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[Question]
[
Here is a theoretical question - one that doesn't afford an easy answer in any case, not even the trivial one.
In Conway's Game of Life, there exist constructs such as the [metapixel](http://www.conwaylife.com/wiki/OTCA_metapixel) which allow the Game of Life to simulate any other Game-of-Life rule system as well. In addition, it is known that the Game of Life is Turing-complete.
Your task is to build a cellular automaton using the rules of Conway's game of life that will allow for the playing of a game of Tetris.
Your program will receive input by manually changing the state of the automaton at a specific generation to represent an interrupt (e.g. moving a piece left or right, dropping it, rotating it, or randomly generating a new piece to place onto the grid), counting a specific number of generations as waiting time, and displaying the result somewhere on the automaton. The displayed result must visibly resemble an actual Tetris grid.
Your program will be scored on the following things, in order (with lower criteria acting as tiebreakers for higher criteria):
* Bounding box size β the rectangular box with the smallest area that completely contains the given solution wins.
* Smaller changes to input β the fewest cells (for the worst case in your automaton) that need to be manually adjusted for an interrupt wins.
* Fastest execution β the fewest generations to advance one tick in the simulation wins.
* Initial live cell count β smaller count wins.
* First to post β earlier post wins.
[Answer]
*This began as a quest but ended as an odyssey.*
## Quest for Tetris Processor, 2,940,928 x 10,295,296
The pattern file, in all its glory, can be found [here](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/QFT/blob/master/TetrisOTCAMP.mc.gz), viewable in-browser [here](https://copy.sh/life/?pattern=TetrisOTCAMP.mc).
This project is the culmination of the efforts of many users over the course of the past 1 & 1/2 years. Although the composition of the team has varied over time, the participants as of writing are the following:
* [PhiNotPi](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/2867/phinotpi)
* [El'endia Starman](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/12914/elendia-starman)
* [K Zhang](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/52152/k-zhang)
* [Blue (Muddyfish)](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/32686/blue)
* [Cows quack (Kritixi Lithos)](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/41805/cows-quack)
* [Mego](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/45941/mego)
* [Quartata](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/45151/quartata)
We would also like to extend our thanks to 7H3\_H4CK3R, [Conor O'Brien](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/users/31957/conor-obrien), and the many other users who have put effort into solving this challenge.
Due to the unprecedented scope of this collaboration, this answer is split in parts across multiple answers written by the members of this team. Each member will write about specific sub-topics, roughly corresponding to the areas of the project in which they were most involved.
***Please distribute any upvotes or bounties across all members of the team.***
## Table of Contents
1. Overview
2. [Metapixels and VarLife](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/142674/12914)
3. [Hardware](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/142675/52152)
4. [QFTASM and Cogol](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/142676/2867)
5. [Assembly, Translation, and the Future](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/142677/2867)
6. [New Language and Compiler](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/142683/32686)
Also consider checking out our [GitHub organization](https://github.com/QuestForTetris) where we've put all of the code we've written as part of our solution. Questions can be directed to our [development chatroom](https://chat.stackexchange.com/rooms/35837/the-quest-for-tetris).
---
## Part 1: Overview
The underlying idea of this project is *abstraction*. Rather than develop a Tetris game in Life directly, we slowly ratcheted up the abstraction in a series of steps. At each layer, we get further away from the difficulties of Life and closer to the construction of a computer that is as easy to program as any other.
First, we used [OTCA metapixels](http://www.conwaylife.com/wiki/OTCA_metapixel) as the foundation of our computer. These metapixels are capable of emulating any "life-like" rule. [Wireworld](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireworld) and the [Wireworld computer](http://www.quinapalus.com/wi-index.html) served as important sources of inspiration for this project, so we sought to create a similar constuction with metapixels. Although it is not possible to emulate Wireworld with OTCA metapixels, it is possible to assign different metapixels different rules and to build metapixel arrangements that function similarly to wires.
The next step was to construct a variety of fundamental logic gates to serve as the basis for the computer. Already at this stage we are dealing with concepts similar to real-world processor design. Here is an example of an OR gate, each cell in this image is actually an entire OTCA metapixel. You can see "electrons" (each representing a single bit of data) enter and leave the gate. You can also see all of the different metapixel types that we used in our computer: B/S as the black background, B1/S in blue, B2/S in green, and B12/S1 in red.
From here we developed an architecture for our processor. We spent significant effort on designing an architecture that was both as non-esoteric and as easily-implementable as possible. Whereas the Wireworld computer used a rudimentary transport-triggered architecture, this project uses a much more flexible RISC architecture complete with multiple opcodes and addressing modes. We created an assembly language, known as QFTASM (Quest for Tetris Assembly), which guided the construction of our processor.
Our computer is also asynchronous, meaning that there is no global clock controlling the computer. Rather, the data is accompanied by a clock signal as it flows around the computer, which means we only need to focus on local but not global timings of the computer.
Here is an illustration of our processor architecture:
From here it is just a matter of implementing Tetris on the computer. To help accomplish this, we have worked on multiple methods of compiling higher-level language to QFTASM. We have a basic language called Cogol, a second, more advanced language under development, and finally we have an under-construction GCC backend. The current Tetris program was written in / compiled from Cogol.
Once the final Tetris QFTASM code was generated, the final steps were to assemble from this code to corresponding ROM, and then from metapixels to the underlying Game of Life, completing our construction.
### Running Tetris
For those who wish to play Tetris without messing around with the computer, you can run the [Tetris source code](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/Cogol/blob/master/tetris.qftasm) on the [QFTASM interpreter](https://darthnithin.github.io/qftasm-interpreter/qftasm.html). Set the RAM display addresses to 3-32 to view the entire game. Here is a permalink for convenience: [Tetris in QFTASM](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/qftasm/#jllHdnBGSP).
Game features:
* All 7 tetrominoes
* Movement, rotation, soft drops
* Line clears and scoring
* Preview piece
* Player inputs inject randomness
**Display**
Our computer represents the Tetris board as a grid within its memory. Addresses 10-31 display the board, addresses 5-8 display the preview piece, and address 3 contains the score.
**Input**
Input to the game is performed by manually editing the contents of RAM address 1. Using the QFTASM interpreter, this means performing direct writes to address 1. Look for "Direct write to RAM" on the interpreter's page. Each move only requires editing a single bit of RAM, and this input register is automatically cleared after the input event has been read.
```
value motion
1 counterclockwise rotation
2 left
4 down (soft drop)
8 right
16 clockwise rotation
```
**Scoring system**
You get a bonus for clearing multiple lines in a single turn.
```
1 row = 1 point
2 rows = 2 points
3 rows = 4 points
4 rows = 8 points
```
[Answer]
# Part 2: OTCA Metapixel and VarLife
## OTCA Metapixel
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/wezpm.png)
([Source](http://www.conwaylife.com/w/images/3/3a/Otcametapixel.png))
The [OTCA Metapixel](http://www.conwaylife.com/w/index.php?title=OTCA_metapixel) is a construct in Conway's Game of Life that can be used to simulate any Life-like cellular automata. As the LifeWiki (linked above) says,
>
> The OTCA metapixel is a 2048 Γ 2048 period 35328 unit cell that was constructed by Brice Due... It has many advantages... including the ability to emulate any Life-like cellular automaton and the fact that, when zoomed out, the ON and OFF cells are easy to distinguish...
>
>
>
What [Life-like cellular automata](http://www.conwaylife.com/wiki/Life-like_cellular_automaton#Life-like_cellular_automata) means here is essentially that cells are born and cells survive according to how many of their eight neighbor cells are alive. The syntax for these rules is as follows: a B followed by the numbers of live neighbors that will cause a birth, then a slash, then an S followed by the numbers of live neighbors that will keep the cell alive. A bit wordy, so I think an example will help. The canonical Game of Life can be represented by the rule B3/S23, which says that any dead cell with three live neighbors will become alive and any live cell with two or three live neighbors will remain alive. Otherwise, the cell dies.
Despite being a 2048 x 2048 cell, the OTCA metapixel actually has a bounding box of 2058 x 2058 cells, the reason being that it overlaps by five cells in every direction with its *diagonal* neighbors. The overlapping cells serve to intercept gliders - which are emitted to signal the metacells neighbors that it's on - so that they don't interfere with other metapixels or fly off indefinitely. The birth and survival rules are encoded in a special section of cells at the left side of the metapixel, by the presence or absence of eaters in specific positions along two columns (one for birth, the other for survival). As for detecting the state of neighboring cells, here's how that happens:
>
> A 9-LWSS stream then goes clockwise around the cell, losing a LWSS for each adjacent βonβ cell that triggered a honeybit reaction. The number of missing LWSSes is counted by detecting the position of the front LWSS by crashing another LWSS into it from the opposite direction. This collision releases gliders, which triggers another one or two honeybit reactions if the eaters that indicate that birth/survival condition are absent.
>
>
>
A more detailed diagram of each aspect of the OTCA metapixel can be found at its original website: [How Does It Work?](http://otcametapixel.blogspot.com/2006/05/how-does-it-work.html).
## VarLife
I built an online simulator of Life-like rules where you could make any cell behave according to any life-like rule and called it "Variations of Life". This name has been shortened to "VarLife" to be more concise. Here's a screenshot of it and the [link to it](https://darthnithin.github.io/variations-of-life/):
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/OtXhi.png)
Notable features:
* Toggle cells between live/dead and paint the board with different rules.
* The ability to start and stop the simulation, and to do one step at a time. It's also possible to do a given number of steps as fast as possible or more slowly, at the rate set in the ticks-per-second and milliseconds-per-tick boxes.
* Clear all live cells or to entirely reset the board to a blank state.
* Can change the cell and board sizes, and also to enable toroidal wrapping horizontally and/or vertically.
* Permalinks (which encode all information in the url) and short urls (because sometimes there's just too much info, but they're nice anyway).
* Rule sets, with B/S specification, colors, and optional randomness.
* And last but definitely not least, rendering gifs!
The render-to-gif feature is my favorite both because it took a ton of work to implement, so it was really satisfying when I finally cracked it at 7 in the morning, and because it makes it very easy to share VarLife constructs with others.
## Basic VarLife Circuitry
All in all, the VarLife computer only needs four cell types! Eight states in all counting the dead/alive states. They are:
* B/S (black/white), which serves as a buffer between all components since B/S cells can never be alive.
* B1/S (blue/cyan), which is the main cell type used to propagate signals.
* B2/S (green/yellow), which is mainly used for signal control, ensuring it doesn't backpropagate.
* B12/S1 (red/orange), which is used in a few specialized situations, such as crossing signals and storing a bit of data.
[Use this url](https://darthnithin.github.io/variations-of-life/#data=%7B%...) to open up VarLife with these rules already encoded.
### Wires
There are a few different wire designs with varying characteristics.
This is the easiest and most basic wire in VarLife, a strip of blue bordered by strips of green.
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/peFh7.gif)
Short url: <http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/WcsGmjLiBF>
This wire is unidirectional. That is, it will kill any signal attempting to travel in the opposite direction. It's also one cell narrower than the basic wire.
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/88oxH.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/ARWgUgPTEJ)
Diagonal wires also exist but they are not used much at all.
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/0UKff.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/kJotsdSXIj)
### Gates
There are actually a lot of ways to construct each individual gate, so I will only be showing one example of each kind. This first gif demonstrates AND, XOR, and OR gates, respectively. The basic idea here is that a green cell acts like an AND, a blue cell acts like an XOR, and a red cell acts like an OR, and all the other cells around them are just there to control the flow properly.
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/pNxaK.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/EGTlKktmeI)
The AND-NOT gate, abbreviated to "ANT gate", turned out to be a vital component. It is a gate that passes a signal from A if and only if there is no signal from B. Hence, "A AND NOT B".
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/Llur8.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/RsZBiNqIUy)
While not exactly a *gate*, a wire crossing tile is still very important and useful to have.
