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In October 2018, Hurricane Walaka eroded away most of East Island, the second largest island of the French Frigate Shoals. |
La Perouse Pinnacle, a rock outcrop in the center of the atoll, is the oldest and most remote volcanic rock in the Hawaiian chain. It stands tall and is surrounded by coral reefs. Because of its shape, the pinnacle is often mistaken for a ship from a distance. |
Whale-Skate Island is a submerged island in the French Frigate Shoals. These islands suffered considerably from erosion starting in the 1960s, and by the late 1990s, Whale-Skate Island was completely washed over. |
The reef system at French Frigate Shoals supports 41 species of stony corals, including several species that are not found in the main Hawaiian Island chain. More than 600 species of marine invertebrates, many of which are endemic, are found there as well. |
More than 150 species of algae live among the reefs. Especially diverse algal communities are found immediately adjacent to La Perouse Pinnacle. This has led to speculation that an influx of additional nutrients – in the form of guano – is responsible for the diversity and productivity of algae in this environment. The reef waters support large numbers of fish. The masked angelfish ("Genicanthus personatus"), endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, is relatively common there. Most of Hawaii's green sea turtles travel to the shoals to nest. The small islets of French Frigate Shoals provide refuge to the largest surviving population of Hawaiian monk seals, the second most endangered pinniped in the world. |
The islands are also an important seabird colony. Eighteen species of seabird, the black-footed albatross, Laysan albatross, Bonin petrel, Bulwer's petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Christmas shearwater, Tristram's storm-petrel, red-tailed tropicbird, masked booby, red-footed booby, brown booby, great frigatebird, spectacled tern, sooty tern, blue-gray noddy, brown noddy, black noddy and white tern nest on the islands, most of them (16) on Tern Island. Two species, the blue-gray noddy and the brown booby, nest only on La Perouse Pinnacle. The island also is the wintering ground for several species of shorebird. |
A three-week research mission in October 2006 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) led to the discovery of 100 species never seen in the area before, including many that are totally new to science. The French Frigate Shoals project is part of the Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the International Census of Marine Life. |
This table lists the islands of the French Frigate Shoals: |
= = = Yellow-billed shrike = = = |
The yellow-billed shrike ("Corvinella corvina") is a large passerine bird in the shrike family. It is sometimes known as the long-tailed shrike, but this is to be discouraged, since it invites confusion with the long-tailed shrike, "Lanius schach", of tropical southern Asia. The yellow-billed shrike is a common resident breeding bird in tropical Africa from Senegal eastwards to Uganda and locally in westernmost Kenya. It frequents forest and other habitats with trees. |
The yellow-billed shrike is with a long, graduating tail and short wings. The adult has mottled brown upperparts and streaked buff underparts. It has a brown eye mask and a rufous wing patch, and the bill is yellow. Sexes are largely similar, but females have maroon patches on the flanks, while males have rufous parches; these patches are only visible when the bird is in flight, displaying, engaging in territorial disputes, or preening. Immature birds show buff fringes to the wing feathers. The legs and feet are black, and the beak is yellow, even in juveniles. It is a noisy bird, with harsh "swee-swee" and "dreee-too" calls. |
The species is resident in tropical Africa, south of the Sahara and north of the equator, but is not present in the Horn of Africa. It is present in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, and Uganda. It makes localised movements, but these have been little studied. |
This is a conspicuous and gregarious bird and a cooperative breeder, always seen in groups, often lined up on telephone wires. The nest is a cup structure in a bush or tree into which four or five eggs are laid. Only one female in a group breeds at a given time, with other members providing protection and food. |
The yellow-billed shrike feeds on insects, which it locates from prominent look-out perches in trees, wires, or posts. They also sometimes eat small frogs, reptiles, and mice, but are not known to eat other birds or to form larders. |
"C. corvina" is common in some areas and less so in others. No evidence has been found of any substantial decline in its populations, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of least concern. |
