Venetian armies, they were fighting Florentine armies, sometimes taking on both at the same time.
Their animosity predates the later Middle Ages, but it intensified with the wealth and ability of both sides to hire condottieri. This led to wars with Florence in 1351-1354 and 1390-1402, and with Florence and Venice (in league together) in 1423-1454, 1478-1479, and 1482-1484. In those rare times when not at war with Florence or Venice, Milanese armies often turned on other neighboring towns, for example, capturing Pavia and Monza among other places.
Perhaps the most telling sign of Milanโs bellicosity is the rise to power of its condottiere ruler, Francesco Sforza, in 1450. Sforza had been one of Milanโs condottieri captains for a number of years, following in the footsteps of his father, Muccio, who had been in the city-stateโs employ off and on since about 1400. Both had performed diligently, successfully, and, at least for condottieri, loyally, and they had become wealthy because of it. Francesco had even married the illegitimate daughter of the reigning Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti. But during the most recent wars, after he had assumed the lordship of Pavia, and in the wake of Filippoโs death in 1447, the Milanese decided not to renew Francescoโs contract. In response, the condottiere used his army to besiege the city, which capitulated in less than a year. Within a very short time, Francesco Sforza had insinuated himself into all facets of Milanese rule; his brother even became the cityโs archbishop in 1454, and his descendants continued to hold power in the sixteenth century.
Genoa, Venice, and Milan all fought extensively throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, but Florence played the most active role in Italian warfare of the later Middle Ages. A republican city-state, although in the fifteenth century controlled almost exclusively by the Medici family, Florence had been deeply involved in the Guelf and Ghibelline conflicts of the thirteenth century, serving as the center of the Guelf party. But though the Guelfs were successful this did not bring peace to Florence and when, in 1301, they split into two parties-the blacks and the whites-the fighting continued until 1307. Before this feud was even concluded, however, the Florentine army, numbering 7,000, mostly condottieri, attacked Pistoia, capturing the city in 1307. In 1315 in league with Naples, Florentine forces attempted to take Pisa, but were defeated. In 1325, they were again defeated while trying to take Pisa and Lucca. Between 1351 and 1354 they fought the Milanese. From 1376 to 1378 they fought against papal forces hired at and drawn from Rome in what was known as the War of the Eight Saints, but the Florentines lost more than they gained. Forming the League of Bologna with Bologna, Padua, Ferrara, and other northern Italian cities, they warred against Milan from 1390 to 1402. While they were initially successful against the Milanese, Gian Galeazzo, Duke of Milan, was eventually able to bring Pisa, Lucca, and Venice onto his cityโs side, and once again Florence was defeated. In 1406 Florence annexed Pisa without armed resistance. But war broke out with Milan again in 1423 lasting until 1454; Florence would ally with Venice in 1425, and with the papacy in 1440. Battles were lost on the Serchio in 1450 and at Imola in 1434, but won at Anghiara in 1440. Finally, after the Peace of Lodi was signed in 1454 ending the conflict, a league was formed between Florence, Venice, and Milan that lasted for 25 years. But, after the murder of Giuliano deโ Medici and the attempted murder of his brother, Lorenzo-Pope Sixtus IV was complicit in the affair-war broke out in 1478 with the papacy and lasted until the death of Sixtus in 1484. In addition, interspersed with these external wars were numerous rebellions within Florence itself. In 1345 a revolt broke out at the announcement of the bankruptcy of the Bardi and Peruzzi banking firms; in 1368 the dyers revolted; in 1378 there was the Ciompi Revolt; and in 1382 the popolo grasso revolt. None of these were extensive or successful, but they did disrupt social, economic, and political life in the city until permanently put to rest by the rise to power of the Medicis.
Why Florence continued to wage so many wars in the face of so many defeats and revolts is simple to understand. Again one must see the role of the condottieri in Florentine military strategy; as long as the governors of the city-state were willing to pay for military activity and as long as there were soldiers willing to take this pay, wars would continue until the wealth of the town ran out. In Renaissance Florence this did not happen. Take, for example, the employment of perhaps the most famous condottiere, Sir John Hawkwood. Coming south in 1361, during one of the lulls in fighting in the Hundred Years War, the Englishman Hawkwood joined the White Company, a unit of condottieri already fighting in Italy. In 1364, while in the pay of Pisa, the White Company had its first encounter with Florence when, unable to effectively besiege the city, they sacked and pillaged its rich suburbs. In 1375, now under the leadership of Hawkwood, the White Company made an agreement with the Florentines not to attack them, only to discover later that year, now in the pay of the papacy, that they were required to fight in the Florentine-controlled Romagna. Hawkwood decided that he was not actually attacking Florence, and the White Company conquered Faenza in 1376 and Cesena in 1377. However, perhaps because the papacy ordered the massacres of the people of both towns, a short time later Hawkwood and his condottieri left their papal employment. They did not stay unemployed for long, however; Florence hired them almost immediately, and for the next seventeen years, John Hawkwood and the White Company fought diligently, although not always successfully, for the city. All of the companyโs condottieri became quite wealthy, but Hawkwood especially prospered. He was granted three castles outside the city, a house in Florence, a life pension of 2,000 florins, a pension for his wife, Donnina Visconti, payable after his death, and dowries for his three daughters, above his contracted pay. Florentines, it seems, loved to lavish their wealth on those whom they employed to carry out their wars, whether they were successful or not.
In comparison to the north, the south of Italy was positively peaceful. Much of this came from the fact that there were only two powers in southern Italy. The Papal States, with Rome as their capital, did not have the prosperity of the northern city-states, and in fact for most of the later Middle Ages they were, essentially, bankrupt. But economic problems were not the only matter that disrupted Roman life. From 1308 to 1378 there was no pope in Rome and from then until 1417 the Roman pontiff was one of two (and sometimes three) popes sitting on the papal throne at the same time. But even after 1417 the papacy was weak, kept that way by a Roman populace not willing to see a theocracy return to power. Perhaps this is the reason why the Papal States suffered so many insurrections. In 1347 Cola di Rienzo defeated the Roman nobles and was named Tribune by the Roman people. He governed until those same people overthrew and executed him in 1354. In 1434 the Columna family established a republican government in the Papal States, forcing the ruling pope, Eugenius IV, to flee to Florence. He did not return and reestablish his government until 1343. Finally, in 1453, a plot to put another republican government in place was halted only by the general dislike for its leader, Stefano Porcaro, who was executed for treason.
One might think that such political and economic turmoil would not breed much military confidence, yet it did not seem to keep the governors of the Papal States from hiring mercenaries, making alliances with other Italian states, or pursuing an active military role, especially in the central parts of Italy. Usually small papal armies were pitted against much larger northern city-state forces, yet often these small numbers carried the day, perhaps not winning many battles, but often winning the wars, certainly as much because of the Papal States alliances as its military prowess. This meant that despite all the obvious upheaval in the Papal States during the later Middle Ages, at the beginning of the 1490s it was much larger and more powerful than it had ever been previously.
Bibliography Contamine, Philippe. War in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. France, John. Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000-1300. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999. Lepage, Jean-Denis G. G. Medieval Armies and Weapons in Western Europe: An Illustrated History. Jefferson, NC, and London: McFarland, 2005. Nicholson, Helen. Medieval Warfare. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Nicolle, David. French Medieval Armies, 1000-1300. Oxford, UK: Osprey, 1991. |
ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืื 12, ืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืืืขืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืื. ืืืจืืข ืืช ืืืฆืืื ืื ืขืจื ืืจืื ืืืื 12 ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืืืืจืื, ืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืขืจื ืืืงืืช ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืจ ืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืงืื ื. ืืื ืกืคืง ืื ืื ืืืจื ืืื ื ืขืจืช ืืช ืืฆืืื, ืืขืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืข ืืืืืืจ ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืื ืืขื ื ืขืจืืช ืืืืชืจืืช ืขื ืืืจืืข ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืืจืื ืืื"ื, ืื ืืคื ื ืืฉื ืชืืื, ืคืจืฆื ืืืืื ื ืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื ืืืืืื ืขืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืืช ืจืืืช. ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ื ืืืืืช ืื ืืืกืืช ืืื"ื. ืืืื ืืืจ ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืก ืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื"ื ืขื ืืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืงืืจืื ื, ืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืฉ ืื ืืขื ืืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ื ืชืื ื ืืืืืงื ืืืชืืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ื ืชืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืจืืข.
ืื ืื ืขืืฉืื?