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/Lx8N6.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/OXMsPyaNTC)
Incidentally, there is no NOT gate here. That's because without an incoming signal, a constant output must be produced, which does not work well with the variety in timings that the current computer hardware requires. We got along just fine without it anyway.
Also, many components were intentionally designed to fit within an 11 by 11 bounding box (a *tile*) where it takes signals 11 ticks from entering the tile to leave the tile. This makes components more modular and easier to slap together as needed without having to worry about adjusting wires for either spacing or timing.
To see more gates that were discovered/constructed in the process of exploring circuitry components, check out this blog post by PhiNotPi: [Building Blocks: Logic Gates](http://blog.phinotpi.com/2016/05/31/building-blocks-logic-gates/).
### Delay Components
In the process of designing the computer's hardware, KZhang devised multiple delay components, shown below.
4-tick delay:
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/OaGIt.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/gebOMIXxdh)
5-tick delay:
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/jBEYR.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/JItNjJvnUB)
8-tick delay (three different entry points):
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/WGnFc.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/nSTRaVEDvA)
11-tick delay:
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/pIEdK.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/kfoADussXA)
12-tick delay:
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/7WvHE.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/bkamAfUfud)
14-tick delay:
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/JRCSP.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/TkwzYIBWln)
15-tick delay (verified by comparing with [this](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/VsRbvzAbmz)):
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/gNJfw.gif)
[Short url](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/jmgpehYlpT)
Well, that's it for basic circuitry components in VarLife! See [KZhang's hardware post](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/142675/12914) for the major circuitry of the computer!
[Answer]
# Part 3: Hardware
With our knowledge of logic gates and the general structure of the processor, we can start designing all the components of the computer.
## Demultiplexer
A demultiplexer, or demux, is a crucial component to the ROM, RAM, and ALU.
It routes an input signal to one of the many output signals based on some given selector data.
It is composed of 3 main parts: a serial to parallel converter, a signal checker and a clock signal splitter.
We start by converting the serial selector data to "parallel".
This is done by strategically splitting and delaying the data so that the leftmost bit of data intersects the clock signal at the leftmost 11x11 square, the next bit of data intersects the clock signal at the next 11x11 square, and so on.
Although every bit of data will be outputted in every 11x11 square, every bit of data will intersect with the clock signal only once.
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/YnGJhtTyGt)
Next, we will check to see if the parallel data matches a preset address.
We do this by using AND and ANT gates on the clock and parallel data.
However, we need to make sure that the parallel data is also outputted so that it can be compared again.
These are the gates that I came up with:
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/nFweIfflLl)
Finally, we just split the clock signal, stack a bunch of signal checkers (one for each address/output) and we have a multiplexer!
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/JdsIIWIcPa)
## ROM
The ROM is supposed to take an address as an input and send out the instruction at that address as its output.
We start by using a multiplexer to direct the clock signal to one of the instructions.
Next, we need to generate a signal using some wire crossings and OR gates.
The wire crossings enable the clock signal to travel down all 58 bits of the instruction, and also allow for a generated signal (currently in parallel) to move down through the ROM to be outputted.
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/ZExrQPCgwf)
Next we just need to convert the parallel signal to serial data, and the ROM is complete.
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/cPnZMldukU)
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/gowVDURoIc)
The ROM is currently generated by running a script in Golly that will translate assembly code from your clipboard into ROM.
## SRL, SL, SRA
These three logic gates are used for bit shifts, and they are more complicated than your typical AND, OR, XOR, etc.
To make these gates work, we will first delay the clock signal an appropriate amount of time to cause a "shift" in the data.
The second argument given to these gates dictates how many bits to shift.
For the SL and the SRL, we need to
1. Make sure that the 12 most significant bits are not on (otherwise the output is simply 0), and
2. Delay the data the correct amount based on the 4 least significant bits.
This is doable with a bunch of AND/ANT gates and a multiplexer.
The SRA is slightly different, because we need to copy the sign bit during the shift.
We do this by ANDing the clock signal with the sign bit, and then copy that output a bunch of times with wire splitters and OR gates.
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/DdNReVfSua)
## Set-Reset (SR) latch
Many portions of the processor's functionality rely on the ability to store data.
Using 2 red B12/S1 cells, we can do just that.
The two cells can keep each other on, and can also stay off together.
Using some extra set, reset, and read circuitry, we can make a simple SR latch.
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/qiFFgGEvRd)
## Synchronizer
By converting serial data to parallel data, then setting a bunch of SR latches, we can store a whole word of data.
Then, to get the data out again, we can just read and reset all of the latches, and delay the data accordingly.
This enables us to store one (or more) word of data while waiting for another, allowing for two words of data arriving at different times to be synchronized.
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/hYdaWoyjwz)
## Read Counter
This device keeps track of how many more times it needs to address from RAM.
It does this using a device similar to the SR latch: a T flip flop.
Every time the T flip flop recieves an input, it changes state: if it was on, it turns off, and vice versa.
When the T flip flop is flipped from on to off, it sends out an output pulse, which can be fed into another T flip flop to form a 2 bit counter.
[](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/varlife/sqMCPQpoLS)
In order to make the Read Counter, we need to set the counter to the appropriate addressing mode with two ANT gates, and use the counter's output signal to decide where to direct the clock signal: to the ALU or to the RAM.
## Read Queue
The read queue needs to keep track of which read counter sent an input to RAM, so that it can send the RAM's output to the correct location.
To do that, we use some SR latches: one latch for each input.
When a signal is sent to RAM from a read counter, the clock signal is split and sets the counter's SR latch.
The RAM's output is then ANDed with the SR latch, and the clock signal from the RAM resets the SR latch.
## ALU
The ALU functions similarly to the read queue, in that it uses an SR latch to keep track of where to send a signal.
First, the SR latch of the logic circuit corresponding to the opcode of the instruction is set using a multiplexer.
Next, the first and second argument's values are ANDed with the SR latch, and then are passed to the logic circuits.
The clock signal resets the latch as it's passing so that the ALU can be used again.
(Most of the circuitry is golfed down, and a ton of delay management is shoved in, so it looks like a bit of a mess)
## RAM
The RAM was the most complicated part of this project.
It required for very specific control over each SR latch that stored data.
For reading, the address is sent into a multiplexer and sent to the RAM units.
The RAM units output the data they store in parallel, which is converted to serial and outputted.
For writing, the address is sent into a different multiplexer, the data to be written is converted from serial to parallel, and the RAM units propagate the signal throughout the RAM.
Each 22x22 metapixel RAM unit has this basic structure:
Putting the whole RAM together, we get something that looks like this:
## Putting everything together
Using all of these components and the general computer architecture described in the [Overview](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/142673/52152), we can construct a working computer!
Downloads:
- [Finished Tetris computer](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/QFT/raw/master/Tetris.zip)
- [ROM creation script, empty computer, and prime finding computer](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/QFT/raw/master/Computer.zip)
[Answer]
## Part 4: QFTASM and Cogol
### Architecture Overview
In short, our computer has a 16-bit asynchronous RISC Harvard architecture. When building a processor by hand, a RISC ([reduced instruction set computer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computer)) architecture is practically a requirement. In our case, this means that the number of opcodes is small and, much more importantly, that all instructions are processed in a very similar manner.
For reference, the Wireworld computer used a [transport-triggered architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_triggered_architecture), in which the only instruction was `MOV` and computations were performed by writing/reading special registers. Although this paradigm leads to a very easy-to-implement architecture, the result is also borderline unusable: all arithmetic/logic/conditional operations require *three* instructions. It was clear to us that we wanted to create a much less esoteric architecture.
In order to keep our processor simple while increasing usability, we made several important design decisions:
* No registers. Every address in RAM is treated equally and can be used as any argument for any operation. In a sense, this means all of RAM could be treated like registers. This means that there are no special load/store instructions.
* In a similar vein, memory-mapping. Everything that could be written to or read from shares a unified addressing scheme. This means that the program counter (PC) is address 0, and the only difference between regular instructions and control-flow instructions is that control-flow instructions use address 0.
* Data is serial in transmission, parallel in storage. Due to the "electron"-based nature of our computer, addition and subtraction are significantly easier to implement when the data is transmitted in serial little-endian (least-significant bit first) form. Furthermore, serial data removes the need for cumbersome data buses, which are both really wide and cumbersome to time properly (in order for the data to stay together, all "lanes" of the bus must experience the same travel delay).
* Harvard architecture, meaning a division between program memory (ROM) and data memory (RAM). Although this does reduce the flexibility of the processor, this helps with size optimization: the length of the program is much larger than the amount of RAM we'll need, so we can split the program off into ROM and then focus on compressing the ROM, which is much easier when it is read-only.
* 16-bit data width. This is the smallest power of two that is wider than a standard Tetris board (10 blocks). This gives us a data range of -32768 to +32767 and a maximum program length of 65536 instructions. (2^8=256 instructions is enough for most simple things we might want a toy processor to do, but not Tetris.)
* Asynchronous design. Rather than having a central clock (or, equivalently, several clocks) dictating the timing of the computer, all data is accompanied by a "clock signal" which travels in parallel with the data as it flows around the computer. Certain paths may be shorter than others, and while this would pose difficulties for a centrally-clocked design, an asynchronous design can easily deal with variable-time operations.
* All instructions are of equal size. We felt that an architecture in which each instruction has 1 opcode with 3 operands (value value destination) was the most flexible option. This encompasses binary data operations as well as conditional moves.
* Simple addressing mode system. Having a variety of addressing modes is very useful for supporting things such as arrays or recursion. We managed to implement several important addressing modes with a relatively simple system.
An illustration of our architecture is contained in the overview post.
### Functionality and ALU Operations
From here, it was a matter of determining what functionality our processor should have. Special attention was paid to the ease of implementation as well as the versatility of each command.
**Conditional Moves**
Conditional moves are very important and serve as both small-scale and large-scale control flow. "Small-scale" refers to its ability to control the execution of a particular data move, while "large-scale" refers to its use as a conditional jump operation to transfer control flow to any arbitrary piece of code. There are no dedicated jump operations because, due to memory mapping, a conditional move can both copy data to regular RAM and copy a destination address to the PC. We also chose to forgo both unconditional moves and unconditional jumps for a similar reason: both can be implemented as a conditional move with a condition that's hardcoded to TRUE.
We chose to have two different types of conditional moves: "move if not zero" (`MNZ`) and "move if less than zero" (`MLZ`). Functionally, `MNZ` amounts to checking whether any bit in the data is a 1, while `MLZ` amounts to checking if the sign bit is 1. They are useful for equalities and comparisons, respectively. The reason we chose these two over others such as "move if zero" (`MEZ`) or "move if greater than zero" (`MGZ`) was that `MEZ` would require creating a TRUE signal from an empty signal, while `MGZ` is a more complex check, requiring the the sign bit be 0 while at least one other bit be 1.
**Arithmetic**
The next-most important instructions, in terms of guiding the processor design, are the basic arithmetic operations. As I mentioned earlier, we are using little-endian serial data, with the choice of endianness determined by the ease of addition/subtraction operations. By having the least-significant bit arrive first, the arithmetic units can easily keep track of the carry bit.
We chose to use 2's complement representation for negative numbers, since this makes addition and subtraction more consistent. It's worth noting that the Wireworld computer used 1's complement.
Addition and subtraction are the extent of our computer's native arithmetic support (besides bit shifts which are discussed later). Other operations, like multiplication, are far too complex to be handled by our architecture, and must be implemented in software.
**Bitwise Operations**
Our processor has `AND`, `OR`, and `XOR` instructions which do what you would expect. Rather than have a `NOT` instruction, we chose to have an "and-not" (`ANT`) instruction. The difficulty with the `NOT` instruction is again that it must create signal from a lack of signal, which is difficult with a cellular automata. The `ANT` instruction returns 1 only if the first argument bit is 1 and the second argument bit is 0. Thus, `NOT x` is equivalent to `ANT -1 x` (as well as `XOR -1 x`). Furthermore, `ANT` is versatile and has its main advantage in masking: in the case of the Tetris program we use it to erase tetrominoes.