= = = Coronie District = = = |
Coronie is a district of Suriname, situated on the coast. Coronie's capital city is Totness, with other towns including Corneliskondre, Friendship, Jenny. The district border the Atlantic Ocean to the north, the Surinamese district of Saramacca to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south and the Surinamese district of Nickerie to the west. The Totness Airstrip is one of the oldest airport in Suriname, in use since 1953, when the Piper Cub (PZ-NAC) of Kappel-van Eyck named "Colibri" landed there from Zorg en Hoop Airport. |
The district has a population of 3,480 and an area of 3,902 km². |
Coronie, as with most of Suriname, relies mostly upon agriculture for both its income and its food supply. The coastal environment means that many coconut and rice plantations exist. |
In September 1965 4 sounding rockets of Apache type with a maximum altitude of 205 km were launched. |
Coronie is divided into 3 resorts ("ressorten"): |
= = = Ninhydrin = = = |
Ninhydrin (2,2-dihydroxyindane-1,3-dione) is a chemical used to detect ammonia or primary and secondary amines. When reacting with these free amines, a deep blue or purple color known as Ruhemann's purple is produced. Ninhydrin is most commonly used to detect fingerprints, as the terminal amines of lysine residues in peptides and proteins sloughed off in fingerprints react with ninhydrin. It is a white solid which is soluble in ethanol and acetone at room temperature. Ninhydrin can be considered as the hydrate of indane-1,2,3-trione. |
Ninhydrin was discovered in 1910 by the German-English chemist Siegfried Ruhemann (1859–1943). In the same year, Ruhemann observed ninhydrin's reaction with amino acids. In 1954, Swedish investigators Oden and von Hofsten proposed that ninhydrin could be used to develop latent fingerprints. |
Ninhydrin can also be used to monitor deprotection in solid phase peptide synthesis (Kaiser Test). The chain is linked via its C-terminus to the solid support, with the N-terminus extending off it. When that nitrogen is deprotected, a ninhydrin test yields blue. Amino-acid residues are attached with their N-terminus protected, so if the next residue has been successfully coupled onto the chain, the test gives a colorless or yellow result. |
Ninhydrin is also used in amino acid analysis of proteins. Most of the amino acids, except proline, are hydrolyzed and react with ninhydrin. Also, certain amino acid chains are degraded. Therefore, separate analysis is required for identifying such amino acids that either react differently or do not react at all with ninhydrin. The rest of the amino acids are then quantified colorimetrically after separation by chromatography. |
A solution suspected of containing the ammonium ion can be tested by ninhydrin by dotting it onto a solid support (such as silica gel); treatment with ninhydrin should result in a dramatic purple color if the solution contains this species. In the analysis of a chemical reaction by thin layer chromatography (TLC), the reagent can also be used (usually 0.2% solution in either n-butanol or in ethanol). It will detect, on the TLC plate, virtually all amines, carbamates and also, after vigorous heating, amides. |
When ninhydrin reacts with amino acids, the reaction also releases CO. The carbon in this CO originates from the carboxyl carbon of the amino acid. This reaction has been used to release the carboxyl carbons of bone collagen from ancient bones for stable isotope analysis in order to help reconstruct the palaeodiet of cave bears. Release of the carboxyl carbon (via ninhydrin) from amino acids recovered from soil that has been treated with a labeled substrate demonstrates assimilation of that substrate into microbial protein. This approach was successfully used to reveal that some ammonium oxidizing bacteria, also called nitrifying bacteria use urea as a carbon source in soil. |
A ninhydrin solution is commonly used by forensic investigators in the analysis of latent fingerprints on porous surfaces such as paper. Amino acid containing fingermarks, formed by minute sweat secretions which gather on the finger's unique ridges, are treated with the ninhydrin solution which turns the amino acid finger ridge patterns purple and therefore visible. |
The carbon atom of a carbonyl bears a partial positive charge enhanced by neighboring electron withdrawing groups like carbonyl itself. So the central carbon of a 1,2,3-tricarbonyl compound is much more electrophilic than one in a simple ketone. Thus indane-1,2,3-trione reacts readily with nucleophiles, including water. Whereas for most carbonyl compounds, a carbonyl form is more stable than a product of water addition (hydrate), ninhydrin forms a stable hydrate of the central carbon because of the destabilizing effect of the adjacent carbonyl groups. |