ืื ืืื ืืืช ืื ืขืจื ืืขืื ืืื ืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืื"ื, ื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืจืงืืืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฉื ืืืฉืฉ ืืืืก ืืืฆืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืชื ืืขืื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืื ืขืจื ืฉืืืืืช ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืก ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืื"ื, ืขืืืื ืืชืื ื ืืงืคืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ื ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืื ืืืงืจื ืืชืฆืืจืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืจืฆื. ืจืืฉืืช, ืืงืคืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขื ืืฉืจ ืืืืข ืืืืื ื ืฉืื ื ืชืื ื ืืชืืืืื ืกืืืจืื ืขื ื ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืกื. ืืงืคืืื ืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืฆืืข ืืืืงืช ืงืืจืื ื ืืคื ื ืืืืกื ืืืืจื ืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืฆืืจื ืืื ืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืช. ืืืื ืืืงืคืื ืืืงืจ ืืขืืงืจ ืืืงืืืืช ืคืชืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืชืงืืืืืืช ืจืฆืื ืืืช ืฉื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืงืคืื ืขื ืขืืืช ืืกืื ืืื ืืงืื ืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืื ื ืืืฉืืช. ืขื ืืฃ ืืงืืจืื ื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ื ืขืื ืืืื ื ืืื"ื, ืื ืืฉืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืช ื ืืื.
ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืื"ื?
ืื ืืื ืืืช ืืชื ืืืฉืฉืื ืืืฉืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืื"ื ืืขืช ืื ืืืืืช ืื ืฉืืขืืืคืื ืคืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืขื ืขื ืฉืืืฆื ืืจืืข, ืืฉืื ืฉืชืืขื ืื ืืฉ ืื ืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืข ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืชืื.
ืจืืฉืืช, ืชืืื ื ืืชื ืืขืจืื ืืืจืืข ืืืืื. ืืืืจืืข ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืจืืชืื ืฉื ืื ืขืจื ืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืขื ืืืคื ืฆืขืืจ ืืืื: ืืืขืืื ืฉืขืืจื ืืืจืืขื ืืจ ืืฆืืื ืืืช ืืฆืืื ืืขืื. ืืืจืืข ืืขืื ืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืง ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ื ืขืจื ืฉืืืืืช ืืช ืืฆืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืขืืืจ ืืืืจืืข ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืจืงืฆืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืงื ืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืจืืข ืืฆืขืืจ.
ืื ืื ืขืจื ืขืืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื, ืืืื ืืืขืช ืื ื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืคืฉืจ ืืฆืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืจืฅ, ืืคืฉืจ ืืขืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืคืื, ืืืง ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืช, ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืจ ื ืืคืื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืขืจื ืขืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืขืืืจื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื.
ืืืง ืืช ืืฆืืื โ ืืชืืกืคืช ืืืืฉืืืช
ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืจืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืจืืข ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืช ืืฆืืื. ืืืง ืืขืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืื ืคืื ืืืืชืจ ืืฉืจ ืืฆื ืืื ืืขื ืืง ืืื ืืืืืชื ืื ืขืจื ืฉืืืืืช ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืฆื ืฉื ื ืืขื ืืง ืื ืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืจืืข ืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืชืืฉืืจ ืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช. ืืืืื ืฉืขืืืจ ืืคืงื ืฉื ืืืง ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืงืฆืืขื ืืื ืืกื, ืืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืืช ืื ืืืืงืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืง ืืขืื ืื ืืืืืข ืืืคืืง ืืช ืืืงืกืืืื ืืืฆืืืืืื ืืืืืืจืื.
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- Third gender
The terms third gender and third sex describe individuals who are considered to be neither women nor men, as well as the social category present in those societies who recognize three or more
The state of being neither
malenor femalemay be understood in relation to the individual's biological sex, gender role, gender identity, or sexual orientation. To different cultures or individuals, a third sex or gender may represent an intermediate state between men and women, a state of being both (such as "the spirit of a man in the body of a woman"), the state of being neither ( neuter), the ability to cross or swap genders, or another category altogether independent of male and female. This last definition is favored by those who argue for a strict interpretation of the "third gender" concept.
The term has been used to describe Hijras of
Indiaand Pakistan, [Agrawal, Anuja (1997). "Gendered Bodies: The Case of the โThird Genderโ in India," Contributions to Indian Sociology, n.s., 31 (1997): 273โ97] Fa'afafineof Polynesia, and Sworn virgins of the Balkans,Young, Antonia (2000). "Women Who Become Men: Albanian Sworn Virgins." ISBN 1-85973-335-2] among others, and is also used by many of such groups and individuals to describe themselves. In the Western world, lesbian, gay, transgenderand intersexpeople have been described as belonging to a third sex or gender, although some object to this characterization.
The term "third" is usually understood to mean "other"; some anthropologists and sociologists have described fourth, [Roscoe, Will (2000). "Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America". Palgrave Macmillan (
June 17 2000) ISBN 0-312-22479-6
See also: Trumbach, Randolph (1994). "Londonโs Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture." In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111-36. New York: Zone (MIT).] fifth,Graham, Sharyn (2001), [http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit66/bissu2.htm Sulawesi's fifth gender] , Inside Indonesia, April-June 2001.] and manyMartin, M. Kay and Voorhies, Barbara (1975). "Supernumerary Sexes," chapter 4 of Female of the Species (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), 23.] genders.
Third sex in biology
In animals that exhibit
sexual dimorphism, a number of individuals within a population will not differentiate sexually into bodies that are typically maleor female. In non-human animals, this is called hermaphroditism, and in humans, it is called intersexuality. The incidence varies from population to population, and also varies depending on how femaleness and maleness are understood. Biologist and gender theorist Anne Fausto-Sterlingproposed in a 1993 article that five sexes may be more adequate than just two, for describing human bodies. [cite journal |author=Fausto-Sterling, Anne |title=The Five Sexes: Why male and female are not enough|journal= The Sciences|year=1993|issue=May/April 1993|pages=20โ25 [http://www.mtsu.edu/~phollowa/5sexes.html Article online] .]
In addition to male and female sexes (defined as the production of small or large
gametes), evolutionary biologist Joan Roughgardenargues that more than two " genders" exist in hundreds of animal species.Roughgarden, Joan (2004). "Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People". University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24073-1 Especially chapter 6, "Multiple Gender Families", pp. 75 - 105.] Species with one female and two male genders include red deerwho have two male morphs, one with antlers and one without, known as "hummels" or "notts", as well as several species of fish such as plainfin midshipman fishand coho salmon. [Ibid, p. 76 - 78] Species with one female and three male genders include bluegillsunfish, where four distinct size and color classes exhibit different social and reproductive behaviours, as well as the spotted European wrasse("Symphodus ocellatus"), a cichlid("Oreochromis mossambicus") and a kind of tree lizard, " Urosaurus ornatus". [pp. 78 - 88] Species with two male and two female genders include the white-throated sparrow, in which male and female morphs are either white-striped or tan-striped. White-striped individuals are more aggressive and defend territory, while tan-striped individuals provide more parental care. Ninety percent of breeding pairs are between a tan striped and a white striped sparrow. [Ibid, pp 89 - 90] Finally, the highest number of distinct male and female morphs or "genders" within a species is found in the side-blotched lizard, which has five altogether: orange-throated males, who are "ultra-dominant, high testosterone" controllers of multiple females; blue-throated males, who are less aggressive and guard only one female; yellow-throated males, who don't defend territories at all but cluster around the territories of orange males; orange-throated females, who lay many small eggs and are very territorial; and yellow-throated females, who lay fewer larger eggs and are more tolerant of each other. [Ibid, pp. 90 - 93]
Third gender in contemporary societies
Since at least the 1970s, anthropologists have described gender categories in some cultures which they could not adequately explain using a two-gender framework. At the same time, feminists began to draw a distinction between (biological)
sexand (social/psychological) gender. Contemporary gender theorists usually argue that a two-gender system is neither innate nor universal. A sex/gender system which only recognizes the following two social norms has been labeled " heteronormativity":
* female genitalia = female identity = feminine behavior = desire male partner
* male genitalia = male identity = masculine behavior = desire female partner
The Indian subcontinent
The Hijra [Talwar, Rajesh (1999). "The Third sex and Human Rights", Gyan Publishing House. ISBN 81-212-0266-3] of India and Bangladesh are probably the most well known and populous third sex type in the modern world โ