**Bit Shifting**
The bit-shifting operations are the most complex operations handled by the ALU. They take two data inputs: a value to shift and an amount to shift it by. Despite their complexity (due to the variable amount of shifting), these operations are crucial for many important tasks, including the many "graphical" operations involved in Tetris. Bit shifts would also serve as the foundation for efficient multiplication/division algorithms.
Our processor has three bit shift operations, "shift left" (`SL`), "shift right logical" (`SRL`), and "shift right arithmetic" (`SRA`). The first two bit shifts (`SL` and `SRL`) fill in the new bits with all zeros (meaning that a negative number shifted right will no longer be negative). If the second argument of the shift is outside the range of 0 to 15, the result is all zeros, as you might expect. For the last bit shift, `SRA`, the bit shift preserves the sign of the input, and therefore acts as a true division by two.
### Instruction Pipelining
Now's the time to talk about some of the gritty details of the architecture. Each CPU cycle consists of the following five steps:
**1. Fetch the current instruction from ROM**
The current value of the PC is used to fetch the corresponding instruction from ROM. Each instruction has one opcode and three operands. Each operand consists of one data word and one addressing mode. These parts are split from each other as they are read from the ROM.
The opcode is 4 bits to support 16 unique opcodes, of which 11 are assigned:
```
0000 MNZ Move if Not Zero
0001 MLZ Move if Less than Zero
0010 ADD ADDition
0011 SUB SUBtraction
0100 AND bitwise AND
0101 OR bitwise OR
0110 XOR bitwise eXclusive OR
0111 ANT bitwise And-NoT
1000 SL Shift Left
1001 SRL Shift Right Logical
1010 SRA Shift Right Arithmetic
1011 unassigned
1100 unassigned
1101 unassigned
1110 unassigned
1111 unassigned
```
**2. Write the result (if necessary) of the *previous* instruction to RAM**
Depending on the condition of the previous instruction (such as the value of the first argument for a conditional move), a write is performed. The address of the write is determined by the third operand of the previous instruction.
It is important to note that writing occurs after instruction fetching. This leads to the creation of a [branch delay slot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_slot#Branch_delay_slots) in which the instruction immediately after a branch instruction (any operation which writes to the PC) is executed in lieu of the first instruction at the branch target.
In certain instances (like unconditional jumps), the branch delay slot can be optimized away. In other cases it cannot, and the instruction after a branch must be left empty. Furthermore, this type of delay slot means that branches must use a branch target that is 1 address less than the actual target instruction, to account for the PC increment that occurs.
In short, because the previous instruction's output is written to RAM after the next instruction is fetched, conditional jumps need to have a blank instruction after them, or else the PC won't be updated properly for the jump.
**3. Read the data for the current instruction's arguments from RAM**
As mentioned earlier, each of the three operands consists of both a data word and an addressing mode. The data word is 16 bits, the same width as RAM. The addressing mode is 2 bits.
Addressing modes can be a source of significant complexity for a processor like this, as many real-world addressing modes involve multi-step computations (like adding offsets). At the same time, versatile addressing modes play an important role in the usability of the processor.
We sought to unify the concepts of using hard-coded numbers as operands and using data addresses as operands. This led to the creation of counter-based addressing modes: the addressing mode of an operand is simply a number representing how many times the data should be sent around a RAM read loop. This encompasses immediate, direct, indirect, and double-indirect addressing.
```
00 Immediate: A hard-coded value. (no RAM reads)
01 Direct: Read data from this RAM address. (one RAM read)
10 Indirect: Read data from the address given at this address. (two RAM reads)
11 Double-indirect: Read data from the address given at the address given by this address. (three RAM reads)
```
After this dereferencing is performed, the three operands of the instruction have different roles. The first operand is usually the first argument for a binary operator, but also serves as the condition when the current instruction is a conditional move. The second operand serves as the second argument for a binary operator. The third operand serves as the destination address for the result of the instruction.
Since the first two instructions serve as data while the third serves as an address, the addressing modes have slightly different interpretations depending on which position they are used in. For example, the direct mode is used to read data from a fixed RAM address (since one RAM read is needed), but the immediate mode is used to write data to a fixed RAM address (since no RAM reads are necessary).
**4. Compute the result**
The opcode and the first two operands are sent to the ALU to perform a binary operation. For the arithmetic, bitwise, and shift operations, this means performing the relevant operation. For the conditional moves, this means simply returning the second operand.
The opcode and first operand are used to compute the condition, which determines whether or not to write the result to memory. In the case of conditional moves, this means either determining whether any bit in the operand is 1 (for `MNZ`), or determining whether the sign bit is 1 (for `MLZ`). If the opcode isn't a conditional move, then write is always performed (the condition is always true).
**5. Increment the program counter**
Finally, the program counter is read, incremented, and written.
Due to the position of the PC increment between the instruction read and the instruction write, this means that an instruction which increments the PC by 1 is a no-op. An instruction that copies the PC to itself causes the next instruction to be executed twice in a row. But, be warned, multiple PC instructions in a row can cause complex effects, including infinite looping, if you don't pay attention to the instruction pipeline.
### Quest for Tetris Assembly
We created a new assembly language named QFTASM for our processor. This assembly language corresponds 1-to-1 with the machine code in the computer's ROM.
Any QFTASM program is written as a series of instructions, one per line. Each line is formatted like this:
```
[line numbering] [opcode] [arg1] [arg2] [arg3]; [optional comment]
```
**Opcode List**
As discussed earlier, there are eleven opcodes supported by the computer, each of which have three operands:
```
MNZ [test] [value] [dest] β Move if Not Zero; sets [dest] to [value] if [test] is not zero.
MLZ [test] [value] [dest] β Move if Less than Zero; sets [dest] to [value] if [test] is less than zero.
ADD [val1] [val2] [dest] β ADDition; store [val1] + [val2] in [dest].
SUB [val1] [val2] [dest] β SUBtraction; store [val1] - [val2] in [dest].
AND [val1] [val2] [dest] β bitwise AND; store [val1] & [val2] in [dest].
OR [val1] [val2] [dest] β bitwise OR; store [val1] | [val2] in [dest].
XOR [val1] [val2] [dest] β bitwise XOR; store [val1] ^ [val2] in [dest].
ANT [val1] [val2] [dest] β bitwise And-NoT; store [val1] & (![val2]) in [dest].
SL [val1] [val2] [dest] β Shift Left; store [val1] << [val2] in [dest].
SRL [val1] [val2] [dest] β Shift Right Logical; store [val1] >>> [val2] in [dest]. Doesn't preserve sign.
SRA [val1] [val2] [dest] β Shift Right Arithmetic; store [val1] >> [val2] in [dest], while preserving sign.
```
**Addressing Modes**
Each of the operands contains both a data value and an addressing move. The data value is described by a decimal number in the range -32768 to 32767. The addressing mode is described by a one-letter prefix to the data value.
```
mode name prefix
0 immediate (none)
1 direct A
2 indirect B
3 double-indirect C
```
**Example Code**
Fibonacci sequence in five lines:
```
0. MLZ -1 1 1; initial value
1. MLZ -1 A2 3; start loop, shift data
2. MLZ -1 A1 2; shift data
3. MLZ -1 0 0; end loop
4. ADD A2 A3 1; branch delay slot, compute next term
```
This code computes the Fibonacci sequence, with RAM address 1 containing the current term. It quickly overflows after 28657.
Gray code:
```
0. MLZ -1 5 1; initial value for RAM address to write to
1. SUB A1 5 2; start loop, determine what binary number to covert to Gray code
2. SRL A2 1 3; shift right by 1
3. XOR A2 A3 A1; XOR and store Gray code in destination address
4. SUB B1 42 4; take the Gray code and subtract 42 (101010)
5. MNZ A4 0 0; if the result is not zero (Gray code != 101010) repeat loop
6. ADD A1 1 1; branch delay slot, increment destination address
```
This program computes Gray code and stores the code in succesive addresses starting at address 5. This program utilizes several important features such as indirect addressing and a conditional jump. It halts once the resultant Gray code is `101010`, which happens for input 51 at address 56.
### Online Interpreter
El'endia Starman has created a very useful online interpreter [here](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/qftasm/). You are able to step through the code, set breakpoints, perform manual writes to RAM, and visualize the RAM as a display.
### Cogol
Once the architecture and assembly language were defined, the next step on the "software" side of the project was the creation of a higher-level language, something suitable for Tetris. Thus I created [Cogol](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/Cogol). The name is both a pun on "COBOL" and an acronym for "C of Game of Life", although it is worth noting that Cogol is to C what our computer is to an actual computer.
Cogol exists at a level just above assembly language. Generally, most lines in a Cogol program each correspond to a single line of assembly, but there are some important features of the language:
* Basic features include named variables with assignments and operators that have more readable syntax. For example, `ADD A1 A2 3` becomes `z = x + y;`, with the compiler mapping variables onto addresses.
* Looping constructs such as `if(){}`, `while(){}`, and `do{}while();` so the compiler handles branching.
* One-dimensional arrays (with pointer arithmetic), which are used for the Tetris board.
* Subroutines and a call stack. These are useful for preventing duplication of large chunks of code, and for supporting recursion.
The compiler (which I wrote from scratch) is very basic/naive, but I've attempted to hand-optimize several of the language constructs to achieve a short compiled program length.
Here are some short overviews of how various language features work:
**Tokenization**
The source code is tokenized linearly (single-pass), using simple rules about which characters are allowed to be adjacent within a token. When a character is encountered that cannot be adjacent to the last character of the current token, the current token is deemed complete and the new character begins a new token. Some characters (such as `{` or `,`) cannot be adjacent to any other characters and are therefore their own token. Others (like `>` or `=`) are only allowed to be adjacent to other characters within their class, and can thus form tokens like `>>>`, `==`, or `>=`, but not like `=2`. Whitespace characters force a boundary between tokens but aren't themselves included in the result. The most difficult character to tokenize is `-` because it can both represent subtraction and unary negation, and thus requires some special-casing.
**Parsing**
Parsing is also done in a single-pass fashion. The compiler has methods for handling each of the different language constructs, and tokens are popped off of the global token list as they are consumed by the various compiler methods. If the compiler ever sees a token that it does not expect, it raises a syntax error.
**Global Memory Allocation**
The compiler assigns each global variable (word or array) its own designated RAM address(es). It is necessary to declare all variables using the keyword `my` so that the compiler knows to allocate space for it. Much cooler than named global variables is the scratch address memory management. Many instructions (notably conditionals and many array accesses) require temporary "scratch" addresses to store intermediate calculations. During the compilation process the compiler allocates and de-allocates scratch addresses as necessary. If the compiler needs more scratch addresses, it will dedicate more RAM as scratch addresses. I believe it's typical for a program to only require a few scratch addresses, although each scratch address will be used many times.
**`IF-ELSE` Statements**
The syntax for `if-else` statements is the standard C form:
```
other code
if (cond) {
first body
} else {
second body
}
other code
```
When converted to QFTASM, the code is arranged like this:
```
other code
condition test
conditional jump
first body
unconditional jump
second body (conditional jump target)
other code (unconditional jump target)
```
If the first body is executed, the second body is skipped over. If the first body is skipped over, the second body is executed.
In the assembly, a condition test is usually just a subtraction, and the sign of the result determines whether to make the jump or execute the body. An `MLZ` instruction is used to handle inequalities such as `>` or `<=`. An `MNZ` instruction is used to handle `==`, since it jumps over the body when the difference is not zero (and therefore when the arguments are not equal). Multi-expression conditionals are not currently supported.