Note that to generate the ninhydrin chromophore (2-(1,3-dioxoindan-2-yl)iminoindane-1,3-dione), the amine is condensed with a molecule of ninhydrin to give a Schiff base. Thus only ammonia and primary amines can proceed past this step. At this step, there must be an alpha hydrogen present to form the Schiff base. Therefore, amines bound to tertiary carbons do not react further and thus are not detected. The reaction of ninhydrin with secondary amines gives an iminium salt, which is also coloured, and this is generally yellow–orange in color. |
= = = Arthur Nebe = = = |
Nebe rose through the ranks of the Berlin and Prussian police forces to become head of Nazi Germany's Criminal Police ("Kriminalpolizei"; Kripo) in 1936, which was folded into the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA) in 1939. Prior to the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, Nebe volunteered to serve as commanding officer of "Einsatzgruppe B". The killing unit was deployed in the Army Group Centre Rear Area, in modern-day Belarus, and reported over 45,000 victims by November 1941. In late 1941, Nebe was posted back to Berlin and resumed his career within the RSHA. Nebe commanded the Kripo until he was denounced and executed after the failed attempt to kill Adolf Hitler in July 1944. |
Following the war, Nebe's career and involvement with the 20 July plot were the subject of several apologetic accounts by the members of the plot, who portrayed him as a professional policeman and a dedicated anti-Nazi. The notions that Nebe's motivations were anything other than Nazi ideology have since been discredited by historians who describe him as an opportunist and an "energetic", "enthusiastic" and "notorious" mass murderer driven by racism and careerism. |
Born in Berlin in 1894, the son of a Berlin school teacher, Nebe volunteered for military service and served with distinction during World War I. In 1920 Nebe joined the Berlin detective force, the "Kriminalpolizei" (Kripo; Criminal Police). He attained the rank of a police inspector in 1923 and the rank of Police Commissioner in 1924. |
Nebe was a "conservative nationalist", who embraced the shift of the country "to the right in the 1930s". In July 1931, he joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP number 574,307) and the "Schutzstaffel" (SS number 280,152). Nebe became the Nazis' liaison in the Berlin criminal police, with links to an early Berlin SS group led by Kurt Daluege. In early 1932, Nebe and other Nazi detectives formed the NS (National Socialist) Civil Service Society of the Berlin Police. In 1933 he came to know Hans Bernd Gisevius, then an official in the Berlin Police Headquarters; after the war, Gisevius produced an apologetic account of Nebe's Nazi era activities. In 1935 Nebe was appointed head of Prussian Criminal Police. He later obtained the rank of SS-"Gruppenführer", an SS equivalent to the rank of a police general. |
In July 1936, the Prussian Criminal Police became the central criminal investigation department for Germany, the "Reichskriminalpolizeiamt". It was amalgamated, along with the secret state police, the "Geheime Staatspolizei" (Gestapo), into the "Sicherheitspolizei" (SiPo), with Reinhard Heydrich in overall command. Nebe was appointed head of the "Reichskriminalpolizeiamt", reporting to Heydrich. The addition of the Kripo to Heydrich's control helped cement the foundations of the police state. It also led to an "overlap" of personnel from the SD, Gestapo and Kripo to leadership positions in the police and security forces in Germany. |
On 27 September 1939, Himmler ordered the creation of the Reich Main Security Office ("Reichssicherheitshauptamt" or RSHA); the new organisation encompassed the intelligence service, security services, secret state and criminal police. The RSHA was divided into main departments, including the Kripo, which became Department V of the RSHA. Department V was also known as the "Reich Criminal Police Office" ("Reichskriminalpolizeiamt", or RKPA). Kripo's stated mission, which Nebe embraced, was to "exterminate criminality". Under his leadership, equipped with arbitrary powers of arrest and detention, the Kripo acted more and more like the Gestapo, including the liberal use of so-called protective custody and large-scale roundups of "asocials". |
In 1939, Nebe lent a commissioner in his Criminal Police Office, Christian Wirth of Stuttgart, to the euthanasia organisation, which ran the programme of involuntary euthanasia of the disabled. Also in 1939, as head of Kripo, he was involved in the discussions around the upcoming campaigns against the Sinti and Roma. Nebe wanted to include sending Berlin's Gypsies to the planned reservations for the Jews and others in the east. In October 1939, Nebe ordered Adolf Eichmann to put Gypsies with Jews on the transports to Nisko. In November, Nebe led the onsite investigation into Georg Elser's failed assassination attempt on Hitler. |