Mumbai-based community health organisation The Humsafar Trust estimates there are between 5 and 6 million hijras in India. In different areas they are known as Aravani/Aruvani or Jogappa. Often (somewhat misleadingly) called eunuchs in English, they may be born intersexor apparently male, dress in feminine clothes and generally see themselves as neither men nor women. Only eight percent of hijras visiting Humsafar clinics are "nirwaan" (castrated). British photographer Dayanita Singhwrites about her friendship with a Hijra, Mona Ahmed, and their two different societies' beliefs about gender: "When I once asked her if she would like to go to Singaporefor a sex change operation, she told me, 'You really do not understand. I am the third sex, not a man trying to be a woman. It is your society's problem that you only recognise two sexes.'" ["Myself Mona Ahmed". by Dayanita Singh (Photographer) and Mona Ahmed. Scalo Publishers ( September 15 2001). ISBN 3-908247-46-2] Hijra social movements have campaigned for recognition as a third sex, ["India's eunuchs demand rights", by Habib Beary, BBC correspondent in Bangalore. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3080116.stm Article online] .] and in 2005, Indian passport application forms were updated with three gender options: M, F, and E (for male, female, and eunuch, respectively). ["โThird sexโ finds a place on Indian passport forms", The Telegraph, March 10 2005. [http://www.infochangeindia.org/archives1.jsp?secno=13&monthname=June&year=2005&detail=T Article online] ]
In addition to the feminine role of hijras, which is widespread across the
subcontinent, a few occurrences of institutionalised "female masculinity" have been noted in modern India. Among the Gaddhiin the foothills of the Himalayas, some girls adopt a role as a "sadhin", renouncing marriage, and dressing and working as men, but retaining female names and pronouns. [Phillimore, Peter (1991). "Unmarried Women of the Dhaula Dhar: Celibacy and Social Control in Northwest India." Journal of Anthropological Research 47 (3): 331-50.] A late-nineteenth century anthropologist noted the existence of a similar role in Madras, that of the "basivi". [Fawcett, Fred (1891). "On Basivis: Women Who, through Dedication to a Deity, Assume Masculine Privileges." Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay (July). Bombay: Education Society's Press; London: Treubner.] However, historian Walter Penrose concludes that in both cases "their status is perhaps more 'transgendered' than 'third-gendered.'" [Penrose, Walter (2001). "Hidden in History: Female Homoeroticism and Women of a "Third Nature" in the South Asian Past," Journal of the History of Sexuality 10.1]
Also commonly referred to as a third sex are the
kathoeys (or "ladyboys") of Thailand. [Totman, Richard, (2004). "The Third Sex: Kathoey: Thailand's Ladyboys", Souvenir Press. ISBN 0-285-63668-5] However, while a significant number of Thais perceive kathoeys as belonging to a third gender, including many kathoeys themselves, others see them as either a kind of man or a kind of woman.Winter, Sam (2003). Research and discussion paper: "Language and identity in transgender: gender wars and the case of the Thai kathoey." Paper presented at the Hawaii conference on Social Sciences, Waikiki, June 2003. [http://web.hku.hk/~sjwinter/TransgenderASIA/paper_language_and_identity.htm Article online] .] Researcher Sam Winter writes:
"We asked our 190 [kathoeys] to say whether they thought of themselves as men, women, "sao praphet song" ["a second kind of woman"] or "kathoey". None thought of themselves as male, and only 11 percent saw themselves as kathoey (i.e. โnon-maleโ). By contrast 45 percent thought of themselves as women, with another 36 percent as "sao praphet song"... Unfortunately we did not include the category "phet tee sam" (third sex/gender); conceivably if we had done so there may have been many respondents who would have chosen that term... Around 50 percent [of non-transgender Thais] see them as males with the mistaken minds, but the other half see them as either women born into the wrong body (around 15 percent) or as a third sex/gender (35 percent)."
In 2004, the
Chiang MaiTechnology School allocated a separate restroom for kathoeys, with an intertwined male and female symbol on the door. The 15 kathoey students are required to wear male clothing at school but are allowed to sport feminine hairdos. The restroom features four stalls, but no urinals. ["Transvestites Get Their Own School Bathroom", Associated Press, June 22 2004.]
The Western world
, 1908. " [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/carpenter-is.html The Intermediate Sex: A Study of Some Transitional Types of Men and Women] ".] Aimรฉe Duc [Duc, Aimรฉe, 1901. "Sind es Frauen? Roman รผber das dritte Geschlecht" ("Are These Women? Novel about the Third Sex")] and others. These writers described themselves and those like them as being of an "inverted" or "intermediate" sex and experiencing homosexual desire, and their writing argued for social acceptance of such sexual intermediates. [Jones, James W. (1990). "We of the third sexโ : Literary Representations of Homosexuality in Wilhelmine Germany." (German Life and Civilization v. 7) New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1990. ISBN 0-8204-1209-0] Many cited precedents from classical Greek and Sanskrit literature (see below).
Wilhelmine Germany, the terms "drittes Geschlecht" ("third sex") and "Mannweib" ("man-woman") were also used to describe feminists โ both by their opponents [Wright, Barbara D. (1897). " 'New Man,'Eternal Woman: Expressionist Responses to German Feminism," The German Quarterly, 60, no. 4, (Autumn 1987): 594.] and sometimes by feminists themselves. In the 1899 novel "Das dritte Geschlecht" ("The Third Sex") by Ernst Ludwig von Wolzogen, feminists are portrayed as "neuters" with external female characteristics accompanied by a crippled male psyche.
Sexual orientationThroughout much of the twentieth century, the term "third sex" was a popular descriptor for homosexuals and gender nonconformists, but after
Gay Liberationof the 1970s and a growing separation of the concepts of sexual orientationand gender identity, the term fell out of favor among LGBT communitiesand the wider public. With the renewed exploration of gender that feminism, the modern transgendermovement and queer theoryhas fostered, some in the contemporary West have begun to describe themselves as a third sex again. [Sell, Ingrid. (2001). "Not man, not woman: Psychospiritual characteristics of a Western third gender." Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 33 (1), pp. 16-36. (Complete doctoral dissertation: Sell, Ingrid. (2001). "Third gender: A qualitative study of the experience of individuals who identify as being neither man nor woman." (Doctoral Dissertation, Institute of Transpersonal Psychology). UMI No. 3011299.)] One well known social movement of male-bodied people that identify as neither men nor women are the Radical Faeries. Other modern identities that cover similar ground include pangender, bigender, genderqueer, androgyne, intergender,"other gender" and "differently gendered".
transgender, which often refers to those who change their gender, is increasingly being used to signify a gendered subjectivity that is neither male nor female โ one recent example is on a form for the Harvard Business School, which has three gender options โ male, female, and transgender. [Harvard Business School Profile [http://inq.applyyourself.com/?id=hbs&pid=6 form online] .]
Indigenous cultures of North America
Also very much associated with multiple genders are the indigenous cultures of
North America, [See, for example, Hollimon, S. E. (1997), "The third-gender in native California: two-spirit undertakers among the Chumash and their neighbors." In Women in Prehistory, C. Claassen and R. Joyce (Ed.). Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 173 - 188.] who often contain social gender categories that are collectively known as Two-Spirit. Individual examples include the Winkteof Lakota culture, the ninauposkitzipxpe ("manly-hearted woman") of the North Peigan (Blackfoot) community, and the Zapotec Muxe. Various scholars have debated the nature of such categories, as well as the definition of the term "third gender". Different researchers may characterise a Two-Spirit person as a gender-crosser, a mixed gender, an intermediate gender, or distinct third and fourth genders that are not dependent on male and female as primary categories. Those (such as Will Roscoe) who have argued for the latter interpretation also argue that mixed-, intermediate-, cross- or non-gendered social roles should not be understood as truly representing a third gender. Anthropologist Jean-Guy Goulet (1996) reviews the literature:
To summarize: 'berdache' may signify a category of male human beings who fill an established social status other than that of man or woman (Blackwood 1984; Williams 1986: 1993); a category of male and female human beings who behave and dress 'like a member of the opposite sex' (Angelino & Shedd 1955; Jacobs 1968; and Whitehead 1981); or categories of male and female human beings who occupy well established third or fourth genders (Callender & Kochems 1983a; 1983b; Jacobs 1983; Roscoe 1987; 1994). Scheffler (1991: 378), however, sees Native American cases of 'berdache' and 'amazon' as 'situations in which some men (less often women) are permitted to act, in some degree, as though they were women (or men), and may be spoken of as though they were women (or men), or as anomalous 'he-she' or 'she-he'.' In Scheffler's view (1991: 378), ' [e] thnographic data cited by Kessler and McKenna (1978), and more recently by Williams (1986), provide definitive evidence that such persons were not regarded as having somehow moved from one sex (or in Kessler and McKenna's terms, gender) category to the other, but were only metaphorically "women" (or "men")'. In other words, according to Scheffler, we need not imagine a multiple gender system. Individuals who appeared in the dress and/or occupation of the opposite sex were only metaphorically spoken of as members of that sex or gender." [Goulet, Jean-Guy A. (2006). "The 'berdache'/'two-spirit': a comparison of anthropological and native constructions of gendered identities among the Northern Athapaskans." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 2.n4 (December 1996): 683(19).
*The works cited in this overview are:
Angelino, H. & C. Shedd, (1955). "A note on Berdache." Am. Anthrop. 57, pp. 121-6.
Blackwood, E. (1984). "Sexuality and gender in certain Native American tribes: the case of cross-gender females." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 10, pp. 27-4
Callender, C. & L.M. Kochems (1983a). "The North American berdache."