If the `else` statement is omitted, the unconditional jump is also omitted, and the QFTASM code looks like this:
```
other code
condition test
conditional jump
body
other code (conditional jump target)
```
**`WHILE` Statements**
The syntax for `while` statements is also the standard C form:
```
other code
while (cond) {
body
}
other code
```
When converted to QFTASM, the code is arranged like this:
```
other code
unconditional jump
body (conditional jump target)
condition test (unconditional jump target)
conditional jump
other code
```
The condition testing and conditional jump are at the end of the block, which means they are re-executed after each execution of the block. When the condition is returns false the body is not repeated and the loop ends. During the start of loop execution, control flow jumps over the loop body to the condition code, so the body is never executed if the condition is false the first time.
An `MLZ` instruction is used to handle inequalities such as `>` or `<=`. Unlike during `if` statements, an `MNZ` instruction is used to handle `!=`, since it jumps to the body when the difference is not zero (and therefore when the arguments are not equal).
**`DO-WHILE` Statements**
The only difference between `while` and `do-while` is that the a `do-while` loop body is not initially skipped over so it is always executed at least once. I generally use `do-while` statements to save a couple lines of assembly code when I know the loop will never need to be skipped entirely.
**Arrays**
One-dimensional arrays are implemented as contiguous blocks of memory. All arrays are fixed-length based on their declaration. Arrays are declared like so:
```
my alpha[3]; # empty array
my beta[11] = {3,2,7,8}; # first four elements are pre-loaded with those values
```
For the array, this is a possible RAM mapping, showing how addresses 15-18 are reserved for the array:
```
15: alpha
16: alpha[0]
17: alpha[1]
18: alpha[2]
```
The address labeled `alpha` is filled with a pointer to the location of `alpha[0]`, so in thie case address 15 contains the value 16. The `alpha` variable can be used inside of the Cogol code, possibly as a stack pointer if you want to use this array as a stack.
Accessing the elements of an array is done with the standard `array[index]` notation. If the value of `index` is a constant, this reference is automatically filled in with the absolute address of that element. Otherwise it performs some pointer arithmetic (just addition) to find the desired absolute address. It is also possible to nest indexing, such as `alpha[beta[1]]`.
**Subroutines and Calling**
Subroutines are blocks of code that can be called from multiple contexts, preventing duplication of code and allowing for the creation of recursive programs. Here is a program with a recursive subroutine to generate Fibonacci numbers (basically the slowest algorithm):
```
# recursively calculate the 10th Fibonacci number
call display = fib(10).sum;
sub fib(cur,sum) {
if (cur <= 2) {
sum = 1;
return;
}
cur--;
call sum = fib(cur).sum;
cur--;
call sum += fib(cur).sum;
}
```
A subroutine is declared with the keyword `sub`, and a subroutine can be placed anywhere inside the program. Each subroutine can have multiple local variables, which are declared as part of its list of arguments. These arguments can also be given default values.
In order to handle recursive calls, the local variables of a subroutine are stored on the stack. The last static variable in RAM is the call stack pointer, and all memory after that serves as the call stack. When a subroutine is called, it created a new frame on the call stack, which includes all local variables as well as the return (ROM) address. Each subroutine in the program is given a single static RAM address to serve as a pointer. This pointer gives the location of the "current" call of the subroutine in the call stack. Referencing a local variable is done using the value of this static pointer plus an offset to give the address of that particular local variable. Also contained in the call stack is the previous value of the static pointer. Here's the variables mapping of both the static RAM and the subroutine call frame for the above program:
```
RAM map:
0: pc
1: display
2: scratch0
3: fib
4: scratch1
5: scratch2
6: scratch3
7: call
fib map:
0: return
1: previous_call
2: cur
3: sum
```
One thing that is interesting about subroutines is that they do not return any particular value. Rather, all of the local variables of the subroutine can be read after the subroutine is performed, so a variety of data can be extracted from a subroutine call. This is accomplished by storing the pointer for that specific call of the subroutine, which can then be used to recover any of the local variables from within the (recently-deallocated) stack frame.
There are multiple ways to call a subroutine, all using the `call` keyword:
```
call fib(10); # subroutine is executed, no return vaue is stored
call pointer = fib(10); # execute subroutine and return a pointer
display = pointer.sum; # access a local variable and assign it to a global variable
call display = fib(10).sum; # immediately store a return value
call display += fib(10).sum; # other types of assignment operators can also be used with a return value
```
Any number of values can be given as arguments for a subroutine call. Any argument not provided will be filled in with its default value, if any. An argument that is not provided and has no default value is not cleared (to save instructions/time) so could potentially take on any value at the start of the subroutine.
Pointers are a way of accessing multiple local variables of subroutine, although it is important to note that the pointer is only temporary: the data the pointer points to will be destroyed when another subroutine call is made.
**Debugging Labels**
Any `{...}` code block in a Cogol program can be preceded by a multi-word descriptive label. This label is attached as a comment in the compiled assembly code, and can be very useful for debugging since it makes it easier to locate specific chunks of code.
**Branch Delay Slot Optimization**
In order to improve the speed of the compiled code, the Cogol compiler performs some really basic delay slot optimization as a final pass over the QFTASM code. For any unconditional jump with an empty branch delay slot, the delay slot can be filled by the first instruction at the jump destination, and the jump destination is incremented by one to point to the next instruction. This generally saves one cycle each time an unconditional jump is performed.
### Writing the Tetris code in Cogol
The final Tetris program was written in Cogol, and the source code is available [here](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/Cogol/blob/master/tetris.cgl). The compiled QFTASM code is available [here](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/Cogol/blob/master/tetris.qftasm). For convenience, a permalink is provided here: [Tetris in QFTASM](http://play.starmaninnovations.com/qftasm/#jllHdnBGSP). Since the goal was to golf the assembly code (not the Cogol code), the resultant Cogol code is unwieldy. Many portions of the program would normally be located in subroutines, but those subroutines were actually short enough that duplicating the code saved instructions over the `call` statements. The final code only has one subroutine in addition to the main code. Additionally, many arrays were removed and replaced either with an equivalently-long list of individual variables, or by a lot of hard-coded numbers in the program. The final compiled QFTASM code is under 300 instructions, although it is only slightly longer than the Cogol source itself.
[Answer]
# Part 5: Assembly, Translation, and the Future
With our assembly program from the compiler, it's time to assemble a ROM for the Varlife computer, and translate everything into a big GoL pattern!
## Assembly
Assembling the assembly program into a ROM is done in much the same way as in traditional programming: each instruction is translated into a binary equivalent, and those are then concatenated into a large binary blob that we call an executable. For us, the only difference is, that binary blob needs to be translated into Varlife circuits and attached to the computer.
K Zhang wrote [CreateROM.py](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/QFT/blob/master/CreateROM.py), a Python script for Golly that does the assembly and translation. It's fairly straightforward: it takes an assembly program from the clipboard, assembles it into a binary, and translates that binary into circuitry. Here's an example with a simple primality tester included with the script:
```
#0. MLZ -1 3 3;
#1. MLZ -1 7 6; preloadCallStack
#2. MLZ -1 2 1; beginDoWhile0_infinite_loop
#3. MLZ -1 1 4; beginDoWhile1_trials
#4. ADD A4 2 4;
#5. MLZ -1 A3 5; beginDoWhile2_repeated_subtraction
#6. SUB A5 A4 5;
#7. SUB 0 A5 2;
#8. MLZ A2 5 0;
#9. MLZ 0 0 0; endDoWhile2_repeated_subtraction
#10. MLZ A5 3 0;
#11. MNZ 0 0 0; endDoWhile1_trials
#12. SUB A4 A3 2;
#13. MNZ A2 15 0; beginIf3_prime_found
#14. MNZ 0 0 0;
#15. MLZ -1 A3 1; endIf3_prime_found
#16. ADD A3 2 3;
#17. MLZ -1 3 0;
#18. MLZ -1 1 4; endDoWhile0_infinite_loop
```
This produces the following binary:
```
0000000000000001000000000000000000010011111111111111110001
0000000000000000000000000000000000110011111111111111110001
0000000000000000110000000000000000100100000000000000110010
0000000000000000010100000000000000110011111111111111110001
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000000011110100000000000000100000
0000000000000000100100000000000000110100000000000001000011
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000000000110100000000000001010001
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001
0000000000000000000000000000000001010100000000000000100001
0000000000000000100100000000000001010000000000000000000011
0000000000000001010100000000000001000100000000000001010011
0000000000000001010100000000000000110011111111111111110001
0000000000000001000000000000000000100100000000000001000010
0000000000000001000000000000000000010011111111111111110001
0000000000000000010000000000000000100011111111111111110001
0000000000000001100000000000000001110011111111111111110001
0000000000000000110000000000000000110011111111111111110001
```
When translated to Varlife circuits, it looks like this:
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/CD9IM.png)
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/1FwrJ.png)
The ROM is then linked up with the computer, which forms a fully functioning program in Varlife. But we're not done yet...
## Translation to Game of Life
This whole time, we've been working in various layers of abstraction above the base of Game of Life. But now, it's time to pull back the curtain of abstraction and translate our work into a Game of Life pattern. As previously mentioned, we are using the [OTCA Metapixel](http://www.conwaylife.com/w/index.php?title=OTCA_metapixel) as the base for Varlife. So, the final step is to convert each cell in Varlife to a metapixel in Game of Life.
Thankfully, Golly comes with a script ([metafier.py](https://sourceforge.net/p/golly/code/ci/master/tree/Scripts/Python/metafier.py)) that can convert patterns in different rulesets to Game of Life patterns via the OTCA Metapixel. Unfortunately, it is only designed to convert patterns with a single global ruleset, so it doesn't work on Varlife. I wrote a [modified version](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/QFT/blob/master/metafier.py) that addresses that issue, so that the rule for each metapixel is generated on a cell-by-cell basis for Varlife.
So, our computer (with the Tetris ROM) has a bounding box of 1,436 x 5,082. Of the 7,297,752 cells in that box, 6,075,811 are empty space, leaving an actual population count of 1,221,941. Each of those cells needs to be translated into an OTCA metapixel, which has a bounding box of 2048x2048 and a population of either 64,691 (for an ON metapixel) or 23,920 (for an OFF metapixel). That means the final product will have a bounding box of 2,940,928 x 10,407,936 (plus a few thousand extra for the borders of the metapixels), with a population between 29,228,828,720 and 79,048,585,231. With 1 bit per live cell, that's between 27 and 74 GiB needed to represent the entire computer and ROM.
I included those calculations here because I neglected to run them before starting the script, and very quickly ran out of memory on my computer. After a panicked `kill` command, I made a modification to the metafier script. Every 10 lines of metapixels, the pattern is saved to disk (as a gzipped RLE file), and the grid is flushed. This adds extra runtime to the translation and uses more disk space, but keeps memory usage within acceptable limits. Because Golly uses an extended RLE format that includes the location of the pattern, this doesn't add any more complexity to the loading of the pattern - just open all of the pattern files on the same layer.
K Zhang built off of this work, and created a [more efficient metafier script](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/QFT/blob/master/MetafierV2.py) that utilizes the MacroCell file format, which is loads more efficient than RLE for large patterns. This script runs considerably faster (a few seconds, compared to multiple hours for the original metafier script), creates vastly smaller output (121 KB versus 1.7 GB), and can metafy the entire computer and ROM in one fell swoop without using a massive amount of memory. It takes advantage of the fact that MacroCell files encode trees that describe the patterns. By using a custom template file, the metapixels are pre-loaded into the tree, and after some computations and modifications for neighbor detection, the Varlife pattern can simply be appended.
The pattern file of the entire computer and ROM in Game of Life can be found [here](https://github.com/QuestForTetris/QFT/blob/master/TetrisOTCAMP.mc.gz).
---
# The Future of the Project
Now that we've made Tetris, we're done, right? Not even close. We have several more goals for this project that we are working towards:
* muddyfish and Kritixi Lithos are continuing work on the higher-level language that compiles to QFTASM.
* El'endia Starman is working on upgrades to the online QFTASM interpreter.