Just prior to the 1941 Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, the "Einsatzgruppen" mobile death squads which had operated in Poland were reformed and placed once again under the overall command of Reinhard Heydrich. Nebe volunteered to command "Einsatzgruppe B", which operated behind Army Group Center after the invasion of the Soviet Union. The unit's task was to exterminate Jews and other "undesirables", such as communists, Gypsies, "Asiatics", the disabled, and psychiatric hospital patients in the territories that the Wehrmacht had overrun. The "Einsatzgruppen" also shot hostages and prisoners of war handed over by the army for execution. |
Around 5 July 1941, Nebe consolidated "Einsatzgruppe B" near Minsk, establishing a headquarters and remaining there for two months. The killing activities progressed apace. In a 13 July Operational Situation Report, Nebe stated that 1,050 Jews had been killed in Minsk, and that in Vilna, the liquidation of the Jews was underway, and that five hundred Jews were shot daily. In the same report Nebe remarked that: "only 96 Jews were executed in Grodno and Lida during the first days. I gave orders to intensify these activities". He also reported that the killings were being brought into smooth running order and that the shootings were carried out "at an increasing rate". The report also announced that in Minsk "Einsatzgruppe" was now killing non-Jews. |
In the 23 July report, Nebe advanced the idea of a "solution to the Jewish problem" being "impractical" in his region of operation due to "the overwhelming number of the Jews"; there were too many Jews to be killed by too few men. By August 1941, Nebe came to realize that his "Einsatzgruppe"'s resources were insufficient to meet the expanded mandate of the killing operations, resulting from the inclusion of Jewish women and children since that month. |
In August 1941, Himmler vomited after a demonstration of a mass-shooting of Jews in Minsk arranged by Nebe. Regaining his composure, Himmler decided that alternative methods of killing should be found. He told Heydrich that he was concerned for the mental health of the SS men. Himmler turned to Nebe to devise a more "convenient" method of killing, particularly one that would spare executioners elements of their grisly task. Murder with carbon monoxide gas, already in use in the Reich as part of the euthanasia program, was contemplated, but deemed too cumbersome for the mobile killing operations in the occupied Soviet Union. |
Nebe decided to try experimenting by murdering Soviet mental patients, first with explosives near Minsk, and then with automobile exhaust at Mogilev. The idea of using gas was partly inspired by an incident in Nebe's past. One night after a party, Nebe had driven home drunk, parked in his garage, and fallen asleep with the engine running, thus nearly dying of carbon monoxide poisoning from the exhaust fumes. To conduct the experiments, he ordered chemist Albert Widmann, a member of the criminal-technical institute of the RKPA, to come to Minsk with of explosives and exhaust hoses. The next day Widmann, Nebe, and an explosives expert carried out their first experiment in prepared bunkers in the Minsk area. According to testimony presented at Widmann's postwar trial: |
Two days later, Nebe and Widmann carried out another killing experiment: five psychiatric patients from Mogilev were placed in a hermetically sealed room, with pipes leading to the outside. At first, exhausts from a passenger vehicle were vented into the room, so that the carbon monoxide would kill those inside. However, this method failed to kill the patients, so a truck was added; the patients were dead within 15 minutes. Nebe and Widmann concluded that killing with explosives was impractical, while gassing "held promise", as vehicles were readily available, and could be used as needed. |
After these experimental killings, Nebe thought of remodelling a vehicle with a hermetically sealed cabin for killing. The carbon monoxide from the vehicle's exhaust would be channelled into the sealed cabin in which the victims stood. He discussed the technical aspects of the idea with a specialist from Kripo's Technology Institute and together they brought the proposal before Heydrich, who adopted it. |
The Wehrmacht's aggressive rear security doctrine, and the use of the "security threat" to disguise genocidal policies, resulted in close cooperation between the army and the security apparatus behind the front lines. Nebe, as the "Einsatzgruppe B" commander, participated in a three-day field conference at Mogilev in late September 1941. Organised by General Max von Schenckendorff, chief of Army Group Centre's rear area, the conference was to serve as an "exchange of experiences" for the Wehrmacht rear unit commanders. |