Current Anthropology24, 443-56.
โ (1983b). "Reply". Curr. Anthrop. 24, 464-7.
Jacobs, S.-E. (1968). "Berdache: a brief review of the literature." Colorado Anthrop. 1, pp. 25-40.
โ (1983). "Comment." Curr. Anthrop. 24, 462.
Kessler, S. & W. McKenna (1978). "Gender: an ethnomethodological approach." New York: Wiley.
Roscoe, W. (1987). "Bibliography of berdache and alternative gender roles among North American Indians."
Journal of Homosexuality. 14, 81-171.
โ (1994). "How to become a berdache: toward a unified analysis of gender diversity." In "Third sex, third gender: beyond sexual dimorphism in culture and history" (ed.) G. Herdt. New York: Zone Books.
Scheffler, H.W. (1991). "Sexism and naturalism in the study of kinship." In "Gender at the crossroads of knowledge: feminist anthropology in the postmodern era" (ed.) M. di Leonardo. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
Whitehead, H. (1981). "The bow and the burden str
Williams, W.L. (1986). "The spirit and the flesh: sexual diversity in American Indian culture." Boston: Beacon Press.]
The term "berdache" is seen as very offensive by many Two-Spirit and Native people because of its historical roots; It was first applied by European settlers as a derogative term, meaning a submissive, effeminate man. [ [http://www.bcholmes.org/tg/berdache.html B.C. on Gender: The Berdache Tradition ] ] The term "Two-Spirit" was created in 1990 as an English word to convey an identity already recognized by many Nations, and is usually the preferred and most respectful term.
The following gender categories have also been described as a third gender:
Oman: " Xanith" or "khanith". [Wikan, Unni (1991). "The Xanith: a third gender role? in Behind the veil in Arabia: women in Oman." Chicago: University of Chicago Press]
Polynesia: " Fa'afafine" ( Samoa), [Sua'aIi'i, Tamasailau, " Samoans and Gender: Some Reflections on Male, Female and Fa'afafine Gender Identities", in: "Tangata O Te Moana Nui: The Evolving Identities of Pacific Peoples in Aotearoa/ New Zealand", Palmerston North (NZ): Dunmore Press, 2001, ISBN 0-86469-369-9] " fakaleiti" ( Tonga), "mahu wahine" ( Hawaii), "mahu vahine" ( Tahiti), "whakawahine" ( Mฤori) and "akava'ine" ( Cook Islands). ["National fono for Pacific โthird sexโ communities", media release from New Zealand Aids Foundation, August 5 2005. [http://www.nzaf.org.nz/articles.php?id=472 Article online] .]
Indonesia: " Waria". [Oostvogels, Robert (1995). "The Waria of Indonesia: A Traditional Third Gender Role", in Herdt (ed.), op cit.] Additionally, the Bugisculture of Sulawesihas been described as having three sexes (male, female and intersex) as well as five genders with distinct social roles.
* In the
Philippines, a number of local sex/gender identities are commonly referred to as a third sex in popular discourse, as well as by some academic studies. Local terms for these identities (which are considered derogatory by some) include "bakla" (Tagalog), "bayot" (Cebuano), "agi" ( Ilonggo), "bantut" (Tausug), "binabae", "bading" โ all of which refer to effeminate 'gay' men/transwomen. Gender variant females may be called "lakin-on" or tomboy. [Nanda, Serena (1999). "Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations". Waveland Pr Inc, 7 October 1999. ISBN 1-57766-074-9]
Balkans: Sworn virgins, females who work and dress as men and inhabit some men-only spaces, but do not marry.
* 18th century
Ethiopia: "Ashtime" of Maale culture [Donham, Donald (1990). "History, Power, Ideology. Central Issues in Marxism and Anthropology", Cambridge]
Kenya: "Mashoga" of Swahili-speaking areas of the Kenyan coast, particularly Mombasa
Democratic Republic of the Congo: "Mangaiko" among the Mbo people. [Towles, Joseph A. (1993). "Nkumbi initiation: Ritual and structure among the Mbo of Zaire", Musรฉe royal de l'Afrique Centrale (Tervuren, Belgique)]
:Latin America and the Caribbean:
Travestis" of Latin Americahave been described as a third gender, although not all see themselves this way. Don Kulickdescribed the gendered world of travestis in urban Brazilas having has two categories: "men" and "not men", with women, homosexuals and travestis belonging to the latter category. [Kulick, Don (1998). "Travesti: Sex, Gender, and Culture among Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes" (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998)]
Dominican republic: " Guevedoche", intersex girls who become boys at puberty, due to 5-alpha-reductase deficiency. [Nataf, Zachary I (1998). "Whatever I feel...", New Internationalist, Issue 300 / April 1998. [http://www.newint.org/issue300/Copy%20of%20contents.html Article online] .] The same phenomenon is known as "kwolu-aatmwol" in the "Sambia" community in the eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea. [Herdt, Gilbert. (1993). "Mistaken Sex: Culture, Biology and the Third Sex in New Guinea," in Herdt, (1999). "Sambia Sexual Culture: Essays from the Field." Chicago. 243โ64.]
Third gender in history
Mesopotamian mythology, among the earliest written records of humanity, there are references to types of people who are not men and not women. In a Sumerian creation mythfound on a stone tablet from the second millennium BC, the goddess Ninmahfashions a being "with no male organ and no female organ", for whom Enkifinds a position in society: "to stand before the king". In the Akkadian myth of Atra-Hasis(ca. 1700 BC), Enki instructs Nintu, the goddess of birth, to establish a โthird category among the peopleโ in addition to men and women, that includes demons who steal infants, women who are unable to give birth, and priestesses who are prohibited from bearing children. [Murray, Stephen O., and Roscoe, Will (1997). "Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature." New York: New York University Press.] In Babylonia, Sumerand Assyria, certain types of individuals who performed religious duties in the service of Inanna/ Ishtarhave been described as a third gender. [Roscoe, Will (1996). "Priests of the Goddess: Gender Transgression in Ancient Religion". History of Religions 35(3) (1996): 295-330.
*Roscoe identifies these temple staff by the names "kalรป", "kurgarrรป", and "assinnu".] They worked as
sacred prostitutes or Hierodules, performed ecstatic dance, music and plays, wore masks and had gender characteristics of both women and men. [Nissinen, Martti (1998). "Homoeroticism in the Biblical World", Translated by Kirsi Stjedna. Fortress Press (November 1998) p. 30. ISBN 0-8006-2985-X
See also: Maul, S. M. (1992). "Kurgarrรป und assinnu und ihr Stand in der babylonischen Gesellschaft." Pp. 159-71 in Aussenseiter und Randgruppen. Konstanze Althistorische Vortrรคge und Forschungern 32. Edited by V. Haas. Konstanz: Universitรคtsverlag.] In Sumer, they were given the cuneiform names of "ur.sal" ("dog/man-woman") and "kur.gar.ra" (also described as a man-woman). [Nissinen (1998) p. 28, 32.] Modern scholars, struggling to describe them using contemporary sex/gender categories, have variously described them as "living as women", or used descriptors such as hermaphrodites, eunuchs, homosexuals, transvestites, effeminate males and a range of other terms and phrases. [Leick, Gwendolyn (1994). "Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature". Routledge. New York.
Sumerian: "sag-ur-sag", "pilpili" and "kurgarra"; and Assyrian: "assinnu". Leick describes them as "hermaphrodites, homosexual transvestites, and other, castrated individuals".