* quartata is working on a GCC backend, which will allow compilation of freestanding C and C++ code (and potentially other languages, like Fortran, D, or Objective-C) into QFTASM via GCC. This will allow for more sophisticated programs to be created in a more familiar language, albeit without a standard library.
* One of the biggest hurdles that we have to overcome before we can make more progress is the fact that our tools can't emit position-independent code (e.g. relative jumps). Without PIC, we can't do any linking, and so we miss out on the advantages that come from being able to link to existing libraries. We're working on trying to find a way to do PIC correctly.
* We are discussing the next program that we want to write for the QFT computer. Right now, Pong looks like a nice goal.
[Answer]
# Part 6: The Newer Compiler to QFTASM
Although Cogol is sufficient for a rudimentary Tetris implementation, it is too simple and too low-level for general-purpose programming at an easily readable level.
We began work on a new language in September 2016.
Progress on the language was slow due to hard to understand bugs as well as real life.
We built a low level language with similar syntax to Python, including a simple type system, subroutines supporting recursion and inline operators.
The compiler from text to QFTASM was created with 4 steps: the tokeniser, the grammar tree, a high level compiler and a low level compiler.
## The tokeniser
Development was started using Python using the built in tokeniser library, meaning this step was pretty simple.
Only a few changes to the default output were required, including stripping comments (but not `#include`s).
## The grammar tree
The grammar tree was created to be easily extendible without having to modify any source code.
The tree structure is stored in an XML file which includes the structure of the nodes that can make up the tree and how they're made up with other nodes and tokens.
The grammar needed to support repeated nodes as well as optional ones. This was achieved by introducing meta tags to describe how tokens were to be read.
The tokens that are generated then get parsed through the rules of the grammar such that the output forms a tree of grammar elements such as `sub`s and `generic_variables`, which in turn contain other grammar elements and tokens.
## Compilation into high level code
Each feature of the language needs to be able to be compiled into high level constructs. These include `assign(a, 12)`
and `call_subroutine(is_prime, call_variable=12, return_variable=temp_var)`. Features such as the inlining of elements are executed in this segment. These are defined as `operator`s and are special in that they're inlined every time an operator such as `+` or `%` are used. Because of this, they're more restricted than regular code - they can't use their own operator nor any operator that relies on the one being defined.
During the inlining process, the internal variables are replaced with the ones being called. This in effect turns
```
operator(int a + int b) -> int c
return __ADD__(a, b)
int i = 3+3
```
into
```
int i = __ADD__(3, 3)
```
This behaviour however can be detrimental and bug prone if the input variable and output variables point to the same location in memory. To use 'safer' behaviour, the `unsafe` keyword adjusts the compilation process such that additional variables are created and copied to and from the inline as needed.
### Scratch variables and complex operations
Mathematical operations such as `a += (b + c) * 4` cannot be calculated without using extra memory cells. The high level compiler deals with this by seperating the operations into different sections:
```
scratch_1 = b + c
scratch_1 = scratch_1 * 4
a = a + scratch_1
```
This introduces the concept of scratch variables which are used for storing intermediate information of calculations. They're allocated as required and deallocated into the general pool once finished with. This decreases the number of scratch memory locations required for use. Scratch variables are considered globals.
Each subroutine has its own VariableStore to keep a reference to all of the variables the subroutine uses as well as their type. At the end of the compilation, they're translated into relative offsets from the start of the store and then given actual addresses in RAM.
### RAM Structure
```
Program counter
Subroutine locals
Operator locals (reused throughout)
Scratch variables
Result variable
Stack pointer
Stack
...
```
## Low level compilation
The only things the low level compiler has to deal with are `sub`, `call_sub`, `return`, `assign`, `if` and `while`. This is a much reduced list of tasks that can be translated into QFTASM instructions more easily.
### `sub`
This locates the start and end of a named subroutine. The low level compiler adds labels and in the case of the `main` subroutine, adds an exit instruction (jump to end of ROM).
### `if` and `while`
Both the `while` and `if` low level interpreters are pretty simple: they get pointers to their conditions and jump depending on them. `while` loops are slightly different in that they're compiled as
```
...
condition
jump to check
code
condition
if condtion: jump to code
...
```
### `call_sub` and `return`
Unlike most architectures, the computer we're compiling for doesn't have hardware support for pushing and popping from a stack. This means that both pushing and popping from the stack take two instructions. In the case of popping, we decrement the stack pointer and copy the value to an address. In the case of pushing, we copy a value from an address to the address at the current stack pointer and then incrementing.
All the locals for a subroutine are stored at a fixed location in RAM determined at compile time. To make recursion work, all the locals for a function are placed onto the stack at the start of a call. Then the arguments to the subroutine are copied to their position in the local store. The value of the return address is put onto the stack and the subroutine executes.
When a `return` statement is encountered, the top of the stack is popped off and the program counter is set to that value. The values for the locals of the calling subroutine are the popped off the stack and into their previous position.
### `assign`
Variable assignments are the easiest things to compile: they take a variable and a value and compile into the single line: `MLZ -1 VALUE VARIABLE`
### Assigning jump targets
Finally, the compiler works out the jump targets for labels attached to instructions. The absolute position of labels is determined and then references to those labels are replaced with those values. Labels themselves are removed from the code and finally instruction numbers are added to the compiled code.
## Example step by step compilation
Now that we've gone through all the stages, let's go through an actual compilation process for an actual program, step by step.
```
#include stdint
sub main
int a = 8
int b = 12
int c = a * b
```
Ok, simple enough. It should be obvious that at the end of the program, `a = 8`, `b = 12`, `c = 96`. Firstly, lets include the relevant parts of `stdint.txt`:
```
operator (int a + int b) -> int
return __ADD__(a, b)
operator (int a - int b) -> int
return __SUB__(a, b)
operator (int a < int b) -> bool
bool rtn = 0
rtn = __MLZ__(a-b, 1)
return rtn
unsafe operator (int a * int b) -> int
int rtn = 0
for (int i = 0; i < b; i+=1)
rtn += a
return rtn
sub main
int a = 8
int b = 12
int c = a * b
```
Ok, slightly more complicated. Let's move onto the tokeniser and see what comes out. At this stage, we'll only have a linear flow of tokens without any form of structure
```
NAME NAME operator
LPAR OP (
NAME NAME int
NAME NAME a
PLUS OP +
NAME NAME int
NAME NAME b
RPAR OP )
OP OP ->
NAME NAME int
NEWLINE NEWLINE
INDENT INDENT
NAME NAME return
NAME NAME __ADD__
LPAR OP (
NAME NAME a
COMMA OP ,
NAME NAME b
RPAR OP )
...
```
Now all the tokens get put through the grammar parser and outputs a tree with the names of each of the sections. This shows the high level structure as read by the code.
```
GrammarTree file
'stmts': [GrammarTree stmts_0
'_block_name': 'inline'
'inline': GrammarTree inline
'_block_name': 'two_op'
'type_var': GrammarTree type_var
'_block_name': 'type'
'type': 'int'
'name': 'a'
'_global': False
'operator': GrammarTree operator
'_block_name': '+'
'type_var_2': GrammarTree type_var
'_block_name': 'type'
'type': 'int'
'name': 'b'
'_global': False
'rtn_type': 'int'
'stmts': GrammarTree stmts
...
```
This grammar tree sets up information to be parsed by the high level compiler. It includes information such as structure types and attributes of a variable. The grammar tree then takes this information and assigns the variables that are needed for the subroutines. The tree also inserts all the inlines.
```
('sub', 'start', 'main')
('assign', int main_a, 8)
('assign', int main_b, 12)
('assign', int op(*:rtn), 0)
('assign', int op(*:i), 0)
('assign', global bool scratch_2, 0)
('call_sub', '__SUB__', [int op(*:i), int main_b], global int scratch_3)
('call_sub', '__MLZ__', [global int scratch_3, 1], global bool scratch_2)
('while', 'start', 1, 'for')
('call_sub', '__ADD__', [int op(*:rtn), int main_a], int op(*:rtn))
('call_sub', '__ADD__', [int op(*:i), 1], int op(*:i))
('assign', global bool scratch_2, 0)
('call_sub', '__SUB__', [int op(*:i), int main_b], global int scratch_3)
('call_sub', '__MLZ__', [global int scratch_3, 1], global bool scratch_2)
('while', 'end', 1, global bool scratch_2)
('assign', int main_c, int op(*:rtn))
('sub', 'end', 'main')
```
Next, the low level compiler has to convert this high level representation into QFTASM code. Variables are assigned locations in RAM like so:
```
int program_counter
int op(*:i)
int main_a
int op(*:rtn)
int main_c
int main_b
global int scratch_1
global bool scratch_2
global int scratch_3
global int scratch_4
global int <result>
global int <stack>
```
The simple instructions are then compiled. Finally, instruction numbers are added, resulting in executable QFTASM code.
```
0. MLZ 0 0 0;
1. MLZ -1 12 11;
2. MLZ -1 8 2;
3. MLZ -1 12 5;
4. MLZ -1 0 3;
5. MLZ -1 0 1;
6. MLZ -1 0 7;
7. SUB A1 A5 8;
8. MLZ A8 1 7;
9. MLZ -1 15 0;
10. MLZ 0 0 0;
11. ADD A3 A2 3;
12. ADD A1 1 1;
13. MLZ -1 0 7;
14. SUB A1 A5 8;
15. MLZ A8 1 7;
16. MNZ A7 10 0;
17. MLZ 0 0 0;
18. MLZ -1 A3 4;
19. MLZ -1 -2 0;
20. MLZ 0 0 0;
```
# The Syntax
Now that we've got the bare language, we've got to actually write a small program in it. We're using indentation like Python does, splitting logical blocks and control flow. This means whitespace is important for our programs. Every full program has a `main` subroutine that acts just like the `main()` function in C-like languages. The function is run at the start of the program.
## Variables and types
When variables are defined the first time, they need to have a type associated with them. The currently defined types are `int` and `bool` with the syntax for arrays defined but not the compiler.
## Libraries and operators
A library called `stdint.txt` is available which defines the basic operators. If this isn't included, even simple operators won't be defined. We can use this library with `#include stdint`. `stdint` defines operators such as `+`, `>>` and even `*` and `%`, neither of which are direct QFTASM opcodes.
The language also allows QFTASM opcodes to be direct called with `__OPCODENAME__`.
Addition in `stdint` is defined as
```
operator (int a + int b) -> int
return __ADD__(a, b)
```
Which defines what the `+` operator does when given two `int`s.
] |
[Question]
[
>
> *Note to challenge writers as per [meta consensus](http://meta.codegolf.stackexchange.com/q/11082/20260):
> This question was well-received when it was posted, but challenges
> like this, asking answerers to [Do X without using
> Y](http://meta.codegolf.stackexchange.com/questions/8047/things-to-avoid-when-writing-challenges/8079?s=3%7C0.2404#8079)
> are likely to be poorly received. Try using [the
> sandbox](http://meta.codegolf.stackexchange.com/questions/2140/sandbox-for-proposed-challenges)
> to get feedback on if you want to post a similar challenge.*
>
>
>
---
>
> It's ~~[2017](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/q/105241/7110)~~ ~~2018~~ ~~2019~~ ~~2020~~ ~~2021~~ ~~2022~~ ~~2023~~ 2024 already, folks, go home.
>
>
>
>
> Woo, 10 years of this challenge!
>
>
>
So, now that it's 2014, it's time for a code question involving the number 2014.
Your task is to make a program that prints the number `2014`, without using any of the characters `0123456789` in your code, and independently of any external variables such as the date or time or a random seed.
The shortest code (counting in bytes) to do so in any language in which numbers are valid tokens wins.