Participating officers were selected on the basis of their "achievements and experiences" in security operations already undertaken. In addition to Nebe, the speakers included: Higher SS and Police Leader Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski; Max Montua, commander of Police Regiment Center; Hermann Fegelein, commander of the SS Cavalry Brigade; and Gustav Lombard, commander of the 1st SS Cavalry Regiment. Nebe's talk focused on the role of the SD in the common fight against "partisans" and "plunderers". He also covered the "Jewish question", with particular consideration to the anti-partisan movement. Following the conference, a 16-page executive summary was distributed to the Wehrmacht troops and police units in the rear area. There was a dramatic increase in atrocities against Jews and other civilians in the last three months of 1941. |
Under Nebe's command, "Einsatzgruppe B" committed public hangings to terrorise the local population. An "Einsatzgruppe B" report, dated 9 October 1941, stated that, due to suspected partisan activity near Demidov, all male residents aged fifteen to fifty-five were put in a camp to be screened. Seventeen people were identified as "partisans" and "Communists" and five were hanged in front of 400 local residents assembled to watch; the rest were shot. Through 14 November 1941, "Einsatzgruppe B" reported the killing of 45,467 people; thereafter, Nebe returned to Berlin and resumed his duties as head of the Kripo. |
Following the assassination of Heydrich, Nebe assumed the additional post of President of the International Criminal Police Commission, the organization today known as Interpol, in June 1942. After the "Anschluss" in 1938, the organization had fallen under the control of Nazi Germany and was headed by Heydrich until his death. Nebe served in this capacity until June 1943, when he was replaced by Ernst Kaltenbrunner. |
In March 1944, after the "Great Escape" from Stalag Luft III prisoner-of-war camp, Nebe was ordered by Heinrich Müller, Chief of the Gestapo, to select and kill fifty of the seventy-three recaptured prisoners in what became known as the "Stalag Luft III murders". Also in 1944, Nebe suggested that the Roma interned at Auschwitz would be good subjects for medical experiments at the Dachau concentration camp, after Himmler had asked Ernst-Robert Grawitz, a high-ranking SS physician, for advice. |
Nebe was involved in the July 20 plot against Adolf Hitler; he was to lead a team of twelve policemen to kill Himmler, but the signal to act never reached him. After the failed assassination attempt, Nebe fled and went into hiding on an island in the Wannsee. He was arrested in January 1945, after a former mistress betrayed him. Nebe was sentenced to death by the People's Court on 2 March and, according to official records, was executed in Berlin at Plötzensee Prison on 21 March 1945 by being hanged with piano wire from a meat hook, in accordance with Hitler's order that the bomb plotters were to be "hanged like cattle". |
Historians have a uniformly negative view of Nebe and his motives, despite his participation in the 20 July plot. Robert Gellately writes that Nebe's views were virulently racist and antisemitic. Martin Kitchen casts Nebe as an opportunist, who saw the SS as the police force of the future, and as an "energetic and enthusiastic mass murderer, who seized every opportunity to undertake yet another massacre". Yet, according to Kitchen, he "was clearly unable to stand the strain and was posted back to Berlin". |
Comprehensive reports filed by the "Einsatzgruppen" have been analyzed by historian Ronald Headland as "historical 'Messages of Murder'" that provide insights into the worldview of its leadership. Headland writes that the reports "bear witness to the fanatic commitment of the "Einsatzgruppen" leaders to their mission of extermination"; their ideology and racism are evident in the "constant debasement of the victims" and "ever present racial conceptions concerning Jew, Communists, Gypsies and other 'inferior' elements". Headland concludes that Nebe was an ambitious man who may have volunteered to lead an "Einsatzgruppe" unit for careerist reasons, to get a "military decoration", and to curry favor with Heydrich. Any misgivings he may have entertained as to the feasibility of the undertaking failed to prevent him from overseeing the murder of close to 50,000 people in the five months he spent as commander of his unit. |