Burns, John Barclay (2000). "Devotee or Deviate: The โDogโ (keleb) in Ancient Israel as a Symbol of Male Passivity and Perversion". Journal of Religion & Society Volume 2 (2000). ISSN 1522-5658
*Burns defines the "assinnu" as "a member of Ishtarโs cultic staff with whom, it seems, a man might have intercourse, whose masculinity had become femininity" and who "lacked libido, either from a natural defect or castration". He described the "kulu'u" as effeminate and the "kurgarru" as transvestite. In addition, he defines another kind of gender-variant prostitute, "sinnisฤnu", as (literally) โwoman-like.โ]
Inscribed pottery shards from the
Middle Kingdom of Egypt(2000-1800 BCE), found near ancient Thebes (now Luxor, Egypt), list three human genders: "tai" (male), "sแธซt" ("sekhet") and "hmt" (female). [Sethe, Kurt, (1926), "Die Aechtung feindlicher Fรผrsten, Vรถlker und Dinge auf altรคgyptischen Tongefรครscherben des mittleren Reiches," in: Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1926, p. 61.] "Sแธซt" is often translated as "eunuch", although there is little evidence that such individuals were castrated. [ [http://www.well.com/user/aquarius/egypt.htm The Third Gender in Ancient Egypt] , Faris Malik. (web site)]
References to a third sex can be found throughout the various texts of India's three ancient spiritual traditions โ
Hinduism, [Wilhelm, Amara Das (2004). "Tritiya Prakriti (People of the Third Sex): Understanding Homosexuality, Transgender Identity and Intersex Conditions through Hinduism" (XLibris Corporation, 2004).] Jainism[Zwilling, Leonard and Sweet, Michael (1996). "Like a City Ablaze: The Third Sex and the Creation of Sexuality in Jain Religious Literature," Journal of the History of Sexuality, 6 (3), pp.359-384] and Buddhism[Jackson, Peter A. (1996). "Non-normative Sex/Gender Categories in the Theravada Buddhist Scriptures", Australian Humanities Review, April 1996. [http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AHR/archive/Issue-April-1996/Jacksonref.html Full text.] ] โ and it can be inferred that Vedic culturerecognised three genders. The Vedas(c. 1500 BC - 500 BC) describe individuals as belonging to one of three separate categories, according to one's nature or prakrti. These are also spelled out in the Kama Sutra(c. 4th century AD) and elsewhere as "pums-prakrti" (male-nature), "stri-prakrti" (female-nature), and "tritiya-prakrti" (third-nature). [Alternate transliteration: "trhytรฎyรข prakrhyti"] Various texts suggest that third sex individuals were well known in premodern India, and included male-bodied or female-bodied [Historian Walter Penrosewrote that "distinct social and economic roles once existed for women thought to belong to a third gender. Hidden in history, these women dressed in men's clothing, served as porters and personal bodyguards to kings and queens, and even took an active role in sex with women." Penrose, Walter (2001). "Hidden in History: Female Homoeroticism and Women of a "Third Nature" in the South Asian Past", Journal of the History of Sexuality 10.1 (2001), p.4] people as well as intersexuals, and that they can often be recognised from childhood.
A third sex is also discussed in ancient
Hindu law, medicine, linguisticsand astrology. The foundational work of Hindu law, the Manu Smriti(c. 200 BC - 200 AD) explains the biological origins of the three sexes: "A male child is produced by a greater quantity of male seed, a female child by the prevalence of the female; if both are equal, a third-sex child or boy and girl twins are produced; if either are weak or deficient in quantity, a failure of conception results." [ Manu Smriti, 3.49. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu03.htm Text online] .] Indian linguist Pataรฑjali's work on Sanskritgrammar, the Mahฤbhฤแนฃya(c. 200 BC), states that Sanskrit's three grammatical gendersare derived from three natural genders. The earliest Tamil grammar, the Tolkappiyam(3rd century BC) also refers to hermaphrodites as a third "neuter" gender (in addition to a feminine category of unmasculine males). In Vedic astrology, the nine planets are each assigned to one of the three genders; the third gender, "tritiya-prakrti", is associated with Mercury, Saturnand (in particular) Ketu. In the Puranas, there are also references to three kinds of devas of music and dance: apsaras(female), gandharvas (male) and kinnars (neuter).
The two great
Sanskrit epic poems, the Ramayanaand the Mahabharata, [The hero Arjunatakes a "vow of eunuchism" to live as the third sex for a year: "O lord of the Earth, I will declare myself as one of the neuter sex. O monarch, it is, indeed difficult to hide the marks of the bowstring on my arms. I will, however, cover both my cicatrized arms with bangles. Wearing brilliant rings on my ears and conch-bangles on my wrists and causing a braid to hang down from my head, I shall, O king, appear as one of the third sex, Vrihannala by name. And living as a female I shall (always) entertain the king and the inmates of the inner apartments by reciting stories. And, O king, I shall also instruct the women of Virata's palace in singing and delightful modes of dancing and in musical instruments of diverse kinds. And I shall also recite the various excellent acts of men..." [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15475 Mahabharata (Virata-parva)] , Translated by Ganguli, Kisari Mohan. Project Gutenberg.] also indicate the existence of a third gender in ancient Indic society. Some versions of Ramayanatell that in one part of the story, the hero Ramaheads into exile in the forest. Halfway there, he discovers that most of the people of his home town Ayodhyawere following him. He told them, "Men and women, turn back," and with that, those who were "neither men nor women" did not know what to do, so they stayed there. When Rama returned to from exile years later, he discovered them still there and blessed them, saying that there will be a day when they will rule the world.
In the Buddhist
Vinaya, codified in its present form around the 2nd century BC and said to be handed down by oral tradition from Buddha himself, there are four main sex/gender categories: males, females, "ubhatobyanjanaka" (people of a dual sexual nature) and "pandaka" (people of various non-normative sexual natures, perhaps originally denoting a deficiency in male sexual capacity). [Jackson, Peter A. (1996). Ibid.] As the Vinaya tradition developed, the term "pandaka" came to refer to a broad third sex category which encompassed intersex, male and female bodied people with physical and/or behavioural attributes that were considered inconsistent with the sexual ideal of man and woman. [Gyatso, Janet (2003). "One Plus One Makes Three: Buddhist Gender Conceptions and the Law of the Non-Excluded Middle," History of Religions. 2003, no. 2. University of Chicago press.]
Plato's "Symposium", written around the 4th century BC, Aristophanesrelates a creation mythinvolving three original sexes: female, male and androgynous. They are split in half by Zeus, producing four different contemporary sex/gender types which seek to be reunited with their lost other half; in this account, the modern heterosexualman and woman descend from the original androgynous sex. Other creation myths around the world share a belief in three original sexes, such as those from northern Thailand. [Jackson, Peter A. (1995) "Kathoey: The third sex." In Jackson, P., "Dear Uncle Go: Male homosexuality in Thailand." Bangkok, Thailand: Bua Luang Books
See also: Peltier, Anatole-Roger (1991). "Pathamamulamuli: The Origin of the World in the Lan Na Tradition". Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books. The Yuan creation myth in the book is from Pathamamulamuli, an antique Buddhist palmleaf manuscript. Its translator, Anatole-Roger Peltier, believes that this story is based on an oral tradition which is over five hundred years old. [http://web.archive.org/web/20050205031728/http://home.att.net/~leela2/creation_myth.htm Text online] .]
Many have interpreted the "
eunuchs" of the Ancient Eastern Mediterranean world as a third gender that inhabited a liminal space between women and men, understood in their societies as somehow neither or both. [S. Tougher, ed., (2001) "Eunuchs in Antiquity and Beyond" (London: Duckworth Publishing, 2001).
Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2003). "The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium." Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2003.] In the
Historia Augusta, the eunuch body is described as a "tertium genus hominum" (a third human gender), [ Historia Augusta, " Severus Alexander" xxiii.7.] and in 77 BC, a eunuch named Genucius was prevented from claiming goods left to him in a will, on the grounds that he had voluntarily mutilated himself ("amputatis sui ipsius") and was neither a woman or a man ("neque virorum neque mulierum numero"). [ Valerius Maximus, 7.7.6).] Several scholars have argued that the eunuchs in the Hebrew Bibleand the New Testamentwere understood in their time to belong to a third gender, rather than the more recent interpretations of a kind of emasculated man, or a metaphor for chastity. [Hester, J. David (2005). "Eunuchs and the Postgender Jesus: Matthew 19:12 and Transgressive Sexualities". Journal for the Study of the New Testament, Vol. 28, No. 1, 13-40 (2005)] The first Christian theologian, Tertullian, wrote that Jesushimself was a eunuch (c. 200 AD). [Tertullian, On Monogamy, 3: โ...He stands before you, if you are willing to copy him, as a voluntary "spado" (eunuch) in the flesh.โ And elsewhere: "The Lord Himself opened the kingdom of heaven to eunuchs and He Himself lived as a eunuch. The [Paul of Tarsus|apostle [Paul] also, following His example, made himself a eunuch..."] Tertullian also noted the existence of a third sex ("tertium sexus") among heathens: "a third race in sex... made of male and female in one." [ Tertullian, "Ad nationes", 1.20.4. [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian06.html Text online] .] He may have been referring to the Galli, "eunuch" devotees of the Phrygiangoddess Cybele, who were described as belonging to a third sex by several Roman writers. [e.g. "Both sexes are displeasing to her holiness, so [the gallus] keeps a middle gender ("medium genus") between the others." Prudentius, Peristephanon, 10.1071-3]
Throughout the history of the Christian Church,
nuns, monks and priests have also been understood as belonging to a third gender, and compared to the Biblicaleunuchs. [ [http://www.well.com/user/aquarius/rome.htm The Historic Origins of Church Condemnation of Homosexuality The Historic Origins of Church Condemnation of Homosexuality ] ]
Maya civilizationmay have recognised a third gender, according to historian Matthew Looper. Looper notes the androgynous MaizeDeity and masculine Moon goddess of Maya mythology, and iconography and inscriptions where rulers embody or impersonate these deities. He suggests that the third gender could also include two-spiritindividuals with special roles such as healers or diviners. [Looper, Matthew G. (2001). "Ancient Maya Women-Men (and Men-Women): Classic Rulers and the Third Gender", In: "Ancient Maya Women", ed. Traci Ardren. Walnut Creek, California: Alta Mira, 2001.]