---
Leaderboard:
```
var QUESTION_ID=17005,OVERRIDE_USER=7110;function answersUrl(e){return"https://api.stackexchange.com/2.2/questions/"+QUESTION_ID+"/answers?page="+e+"&pagesize=100&order=desc&sort=creation&site=codegolf&filter="+ANSWER_FILTER}function commentUrl(e,s){return"https://api.stackexchange.com/2.2/answers/"+s.join(";")+"/comments?page="+e+"&pagesize=100&order=desc&sort=creation&site=codegolf&filter="+COMMENT_FILTER}function getAnswers(){jQuery.ajax({url:answersUrl(answer_page++),method:"get",dataType:"jsonp",crossDomain:!0,success:function(e){answers.push.apply(answers,e.items),answers_hash=[],answer_ids=[],e.items.forEach(function(e){e.comments=[];var s=+e.share_link.match(/\d+/);answer_ids.push(s),answers_hash[s]=e}),e.has_more||(more_answers=!1),comment_page=1,getComments()}})}function getComments(){jQuery.ajax({url:commentUrl(comment_page++,answer_ids),method:"get",dataType:"jsonp",crossDomain:!0,success:function(e){e.items.forEach(function(e){e.owner.user_id===OVERRIDE_USER&&answers_hash[e.post_id].comments.push(e)}),e.has_more?getComments():more_answers?getAnswers():process()}})}function getAuthorName(e){return e.owner.display_name}function process(){var e=[];answers.forEach(function(s){var r=s.body;s.comments.forEach(function(e){OVERRIDE_REG.test(e.body)&&(r="<h1>"+e.body.replace(OVERRIDE_REG,"")+"</h1>")});var a=r.match(SCORE_REG);a&&e.push({user:getAuthorName(s),size:+a[2],language:a[1],link:s.share_link})}),e.sort(function(e,s){var r=e.size,a=s.size;return r-a});var s={},r=1,a=null,n=1;e.forEach(function(e){e.size!=a&&(n=r),a=e.size,++r;var t=jQuery("#answer-template").html();t=t.replace("{{PLACE}}",n+".").replace("{{NAME}}",e.user).replace("{{LANGUAGE}}",e.language).replace("{{SIZE}}",e.size).replace("{{LINK}}",e.link),t=jQuery(t),jQuery("#answers").append(t);var o=e.language;/<a/.test(o)&&(o=jQuery(o).text()),s[o]=s[o]||{lang:e.language,user:e.user,size:e.size,link:e.link}});var t=[];for(var o in s)s.hasOwnProperty(o)&&t.push(s[o]);t.sort(function(e,s){return e.lang>s.lang?1:e.lang<s.lang?-1:0});for(var c=0;c<t.length;++c){var i=jQuery("#language-template").html(),o=t[c];i=i.replace("{{LANGUAGE}}",o.lang).replace("{{NAME}}",o.user).replace("{{SIZE}}",o.size).replace("{{LINK}}",o.link),i=jQuery(i),jQuery("#languages").append(i)}}var ANSWER_FILTER="!t)IWYnsLAZle2tQ3KqrVveCRJfxcRLe",COMMENT_FILTER="!)Q2B_A2kjfAiU78X(md6BoYk",answers=[],answers_hash,answer_ids,answer_page=1,more_answers=!0,comment_page;getAnswers();var SCORE_REG=/<h\d>\s*([^\n,]*[^\s,]),.*?(\d+)(?=[^\n\d<>]*(?:<(?:s>[^\n<>]*<\/s>|[^\n<>]+>)[^\n\d<>]*)*<\/h\d>)/,OVERRIDE_REG=/^Override\s*header:\s*/i;
```
```
body{text-align:left!important}#answer-list,#language-list{padding:10px;width:290px;float:left}table thead{font-weight:700}table td{padding:5px}
```
```
<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/2.1.1/jquery.min.js"></script> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="//cdn.sstatic.net/codegolf/all.css?v=83c949450c8b"> <div id="answer-list"> <h2>Leaderboard</h2> <table class="answer-list"> <thead> <tr><td></td><td>Author</td><td>Language</td><td>Size</td></tr></thead> <tbody id="answers"> </tbody> </table> </div><div id="language-list"> <h2>Winners by Language</h2> <table class="language-list"> <thead> <tr><td>Language</td><td>User</td><td>Score</td></tr></thead> <tbody id="languages"> </tbody> </table> </div><table style="display: none"> <tbody id="answer-template"> <tr><td>{{PLACE}}</td><td>{{NAME}}</td><td>{{LANGUAGE}}</td><td>{{SIZE}}</td><td><a href="{{LINK}}">Link</a></td></tr></tbody> </table> <table style="display: none"> <tbody id="language-template"> <tr><td>{{LANGUAGE}}</td><td>{{NAME}}</td><td>{{SIZE}}</td><td><a href="{{LINK}}">Link</a></td></tr></tbody> </table>
```
[Answer]
# [Python 2](https://docs.python.org/2/), 51 bytes
```
print sum(ord(c) for c in 'Happy new year to you!')
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##BcHBDYAgDAXQVb4n4OoUrkEQAgfbppaYTl/fE7fJdEaILjK8@8msd24FgxUNi5CuKuKg/sF7VRjDeR@pRPw "Python 2 β Try It Online")
Updated for 2015 thanks to @Frg:
```
print sum(ord(c) for c in 'A Happy New Year to You!')
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K6gsycjPM/r/v6AoM69Eobg0VyO/KEUjWVMhLb9IIVkhM09B3VHBI7GgoFLBL7VcITI1sUihJF8hMr9UUV3z/38A "Python 2 β Try It Online")
Mouse over to see 2016 version:
>
> `print sum(ord(c) for c in 'Happy New Year to you!!!')`
>
>
>
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K6gsycjPM/r/v6AoM69Eobg0VyO/KEUjWVMhLb9IIVkhM09B3SOxoKBSwS@1XCEyNbFIoSRfoTK/VFFRUV3z/38A "Python 2 β Try It Online")
[Answer]
# Go, 2 bytes (UTF-16)
One unicode character (2 bytes in UTF-16, 3 bytes in UTF-8 format), output 2014 as part of an error
```
β
```
<http://ideone.com/dRgKfk>
```
can't load package: package :
prog.go:1:1: illegal character U+2014 'β'
```
[Answer]
# Ruby, 15
```
p Time.new.year
```
Temporary ;)
---
Note that the section of the question
>
> independently of any external variables such as the date or time or a random seed
>
>
>
was not edited in until long after I posted my answer...
---
Jan Dvorak offers a great alternative in [the comments](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/questions/17005/produce-the-number-2014-without-any-numbers-in-your-source-code?answertab=votes#comment32251_17010):
```
Happy = Time
Happy.new.year
```
But it's so unenthusiastic. I prefer:
```
Happy = Time
class Time; alias year! year; end
Happy.new.year!
```
Or even:
```
class Have; def self.a; A.new; end; end
class A; def happy; Time; end; end
class Time; alias year! year; end
Have.a.happy.new.year!
```
And here's correct English punctuation:
```
def noop x = nil; end
alias a noop
alias happy noop
alias new noop
alias year! noop
def Have x
p Time.new.year
end
Have a happy new year!
```
Okay okay, I couldn't help it:
```
def noop x = nil; end
eval %w[we wish you a merry christmas! christmas and a happy new].map{|x|"alias #{x} noop"}*"\n"
def year!; p Time.new.year; end
we wish you a merry christmas! we wish you a merry christmas!
we wish you a merry christmas and a happy new year!
```
[Answer]
# [Befunge-98 (FBBI)](https://github.com/catseye/FBBI), ~~17~~ ~~11~~ ~~9~~ 8 bytes
```
'-:*b-.@
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S0pNK81LT9W1tPj/X13XSitJV8/h/38A "Befunge-98 (FBBI) β Try It Online")
Similar to the old version, but I remembered about `'`
```
'-:* pushes 45, duplicates it, then squares it, producing 2025
b- subtracts 11 from it, resulting in 2014
.@ prints the result, then ends the program
```
Interestingly, \$45^2-11\$ is the only pairing of numbers a,b where
$$(a,b)β[32,126]\times[10,15]\land a^2-b=2014$$
The significance of those sets is that \$[32,126]\$ is the set of printable ascii characters and \$[10,15]\$ is the set of easily accessible Befunge numbers. I found that pair with [this python program](http://ideone.com/epPzBv):
```
for a in range(32,127):
for c in range(10,16):
if (a**2-c)==2014:
print("%s,%s"%(a,c))
```
---
Or, if your interpreter supports unicode, then this works:
# Befunge 98 - 5 bytes (4 chars)
```
'ί.@
```
It at least works on <http://www.quirkster.com/iano/js/befunge.html> with the following code (Befunge 93 - 6 bytes / 5 chars):
```
"ί".@
```
---
# [Befunge-98 (FBBI)](https://github.com/catseye/FBBI), 9 bytes
Old version:
```
cdd**e-.@
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S0pNK81LT9W1tPj/PzklRUsrVVfP4f9/AA "Befunge-98 (FBBI) β Try It Online")
computes the number, then prints it:
```
cdd pushes numbers to the stack so that it is this: 12,13,13
** multiplies top three values of stack, which is now: 2028
e pushes 14
- subtracts the top two values of the stack, resulting in: 2014
. prints the numerical value
@ end of program
```
---
[Answer]
# [Python 2](https://docs.python.org/2/), 26 bytes
```
print int('bbc',ord("\r"))
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K6gsycjPM/r/v6AoM69EAYg11JOSktV18otSNJRiipQ0Nf//BwA "Python 2 β Try It Online")
[Answer]
# [Mouse-2002](http://mouse.davidgsimpson.com/mouse2002/intro2002.html#Variables), 4 bytes.
That's 4 bytes of pure, sweet ***ASCII.***
In [Mouse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(programming_language)), the letters of the alphabet are initialised to the values 0-25. `!` is the operator for printing integers, thus this prints `20` then `14` (no intermittent newline).
```
U!O!
```
There's no online interpreter available, but [here](http://mouse.davidgsimpson.com/mouse2002/index.html) you will find an interpreter written in C (needing some tweaks before one can coerce `gcc` to compile it) and the same compiled interpreter for `Win32` but which works perfectly on Linux with `wine`.
[Here](https://github.com/catb0t/mouse2002) you can find the fixed version of the interpreter, which compiles.
[Answer]
## MATLAB, Scala (4 characters, 5 bytes)
You can take advantage of MATLAB's (and Scala's) relatively weak type system, here.
The trick is to apply the unary `+` operation on a string composed only of the character `ί` (of UTF-8 code point U+07DE, or 2014 in decimal). This operation implicitly converts the string to a double (in MATLAB) and to an `Int` (in Scala):
```
+'ί'
```
Byte-count details:
* `+` is ASCII and counts for 1 byte
* `'` is ASCII and counts for 1 byte (but appears twice in the expression)
* `ί` is a 2-byte UTF-8 character
Total: 5 bytes
## TeX (~~32~~ 26 characters, as many bytes)
```
\def~{\the\catcode`}~}~\\~\%\bye
```
An even shorter alternative (proposed by [Joseph Wright](https://tex.stackexchange.com/users/73/joseph-wright)) is
```
\number`^^T\number`^^N\bye
```
## XeTeX/LuaTeX (13 characters, 14 bytes)
If XeTeX or LuaTeX are allowed, UTF-8 input can be used directly (as proposed by [Joseph Wright](https://tex.stackexchange.com/users/73/joseph-wright)):
```
\number`ί\bye
```
[Answer]
# [dc](https://www.gnu.org/software/bc/manual/dc-1.05/html_mono/dc.html), 6 bytes
```
DiBBCp
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S0n@/98l08nJueD/fwA "dc β Try It Online")
* `D` pushes 13 on the stack, even tho the input radix is 10 initially
* `i` changes input radix (to 13 from 10)
* `BBC` is 2014 base 13.
* `p` prints.