Gerald Reitlinger describes Nebe's reasons for joining the "Einsatzgruppen" as "placation" and a desire to hold on to his position in the Criminal Police Department, which, since 1934, had been "invaded by amateur Gestapo men" and was later taken over by Heydrich. "If Nebe did in fact retain his office till 1944, it was because of the five months he spent in Russia, or, as his friend Gisevius politely referred to, 'at the front'." Reitlinger called Nebe a very questionable member of the Resistance Circle at the time of the great bomb plot. |
Alex J. Kay writes that "the role, character and motivation of those involved both in planning—and in some cases carrying out—mass murder and in the conspiracy against Hitler deserve to be investigated more closely". He places Nebe in this category, with Franz Halder, chief of the OKH, and Georg Thomas, head of the Defence, Economy and Armament Office in the "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" (OKW) (English: Supreme Command). |
Several apologetic accounts produced by the conspirators behind the 20 July plot described Nebe as a professional police officer and a dedicated member of the German resistance. In 1947, Hans Gisevius described Nebe's position at the head of "Einsatzgruppe" B as a "brief command at the front". Gisevius changed his story in the 1960s, when Nebe's role with the "Einsatzgruppen" was exposed. In "Wo ist Nebe?" ("Where is Nebe" [1966]), Gisevius claimed that Nebe was reluctant to accept the posting but had been persuaded to take it by the opposition leaders Hans Oster and Ludwig Beck, who had allegedly wanted Nebe to retain a key role in Heydrich's apparatus. Gisevius also claimed that Nebe exaggerated the number of victims in reports to Berlin by adding a zero to the number of those killed. In addition, a Swedish police official active in the Interpol during the war years, Harry Söderman, described Nebe and , a key RSHA figure responsible for persecution of the Roma, in his 1956 book as “professional policemen... very mild Nazis”. |
Historian Christian Gerlach, writing about the 20 July conspirators and their complicity in war crimes of the Wehrmacht, refers to Nebe as a "notorious mass murderer". He discusses the role of Henning von Tresckow and his adjutant, Fabian von Schlabrendorff, who were members of the resistance and writes: |
Gerlach doubts that Nebe falsified "Einsatzgruppe B" reports to "sabotage Hitler's murderous orders". Gerlach puts Schlabrendorff's claims in the context of bomb plotters' memoirs and "existing discourse" on the opposition group within the high command of Army Group Center: "Especially with reference to the murder of the Jews, [it is said that] 'the SS' had deceived the officers by killing in secret, filing incomplete reports or none at all; if general staff offices protested, the SS threatened them. (...) This is, of course, nonsense." |
The historian Waitman Wade Beorn writes that "some have argued that [Nebe] deliberately inflated the numbers of Jews he reported killed. Yet all evidence indicates that he was quite content to play his role in Nazi genocide and that his subsequent displeasure with the regime may have stemmed from the imminent Nazi defeat but not opposition to the Holocaust". Bernhard Wehner of the Kripo stated that Nebe was worried the Allies would punish him for his crimes, which was the only reason for joining the resistance. |
/ last = Gill / first =Anton / Anton Gill / title = An Honourable Defeat / publishers = HarperCollins, Henry Holt 1994/1995/ |
<br> |
= = = Marowijne District = = = |
Marowijne is a district of Suriname, located on the north-east coast. Marowijne's capital city is Albina, with other towns including Moengo and Wanhatti. The district borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south, and the Surinamese districts of Commewijne and Para to the west. |
Marowijne's population is 20,250 and the district has an area of 4,627 km². |
During the early 20th century, bauxite was discovered in Marowijne district, leading to a boom in mining that significantly enriched the entire country. The district also has a large tourism industry and is the location of oceanfront resorts. |
Marowijne is also home to many Maroon "palenques." The Maroons are descendants of slaves who escaped from their Dutch masters centuries ago, particularly slaves who escaped from Suriname's huge plantations during the 18th century. They established autonomy for their interior settlements by a 1785 peace treaty with the Netherlands, which was unable to conquer them. |
Marowijne is divided into six resorts ("ressorten"): |
= = = East Windsor = = = |
East Windsor may refer to: |
= = = Eastbrook = = = |
Eastbrook could refer to the following: |
= = = Nickerie District = = = |
Nickerie is a district of Suriname, on the north-west coast. Nickerie's capital city is Nieuw-Nickerie, the second largest city in the country. Other towns include Washabo and Wageningen. The district borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north, the Surinamese district of Coronie to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south and Guyana to the west. |