Anthropologist and archaeologist Miranda Stockett notes that several writers have felt the need to move beyond a two-gender framework when discussing prehispanic cultures across
mesoamerica, [Stockett, Miranda K. ( 2005). "On the importance of difference: re-envisioning sex and gender in ancient Mesoamerica", World Archaeology, Routledge, Volume 37, Number 4 / December 2005. pp. 566 - 578
In addition to Looper (above) and Joyce (below), Stockett cites:
Geller, P. (2004). "Skeletal analysis and theoretical complications." Paper presented at Que(e)rying Archaeology: The Fifteenth Anniversary Gender Conference, Chacmool Archaeology Conference, University of Calgary, Calgary.
Joyce, R. (1998). "Performing the body in pre-Hispanic Central American." RES, 33: 147โ65.
Lopez-Austin, A. (1988). "The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of Ancient Nahuas" (trans T.O. de Montellano and B.O. de Montellano). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.] and concludes that the
Olmec, Aztecand Maya peoplesunderstood "more than two kinds of bodies and more than two kinds of gender." Anthropologist Rosemary Joyce agrees, writing that "gender was a fluid potential, not a fixed category, before the Spaniards came to Mesoamerica. Childhood training and ritual shaped, but did not set, adult gender, which could encompass third genders and alternative sexualities as well as "male" and "female." At the height of the Classic period, Maya rulers presented themselves as embodying the entire range of gender possibilities, from male through female, by wearing blended costumes and playing male and female roles in state ceremonies." Joyce notes that many figures of mesoamerican art are depicted with male genitalia and female breasts, while she suggests that other figures in which chests and waists are exposed but no sexual characteristics (primary or secondary) are marked may represent a third sex, ambiguous gender or androgyny. [Joyce, Rosemary A. (2000). "Gender and Power in Prehispanic Mesoamerica." Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.] Inca
Andean Studies scholar Michael Horswell writes that third-gendered ritual attendants to "chuqui chinchay", a
jaguardeity in Incan mythology, were "vital actors in Andean ceremonies" prior to Spanish colonisation. Horswell elaborates: "These "quariwarmi" (men-women) shamans mediated between the symmetrically dualistic spheres of Andean cosmology and daily life by performing rituals that at times required same-sex erotic practices. Their transvested attire served as a visible sign of a third space that negotiated between the masculine and the feminine, the present and the past, the living and the dead. Their shamanic presence invoked the androgynous creative force often represented in Andean mythology." [Horswell, Michael J. (2006). "Transculturating Tropes of Sexuality, "Tinkuy", and Third Gender in the Andes", introduction to "Decolonizing the Sodomite: Queer Tropes of Sexuality in Colonial Andean Culture". ISBN 0-292-71267-7. [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exhordec.html Article online] .] Richard Trexlergives an early Spanish account of religious 'third gender' figures from the Inca empirein his 1995 book "Sex and Conquest": Illiniwek
The natives of modern
Illinoisdecided the gender of their members based on their childhood behavior. If a genetic male child used female tools like a spade or ax instead of a bow, they considered them berdaches. [Pierre Liette. Memoir of Pierre Liette on the Illinois Country as quoted in Gender Outlaw by Kate Bornsten]
Third sex in art and literature
*A person named 'Campbell Angus MacEwan' - Award winning book by Campbell MacEwan
*"Middlesex" (2002), the
Pulitzer Prize-winning book by Jeffrey Eugenides
*In the 1980s
science fictionbook trilogy " Xenogenesis", by Octavia Butler, the extraterrestrial race has three sexes: male, female, and Ooloi. They also have sexual relationships with humans and interbreed with them.
*In the world of Carolyn Ives Gilman's 1998 novel "Halfway Human", all children are born with indeterminate sex, and develop into male, female, or "bland" in adolescence. Blands are a neuter category lacking sexual characteristics, who are disparaged and treated as servants โ the "halfway humans" of the book's title.
*Literary critic Michael Maiwald identifies a "third-sex ideal" in the one of the first
African-Americanbestsellers, Claude McKay's "Home to Harlem" (1928). [Maiwald, Michael (2002). "Race, Capitalism, and the Third-Sex Ideal: Claude McKay's Home to Harlem and the Legacy of Edward Carpenter", MFS Modern Fiction Studies, Volume 48, Number 4, Winter 2002]
*"The Third Sex", a 1959
lesbian pulp fictionnovel by Artemis Smith.
*"The Third Sex", a 1934 film directed by Richard C. Kahn, based on a novel by
Radcliffe Hall, " The Well of Loneliness". [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053353/ The Third Sex (1934) ] ]
*"Anders als du und ich" ("Different From You and I"), a 1957 film directed by
Veit Harlan, was also known under the titles "Bewildered Youth" (USA) and "The Third Sex". [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0050128/ Anders als du und ich (1957) ] ]
*"Mikaรซl", a 1924 film directed by
Carl Theodor Dreyerwas also released as "Chained: The Story of the Third Sex" in the USA. [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0015136/ Michael (1924) ] ]
*In David Lindsay's "
A Voyage to Arcturus" there is a type of being called "phaen", a third gender which is attracted neither to men nor women but to "Shaping" (the Demiurge). The appropriate pronouns are "ae" and "aer".
Imajica", one of the characters, Pie 'oh' Pah, is called a "mystif", and has the characteristics of a third sex that is neither male nor female but could either fertilize or bear children. Pie marries the male character Gentle, but says it prefers not to be called his wife.
C. S. Lewis' " Space Trilogy", the solar systemhas seven genders (not sexes) altogether.
Matt Groening's cartoon series " Futurama", "smizmar" is used as a term for a third sex, the name for the individuals whom inspire the feeling of love (and thus conception, for that species), regardless of genetic relationship, to Kif Kroker's species, the Amphibiosians. This is explained in the episode " Kif Gets Knocked Up a Notch".
Arthur C. Clarke's novel " Rendezvous with Rama" depicts an alien civilization with three genders.
Ursula K. Le Guin's 1969 novel " The Left Hand of Darkness" posits a world called Gethen, on which humans are androgynes, effectively neuter 12/13 of the time, and for up to two days per month are said to be "in Kemmer," that is, openly available to enter either male or female state as per pheromonal contact with a potential mate.
List of transgender-related topics
* Gilbert Herdt, ed. 1996. "Third Sex Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History." ISBN 0-942299-82-5
* Morris, Rosalind. 1994. "Three Sexes and Four Sexualities: Redressing the Discourses on Gender and Sexuality in Contemporary Thailand", in Positions 2(1):15-43.
* Wilhelm, Amara Das. "Tritiya-Prakriti: People of the Third Sex." Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris Corporation, 2005.
* [http://third-gender-counselling.blogspot.com/ Counselling on Third Gender]
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. |
Mariner 10 took this picture (FDS 166840) from a distance of 63,400 kilometers (39,300 miles) about an hour after it passed under the South Pole of Mercury. The dark-rimmed crater at upper left is 67 kilometers (42 miles) in diameter. It is surrounded by an extensive ejecta blanket and exhibits a bright ray pattern, which extends into and beyond the larger crater (120 kilometers, 75 miles) to its right and near the picture's center. The dark-rimmed crater is similar to crater Tycho on Earth's moon. The center of this picture is located 33 degrees S. Lat. 158 degrees W. Long. North is to the top.
The Mariner 10 mission, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for NASA's Office of Space Science, explored Venus in February 1974 on the way to three encounters with Mercury-in March and September 1974 and in March 1975. The spacecraft took more than 7,000 photos of Mercury, Venus, the Earth and the Moon. |
All-in-one approach to lifestyle changes effectively lowers blood pressure
Lifestyle changes to prevent or control high blood pressure need not be made one at a time. According to a study supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), with special counseling, Americans can make all the needed changes at the same time. The best results were achieved when the lifestyle changes included adoption of a diet that is rich in fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products.
Results of this study, called PREMIER, appear in The Journal of the American Medical Association.
โThis is the first time a host of behavioral steps to prevent or control high blood pressure has been put together in one intervention,โ said NHLBI Director Dr. Claude Lenfant. โPast studies looked at one or two changes at a time, and it was thought that doing more would prove too hard. But PREMIER shows that an all-in-one approach works and can help Americans reduce their blood pressure, lowering their risk for heart disease and stroke.โ
โThose in the study who made the greatest lifestyle changes had the best blood pressure results. Millions of Americans can benefit by using these lifestyle changes to control high blood pressure or prevent it in the first place,โ according to Dr. Lawrence J. Appel, professor of medicine at The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions in Baltimore, and a co-author of the article.
High blood pressure is a major risk factor for heart disease and the chief risk factor for stroke. Even blood pressure slightly above normal increases your risk. About one in four American adults has high blood pressure (hypertension). The risk of developing it increases with age.