Console output:
```
$ dc <<< "DiBBCp"
2014
```
[Answer]
# [Scala](http://www.scala-lang.org/), ~~32~~ 29 bytes
```
+"Happy new year to you!".sum
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##LYs7DoMwEAVrfIoHFQiJA6SjS590KMUCBjkC21obRRbi7OYTpp0Z19FE0bRf2Xm8lRErBA56OWAmpXPi0T1QM1NoXp6VHj8F/s2dnthD@EnnscyeZG2Alj8ESQxvEMySZpVb5ggkxfVsEBviDg "Scala β Try It Online")
Well ok if you really want it golfed with any chars, you can use:
# [Scala](http://www.scala-lang.org/), 11 bytes
```
'@'*' '-'"'
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K05OzEn8n5@UlZpcohCSmc9VrcClAAQpqWkKuYmZeRqJRenFVgqORUWJldHBJUWZeemxmgoQNVClIFAAlCjJydP4r@6grqWuoK6rrqT@X0GBUxOsolaBq1bhPwA "Scala β Try It Online")
# [Scala](http://www.scala-lang.org/), 22 bytes
```
"{yz}"map(_-'I'toChar)
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K05OzEn8n5@UlZpcohCSmc9VrcClAAQpqWkKuYmZeRqJRenFVgqORUWJldHBJUWZeemxmgoQNVClIFAAlCjJydP4r1RdWVWrlJtYoBGvq@6pXpLvnJFYpPlfQYFTE6y4VoGrVuE/AA "Scala β Try It Online")
[Answer]
# [R](https://www.r-project.org/), ~~72~~ 45 bytes
This is far from the shortest answer posted, but no one has yet posted an answer that
* doesn't use character codes as a substitute for numbers, and
* doesn't call the system date.
Using pure math (okay, and an automatic boolean conversion) in R, from the R console:
```
x<-(T+T);x+floor(exp(pi)^x)*x*x-(x*x)^(x*x)/x
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K/r/v8JGVyNEO0TTukI7LSc/v0gjtaJAoyBTM65CU6tCq0JXA0hoxoFJ/Yr//wE "R β Try It Online")
Prints out the number 2014. `T` is a pre-defined synonym for true in R. The `floor` and `exp` functions are directly available in the base package, as is the `pi` constant. R doesn't have an increment operator, but repeating the `(x*x)` turned out to be fewer characters that doing increment and decrement twice each.
---
## Original version in Javascript (72 characters)
For the simple reason that I could test out in the console, and it doesn't mind a complete lack of whitespace:
```
m=Math;p=m.pow;t=true;++t+m.floor(p(m.exp(m.PI),t))*t*t++-p(++t,t--)/--t
```
run in your console and it will print back the number 2014.
---
Props to [xkcd](http://xkcd.com/217/) (and [also](http://xkcd.com/1047/)) for getting me to think about exp(pi):
P.S. If you can make the same algorithm shorter in a different language, post a comment with it.
[Answer]
# [C (clang)](http://clang.llvm.org/), 33 bytes
```
main(){printf("%d",'A'*' '-'B');}
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S9ZNzknMS///PzcxM09Ds7qgKDOvJE1DSTVFSUfdUV1LXUFdV91JXdO69v9/AA "C (clang) β Try It Online")
[Answer]
# PHP, 9 bytes
This requires PHP 7.1 or lower. It will work in PHP 7.2, but it will result in a warning. No guarantees for any future version.
`xxd` needed because of binary data (so copying and pasting it would be easier). May return `E_NOTICE`, but it doesn't really matter, does it?
```
~ $ xxd -r > 2014.php
0000000: 3c3f 3d7e cdcf cecb 3b <?=~....;
~ $ php 2014.php
2014
```
Alternatively, save this using ISO-8859-1 encoding.
```
<?=~ΓΓΓΓ;
```
[Answer]
### Python3.4.0b2 (0 bytes)
```
% python3.4
Python 3.4.0b2 (v3.4.0b2:ba32913eb13e, Jan 5 2014, 11:02:52)
[GCC 4.2.1 (Apple Inc. build 5666) (dot 3)] on darwin
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>
```
[Answer]
## Mathematica, 14 characters (or 15 if you count the bitmap as a character)
TextRecognize@
[Answer]
# [JavaScript (Node.js)](https://nodejs.org), 23 bytes
Uses Base 64 Conversion
```
alert(atob("MjAxNA=="))
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##RY7BCsIwEETv@YrQSxLQnsRbD/WuF79g225KSpuVzVYE8dtjqKhzfcybmeAOqedwk32kAbNfYy@BooYZWeyCKcGITj@VLukpJpqxnmn8IfVS6t8S6uwAAt8Go6wc9Wn1Hrn2TMuGd9p0kPB4MK4WugqHOFpTnoRgijF/1jdbdZ7ax6Vtmsq5nN8 "JavaScript (Node.js) β Try It Online")
*Or*
```
alert("MMXIV") // ;)
```
[Answer]
# Perl - 10 characters
This solution is [courtesy of BrowserUK on PerlMonks](http://www.perlmonks.org/?node_id=1068855), though I've shaved off some unnecessary punctuation and whitespace from the solution he posted. It's a bitwise "not" on a four character binary string.
```
say~"ΓΓΓΓ"
```
The characters displayed above represent the binary octets cd:cf:ce:cb, and are how they appear in ISO-8859-1 and ISO-8859-15.
Here's the entire script in hex, plus an example running it:
```
$ hexcat ~/tmp/ten-stroke.pl
73:61:79:7e:22:cd:cf:ce:cb:22
$ perl -M5.010 ~/tmp/ten-stroke.pl
2014
```
**Perl (without high bits) - 14 characters**
```
say'````'^RPQT
```
This uses a bitwise "or" on the two four-character strings `"RPQT"` and `"````"` (that is, four backticks).
```
$ ~/tmp/fourteen-stroke.pl
73:61:79:27:60:60:60:60:27:5e:52:50:51:54
$ perl -M5.010 ~/tmp/fourteen-stroke.pl
2014
```
(I initially had the two strings the other way around, which required whitespace between `print` and `RPQT` to separate the tokens. @DomHastings pointed out that by switching them around I could save a character.)
**Perl (cheating) - 8 characters**
This is probably not within the spirit of the competition, but [hdb on PerlMonks has pointed out](http://www.perlmonks.org/?node_id=1069622) that Perl provides a variable called `$0` that contains the name of the current program being executed. If we're allowed to name the file containing the script "2014", then `$0` will be equal to 2014. `$0` contains a digit, so we can't use it directly, but `${...}` containing an expression that evaluates to 0 will be OK; for example:
```
say${$|}
```
For consistency, let's do the hexcat-then-perl thing with that:
```
$ hexcat 2014
73:61:79:24:7b:24:7c:7d
$ perl -M5.010 2014
2014
```
I think this is cheating, but it's an interesting solution nonetheless, so worth mentioning.
[Answer]
# [Ruby](https://www.ruby-lang.org/), 20 bytes
```
p 'bbc'.to_i ?\r.ord
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##KypNqvz/v0BBPSkpWV2vJD8@U8E@pkgvvyjl/38A "Ruby β Try It Online")
Explanation: `bbc` is `2014` in base 13. Shorter than Python. Not as short as Forth.
[Answer]
# [PowerShell](https://github.com/TryItOnline/TioSetup/wiki/Powershell), 9 bytes
```
+"ί"[""]
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K8gvTy0qzkjNyfn/X1vp/jylaCWl2P//AQ "PowerShell β Try It Online")
`ί` ([U+07DE NKO LETTER KA](http://codepoints.net/U+07DE)) is counted as two bytes according to the [code-golf tag info](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/tags/code-golf/info).
`[""]` returns the first character from the string (`""` is converted to `0`). The unary plus opeartor (`+`) converts the character to an integer.
[Answer]
## Javascript, 18 characters
```
alert(btoa('ΓMx'))
```
**Update:** in ES6, using a template literal can save two characters:
```
alert(btoa`ΓMx`)
```
The code above is fairly easy to understand by keeping in mind that `btoa` converts a string into another string according to a set of well-defined rules ([RFC 4648](https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4648)). To see how the conversion works, we're going to write the input string "ΓMx" as a sequence of binary digits, where each character is rendered as its 8-bit character code.
```
Input character | Γ | M | x
Character code (decimal) | 219 | 77 | 120
Character code (binary) | 11011011 | 01001101 | 01111000
```
After reorganizing the binary digits in the last row in groups of 6, we get the binary representation of 4 new numbers, corresponding to the Base64 indices of the 4 characters in the string "2014".
```
Base64 index (binary) | 110110 | 110100 | 110101 | 111000
Base64 index (decimal) | 54 | 52 | 53 | 56
Output character | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4
```
As per HTML specification, the output characters can be retrieved from their Base64 indices according to this table: <http://dev.w3.org/html5/spec-LC/webappapis.html#base64-table>.
If you don't care about the details, you could let the browser do the calculations for you and find out that "ΓMx" is the result of evaluating `atob('2014')` in Javascript.
[Answer]
# [Scala](http://www.scala-lang.org/), 6 bytes
```
"?="##
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K05OzEn8n5@UlZpcohCSmc9VrcClAAQpqWkKuYmZeRqJRenFVgqORUWJldHBJUWZeemxmgoQNVClIFAAlCjJydP4r2Rvq6Ss/F9BgVMTLFmrwFWr8B8A "Scala β Try It Online")
(`##` is Scala's symbol meaning `hashCode`, and the Java string `"?="` hashes to 2014.)
# [Scala](http://www.scala-lang.org/), 5 bytes
```
+'ί'
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K05OzEn8n5@UlZpcohCSmc9VrcClAAQpqWkKuYmZeRqJRenFVgqORUWJldHBJUWZeemxmgoQNVClIFAAlCjJydP4r61@f576fwUFTk2wXK0CV63CfwA "Scala β Try It Online")
Math on our favorite unicode character produces an `Int`.
[Answer]
# [GolfScript](http://www.golfscript.com/golfscript/), 9 bytes
Yet another GolfScript entry. I believe this is shorter than any of the printable GolfScript entries so far:
```
"!="{*}*)
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S8/PSStOLsosKPn/X0nRVqlaq1ZL8/9/AA "GolfScript β Try It Online")
([Peter Taylor's 7-char entry](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/17034) beats it, but includes non-printable control characters.)
I call this the "that's *so* last year!" entry, because what it actually does is generate the number **2013** in 8 chars, as 33 Γ 61, and then increments it by one. ;-)
[Answer]
# [C (gcc)](https://gcc.gnu.org/), 31 bytes
```
main(){printf("%o",' b'/'\b');}
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S9ZNT07@/z83MTNPQ7O6oCgzryRNQ0k1X0lHXSFJXV89Jkld07r2/38A "C (gcc) β Try It Online")
# [C (gcc)](https://gcc.gnu.org/), 32 bytes
```
main(){printf("%x%o",' ','\f');}
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S9ZNT07@/z83MTNPQ7O6oCgzryRNQ0m1QjVfSUddQV1HPSZNXdO69v9/AA "C (gcc) β Try It Online")
# [C (gcc)](https://gcc.gnu.org/), 30 bytes
```
main(){printf("%x",' j'^'~');}
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S9ZNT07@/z83MTNPQ7O6oCgzryRNQ0m1QklHXSFLPU69Tl3Tuvb/fwA "C (gcc) β Try It Online")
# [C (gcc)](https://gcc.gnu.org/), 30 bytes
```
main(){printf("%d",'\a\xde');}
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S9ZNT07@/z83MTNPQ7O6oCgzryRNQ0k1RUlHPSYxpiIlVV3Tuvb/fwA "C (gcc) β Try It Online")
[Answer]
# [GolfScript](http://www.golfscript.com/golfscript/), 14 bytes
```
'-+,/'{)))))}%
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S8/PSStOLsosKPn/X11XW0dfvVoTBGpV//8HAA "GolfScript β Try It Online")
How it works: ASCII goes like this:
```
...
+
,
-
.
/
0
1
2
3
4
...
```
So, this takes the ASCII codes of each character, subtracts five, and sticks it in a string.