Nickerie has a population of 36.639 (2004) and an area of 5,353 km². |
Relations between Suriname and neighbouring Guyana have always been tense, and border disputes in the south of the country (with occasional sporadic fighting) mean that ports of entry to Guyana from Suriname are few. However, there is a ferry that sails between Molson Creek in Guyana and the district of Nickerie. Nickerie's population includes East Indian, Javanese, Afro-Surinamese, Chinese, and Portuguese people. |
Bananas and rice are the main crops grown in Nickerie. |
Nickerie is divided into 5 resorts ("ressorten"): |
= = = Amelia Edwards = = = |
Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards (7 June 1831 – 15 April 1892), also known as Amelia B. Edwards, was an English novelist, journalist, traveller and Egyptologist. Her most successful literary works included the ghost story "The Phantom Coach" (1864), the novels "Barbara's History" (1864) and "Lord Brackenbury" (1880), and the Egyptian travelogue "A Thousand Miles up the Nile" (1877). In 1882, she co-founded the Egypt Exploration Fund. She also edited a poetry anthology published in 1878. |
Born in London to an Irish mother and a father who had been a British Army officer before becoming a banker, Edwards was educated at home by her mother and showed early promise as a writer. She published her first poem at the age of seven and her first story at the age of twelve. Thereafter came a variety of poetry, stories, and articles in several periodicals, including "Chambers's Journal", "Household Words", and "All the Year Round". She also wrote for the "Saturday Review" and the "Morning Post". |
In addition, Edwards became an artist and would illustrate some of her own writings. She would also paint scenes from other books she had read. She was talented enough at the age of 12 to catch the eye of George Cruikshank, who went as far to offer to teach her, but this talent was not supported by Edwards's parents, who saw it as a lesser profession and the artist way of life as scandalous. This negative decision haunted Edwards through her early life. She would wonder frequently whether art would not have been her true calling. |
Thirdly, Edwards took up composing and performing music for some years, until she suffered a bout of Typhus in 1849 that was followed by a frequently sore throat, which made it hard for her to sing, caused her to lose interest in music and even regret the time she had spent on opera. Other interests she pursued included pistol shooting, riding, and mathematics. |
Early in the 1850s, Edwards began to focus more exclusively on being a writer. Her first full-length novel was "My Brother's Wife" (1855). Her early novels were well received, but it was "Barbara's History" (1864), a novel involving bigamy, that established her reputation as a novelist. She spent much time and effort on the settings and backgrounds of her books, estimating that it took her about two years to complete the research and writing of each. This paid off when her last novel, "Lord Brackenbury" (1880), became a runaway success that went to 15 editions. |
Edwards wrote several ghost stories, including the frequently anthologised "The Phantom Coach" (1864). The background and characters in many of Edwards's writings are influenced by her own experiences. For example, "Barbara's History" (1864) uses Suffolk as the background, which she had visited for a few enjoyable summer holidays as a child. |
Edwards first heard about the Dolomites in 1853, through sketches which had been brought back to England from Italy. On 27 June 1872, she embarked on a trip through the mountains with her friend Lucy Renshawe. That day they left Monte Generoso for Venice, one of the three known ways to enter the Dolomites, but not before they had parted from Renshawe's maid and courtier, who disapproved such a journey. Instead the two women hired mountain guides from the region. On 1 July 1872, after a three-day stay in Venice, Edwards and Renshawe left for Longarone, Cortina d'Ampezzo, Pieve di Cadore, Auronzo di Cadore, Val Buona, Caprile, Agordo, Primiero, Predazzo, Fassa Valley, Passo Fedaia, Sasso Bianco, Forno di Zoldo, Zoppè di Cadore and Caprile, and ended their journey in Bolzano. At the time of Edwards's visit, the Dolomites were described as being terra incognita, and even educated persons had never heard of them. This journey was described in her book "A Midsummer Ramble in the Dolomites (1873)," later renamed "Untrodden Peaks and Infrequent Valleys (1873)". During the expedition, Edwards also searched for the works of Titian, finding a Madonna and Child in Serravalle (Vittorio Veneto) and two other paintings at a village church in Cadore. After her descent from the mountains, Edwards described civilized life as a "dead-level World of Commonplace". |