Recommended lifestyle steps to prevent or control hypertension are these:
- Lose weight if overweight
- Follow a heart-healthy eating plan, which includes reducing salt and other forms of sodium
- Increase physical activity
- Limit consumption of alcoholic beverages
- Quit smoking
The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute has created a special Web page called Your Guide To Lowering High Blood Pressure at www.nhlbi.nih.gov/hbp/index.html. Find out about the heart-healthy DASH diet used by subjects in this study at www.nhlbi.nih.gov/hbp/prevent/h_eating/h_eating.htm. |
COVID-19 and Tracking Apps: How to Protect Our Data
The European Union is working with Member States to develop effective solutions to track the contacts of sick people. This would facilitate the abolition of the restrictive measures and ensure a safer travel in the EU.
In October, the European Commission launched a portal that links national applications so that travellers can use them while in another country. At the same time, such applications can access data that users would not want to become public. That is why MPs insist that these technologies be carefully designed.
Parliament stressed that any digital solutions against the pandemic should comply with data protection and privacy legislation. MPs say the use of the apps should not be mandatory and should be able to be removed after the pandemic ends.
A resolution, adopted in April, highlights the need of handling anonymised data (which do not allow the identification of individual users) and that, in order to reduce the risk of abuse, the information generated must not be stored in centralized databases.
In addition, MPs are demanding an explanation of how apps are expected to contribute to reducing infections, exactly how they work and who the individuals or companies with specific commercial interests for their developing are.
Tracking applications in the EU
There are already many digital applications that offer tracking and geographical identification of the spread of coronavirus.
Among the most promising from a health perspective are contact tracking apps that use short-range connection technologies like Bluetooth (instead of geo-location) and send warnings to people who have found themselves near an infected person for a certain period of time. These applications can register contacts that the person has not noticed or does not remember and thus limit the spread of the virus. They are considered less risky than apps that monitor people's location and movements in real time and collect information about their health.
The risk of the mobile apps is that they handle sensitive information such as people's health status and location to a greater and lesser degree.
The European Commission has drawn up guidelines and a set of tools for the development of coronavirus-related applications in cooperation with Member States and data protection services in the EU. The purpose of the guidelines is to ensure an adequate level of personal data protection and limit any interference with people's privacy.
The guidelines emphasize that all applications must be fully compliant with EU data protection rules, including the General Personal Data Protection Regulation and the Directive on Privacy and Electronic communications.
On 13 May, the Commission included the tracking applications in its recommendations on the conditions for travel recovery in Europe and indicated that they should be compatible so as people to be able to receive notifications anywhere in Europe. In June, Member States agreed on the compatibility of their mobile applications.
The Chair of the Parliamentary Committee on Civil Liberties, Juan Fernando Lรณpez Aguilar (S&D, Spain), stressed the important role mobile applications can play in combating the crisis and welcomed the published Commission guidelines. At the same time he pointed out that the fundamental rights and the personal data protection in the EU must be preserved. |
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Contact: (301) 443-3593, firstname.lastname@example.org
CDC and IHS Urge American Indian and Alaska Native Parents to Protect Preteens with Recommended Vaccines
Campaign urges routine check-ups for 11- and 12-year-olds
As children approach their teen years, parents often worry about how to protect them from new
risks and potential dangers. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is partnering with the
Indian Health Service to launch a campaign informing American Indian and Alaska Native parents and other caregivers about the importance of a preteen medical check-up and preteen vaccines.
Research shows that preteens generally do not get preventive health care, visiting the doctor only when they are sick. One goal of this campaign is to encourage parents to take their preteens in for an 11- or 12-year-old check-up, which is a comprehensive, preventive health exam.
During the checkup, the doctor takes a complete medical history, screens for diseases like diabetes, discusses puberty and other issues such as how to stay healthy and avoid substance abuse, and ensures that immunizations are up to date.
โMany parents may not be aware that there are vaccines that preteens need to protect them
against potentially serious diseases, including meningitis, pertussis, influenza, and the virus that causes cervical cancer,โ said Dr. Anne Schuchat, director of CDCโs National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases. "Vaccinations play an important role in protecting your childโs health. But they do more than protect children. By ensuring you and your family receive recommended vaccines, you help to prevent the spread of disease and protect the health of the community."
Three vaccines are specifically recommended for the preteen years: MCV4, which prevents
some types of meningitis and its complications; Tdap, which is a booster against tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis or โwhooping cough;โ and for girls, the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, which protects against the types of HPV that most commonly cause cervical cancer. Annual seasonal flu shots and vaccination against H1N1 influenza are also recommended for preteens, just as they are for younger children starting at age 6 months, and for older children, through age 18.
Preteen vaccine recommendations are supported by the CDC, IHS, the American Academy of
Pediatrics, the American Academy of Family Physicians, and the Society for Adolescent Medicine.
โThere is a common perception that check-ups are only for infants, but this isnโt true,โ said Dr.
Michael Bartholomew, a member of the Kiowa Tribe and chief of pediatrics at the Fort Defiance
Indian Hospital in Arizona. โEleven- and 12-year-olds also need a check-up to ensure that they stay healthy as they enter their adolescent years.โ
CDC and IHS have developed posters and flyers to educate parents about the preteen check-up
and preteen vaccines, which can be ordered or downloaded from the campaign Web site at
www.cdc.gov/vaccines/preteen/aian. These materials were created with input from American Indian
and Alaska Native parents in the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest.
Other campaign activities include outreach to American Indian and Alaska Native media,
partnerships with American Indian and Alaska Native organizations that reach parents and healthcare providers, and a community-based education project in New Mexico.
For more information about the campaign, please visit www.cdc.gov/vaccines/preteen/aian. |
The Illinois Department of Natural Resources implemented a successful recovery plan for the North American river otter ( Lontra canadensis ) in Illinois between 1994 and 1997 (Bluett 2004); L. canadensis n ow occur stat ewide. Latrine sites (terrestrial communication centers where river otters scent mark with scat, urine, and glandular secretions) indicate the presence of L. canadensis . Understanding temporal patterns and spatial variation of latrine use and scat deposit ion can inform river otter conservation and management decisions. In Illinois, otter latrine surveys will be conducted between August and October to determine the distribution, status, and trends of river otters (Lesmeister and Nielsen 2011). Many aspect s of latrine use by L. canadensis remain poorly understood, including the information that otters communicate at latrine sites (Melquist et al. 2003) and the relationship between otter acti vity and scat detection rates. Understanding the relationship betwe en otter visitation rates and scat detection will help validate the use of presence - absence data from latrine surveys as a tool for population monitoring in Illinois. The goal of this study was to compare otter visitation rates and scat detection rates as sociated with two adjacent latrine sites in Illinois.
|Original language||English (US)|
|Journal||River Otter Journal|
|Issue number||2 (Fall-Winter 2013)|
|State||Published - 2013| |
A Wright State University researcher has found evidence that the emerald ash borer beetle has found a new type of host.
Lewis Wallace of member station WYSO in Yellow Springs reports.
The emerald ash borer was first detected in southeast Michigan about 12 years ago, and it has decimated ash tree populations fanning out from there. Yellow Springs resident and Wright State biologist Don Cipollini had a suspicion that another tree, the ornamental but native White Fringetree, could be a host. He went tree-to-tree along the bike path near his house looking for signs of ash borers.
Cipollini: ...And it was about the fourth tree that I found a characteristic exit hole.
Cipollini is still working to verify the bugโs identity, and itโs not clear yet whether it will kill the infested Fringetrees. But he says his initial findings have big implications. When the borer is done with the ash tree, it could just find a new host.
Cipollini: Itโs just one of these lessons I think about it being hard to predict what an invasive species might do.
An estimated one in ten trees in Ohio is an ash treeโthe economic impact of losing those is estimated in the billions. |
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ืชืงื ื ืืืืืืชImpact tested and CE certified to CE EN 1621-1, level 1 Abrasion tested and CE certified to CE EN 13595-2, level 2 |
Birds of Paradise
Paradigalla (combination of Paradisaea + Gallus (Latin, jungle fowl); brevicauda (Latin, short tail)
Sexually monomorphic. Adult male,23 cm; adult female, 22 cm. Stocky build, overall black, with bright yellow wattle on forehead and face and light blue on base of lower mandible. Female is duller, more brownish than male and has longer tail.
Fruit and small animals, including insects, spiders, worms, frogs and skinks.
Mid montane forests, including forest edge, secondary growth and garden edges; 1400-2580 m, mainly 1600-2400m.
Assumed to be polygynous with males displaying solitarily; display season and courtship unknown.
Breeding noted all months except March and November. Female builds cup-shaped nest, often reusing the same one, and attends to nest alone; incubation more than 20 days; nestling period 25 days. No hybridisation is known.