`{...}%` yields an array of the characters of a string mapped, when given a string as an argument. So, it increments each character by 5 (`)` means increment).
[Answer]
# [Forth (gforth)](http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/forth/gforth/Docs-html/), 14 bytes
```
'> '" * '^ - .
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S8svKsnQTU8DUf//q9spqCspaCmoxynoKuj9/w8A "Forth (gforth) β Try It Online")
[Answer]
## APL (6 bytes, 4 chars)
```
ββTS
```
Only works this year though.
Why it works:
```
βTS
2014 1 1 11 58 5 811
ββTS
2014
```
Without relying on the system date, it's **10 bytes** (7 characters):
```
βUCS'ί'
```
[Answer]
# [Python 2](https://docs.python.org/2/), 32 bytes
```
print ord(',')*ord('-')+ord('"')
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K6gsycjPM/r/v6AoM69EIb8oRUNdR11TC8zQVdfUBjOU1DX//wcA "Python 2 β Try It Online")
Probably possible to reduce it using the 2014 th Unicode char `ί`, but I didn't try.
Quincunx notes that
```
a=ord('.');print a*a-ord('f')
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K6gsycjPM/r/P9E2vyhFQ11PXdO6oCgzr0QhUStRFyyUpq75/z8A "Python 2 β Try It Online")
is shorter by three chars.
[Answer]
# [Python 2](https://docs.python.org/2/), 32 bytes
Had some fun writing this:
```
my_lst = []
for i in range(33, 126):
for j in range(i, 126):
if 2014 - 126 < i * j < 2014 - 33:
if j not in range(48, 58):
my_lst.append("ord('" + unichr(i) +
"')*ord('" + unichr(j) +
"')+ord('" + unichr(2014 - i * j) + "')")
for val in my_lst:
print val, '->', eval(val)
```
Prints all the possible ways I can write `2014` using **Bruno Le Floch**'s method:
```
ord('!')*ord(':')+ord('d') -> 2014
ord('!')*ord(';')+ord('C') -> 2014
ord('!')*ord('<')+ord('"') -> 2014
ord('"')*ord(':')+ord('*') -> 2014
ord(')')*ord('/')+ord('W') -> 2014
ord('*')*ord('-')+ord('|') -> 2014
ord('*')*ord('.')+ord('R') -> 2014
ord('*')*ord('/')+ord('(') -> 2014
ord('+')*ord(',')+ord('z') -> 2014
ord('+')*ord('-')+ord('O') -> 2014
ord('+')*ord('.')+ord('$') -> 2014
ord(',')*ord(',')+ord('N') -> 2014
ord(',')*ord('-')+ord('"') -> 2014
```
# [Python 2](https://docs.python.org/2/), 10 bytes
But this is obviously redundant, so if your interpreter is set to utf-8 by default, then all it takes is:
```
ord(u'ί')
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K6gsycjPM/qvrJCal5yfkpmXbqVQWpKma8FVUJSZV6IQ8z@/KEWjVP3@PHXN//8B "Python 2 β Try It Online")
# [Python 2](https://docs.python.org/2/), 83 bytes
Also, thanks to **AmeliaBR** (for the idea), I tried my best to implement a pure math version:
```
from math import*
a,b,c=int(e),round(e),ceil(pi);print int(a**(b*c-(c-b))-a*a**c-a)
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##Fck9DoAgDEDh3VMw0oYursbDlIqhifyE4ODpEbaX99Wvx5L3Me5Wkknco9FUS@u4sfNOTs3dBnCtvPlaIUEfWxWO2iaZxYxoPQpZIQ9AjHMIMYzxAw "Python 2 β Try It Online")
[Answer]
# [R](https://www.r-project.org/), 20 bytes
@popojan (he is not allowed to post an answer here yet) has provided the solution within 20 characters.
```
sum(T+T:exp(T+pi))-T
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K/r/v7g0VyNEO8QqtaIASBdkamrqhvz/DwA "R β Try It Online")
Output:
```
[1] 2014
```
# [R](https://www.r-project.org/), 22 bytes
Anonymous user has suggested shorter solution.
```
strtoi("bbc",pi*pi+pi)
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K/r/v7ikqCQ/U0MpKSlZSacgU6sgU7sgU/P/fwA "R β Try It Online")
`2014` is `BBC` in base 13. `pi*pi+pi` (=13.0112) is treated by R in this context as the integer 13. Output:
```
2014
```
# [R](https://www.r-project.org/), 30 bytes
```
cat(a<-T+T,T-T,T/T,a*a,sep="")
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K/r/PzmxRCPRRjdEO0QnRBeI9UN0ErUSdYpTC2yVlDT//wcA "R β Try It Online")
Output:
```
2014
```
# [R](https://www.r-project.org/), 31 bytes
```
cat(T+T,T-T,T/T,T+T+T+T,sep="")
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##K/r/PzmxRCNEO0QnRBeI9YFYGwx1ilMLbJWUNP//BwA "R β Try It Online")
Inspired from [the answer by AmeliaBR](https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/a/17078/13849). Output:
```
2014
```
[Answer]
# [Java (JDK)](http://jdk.java.net/), ~~77~~ 75 bytes
75 characters if `print` is added in a class with the main method:
```
class C{public static void main(String[]a){System.out.print('#'*'<'-'V');}}
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##y0osS9TNSsn@/z85J7G4WMG5uqA0KSczWaG4JLEESJXlZ6Yo5CZm5mkElxRl5qVHxyZqVgdXFpek5urll5boFQAFSzTUldW11G3UddXD1DWta2v//wcA "Java (JDK) β Try It Online")
It means `35*60-86` which is equal to 2014
[Answer]
# [CJam](https://sourceforge.net/p/cjam), 2 bytes
```
KE
```
[Try it online!](https://tio.run/##S85KzP3/39v1/38A "CJam β Try It Online")
`K` and `E` are variables preset to 20 and 14.
I created CJam in 2014 so it's ok if it doesn't qualify.
] |
[Question]
[
Your task is to build a Game of Life simulation representing a digital clock, which satisfies the following properties:
1. The clock displays the hours and minutes in decimal (e.g. `12:00`, `3:59`, `7:24`) with a different state for each of the 1,440 minutes of the day β either the hours will go from 0 to 23 or from 1 to 12 with a PM indicator.
2. The pattern is periodic, and the state loops around without any outside interaction.
3. The minutes update at regular intervals β from one change of minute to the next takes the same number of generations.
4. An anonymous bystander is able to tell at a glance that the display is supposed to be a digital clock. In particular, this entails:
* The digits are visible and clearly distinguishable. You must be able to tell with certainty at a glance what time is being displayed.
* The digits update in place. Each new number appears in the same place as the previous number, and there is little to no movement of the bounding boxes of the digits. (In particular, a digit does not contain 10 different digits in different places that get uncovered every time the digits change.)
* The digits appear next to each other, without an excessive amount of space between them.
---
Your program will be scored on the following things, in order (with lower criteria acting as tiebreakers for higher criteria):
* Bounding box size β the rectangular box with the smallest area that completely contains the given solution wins.
* Fastest execution β the fewest generations to advance one minute wins.
* Initial live cell count β smaller count wins.
* First to post β earlier post wins.
[Answer]
# 11,520 generations per clock count / 10,016 x 6,796 box / 244,596 pop count
There you go... Was fun.
Well, the design is certainly not optimal. Neither from the bounding box standpoint (those 7-segment digits are *huge*), nor from the initial population count (there are some useless stuff, and some stuff that could certainly be made simpler), and the execution speed - well... I'm not sure.
But, hey, it's beautiful. Look:
[](https://i.stack.imgur.com/mz0iM.gif)
**Run it!**
Get the design from [this gist](https://gist.githubusercontent.com/anonymous/f3413564b1fa9c69f2bad4b0400b8090/raw/f5c77c999a8e11f0ec6ba504d383774eb3b88e5c/Conway%2520life%2520clock%2520PM%2520only). Copy the whole file text to the clipboard.
**New**: here is a [version](https://gist.githubusercontent.com/anonymous/9d7468755dd76a35d93beeb5c0a5bdcf/raw/3295717faf24e8911048bcb69d4b6c8505d24330/gistfile1.txt) with both AM and PM indicators for the demanding.
Go to [the online JavaScript Conway life simulator](https://copy.sh/life). Click *import*, paste the design text. You should see the design. Then, go to *settings* and set the *generation step* to 512, or something around those lines, or you'll have to wait forever to see the clock display updating.
Click *run*, wait a bit and be amazed!
[Direct link](https://copy.sh/life/?gist=f3413564b1fa9c69f2bad4b0400b8090&step=512) to in-browser version.
Note that the only algorithm that makes this huge design useable is hashlife. But with this, you can achieve the whole clock wraparound in seconds. With other algorithms, it is impractical to even see the hour changing.
**How it works**
It uses p30 technology. Just basic things, gliders and lightweight spaceships. Basically, the design goes top-down:
* At the very top, there's the clock. It is a 11520 period clock. Note that you need about 10.000 generations to ensure the display is updated appropriately, but the design should still be stable with a clock of smaller period (about 5.000 or so - the clock needs to be multiple of 60).
* Then, there is the clock distribution stage. The clock glider is copied in a balanced tree, so at the end, there are 32 gliders arriving at the exact same moment to the counters stage.
* The counter stage is made using a RS latch for each state, and for each digit (we're counting in decimal). So there is 10 states for the right digit of the minutes, 6 states for the left digit of the minuts, and 12 states for the hours (both digits of the hours are merged here). For each of these groups, the counter behaves like a shift register.
* After the counting stage, there are the lookup tables. They convert the state pulses to display segments ON/OFF actions.
* Then, the display itself. The segments are simply made with multiple strings of LWSS. Each segment has it own latch to maintain its state. I could have made a simple logical-OR of the digit states to know wether a segment must be ON or OFF, and get rid of these latches, but there would be glitches for non-changing segments, when the digits are changing (because of signal delays). And there would be long streams of gliders coming from the lookup table to the digit segments. So it wouldn't be as nice-looking. And it needed to be. Yes.
Anyway, there is actually nothing extraordinary in this design. There are no amazing reactions that have been discovered in this process, and no really clever combinations that nobody thought of before. Just bits taken here and there and put together (and I'm not even sure I did it the "right" way - I was actually completely new to this). It required a lot of patience, however. Making all those gliders coming up at the right time in the right position was head-scratching.
**Possible optimizations:**
* Instead of copying and distributing the same root clock to the *n* counter cells, I could have just put the same clock block *n* times (once for each counter cell). This would actually be much simpler. But then I wouldn't be able to adjust it as easily by changing the clock at a single point... And I have an electronics background, and in a real circuit, that would be horribly wrong.
* Each segment has it own RS latch. This requires the lookup tables to output both R and S pulses. If we had a latch that would just toggle its state from a common input pulse, we could make the lookup tables half as big. There is such a latch for the PM dot, but it is huge, and I'm unable to come up with something more practical.
* Make the display smaller. But that wouldn't be as nice-looking. And it needed to be. Yes.
] |
"[Question]\n [\n> \n> ### Notes\n> \n> \n> * This thread is open and unlocked only because [the (...TRUNCATED) |
"[Question]\n [\nSo... uh... this is a bit embarrassing. But we don't have a plain \"Hello, World(...TRUNCATED) |
"[Question]\n [\nSimilar to the images on [allrgb.com](http://allrgb.com/), make images where eac(...TRUNCATED) |
"[Question]\n [\n# Introduction\nYou're probably familiar with [zip bombs](https://en.wikipedia.o(...TRUNCATED) |
"[Question]\n [\nIn this challenge, you must take a string matching the regex `^[a-zA-Z]+$` or wh(...TRUNCATED) |
"[Question]\n [\n**Closed.** This question is [off-topic](/help/closed-questions). It is not curr(...TRUNCATED) |
"[Question]\n [\nYou are given two true color images, the Source and the Palette. They do not nec(...TRUNCATED) |
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