In the summer of 1873, dissatisfied by the end of their journey, Edwards and Renshawe took to a walking tour of France. However, this was interrupted by torrential rains, a factor that influenced them in looking towards Egypt. |
Edwards, accompanied by several friends, toured Egypt in the winter of 1873–1874, discovering a fascination with the land and its cultures, ancient and modern. Journeying southwards from Cairo in a hired dahabiyeh (manned houseboat), the party visited Philae and ultimately reached Abu Simbel, where they remained for six weeks. Renshawe remained among her travelling companions. Another party member was the English painter Andrew McCallum, who discovered an unknown sanctuary that came to bear his name for some time afterwards. Their boat joined in a flotilla with another female English traveller, Marianne Brocklehurst, also travelling with a female companion. Brocklehurst and Edwards remained friends and Brocklehurst later supported her Egypt Exploration fund. |
Edwards wrote a vivid description of her Nile voyage entitled "A Thousand Miles up the Nile" (1877). Enhanced with her own illustrations, this travelogue was an immediate best-seller. |
Edwards' travels in Egypt made her aware of increasing threats to ancient monuments from tourism and modern development. She set out to hinder these through public awareness and scientific endeavour, becoming a tireless advocate for research and preservation of them. In 1882, she co-founded the Egypt Exploration Fund with Reginald Stuart Poole, Curator of the Department of Coins and Medals at the British Museum. Edwards became joint Honorary Secretary of the Fund until her death. |
To advance the Fund's work, Edwards largely abandoned other writing in favour of Egyptology. She contributed to the ninth edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica", to the American supplement of that work, and to the "Standard Dictionary". In addition, Edwards embarked on an strenuous lecture tour in the United States in 1889–1890. These lectures were later published as "Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers". |
After catching influenza, Edwards died on 15 April 1892 at Weston-super-Mare, having lived at Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol since 1864. She was buried in the churchyard of St Mary the Virgin, Henbury, Bristol, where her grave is marked by an obelisk, with a stone ankh at the foot. Alongside are the graves of her companion, Ellen Drew Braysher (9 April 1804 – 9 January 1892), with whom she had lived in Westbury-on-Trym, and of Ellen's daughter, Sarah Harriet Braysher (1832–1864). In September 2016, Historic England designated the grave as Grade II listed, celebrating it as a landmark in English LGBT history. |
Edwards bequeathed her collection of Egyptian antiquities and her library to University College London, together with a sum of £2,500 to found an Edwards Chair of Egyptology. Edwards was also a benefactor of Somerville College Library, having left many books, papers and watercolours to Somerville College, Oxford, along with a small collection of Greek and Roman pots. |
Some dates and titles have been added from the catalogue of the British Library. |
= = = Karelian pasty = = = |
Karelian pasties, Karelian pies or Karelian pirogs (South Karelian dialect of , singular "karjalanpiirakka"; North Karelian dialect of Finnish: "karjalanpiiraat", singular "karjalanpiiras"; , singular "kalitta"; Olonets Karelian: "šipainiekku"; "karelskiy pirog" or калитка "kalitka"; ) are traditional pasties or pirogs from the region of Karelia. Today they are eaten throughout Finland as well as in adjacent areas such as Estonia and northern Russia. |
The oldest traditional pasties usually had a rye crust, but the North Karelian and Ladoga Karelian variants also contained wheat to improve the baking characteristics. The common fillings were barley and talkkuna. In the 19th century, first potato and buckwheat were introduced as fillings, and later also rice and millet. |
Today, the most familiar and common version has a thin rye crust with a filling of rice. Mashed potato and rice-and-carrot fillings are also commonly available. Butter, often mixed with chopped-up boiled egg (egg butter or "munavoi"), is spread over the hot pasties before eating. |
Karjalanpiirakka has Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) status in Europe. This means that any product outside of specific regions and bakeries that make a similar product cannot call them "karjalanpiirakka" and instead call them "riisipiirakka" ("rice pasties"), "perunapiirakka" ("potato pasties") etc., depending on the filling. |
= = = Amido black 10B = = = |
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