Status and conservation
Not globally threatened; widespread but patchily distributed.
New Guinea: Western and central central ranges, from the Weyland Mountains eastward to Mount Karimui and Bismarck Range.
Michael Hugill , Online Producer (Content Strategy & Social Media) |
ืืืจืื ืงืื ืื ืขืืฉืื ืืืชื ื ืืืืฉืจืื. ืคืจืืื ืงืื ืื ืืืืฆืจืื ืืืื ืืืจืืข ืืืฉืื!!! ืกืคืจื ืืขืืฆืืช, ืืกืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืงืื ืืช ืืขืืฆืื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืื...
38 ืฆืคืืืช0 ืชืืืืืช
2 ืืืืงืื. ืืคืืกื ืื ืกืืื ืืืืื2
ืืืงืกื ื ืงืืืืืจ
10 ื ืื 2020
1 ืืงืืช
ืืื ืืืืืช ืืื 2. ืืื ืืืืืช ืกืคืืจื/ ื'ืื ืื/ ืืืืช.
ืื ืืืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืื ืืืืืื? ื ืืื, ืืืืช ืืืจืคืชืงืืืช! ืืื ืืืืืช ืกืคืืจื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืืจืคืชืงื? ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืช... |
1, 2, Let's All Groove (Paperback Book)X8 Drums
1, 2, Let's All Groove! provides the science and theories behind using rhythm, extensive, easy to integrate activities tied to national educational standards, easy to teach rhythms and rhythm choreography, as well as information on all the field tested instruments you need. In addition, it includes a special section on how you can tune and lock in our own internal metronome and comprehensive resources to give you all your needs for years of rhythm programming.
Though this book is great for music teachers, it is specifically designed for any teacher or facilitator in any classroom situation, wanting to bring more engagement and excitement to learning.
Inside you'll find. . .
- Exciting, easy to learn rhythm activities tied to national learning standards
- Information on all the field tested instruments you need
- Easy to teach rhythms and rhythm choreography
- Science and theories behind using rhythm
- Learn to facilitate rhythm jams
- Learn to read box notation
- Info on tuning your own internal metronome
- Links to tons of accompanying on-line video content
- Comprehensive resources
- FREE MP3 downloads!
From the Introduction"
Remember being fully engaged in an activity, feeling excited and eager to learn?
Well, that's being in "the groove!"ฮ It's a spirit of enthusiasm and inspiration - one that facilitators and participants share when everyone's totally engaged - it's that groove!
Rhythm grooving is a universal energizer - over all the world, all people, of all ages, respond positively to rhythm. And, rhythm is a positive learning-enhancer that can be used by every teacher, and every kind of facilitator. Rhythm has been scientifically proven to contribute to rich and successful learning environments (see p. 12). If you're a classroom teacher or group facilitator who has tended to shy away from music and/or rhythm for lack of formal training - this book is for you! The engaging, practical and accessible material you'll find here will enable you to embody the energy, excitement and spirited learning of rhythm activities - we guarantee it!
Here's an equation I've tested and proven in facilitating hundreds of school programs to date: Learning energy is inversely related to classroom management energy.
In other words, the more intensely students are engaged in what's being presented, ("learning energy"ฮ) the less energy needs to go into managing classroom behavior and focus.
Just this year, I spent six months using rhythm-based learning with children in grades 1 through 8 and continue to verify the fact: rhythm keeps the learning energy high. For sure, at times I had to add management energy to the mix, but even then, rhythm remains a top engager - right up there with magic! And, it can be like magic to see the way rhythm tightly correlates with social, emotional and academic development.
We're enthusiastic about encouraging you to learn and incorporate drumming and rhythm - and about giving you an easy way to do it. At the same time, to be
successful teachers and facilitators, we know we need a smart combination of many
effective tools. Rhythm is one of those tools. We know you'll bring rhythm into the right situation just as you do with every other excellent activity. Rhythm is an
outstanding, proven, and easy-to-use learning enhancer.
It is our desire to see every learner tap into the joy, inspiration and life affirming energy inherent in rhythm.
I bought this book in order to get some fresh ideas on working with children and youth in a variety of populations and settings. I've used it now for a year and am not getting tired of all the activities - and neither are the kids! From the silly Kinesthetic Songs to the rhythm breaks to the jam facilitation ideas, I've gotten so much mileage from the ideas in this book. I love that the first chapter contains a whole slew of valuable research and evidence to back up the benefits of drumming programs. I have utilized this research when writing grants and speaking with potential clients. I also love that the learning standards are listed at the top of each activity; again, really helpful with curriculum planning and convincing skeptical administrations that what we're doing is linked to academic learning! I highly recommend this book to anyone who works with children/youth and wants to expand their horizons in teaching and/or facilitating rhythm- and music-based groups. |
ืืชืืืช ืืืืืจืื, ืืืฆืขืื, ืืืคืื ืคื ืื, ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ, ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ ืืืื ืคืจื, IPL, ืืืืช, ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ ืืฉืขืืื, ืคืืืงืืจ, ืืืคืื ืืจืืืื, ืฆืืคืืจื ืืืืจื ืืช, ืื ืืงืืจ, ืืืคืื ืืืื, ืฆืืคืจื ืื, ืืืคืืจ ืงืืืข, ืืืคืืจ ืขืจื, ืขืืฆืื ืืืืช, ืงืืกืืืืงื, ืืืื ืงืืกืืืืงื, ืืืฆืข, ืงืืกืืืืงื ืืืจืืช, ืืืคืืื ืคื ืื ืืืืจ, ืืืคืืื ืืงืืกืืืืงื ืืืืจืื, ืืืคืื ืืคื ืง, ืืชื ื, ืฉืืืจืื, ืืืจ ืืืฉ ืืฉืืืจืื, ืคืื ืืง ืืืื, ืื ื ืืืืื ื, ืืกืชืืืงื, ืืืคื, ืฉืื ืืืืื, imagine, ืืื ืกืงืืคืฆืจ ืื, ืืง ืื, ืื, bio sculptur, ืงืฆืช ืขืื, ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช , ืืฃ ืจืื, ืจืืืืื , ืืคืืช ืจืืืืื, ื ืขืืืื, ืืคืืช ืจืืืื, ืคืืจืืื, ืกืืืืจ ืืืืช, ืืืืจืื, ืขื ืื, ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืืืืขืื, ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืืงืฆืืขืืช, ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืืืืืืขืื, ืฆืืคืืจื, ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ ืืืคืืื ืคื ืื, ืืืคืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืืืจ, ืฉืขืืื, ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืืืขืื, ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืขื ืืืืช, ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืฆืื, ืืืื ืงืืกืืืืงื ืืืืืืขืื, ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืฆืืช, ืืืื imagine, ืืืืฆืืช , ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ ื ืฉืื ืืืืืืขืื, ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ ipl, ืืจืืืช ืฉืืขืจ, ืฉืื ืืกืืื, ืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืช,
ืืืืจืื
ืืืืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืื ืืฉื:
ืขืืฆืื ืืืืช ืืืืช
ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืืงืฆืืขืืช
ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ
ืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืืืขืื
ืืงืืกืืืืงืืืช ืืืืืชื
ืื ืชืฉืืจื ืขื ืืคืืช ืืจืืืืื
ืืืื ืช ืชืืจ
ืฉื: ืืืคืื:
ืชืืจืื: ืฉืขื:
ืืืฆืขืื
ืืืฆืข ืื ืืงืืจ
ืคืื ืืง ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืงืื
ืืื ืกืงืืคืฆ'ืจ ื'ื
ืืืฆืข ืื ืืงืืจ
ืคืื ืืง ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืงืื
ืฆืืจ ืงืฉืจ
ืฉื:
ืืืคืื:
ืืืืขื:
ืืืืืฆืื
ืืกืจืช ืฉืืขืจ ืืฉืขืืื - ืืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืชืืงืืช ืืืืชืจ ืฉืื ืื ืื ื ืืชืืืฉืื ืขื ืกืืจืืช ืฉื ืฉืขืืืช ืืจืืืืื ืืืืขืืื: ืืืืืจื,ืื ืืจืืื ืืขืื......
ืขืืฆืื ืืืืช - ืืื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืืืืข ืื ืฆืืจืช ืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืคืืื ืืืจืืข ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืจืื ืืคื ืื. ืืงืืืืช imagine ื ืื ืื ืืขืืฆืื ืืืืช ืืืืืกืก ืขื ืืชืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืคื ืื... |
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DictaLM 2.0 Quantization Calibration Dataset
This dataset consists of documents which can be used as a calibration dataset for quantizing Hebrew-English LLMs, such as DictaLM 2.0. You can read more about the model on the release page or in the technical report.
The dataset consists of 1024 documents - 512 in English (FineWeb-EDU) and 512 in Hebrew (Wikipedia, OSCAR).
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